Datasets:

berquetR
/

file_names_links

Dataset card Viewer Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 5.41k rows

filename stringlengths 1 91	content stringlengths 422 182k	links stringlengths 2 27.4k
10th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="10th century,970,966,965,988,949,Medieval Croatian state,Tomislav,900,Philippines,Luzon" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>10th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "10th_century"; var wgTitle = "10th century"; var wgArticleId = 34738; var wgCurRevisionId = 90095344; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-10th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">10th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium BC - <b><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th century</a> - <b>10th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 900s <!--del_lnk--> 910s <!--del_lnk--> 920s <!--del_lnk--> 930s <!--del_lnk--> 940s <!--del_lnk--> 950s <!--del_lnk--> 960s <!--del_lnk--> 970s <!--del_lnk--> 980s <!--del_lnk--> 990s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, the <b>10th century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 901 to <!--del_lnk--> 1000.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2> <p>The tenth century is usually regarded as a low point in European history. In China it was also a period of political upheaval. In Islamdom, however, it was a cultural zenith, especially in Spain.<p>Medievalist and historian of technology <!--del_lnk--> Lynn White said that "to the modern eye, it is very nearly the darkest of the <a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" title="Dark Ages">Dark Ages</a>," but concluded that ". . . if it was dark, it was the darkness of the womb." Similarly, Helen Waddell wrote that the tenth century was that which "in the textbooks disputes with the seventh the bad eminence, the nadir of the human intellect." Even in the fifteenth century, <!--del_lnk--> Lorenzo Valla described it as the <b>Century of Lead and Iron</b>.<p><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/242.jpg.htm" title="This statue of a yogini goddess was created in Kaveripakkam in Tamil Nadu, India, during the 10th century."><img alt="This statue of a yogini goddess was created in Kaveripakkam in Tamil Nadu, India, during the 10th century." height="258" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yogini_Goddess_from_Tamil_Nadu.jpg" src="../../images/2/242.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/242.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This statue of a <!--del_lnk--> yogini goddess was created in Kaveripakkam in <!--del_lnk--> Tamil Nadu, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, during the 10th century.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>The beginning of the <!--del_lnk--> Medieval Warm Period<li><a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Viking">Viking</a> groups settle in northern <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> - Norse become <!--del_lnk--> Normans<li>Foundation of <!--del_lnk--> Cluny, first federated <!--del_lnk--> monastic order<li>Incursions of <!--del_lnk--> Magyar (Hungarian) cavalry throughout Western Europe (47 expeditions in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 899 - <!--del_lnk--> 970)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mieszko I, first duke of <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, baptised a Christian in <!--del_lnk--> 966<li><a href="../../wp/k/Khazars.htm" title="Khazaria">Khazar kingdom</a> is attacked and defeated by <!--del_lnk--> Kievan Rus (<!--del_lnk--> 965)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vladimir I, Prince of <!--del_lnk--> Kievan Rus, baptised a Christian in <!--del_lnk--> 988<li>Collapse of the central lowland <a href="../../wp/m/Maya_civilization.htm" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a>. End of Classic Maya period, begin Post-Classic Maya.<li>Rise of the <!--del_lnk--> Toltecs in <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<li>Collapse of <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Moravia.htm" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Buddhist temple construction commences at <!--del_lnk--> Bagan, <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Laguna Copperplate Inscription, <!--del_lnk--> Kavi script, inscribed in <!--del_lnk--> Luzon, <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, dated <i>Saka year 822</i> (AD <!--del_lnk--> 900).<li>The <!--del_lnk--> medieval Croatian state becomes a unified kingdom under <!--del_lnk--> Tomislav<li>Twentieth century <!--del_lnk--> Belgian <!--del_lnk--> astronomer <!--del_lnk--> Jean Meeus asserts that the orbits of all nine <!--del_lnk--> planets were within the same 90% arc of the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> on <!--del_lnk--> 1 February <!--del_lnk--> 949. The next time it is thought this will occur is on <!--del_lnk--> 6 May <!--del_lnk--> 1492.<li>Coastal <!--del_lnk--> cities on the <!--del_lnk--> Malay Peninsula are the seed for the first recorded <!--del_lnk--> Malay <a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">kingdoms</a>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Fatimid dynasty arises in eastern <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>.<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> influence extends to the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>.<li>The Christian <!--del_lnk--> Nubian kingdom reaches its peak of prosperity and military power. (<!--del_lnk--> Early history of Sudan)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Mississippian culture begins in present day Southern USA.<li>The <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine empire</a> reaches the height of its military and economic strength<li>Baile Átha Cliath (<a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>) was founded (<!--del_lnk--> 988).<li><!--del_lnk--> Reindeer become extinct in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>.<li><a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" title="Lion">Lions</a> become extinct in <!--del_lnk--> Caucasus.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl, semi-legendaric <!--del_lnk--> Toltec ruler, (exact years of his life are unknown).<li><!--del_lnk--> Abd-ar-rahman III of <!--del_lnk--> Cordoba<li><!--del_lnk--> Nicephorus II, Emperor of the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (lived <!--del_lnk--> 912 - <!--del_lnk--> 969, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 963 - <!--del_lnk--> 969).<li><!--del_lnk--> Otto I the Great, <!--del_lnk--> Holy Roman Emperor (lived <!--del_lnk--> 912 - <!--del_lnk--> 973, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 936 - <!--del_lnk--> 973).<li>King <!--del_lnk--> Edmund I of England (lived <!--del_lnk--> 921 - <!--del_lnk--> 946, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 939 - <!--del_lnk--> 946).<li><!--del_lnk--> John I Tzimisces, Emperor of the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (lived <!--del_lnk--> 925 - <!--del_lnk--> 976, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 969 - <!--del_lnk--> 976).<li><!--del_lnk--> Hugh Capet (lived <!--del_lnk--> 938 - <!--del_lnk--> 996), first Capetian King of France<li><!--del_lnk--> Géza of Hungary, ruler of the <!--del_lnk--> Magyars (lived <!--del_lnk--> 940 - <!--del_lnk--> 997, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 970 - <!--del_lnk--> 997).<li><!--del_lnk--> Otto II, <!--del_lnk--> Holy Roman Emperor (lived <!--del_lnk--> 955 - <!--del_lnk--> 983, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 973 - <!--del_lnk--> 983).<li><!--del_lnk--> Theophanu, wife of <!--del_lnk--> Otto II, mother and <!--del_lnk--> Regent of <!--del_lnk--> Otto III, (lived <!--del_lnk--> 956 - <!--del_lnk--> 991, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 983-<!--del_lnk--> 991).<li><!--del_lnk--> Tsar <!--del_lnk--> Samuil of Bulgaria (lived <!--del_lnk--> 958 - <!--del_lnk--> 1014, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 976 - <!--del_lnk--> 1014).<li><!--del_lnk--> Vladimir I, Prince of <!--del_lnk--> Kievan Rus (lived <!--del_lnk--> 958 - <!--del_lnk--> 1015).<li><!--del_lnk--> Basil II, Emperor of the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, (lived <!--del_lnk--> 958 - <!--del_lnk--> 1025, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 976 - <!--del_lnk--> 1025).<li><!--del_lnk--> Otto III, <!--del_lnk--> Holy Roman Emperor (lived <!--del_lnk--> 980 - <!--del_lnk--> 1002, reigned <!--del_lnk--> 983 - <!--del_lnk--> 1002).<li><!--del_lnk--> Ferdowsi Persian poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Erik the Red Viking Explorer, founded Greenland<li><!--del_lnk--> Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah, founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Fatamid dynasty in <!--del_lnk--> 909.</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Hop (plant) first mentioned in connection with <a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" title="Beer">beer</a> brewing</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 890s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 890</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 891</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 892</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 893</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 894</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 895</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 896</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 897</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 898</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 899</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 900s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 900</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 901</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 902</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 903</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 904</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 905</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 906</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 907</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 908</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 909</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 910s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 910</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 911</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 912</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 913</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 914</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 915</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 916</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 917</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 918</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 919</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 920s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 920</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 921</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 922</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 923</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 924</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 925</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 926</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 927</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 928</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 929</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 930s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 930</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 931</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 932</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 933</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 934</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 935</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 936</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 937</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 938</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 939</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 940s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 940</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 941</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 942</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 943</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 944</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 945</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 946</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 947</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 948</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 949</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 950s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 950</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 951</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 952</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 953</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 954</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 955</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 956</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 957</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 958</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 959</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 960s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 960</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 961</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 962</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 963</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 964</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 965</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 966</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 967</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 968</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 969</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 970s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 970</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 971</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 972</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 973</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 974</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 975</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 976</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 977</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 978</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 979</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 980s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 980</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 981</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 982</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 983</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 984</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 985</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 986</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 987</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 988</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 989</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 990s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 990</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 991</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 992</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 993</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 994</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 995</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 996</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 997</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 998</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 999</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1000s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1000</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1001</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1002</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1003</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1004</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1005</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1006</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1007</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1008</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1009</td> </tr> </table> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['9th century', '11th century', 'Time', 'Dark Ages', 'India', 'Viking', 'France', 'Germany', 'Italy', 'France', 'Poland', 'Khazaria', 'Maya civilization', 'Mexico', 'Great Moravia', 'Myanmar', 'Philippines', 'Solar system', 'Monarchy', 'Algeria', 'Sweden', 'Black Sea', 'Byzantine empire', 'Dublin', 'Scotland', 'Lion', 'Eastern Roman Empire', 'Eastern Roman Empire', 'Eastern Roman Empire', 'Beer']
11th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="11th century,1000,1000s,1001,1002,1003,1004,1005,1006,1007,1008" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>11th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "11th_century"; var wgTitle = "11th century"; var wgArticleId = 34645; var wgCurRevisionId = 89773770; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-11th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">11th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th century</a> - <b>11th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1000s <!--del_lnk--> 1010s <!--del_lnk--> 1020s <!--del_lnk--> 1030s <!--del_lnk--> 1040s <!--del_lnk--> 1050s <!--del_lnk--> 1060s <!--del_lnk--> 1070s <!--del_lnk--> 1080s <!--del_lnk--> 1090s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, the <b>11th century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1001 to <!--del_lnk--> 1100. In the history of European culture, this period is considered the early part of the <!--del_lnk--> High Middle Ages.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2> <p>The eleventh century is, in European history, a century of change. It is usually marked as the first period of the <!--del_lnk--> High Middle Ages and is therefore sometimes termed the <!--del_lnk--> Early Middle Ages, though this term has another common meaning synonymous with <a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" title="Dark Ages">Dark Ages</a>. The century began while the <i><!--del_lnk--> translatio imperii</i> of <!--del_lnk--> 962 was still somewhat novel and ended in the midst of the <!--del_lnk--> Investiture Controversy. It saw the final Christianisation of <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia and the emergence of the <!--del_lnk--> Peace and Truce of God movements, the <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian Reforms, and the <a href="../../wp/c/Crusades.htm" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> which revitalised a church and a papacy which survived tarnished by the tumultuous tenth century. In <!--del_lnk--> 1054, the <!--del_lnk--> Great Schism rent the church in two, however.<p>In Germany, it was marked by the ascendancy of the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Roman Emperors, who hit their high watermark under the <!--del_lnk--> Salians.<p>In Italy, it opened with the integration of the kingdom into the empire and the royal palace at <!--del_lnk--> Pavia was sacked in <!--del_lnk--> 1024. By the end of the century, <!--del_lnk--> Lombard and <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> rule in the <!--del_lnk--> Mezzogiorno had been usurped by the <!--del_lnk--> Normans and the power of the territorial magnates was being replaced by that of the citizens of the cities in the north.<p>In Britain, it saw the transformation of Scotland into a unified kingdom and the <a href="../../wp/n/Norman_conquest_of_England.htm" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1066. The social transformations wrought in these lands brought them into the fuller orbit of European feudal politics.<p>In France, it saw the nadir of the monarchy and the zenith of the great magnates, especially the dukes of Aquitaine and Normandy, who could thus foster such distinctive contributions of their lands as the pious warrior who conquered Britain, Italy, and the East and the impious peacelover, the <!--del_lnk--> troubadour, who crafted out of the European vernacular its first great literary themes.<p>In Spain, the century opened with the successes of the last <!--del_lnk--> caliphs of Córdoba and ended in the successes of the <!--del_lnk--> Almoravids. In between was a period of Christian unification under <!--del_lnk--> Navarrese hegemony and success in the <!--del_lnk--> Reconquista against the <!--del_lnk--> taifa kingdoms which replaced the fallen caliphate. Spain emerged fully "Europeanised".<p><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/168/16898.jpg.htm" title="Bayeux Tapestry depicting events leading to the Battle of Hastings "><img alt="Bayeux Tapestry depicting events leading to the Battle of Hastings " height="233" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bayeuxtap1.jpg" src="../../images/168/16898.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/168/16898.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Bayeux Tapestry depicting events leading to the <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Hastings.htm" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1001 ± 40 years, <!--del_lnk--> Baitoushan volcano on what would be the Chinese-Korean border, erupts with a force of 6.5, the fourth largest <!--del_lnk--> Holocene blast.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1001, <!--del_lnk--> Mahmud of Ghazni, <!--del_lnk--> Muslim leader of <!--del_lnk--> Ghazni, begins a series of raids into Northern <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>; he finishes in <!--del_lnk--> 1027 with the destruction of <!--del_lnk--> Somnath.<li>Circa <!--del_lnk--> 1001, <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Vikings">Vikings</a>, led by <a href="../../wp/l/Leif_Ericson.htm" title="Leif Eriksson">Leif Eriksson</a>, establish small settlements in and around <!--del_lnk--> Vinland in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1040, <!--del_lnk--> Duncan I of Scotland slain in battle. <a href="../../wp/m/Macbeth_of_Scotland.htm" title="Macbeth of Scotland">Macbeth</a> succeeds him.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1054, the <a href="../../wp/e/East-West_Schism.htm" title="East-West Schism">Great Schism</a>, in which the Western (<!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic) and <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Orthodox churches separated from each other. Similar schisms in the past had been later repaired, but this one continues after nearly 1000 years.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1060, <!--del_lnk--> Norman conquest of <!--del_lnk--> Sicily<li><!--del_lnk--> 1065, independence of the Kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Galicia and <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> under the rule of Garcia<li><!--del_lnk--> 1066, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a> dies; Norman conquest of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> in the <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Hastings.htm" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1071, Defeat of the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Manzikert, ending 3 centuries of a military and economic <!--del_lnk--> Golden Age<li><!--del_lnk--> 1076, <a href="../../wp/g/Ghana.htm" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> Empire began break-up after capital (Kumbi) sacked<li><!--del_lnk--> 1085, <!--del_lnk--> Alfonso VI of Castile captures the Muslim city of <!--del_lnk--> Toledo.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1086, compilation of the <a href="../../wp/d/Domesday_Book.htm" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a></ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/243.jpg.htm" title="Capture of Jerusalem, 1099"><img alt="Capture of Jerusalem, 1099" height="287" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1099jerusalem.jpg" src="../../images/2/243.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/243.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Capture of Jerusalem, 1099</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1094, <!--del_lnk--> El Cid, the great Spanish hero, conquers the <!--del_lnk--> Muslim city of <!--del_lnk--> Valencia<li>ca. <!--del_lnk--> 1095-<!--del_lnk--> 1099, earliest extant manuscript of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Song of Roland</i><li><!--del_lnk--> 1099, <a href="../../wp/f/First_Crusade.htm" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> captures <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a><li>King <!--del_lnk--> Anawrahta of <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> made a pilgrimage to <!--del_lnk--> Ceylon, returning to convert his country to <!--del_lnk--> Theravada Buddhism.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Tuareg migrate to the <!--del_lnk--> Aïr region.<li><!--del_lnk--> Kanem-Bornu expands southward into modern <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<li>The first of seven <!--del_lnk--> Hausa <!--del_lnk--> city-states are founded in <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Hodh region of <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> becomes desert.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Empress Agnes<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexius I Comnenus <!--del_lnk--> byzantine Emperor (lived 1048-1118; reigned 1081-1118)<li><!--del_lnk--> Alp Arslan<li><!--del_lnk--> Archbishop Anno II of Cologne<li><!--del_lnk--> Saint Anselm, reputed founder of scholasticism and creator of the ontological argument<li><!--del_lnk--> Basil II <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine Emperor (lived 958-1025; reigned 976-1025)<li><a href="../../wp/c/Canute_the_Great.htm" title="Canute the Great">Canute</a><li><!--del_lnk--> El Cid (Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pope Saint Gregory VII (Hildebrand)<li><!--del_lnk--> Guido of Arezzo<li><!--del_lnk--> Emperor Henry III<li><!--del_lnk--> Emperor Henry IV<li><!--del_lnk--> Konrad II<li><!--del_lnk--> Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury<li><a href="../../wp/l/Leif_Ericson.htm" title="Leif Eriksson">Leif Eriksson</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Macbeth<li><!--del_lnk--> Saint Robert, founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Cistercians<li><!--del_lnk--> Stephen I of Hungary<li><!--del_lnk--> Tunka Manin ruler of the <!--del_lnk--> Ghana Empire<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_I_of_England.htm" title="William I of England">William the Conqueror</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Pope Urban II<li><!--del_lnk--> Tāriqu l-Ḥakīm bi Amr al-Lāh, Sixth <!--del_lnk--> Fātimid <!--del_lnk--> Caliph</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Troubadours appear in what is now southern <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<li>Invention of military <!--del_lnk--> rockets by the <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a><li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Tale of Genji</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Murasaki Shikibu is one of the first <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novels</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Japanese language.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> tittle was created.<li>Main body of Aristotle's works rediscovered.</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 990s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 990</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 991</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 992</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 993</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 994</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 995</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 996</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 997</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 998</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 999</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1000s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1000</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1001</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1002</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1003</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1004</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1005</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1006</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1007</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1008</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1009</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1010s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1010</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1011</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1012</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1013</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1014</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1015</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1016</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1017</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1018</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1019</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1020s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1020</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1021</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1022</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1023</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1024</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1025</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1026</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1027</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1028</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1029</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1030s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1030</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1031</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1032</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1033</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1034</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1035</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1036</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1037</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1038</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1039</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1040s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1040</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1041</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1042</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1043</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1044</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1045</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1046</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1047</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1048</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1049</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1050s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1050</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1051</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1052</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1053</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1054</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1055</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1056</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1057</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1058</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1059</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1060s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1060</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1061</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1062</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1063</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1064</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1065</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1066</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1067</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1068</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1069</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1070s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1070</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1071</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1072</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1073</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1074</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1075</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1076</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1077</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1078</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1079</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1080s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1080</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1081</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1082</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1083</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1084</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1085</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1086</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1087</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1088</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1089</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1090s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1090</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1091</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1092</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1093</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1094</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1095</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1096</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1097</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1098</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1099</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1100s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1100</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1101</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1102</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1103</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1104</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1105</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1106</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1107</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1108</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1109</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><strong class="selflink">11th</strong></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8909 bytes Post-expand include size: 9087 bytes Template argument size: 671 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34645-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061206142532 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['10th century', '12th century', 'Time', 'Dark Ages', 'Crusades', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Norman conquest of England', 'Battle of Hastings', 'India', 'Vikings', 'Leif Eriksson', 'North America', 'Macbeth of Scotland', 'East-West Schism', 'Portugal', 'Edward the Confessor', 'England', 'Battle of Hastings', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Ghana', 'Domesday Book', 'First Crusade', 'Jerusalem', 'Myanmar', 'Nigeria', 'Nigeria', 'Mauritania', 'Canute the Great', 'Leif Eriksson', 'William I of England', 'France', 'China', 'Novel', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
12th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="12th century,Thomas Becket,France,Suryavarman II,Saladin,Jayavarman VII,Bernard of Clairvaux,Heloise (student of Abelard),Scholasticism,Pierre Abélard,William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>12th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "12th_century"; var wgTitle = "12th century"; var wgArticleId = 34644; var wgCurRevisionId = 92189265; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-12th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">12th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th century</a> - <b>12th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1100s <!--del_lnk--> 1110s <!--del_lnk--> 1120s <!--del_lnk--> 1130s <!--del_lnk--> 1140s <!--del_lnk--> 1150s <!--del_lnk--> 1160s <!--del_lnk--> 1170s <!--del_lnk--> 1180s <!--del_lnk--> 1190s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, the <b>12th century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1101 to <!--del_lnk--> 1200. In the history of European culture, this period is considered part of the <!--del_lnk--> High Middle Ages.<p>See also: <!--del_lnk--> Renaissance of the 12th century<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/55/5506.jpg.htm" title="Southern Song in 1142."><img alt="Southern Song in 1142." height="295" longdesc="/wiki/Image:China_11b.jpg" src="../../images/2/244.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/55/5506.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Southern Song in 1142.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1102, <!--del_lnk--> King Coloman unites <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> under the <!--del_lnk--> Hungarian Crown<li>c.<!--del_lnk--> 1119, Foundation of the <!--del_lnk--> Knights Templar<li><!--del_lnk--> 1127, The <!--del_lnk--> Song dynasty loses power over <!--del_lnk--> Northern China.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1128, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> gains independence from the kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> León (recognised by <!--del_lnk--> León in <!--del_lnk--> 1143).<li><!--del_lnk--> 1130–<!--del_lnk--> 1180, Fifty-year drought in the <!--del_lnk--> American Southwest.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1135–<!--del_lnk--> 1154, <a href="../../wp/t/The_Anarchy.htm" title="The Anarchy">The Anarchy</a> is a period of <!--del_lnk--> civil war in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1136, <!--del_lnk--> Suger begins rebuilding <!--del_lnk--> abbey church at St Denis north of <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, which is regarded as the first major <!--del_lnk--> Gothic building.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1140–<!--del_lnk--> 1150, Collapse of the <!--del_lnk--> Ancestral Puebloan culture at <!--del_lnk--> Chaco Canyon<li><!--del_lnk--> 1145–<!--del_lnk--> 1148, The <a href="../../wp/s/Second_Crusade.htm" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a> is launched in response to the fall of the <!--del_lnk--> County of Edessa.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1169, start of the conquest of Ireland. <!--del_lnk--> Richard fitzGilbert de Clare ('Strongbow') makes an alliance with the exiled Irish chief, <!--del_lnk--> Dermot MacMurrough, to help him recover his kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Leinster.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1170, <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Becket.htm" title="Thomas Becket">Thomas Becket</a> is murdered.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1185, Founding of the cathedral school (Katedralskolan) in <!--del_lnk--> Lund, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. The school is the oldest in northern Europe, and one of the oldest in Europe as a whole.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1189–<!--del_lnk--> 1192, The <!--del_lnk--> Third crusade was an attempt by European leaders to reconquer the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Land from <a href="../../wp/s/Saladin.htm" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1193, <!--del_lnk--> Nalanda, the great <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indian</a> <!--del_lnk--> Buddhist educational centre, is destroyed.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1198, <a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a> is crowned King of <!--del_lnk--> Sicily at the age of 3 (also known as Frederick I of Sicily).<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 1200, The <!--del_lnk--> Toltec Empire collapses.<li><!--del_lnk--> Renaissance of the 12th century in Europe.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Kamakura Shogunate deprives the <!--del_lnk--> Emperor of Japan of political power.<li><!--del_lnk--> Gothic Architecture begins in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><li>Conflict between the <!--del_lnk--> Khmer Empire and <!--del_lnk--> Champa. <a href="../../wp/a/Angkor_Wat.htm" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a> is built under the Hindu king <!--del_lnk--> Suryavarman II. At the end of the century the Buddhist <!--del_lnk--> Jayavarman VII becomes ruler.<li><!--del_lnk--> Pope Adrian IV grants overlordship of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> to <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_II_of_England.htm" title="Henry II of England">Henry II of England</a>.<li>The medieval <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbian</a> state formed by <!--del_lnk--> Stefan Nemanja and continued by the <!--del_lnk--> Nemanjić dynasty.<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre Abelard teaches.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/f/Francis_of_Assisi.htm" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a> Christian saint<li><a href="../../wp/g/Genghis_Khan.htm" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Great Khan</i> of the <a href="../../wp/m/Mongol_Empire.htm" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Bhaskara, towering figure in several disparate fields of mathematics<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre Abélard, one of the first <!--del_lnk--> scholastic philosophers; author of "Historia calamitatum mearum", a confessional account of his life (including a description of his love affair with <!--del_lnk--> Héloïse).<li><!--del_lnk--> Bernard of Clairvaux, French abbot influential in church politics.<li><!--del_lnk--> William Marshal, <!--del_lnk--> knight and statesman.<li><!--del_lnk--> Manuel I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor who allied with the Crusaders.<li><a href="../../wp/s/Saladin.htm" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>, ruler of Egypt and Syria who resisted the Crusaders.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hugh of St. Victor, French scholar.<li><!--del_lnk--> Philip Augustus, French king.<li><!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor<li><a href="../../wp/r/Richard_I_of_England.htm" title="Richard I of England">Richard I of England</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Richard of St. Victor, theologian.<li><!--del_lnk--> Alfonso I Henriques, first King of Portugal.<li><!--del_lnk--> Maimonides, leading Jewish philosopher.<li><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Becket.htm" title="Thomas Becket">Thomas Becket</a>, archbishop of Canterbury.<li><!--del_lnk--> Minamoto no Yoritomo, first <!--del_lnk--> shogun of Japan.<li><!--del_lnk--> Omar Khayyám, <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persian</a> poet and astronomer<li><!--del_lnk--> Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen consort of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and later the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of England.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hildegard of Bingen, first Western musical composer known by name.<li><!--del_lnk--> Suryavarman II, Khmer king<li><!--del_lnk--> Jayavarman VII, Khmer king<li><!--del_lnk--> Ibn Rushd, Philosopher</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries_and_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries_and_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries and introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li>Beginning of the <!--del_lnk--> Gothic architecture style in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<li>Building of <a href="../../wp/a/Angkor_Wat.htm" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Khmer empire.<li>First <!--del_lnk--> European universities founded.<li><!--del_lnk--> Christian humanism becomes a self-conscious philosophical tendency in Europe.<li>Earliest record of a <!--del_lnk--> miracle play, in <!--del_lnk--> Dunstable, England.<li>Beginning of <!--del_lnk--> trouvère music and poetry in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<li>Beginning of the <!--del_lnk--> Ars antiqua period in the history of <!--del_lnk--> Western European music<li>Earliest account of a mariner's <!--del_lnk--> compass, by <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Neckam is "De utensilibus".<li>First fire and plague <!--del_lnk--> insurance (in <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>).<li>First authenticated <!--del_lnk--> influenza epidemics.<li>Start of <!--del_lnk--> Middle English<li><!--del_lnk--> Hoysala architecture reaches a peak</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1090s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1090</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1091</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1092</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1093</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1094</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1095</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1096</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1097</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1098</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1099</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1100s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1100</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1101</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1102</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1103</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1104</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1105</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1106</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1107</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1108</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1109</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1110s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1110</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1111</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1112</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1113</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1114</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1115</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1116</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1117</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1118</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1119</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1120s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1120</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1121</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1122</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1123</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1124</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1125</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1126</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1127</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1128</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1129</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1130s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1130</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1131</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1132</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1133</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1134</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1135</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1136</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1137</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1138</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1139</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1140s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1140</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1141</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1142</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1143</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1144</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1145</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1146</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1147</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1148</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1149</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1150s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1150</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1151</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1152</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1153</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1154</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1155</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1156</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1157</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1158</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1159</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1160s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1160</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1161</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1162</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1163</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1164</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1165</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1166</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1167</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1168</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1169</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1170s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1170</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1171</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1172</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1173</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1174</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1175</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1176</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1177</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1178</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1179</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1180s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1180</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1181</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1182</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1183</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1184</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1185</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1186</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1187</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1188</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1189</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1190s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1190</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1191</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1192</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1193</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1194</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1195</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1196</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1197</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1198</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1199</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1200s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1200</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1201</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1202</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1203</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1204</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1205</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1206</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1207</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1208</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1209</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><strong class="selflink">12th</strong></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8909 bytes Post-expand include size: 9109 bytes Template argument size: 683 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34644-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061205091436 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['11th century', '13th century', 'Time', 'Hungary', 'Croatia', 'Portugal', 'The Anarchy', 'England', 'Paris', 'Second Crusade', 'Thomas Becket', 'Sweden', 'Saladin', 'India', 'Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor', 'France', 'Angkor Wat', 'Ireland', 'Henry II of England', 'Serbia', 'Francis of Assisi', 'Genghis Khan', 'Mongol Empire', 'Saladin', 'Richard I of England', 'Thomas Becket', 'Iran', 'France', 'France', 'Angkor Wat', 'France', 'Iceland', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
13th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="13th century,1279,1278,1277,1276,1280s,1280,1284,1283,1282,1281" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>13th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "13th_century"; var wgTitle = "13th century"; var wgArticleId = 34633; var wgCurRevisionId = 90921895; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-13th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">13th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a> - <b>13th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1200s <!--del_lnk--> 1210s <!--del_lnk--> 1220s <!--del_lnk--> 1230s <!--del_lnk--> 1240s <!--del_lnk--> 1250s <!--del_lnk--> 1260s <!--del_lnk--> 1270s <!--del_lnk--> 1280s <!--del_lnk--> 1290s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, the <b>13th century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1201 to <!--del_lnk--> 1300. In the history of European culture, this period is considered part of the <!--del_lnk--> High Middle Ages.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/245.jpg.htm" title="The Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, overran most of Asia, thus creating the second largest empire to ever exist, surpassed only by the British Empire. They achieved this success in large part due to their amazing horse archers."><img alt="The Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, overran most of Asia, thus creating the second largest empire to ever exist, surpassed only by the British Empire. They achieved this success in large part due to their amazing horse archers." height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mongol_Archer.jpg" src="../../images/2/245.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/245.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Mongols, under the leadership of <a href="../../wp/g/Genghis_Khan.htm" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>, overran most of <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, thus creating the second largest <!--del_lnk--> empire to ever exist, surpassed only by the British Empire. They achieved this success in large part due to their amazing <!--del_lnk--> horse archers.</div> </div> </div> <p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1206 - <!--del_lnk--> Mongols united under Temujin, who is proclaimed "<a href="../../wp/g/Genghis_Khan.htm" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>".<li>Most of Asia and Eastern Europe is conquered and incorporated into the <a href="../../wp/m/Mongol_Empire.htm" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Ogedei Khan establish Mongolian dynasty in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>. Some Mongol leaders convert from <!--del_lnk--> Tantric Buddhism to <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1204 - <!--del_lnk--> Fourth Crusade sacks <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> Constantinople and creates the <!--del_lnk--> Latin Empire.<li>Fifth through eighth <!--del_lnk--> crusades of western European kingdoms against <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Teutonic Knights begin activity in Eastern Europe.<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Bouvines<li><!--del_lnk--> 1215 - King <a href="../../wp/j/John_of_England.htm" title="John of England">John of England</a> forced to sign <a href="../../wp/m/Magna_Carta.htm" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> at <!--del_lnk--> Runnymede<li>Fall of the <!--del_lnk--> Hohenstaufen dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors. <!--del_lnk--> Sicily and <!--del_lnk--> Naples are acquired by the French count <!--del_lnk--> Charles I of Naples.<li><a href="../../wp/m/Marco_Polo.htm" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> and his family reach <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a><li>Fall of the <!--del_lnk--> Ghana Empire<li><!--del_lnk--> 1270 - restoration of <!--del_lnk--> Solomonic dynasty in Ethiopia, deposing the <!--del_lnk--> Zagwe dynasty.<li><!--del_lnk--> James I of <!--del_lnk--> Aragon takes control of <!--del_lnk--> Balearic Islands and <!--del_lnk--> Valencia. In <!--del_lnk--> 1282, after the <!--del_lnk--> Sicilian Vespers, Aragon acquires Sicily.<li><!--del_lnk--> Andrew II of Hungary signs the <!--del_lnk--> Golden Bull which afferms the privileges of <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a> nobility.<li><!--del_lnk--> Theravada overtakes <!--del_lnk--> Mahayana as the dominant form of <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> in <a href="../../wp/c/Cambodia.htm" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>.<li><a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persian</a> historian <!--del_lnk--> Rashid al-Din records eleven Buddhist texts circulating in <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> translation.<li>1238 - The <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thai</a> Kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Sukhothai is established, with <!--del_lnk--> Theravada Buddhism as the state religion. Later in the century it vassalises significant parts of modern <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Laos.htm" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>, and <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.<li><a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> cedes the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> to <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, following the signing of the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Perth.<li>First <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a> universities founded.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Utiguri <!--del_lnk--> Bulgar state on the <!--del_lnk--> Volga vanishes from history.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" title="Bantu">Bantu</a>-speaking peoples arrive in modern <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a>, partially displacing the original <!--del_lnk--> Khoisan inhabitants.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 in Spain sees the beginning of a rapid Christian <!--del_lnk--> reconquest of the southern half of the <!--del_lnk--> Iberian peninsula, with the defeat of <!--del_lnk--> Moorish forces.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Swiss Confederation is formed by <!--del_lnk--> Uri, <!--del_lnk--> Schwyz, and <!--del_lnk--> Unterwalden<li>End of <!--del_lnk--> Hohenstaufen dynasty at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Tagliacozzo. The <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Sicily goes to French <!--del_lnk--> Anjou house.<li>A period of civil unrest, <i><!--del_lnk--> Sturlungaöld</i>, leads to <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> becoming part of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Norway</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Albertus Magnus, German philosopher and theologian<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexander of Hales, philosopher and theologian<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Nevsky, Grand Prince of <!--del_lnk--> Novgorod and <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir<li><!--del_lnk--> Béla IV of Hungary rebuilder of <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> after the devastating Mongol invasion<li><!--del_lnk--> Birger jarl, Swedish statesman, earl, and founder of <a href="../../wp/s/Stockholm.htm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Bonaventure, Franciscan theologian<li><a href="../../wp/d/Dante_Alighieri.htm" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, Italian writer<li><a href="../../wp/f/Francis_of_Assisi.htm" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a>, founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Franciscan order<li><a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a>, emperor of the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a><li><a href="../../wp/g/Genghis_Khan.htm" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>, founder of <a href="../../wp/m/Mongol_Empire.htm" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Giotto di Bondone Italian painter<li><!--del_lnk--> Ibn Taymiyyah, famous <!--del_lnk--> Hanbali, <!--del_lnk--> Salafi Scholar of Islam<li><!--del_lnk--> Kublai Khan, Khan ruler, founder of <!--del_lnk--> Yuan Dynasty in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Lembitu, Estonian ruler<li><!--del_lnk--> Louis IX of France, St. Louis, French king and crusader<li><!--del_lnk--> Petrus Peregrinus, scientist<li><!--del_lnk--> Ramon Llull, Majorcan philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Grosseteste, English statesman, theologian, and scientist<li><!--del_lnk--> Roger Bacon, Franciscan, philosopher, and scientist<li><!--del_lnk--> Saadi Persian poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Snorri Sturluson, historian and saga-writer<li><!--del_lnk--> Sundiata Keita semi-historical founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Mali Empire<li><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Aquinas.htm" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, theologian<li><!--del_lnk--> William Wallace, <!--del_lnk--> Scottish national leader<li><!--del_lnk--> William Marshal, <!--del_lnk--> knight and statesman.</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> List of 13th century inventions<li>The <!--del_lnk--> motet form originates out of the <!--del_lnk--> Ars antiqua tradition of <!--del_lnk--> Western European music</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1190s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1190</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1191</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1192</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1193</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1194</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1195</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1196</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1197</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1198</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1199</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1200s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1200</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1201</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1202</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1203</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1204</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1205</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1206</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1207</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1208</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1209</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1210s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1210</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1211</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1212</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1213</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1214</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1215</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1216</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1217</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1218</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1219</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1220s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1220</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1221</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1222</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1223</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1224</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1225</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1226</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1227</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1228</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1229</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1230s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1230</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1231</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1232</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1233</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1234</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1235</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1236</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1237</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1238</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1239</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1240s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1240</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1241</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1242</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1243</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1244</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1245</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1246</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1247</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1248</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1249</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1250s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1250</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1251</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1252</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1253</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1254</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1255</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1256</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1257</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1258</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1259</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1260s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1260</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1261</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1262</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1263</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1264</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1265</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1266</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1267</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1268</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1269</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1270s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1270</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1271</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1272</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1273</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1274</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1275</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1276</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1277</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1278</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1279</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1280s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1280</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1281</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1282</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1283</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1284</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1285</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1286</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1287</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1288</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1289</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1290s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1290</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1291</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1292</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1293</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1294</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1295</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1296</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1297</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1298</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1299</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1300s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1300</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1301</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1302</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1303</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1304</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1305</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1306</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1307</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1308</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1309</td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['12th century', '14th century', 'Time', 'Genghis Khan', 'Asia', 'Genghis Khan', 'Mongol Empire', 'China', 'Islam', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Islam', 'John of England', 'Magna Carta', 'Marco Polo', 'China', 'Hungary', 'Buddhism', 'Cambodia', 'Iran', 'Arabic language', 'Thailand', 'Thailand', 'Laos', 'Myanmar', 'Malaysia', 'Norway', 'Isle of Man', 'Scotland', 'European', 'Bantu', 'Angola', 'Iceland', 'Hungary', 'Stockholm', 'Dante Alighieri', 'Francis of Assisi', 'Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'Genghis Khan', 'Mongol Empire', 'China', 'Thomas Aquinas']
14th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="14th century,1325,1337,1336,1347,Mali Empire,1378,1351,1368,Black Death,France" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>14th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "14th_century"; var wgTitle = "14th century"; var wgArticleId = 34625; var wgCurRevisionId = 92338008; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-14th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">14th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th century</a> - <b>14th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1300s <!--del_lnk--> 1310s <!--del_lnk--> 1320s <!--del_lnk--> 1330s <!--del_lnk--> 1340s <!--del_lnk--> 1350s <!--del_lnk--> 1360s <!--del_lnk--> 1370s <!--del_lnk--> 1380s <!--del_lnk--> 1390s</td> </tr> </table> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/275/27591.jpg.htm" title="This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). It is housed in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.."><img alt="This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). It is housed in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.." height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Shiva_and_Uma_14th_century.jpg" src="../../images/2/247.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/275/27591.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This 14th-century statue from south <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> depicts the gods <!--del_lnk--> Shiva (on the left) and <!--del_lnk--> Uma (on the right). It is housed in the <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian Institution in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, the <b>14th century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1301 to <!--del_lnk--> 1400.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <ul> <li>The transition fom the <!--del_lnk--> Medieval Warm Period to the <!--del_lnk--> Little Ice Age<li>Beginning of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, early expansion into the <!--del_lnk--> Balkans<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Avignon papacy transfers the seat of the Popes from <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> to <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><li>The <!--del_lnk--> Great Famine of 1315-1317 kills millions of people in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a><li>Being forced out of previous locations, the <a href="../../wp/a/Aztec.htm" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> found the city of <!--del_lnk--> Tenochtitlan in <!--del_lnk--> 1325<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Vijayanagara Empire is founded in <!--del_lnk--> South India by <!--del_lnk--> Harihara in <!--del_lnk--> 1336<li>The <a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> begins when <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a> of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> lays claim to the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> throne in <!--del_lnk--> 1337.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Black_Death.htm" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> kills almost half of the population of Europe. (<!--del_lnk--> 1347 - <!--del_lnk--> 1351)<li>The end of <!--del_lnk--> Mongol <!--del_lnk--> Yuan Dynasty in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> and the beginning of the <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1368)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> heresy of <!--del_lnk--> Lollardy rises in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a><li>The <!--del_lnk--> Great Schism of the West begins in <!--del_lnk--> 1378, eventually leading to 3 simultaneous <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">popes</a>.<li>An account of <a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>'s life, translated earlier into Greek by <!--del_lnk--> St John of Damascus and widely circulated to <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christians</a> as the story of <!--del_lnk--> Barlaam and <!--del_lnk--> Josaphat, became so popular that Buddha (under the name Josaphat) was made a <!--del_lnk--> Catholic <!--del_lnk--> saint.<li><a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> emerges for the first time as a fortified city and trading centre of some importance.<li>Reunification of <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> under <!--del_lnk--> Ladislaus I of Poland<li><a href="../../wp/e/English_peasants%2527_revolt_of_1381.htm" title="Peasants' Revolt">Peasants' Revolt</a> in England<li><a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> reaches <!--del_lnk--> Terengganu, on the <!--del_lnk--> Malay Peninsula.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Hausa found several <!--del_lnk--> city-states in the south of modern <a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Mali Empire expands westward and conquers <!--del_lnk--> Tekrur.<li>The poet <!--del_lnk--> Petrarch coins the term <a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" title="Dark Ages">Dark Ages</a> to describe the preceding 900 years in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, beginning with the <!--del_lnk--> fall of the Western Roman Empire in <!--del_lnk--> 410 through to the renewal embodied in the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<li>The Scots win the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Wars of Independence.<li><!--del_lnk--> Union of Krewo between <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>.<li>Work begins on the Great Enclosure at <!--del_lnk--> Great Zimbabwe, built of uncemented, dressed stone. The city's population is now between 10 000 and 40 000.<li>Beginning of the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> in Italy<li>The english word "<a href="../../wp/a/Abacus.htm" title="Abacus">abacus</a>" used to describe the calculating device from <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/249.jpg.htm" title="Statue of Dante Alighieri at the Uffizi, Florence"><img alt="Statue of Dante Alighieri at the Uffizi, Florence" height="351" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dante_Alighieri01.jpg" src="../../images/2/249.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/249.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Statue of Dante Alighieri at the <!--del_lnk--> Uffizi, Florence</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/d/Dante_Alighieri.htm" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, Italian poet and writer (<!--del_lnk--> 1265 - <!--del_lnk--> 1321).<li>King <!--del_lnk--> Robert the Bruce of Scotland, victor of the <!--del_lnk--> First War of Scottish Independence against the invading <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of England (<!--del_lnk--> 1274 - <!--del_lnk--> 1329).<li><!--del_lnk--> Juan Manuel, Duke of Penafiel, Spanish author (<!--del_lnk--> 1282 - <!--del_lnk--> 1349).<li><!--del_lnk--> William of Ockham, English Franciscan friar and philosopher (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1285 - <!--del_lnk--> 1347).<li><!--del_lnk--> Charles I of Hungary, military, diplomatic and financial reformer, restoring the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Hungary to power (<!--del_lnk--> 1288 - <!--del_lnk--> 1342).<li><!--del_lnk--> Isabella of France, queen consort and regent of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of England (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1295 - <!--del_lnk--> 1358).<li><!--del_lnk--> Guillaume de Machaut, French composer and poet (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1300 - <!--del_lnk--> 1377).<li><a href="../../wp/i/Ibn_Battuta.htm" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>, Arab Muslim traveler (<!--del_lnk--> 1304 - <!--del_lnk--> 1368/<!--del_lnk--> 1377).<li>Francesco <!--del_lnk--> Petrarch, Italian poet and writer (<!--del_lnk--> 1304 - <!--del_lnk--> 1374).<li><!--del_lnk--> Casimir III of Poland, expansionist and financial reformer (<!--del_lnk--> 1310 - <!--del_lnk--> 1370).<li><!--del_lnk--> Hafez Persian poet (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1310 - <!--del_lnk--> 1379.<li><a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a>, <!--del_lnk--> King of England. His claim to the throne of France resulted in the <a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1312 - <!--del_lnk--> 1377).<li><!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian author (<!--del_lnk--> 1313 - <!--del_lnk--> 1375).<li><a href="../../wp/t/Timur.htm" title="Timur">Timur</a>, Central Asian warlord and founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Timurid Dynasty (<!--del_lnk--> 1336 - <!--del_lnk--> 1405).<li><!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1343 - <!--del_lnk--> 1400).<li><!--del_lnk--> Mansa Musa (d. <!--del_lnk--> 1347), King of the <!--del_lnk--> Mali Empire while it was the source of almost half the world's gold.<li><!--del_lnk--> Christine de Pizan, French writer (<!--del_lnk--> 1364 - <!--del_lnk--> 1430).</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li>music of the <!--del_lnk--> Ars nova<li>The technique of <!--del_lnk--> knitting<li>Foundation of the <!--del_lnk--> University of Cracow</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1290s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1290</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1291</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1292</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1293</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1294</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1295</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1296</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1297</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1298</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1299</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1300s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1300</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1301</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1302</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1303</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1304</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1305</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1306</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1307</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1308</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1309</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1310s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1310</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1311</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1312</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1313</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1314</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1315</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1316</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1317</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1318</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1319</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1320s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1320</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1321</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1322</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1323</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1324</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1325</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1326</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1327</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1328</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1329</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1330s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1330</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1331</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1332</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1333</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1334</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1335</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1336</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1337</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1338</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1339</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1340s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1340</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1341</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1342</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1343</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1344</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1345</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1346</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1347</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1348</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1349</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1350s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1350</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1351</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1352</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1353</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1354</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1355</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1356</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1357</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1358</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1359</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1360s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1360</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1361</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1362</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1363</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1364</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1365</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1366</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1367</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1368</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1369</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1370s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1370</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1371</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1372</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1373</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1374</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1375</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1376</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1377</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1378</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1379</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1380s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1380</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1381</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1382</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1383</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1384</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1385</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1386</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1387</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1388</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1389</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1390s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1390</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1391</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1392</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1393</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1394</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1395</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1396</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1397</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1398</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1399</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1400s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1400</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1401</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1402</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1403</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1404</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1405</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1406</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1407</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1408</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1409</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 4904 bytes Post-expand include size: 5104 bytes Template argument size: 683 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34625-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061205234822 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['13th century', '15th century', 'India', 'Washington, D.C.', 'Time', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Italy', 'France', 'Europe', 'Aztec', "Hundred Years' War", 'Edward III of England', 'England', 'France', 'Black Death', 'China', 'Ming Dynasty', 'England', 'Pope', 'Buddha', 'Christianity', 'Singapore', 'Poland', "Peasants' Revolt", 'Islam', 'Niger', 'Dark Ages', 'Europe', 'Renaissance', 'Poland', 'Lithuania', 'Renaissance', 'Abacus', 'China', 'Dante Alighieri', 'Ibn Battuta', 'Edward III of England', "Hundred Years' War", 'Timur']
15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="15th Marine Expeditionary Unit,11th Marine Expeditionary Unit,13th MEU,1987,1992,2001,2003,2004 Indian Ocean earthquake,2006,2nd Battalion, 4th Marines,3 Commando Brigade" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>15th Marine Expeditionary Unit</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit"; var wgTitle = "15th Marine Expeditionary Unit"; var wgArticleId = 5852860; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">15th Marine Expeditionary Unit</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Military_History_and_War.htm">Military History and War</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; font-size: 95%; text-align: left;"> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">15th Marine Expeditionary Unit</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16102.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:15thMEUlogo.PNG" src="../../images/161/16102.png" width="200" /></a><br /> 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit Insignia</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Active</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1987 - present</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Country</th> <td><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Branch</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> USMC</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Type</th> <td>Special Operations Capable - Marine Air Ground Task Force</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Role</th> <td>Forward-deployed, rapid-response force</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Size</th> <td>2,200</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Part of</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> I Marine Expeditionary Force</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Garrison/HQ</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Battles/wars</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Operation Restore Hope<br /><!--del_lnk--> Operation Enduring Freedom<br /><!--del_lnk--> Operation Iraqi Freedom</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Commanders</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Current<br /> commander</th> <td>Colonel Brian D. Beaudreault </td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>15th Marine Expeditionary Unit</b> (<b>15th MEU</b>) is one of seven <!--del_lnk--> Marine Expeditionary Units currently in existence in the <!--del_lnk--> United States Marine Corps. The Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) is a <!--del_lnk--> Marine Air Ground Task Force (MAGTF) with a strength of about 2,200 personnel. The MEU consists of a command element, a reinforced infantry battalion, a composite helicopter squadron and a MEU service support group.The 15th MEU is currently based out of <!--del_lnk--> Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Mission" name="Mission"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mission</span></h2> <p>The mission of the MEU is to provide geographic combatant commanders with a forward-deployed, rapid-response force capable of conducting conventional <!--del_lnk--> amphibious and selected maritime special operations at night or under adverse weather conditions from the sea, by surface and/or by air while under communications and electronics restrictions.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p><a id="Early_years" name="Early_years"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early years</span></h3> <p>In April 1983, the <!--del_lnk--> Commandant of the Marine Corps approved the original <!--del_lnk--> Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) Headquarters concept, providing for the sourcing of two Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) headquarters from each Marine Amphibious Brigade headquarters. The Commandant directed the establishment of two additional MAU headquarters in November 1985. As a result, the Headquarters, 15th Marine Amphibious Unit was activated <!--del_lnk--> July 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1987 at Camp Pendleton.<p>The Commandant directed the replacement of the title "Headquarters" with "Command Element" in the titles of the MAGTFs in August of 1987. The 15th MAU’s designation was further changed in February 1988 to the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit. Both changes were made to more accurately reflect the operational and <!--del_lnk--> expeditionary nature of the MAGTF. Prior to <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and in the period between the war and the <!--del_lnk--> Vietnam Conflict, Marine units dispatched for overseas service were generally designated as “expeditionary brigades."<p>Since its activation in July 1987, the 15th MEU has trained to meet its mission in the rotation with the <!--del_lnk--> 11th and <!--del_lnk--> 13th MEUs to provide a continuous presence in the <!--del_lnk--> Western Pacific, <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, and <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> and as a ready MAGTF in the continental United States.<p>In October 1989, the MEU assisted in relief efforts following the <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco earthquake, performing their assigned missions and also taking on several volunteer projects to help the victims of the disaster.<p><a name="1990s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1990s</span></h3> <p>Marines of the 15th MEU evacuated the <!--del_lnk--> Republic of the Philippines in June 1991 after the eruption of <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Pinatubo.htm" title="Mount Pinatubo">Mount Pinatubo</a>. Assistance lasted over amonth as the Marines distributed food and medical supplies, evacuated stranded villagers and provided security to other rescue personnel.<p>The MEU spearheaded <!--del_lnk--> Operation Restore Hope on <!--del_lnk--> December 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1992, to provide <!--del_lnk--> humanitarian assistance to the <!--del_lnk--> civil war torn and <a href="../../wp/f/Famine.htm" title="Famine">famine</a> stricken country of <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>. After a predawn landing, the Marines secured the capital city of <a href="../../wp/m/Mogadishu.htm" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>, the international airport and maritime shipping port facilities, as well as the American Embassy, and quickly moved into other inland areas to protect food distribution convoys and patrol the streets to restore order. The MEU pushed into and secured the inland cities of Baidoa, Balidogle and the coastal town of Kismayo in order to establish relief efforts and maintain security. The span of operations for the Battalion Landing Team was over 150 miles.<p>During its deployment in 1994, the MEU provided a detachment of <!--del_lnk--> CH-53Es to assist in the <a href="../../wp/r/Rwanda.htm" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> Relief Effort. . The detachment, based in <!--del_lnk--> Entebbe, <a href="../../wp/u/Uganda.htm" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, provided the only heavy lift capability to the joint task force commander. A few weeks later the MEU assisted in the relocation of the United States Liaison Office from Mogadishu, Somalia to <!--del_lnk--> Nairobi, Kenya.<p>In October 1994, the MEU was called on again to provide a <!--del_lnk--> quick reaction force to counter any possible <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraqi</a> aggression against <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>. Within 48 hours, the MEU sent Marines ashore in <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait_City.htm" title="Kuwait City">Kuwait City</a> to demonstrate U.S. resolve in maintaining peace and security in the area.<p>In January 1996, July 1997, and October 1998, <!--del_lnk--> AV-8B Harriers from the 15th MEU (SOC) participated in <!--del_lnk--> Operation Southern Watch, patrolling the <!--del_lnk--> No-fly zone over southern Iraq maintaining continuous surveillance of the Kuwait-Iraq border, and to ensure the Iraqi military did not violate any <!--del_lnk--> United Nations resolutions passed since the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf War.<p>During its 2000 deployment, the 15th MEU (SOC) also participated in the <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australian</a>-led <!--del_lnk--> Operation Stabilise, providing desperately needed assistance to the people of <a href="../../wp/e/East_Timor.htm" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>, and again patrolled the skies over Southern Iraq in support of Operation Southern Watch.<p><a id="Global_War_on_Terror" name="Global_War_on_Terror"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Global War on Terror</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16103.jpg.htm" title="Infantrymen from the 15th MEU at Camp Rhino on November 25, 2001"><img alt="Infantrymen from the 15th MEU at Camp Rhino on November 25, 2001" height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:15thMEUSMAWs.jpg" src="../../images/161/16103.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16103.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Infantrymen from the 15th MEU at <!--del_lnk--> Camp Rhino on <!--del_lnk--> November 25, <!--del_lnk--> 2001</div> </div> </div> <p>Following the <!--del_lnk--> September 11th attacks on the <!--del_lnk--> World Trade Centre and <!--del_lnk--> the Pentagon, the 15th MEU (SOC) continued their plans of humanitarian operations to assist the war-torn country of <a href="../../wp/e/East_Timor.htm" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>, before sailing to the North <!--del_lnk--> Arabian Sea in support of <!--del_lnk--> Operation Enduring Freedom.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2001, the 15th MEU participated in the United States' new <!--del_lnk--> "War on Terrorism," sending Marines and Sailors into Northern <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> to establish a <!--del_lnk--> forward operating air base and <!--del_lnk--> logistical hub.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 25, <!--del_lnk--> 2001, the Marines and Sailors of the 15th MEU (SOC) conducted an <!--del_lnk--> Amphibious assault over 400 miles into the land-locked country of <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. The Marines and Sailors set new standards for Marine Corps amphibious doctrine. Landing at a remote airbase, 90 miles southwest of <!--del_lnk--> Kandahar, the Marines established <!--del_lnk--> Camp Rhino, America's first <!--del_lnk--> Forward Operating Base while maintaining the first significant conventional ground presence in Afghanistan. The Marines and coalition forces later moved north to <!--del_lnk--> Kandahar International Airport securing a new forward operating base. With the move, the Marines and coalition forces were able to continue with new missions and build a prison camp that housed numerous <!--del_lnk--> Taliban and <!--del_lnk--> Al-Qaeda fighters.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2003, this time onboard the <!--del_lnk--> USS Tarawa <!--del_lnk--> ARG, the 15th MEU (SOC) departed once again for another deployment. In mid-February, elements of the MEU off-loaded and established a training camp in Northern <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> while other members of the MAGTF — primarily the helicopter squadron — remained onboard the Tarawa ARG in the <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<p>During February and March 2003, the MEU was assigned tactical control (TACON) to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> 3 Commando Brigade <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Marines.htm" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a> for <!--del_lnk--> Operation Iraqi Freedom. On <!--del_lnk--> March 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2003, Marines from the 15th MEU crossed the border into Southern Iraq and secured the ports of <!--del_lnk--> Umm Qasr and <!--del_lnk--> Az Zubayr in order to destroy Iraqi resistance and enable follow-on humanitarian assistance to begin. <p>In late-March 2003, the MEU again became part of the <!--del_lnk--> I Marine Expeditionary Force and moved to <!--del_lnk--> An Nasiriyah, Iraq to relieve the Marines of <!--del_lnk--> Task Force Tarawa. In An Nasiriyah, the 15th MEU secured the remaining sectors of the city, conducted a supporting attack during the rescue of American <!--del_lnk--> Prisoner of war <!--del_lnk--> Jessica Lynch and continued to establish security throughout the greater An Nasiriyah area. The MEU provided humanitarian assistance to the local population that included purifying drinking water, and doctors and corpsmen assisted medical care. The MEU began helping establish the local government to include police and other local services in addition to continuing to conduct airborne surveillance and direct-action raids on the ground to seek out and capture any <!--del_lnk--> Ba’ath Party or <!--del_lnk--> Fedayeen resistance.<p>In January 2005, the 15th MEU participated in <!--del_lnk--> Operation Unified Assistance by providing disaster relief to survivors of the <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake.htm" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">massive tsunami</a> in <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and southern <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>. Immediately after wrapping up those operations, the 15th MEU proceeded to <!--del_lnk--> Baghdad, Iraq to provide security and stability in a rural area of the city.<p><a id="Current_Units" name="Current_Units"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Current Units</span></h3> <ul> <li>Ground Combat Element (GCE) - <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Battalion 4th Marine Regiment<li>Air Combat Element (ACE) - <!--del_lnk--> HMM-165 [REIN]<li>Combat Service Support Element (CSSE) - <!--del_lnk--> Combat Logistics Battalion 15</ul> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['United States', 'California', 'World War II', 'Indian Ocean', 'Persian Gulf', 'Mount Pinatubo', 'Famine', 'Somalia', 'Mogadishu', 'Rwanda', 'Uganda', 'Iraq', 'Kuwait', 'Kuwait City', 'Australia', 'East Timor', 'East Timor', 'Pakistan', 'Afghanistan', 'Kuwait', 'Persian Gulf', 'United Kingdom', 'Royal Marines', '2004 Indian Ocean earthquake', 'Sumatra', 'Indonesia', 'Sri Lanka']
15th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="15th century,1443,1444,1442,1441,1440s,1440,1445,1446,1450,1451" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>15th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "15th_century"; var wgTitle = "15th century"; var wgArticleId = 34567; var wgCurRevisionId = 89774649; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-15th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">15th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th century</a> - <b>15th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1400s <!--del_lnk--> 1410s <!--del_lnk--> 1420s <!--del_lnk--> 1430s <!--del_lnk--> 1440s <!--del_lnk--> 1450s <!--del_lnk--> 1460s <!--del_lnk--> 1470s <!--del_lnk--> 1480s <!--del_lnk--> 1490s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, the <b>15th century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1401 to <!--del_lnk--> 1500.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1401: <a href="../../wp/t/Timur.htm" title="Timur">Timur</a> sacks <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1402: The <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Timurid Empires fight at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ankara resulting in Timur's capture of <!--del_lnk--> Bayezid I. The Ottoman Empire descends into <!--del_lnk--> civil war until <!--del_lnk--> 1413.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1402: The conquest of the <!--del_lnk--> Canary Islands signals the beginning of the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Empire.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1402: <!--del_lnk--> Sultanate of Malacca founded by <!--del_lnk--> Parameshwara.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1403: The <!--del_lnk--> Yongle Emperor moves the <!--del_lnk--> capital of China from <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing to <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1405-<!--del_lnk--> 33: <a href="../../wp/z/Zheng_He.htm" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a> explores the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1410: The <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Grunwald.htm" title="Battle of Grunwald">Battle of Grunwald</a> was the decisive battle of the <!--del_lnk--> Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War leading to the downfall of the <!--del_lnk--> Teutonic Knights.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1415: <!--del_lnk--> Henry the Navigator leads the <!--del_lnk--> conquest of Ceuta from the <!--del_lnk--> Moors marking the beginning of the <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese Empire.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1415: <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Agincourt fought between the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of England and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1420-<!--del_lnk--> 34: <!--del_lnk--> Hussite Wars in <!--del_lnk--> Bohemia<li><!--del_lnk--> 1429: <a href="../../wp/j/Joan_of_Arc.htm" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> ends the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Orléans and turns the tide of the <a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1438: <!--del_lnk--> Pachacuti founds the <a href="../../wp/i/Inca_Empire.htm" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1440s: The <!--del_lnk--> Golden Horde breaks up into the <!--del_lnk--> Siberia Khanate, the <!--del_lnk--> Khanate of Kazan, the <!--del_lnk--> Astrakhan Khanate, the <!--del_lnk--> Crimean Khanate, and the <!--del_lnk--> Great Horde.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1440-<!--del_lnk--> 69: Under <!--del_lnk--> Moctezuma I, the <a href="../../wp/a/Aztec.htm" title="Aztec">Aztecs</a> become the dominant power in <!--del_lnk--> Mesoamerica.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1453: The <!--del_lnk--> Fall of Constantinople marks the end of the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:172px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/261/26149.jpg.htm" title="Charles VII of France, final victor of the Hundred Years' War"><img alt="Charles VII of France, final victor of the Hundred Years' War" height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Chas_vii.jpg" src="../../images/2/251.jpg" width="170" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/261/26149.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Charles VII of France, final victor of the Hundred Years' War</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1453: The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Castillon is the last engagement of the <a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1454-<!--del_lnk--> 66: After defeating the Teutonic Knights in the <!--del_lnk--> Thirteen Years' War, Poland annexes <!--del_lnk--> Royal Prussia.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1455-<!--del_lnk--> 85: <a href="../../wp/w/Wars_of_the_Roses.htm" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> - English civil war between the House of York and the House of Lancaster.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1456: The <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Belgrade halts the Ottoman's advance into Europe.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1467-<!--del_lnk--> 1615: The <!--del_lnk--> Sengoku period is one of civil war in Japan.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1469: The marriage of <!--del_lnk--> Ferdinand II of Aragon and <!--del_lnk--> Isabella of Castile leads to the unification of <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1474-<!--del_lnk--> 77: <!--del_lnk--> Burgundy Wars between <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Habsburgs for control of <!--del_lnk--> Burgundy.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1478: <!--del_lnk--> Muscovy conquers <!--del_lnk--> Novgorod.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1480: After the <!--del_lnk--> Great standing on the Ugra river, Muscovy gained independence from the Great Horde.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1481: <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Inquisition.htm" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> begins.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1492: <!--del_lnk--> Boabdil's surrender of <!--del_lnk--> Granada marks the end of the <!--del_lnk--> Reconquista and <!--del_lnk--> Al-Andalus.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1492: <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jews">Jews</a> are expelled from <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1492: <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> founds Spain's first <!--del_lnk--> New World colony on <!--del_lnk--> Hispaniola.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1494: Spain and Portugal sign the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Tordesillas and agree to divide the World outside of Europe between themselves.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1494-<!--del_lnk--> 1559: The <!--del_lnk--> Italian Wars lead to the downfall of the <!--del_lnk--> Italian city-states.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1497-<!--del_lnk--> 1499: <a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>'s first voyage from <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> to <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and back.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Abu Sa'id al-Afif - Samaritian<li><!--del_lnk--> Christine de Pizan, French writer (<!--del_lnk--> 1364 - <!--del_lnk--> 1430).<li><!--del_lnk--> Jan Hus, Bohemian religious thinker and reformer (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1369 - <!--del_lnk--> 1415).<li><a href="../../wp/z/Zheng_He.htm" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>, Chinese eunuch admiral and explorer (<!--del_lnk--> 1371 - <!--del_lnk--> 1433).<li><!--del_lnk--> Filippo Brunelleschi invents one-point perspective, leads innovation in Italian architecture (<!--del_lnk--> 1377 - <!--del_lnk--> 1446).<li><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_V_of_England.htm" title="Henry V of England">Henry V of England</a>, the English King who won the famous <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Agincourt in <!--del_lnk--> 1415 (<!--del_lnk--> 1387 - <!--del_lnk--> 1422).<li><!--del_lnk--> John Hunyadi, Regent of <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Hungary, won the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Belgrade in <!--del_lnk--> 1456 (<!--del_lnk--> 1387 - <!--del_lnk--> 1456)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sejong the Great of Joseon, a Korean monarch who developed <!--del_lnk--> Hangul, the native Korean alphabet (<!--del_lnk--> 1397 - <!--del_lnk--> 1450).<li><!--del_lnk--> Constantine XI, Last <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine Emperor (<!--del_lnk--> 1404 - <!--del_lnk--> 1453).<li><a href="../../wp/j/Johannes_Ockeghem.htm" title="Johannes Ockeghem">Johannes Ockeghem</a>, Flemish composer (ca. <!--del_lnk--> 1410-<!--del_lnk--> 1497).<li><a href="../../wp/j/Joan_of_Arc.htm" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a>, national <!--del_lnk--> heroine of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1412 - <!--del_lnk--> 1431).<li><!--del_lnk--> Kazimierz IV Jagiellon King of <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> and Grand Duke of <a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1427 - <!--del_lnk--> 1492).<li><!--del_lnk--> François Villon, French poet (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1431 - <!--del_lnk--> 1474).<li><!--del_lnk--> Vlad III Dracula , <!--del_lnk--> Prince of Wallachia who led the defense of his territory against the expanding <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1431 - <!--del_lnk--> 1476).<li><!--del_lnk--> Mehmed II, Sultan of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and Conqueror of <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople (<!--del_lnk--> 1432 - <!--del_lnk--> 1481).<li><!--del_lnk--> Marsilio Ficino, Significant translator of <a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s works (<!--del_lnk--> 1433 - <!--del_lnk--> 1481).<li>Gjergj Kastrioti, <!--del_lnk--> Skenderbeg - Albanian Prince who resisted the Ottomans for almost 30 years in the name of the Albanian people and Catholic faith (<!--del_lnk--> 1443 - <!--del_lnk--> 1468).<li><!--del_lnk--> Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, Renaissance ruler (<!--del_lnk--> 1443 - <!--del_lnk--> 1490).<li><!--del_lnk--> Isabella of Castile, co-ruler of Ferdinand II of Aragon and responsible with him for the unification of Spain (<!--del_lnk--> 1451 - <!--del_lnk--> 1504).<li><a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> sails to the <!--del_lnk--> Americas for <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1451 - <!--del_lnk--> 1506).<li><a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" title="Richard III of England">Richard III of England</a>, last English King of the <!--del_lnk--> House of York, last of the Plantagenet Dynasty (<!--del_lnk--> 1452 - <!--del_lnk--> 1485).<li><!--del_lnk--> Ferdinand II of Aragon , co-ruler of Isabella of Castile and responsible with her for the unification of Spain (<!--del_lnk--> 1452 - <!--del_lnk--> 1516).<li><a href="../../wp/l/Leonardo_da_Vinci.htm" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, inventor and painter (<!--del_lnk--> 1452 - <!--del_lnk--> 1519).<li><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a>, English King and founder the <!--del_lnk--> Tudor dynasty (<!--del_lnk--> 1457 - <!--del_lnk--> 1509).<li><a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> reaches India for <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, creating the first maritime alternative for the <!--del_lnk--> Silk Road (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1469 - <!--del_lnk--> 1524</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <p><!--del_lnk--> List of 15th century inventions<ul> <li><a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> affects <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <!--del_lnk--> science and <a href="../../wp/a/Art.htm" title="Art">art</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Age of Discovery begins.<li>Rise of <!--del_lnk--> Modern English language from <!--del_lnk--> Middle English.<li>Introduction of the <!--del_lnk--> noon bell in the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic world.<li>Public <!--del_lnk--> banks<li><!--del_lnk--> Yongle Encyclopedia - over 22,000 volumes<li><!--del_lnk--> Hangul alphabet in <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Scotch whisky<li><!--del_lnk--> Psychiatric hospitals<li>Development of the <!--del_lnk--> woodcut for printing between 1400-1450<li><!--del_lnk--> Movable type first used by King Htai Tjong of <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a> - 1403 (Movable type, which allowed individual characters to be arranged to form words, was invented in China by Bi Sheng between 1041 to 1048. The )<li><!--del_lnk--> Linear perspective drawing perfected by <!--del_lnk--> Filippo Brunelleschi 1410-1415<li>Invention of the <!--del_lnk--> harpsichord c. 1450<li>Letterpress printing developed by <!--del_lnk--> Johann Gutenberg 1455<li>"Discovery" of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> by <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> 1492<li>First canal lock reportedly built in Vreeswijk, Netherlands in 1481</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1390s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1390</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1391</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1392</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1393</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1394</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1395</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1396</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1397</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1398</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1399</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1400s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1400</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1401</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1402</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1403</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1404</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1405</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1406</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1407</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1408</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1409</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1410s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1410</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1411</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1412</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1413</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1414</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1415</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1416</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1417</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1418</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1419</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1420s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1420</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1421</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1422</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1423</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1424</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1425</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1426</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1427</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1428</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1429</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1430s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1430</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1431</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1432</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1433</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1434</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1435</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1436</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1437</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1438</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1439</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1440s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1440</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1441</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1442</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1443</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1444</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1445</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1446</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1447</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1448</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1449</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1450s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1450</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1451</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1452</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1453</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1454</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1455</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1456</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1457</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1458</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1459</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1460s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1460</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1461</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1462</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1463</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1464</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1465</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1466</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1467</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1468</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1469</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1470s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1470</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1471</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1472</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1473</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1474</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1475</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1476</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1477</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1478</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1479</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1480s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1480</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1481</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1482</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1483</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1484</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1485</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1486</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1487</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1488</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1489</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1490s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1490</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1491</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1492</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1493</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1494</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1495</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1496</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1497</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1498</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1499</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1500s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1500</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1501</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1502</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1503</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1504</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1505</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1506</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1507</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1508</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1509</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><strong class="selflink">15th</strong></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8909 bytes Post-expand include size: 9109 bytes Template argument size: 683 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34567-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061124050946 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['14th century', '16th century', 'Time', 'Timur', 'Baghdad', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Beijing', 'Zheng He', 'Indian Ocean', 'Battle of Grunwald', 'France', 'Joan of Arc', "Hundred Years' War", 'Inca Empire', 'Aztec', 'Byzantine Empire', "Hundred Years' War", 'Wars of the Roses', 'Spain', 'France', 'Spanish Inquisition', 'Jews', 'Spain', 'Christopher Columbus', 'Vasco da Gama', 'Europe', 'India', 'Zheng He', 'Henry V of England', 'Johannes Ockeghem', 'Joan of Arc', 'France', 'Poland', 'Lithuania', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Plato', 'Christopher Columbus', 'Spain', 'Richard III of England', 'Leonardo da Vinci', 'Henry VII of England', 'Vasco da Gama', 'Portugal', 'Renaissance', 'Philosophy', 'Art', 'Korea', 'Korea', 'North America', 'Christopher Columbus', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
16_Cygni	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="16 Cygni,16 Cygni Bb,Absolute magnitude,Apparent magnitude,Astrometry,Astronomical unit,Astrophysical Journal,Bonner Durchmusterung,Color index,Constellation,Cygnus" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>16 Cygni</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "16_Cygni"; var wgTitle = "16 Cygni"; var wgArticleId = 1215616; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-16_Cygni"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">16 Cygni</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>16 Cygni A/B</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;">Observation data<br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Epoch <!--del_lnk--> J2000.0</small></th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Cygnus</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><b>16 Cygni A</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td>19<sup>h</sup> 41<sup>m</sup> 48.9535<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td>+50° 31′ 30.217″</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Apparent magnitude <small>(V)</small></b></td> <td>5.96</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><b>16 Cygni B</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td>19<sup>h</sup> 41<sup>m</sup> 51.9720<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td>+50° 31′ 03.083″</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Apparent magnitude <small>(V)</small></b></td> <td>6.20</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;"><!--del_lnk--> Astrometry</th> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radial velocity <small>(R<sub>v</sub>)</small></b></td> <td>-25.6 <!--del_lnk--> km/s</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Proper motion <small>(μ)</small></b></td> <td>RA: -147.75 <!--del_lnk--> mas/<!--del_lnk--> yr<br /> Dec.: -158.85 <!--del_lnk--> mas/<!--del_lnk--> yr</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Parallax <small>(π)</small></b></td> <td>46.25 ± 0.50 <!--del_lnk--> mas</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Distance</b></td> <td>70.5 <!--del_lnk--> ly (21.6 <!--del_lnk--> pc)</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Absolute magnitude <small>(M<sub>V</sub>)</small></b></td> <td>4.29 / 4.53</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;"><!--del_lnk--> Other designations</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <div style="width: 250px;"><b>16 Cygni A</b><p><!--del_lnk--> Gl 765.1 A, <!--del_lnk--> HR 7503, <!--del_lnk--> BD +50°2847, <!--del_lnk--> HD 186408, <!--del_lnk--> LTT 15750, <!--del_lnk--> GCTP 4634.00, <!--del_lnk--> SAO 31898, Struve 4046A, <!--del_lnk--> HIP 96895<p><b>16 Cygni B</b><!--del_lnk--> Gl 765.1 B, <!--del_lnk--> HR 7504, <!--del_lnk--> BD +50°2848, <!--del_lnk--> HD 186427, <!--del_lnk--> LTT 15751, <!--del_lnk--> SAO 31899, Struve 4046B, <!--del_lnk--> HIP 96901</div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><b>16 Cygni</b> (abbreviated 16 Cyg) is a <a href="../../wp/b/Binary_star.htm" title="Triple star">triple star</a> system located around 70 <!--del_lnk--> light-years away in the <!--del_lnk--> constellation <!--del_lnk--> Cygnus. It consists of two <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>-like <!--del_lnk--> yellow dwarf stars and a <a href="../../wp/r/Red_dwarf.htm" title="Red dwarf">red dwarf</a>. In 1996 an <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</a> was discovered in an <!--del_lnk--> eccentric <!--del_lnk--> orbit around the sunlike star 16 Cygni B.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Distance" name="Distance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distance</span></h2> <p>The parallax of the two brightest stars were measured as part of the <!--del_lnk--> Hipparcos <!--del_lnk--> astrometry mission. This yielded a parallax of 46.25 <!--del_lnk--> milliarcseconds for 16 Cygni A and 46.70 milliarcseconds for 16 Cygni B. Since the two components are associated, it is reasonable to assume they lie at the same distance, so the different parallaxes are a result of experimental error (indeed, when the associated parallax errors are taken into account, the ranges of the parallaxes overlap). Using the parallax of the A component, the distance is 21.6 <!--del_lnk--> parsecs. The parallax of the B component corresponds to a distance of 21.4 <!--del_lnk--> parsecs.<p><a id="System_components" name="System_components"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">System components</span></h2> <p>16 Cygni is a hierarchial triple system. Stars A and C form a close binary with a projected separation of 73 <!--del_lnk--> AU. The <!--del_lnk--> orbital elements of the A-C binary are currently unknown. At a distance of 860 AU from A is a third component designated 16 Cygni B. The <!--del_lnk--> orbit of B relative to the A-C pair is not well determined: plausible orbits range in period from 18,200 to 1.3 million <!--del_lnk--> years, with a <!--del_lnk--> semimajor axis ranging from 877 to 15,180 AU.<p>Both 16 Cygni A and 16 Cygni B are <!--del_lnk--> yellow dwarf stars like our <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>. According to data from the Geneva-Copenhagen survey, both stars have masses similar to the sun. Age estimates for the two stars vary slightly, but 16 Cygni is likely to be much older than our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>, at around 10,000 million years old. 16 Cygni C is much fainter than either of these stars, and may be a <a href="../../wp/r/Red_dwarf.htm" title="Red dwarf">red dwarf</a>.<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse:collapse;"> <tr> <th> </th> <th>16 Cyg A</th> <th>16 Cyg B</th> <th>16 Cyg C</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background-color: #ffffc0;"><b>Characteristics</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G1.5Vb</td> <td>G2.5Vb</td> <td>M?</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>B-V <!--del_lnk--> colour index</b></td> <td>0.64</td> <td>0.66</td> <td> ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>U-B <!--del_lnk--> colour index</b></td> <td>0.19</td> <td>0.20</td> <td> ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Variable type</b></td> <td>none</td> <td>none</td> <td> ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background-color: #ffffc0;"><b>Details</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b> (<!--del_lnk--> <i>M</i><sub>☉</sub>)</td> <td>1.02</td> <td>0.97</td> <td> ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b> (<!--del_lnk--> <i>R</i><sub>☉</sub>)</td> <td>1.4</td> <td>1.2</td> <td> ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Luminosity</b> (<!--del_lnk--> <i>L</i><sub>☉</sub>)</td> <td>1.6</td> <td>1.3</td> <td> ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b> (<!--del_lnk--> K)</td> <td>5825</td> <td>5640</td> <td> ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Metallicity</b></td> <td>114%</td> <td>123%</td> <td> ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Rotation</b> (<a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a>)</td> <td>26.9</td> <td>29.1</td> <td> ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Age</b> (<!--del_lnk--> years)</td> <td>10.4 × 10<sup>9</sup></td> <td>9.9 × 10<sup>9</sup></td> <td> ?</td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Planetary_system" name="Planetary_system"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Planetary system</span></h2> <p>In 1996 an <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</a> in an <!--del_lnk--> eccentric orbit was announced around the star 16 Cygni B. The planet's orbit takes 798.5 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a> to complete, with a semimajor axis of 1.68 AU. Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, <a href="../../wp/1/16_Cygni_Bb.htm" title="16 Cygni Bb">16 Cygni Bb</a> was detected by measuring the <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity of its parent star, which only gives a lower limit on the mass: in this case, about 1.68 times that of <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>.<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="text-align:center; border-collapse:collapse;"> <tr bgcolor="#A0B0FF"> <th>Companion<br /><small>(In order from star)</small></th> <th>Mass<br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> M<sub>J</sub>)</small></th> <th>Orbital period<br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a>)</small></th> <th>Semimajor axis<br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> AU)</small></th> <th>Eccentricity</th> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/1/16_Cygni_Bb.htm" title="16 Cygni Bb">Bb</a></td> <td>>1.68 ± 0.15</td> <td>798.5 ± 1.0</td> <td>1.681 ± 0.097</td> <td>0.681 ± 0.017</td> </tr> </table> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16_Cygni"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Triple star', 'Sun', 'Red dwarf', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Sun', 'Solar system', 'Red dwarf', 'Day', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Day', '16 Cygni Bb', 'Jupiter', 'Day', '16 Cygni Bb']
16_Cygni_Bb	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="16 Cygni Bb,16 Cygni,Apastron,Apsis,Astrometry,Astronomical unit,Astrophysical Journal,Binary star,Brown dwarf,Chaos theory,Constellation" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>16 Cygni Bb</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "16_Cygni_Bb"; var wgTitle = "16 Cygni Bb"; var wgArticleId = 5721663; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-16_Cygni_Bb"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">16 Cygni Bb</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>16 Cygni Bb</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><small><a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">Extrasolar planet</a></small></th> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Lists of extrasolar planets</small></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16105.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="252" longdesc="/wiki/Image:16CygBbOrbit.svg" src="../../images/161/16105.png" width="250" /></a><br /> <center><small>The orbit of 16 Cygni Bb (black) compared to<br /> the planets in our solar system (blue).</small></center> </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Parent star</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Star</b></td> <td><a href="../../wp/1/16_Cygni.htm" title="16 Cygni">16 Cygni B</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Cygnus</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>α</i>)</td> <td>19<sup>h</sup> 41<sup>m</sup> 51.9720<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>δ</i>)</td> <td>+50° 31′ 03.083″</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G2.5Vb</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><!--del_lnk--> Orbital elements</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Semimajor axis</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td>1.681 ± 0.097 <!--del_lnk--> AU</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>e</i>)</td> <td>0.681 ± 0.017</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>P</i>)</td> <td>798.5 ± 1.0 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Inclination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>i</i>)</td> <td> ?°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of<br /><!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ω</i>)</td> <td>85.8 ± 2.4°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Time of <!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>τ</i>)</td> <td>2,446,549.1 ± 6.6 <!--del_lnk--> JD</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Physical characteristics</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>m</i>)</td> <td>>1.68 ± 0.15 <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>M</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>r</i>)</td> <td> ? <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>R</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Density</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ρ</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> kg/<!--del_lnk--> m<sup>3</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>T</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Discovery information</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery date</b></td> <td>1996</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discoverer(s)</b></td> <td>Cochran et al.</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Detection method</b></td> <td>Radial velocity</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery status</b></td> <td>Confirmed</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>16 Cygni Bb</b> is an <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</a> orbiting the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">sun-like</a> <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> <a href="../../wp/1/16_Cygni.htm" title="16 Cygni">16 Cygni B</a>, one of two solar-<!--del_lnk--> mass components of the <a href="../../wp/b/Binary_star.htm" title="Triple star">triple star</a> system 16 Cygni. It makes one revolution every 799 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a> and was the first <!--del_lnk--> eccentric Jupiter to be discovered.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2> <p>In 1996 the discovery of a <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planetary</a>-mass companion to the star 16 Cygni B was announced, with a mass at least 1.68 times that of <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>. At the time, it had the highest <!--del_lnk--> orbital eccentricity of any known extrasolar planet. The discovery was made by measuring the star's <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity. Like all planets discovered using this method, only a lower limit on the mass is known.<p><a id="Orbit_and_mass" name="Orbit_and_mass"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Orbit and mass</span></h2> <p>Unlike the planets in our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>, the planet's orbit is highly <!--del_lnk--> elliptical, and its distance varies from 0.54 <!--del_lnk--> AU at <!--del_lnk--> periastron to 2.8 AU at <!--del_lnk--> apastron. This high eccentricity may have been caused by tidal interactions in the <a href="../../wp/b/Binary_star.htm" title="Binary star">binary star</a> system, and the planet's orbit may vary <!--del_lnk--> chaotically between low and high-eccentricity states over a period of tens of millions of <!--del_lnk--> years.<p>The lower limit for the object's mass is well below the dividing line between planets and <!--del_lnk--> brown dwarfs at 13 Jupiter masses. Preliminary <!--del_lnk--> astrometric measurements, however, suggest the orbit of 16 Cygni Bb may be highly inclined with respect to our line of sight (at around 173°). This would mean the object's mass may be around 14 times that of Jupiter, making it a low-mass brown dwarf.<p><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2> <p>Since the planet has only been detected indirectly by measurements of its parent star, properties such as its <!--del_lnk--> radius, composition and <!--del_lnk--> temperature are unknown.<p>The planet's highly eccentric orbit means the planet would experience extreme <a href="../../wp/s/Season.htm" title="Season">seasonal</a> effects. Despite this, simulations suggest that an <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earthlike</a> <!--del_lnk--> moon would be able to support <!--del_lnk--> liquid <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> at its surface over the course of a year, though it is unclear whether such moons could actually form.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16_Cygni_Bb"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Extrasolar planet', '16 Cygni', 'Day', 'Jupiter', 'Jupiter', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Sun', 'Star', '16 Cygni', 'Triple star', 'Day', 'Planet', 'Jupiter', 'Solar system', 'Binary star', 'Season', 'Earth', 'Water']
16th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="16th century,Pisa,Italy,Pendulum,1591,Galileo Galilei,1583,1568,Gerardus Mercator,Mercator Projection,Toilet" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>16th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "16th_century"; var wgTitle = "16th century"; var wgArticleId = 34568; var wgCurRevisionId = 90601347; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-16th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">16th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a> - <b>16th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1500s <!--del_lnk--> 1510s <!--del_lnk--> 1520s <!--del_lnk--> 1530s <!--del_lnk--> 1540s <!--del_lnk--> 1550s <!--del_lnk--> 1560s <!--del_lnk--> 1570s <!--del_lnk--> 1580s <!--del_lnk--> 1590s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, the <b>16th century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1501 to <!--del_lnk--> 1600.<p><i>See also:</i> <!--del_lnk--> 16th century in literature<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/87/8752.jpg.htm" title="Martin Luther at age 46 (Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1529)"><img alt="Martin Luther at age 46 (Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1529)" height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Luther46c.jpg" src="../../images/56/5684.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/87/8752.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> <center>Martin Luther at age 46 (Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1529)</center> </div> </div> </div> <p><a name="1500s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1500s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1500s: <!--del_lnk--> Mississippian culture disappears.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1500: Portuguese navigator <!--del_lnk--> Pedro Álvares Cabral officially discovers <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and claims the land for <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1501: <!--del_lnk--> Safavid dynasty rules <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> until <!--del_lnk--> 1736.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1503: <a href="../../wp/l/Leonardo_da_Vinci.htm" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> begins painting the <i><a href="../../wp/m/Mona_Lisa.htm" title="Mona Lisa">Mona Lisa</a></i> and completes it three or four years later.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1509: The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Diu marks the beginning of Portuguese dominance of the <!--del_lnk--> Spice trade.</ul> <p><a name="1510s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1510s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1514: The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Orsha halts <!--del_lnk--> Muscovy's expansion into Eastern Europe.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1515: The <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> wrests Eastern <!--del_lnk--> Anatolia from the Safavids after the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Chaldiran.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1516-<!--del_lnk--> 17: The <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a> defeat the <!--del_lnk--> Mamluks and gain control of <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Arabia, and the <!--del_lnk--> Levant.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1517: The <!--del_lnk--> Protestant Reformation begins when <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Luther.htm" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> posts his <!--del_lnk--> 95 Theses in <!--del_lnk--> Saxony.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1519-<!--del_lnk--> 21: <a href="../../wp/h/Hern%25C3%25A1n_Cort%25C3%25A9s.htm" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a> leads the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish conquest of Mexico.</ul> <p><a name="1520s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1520s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1520-<!--del_lnk--> 66: The reign of <a href="../../wp/s/Suleiman_the_Magnificent.htm" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> marks the zenith of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1521: <!--del_lnk--> Belgrade is captured by the Ottoman Empire.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1523: <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> <!--del_lnk--> gains independence from the <!--del_lnk--> Kalmar Union.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1524-<!--del_lnk--> 25: <!--del_lnk--> Peasants' War in the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1526: The Ottomans conquer the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Hungary at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Mohács.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1526: <!--del_lnk--> Mughal Empire, founded by <a href="../../wp/b/Babur.htm" title="Babur">Babur</a>, rules <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> until <!--del_lnk--> 1857.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1527: <!--del_lnk--> Sack of Rome is considered the end of the <a href="../../wp/i/Italian_Renaissance.htm" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1529: The <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Vienna marks the Ottoman Empire's furthest advance into Europe.</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/37/3760.jpg.htm" title="Henry VIII King of England and Irelandby Hans Holbein the Younger."><img alt="Henry VIII King of England and Irelandby Hans Holbein the Younger." height="262" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hans_Holbein_d._J._049.jpg" src="../../images/2/253.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/37/3760.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Henry VIII</b><br /><small>King of England and Ireland<br /> by <!--del_lnk--> Hans Holbein the Younger.</small></div> </div> </div> <p><a name="1530s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1530s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1531-<!--del_lnk--> 32: The <!--del_lnk--> Church of England breaks away from the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> and recognizes <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">King Henry VIII</a> as the head of the Church.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1532: <!--del_lnk--> Francisco Pizarro leads the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire.htm" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1534: <a href="../../wp/j/Jacques_Cartier.htm" title="Jacques Cartier">Jacques Cartier</a> claims <!--del_lnk--> Quebec for France.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1534: The Ottomans capture <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.</ul> <p><a name="1540s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1540s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1543: The <!--del_lnk--> Nanban trade period begins after Portuguese traders make contact with <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>.</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/254.jpg.htm" title="Oda Nobunaga."><img alt="Oda Nobunaga." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Odanobunaga.jpg" src="../../images/2/254.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/254.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Oda Nobunaga.</div> </div> </div> <p><a name="1550s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1550s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1550-<!--del_lnk--> 1551: <!--del_lnk--> Valladolid debate concerning the existence of souls in <!--del_lnk--> Amerindians<li><!--del_lnk--> 1552: Russia conquers the <!--del_lnk--> Khanate of Kazan.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1553: Portuguese founded a settlement at <!--del_lnk--> Macau.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1555: The <!--del_lnk--> Muscovy Company is the first major English <!--del_lnk--> joint stock trading company.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1556: The <!--del_lnk--> Shaanxi Earthquake in China is history's deadliest known earthquake.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1556: Russia conquers the <!--del_lnk--> Astrakhan Khanate.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1556-<!--del_lnk--> 1605: During his reign, <a href="../../wp/a/Akbar.htm" title="Akbar">Akbar</a> expands the Mughal Empire in a series of conquests.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1558-<!--del_lnk--> 1603: The <!--del_lnk--> Elizabethan era is considered the height of the <!--del_lnk--> English Renaissance.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1558-<!--del_lnk--> 83: <!--del_lnk--> Livonian War between Poland, Sweden, Denmark and Russia.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1558: After 200 years, the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of England loses <!--del_lnk--> Calais to France.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1559: With the <!--del_lnk--> Peace of Cateau Cambrésis, the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Wars conclude.</ul> <p><a name="1560s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1560s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1562-<!--del_lnk--> 98: <!--del_lnk--> French Wars of Religion between <!--del_lnk--> Catholics and <!--del_lnk--> Huguenots.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1566-<!--del_lnk--> 1648: <!--del_lnk--> Eighty Years' War between Spain and the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1568-<!--del_lnk--> 1600: The <!--del_lnk--> Azuchi-Momoyama period in Japan.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1569: The <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.htm" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> is created with the <!--del_lnk--> Union of Lublin which lasts until <!--del_lnk--> 1795.</ul> <p><a name="1570s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1570s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1577-<!--del_lnk--> 80: <a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Drake.htm" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a> <!--del_lnk--> circles the World</ul> <p><a name="1580s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1580s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1580: After the <!--del_lnk--> struggle for the throne of Portugal, the <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese Empire comes to an end and the Spanish and Portuguese crowns are <!--del_lnk--> united for 60 years.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1582: <!--del_lnk--> Yermak Timofeyevich conquers the <!--del_lnk--> Siberia Khanate on behalf of the <!--del_lnk--> Stroganovs.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1584-<!--del_lnk--> 85: After the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Antwerp, many of its merchants fled to <a href="../../wp/a/Amsterdam.htm" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1585-<!--del_lnk--> 1604: The <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Spanish War is fought on both sides of the Atlantic.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1588: England repulses the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Armada.htm" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1589: Spain repulses the <!--del_lnk--> English Armada.</ul> <p><a name="1590s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1590s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1592-<!--del_lnk--> 98: Korea, with the help of <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a> China, repelled <!--del_lnk--> two Japanese invasions.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1598: The <!--del_lnk--> Edict of Nantes ended the <!--del_lnk--> French Wars of Religion.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1598-<!--del_lnk--> 1613: Russia descended into anarchy during the <!--del_lnk--> Time of Troubles.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1600: The <a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> was chartered.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/146/14679.jpg.htm" title="William Shakespeare."><img alt="William Shakespeare." height="259" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Shakespeare.jpg" src="../../images/146/14674.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/146/14679.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a>, founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Tudor dynasty. Introduced ruthlessly efficient mechanisms of taxation which restored the kingdom after a state of virtual <!--del_lnk--> bankruptcy due to the effects of the <a href="../../wp/w/Wars_of_the_Roses.htm" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1457 - <!--del_lnk--> 1509).<li>Leonardo Da Vinci famous artist and inventor and scientist.<li><!--del_lnk--> Pedro Álvares Cabral, first European to arrive in <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 22 April <!--del_lnk--> 1500 (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1467 - <!--del_lnk--> 1520).<li><!--del_lnk--> Zygmunt I the Old, King of Poland, established a conscription army and the bureaucracy needed to finance it (<!--del_lnk--> 1467 - <!--del_lnk--> 1548).<li><a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>, Portuguese navigator, first one to sail around the <!--del_lnk--> Cape of Good Hope (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1469 - <!--del_lnk--> 1524).<li><!--del_lnk--> György Dózsa, leader of the peasants' revolt in <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1470 - <!--del_lnk--> 1514)<li><a href="../../wp/n/Nicolaus_Copernicus.htm" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>, developed the <a href="../../wp/h/Heliocentrism.htm" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> (<a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>-centered) <!--del_lnk--> theory using <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">scientific</a> methods (<!--del_lnk--> 1473 - <!--del_lnk--> 1543).<li><!--del_lnk--> Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian painter and sculptor (<!--del_lnk--> 1475 - <!--del_lnk--> 1564).<li><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_More.htm" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a>, English politician and author (<!--del_lnk--> 1478 - <!--del_lnk--> 1535).<li><a href="../../wp/f/Ferdinand_Magellan.htm" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a> Portuguese navigator who sailed around the world (<!--del_lnk--> 1480 - <!--del_lnk--> 1521).<li><a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Luther.htm" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, German religious reformer (<!--del_lnk--> 1483 - <!--del_lnk--> 1546).<li><a href="../../wp/h/Hern%25C3%25A1n_Cort%25C3%25A9s.htm" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>, Spanish <!--del_lnk--> Conquistador (<!--del_lnk--> 1485 - <!--del_lnk--> 1547).<li>King <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</a>, founder of <a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1491 - <!--del_lnk--> 1547).<li><!--del_lnk--> Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Society of Jesus (<!--del_lnk--> 1491 - <!--del_lnk--> 1556).<li><!--del_lnk--> François Rabelais, French author (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1493 - <!--del_lnk--> 1553).<li>King <!--del_lnk--> Francis I of France, considered the first <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> monarch of his Kingdom (<!--del_lnk--> 1494 - <!--del_lnk--> 1547).<li><a href="../../wp/s/Suleiman_the_Magnificent.htm" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Sultan of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. Conqueror and legal reformer (<!--del_lnk--> 1494 - <!--del_lnk--> 1566).<li>King <!--del_lnk--> Gustav I of Sweden, restored Swedish sovereignty and introduced <!--del_lnk--> Protestantism in <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1496-<!--del_lnk--> 1560).<li><a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a> and the first to reign as <!--del_lnk--> King of Spain. Involved in almost constant conflict with <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> while promoting the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish colonization of the Americas (<!--del_lnk--> 1500 - <!--del_lnk--> 1558).<li><!--del_lnk--> Cuauhtémoc, the last <!--del_lnk--> Tlatoani of the <a href="../../wp/a/Aztec.htm" title="Aztec">Aztec</a>, led the native resistance against the <!--del_lnk--> Conquistadores (<!--del_lnk--> 1502 - <!--del_lnk--> 1525).<li><!--del_lnk--> Michel Nostradamus, French astrologer and doctor, author of <!--del_lnk--> Les Propheties, a book of world prophecies (<!--del_lnk--> 1503 - <!--del_lnk--> 1566).<li><!--del_lnk--> Mikolaj Rej, Polish writer (<!--del_lnk--> 1505 - <!--del_lnk--> 1569).<li><!--del_lnk--> Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, <!--del_lnk--> Somali <!--del_lnk--> Imam and general (<!--del_lnk--> 1507 - <!--del_lnk--> 1543).<li><a href="../../wp/j/John_Calvin.htm" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, theologian, and reformer. Founder of <!--del_lnk--> Calvinism (<!--del_lnk--> 1509 - <!--del_lnk--> 1564).</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/155/15571.jpg.htm" title="John Calvin."><img alt="John Calvin." height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:John_Calvin.jpg" src="../../images/2/255.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/155/15571.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/j/John_Calvin.htm" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_England.htm" title="Mary I of England">Mary I of England</a>. Attempted to counter the <!--del_lnk--> Protestant Reformation in her domains. Nick-named <!--del_lnk--> Bloody Mary for her <!--del_lnk--> Religious persecution (<!--del_lnk--> 1516 - <!--del_lnk--> 1558).<li><!--del_lnk--> Luís de Camões, Portuguese poet (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1524 –<!--del_lnk--> 1580).<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre de Ronsard, French poet. Called the 'Prince of poets' of his generation. (<!--del_lnk--> 1524 – <!--del_lnk--> 1585).<li>Giovanni Pierluigi da <!--del_lnk--> Palestrina, Italian Composer (<!--del_lnk--> 1525 - <!--del_lnk--> 1594)<li>King <a href="../../wp/p/Philip_II_of_Spain.htm" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, self-proclaimed leader of <!--del_lnk--> Counter-Reformation (<!--del_lnk--> 1527 - <!--del_lnk--> 1598).<li><a href="../../wp/i/Ivan_IV_of_Russia.htm" title="Ivan IV of Russia">Ivan IV of Russia</a>, first Russian <!--del_lnk--> tsar (<!--del_lnk--> 1533-<!--del_lnk--> 1584).<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_the_Silent.htm" title="William the Silent">William the Silent</a>, William I of <!--del_lnk--> Orange-Nassau, main leader of the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> revolt against the <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1533-<!--del_lnk--> 1584).<li><!--del_lnk--> Michel de Montaigne, French essayist (<!--del_lnk--> 1533 – <!--del_lnk--> 1592).<li><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I of England</a>, central figure of the <!--del_lnk--> Elizabethan era (<!--del_lnk--> 1533 - <!--del_lnk--> 1603).<li><!--del_lnk--> Oda Nobunaga , <!--del_lnk--> daimyo of the <!--del_lnk--> Sengoku period of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> <!--del_lnk--> civil war. First ruler of the <!--del_lnk--> Azuchi-Momoyama period (<!--del_lnk--> 1534 - <!--del_lnk--> 1582).<li><!--del_lnk--> Toyotomi Hideyoshi , <!--del_lnk--> daimyo of the <!--del_lnk--> Sengoku period of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> <!--del_lnk--> civil war. Second ruler of the <!--del_lnk--> Azuchi-Momoyama period (<!--del_lnk--> 1536 - <!--del_lnk--> 1598).<li><a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VI_of_England.htm" title="Edward VI of England">Edward VI of England</a>, notable for further differentiating <a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a> from the practices of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1537 - <!--del_lnk--> 1553).<li><!--del_lnk--> Lady Jane Grey, <!--del_lnk--> Queen regnant of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. Notably deposed by popular <!--del_lnk--> revolt (<!--del_lnk--> 1537 - <!--del_lnk--> 1554).<li><a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_Scotland.htm" title="Mary I of Scotland">Mary I of Scotland</a>, First female head of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Stuart (<!--del_lnk--> 1542 - <!--del_lnk--> 1587).<li>Admiral <!--del_lnk--> Yi Sun-sin , respected as one of the greatest <!--del_lnk--> admirals and military leaders in world history. (<!--del_lnk--> 1545 - <!--del_lnk--> 1598).<li><a href="../../wp/m/Miguel_de_Cervantes.htm" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Miguel de Cervantes</a>, Spanish author (<!--del_lnk--> 1547 - <!--del_lnk--> 1616).<li><!--del_lnk--> Giordano Bruno, Italian philosopher and astronomer/astrologer (<!--del_lnk--> 1548 - <!--del_lnk--> 1600).<li>King <!--del_lnk--> Henry IV of France and <!--del_lnk--> Navarre, ended the <!--del_lnk--> French Wars of Religion and reunited the kingdom under his command (<!--del_lnk--> 1553 - <!--del_lnk--> 1610).<li><!--del_lnk--> Lope de Vega, Spanish dramatist (<!--del_lnk--> 1562 – <!--del_lnk--> 1635).<li><!--del_lnk--> Christopher Marlowe, English poet and dramatist (<!--del_lnk--> 1564 – <!--del_lnk--> 1593).<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, English author (<!--del_lnk--> 1564 - <!--del_lnk--> 1616).<li><!--del_lnk--> John Donne, English <!--del_lnk--> metaphysical poet (<!--del_lnk--> 1572 - <!--del_lnk--> 1631)<li><!--del_lnk--> Miyamoto Musashi, famous warrior in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, author of <!--del_lnk--> The Book of Five Rings, a treaty on <!--del_lnk--> strategy and martial combat. (<!--del_lnk--> 1584 - <!--del_lnk--> 1645)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Ford, English dramatist (<!--del_lnk--> 1586 - c. <!--del_lnk--> 1640).</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <p><!--del_lnk--> List of 16th century inventions<ul> <li>The <!--del_lnk--> Columbian Exchange introduces many plants, animals and diseases to the <!--del_lnk--> Old and <!--del_lnk--> New Worlds.<li>Introduction of the <!--del_lnk--> spinning wheel revolutionizes <a href="../../wp/t/Textile.htm" title="Textile">textile</a> production in Europe.<li>Modern <!--del_lnk--> square root symbol (√ )<li>The letter <!--del_lnk--> J is introduced into the English alphabet.<li><a href="../../wp/n/Nicolaus_Copernicus.htm" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a> publishes his theory that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun (<!--del_lnk--> 1543)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gregorian Calendar adopted by Catholic countries (<!--del_lnk--> 1582)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1513: <!--del_lnk--> Juan Ponce de León sights <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Vasco Núñez de Balboa sights the eastern edge of the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1519-<!--del_lnk--> 22: <a href="../../wp/f/Ferdinand_Magellan.htm" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Juan_Sebasti%25C3%25A1n_Elcano.htm" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a> lead the first <!--del_lnk--> circumnavigation of the World.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1540: <!--del_lnk--> Francisco Vásquez de Coronado sights the <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canyon.htm" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1541-<!--del_lnk--> 42: <!--del_lnk--> Francisco de Orellana sails the length of the <a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_River.htm" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1597: <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">Opera</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Florence by <!--del_lnk--> Jacopo Peri<li><!--del_lnk--> 1500: First portable <a href="../../wp/w/Watch.htm" title="Watch">watch</a> created by Peter Henlein of <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1545: Theory of <!--del_lnk--> complex numbers first developed by Gerolamo Cardamo of Italy.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1558: <!--del_lnk--> Camera obscura first used by <!--del_lnk--> Giambattista della Porta of <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1582: <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calender introduced in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> by <!--del_lnk--> Pope Gregory XIII<li><!--del_lnk--> 1565: Invention of the <!--del_lnk--> graphite <!--del_lnk--> pencil (in a wooden holder) by <!--del_lnk--> Conrad Gesner. Modernized in <!--del_lnk--> 1812.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1568: <!--del_lnk--> Gerardus Mercator created the first <!--del_lnk--> Mercator Projection Map<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 1583: <a href="../../wp/g/Galileo_Galilei.htm" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Pisa, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> identified the constant swing of a <!--del_lnk--> pendulum, leading to development of reliable timekeepers<li><!--del_lnk--> 1591: First flush <!--del_lnk--> toilet introduced by <!--del_lnk--> Sir John Harrington of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, the design published under the title 'The Metamorphosis of Ajax'</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1490s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1490</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1491</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1492</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1493</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1494</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1495</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1496</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1497</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1498</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1499</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1500s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1500</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1501</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1502</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1503</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1504</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1505</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1506</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1507</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1508</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1509</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1510s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1510</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1511</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1512</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1513</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1514</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1515</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1516</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1517</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1518</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1519</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1520s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1520</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1521</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1522</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1523</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1524</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1525</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1526</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1527</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1528</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1529</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1530s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1530</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1531</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1532</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1533</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1534</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1535</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1536</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1537</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1538</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1539</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1540s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1540</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1541</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1542</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1543</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1544</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1545</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1546</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1547</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1548</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1549</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1550s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1550</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1551</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1552</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1553</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1554</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1555</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1556</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1557</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1558</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1559</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1560s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1560</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1561</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1562</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1563</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1564</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1565</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1566</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1567</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1568</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1569</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1570s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1570</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1571</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1572</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1573</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1574</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1575</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1576</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1577</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1578</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1579</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1580s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1580</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1581</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1582</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1583</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1584</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1585</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1586</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1587</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1588</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1589</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1590s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1590</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1591</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1592</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1593</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1594</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1595</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1596</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1597</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1598</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1599</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1600s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1600</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1601</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1602</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1603</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1604</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1605</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1606</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1607</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1608</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1609</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><strong class="selflink">16th</strong></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8909 bytes Post-expand include size: 9109 bytes Template argument size: 683 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34568-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061207204251 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['15th century', '17th century', 'Time', 'Brazil', 'Portugal', 'Iran', 'Leonardo da Vinci', 'Mona Lisa', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Egypt', 'Martin Luther', 'Hernán Cortés', 'Suleiman the Magnificent', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Sweden', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'Babur', 'India', 'Italian Renaissance', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire', 'Jacques Cartier', 'Baghdad', 'Japan', 'Akbar', 'Netherlands', 'Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth', 'Francis Drake', 'Amsterdam', 'Spanish Armada', 'Ming Dynasty', 'British East India Company', 'William Shakespeare', 'Henry VII of England', 'Wars of the Roses', 'Brazil', 'Vasco da Gama', 'Hungary', 'Nicolaus Copernicus', 'Heliocentrism', 'Sun', 'Science', 'Thomas More', 'Ferdinand Magellan', 'Martin Luther', 'Hernán Cortés', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Anglicanism', 'Renaissance', 'Suleiman the Magnificent', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Sweden', 'Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor', 'France', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Aztec', 'John Calvin', 'John Calvin', 'Mary I of England', 'Philip II of Spain', 'Ivan IV of Russia', 'William the Silent', 'Netherlands', 'Spain', 'Elizabeth I of England', 'Japan', 'Japan', 'Edward VI of England', 'Anglicanism', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'England', 'Ireland', 'Mary I of Scotland', 'Miguel de Cervantes', 'William Shakespeare', 'Japan', 'Textile', 'Nicolaus Copernicus', 'Florida', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Ferdinand Magellan', 'Juan Sebastián Elcano', 'Grand Canyon', 'Amazon River', 'Opera', 'Watch', 'Germany', 'Italy', 'Europe', 'Galileo Galilei', 'Italy', 'England', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
1755_Lisbon_earthquake	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="1755 Lisbon earthquake,1755 Lisbon earthquake.ogg,1755,2005,Ajuda Palace,Algarve,All Saints' Day,Antonio da Correggio,April 30,Atlantic,Atlantic Ocean" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>1755 Lisbon earthquake</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "1755_Lisbon_earthquake"; var wgTitle = "1755 Lisbon earthquake"; var wgArticleId = 352339; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-1755_Lisbon_earthquake"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">1755 Lisbon earthquake</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:342px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/71/7131.jpg.htm" title="This 1755 copper engraving shows the ruins of Lisbon in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbor."><img alt="This 1755 copper engraving shows the ruins of Lisbon in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbor." height="239" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg" src="../../images/160/16034.jpg" width="340" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/71/7131.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This 1755 copper engraving shows the ruins of <a href="../../wp/l/Lisbon.htm" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> in flames and a <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> overwhelming the ships in the harbour.</div> </div> </div> <p>The <b>1755 Lisbon earthquake</b> took place on <!--del_lnk--> November 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1755, at 9:40 in the morning. It was one of the most destructive and deadly <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> in history, killing between 60,000 and 100,000 people. The quake was followed by a <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> and fire, resulting in the near-total destruction of <a href="../../wp/l/Lisbon.htm" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>. The earthquake accentuated political tensions in <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and profoundly disrupted the country's eighteenth-century colonial ambitions.<p>The event was widely discussed by European <!--del_lnk--> Enlightenment <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophers</a>, and inspired major developments in <!--del_lnk--> theodicy and in the philosophy of the <!--del_lnk--> sublime. As the first earthquake studied scientifically for its effects over a large area, it signaled the birth of modern <!--del_lnk--> seismology. <!--del_lnk--> Geologists today estimate the Lisbon earthquake approached magnitude 9 on the <!--del_lnk--> Richter scale, with an <!--del_lnk--> epicenter in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> about 200 <!--del_lnk--> km (120 <!--del_lnk--> mi) west-southwest of <!--del_lnk--> Cape St. Vincent.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="The_earthquake" name="The_earthquake"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The earthquake</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/71/7151.jpg.htm" title="The ruins of the Carmo Convent, which was destroyed in the Lisbon earthquake."><img alt="The ruins of the Carmo Convent, which was destroyed in the Lisbon earthquake." height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Convento_do_Carmo_ruins_in_Lisbon.jpg" src="../../images/160/16035.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/71/7151.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> ruins of the <!--del_lnk--> Carmo Convent, which was destroyed in the Lisbon earthquake.</div> </div> </div> <p>The earthquake struck on the morning of <!--del_lnk--> 1 November, the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic holiday of <!--del_lnk--> All Saints' Day. Contemporary reports state that the earthquake lasted between three-and-a-half and six minutes, causing gigantic fissures five <!--del_lnk--> metres (16 ft) wide to appear in the city centre. The survivors rushed to the open space of the docks for safety and watched as the water receded, revealing a sea floor littered by lost cargo and old shipwrecks. Several tens of minutes after the earthquake, an enormous <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> engulfed the harbour and downtown, rushing up the <!--del_lnk--> Tagus river. It was followed by two more waves. In the areas unaffected by the tsunami, fire quickly broke out, and flames raged for five days.<p>Lisbon was not the only <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> city affected by the catastrophe. Throughout the south of the country, in particular the <!--del_lnk--> Algarve, destruction was general. The shockwaves of the earthquake were felt throughout <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> as far as <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. Tsunamis up to 20 metres (66 ft) in height swept the coast of <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, and struck <a href="../../wp/m/Martinique.htm" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Barbados.htm" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> across the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a>. A three-metre (ten-foot) <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> hit the southern <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> coast. <!--del_lnk--> Galway, on the west coast of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, was also hit, resulting in the partial destruction of the "<!--del_lnk--> Spanish Arch".<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16036.gif.htm" title="Estimated epicentre of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake."><img alt="Estimated epicentre of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake." height="228" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1755_Lisbon_Earthquake_Location.gif" src="../../images/160/16036.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16036.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Estimated <!--del_lnk--> epicentre of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake.</div> </div> </div> <p>Of a Lisbon population of 275,000, up to 90,000 were killed. Another 10,000 were killed in <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>. Eighty-five percent of Lisbon's buildings were destroyed, including famous palaces and libraries, as well as most examples of Portugal's distinctive 16th-century <!--del_lnk--> Manueline architecture. Several buildings that had suffered little earthquake damage were destroyed by the subsequent fire. The brand new Opera House, opened only six months before (under the ill-fated name <i>Phoenix Opera</i>), was burned to the ground. The <!--del_lnk--> Royal Ribeira Palace, which stood just beside the <!--del_lnk--> Tagus river in the modern square of <i><!--del_lnk--> Terreiro do Paço</i>, was destroyed by the earthquake and tsunami. Inside, the 70,000-volume royal library as well as hundreds of works of art, including paintings by <!--del_lnk--> Titian, <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Rubens</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Correggio, were lost. The precious royal archives disappeared together with detailed historical records of explorations by <a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> and other early navigators. The earthquake also damaged major churches in Lisbon, namely the <!--del_lnk--> Lisbon Cathedral, the <!--del_lnk--> Basilicas of São Paulo, Santa Catarina, <!--del_lnk--> São Vicente de Fora, and the <!--del_lnk--> Misericordia Church. The Royal Hospital of All Saints (the biggest public hospital at the time) in the <!--del_lnk--> Rossio square was consumed by fire and hundreds of patients burned to death. The tomb of national hero <!--del_lnk--> Nuno Álvares Pereira was also lost. Visitors to Lisbon may still walk the ruins of the <!--del_lnk--> Carmo Convent, which were preserved to remind Lisboners of the destruction.<p>It is said that many animals sensed danger and fled to higher ground before the water arrived. The Lisbon quake is the first documented reporting of such a phenomenon in Europe.<p><a id="The_day_after" name="The_day_after"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The day after</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:342px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16037.jpg.htm" title="The Ruins of Lisbon. Survivors lived in tents on the outskirts of the city after the earthquake, as shown in this fanciful 1755 German engraving."><img alt="The Ruins of Lisbon. Survivors lived in tents on the outskirts of the city after the earthquake, as shown in this fanciful 1755 German engraving." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lisbon1755hanging.jpg" src="../../images/160/16037.jpg" width="340" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16037.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>The Ruins of Lisbon</b>. Survivors lived in tents on the outskirts of the city after the earthquake, as shown in this fanciful 1755 German engraving.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:342px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16038.jpg.htm" title="Detail from above: Executions in the aftermath of the Lisbon earthquake. At least 34 looters were hanged in the chaotic aftermath of the disaster. As a warning against looting, King Joseph I of Portugal ordered gallows to be constructed in several parts of the city."><img alt="Detail from above: Executions in the aftermath of the Lisbon earthquake. At least 34 looters were hanged in the chaotic aftermath of the disaster. As a warning against looting, King Joseph I of Portugal ordered gallows to be constructed in several parts of the city." height="207" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lisbon1755hangingdetail.JPG" src="../../images/160/16038.jpg" width="340" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16038.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><b>Detail from above</b></i>: Executions in the aftermath of the Lisbon earthquake. At least 34 looters were hanged in the chaotic aftermath of the disaster. As a warning against looting, King <!--del_lnk--> Joseph I of Portugal ordered <!--del_lnk--> gallows to be constructed in several parts of the city.</div> </div> </div> <p>Owing to a stroke of luck, the royal family escaped unharmed from the catastrophe. King <!--del_lnk--> Joseph I of Portugal and the court had left the city, after attending mass at sunrise, fulfilling the wish of one of the king's daughters to spend the holiday away from Lisbon. After the catastrophe, Joseph I developed a fear of living within walls, and the court was accommodated in a huge complex of tents and pavilions in the hills of Ajuda, then on the outskirts of Lisbon. The king's <!--del_lnk--> claustrophobia never waned, and it was only after Joseph's death that his daughter <!--del_lnk--> Maria I of Portugal began building the royal <!--del_lnk--> Ajuda Palace, which still stands on the site of the old tented camp. Like the king, the prime minister Sebastião de Melo (the <!--del_lnk--> Marquis of Pombal) survived the earthquake. "Now? Bury the dead and feed the living," he is reported to have said, and with the pragmatism that characterized his coming rule, the prime minister immediately began organizing the recovery and reconstruction. He sent firefighters into the city to extinguish the flames, and ordered teams to remove the thousands of corpses before disease spread. Contrary to custom and against the wishes of representatives of the Church, many corpses were loaded onto <!--del_lnk--> barges and <!--del_lnk--> buried at sea beyond the mouth of the Tagus. To prevent disorder in the ruined city, and, in particular, as a deterrent against <!--del_lnk--> looting, <!--del_lnk--> gallows were constructed at high points around the city and at least 34 people were executed. The Portuguese Army surrounded the city to prevent the able-bodied from fleeing, so that they could be pressed into clearing the ruins.<p>Not long after the initial crisis, the prime minister and the king quickly hired architects and engineers, and less than a year later, Lisbon was free from debris and undergoing reconstruction. The king was keen to have a new, perfectly ordained city. Big squares and rectilinear, large avenues were the <i>mottos</i> of the new Lisbon. At the time, somebody asked the Marquis of Pombal about the need for such wide streets. The marquis answered: <i>one day they will be small.</i> Indeed, the chaotic traffic of Lisbon today reflects the wisdom of his reply.<p>Pombaline buildings are among the first <!--del_lnk--> seismically-protected constructions in the world. Small wooden models were built for testing, and earthquakes were simulated by marching troops around them. Lisbon's "new" downtown, known today as the <!--del_lnk--> Pombaline Downtown (<i>Baixa Pombalina</i>), is one of the city's famed attractions. Sections of other Portuguese cities, like the <!--del_lnk--> Vila Real de Santo António in <!--del_lnk--> Algarve, were also rebuilt along Pombaline principles.''''<p><a id="Social_and_philosophical_implications" name="Social_and_philosophical_implications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Social and philosophical implications</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:92px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/280/28036.jpg.htm" title="Voltaire."><img alt="Voltaire." height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Voltaire3.jpg" src="../../images/160/16039.jpg" width="90" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/280/28036.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/v/Voltaire.htm" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>The earthquake shook much more than cities and buildings. Lisbon was the capital of a devout <!--del_lnk--> Catholic country, with a history of investments in the church and <!--del_lnk--> evangelism in the colonies. Moreover, the catastrophe struck on a Catholic holiday and destroyed almost every important church. For eighteenth-century <!--del_lnk--> theology and <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, this manifestation of the anger of God was difficult to explain.<p>The earthquake strongly influenced many thinkers of the <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> <!--del_lnk--> Enlightenment. Many contemporary <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophers</a> mentioned or alluded to the earthquake in their writings, notably <a href="../../wp/v/Voltaire.htm" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> in <i><!--del_lnk--> Candide</i> and in his <i><!--del_lnk--> Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne</i> ("Poem on the Lisbon disaster"). The arbitrariness of survival motivated Voltaire's <i>Candide</i> and its <!--del_lnk--> satire of the idea that this was the "<!--del_lnk--> best of all possible worlds"; as <!--del_lnk--> Theodor Adorno wrote, "[t]he earthquake of Lisbon sufficed to cure Voltaire of the <!--del_lnk--> theodicy of <a href="../../wp/g/Gottfried_Leibniz.htm" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a>" (<i>Negative Dialectics</i> 361). In the later twentieth century, following Adorno, the 1755 earthquake has sometimes been compared to the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> as a catastrophe so tremendous as to have a transformative impact on European culture and philosophy.<p><a href="../../wp/j/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.htm" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> was also influenced by the devastation following the earthquake, the severity of which he believed that was due to too many people living within the close quarters of the city. Rousseau used the earthquake as an argument against cities as part of his desire for a more naturalistic way of life.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:92px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/80/8032.jpg.htm" title="Immanuel Kant."><img alt="Immanuel Kant." height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" src="../../images/160/16040.jpg" width="90" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/80/8032.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/i/Immanuel_Kant.htm" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>The concept of the <!--del_lnk--> sublime, though it existed before 1755, was developed in philosophy and elevated to greater importance by <a href="../../wp/i/Immanuel_Kant.htm" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, in part as a result of his attempts to comprehend the enormity of the Lisbon quake and tsunami. Kant published three separate texts on the Lisbon earthquake. The young Kant, fascinated with the earthquake, collected all the information available to him in news pamphlets, and used it to formulate a theory of the causes of earthquakes. Kant's theory, which involved the shifting of huge subterranean caverns filled with hot gases, was (though ultimately shown to be false) one of the first systematic modern attempts to explain earthquakes by positing natural, rather than supernatural, causes. According to <!--del_lnk--> Walter Benjamin, Kant's slim early book on the earthquake "probably represents the beginnings of scientific geography in Germany. And certainly the beginnings of seismology."<p><!--del_lnk--> Werner Hamacher has claimed that the earthquake's consequences extended into the vocabulary of philosophy, making the common metaphor of firm "grounding" for philosophers' arguments shaky and uncertain: "Under the impression exerted by the Lisbon earthquake, which touched the European mind in one [of] its more sensitive epochs, the metaphor of ground and tremor completely lost their apparent innocence; they were no longer merely figures of speech" (263). Hamacher claims that the foundational certainty of <a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" title="Rene Descartes">Descartes</a>' philosophy began to shake following the Lisbon earthquake.<p>In Portuguese internal politics, the earthquake was devastating. The prime minister was the favorite of the king, but the aristocracy despised him as an upstart son of a country squire. (Although the Prime Minister Sebastião de Melo is known today as <!--del_lnk--> Marquis of Pombal, the title was only granted in 1770, fifteen years after the earthquake.) The prime minister in turn disliked the old nobles, whom he considered corrupt and incapable of practical action. Before <!--del_lnk--> November 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1755 there was a constant struggle for power and royal favour, but afterwards, the competent response of the Marquis of Pombal effectively severed the power of the old aristocratic factions. Silent opposition and resentment of King Joseph I began to rise. This would culminate in an attempted assassination of the king, and the elimination of the powerful <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Aveiro and the <!--del_lnk--> Távora family.<p><a id="The_birth_of_seismology" name="The_birth_of_seismology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The birth of seismology</span></h2> <p>The prime minister's response was not limited to the practicalities of reconstruction. The marquis ordered a query sent to all <!--del_lnk--> parishes of the country regarding the earthquake and its effects. Questions included:<ul> <li>how long did the earthquake last?<li>how many aftershocks were felt?<li>what kind of damage was caused?<li>did animals behave strangely? (<i>this question anticipated studies by modern Chinese seismologists in the 1960s</i>)<li>what happened in wells and water holes?</ul> <p>The answers to these and other questions are still archived in the <!--del_lnk--> Tower of Tombo, the national historical archive. Studying and cross-referencing the priests' accounts, modern scientists were able to reconstruct the event from a scientific perspective. Without the query designed by the <!--del_lnk--> Marquis of Pombal, this would have been impossible. Because the marquis was the first to attempt an objective scientific description of the broad causes and consequences of an earthquake, he is regarded as a forerunner of modern seismological scientists.<p>The <a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" title="Geology">geological</a> causes of this earthquake and the seismic activity in the region continue to be discussed and debated by contemporary scientists. Some geologists have suggested that the earthquake may indicate the early development of an <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> <!--del_lnk--> subduction zone, and the beginning of the closure of the <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic ocean. Indeed, the only other recorded earthquakes of this size have been <!--del_lnk--> megathrust earthquakes involving subduction, making it all but certain that the Lisbon event was a megathrust earthquake as well.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Lisbon', 'Tsunami', 'Earthquake', 'Tsunami', 'Lisbon', 'Portugal', 'Philosophy', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Tsunami', 'Portugal', 'Europe', 'Finland', 'North Africa', 'North Africa', 'Martinique', 'Barbados', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Tsunami', 'England', 'Ireland', 'Morocco', 'Peter Paul Rubens', 'Vasco da Gama', 'Voltaire', 'Philosophy', 'Europe', 'Philosophy', 'Voltaire', 'Gottfried Leibniz', 'Holocaust', 'Jean-Jacques Rousseau', 'Immanuel Kant', 'Immanuel Kant', 'Rene Descartes', 'Geology', 'Atlantic Ocean']
17th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="17th century,1657,Christiaan Huygens,1645,Galileo Galilei,1676,1679,1642,1623,1675,Peter the Great" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>17th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "17th_century"; var wgTitle = "17th century"; var wgArticleId = 34569; var wgCurRevisionId = 91825803; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-17th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">17th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a> - <b>17th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1600s <!--del_lnk--> 1610s <!--del_lnk--> 1620s <!--del_lnk--> 1630s <!--del_lnk--> 1640s <!--del_lnk--> 1650s <!--del_lnk--> 1660s <!--del_lnk--> 1670s <!--del_lnk--> 1680s <!--del_lnk--> 1690s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, the <b>17th century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1601-<!--del_lnk--> 1700 in the <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calendar.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/256.jpg.htm" title="Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu is the founder of Japan's last shogunate, which lasted well into the 19th century."><img alt="Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu is the founder of Japan's last shogunate, which lasted well into the 19th century." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tokugawa_Ieyasu.jpg" src="../../images/2/256.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/256.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Shogun <!--del_lnk--> Tokugawa Ieyasu is the founder of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan's</a> last shogunate, which lasted well into the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <p><a name="1600s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1600s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1601: <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Kinsale, one of the most important battles in Irish history, fought.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1602: <!--del_lnk--> Dutch East India Company founded. Its success contributes to the <!--del_lnk--> Dutch Golden Age.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1603: <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I of England</a> dies and is succeeded by her cousin King <!--del_lnk--> James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1603: <!--del_lnk--> Tokugawa Ieyasu seizes control of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> and establishes the <!--del_lnk--> Tokugawa Shogunate which rules the country until <!--del_lnk--> 1868.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1603-<!--del_lnk--> 23: After modernizing his army, <!--del_lnk--> Abbas I expands <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a> by capturing territory from the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a> and the <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1605: <!--del_lnk--> Gunpowder Plot failed in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1607: The <!--del_lnk--> London Company establishes the <!--del_lnk--> Jamestown Settlement in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> precipitating the <!--del_lnk--> British colonization of the Americas.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1608: <!--del_lnk--> Quebec City founded by <!--del_lnk--> Samuel de Champlain in <!--del_lnk--> New France (present-day <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>).</ul> <p><a name="1610s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1610s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1611: The <!--del_lnk--> King James Version of the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a> is completed.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1613: The <!--del_lnk--> Time of Troubles in <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> ends with the establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Romanov which rules until <!--del_lnk--> 1917.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1615: The <!--del_lnk--> Mughal Empire grants extensive trading rights to the <a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1618-<!--del_lnk--> 48: The <!--del_lnk--> Thirty Years' War devastates <!--del_lnk--> Central Europe.</ul> <p><a name="1620s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1620s</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/258.jpg.htm" title="Apollo and Daphne (1622-1625), by Gian Lorenzo Bernini is considered one the masterpieces of the century."><img alt="Apollo and Daphne (1622-1625), by Gian Lorenzo Bernini is considered one the masterpieces of the century." height="349" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo%26daphne.jpg" src="../../images/2/258.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/258.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Apollo and Daphne</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1622-<!--del_lnk--> 1625), by <!--del_lnk--> Gian Lorenzo Bernini is considered one the masterpieces of the century.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1624-<!--del_lnk--> 42: As chief minister, <a href="../../wp/a/Armand_Jean_du_Plessis%252C_Cardinal_Richelieu.htm" title="Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu">Cardinal Richelieu</a> centralizes power in France.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1625: <!--del_lnk--> New Amsterdam founded by the <!--del_lnk--> Dutch West India Company in North America.</ul> <p><a name="1630s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1630s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1637: The <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> <!--del_lnk--> tulip mania bubble bursts.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1637: The <!--del_lnk--> Pequot War, the first of the <!--del_lnk--> American Indian Wars<li><!--del_lnk--> 1639-<!--del_lnk--> 51: <!--del_lnk--> Wars of the Three Kingdoms, civil wars throughout <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> England.</ul> <p><a name="1640s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1640s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1640: <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> regains its independence from <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> bringing an end to the <!--del_lnk--> Iberian Union.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1640: <!--del_lnk--> Torture is outlawed in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1641: The <!--del_lnk--> Tokugawa Shogunate institutes <!--del_lnk--> Sakoku- foreigners are expelled and no one is allowed to enter or leave Japan.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1642: Dutch explorer <!--del_lnk--> Abel Janszoon Tasman achieves the first recorded European sighting of <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1644: The <!--del_lnk--> Manchu conquer <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> ending the <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a>. The subsequent <a href="../../wp/q/Qing_Dynasty.htm" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a> rules until <!--del_lnk--> 1912.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1648: The <!--del_lnk--> Peace of Westphalia ends the <!--del_lnk--> Thirty Years' War and the <!--del_lnk--> Eighty Years' War and marks the ends of <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> and the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> as major European powers.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1648-<!--del_lnk--> 53: <!--del_lnk--> Fronde <!--del_lnk--> civil war in France.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1648-<!--del_lnk--> 67: <!--del_lnk--> The Deluge wars leave <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> in ruins.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1648-<!--del_lnk--> 69: The <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> captures <!--del_lnk--> Crete from the <!--del_lnk--> Venetians after the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Candia.</ul> <p><a name="1650s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1650s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1652: <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Town.htm" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a> founded by the Dutch East India Company in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1652: <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Dutch Wars begin.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1655-<!--del_lnk--> 61: The <!--del_lnk--> Northern Wars cement <!--del_lnk--> Sweden's rise as a <!--del_lnk--> Great Power.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1656: <!--del_lnk--> Velázquez paints <i><!--del_lnk--> Las Meninas</i></ul> <p><a name="1660s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1660s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1660: The <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of England ends and the monarchy is brought back during the <!--del_lnk--> English Restoration.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1660: <!--del_lnk--> Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge founded.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1661: The reign of the <!--del_lnk--> Kangxi Emperor of China begins.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1662: <!--del_lnk--> Koxinga captures <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> from the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> and founds the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Tungning which rules until 1683.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1663: France takes full political and military <!--del_lnk--> control over its colonial possessions in <!--del_lnk--> New France.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1664: British troops capture New Amsterdam and rename it <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1665: <!--del_lnk--> Portugal defeats the <!--del_lnk--> Kongo Empire.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1666: The <!--del_lnk--> Great Fire of London.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1667-<!--del_lnk--> 99: The <!--del_lnk--> Great Turkish War halts the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>'s expansion into Europe.</ul> <p><a name="1670s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1670s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1670: The <!--del_lnk--> Hudson's Bay Company is founded in <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1672-<!--del_lnk--> 78: <!--del_lnk--> Franco-Dutch War<li><!--del_lnk--> 1674: <!--del_lnk--> Maratha Empire founded in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> by <!--del_lnk--> Shivaji.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1676: Russia and the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> commence the <!--del_lnk--> Russo-Turkish Wars.</ul> <p><a name="1680s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1680s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1682: <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_I_of_Russia.htm" title="Peter I of Russia">Peter the Great</a> becomes joint ruler of <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> (sole <!--del_lnk--> tsar in <!--del_lnk--> 1696).<li><!--del_lnk--> 1682: <!--del_lnk--> La Salle explores the length of the <a href="../../wp/m/Mississippi_River.htm" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> and claims <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana for France.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1683: <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> conquers the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Tungning and annexes <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1685: <!--del_lnk--> Edict of Fontainebleau outlaws <!--del_lnk--> Protestantism in France.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1687: <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> publishes <i><a href="../../wp/p/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica.htm" title="Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1688-<!--del_lnk--> 89: After the <a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>, England becomes a <a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Dutch Republic goes into decline.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1688-<!--del_lnk--> 97: The <!--del_lnk--> Grand Alliance sought to stop French expansion during the <!--del_lnk--> Nine Years War.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1689: <!--del_lnk--> Nerchinsk Treaty establishes a border between <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>.</ul> <p><a name="1690s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1690s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1692: <!--del_lnk--> Salem witch trials in <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1700-<!--del_lnk--> 21: <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> supplants <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> as the dominant <!--del_lnk--> Baltic power after the <!--del_lnk--> Great Northern War.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Gustavus Adolphus, <!--del_lnk--> King of Sweden (<!--del_lnk--> 1594-<!--del_lnk--> 1632).<li><!--del_lnk--> Tokugawa Ieyasu<li><!--del_lnk--> Francis Bacon, English philosopher and politician (<!--del_lnk--> 1561-<!--del_lnk--> 1626).<li><a href="../../wp/j/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.htm" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a>, German composer of genius(<!--del_lnk--> 1685-<!--del_lnk--> 1750)<li><!--del_lnk--> Diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez, Spanish painter (<!--del_lnk--> 1599-<!--del_lnk--> 1660)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre Corneille, French dramatist (<!--del_lnk--> 1606 - <!--del_lnk--> 1684)<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Harvey.htm" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a>, medical doctor (<!--del_lnk--> 1578 – <!--del_lnk--> 1657)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jean Racine, French dramatist (<!--del_lnk--> 1639 - 1699)<li><!--del_lnk--> Molière, French dramatist, actor, director (<!--del_lnk--> 1622 - <!--del_lnk--> 1673)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jean de La Fontaine French poet (<!--del_lnk--> 1621 - <!--del_lnk--> 1695)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux (<!--del_lnk--> 1636 - <!--del_lnk--> 1711) French poet and critic<li><!--del_lnk--> Gian Lorenzo Bernini (<!--del_lnk--> 1598 - <!--del_lnk--> 1680) Italian artist<li><!--del_lnk--> Jean-Baptiste Lully Italian-born French compsoer (<!--del_lnk--> 1632 - <!--del_lnk--> 1687)<li><!--del_lnk--> André Le Nôtre French landscape architect (<!--del_lnk--> 1613 - <!--del_lnk--> 1700)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gabriel Bethlen, Hungarian prince of Transylvania (<!--del_lnk--> 1580-<!--del_lnk--> 1629)<li>Sir <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Browne, English author, philosopher and scientist (<!--del_lnk--> 1605-<!--del_lnk--> 1682).<li><!--del_lnk--> Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Spanish author (<!--del_lnk--> 1574 - <!--del_lnk--> 1616)<li><a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I of England</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1600 - <!--del_lnk--> 1649).<li><a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II of England</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1630 - <!--del_lnk--> 1685).<li>Queen <!--del_lnk--> Christina of Sweden, high profile Catholic convert, matron of arts (<!--del_lnk--> 1626 - <!--del_lnk--> 1689)<li><a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Protector of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1599 - <!--del_lnk--> 1658)<li><!--del_lnk--> Richard Cromwell, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Protector of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1626 - <!--del_lnk--> 1712).<li><a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, French philosopher and mathematician (<!--del_lnk--> 1596 - <!--del_lnk--> 1650)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Donne, English <!--del_lnk--> metaphysical poet (<!--del_lnk--> 1572 - <!--del_lnk--> 1631)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester (<!--del_lnk--> 1647 - <!--del_lnk--> 1680) English poet<li><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I of England</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1533 - <!--del_lnk--> 1603).<li><a href="../../wp/g/Galileo_Galilei.htm" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, Italian natural philosopher (<!--del_lnk--> 1564 - <!--del_lnk--> 1642)<li><!--del_lnk--> Andreas Gryphius, German poet and dramatist(<!--del_lnk--> 1616 - <!--del_lnk--> 1664)<li><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Hobbes.htm" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, English philosopher and mathematician (<!--del_lnk--> 1588 - <!--del_lnk--> 1679)<li><!--del_lnk--> Christiaan Huygens, Dutch mathematician, physicist and astronomer (<!--del_lnk--> 1629 - <!--del_lnk--> 1695)<li><a href="../../wp/j/Johannes_Kepler.htm" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, German astronomer (<!--del_lnk--> 1571 - <!--del_lnk--> 1630)<li><a href="../../wp/g/Gottfried_Leibniz.htm" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, German philosopher and mathematician (<!--del_lnk--> 1646 - <!--del_lnk--> 1716)<li><a href="../../wp/j/John_Locke.htm" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, English philosopher (<!--del_lnk--> 1632 - <!--del_lnk--> 1704)<li><a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I of England</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1566 - <!--del_lnk--> 1625).<li><a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II of England</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1633 - <!--del_lnk--> 1701).<li><!--del_lnk--> Leopold I, <!--del_lnk--> Holy Roman Emperor (<!--del_lnk--> 1640 - <!--del_lnk--> 1705)<li><a href="../../wp/l/Louis_XIV_of_France.htm" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>, King of France, (<!--del_lnk--> 1638 - <!--del_lnk--> 1715)<li><a href="../../wp/m/Mary_II_of_England.htm" title="Mary II of England">Mary II of England</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1662 - <!--del_lnk--> 1694).<li><!--del_lnk--> Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh (d.<!--del_lnk--> 1671), Irish historian and genealogist.<li><a href="../../wp/j/John_Milton.htm" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, English author and poet (<!--del_lnk--> 1608 - <!--del_lnk--> 1674)<li><!--del_lnk--> Miyamoto Musashi, famous warrior in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, author of <!--del_lnk--> The Book of Five Rings, a treatise on <!--del_lnk--> strategy and martial combat. (<!--del_lnk--> 1584 - <!--del_lnk--> 1645)<li><a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, English physicist and mathematician (<!--del_lnk--> 1642 - <!--del_lnk--> 1727)<li><a href="../../wp/b/Blaise_Pascal.htm" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a>, French theologian, mathematician and physicist (<!--del_lnk--> 1623 - <!--del_lnk--> 1662)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre de Fermat French lawyer and mathematician <!--del_lnk--> 1601 – <!--del_lnk--> 1665<li><!--del_lnk--> John Dryden, English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright (<!--del_lnk--> 1631 - <!--del_lnk--> 1700)<li><!--del_lnk--> Samuel Pepys, English civil servant and diarist (<!--del_lnk--> 1633 - <!--del_lnk--> 1703)<li><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Purcell.htm" title="Henry Purcell">Henry Purcell</a>, English composer (<!--del_lnk--> 1659 - <!--del_lnk--> 1695)<li><!--del_lnk--> Samarth Ramdas, Hindu saint (<!--del_lnk--> 1608 - <!--del_lnk--> 1681)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sant Tukaram, Hindu saint (<!--del_lnk--> 1600 - <!--del_lnk--> 1650)<li><!--del_lnk--> Anne of Austria (<!--del_lnk--> 1601 - <!--del_lnk--> 1666) Queen consort and regent of France<li><!--del_lnk--> Cardinal Richelieu, French cardinal, duke, and politician (<!--del_lnk--> 1585 - <!--del_lnk--> 1642)<li><!--del_lnk--> Cardinal Mazarin, French cardinal and politician of Italian origin (<!--del_lnk--> 1602 - <!--del_lnk--> 1661)<li><!--del_lnk--> Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan (<!--del_lnk--> 1641 - <!--del_lnk--> 1707) lover of <!--del_lnk--> Louis XIV<li><!--del_lnk--> Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon (<!--del_lnk--> 1635 - <!--del_lnk--> 1719 second wife of <!--del_lnk--> Louis XIV<li><!--del_lnk--> Rembrandt van Rijn, Dutch painter (<!--del_lnk--> 1606 - <!--del_lnk--> 1669)<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, English author and poet (<!--del_lnk--> 1564 - <!--del_lnk--> 1616)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pedro Calderón de la Barca Spanish dramatist (<!--del_lnk--> 1600 - <!--del_lnk--> 1681)<li><!--del_lnk--> Shivaji Bhonsle, Hindu king, 1st Maratha ruler, established Hindavi Swaraj. (<!--del_lnk--> 1630-<!--del_lnk--> 1680)<li><a href="../../wp/b/Baruch_Spinoza.htm" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, Dutch philosopher (<!--del_lnk--> 1632 - <!--del_lnk--> 1677)<li><!--del_lnk--> Seathrún Céitinn, Irish historian (ca. <!--del_lnk--> 1569 - ca. <!--del_lnk--> 1644)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jan III Sobieski, King of Poland (<!--del_lnk--> 1629 - <!--del_lnk--> 1696)<li><!--del_lnk--> Imre Thököly, prince of Transylvania, leader of the anti-Habsburg uprising in <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1657 - <!--del_lnk--> 1705)<li><!--del_lnk--> Albrecht von Wallenstein, German general in the <!--del_lnk--> Thirty Years' War, Catholic (<!--del_lnk--> 1583 - <!--del_lnk--> 1634)<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" title="William III of England">William III of England</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1650 - <!--del_lnk--> 1702).<li><!--del_lnk--> Abel Janszoon Tasman (<!--del_lnk--> 1603 - <!--del_lnk--> 1659), Dutch seafarer and explorer.<li><!--del_lnk--> Michiel de Ruyter (<!--del_lnk--> 1607 - <!--del_lnk--> 1676), Dutch admiral<li><!--del_lnk--> Guru Teg Bahadur, (<!--del_lnk--> 1621 - <!--del_lnk--> 1675), 9th Sikh Guru<li><!--del_lnk--> Peter the Great, (<!--del_lnk--> 1672 - <!--del_lnk--> 1725), Russian tsar</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <p><!--del_lnk--> List of 17th century inventions<p>Major changes in philosophy and science take place, often characterized as the <!--del_lnk--> Scientific revolution.<ul> <li>First measurement of the <a href="../../wp/s/Speed_of_light.htm" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, 1676.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Banknote.htm" title="Banknote">Banknotes</a> were reintroduced in Europe.<li><!--del_lnk--> Ice cream<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">Tea</a> and <!--del_lnk--> coffee become popular in Europe.<li><!--del_lnk--> Central Banking in France and <a href="../../wp/f/Finance.htm" title="Finance">modern Finance</a> by Scottish economist <!--del_lnk--> John Law.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1609: Johann Carolas of Germany published the 'Relation', the first newspaper<li><!--del_lnk--> 1610: The Orion Nebula was identified by Nicolas de Peiresc of France<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 1612: The first flintlock musket was likely created for Louis XIII of France by gunsmith Marin de Bourgeoys<li><!--del_lnk--> 1620: Funded by <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I</a> of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, Cornelius Drebbei built the first '<!--del_lnk--> submarine' made of wood and greased leather<li><!--del_lnk--> 1623: The first English dictonary, 'English Dictionarie' was published by Henry Cockeram, listing difficult words with definitions<li><!--del_lnk--> 1642: <!--del_lnk--> Mezzotint engraving introduced grey tones to printed images<li><!--del_lnk--> 1643: Evangelista Torricelli of <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> invented the mercury <!--del_lnk--> Barometer<li><!--del_lnk--> 1645: Giacomo Torelli of <!--del_lnk--> Venice, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> invented the first rotating stage<li><!--del_lnk--> 1657: <!--del_lnk--> Christiaan Huygens developed the first functional <!--del_lnk--> pendulum clock based on the learnings of <a href="../../wp/g/Galileo_Galilei.htm" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1663: The first reflecting <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescope</a> was built by James Gregory based on suggestions of Italian astronomer Niccolo Zucchi<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 1670: Monk <!--del_lnk--> Dom Perignon discovered <!--del_lnk--> Champagne in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1676: <!--del_lnk--> Antoni van Leeuwenhoek fist discovered <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1679: <!--del_lnk--> Binary system developed by <!--del_lnk--> Gottfried Leibnitz, possibly influenced by Shao Yung<li><!--del_lnk--> 1684: <a href="../../wp/c/Calculus.htm" title="Calculus">Calculus</a> independently developed by both <!--del_lnk--> Gottfried Leibnitz and <!--del_lnk--> Sir Issac Newton and used to formulate <!--del_lnk--> classical mechanics.</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1590s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1590</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1591</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1592</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1593</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1594</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1595</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1596</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1597</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1598</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1599</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1600s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1600</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1601</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1602</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1603</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1604</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1605</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1606</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1607</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1608</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1609</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1610s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1610</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1611</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1612</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1613</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1614</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1615</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1616</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1617</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1618</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1619</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1620s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1620</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1621</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1622</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1623</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1624</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1625</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1626</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1627</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1628</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1629</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1630s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1630</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1631</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1632</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1633</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1634</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1635</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1636</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1637</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1638</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1639</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1640s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1640</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1641</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1642</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1643</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1644</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1645</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1646</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1647</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1648</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1649</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1650s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1650</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1651</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1652</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1653</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1654</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1655</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1656</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1657</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1658</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1659</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1660s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1660</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1661</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1662</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1663</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1664</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1665</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1666</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1667</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1668</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1669</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1670s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1670</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1671</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1672</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1673</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1674</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1675</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1676</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1677</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1678</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1679</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1680s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1680</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1681</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1682</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1683</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1684</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1685</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1686</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1687</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1688</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1689</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1690s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1690</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1691</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1692</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1693</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1694</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1695</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1696</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1697</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1698</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1699</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1700s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1700</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1701</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1702</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1703</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1704</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1705</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1706</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1707</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1708</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1709</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><strong class="selflink">17th</strong></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8909 bytes Post-expand include size: 9109 bytes Template argument size: 683 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34569-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061203183019 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['16th century', '18th century', 'Time', 'Japan', '19th century', 'Elizabeth I of England', 'Scotland', 'England', 'Japan', 'Persian Empire', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Portugal', 'England', 'North America', 'Canada', 'Bible', 'Russia', 'British East India Company', 'Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu', 'Netherlands', 'Scotland', 'Ireland', 'Portugal', 'Spain', 'England', 'New Zealand', 'China', 'Ming Dynasty', 'Qing Dynasty', 'Spain', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'Poland', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Cape Town', 'South Africa', 'Taiwan', 'Netherlands', 'New York City', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Canada', 'India', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Peter I of Russia', 'Russia', 'Mississippi River', 'China', 'Taiwan', 'Isaac Newton', 'Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica', 'Glorious Revolution', 'Constitutional monarchy', 'Russia', 'China', 'Russia', 'Sweden', 'Johann Sebastian Bach', 'William Harvey', 'Charles I of England', 'Charles II of England', 'Oliver Cromwell', 'England', 'Scotland', 'Ireland', 'England', 'Scotland', 'Ireland', 'René Descartes', 'Elizabeth I of England', 'Galileo Galilei', 'Thomas Hobbes', 'Johannes Kepler', 'Gottfried Leibniz', 'John Locke', 'James I of England', 'James II of England', 'Louis XIV of France', 'Mary II of England', 'John Milton', 'Japan', 'Isaac Newton', 'Blaise Pascal', 'Henry Purcell', 'William Shakespeare', 'Baruch Spinoza', 'Hungary', 'William III of England', 'Speed of light', 'Banknote', 'Tea', 'Finance', 'James I of England', 'England', 'Italy', 'Italy', 'Galileo Galilei', 'Telescope', 'France', 'Bacteria', 'Calculus', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
1896_Summer_Olympics	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="1896 Summer Olympics,Olympic Games,Olympic games medal count,Olympic Games,1896,1896 Summer Olympics medal count,1900 Summer Olympics,1904 Summer Olympics,1906 Summer Olympics,1908 Summer Olympics,1912 Summer Olympics" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>1896 Summer Olympics</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "1896_Summer_Olympics"; var wgTitle = "1896 Summer Olympics"; var wgArticleId = 48644; var wgCurRevisionId = 92331716; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-1896_Summer_Olympics"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">1896 Summer Olympics</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Sports_events.htm">Sports events</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background: #efefef; text-align: center;"><b>Games of the I Olympiad</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/2/266.jpg.htm" title="Games of the I Olympiad"><img alt="Games of the I Olympiad" height="138" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Athens_1896_report_cover.jpg" src="../../images/2/266.jpg" width="100" /></a></span></div> </div> <br /> </td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><b>Host city</b></td> <td><a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a></td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><b>Nations participating</b></td> <td>14</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><b>Athletes participating</b></td> <td>241</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><b>Events</b></td> <td>43 in 9 <a href="../../wp/s/Sport.htm" title="Sport">sports</a></td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><b>Opening ceremony</b></td> <td>Monday, <!--del_lnk--> April 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1896</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><b>Closing ceremony</b></td> <td>Wednesday, <!--del_lnk--> 15 April <!--del_lnk--> 1896</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><b>Officially opened by</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> George I of Greece</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Stadium</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Panathinaiko Stadium</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>1896 Summer Olympics</b>, officially known as the <b>Games of the I Olympiad</b>, were held in <!--del_lnk--> 1896 in <a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a>. These games were the first modern <a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" title="Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a> and the first Games since <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman emperor</a> <!--del_lnk--> Theodosius I banned the <!--del_lnk--> Ancient Olympic Games in <!--del_lnk--> 393 as part of the <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> campaign against <!--del_lnk--> paganism. They were held between Monday, <!--del_lnk--> April 6 and Wednesday, <!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1896.<p>An 1894 congress organized by <!--del_lnk--> Pierre de Coubertin in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> established the <!--del_lnk--> International Olympic Committee and appointed the <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greek</a> capital of <a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a> as the host city. The Greeks had little experience with organizing sports events, and initially had financial troubles as well, but managed to have everything ready in time.<p>Although the number of participating athletes was low by current standards, it had the largest international participation for any sports event to that date. In spite of the absence of many of the time's top athletes, the Games were a success with the Greek public. The athletic highlight for the Greeks was the <!--del_lnk--> marathon victory by their compatriot <!--del_lnk--> Spiridon Louis. The most successful competitor in terms of victories was <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> <!--del_lnk--> wrestler and <!--del_lnk--> gymnast <!--del_lnk--> Carl Schuhmann.<p>After the Games, De Coubertin and the IOC were petitioned by, among others, Greece's <!--del_lnk--> King George and some of the American competitors in Athens to hold all following Games in Athens. However, the <!--del_lnk--> 1900 Summer Olympics were already planned for Paris and, barring the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Intercalated Games of 1906, the Olympics did not return to Greece until the <!--del_lnk--> 2004 Summer Olympics.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Election_as_host_city" name="Election_as_host_city"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Election as host city</span></h2> <p>During the 19th century, several minor sports festivals named after the <!--del_lnk--> Ancient Olympic Games were held in a few <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> countries. <!--del_lnk--> Pierre de Coubertin also had the idea to revive the Olympics, but as an international and multi-sport event. He presented his ideas at an 1894 congress held in the <!--del_lnk--> Sorbonne, <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, with delegates from sports societies of 11 countries present.<p>After it had been decided to revive the Olympics, a host city for these first Olympics had to be selected. De Coubertin's idea was to hold these concurrently with the <!--del_lnk--> Universal Exposition of 1900 in Paris. Concerned that a six-year waiting period might lessen the interest in the Olympics, the congress decided to hold the first Olympics in 1896. Several congress members suggested <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> as the location, but after a brief talk with Greek delegate <!--del_lnk--> Demetrius Vikelas De Coubertin put <a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a> forward as a possibility. Greece being the original home of the Olympics, the congress unanimously approved the proposal. Vikelas was elected as the first president of the newly established <!--del_lnk--> International Olympic Committee (IOC).<p>The true origin of the modern Olympics was acknowledged by De Coubertin as being in <!--del_lnk--> Much Wenlock, a rural market town in the English county of <!--del_lnk--> Shropshire. It was here that in 1850 the local doctor, William Penny Brooks, founded the Much Wenlock Olympics. The first games were held in October 1850. It was a mixture of events, including athletics and games such as <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a>, quoits, and others.<p><a id="Organization" name="Organization"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Organization</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/717.jpg.htm" title="The restoration of the Panathenaic Stadium, originally built in the fourth century BC, was funded by Georgios Averoff. The stadium was used again for the 2004 Summer Olympics."><img alt="The restoration of the Panathenaic Stadium, originally built in the fourth century BC, was funded by Georgios Averoff. The stadium was used again for the 2004 Summer Olympics." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Panathinaiko.jpg" src="../../images/2/267.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/717.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The restoration of the <!--del_lnk--> Panathenaic Stadium, originally built in the <!--del_lnk--> fourth century BC, was funded by Georgios Averoff. The stadium was used again for the <!--del_lnk--> 2004 Summer Olympics.</div> </div> </div> <p>The news that the Olympic Games would return to Greece was received favourably by the Greek public and media. However, the country was in financial troubles and was politically unstable, the job of <!--del_lnk--> prime minister alternating between <!--del_lnk--> Charilaos Trikoupis and <!--del_lnk--> Theodoros Deligiannis at a high frequency. In late 1894 the organizing committee, headed by <!--del_lnk--> Etienne Skouloudis, presented a report that the cost of the Games would be three times higher than originally estimated by De Coubertin. They concluded the Games could not be held, and offered their resignation.<p>Greek crown prince <!--del_lnk--> Constantine, a supporter of the Games, decided to set up a new committee, with himself as the president. His enthusiasm sparked a wave of contributions from the Greek public, raising 330,000 <!--del_lnk--> drachmas. A special set of postage stamps raised a further 400,000, and ticket sales added 200,000 drachmas. At the request of Constantine, wealthy businessman <!--del_lnk--> George Averoff agreed to pay for the restoration of the <!--del_lnk--> Panathinaiko Stadium, which would eventually cost 920,000 drachmas. As a tribute to his generosity, a statue of Averoff was constructed and unveiled on <!--del_lnk--> 5 April outside of the stadium, where it still stands.<p>Organized sports were relatively new to Greece, and as such the organizing committee had little experience in staging sports events. Their duties in this aspect were largely taken over by De Coubertin, who had to both elect the rules to follow and to invite athletes. Some of the athletes would take part in the Games because they happened to be in Athens at the time the Games were held, either on vacation or for work (e.g., some of the British competitors worked for the British <!--del_lnk--> embassy). The concept of a designated <!--del_lnk--> Olympic Village for the athletes would not appear until the <!--del_lnk--> 1932 Summer Olympics; the athletes had to care for their own lodging.<p><a id="Calendar" name="Calendar"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Calendar</span></h2> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both; font-size:95%;"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#00CC33">   ●   </td> <td>Opening ceremony</td> <td bgcolor="#3399FF">   ●   </td> <td>Event competitions</td> <td bgcolor="#FFCC00">   ●   </td> <td>Event finals</td> <td bgcolor="#EE3333">   ●   </td> <td>Closing ceremony</td> </tr> </table> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both; font-size:95%;"> <tr> <th>April</th> <th width="60">6th</th> <th width="60">7th</th> <th width="60">8th</th> <th width="60">9th</th> <th width="60">10th</th> <th width="60">11th</th> <th width="60">12th</th> <th width="60">13th</th> <th width="60">14th</th> <th width="60">15th</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Ceremonies</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#00CC33"><a href="#Opening_ceremony" title="">●</a></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#EE3333"><a href="#Closing_ceremony" title="">●</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Athletics</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Cycling</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Fencing</td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Gymnastics</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Shooting</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#3399FF"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Swimming</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Tennis</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#3399FF"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#3399FF"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Weightlifting</td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ● <!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Wrestling</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#3399FF"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFCC00"><!--del_lnk--> ●</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <th>April</th> <th>6th</th> <th>7th</th> <th>8th</th> <th>9th</th> <th>10th</th> <th>11th</th> <th>12th</th> <th>13th</th> <th>14th</th> <th>15th</th> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Opening_ceremony" name="Opening_ceremony"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Opening ceremony</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/268.jpg.htm" title="The opening ceremony in the Panathenaic Stadium"><img alt="The opening ceremony in the Panathenaic Stadium" height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1896_Olympic_opening_ceremony.jpg" src="../../images/2/268.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/268.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The opening ceremony in the Panathenaic Stadium</div> </div> </div> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> 6 April, the Games of the First Olympiad were officially opened. It was <!--del_lnk--> Easter Monday for the <a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Protestant churches, and was also the anniversary of the outbreak of the <a href="../../wp/g/Greek_War_of_Independence.htm" title="Greek War of Independence">war for Greek independence</a>.<p>The Panathenaic stadium was filled, with an estimated 80,000 spectators including King <!--del_lnk--> George I of Greece, his wife <!--del_lnk--> Olga, and their sons. Most of the competing athletes were aligned on the infield, grouped by nation. After a speech by the president of the organizing committee, <!--del_lnk--> Crown Prince Constantine, his father officially opened the Games:<dl> <dd><i>"I declare the opening of the first international Olympic Games in Athens. Long live the Nation. Long live the Greek people."</i></dl> <p>Afterwards, 9 bands and 150 choir singers performed the <!--del_lnk--> Olympic Hymn, composed by <!--del_lnk--> Spyros Samaras, with words by poet <!--del_lnk--> Kostis Palamas. The hymn was well received, and the crowd desired an encore.<p>The current Olympic opening ceremonies contain elements of this brief opening ceremony. The head of state of the organizing nation still officially opens the Games, and the Olympic Hymn (official since 1958) is still played. Other elements, such as the parade of nations, the lighting of the <!--del_lnk--> Olympic Flame and the <!--del_lnk--> Olympic Oath were initiated later.<p><a id="Sport_by_sport_overview" name="Sport_by_sport_overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sport by sport overview</span></h2> <p>At the 1894 Sorbonne congress, a large roster of sports had been mentioned for the programme in Athens. The first edition of the official announcement featured sports such as <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a>, but these plans were never carried out. <!--del_lnk--> Rowing was scheduled, but had to be cancelled due to strong winds on the planned day of competition. <!--del_lnk--> Yachting was cancelled too, because "we had no proper boats for this, nor did any foreign ones appear for the contest" (Official Report).<p><a id="Athletics" name="Athletics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Athletics</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>The <a href="../../wp/a/Athletics_%2528track_and_field%2529.htm" title="Athletics (track and field)">athletics</a> events had the most international field of any of the sports. The major highlight of the athletics programme, however, was the <!--del_lnk--> marathon held for the first time in international competition. <!--del_lnk--> Spiridon Louis, a previously unrenowned water carrier, won the event to become the only <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greek</a> athletics champion and a national hero. No <!--del_lnk--> world records were set, as few international top competitors had turned up. In addition, the curves of the track were very tight, making fast times in the running events virtually impossible, despite this <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Burke won both the 100m and the 400m for the <!--del_lnk--> USA in times of 12.0 and 54.2 and winning in relative ease.<p><a id="Cycling" name="Cycling"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cycling</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/269.jpg.htm" title="Between them, Frenchmen Léon Flameng (left) and Paul Masson won four cycling events."><img alt="Between them, Frenchmen Léon Flameng (left) and Paul Masson won four cycling events." height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Masson_flameng.jpg" src="../../images/2/269.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/269.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Between them, Frenchmen Léon Flameng (left) and Paul Masson won four cycling events.</div> </div> </div> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> track cycling events were held at the newly built <!--del_lnk--> Neo Phaliron Velodrome. Only one road event was held, a race from Athens to Marathon and back (87 kilometres).<p><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">Frenchman</a> <!--del_lnk--> Paul Masson was the best cyclist on the track, winning the one lap <!--del_lnk--> time trial, the sprint event, and the 10,000 metres. In the 100 kilometres event, Masson entered as a pacemaker for his compatriot <!--del_lnk--> Léon Flameng. Flameng won the event, after a fall, and after stopping to wait for his Greek opponent Kolettis to fix a mechanical problem. The <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austrian</a> fencer Adolf Schmal won the 12 hours race, which was completed by only two cyclists, while the road race event was won by <!--del_lnk--> Aristidis Konstantinidis.<p><a id="Fencing" name="Fencing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fencing</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/271.jpg.htm" title="Fencer Leonidas Pyrgos became the first Greek modern Olympic champion by winning the masters foil competition."><img alt="Fencer Leonidas Pyrgos became the first Greek modern Olympic champion by winning the masters foil competition." height="212" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Leonidas_Pyrgos.jpg" src="../../images/2/271.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/271.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Fencer Leonidas Pyrgos became the first Greek modern Olympic champion by winning the masters foil competition.</div> </div> </div> <p>The fencing events were held in the <!--del_lnk--> Zappeion, named after <!--del_lnk--> Evangelos Zappas, who had organized Greek Olympic Games in the mid-19th century. Unlike other sports, professionals were allowed to compete in fencing. Unlike other professionals, these so-called fencing masters were considered gentlemen athletes, just as the amateurs.<p>Four events were scheduled, but the <!--del_lnk--> épée event was cancelled for reasons unknown. The foil event was won by a Frenchman, <!--del_lnk--> Eugène-Henri Gravelotte, while the other two events, the sabre and the foil for masters, were won by Greek fencers. <!--del_lnk--> Leonidas Pyrgos, who won the latter event, became the first Greek to become Olympic champion in the modern era.<p><a id="Gymnastics" name="Gymnastics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gymnastics</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/272.jpg.htm" title="The German individual gymnastics champions: Schuhmann, Flatow, and Weingärtner"><img alt="The German individual gymnastics champions: Schuhmann, Flatow, and Weingärtner" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Schuhmann_flatow_weingartner.jpg" src="../../images/2/272.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/272.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The German individual gymnastics champions: Schuhmann, Flatow, and Weingärtner</div> </div> </div> <p>The gymnastics exercises were carried out on the infield of the Panathenaic Stadium. Germany had sent an 11-man team, which dominated and won 5 of the 8 events, including both team events. In the team event on the <!--del_lnk--> horizontal bar, the German team was unopposed. Three Germans added individual titles. <!--del_lnk--> Hermann Weingärtner, who also took two seconds and a third place, won the horizontal bar event, while <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Flatow won the <!--del_lnk--> parallel bars. <!--del_lnk--> Carl Schuhmann, who also competed successfully in wrestling, won the <!--del_lnk--> vault.<p>The remaining events were won by <!--del_lnk--> Louis Zutter, a <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a> gymnast who won the <!--del_lnk--> pommel horse, while Greeks <!--del_lnk--> Ioannis Mitropoulos and <!--del_lnk--> Nikolaos Andriakopoulos were victorious in the <!--del_lnk--> rings and <!--del_lnk--> rope climbing events, respectively.<p><a id="Shooting" name="Shooting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Shooting</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Held at a shooting range at <!--del_lnk--> Kallithea, there were five <!--del_lnk--> shooting events—two <!--del_lnk--> rifle events and three <!--del_lnk--> pistol shooting competitions.<p>The first event, for military rifles over 200 metres, was won by <!--del_lnk--> Pantelis Karasevdas, the only competitor to hit the target with all of his shots. The second event, for military pistols, was dominated by two brothers, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">Americans</a> <!--del_lnk--> John and <!--del_lnk--> Sumner Paine. In order to avoid embarrassing their hosts, the brothers decided that only one of them would compete in the next pistol event, the free pistol. Sumner Paine dominated that event alone, thereby becoming the first relative of an Olympic champion to become Olympic champion himself.<p>The Paine brothers did not compete in the 25 metre pistol event, as their weapons were judged to be not of the required calibre. In their absence, <!--del_lnk--> Ioannis Phrangoudis won. Frangoudis also placed second in the final event, the free rifle, held on the same day. However, the event could not be completed due to darkness, and was completed on the next morning, when <!--del_lnk--> Georgios Orphanidis was celebrated as the champion.<p><a id="Swimming" name="Swimming"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Swimming</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/8/814.jpg.htm" title="Alfréd Hajós, the first Olympic champion in swimming, is one of only two Olympians to have won medals in both sport and art competitions."><img alt="Alfréd Hajós, the first Olympic champion in swimming, is one of only two Olympians to have won medals in both sport and art competitions." height="274" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hajos.jpg" src="../../images/2/276.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/8/814.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Alfréd Hajós, the first Olympic champion in swimming, is one of only two Olympians to have won medals in both sport and art competitions.</div> </div> </div> <p>Unlike today, the 1896 swimming competitions were held at open sea. Nearly 20,000 spectators were noted to have watched the event, in the <!--del_lnk--> Bay of Zea, off the <!--del_lnk--> Piraeus coast.<p>All four events were held on the same day (<!--del_lnk--> 11 April). For <!--del_lnk--> Alfréd Hajós of Hungary, this meant he could only compete in two of the events, as they were held shortly after one another, giving him little time to recuperate. Nevertheless, he won the two events in which he swam, the 100 metres and the 1200 metres <!--del_lnk--> freestyle. Hajós later became one of only two Olympians to win a medal in both athletic and <!--del_lnk--> artistic competitions when he won a silver medal for architecture in 1924.<p>The third event, the 500 metres freestyle, was won by Austrian swimmer <!--del_lnk--> Paul Neumann, beating his opponents by more than one-and-a-half minutes. In addition, a swimming event especially for Greek sailors was held.<p><a id="Tennis" name="Tennis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tennis</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Although tennis was already a major sport by the end of the 19th century, none of the top players turned up for the tournament in Athens, which was held at the courts of the Athens Lawn Tennis Club, and the infield of the velodrome.<p>Irishman <!--del_lnk--> John Pius Boland, who was in Athens on holiday, had been entered in the competition by a Greek friend, and won relatively easily. In the first round, he defeated Friedrich Traun, a German who had been eliminated in the 800 m competition. They decided to team up for the doubles event, in which they reached the final and defeated their Greek and <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> opponents after losing the first set.<p><a id="Weightlifting" name="Weightlifting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Weightlifting</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/277.jpg.htm" title="Launceston Elliot, winner of the one-armed weightlifting event, was popular with the Greek audience, who found him very handsome."><img alt="Launceston Elliot, winner of the one-armed weightlifting event, was popular with the Greek audience, who found him very handsome." height="284" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Launceston_Elliot.jpg" src="../../images/2/277.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/277.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Launceston Elliot, winner of the one-armed weightlifting event, was popular with the Greek audience, who found him very handsome.</div> </div> </div> <p>The sport of weightlifting was still very young in 1896, and the rules different from those in use today. Competitions were held outdoors, in the infield of the main stadium, and there were no weight limits.<p>The first event was the two-handed event, held in a style now known as "<!--del_lnk--> clean and jerk". Two competitors stood out: Scotsman <!--del_lnk--> Launceston Elliot and <!--del_lnk--> Viggo Jensen of Denmark. Both of them lifted the same weight; but the jury, with <!--del_lnk--> Prince George as the chairman, ruled that Jensen had done so in a better style. The British delegation, unfamiliar with this tie-breaking rule, lodged a protest. The lifters were eventually allowed make further attempts, but neither lifter improved, and Jensen was declared the champion.<p>Elliot got his revenge in the single handed "<!--del_lnk--> snatch" event, which was held immediately after the two-handed one. Jensen had been slightly injured in his last two-handed attempt, and was no match for Elliot, who won the competition easily ahead of Jensen. The Greek audience was very charmed by the Scottish victor, whom they considered very attractive. Allegedly, he even received a marriage proposal from a "highly placed lady" in the audience.<p><a id="Wrestling" name="Wrestling"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wrestling</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/282.jpg.htm" title="Schuhmann (left) and Georgios Tsitas shake hands before the final match of the wrestling competition."><img alt="Schuhmann (left) and Georgios Tsitas shake hands before the final match of the wrestling competition." height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Schuhmann_lotta_atene_1896.jpg" src="../../images/2/282.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/282.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Schuhmann (left) and Georgios Tsitas shake hands before the final match of the wrestling competition.</div> </div> </div> <p>No weight classes existed for the wrestling competition, held in the Panathenaic Stadium which meant that there would only be one winner among competitors of all sizes. The rules used were similar to modern <!--del_lnk--> Greco-Roman wrestling, although there was no time limit, and not all leg holds were forbidden (in contrast to current rules).<p>Apart from the two Greek contestants, all competitors had previously been active in other sports. Weightlifting champion <!--del_lnk--> Launceston Elliot faced gymnastics champion <!--del_lnk--> Carl Schuhmann from Germany. The latter won easily and advanced into the final, where he met <!--del_lnk--> Georgios Tsitas. Their final match had to be abandoned after 40 minutes of wrestling when darkness fell in and was continued the following day, when the German finished the bout within a quarter of an hour.<p><a id="Closing_ceremony" name="Closing_ceremony"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Closing ceremony</span></h2> <p>On the morning of Sunday <!--del_lnk--> 12 April, King George organized a banquet for officials and athletes (even though some competitions were not to be held). During his speech, he made clear that, as far as he was concerned, the Olympic should be held in Athens permanently.<p>The official closing ceremony was held the following Wednesday, being postponed from Tuesday due to rain. Again the royal family attended the ceremony, which was opened by the <!--del_lnk--> national anthem of Greece and an ode composed and cited by <!--del_lnk--> George S. Robertson, a British athlete and scholar.<p>Afterwards, the king awarded prizes to the winners. Unlike today, the winners received silver medals and the second-placed athletes bronze medals. Some winners also received additional prizes, such as Spyridon Louis, who received a cup from <!--del_lnk--> Michel Bréal, a friend of De Coubertin who had conceived the marathon event. Louis then led the medallists on a lap of honour through the stadium, while the Olympic Hymn was played again. The King then formally closed the Games, saying "I declare the First International Olympic Games terminated."<p>Like the Greek king, many others supported the idea of holding the next Games in Athens as well; most of the American competitors signed a letter to the Crown Prince expressing this wish. De Coubertin, however, was heavily opposed to this idea, as he envisioned international rotation as one of the cornerstones of the modern Olympics. According to his wish, the next Games were held in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, although they would be subdued by the concurrently held <!--del_lnk--> Universal Exposition.<p><a id="Participating_nations" name="Participating_nations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Participating nations</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/283.png.htm" title="Participating countries"><img alt="Participating countries" height="111" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1896_Olympic_games_countries.PNG" src="../../images/2/283.png" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/283.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Participating countries</div> </div> </div> <p>The concept of national teams was not a major part of the Olympic movement until the <!--del_lnk--> Intercalated Games ten years later, though many sources list the nationality of competitors in 1896 and give medal counts.<p>Sources conflict as to which nations competed. The International Olympic Committee gives a figure of 14, but no list. The following 14 are most likely the ones which the IOC figure includes. Some sources list 12, excluding Chile and Bulgaria; others list 13, including those two but excluding Italy. Egypt is also sometimes included, as <!--del_lnk--> Dionysios Kasdaglis was Greek-Egyptian and living in Egypt.<ol> <li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Australia – Despite <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>'s lack of independence from the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, the results of <!--del_lnk--> Teddy Flack are typically given with him listed as Australian.<li><a class="image" href="../../images/96/9686.png.htm" title="Austria"><img alt="Austria" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg" src="../../images/2/284.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Austria – Austria was part of <!--del_lnk--> Austria-Hungary at the time, though the results of <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austrian</a> athletes are typically reported separately.<li><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14802.gif.htm" title="Bulgaria"><img alt="Bulgaria" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bg-1913.gif" src="../../images/2/285.gif" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Bulgaria – The Bulgarian NOC claims that gymnast <!--del_lnk--> Charles Champaud was competing as a Bulgarian. Champaud was a Swiss national living in Bulgaria. Mallon and de Wael both list Champaud as Swiss.<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/740.png.htm" title="Chile"><img alt="Chile" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Chile_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/7/740.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Chile – The Chilean NOC claims to have had one athlete, <!--del_lnk--> Luis Subercaseaux, compete in the 100, 400, and 800 metre races in the athletics programme. No further details are given. No mention is made of Subersaceaux in Mallon, de Wael, or the Official Report.<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/550.png.htm" title="Denmark"><img alt="Denmark" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Denmark.svg" src="../../images/5/550.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Denmark<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> France<li><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2228.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg" src="../../images/48/4870.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Germany<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Great Britain"><img alt="Great Britain" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Great Britain – The <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland has historically maintained separate athletic organizations for each of its constituent kingdoms. The major exception to this has been the Olympic Games, in which the country is considered as a single entity. However, it has conventionally used the name "Great Britain" at the Olympics rather than the more common shortening of the name to "the United Kingdom".<li><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1301.png.htm" title="Greece"><img alt="Greece" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Greece_%281828-1978%29.svg" src="../../images/99/9931.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Greece – <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greek</a> results typically include the results of competitors from Cyprus and Smyrna. Occasionally, Kasdaglis of Egypt is also included in the Greek count. <ul> <li>Cyprus – Some sources give <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cypriot</a> results separately, though most count <!--del_lnk--> Anastasios Andreou, a Greek-Cypriot and the only athlete from Cyprus, as Greek. Cyprus was a protectorate of the United Kingdom at the time.<li>Smyrna – The two athletes from <!--del_lnk--> Smyrna are nearly always included in the Greek listings, similarly to the Cypriot athlete.</ul> <li><a class="image" href="../../images/2/286.png.htm" title="Hungary"><img alt="Hungary" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hungary_flag_1867.png" src="../../images/2/286.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Hungary – <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> is usually listed separately from Austria, despite the two being formally joined as <!--del_lnk--> Austria-Hungary at the time. However, Hungarian results are considered to include those of athletes from <!--del_lnk--> Vojvodina (now part of <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>) and <a href="../../wp/s/Slovakia.htm" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>.<li><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1311.png.htm" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29.svg" src="../../images/48/4869.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Italy<li><a class="image" href="../../images/2/287.png.htm" title="Sweden"><img alt="Sweden" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Swedish_norwegian_union_flag.svg" src="../../images/2/287.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Sweden<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/719.png.htm" title="Switzerland"><img alt="Switzerland" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg" src="../../images/5/541.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Switzerland<li><a class="image" href="../../images/2/288.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_flag_44_stars.svg" src="../../images/2/288.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> United States</ol> <p><a id="Entered_nations_that_did_not_compete" name="Entered_nations_that_did_not_compete"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Entered nations that did not compete</span></h3> <p>Belgium and Russia had entered the names of competitors, but withdrew. Whether or not the Chilean athlete competed is questionable. Many sources list Italy in this category, as the most prominent Italian involved with the games, <!--del_lnk--> Carlo Airoldi, was deemed a professional and excluded from competition. However, the shooter listed by name simply as <!--del_lnk--> Rivabella was also Italian and did compete.<p><a id="Medal_count" name="Medal_count"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Medal count</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Currently, many media sources publish medal counts for the Olympic Games. This was not the case in 1896, but many sources have tallied the 1896 medals to be able to compare the 1896 edition with later Games. These statistics should be used with care, however.<p>It should be noted, first, that no gold medals were awarded at all, and the third place finishers did not receive any prize in Athens. Secondly, national teams as we know now hardly existed. Greece and Hungary had held selection matches, but most other athletes represented their clubs or themselves. Furthermore, not all of the countries listed below did actually exist as of 1896. For example, Australia was not yet independent of the UK, and Hungary and Austria were formally joined together as one nation. Nevertheless, most sources have the countries as listed below.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:353px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/304.jpg.htm" title="Medal awarded in Athens"><img alt="Medal awarded in Athens" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1896_Olympic_medal.jpg" src="../../images/3/304.jpg" width="351" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Medal awarded in Athens</div> </div> </div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tr> <th> Rank </th> <th style="width:12em;">Nation</th> <td style="background:gold; width:4.5em; font-weight:bold;">Gold</td> <td style="background:silver; width:4.5em; font-weight:bold;">Silver</td> <td style="background:#cc9966; width:4.5em; font-weight:bold;">Bronze</td> <th style="width:4.5em;">Total</th> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/2/288.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_flag_44_stars.svg" src="../../images/2/288.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> United States</td> <td>11</td> <td>7</td> <td>2</td> <td>20</td> </tr> <tr bgcolor="#CCCCFF"> <td>2</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1301.png.htm" title="Greece"><img alt="Greece" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Greece_%281828-1978%29.svg" src="../../images/99/9931.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Greece (host nation)</td> <td>10</td> <td>17</td> <td>19</td> <td>46</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2228.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg" src="../../images/48/4870.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Germany</td> <td>6</td> <td>5</td> <td>2</td> <td>13</td> </tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> France</td> <td>5</td> <td>4</td> <td>2</td> <td>11</td> </tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Great Britain"><img alt="Great Britain" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Great Britain</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>2</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/2/286.png.htm" title="Hungary"><img alt="Hungary" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hungary_flag_1867.png" src="../../images/2/286.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Hungary</td> <td>2</td> <td>1</td> <td>3</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/96/9686.png.htm" title="Austria"><img alt="Austria" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg" src="../../images/2/284.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Austria</td> <td>2</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Australia</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/550.png.htm" title="Denmark"><img alt="Denmark" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Denmark.svg" src="../../images/5/550.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Denmark</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td align="left"><a class="image" href="../../images/7/719.png.htm" title="Switzerland"><img alt="Switzerland" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg" src="../../images/5/541.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Switzerland</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Female_competitors" name="Female_competitors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Female competitors</span></h2> <p>Women were not allowed to compete at the 1896 Summer Olympics. One, named <!--del_lnk--> Stamata Revithi and nicknamed <!--del_lnk--> Melpomene after the Greek muse of tragedy, protested by running the marathon course on <!--del_lnk--> 11 April, the day after the men had run it.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896_Summer_Olympics"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Athens', 'Greece', 'Sport', 'Athens', 'Greece', 'Olympic Games', 'Roman Empire', 'Christianity', 'Paris', 'Greece', 'Athens', 'Germany', 'Europe', 'Paris', 'London', 'Athens', 'Cricket', 'Football (soccer)', 'Eastern Orthodox Church', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Greek War of Independence', 'Football (soccer)', 'Cricket', 'Athletics (track and field)', 'Greece', 'France', 'Austria', 'Switzerland', 'United States', 'Egypt', 'Paris', 'Australia', 'British Empire', 'Austria', 'Greece', 'Cyprus', 'Hungary', 'Serbia', 'Slovakia']
18th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="18th century,10th century,10th century BC,11th century,11th century BC,12th century,12th century BC,13th century,13th century BC,14th century,14th century BC" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>18th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "18th_century"; var wgTitle = "18th century"; var wgArticleId = 34570; var wgCurRevisionId = 91851902; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-18th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">18th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a> - <b>18th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1700s <!--del_lnk--> 1710s <!--del_lnk--> 1720s <!--del_lnk--> 1730s <!--del_lnk--> 1740s <!--del_lnk--> 1750s <!--del_lnk--> 1760s <!--del_lnk--> 1770s <!--del_lnk--> 1780s <!--del_lnk--> 1790s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, <i><b>the 18th century</b></i> refers to the <!--del_lnk--> century that lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1701 through <!--del_lnk--> 1800 in the <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calendar.<p>Some history scholars will sometimes specifically refer to the 18th century as <!--del_lnk--> 1715-<!--del_lnk--> 1789, denoting the period of time between the death of <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_XIV_of_France.htm" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a> and the start of the <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, or even <!--del_lnk--> 1688-1789, denoting the period of time between the <a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> in England and the start of the French Revolution. British historians such as <!--del_lnk--> Frank O'Gorman sometimes refer to the "Long Eighteenth Century" running from the Revolution of 1688 to the <!--del_lnk--> Great Reform Act of 1832.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/53/5360.jpg.htm" title="The storming of the Bastille, July 14, 1789, an iconic event of the French Revolution."><img alt="The storming of the Bastille, July 14, 1789, an iconic event of the French Revolution." height="262" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg" src="../../images/53/5360.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/53/5360.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The storming of the Bastille, <!--del_lnk--> July 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1789, an iconic event of the <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <p><a name="1700s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1700s</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/43/4388.png.htm" title="Union flag of The Kingdom of Great Britain"><img alt="Union flag of The Kingdom of Great Britain" height="108" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Union_flag_1606_%28Kings_Colors%29.svg" src="../../images/3/305.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/43/4388.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Union flag of The <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Great Britain</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1701-<!--del_lnk--> 1714: <a href="../../wp/w/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession.htm" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1703: <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> founded by <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_I_of_Russia.htm" title="Peter I of Russia">Peter the Great</a>. <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> until <!--del_lnk--> 1918.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1707: <!--del_lnk--> Act of Union passed merging the <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> and the <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> Parliaments, thus establishing The <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Great Britain.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1707: After <!--del_lnk--> Aurangzeb's death, the <!--del_lnk--> Mughal Empire enters a long decline.</ul> <p><a name="1710s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1710s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1715: <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_XIV_of_France.htm" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a> died leaving France deep in debt.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1718: City of <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans founded by the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a></ul> <p><a name="1720s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1720s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1720: <!--del_lnk--> The South Sea Bubble<li><!--del_lnk--> 1721: <!--del_lnk--> Robert Walpole became the first <a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister of Great Britain</a> (<!--del_lnk--> de facto).<li><!--del_lnk--> 1721: <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Nystad signed, ending the <!--del_lnk--> Great Northern War.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1722-<!--del_lnk--> 23: <!--del_lnk--> Russo-Persian War<li><!--del_lnk--> 1722: <!--del_lnk--> Afghans conquered Iran, ending the <!--del_lnk--> Safavid dynasty.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1722: <!--del_lnk--> Kangxi Emperor of <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> died.</ul> <p><a name="1730s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1730s</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/309.jpg.htm" title="Qianlong Emperor"><img alt="Qianlong Emperor" height="238" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Portrait_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg" src="../../images/3/309.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/309.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Qianlong Emperor</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1733-<!--del_lnk--> 38: <!--del_lnk--> War of the Polish Succession<li><!--del_lnk--> 1735-<!--del_lnk--> 99: The <!--del_lnk--> Qianlong Emperor of China oversaw a huge expansion in territory.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1736: <!--del_lnk--> Nadir Shah assumed title of <!--del_lnk--> Shah of <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a> and founded the <!--del_lnk--> Afsharid dynasty. Ruled until his death in <!--del_lnk--> 1747.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1739: <!--del_lnk--> Nadir Shah defeated the <!--del_lnk--> Mughals and sacked <a href="../../wp/d/Delhi.htm" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>.</ul> <p><a name="1740s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1740s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1740: <a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II_of_Prussia.htm" title="Frederick II of Prussia">Frederick the Great</a> crowned King of <!--del_lnk--> Prussia.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1740-<!--del_lnk--> 48: <!--del_lnk--> War of the Austrian Succession<li><!--del_lnk--> 1741: <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russians</a> began settling the <!--del_lnk--> Aleutian Islands.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1745: Second <!--del_lnk--> Jacobite Rebellion in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> began.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1747: <!--del_lnk--> Ahmed Shah Durrani founded the <!--del_lnk--> Durrani Empire in modern day <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>.</ul> <p><a name="1750s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1750s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1750: Peak of the <!--del_lnk--> Little Ice Age<li><!--del_lnk--> 1755: The <a href="../../wp/1/1755_Lisbon_earthquake.htm" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">Lisbon earthquake</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1756-<!--del_lnk--> 63: <!--del_lnk--> Seven Years' War fought among European powers in various theaters around the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1757: <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Plassey signaled the beginning of <!--del_lnk--> British rule in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>.</ul> <p><a name="1760s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1760s</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/310.png.htm" title="Frederick II the Great, King of Prussia"><img alt="Frederick II the Great, King of Prussia" height="279" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Frederick_II_of_Prussia_Coloured_drawing.png" src="../../images/3/310.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/310.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Frederick II the Great, King of Prussia</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1760: <a href="../../wp/g/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George III of the United Kingdom">George III</a> became King of Britain.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1762-<!--del_lnk--> 96: Reign of <a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_II_of_Russia.htm" title="Catherine II of Russia">Catherine the Great</a> of <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1766-<!--del_lnk--> 99: <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Mysore Wars<li><!--del_lnk--> 1767: <!--del_lnk--> Burmese conquered the <!--del_lnk--> Ayutthaya kingdom.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1768: <!--del_lnk--> Gurkhas conquered <a href="../../wp/n/Nepal.htm" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1768-<!--del_lnk--> 1774: <!--del_lnk--> Russo-Turkish War<li><!--del_lnk--> 1769: <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a> <!--del_lnk--> missionaries established the first of 21 <!--del_lnk--> missions in <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1769-<!--del_lnk--> 73: The <!--del_lnk--> Bengal famine of 1770 killed one third of the <!--del_lnk--> Indian population.</ul> <p><a name="1770s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1770s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1772-<!--del_lnk--> 1795: The <!--del_lnk--> Partitions of Poland ended the <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.htm" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> and erased Poland from the map for 123 years.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1775-<!--del_lnk--> 1782: <!--del_lnk--> First Anglo-Maratha War<li><!--del_lnk--> 1775-<!--del_lnk--> 1783: <a href="../../wp/a/American_Revolutionary_War.htm" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1779-<!--del_lnk--> 1879: <!--del_lnk--> Xhosa Wars between British and <!--del_lnk--> Boer settlers and the <!--del_lnk--> Xhosas in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></ul> <p><a name="1780s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1780s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1785-<!--del_lnk--> 95: <!--del_lnk--> Northwest Indian War between the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Native Americans<li><!--del_lnk--> 1787: Freed slaves from <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> founded <a href="../../wp/f/Freetown.htm" title="Freetown">Freetown</a> in present-day <a href="../../wp/s/Sierra_Leone.htm" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1788: First European settlement established in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> at <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1789: <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> elected <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>. Served until <!--del_lnk--> 1797.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1789-<!--del_lnk--> 99: The <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></ul> <p><a name="1790s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1790s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1791-<!--del_lnk--> 1804: The <!--del_lnk--> Haitian Revolution<li><!--del_lnk--> 1792-<!--del_lnk--> 1815: The <!--del_lnk--> Great French War started as the <!--del_lnk--> French Revolutionary Wars which lead into the <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleonic_Wars.htm" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1792: <!--del_lnk--> New York Stock & Exchange Board founded.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1793: <!--del_lnk--> Upper Canada <!--del_lnk--> bans slavery.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1795: <!--del_lnk--> Pinckney's Treaty between the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> granted the <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi Territory to the US.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1796: British ejected Dutch from <!--del_lnk--> Ceylon.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1797: <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a>'s invasion and partition of the <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Venice ended over 1,000 years of independence for the Serene Republic.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1798-<!--del_lnk--> 1800: <!--del_lnk--> Quasi-War between the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1799: <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a> staged a <!--del_lnk--> coup d'état and became <!--del_lnk--> dictator of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1799: <!--del_lnk--> Dutch East India Company is dissolved.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/74/7493.jpg.htm" title="Johann Sebastian Bach"><img alt="Johann Sebastian Bach" height="274" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Young_Bach2.jpg" src="../../images/74/7493.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/74/7493.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/j/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.htm" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Italian mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> Ahmad Shah Abdali, Afghan King<li><!--del_lnk--> Ueda Akinari, Japanese writer<li><!--del_lnk--> Jean le Rond d'Alembert, French mathematician, physicist and encyclopedist<li><a href="../../wp/a/Anne_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="Anne of Great Britain">Queen Anne</a>, British monarch<li><!--del_lnk--> Aurangzeb, Mughal Emperor<li><a href="../../wp/j/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.htm" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a>, German composer<li><!--del_lnk--> George Berkeley, Irish empiricist philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre Beaumarchais, French writer<li><!--del_lnk--> Jeremy Bentham, English philosopher and reformer<li><!--del_lnk--> Daniel Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician and physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> William Blake, English artist and poet<li><!--del_lnk--> François Boucher, French painter<li><a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Burke.htm" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>, British statesman and philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Burns, Scottish poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Giacomo Casanova, Venetian adventurer, writer and womanizer<li><a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_II_of_Russia.htm" title="Catherine II of Russia">Catherine the Great</a>, Russian Tsaritsa<li><!--del_lnk--> Cao Xueqin, Chinese writer<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexis Clairault, French mathematician</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/87/8799.jpg.htm" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss"><img alt="Carl Friedrich Gauss" height="256" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg" src="../../images/3/322.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/87/8799.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.htm" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/j/James_Cook.htm" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>, British navigator<li><!--del_lnk--> François Couperin, French composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Denis Diderot, French writer and philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Eugenio Espejo, Ecuadorian scientist<li><a href="../../wp/l/Leonhard_Euler.htm" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a>, Swiss mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter<li><a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, American scientist and statesman<li><a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II_of_Prussia.htm" title="Frederick II of Prussia">Frederick the Great</a>, Prussian monarch<li><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Gainsborough.htm" title="Thomas Gainsborough">Thomas Gainsborough</a>, English painter<li><a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.htm" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>, German mathematician, physicist and astronomer<li><a href="../../wp/g/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George III of the United Kingdom">King George III</a>, British monarch<li><!--del_lnk--> Christoph Willibald Gluck, German composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer<li><!--del_lnk--> George Frideric Handel, German-English composer<li><a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Hamilton.htm" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, American statesman<li><a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Haydn.htm" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>, Austrian composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Eliza Haywood, English writer</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/323.png.htm" title="Samuel Johnson"><img alt="Samuel Johnson" height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds_2.png" src="../../images/3/323.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/323.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Samuel Johnson</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Hogarth.htm" title="William Hogarth">William Hogarth</a>, English painter and engraver<li><a href="../../wp/d/David_Hume.htm" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, Scottish philosopher<li><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Jefferson.htm" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, American statesman<li><a href="../../wp/e/Edward_Jenner.htm" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a>, English inventor of vaccination<li><!--del_lnk--> Jiang Tingxi, Chinese artist and scholar<li><!--del_lnk--> Samuel Johnson, British writer and literary critic<li><!--del_lnk--> Joseph II, Austrian Emperor<li><!--del_lnk--> Kangxi Emperor, China<li><a href="../../wp/i/Immanuel_Kant.htm" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, German philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, French writer<li><!--del_lnk--> Joseph Louis Lagrange, Italian-French mathematician and physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre Simon Laplace, French physicist and mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> John Law, Scottish economist<li><!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian scientist<li><a href="../../wp/a/Antoine_Lavoisier.htm" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a>, French chemist<li><!--del_lnk--> Adrien-Marie Legendre, French mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> Alphonsus Liguori, Italian bishop, founder of Redemptorists, Saint<li><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Carolus Linnaeus</a> (<i>Carl von Linné</i>), Swedish biologist</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28513.jpg.htm" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart"><img alt="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" height="194" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mozart_%28unfinished%29_by_Lange_1782.jpg" src="../../images/3/324.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28513.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/w/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart.htm" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Louis XV of France, French monarch<li><!--del_lnk--> Louis XVI of France, French monarch<li><!--del_lnk--> James Madison, American statesman<li><!--del_lnk--> Maria Theresa of Austria, Austrian Empress<li><!--del_lnk--> Marie Antoinette, Austrian-born French Queen<li><!--del_lnk--> Michikinikwa, Miami tribe chief and war leader<li><!--del_lnk--> Honoré Mirabeau French writer and politician<li><!--del_lnk--> Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu, French thinker<li><a href="../../wp/w/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart.htm" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>, Austrian composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Nadir Shah, Persian King<li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Paine, British intellectual<li><a href="../../wp/p/Peter_I_of_Russia.htm" title="Peter I of Russia">Peter I of Russia</a> (<i>Peter the Great</i>), Russian Tsar<li><!--del_lnk--> Pius VI, Roman Pope<li><!--del_lnk--> François-André Danican Philidor, French composer and chess master</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14356.jpg.htm" title="Voltaire"><img alt="Voltaire" height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:358518.jpg" src="../../images/143/14356.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14356.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/v/Voltaire.htm" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Marquis of Pombal, Portuguese Prime Minister<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Pope, British poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Qianlong Emperor, China<li><!--del_lnk--> Francis II Rákóczi, prince of Hungary and Transylvania, Revolutionary leader<li><!--del_lnk--> Jean-Philippe Rameau, French composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Bartolomeo Rastrelli, Italian-born Russian architect<li><!--del_lnk--> Sir Joshua Reynolds, British painter<li><!--del_lnk--> Maximilien Robespierre, French revolutionary leader and dictator<li><a href="../../wp/j/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.htm" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, French writer and philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Marquis de Sade, French writer and philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Domenico Scarlatti, Italian composer.<li><!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Schiller, German writer<li><!--del_lnk--> John Small, English cricketer<li><a href="../../wp/a/Adam_Smith.htm" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, Scottish economist and philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Laurence Sterne, British writer<li><!--del_lnk--> Edward "Lumpy" Stevens, English cricketer</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/112/11217.jpg.htm" title="George Washington"><img alt="George Washington" height="244" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpeg" src="../../images/112/11217.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/112/11217.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Suvorov, Russian military leader<li><a href="../../wp/e/Emanuel_Swedenborg.htm" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a>, Swedish scientist, thinker and mystic<li><!--del_lnk--> Jonathan Swift, Anglo-Irish satirist<li><!--del_lnk--> Toussaint L'Ouverture, Haitian revolutionary leader<li><!--del_lnk--> Túpac Amaru II, Peruvian revolutionary<li><!--del_lnk--> Kitagawa Utamaro, Japanese printmaker and painter<li><a href="../../wp/a/Antonio_Vivaldi.htm" title="Antonio Vivaldi">Antonio Vivaldi</a>, Italian composer<li><a href="../../wp/v/Voltaire.htm" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, French writer and philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, Arab islamic theologian and founder of Wahhabism<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Walpole, British Prime Minister<li><a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, American general and first President of USA<li><a href="../../wp/j/James_Watt.htm" title="James Watt">James Watt</a>, Scottish scientist and inventor<li><!--del_lnk--> Antoine Watteau, French painter<li><!--del_lnk--> John Wesley, British churchman, founder of Methodism<li><!--del_lnk--> Mary Wollstonecraft, British writer and feminist<li><!--del_lnk--> William Pitt, British Prime Minister<li><!--del_lnk--> Yuan Mei, Chinese poet, scholar and artist<li><!--del_lnk--> Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, German religious writer and bishop</ul> <p>See <!--del_lnk--> Founding Fathers of the United States<p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/68/6889.jpg.htm" title="The Spinning Jenny "><img alt="The Spinning Jenny " height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Spinning_jenny.jpg" src="../../images/3/331.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/68/6889.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Spinning Jenny</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1709: The first <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">piano</a> was built by <!--del_lnk--> Bartolomeo Cristofori<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 1710: <a href="../../wp/s/Steam_engine.htm" title="Steam Engine">Steam Engine</a> invented by <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Newcomen<li><!--del_lnk--> 1717: The <!--del_lnk--> diving bell was successfully tested by <a href="../../wp/e/Edmond_Halley.htm" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a>, sustainable to a depth of 55 ft.<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 1730: The <!--del_lnk--> sextant navigational tool was developed by <!--del_lnk--> John Hadley in England, and <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Godfrey in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">America</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1736: Europeans discovered <!--del_lnk--> rubber - the discovery was made by <!--del_lnk--> Charles-Marie de la Condamine while on expedition in <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>. It was named in <!--del_lnk--> 1770 by <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Priestly<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 1740: Modern <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> was developed by <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Huntsman<li><!--del_lnk--> 1741: <a href="../../wp/v/Vitus_Bering.htm" title="Vitus Bering">Vitus Bering</a> discovered <!--del_lnk--> Alaska<li><!--del_lnk--> 1745: The <!--del_lnk--> Leyden jar invented by <!--del_lnk--> Ewald von Kleist was the first electrical <!--del_lnk--> capacitor<li><!--del_lnk--> 1751 - <!--del_lnk--> 1785: The French <!--del_lnk--> Encyclopédie<li><!--del_lnk--> 1755: The English <!--del_lnk--> Dictionary by <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Johnson<li><!--del_lnk--> 1764: The <!--del_lnk--> Spinning Jenny created by <!--del_lnk--> James Hargreaves brought on the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1761: The problem of <!--del_lnk--> Longitude was finally resolved by the fouth <!--del_lnk--> chronometer of <!--del_lnk--> John Harrison<li><!--del_lnk--> 1768 - <!--del_lnk--> 1779: <a href="../../wp/j/James_Cook.htm" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> mapped the boundaries of the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> and discovered many <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Islands<li><!--del_lnk--> 1776: <!--del_lnk--> The Wealth of Nations, foundation of the modern theory of economy, was published by <a href="../../wp/a/Adam_Smith.htm" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1779: <a href="../../wp/p/Photosynthesis.htm" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> was first discovered by <!--del_lnk--> Jan Ingenhouse of the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1798: <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_Jenner.htm" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> publishes a treatise about <a href="../../wp/s/Smallpox.htm" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> <!--del_lnk--> vaccination<li><!--del_lnk--> 1799: <!--del_lnk--> Rosetta stone discovered by <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a>'s troops.</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1690s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1690</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1691</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1692</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1693</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1694</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1695</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1696</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1697</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1698</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1699</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1700s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1700</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1701</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1702</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1703</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1704</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1705</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1706</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1707</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1708</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1709</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1710s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1710</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1711</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1712</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1713</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1714</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1715</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1716</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1717</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1718</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1719</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1720s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1720</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1721</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1722</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1723</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1724</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1725</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1726</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1727</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1728</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1729</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1730s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1730</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1731</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1732</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1733</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1734</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1735</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1736</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1737</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1738</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1739</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1740s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1740</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1741</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1742</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1743</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1744</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1745</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1746</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1747</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1748</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1749</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1750s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1750</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1751</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1752</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1753</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1754</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1755</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1756</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1757</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1758</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1759</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1760s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1760</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1761</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1762</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1763</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1764</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1765</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1766</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1767</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1768</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1769</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1770s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1770</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1771</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1772</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1773</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1774</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1775</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1776</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1777</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1778</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1779</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1780s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1780</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1781</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1782</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1783</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1784</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1785</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1786</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1787</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1788</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1789</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1790s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1790</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1791</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1792</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1793</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1794</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1795</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1796</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1797</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1798</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1799</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1800s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1800</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1801</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1802</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1803</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1804</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1805</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1806</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1807</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1808</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1809</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><strong class="selflink">18th</strong></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 10783 bytes Post-expand include size: 9471 bytes Template argument size: 1049 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34570-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061203205654 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['17th century', '19th century', 'Time', 'Louis XIV of France', 'French Revolution', 'Glorious Revolution', 'French Revolution', 'War of the Spanish Succession', 'Saint Petersburg', 'Peter I of Russia', 'Russia', 'Capital', 'Scotland', 'England', 'Louis XIV of France', 'France', 'North America', 'Prime Minister of the United Kingdom', 'China', 'Persian Empire', 'Delhi', 'Frederick II of Prussia', 'Russia', 'Scotland', 'Afghanistan', '1755 Lisbon earthquake', 'India', 'George III of the United Kingdom', 'Catherine II of Russia', 'Russia', 'Nepal', 'Spain', 'California', 'Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth', 'American Revolutionary War', 'South Africa', 'United States', 'London', 'Freetown', 'Sierra Leone', 'Australia', 'Sydney', 'George Washington', 'President of the United States', 'French Revolution', 'Napoleonic Wars', 'United States', 'Spain', 'Napoleon I of France', 'United States', 'France', 'Napoleon I of France', 'France', 'Johann Sebastian Bach', 'Anne of Great Britain', 'Johann Sebastian Bach', 'Edmund Burke', 'Catherine II of Russia', 'Carl Friedrich Gauss', 'James Cook', 'Leonhard Euler', 'Benjamin Franklin', 'Frederick II of Prussia', 'Thomas Gainsborough', 'Carl Friedrich Gauss', 'George III of the United Kingdom', 'Alexander Hamilton', 'Joseph Haydn', 'William Hogarth', 'David Hume', 'Thomas Jefferson', 'Edward Jenner', 'Immanuel Kant', 'Antoine Lavoisier', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart', 'Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart', 'Peter I of Russia', 'Voltaire', 'Jean-Jacques Rousseau', 'Adam Smith', 'George Washington', 'Emanuel Swedenborg', 'Antonio Vivaldi', 'Voltaire', 'George Washington', 'James Watt', 'Piano', 'Steam Engine', 'Edmond Halley', 'North America', 'South America', 'Steel', 'Vitus Bering', 'Industrial Revolution', 'James Cook', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Adam Smith', 'Photosynthesis', 'Netherlands', 'Edward Jenner', 'Smallpox', 'Napoleon I of France', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="1928 Okeechobee Hurricane,Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale,Atlantic basin,Great Havana Hurricane of 1846,Guayama,Bahamas,1935 Labor Day Hurricane,Hurricane Dog (1950),Knot (speed),Anemometer,San Juan, Puerto Rico" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>1928 Okeechobee Hurricane</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane"; var wgTitle = "1928 Okeechobee Hurricane"; var wgArticleId = 1797946; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">1928 Okeechobee Hurricane</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Storms.htm">Storms</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>1928 Okeechobee Hurricane<br /> Hurricane San Felipe Segundo</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #ff6060;">Category 5 hurricane (<!--del_lnk--> SSHS)</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23027.jpg.htm" title="Aftermath in West Palm Beach, Florida"><img alt="Aftermath in West Palm Beach, Florida" height="154" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1928_Okeechobee_Aftermath_21.jpg" src="../../images/230/23027.jpg" width="235" /></a></span></div> </div> <br /><small><i>Aftermath in <!--del_lnk--> West Palm Beach, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a></i></small><hr /> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Formed</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1928</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Dissipated</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1928</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td><b>Highest<br /> winds</b></td> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F0F0F0"> <tr> <td>160 <!--del_lnk--> mph (260 <!--del_lnk--> km/h) <small>(1-minute sustained)</small></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td><b>Lowest pressure</b></td> <td>≤929 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Damage</b></td> <td>$100 million (1928 <!--del_lnk--> USD) $800 million (2005 USD)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Fatalities</b></td> <td>4,075+</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Areas<br /> affected</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Lesser Antilles, <a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Islands, <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Georgia, <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina, <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina, <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Seaboard</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Part of the<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> 1928 Atlantic hurricane season</b></td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>Okeechobee Hurricane</b> or <b>Hurricane San Felipe Segundo</b> was a deadly <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Tropical cyclone">hurricane</a> that struck the <!--del_lnk--> Leeward Islands, <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>, and <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> in September of the <!--del_lnk--> 1928 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the first recorded hurricane to reach Category 5 status on the <!--del_lnk--> Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic basin">Atlantic basin</a>; as of 2006, it remains the only recorded hurricane to strike Puerto Rico at Category 5 strength, and one of the ten most intense ever recorded to make landfall in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p>The hurricane caused devastation throughout its path. As many as 1,200 people were killed in <a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>. Puerto Rico was struck directly by the storm at peak strength, killing at least 300 and leaving hundreds of thousands homeless. In south Florida at least 2,500 were killed when storm surge from <!--del_lnk--> Lake Okeechobee breached the dike surrounding the lake, flooding an area covering hundreds of square miles. In total, the hurricane killed at least 4,075 people and caused around $100 million ($800 million in 2005 <!--del_lnk--> US dollars) in damages over the course of its path.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Storm_history" name="Storm_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Storm history</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23028.png.htm" title="Storm path"><img alt="Storm path" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1928_Okeechobee_hurricane_track.png" src="../../images/230/23028.png" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23028.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Storm path</div> </div> </div> <p>The storm was first observed 900 miles (1450 km) to the east of <a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 10 by the <i>S.S. Commack</i>. At the time, this was the most easterly report of a tropical cyclone ever received through ship's radio. A <!--del_lnk--> Cape Verde-type hurricane, hurricane analysis in the 1990s determined the storm likely formed four days prior between the <!--del_lnk--> Cape Verde Islands and the coast of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>.<p>As the storm neared the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean, it was already a <!--del_lnk--> Category 3 hurricane. On <!--del_lnk--> September 12 it passed over <a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> and then south of the other <!--del_lnk--> Leeward Islands; Guadeloupe reported a pressure of 27.76 <!--del_lnk--> inHg (940 <!--del_lnk--> mbar), and a ship just south of <!--del_lnk--> St. Croix in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Virgin_Islands.htm" title="United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a> reported it as an even stronger storm with a pressure of 27.50 inHg (931 mbar). On the 13th the storm struck <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> directly as a <!--del_lnk--> Category 5 hurricane, allegedly packing winds of 160 <!--del_lnk--> mph (260 <!--del_lnk--> km/h); reliable reports from <!--del_lnk--> San Juan placed the wind speed at 125 <!--del_lnk--> knots (145 mph, 230 km/h), and a report from <!--del_lnk--> Guayama placed the pressure at 27.65 inHg (936 mbar).<p>The 160 mph (260 km/h) wind measurement from Puerto Rico was taken by a cup <!--del_lnk--> anemometer in <!--del_lnk--> San Juan, 30 miles (50 km) north of the storm's centre, which measured 160 mph (260 km/h) sustained winds three hours before the peak wind speed was reached; however, the instrument was destroyed soon after and could not be calibrated. This unverified reading was the strongest wind measurement ever reported for an <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic hurricane up until that time; not until <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Dog of 1950 were stronger winds officially measured in an Atlantic storm, although some unmeasured storms like the <!--del_lnk--> 1935 Labor Day Hurricane may have been stronger. Because of this measurement, the Okeechobee storm is considered to be the first hurricane in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic basin">Atlantic basin</a> ever to reach Category 5 intensity, the highest possible rating on the <!--del_lnk--> Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale; although it is virtually certain that earlier hurricanes had achieved this strength (a likely candidate is the <!--del_lnk--> Great Havana Hurricane of 1846), none had ever had their winds or pressure recorded properly.<p>The hurricane was also extremely large as it crossed Puerto Rico. Hurricane-force winds were measured in <!--del_lnk--> Guayama for 18 hours; since the storm is estimated to have been moving at 13 mph (21 km/h), the diameter of the storm's hurricane winds was estimated very roughly to be 234 miles (376 km).<p>After leaving the Caribbean, the hurricane moved across the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a> as a strong <!--del_lnk--> Category 4 hurricane. It continued to the west-northwest, and made landfall in southern <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> on the evening of <!--del_lnk--> September 16. Atmospheric pressure at landfall was measured at 929 mbar (hPa) and winds "in excess" of 150 mph (240 km/h). The eye passed ashore in <!--del_lnk--> Palm Beach County near <!--del_lnk--> West Palm Beach, then moved directly over <!--del_lnk--> Lake Okeechobee.<p>The hurricane's path turned northeast as it crossed Florida, taking it across northern Florida, eastern <!--del_lnk--> Georgia, and the <!--del_lnk--> Carolinas on <!--del_lnk--> September 19. It then moved inland and merged with a low-pressure system around <a href="../../wp/t/Toronto.htm" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> on the 20th.<p><a id="Impact" name="Impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Impact</span></h2> <table align="right" class="wikitable"> <tr> <th colspan="4"><b>Storm Deaths by Region</b></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Region</th> <th>Deaths</th> <th>Locale</th> <th>Deaths</th> </tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><!--del_lnk--> Caribbean<br /> and <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a></th> <td rowspan="5">1575</td> <td><a href="../../wp/m/Martinique.htm" title="Martinique">Martinique</a></td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></td> <td>600–1200</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/m/Montserrat.htm" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a></td> <td>42</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></td> <td>312</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a></td> <td>18</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></th> <td>2500+</td> <td><a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a></td> <td>2500+</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Total</th> <th colspan="colspan">4075+</th> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Leeward_Islands" name="Leeward_Islands"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Leeward Islands</span></h3> <p>The hurricane moved directly over the <!--del_lnk--> Leeward Islands in the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean, strengthening as it did so. On the island of <a href="../../wp/d/Dominica.htm" title="Dominica">Dominica</a> winds were clocked at 24 mph (39 km/h); there were no reports of damages. In <a href="../../wp/m/Martinique.htm" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>, even further south of the storm's path, there were three fatalities. <a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> received a near-direct hit from the storm, apparently with little warning; the death toll there was 600–1200, and damage reports relayed through <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> indicated "great destruction" on the island. <a href="../../wp/m/Montserrat.htm" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a>, just north of the storm's centre, was warned in advance of the storm but still suffered £150,000 (1928 <!--del_lnk--> UKP) in damages and 42 deaths; <!--del_lnk--> Plymouth and <!--del_lnk--> Salem were devastated and crop losses caused near-starvation conditions before relief could arrive. The storm passed to the south of the islands of <!--del_lnk--> St. Kitts and <!--del_lnk--> St. Croix, which suffered heavy damages to property and crops but no reported fatalities. Damage reports from elsewhere in the Leeward Islands are not available.<p><a id="Puerto_Rico" name="Puerto_Rico"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Puerto Rico</span></h3> <p>The island of <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> received the worst of the storm's winds when the hurricane moved directly across the island at <!--del_lnk--> Category 5 strength. The island knew of the storm's approach well ahead of time; by about 36 hours in advance all police districts were warned and radio broadcasts provided constant warnings to ships. Effective preparation is credited for the relatively low death toll of 312, and amazingly not a single ship was lost at sea in the vicinity of Puerto Rico. By comparison, the weaker <!--del_lnk--> 1899 Hurricane San Ciriaco killed approximately 3,000 people.<p>Property damage on the island from winds and rain, however, was catastrophic. The northeast half of the island received winds in excess of Category 3 strength, with hurricane-force winds lasting for as long as 18 hours. At least 10 inches (250 mm) of rain was dropped over the entire island, with much greater amounts of nearly 30 inches (750 mm) being received in some areas. Official reports stated that "several hundred thousand" people were left homeless, and property damages were estimated at $50 million ($400 million in 2005 <!--del_lnk--> US dollars).<p>The storm is remembered in Puerto Rico as the <!--del_lnk--> San Felipe Hurricane because the eye of the cyclone made landfall on the <!--del_lnk--> Christian feast day of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Philip; the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> custom, since the Spanish colonial era began in 1492, was to name hurricanes upon their arrival after Catholic religious feast days. It was named "Segundo", Spanish for "the Second", because of another destructive "Hurricane San Felipe" which struck Puerto Rico on that very same day 52 years earlier.<p><a id="Bahamas" name="Bahamas"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bahamas</span></h3> <p>The eye of the hurricane passed just south of <!--del_lnk--> Grand Bahama as a strong <!--del_lnk--> Category 4 hurricane, again causing very heavy damage. According to a firsthand account from the island, it was the worst storm in memory to strike the area. As in Puerto Rico, however, authorities in the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a> were aware of the hurricane's passage well ahead of time, and preparations minimized the loss of life in the islands. The only report of fatalities was from a <!--del_lnk--> sloop lost at sea in the vicinity of <!--del_lnk--> Ambergris Cay with 18 on board.<p><a id="South_Florida" name="South_Florida"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">South Florida</span></h3> <p>Coastal damage in Florida near the point of landfall was catastrophic. <!--del_lnk--> Miami, well south of the point of landfall, escaped with very little damage; <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood and <!--del_lnk--> Fort Lauderdale suffered only slight damages. Northward, from <!--del_lnk--> Pompano Beach to <!--del_lnk--> Jupiter, buildings suffered serious damage from the heavy winds and 10 ft (3 meter) storm surge, which was heaviest in the vicinity of <!--del_lnk--> Palm Beach; total coastal damages were estimated as "several million" dollars. Because of well-issued hurricane warnings, residents were prepared for the storm, and the loss of life in the coastal Palm Beach area was only 26.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23029.jpg.htm" title="Aftermath of the hurricane in southern Florida"><img alt="Aftermath of the hurricane in southern Florida" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1928_Okeechobee_Aftermath_17.jpg" src="../../images/230/23029.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23029.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aftermath of the hurricane in southern Florida</div> </div> </div> <p>Inland, the hurricane wreaked much more widespread destruction along the more heavily populated coast of <!--del_lnk--> Lake Okeechobee. Residents had been warned to evacuate the low ground earlier in the day, but after the hurricane did not arrive on schedule, many thought it had missed and returned to their homes. When the worst of the storm crossed the lake — with winds measured on the ground at around 140 <!--del_lnk--> mph (225 <!--del_lnk--> km/h) — the south-blowing wind caused a <!--del_lnk--> storm surge to overflow the small dike that had been built at the south end of the lake. The resulting flood covered an area of hundreds of square miles with water that in some places was over 20 ft (6 m) deep. Houses were floated off of their foundations and dashed to pieces against any obstacle they encountered. Most survivors and bodies were washed out into the <!--del_lnk--> Everglades where many of the bodies were never found. As the rear <!--del_lnk--> eyewall passed over the area, the flood reversed itself, breaking the dikes along the northern coast of the lake and causing a similar but smaller flood.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23030.png.htm" title="Approximate area of the flood"><img alt="Approximate area of the flood" height="239" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1928_Okeechobee_Flood.png" src="../../images/230/23030.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23030.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Approximate area of the flood</div> </div> </div> <p>Floodwaters persisted for several weeks, greatly impeding attempts to clean up the devastation. Burial services were quickly overwhelmed, and many of the bodies were placed into mass graves. Around 75% of the fatalities were migrant farm workers, making identification of both dead and missing bodies very difficult; as a result of this, the count of the dead is not very accurate. The <!--del_lnk--> Red Cross estimated the number of fatalities as 1,836, which was taken as the official count by the <!--del_lnk--> National Weather Service for many years; older sources usually list 3,411 as the total count of fatalities, including the Caribbean. However, in 2003 this was revised as "at least" 2,500, making the Okeechobee hurricane the second-deadliest natural disaster in <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> history behind the <a href="../../wp/g/Galveston_Hurricane_of_1900.htm" title="Galveston Hurricane of 1900">Galveston Hurricane of 1900</a> (as of 2004).<p>Thousands of people were left homeless in Florida; property damage was estimated at $25 million ($200 million in 2005 <!--del_lnk--> US dollars). It is estimated that if a storm like this were to strike in modern times (the year 2003), it would cause $18.7 billion in damages. However, a levee breach of this kind is unlikely to occur again because of the much larger <!--del_lnk--> Herbert Hoover Dike that now contains the waters of Lake Okeechobee.<p><a id="Southeast_and_Mid-Atlantic" name="Southeast_and_Mid-Atlantic"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Southeast and Mid-Atlantic</span></h3> <p>Limited damage reports are available for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> outside of southern Florida. The storm caused flooding in <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina and brought near-hurricane-force winds and a 7 foot (2.1 m) storm surge to the <a href="../../wp/n/Norfolk.htm" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a> area. Nonetheless, most sources agree that the hurricane caused only minimal damage in these areas.<p><a id="Aftermath" name="Aftermath"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aftermath</span></h2> <p><a id="Racial_issues" name="Racial_issues"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Racial issues</span></h3> <p>In <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, although the hurricane destroyed everything in its path with impartiality, the death toll was by far highest in the economically poor areas in the low-lying ground right around <!--del_lnk--> Lake Okeechobee. Around 75% of the fatalities were from migrant farm workers, most of whom were black. Black workers did most of the cleanup, and the few caskets available for burials were mostly used for the bodies of whites; other bodies were either burned or buried in mass graves. Burials were segregated, and the only mass gravesite to receive a memorial contained only white bodies. The inequity has caused further racial friction that still exists today.<p><a id="Improved_building_codes" name="Improved_building_codes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Improved building codes</span></h3> <p>In the aftermath of the hurricane in coastal Florida, it became apparent that well-constructed buildings with shutters had suffered practically no damage from winds that caused serious structural problems to lesser buildings. Buildings with well-constructed frames, and those made of steel, concrete, brick, or stone were largely immune to winds, and the use of shutters prevented damage to windows and the interior of the buildings. Coming on the heels of the <!--del_lnk--> 1926 Miami Hurricane where a similar pattern had been noticed, one lasting result of the 1928 storm was improved building codes throughout south Florida. The result is that later storms of similar intensity, such as the <!--del_lnk--> 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane, caused substantially less damage than the hurricanes of the 1920s.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Florida', 'Guadeloupe', 'Puerto Rico', 'Bahamas', 'Florida', 'Tropical cyclone', 'Puerto Rico', 'Bahamas', 'Florida', 'Atlantic basin', 'United States', 'Guadeloupe', 'Guadeloupe', 'Africa', 'Guadeloupe', 'United States Virgin Islands', 'Puerto Rico', 'Atlantic basin', 'Bahamas', 'Florida', 'Toronto', 'Bahamas', 'Martinique', 'Guadeloupe', 'Montserrat', 'Puerto Rico', 'Bahamas', 'United States', 'Florida', 'Dominica', 'Martinique', 'Guadeloupe', 'Paris', 'Montserrat', 'Puerto Rico', 'Latin America', 'Bahamas', 'United States', 'Galveston Hurricane of 1900', 'United States', 'Norfolk', 'Florida']
1973_oil_crisis	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="1973 oil crisis,1960,1971,1973,1973 world oil market chronology,1974,1979 energy crisis,1990 spike in the price of oil,2004,Advertising Council,Ahmed Zaki Yamani" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>1973 oil crisis</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "1973_oil_crisis"; var wgTitle = "1973 oil crisis"; var wgArticleId = 244180; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-1973_oil_crisis"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">1973 oil crisis</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Recent_History.htm">Recent History</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p>The <b>1973 oil crisis</b> first began on <!--del_lnk--> October 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1973 when the <!--del_lnk--> Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (<!--del_lnk--> OAPEC), consisting of the <!--del_lnk--> Arab members of <!--del_lnk--> OPEC plus <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>, announced as a result of the ongoing <a href="../../wp/y/Yom_Kippur_War.htm" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a>, that they would no longer ship <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> to nations that had supported <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> in its conflict with <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. This included the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and its allies in <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe.<p>About the same time, OPEC members agreed to use their leverage over the world <!--del_lnk--> price-setting mechanism for <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> in order to quadruple world oil prices, after attempts at negotiation with the "<!--del_lnk--> Seven Sisters" earlier in the month failed. Due to the dependence of the industrialized world on OPEC oil, these price increases were dramatically inflationary to the economies of the targeted countries, while at the same time suppressive of economic activity. The targeted countries responded with a wide variety of new, and mostly permanent, initiatives to contain their further dependency.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Origins_of_the_1973_world_oil_shock" name="Origins_of_the_1973_world_oil_shock"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Origins of the 1973 world oil shock</span></h3> <p>The <a href="../../wp/a/Arab-Israeli_conflict.htm" title="Arab-Israeli conflict">Arab-Israeli conflict</a> triggered an energy crisis in the making. Before the embargo, the industrialized West, especially the United States, was used to cheap and plentiful petroleum. Post-<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> American cities, with expansive <!--del_lnk--> suburbs full of detached, single-family homes, depended on the automobile as the principal form of transportation — a form that consumes oil en masse as fuel. Between 1945 and the late 1970s, the West and Japan consumed more oil and <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">minerals</a> than had been used in all previous recorded history. Oil consumption in the U.S. had more than doubled between 1950 and 1974. With only 6% of the world's population, the U.S. was consuming 33% of the world's energy. At the same time, the U.S. economy accounted for a quarter of total global production, meaning U.S. workers were over four times more productive than the global average. This was a result of their advanced industrial sector, which accounted for over five times the global average for energy usage.<p>Oil, especially from the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, was paid for in <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">United States dollars</a> (aka <!--del_lnk--> petrodollars), at prices fixed in dollars. U.S. President <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> presided over an economy in which growth was already sluggish, and in which <!--del_lnk--> inflation was already troubling. By the summer of 1971, Nixon was under strong public pressure to act decisively to end the dilemma of rising prices and general economic stagnation (<i>see</i> "<!--del_lnk--> stagflation"). To allow the value of gold to fall in world markets, Nixon ended the convertibility of the US dollar into gold on <!--del_lnk--> August 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1971, thereby ending the <a href="../../wp/b/Bretton_Woods_system.htm" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods system</a>, which had been in place since the end of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. The U.S. dollar was <!--del_lnk--> devalued by 8% in relation to <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a> in December 1971, and devalued again in 1973.<p>The devaluation resulted in increased world economic and political uncertainty. Concurrently, in the early 1970s, the fall in the U.S. dollar went along with a fall in the price of oil (in USD). This improved the situation of U.S. industrialists in relation to European and Japanese competition. But the de-valorization — and then devaluation — of the dollar crystallized the unease of raw materials producers in the Third World; they saw the wealth under their lands being reduced and their assets growing in a currency that was worth significantly less than it had been recently. This set the stage for the struggle for control of the world's natural resources and for a more favorable sharing of the value of these resources between the rich countries and the oil-exporting nations of OPEC .<p>OPEC devised a strategy of counter-penetration, whereby it hoped to make industrial economies that relied heavily on oil imports vulnerable to Third World pressures . Dwindling foreign aid from the U.S. and its allies, combined with the West's pro-Israeli stance in the Middle East, angered the Arab nations in OPEC.<p><a id="Founding_of_OPEC" name="Founding_of_OPEC"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Founding of OPEC</span></h3> <p><!--del_lnk--> OPEC consisted of thirteen nations, including seven Arab countries, Iran, and also other major petroleum-exporting countries in the developing world like <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>. It had been officially announced on <!--del_lnk--> September 14 in Cairo, <!--del_lnk--> 1960 to protest pressure by major oil companies (mostly owned by U.S., <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a>, and <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> nationals) to reduce oil prices and payments to producers. At first it had operated as an informal bargaining unit for the sale of oil by <!--del_lnk--> Third World nations. It confined its activities to gaining a larger share of the revenues produced by Western oil companies and greater control over the levels of production. However, in the early 1970s it began to display its strength.<p><a id="The_Yom_Kippur_War" name="The_Yom_Kippur_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Yom Kippur War</span></h3> <p>The persistence of the Arab-Israeli conflict finally triggered a response that transformed OPEC from a mere cartel into a formidable political force. After the <!--del_lnk--> Six Day War of 1967 the Arab members of OPEC formed a separate, overlapping group (<!--del_lnk--> Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries) for the purpose of centering policy and exerting pressure on the West over its support of Israel. Egypt and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>, though not major oil-exporting countries, joined the latter grouping to help articulate its objectives. Later, the <a href="../../wp/y/Yom_Kippur_War.htm" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> of 1973 galvanized Arab opinion. Ostensibly a reaction to the emergency re-supply effort that had enabled Israel to withstand Egyptian and Syrian forces (while at the same time the Soviets were resupplying the Arab forces), the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. It has since come to light that an accord regarding the usage of the "oil weapon" was actually negotiated <i>before</i> the war by Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Thus by the early 1970s the great Western oil conglomerates suddenly faced a unified bloc of producers.<p>As mentioned, the Arab-Israeli conflict triggered a crisis already in the making. The West could not continue to increase its energy use 5% annually, pay low oil prices, yet sell inflation-priced goods to the petroleum producers in the Third World. This was stressed by the <!--del_lnk--> Shah of <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>, whose nation was the world's second-largest exporter of oil and the closest ally of the United States in the Middle East at the time. "Of course [the world price of oil] is going to rise," the Shah told the <i><!--del_lnk--> New York Times</i> in 1973. "Certainly! And how...; You [Western nations] increased the price of <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a> you sell us by 300%, and the same for sugar and cement...; You buy our <!--del_lnk--> crude oil and sell it back to us, redefined as <!--del_lnk--> petrochemicals, at a hundred times the price you've paid to us...; It's only fair that, from now on, you should pay more for oil. Let's say ten times more."<p><a id="Arab_oil_embargo" name="Arab_oil_embargo"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Arab oil embargo</span></h2> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1973, as part of the political strategy that included the <a href="../../wp/y/Yom_Kippur_War.htm" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a>, <!--del_lnk--> OAPEC <!--del_lnk--> cut production of oil and placed an <!--del_lnk--> embargo on shipments of crude oil to the West, with the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> specifically targeted. Also imposed was a boycott of Israel. Since oil <a href="../../wp/s/Supply_and_demand.htm" title="Demand">demand</a> is very <!--del_lnk--> price inelastic, (i.e., the quantity purchased falls little with price rises), prices had to rise dramatically to reduce demand to the new, lower level of <!--del_lnk--> supply. The embargo on oil caused the market price for oil to rise substantially. Government price controls, designed to maintain oil affordability, exacerbated the economic impact by creating shortages. High prices from the embargo were exacerbated by the shortages caused by the price controls, resulting in a series of recessions and high <!--del_lnk--> inflation that persisted until the early 1980's.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:452px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16108.gif.htm" title="The price of oil during the embargo."><img alt="The price of oil during the embargo." height="357" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Oil_price_chronology.gif" src="../../images/161/16108.gif" width="450" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16108.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The price of oil during the embargo.</div> </div> </div> <p>The graph to the right is based on the <!--del_lnk--> nominal -- not real -- price of oil, and so understates prices of more recent years. However, the effects of the Arab Oil Embargo are clear: it effectively doubled the real price of crude oil at the refinery level. and caused massive shortages in the US. This exacerbated a recession that had already begun, and led to a global recession through the rest of 1974.<p>Over the long term, the oil embargo changed the nature of policy in the West toward more exploration and energy conservation. Changes also included a more restrictive monetary policy that was better at fighting <!--del_lnk--> inflation.<p><a id="Chronology" name="Chronology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Chronology</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> August 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1973 - In preparation for the <a href="../../wp/y/Yom_Kippur_War.htm" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a>, Saudi <!--del_lnk--> King Faisal and Egyptian president <!--del_lnk--> Anwar Sadat meet in Riyadh and secretly negotiate an accord whereby the Arabs will use the "oil weapon" as part of the upcoming military conflict.<li><!--del_lnk--> 15 September <!--del_lnk--> 1973 - The <!--del_lnk--> Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) declares a negotiating front, consisting of the 6 Persian Gulf States, to pressure for price increases and an end to support of Israel, based on the 1971 Tehran agreement.<li><!--del_lnk--> 6 October - <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> attack <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> on <!--del_lnk--> Yom Kippur, starting the fourth <!--del_lnk--> Arab-Israeli War, the Yom Kippur War.<li><!--del_lnk--> 8 October–10 - OPEC negotiations with oil companies to revise the 1971 Tehran price agreement fail.<li><!--del_lnk--> 16 October - <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, and <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> unilaterally raise posted prices by 17% to $3.65 a barrel and announce production cuts.<li><!--del_lnk--> 23 October–28 - The Arab oil embargo is extended to the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 5 November - Arab producers announce a 25% output cut. A further five percent cut is threatened.<li><!--del_lnk--> 23 November - The Arab embargo is extended to <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Rhodesia, and <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 27 November - U.S. President <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> signs the <!--del_lnk--> Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act authorizing price, production, allocation and marketing controls.<li><!--del_lnk--> 9 December - Arab oil ministers agree a further five percent cut for non-friendly countries for January 1974.<li><!--del_lnk--> 25 December - Arab oil ministers cancel the five percent output cut for January. Saudi oil minister <!--del_lnk--> Yamani promises a 10% OPEC production rise.<li><!--del_lnk--> 7 January–9, 1974 - OPEC decides to freeze prices until <!--del_lnk--> April 1.<li><!--del_lnk--> 11 February - <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Secretary of State <!--del_lnk--> Henry Kissinger unveils the <!--del_lnk--> Project Independence plan to make U.S. energy independent.<li><!--del_lnk--> 12 February–14 - Progress in Arab-Israeli disengagement brings discussion of oil strategy among the heads of state of <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia.<li><!--del_lnk--> 17 March - Arab oil ministers, with the exception of Libya, announce the end of the embargo against the United States.</ul> <h2> <span class="mw-headline">Price controls and rationing</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16110.jpg.htm" title="U.S. gas rationing stamps, printed in 1974"><img alt="U.S. gas rationing stamps, printed in 1974" height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:U.S._gas_rationing_stamps_1974.jpg" src="../../images/161/16110.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16110.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> U.S. gas rationing stamps, printed in 1974</div> </div> </div> <p>The crisis was further exacerbated by government <!--del_lnk--> price controls in the United States, which limited the price of "old oil" (that already discovered) while allowing newly discovered oil to be sold at a higher price, resulting in a withdrawal of old oil from the market and artificial scarcity. The rule had been intended to promote <!--del_lnk--> oil exploration. This scarcity was dealt with by <!--del_lnk--> rationing of <!--del_lnk--> gasoline (which occurred in many countries), with motorists facing long lines at gas stations.<p>In the U.S., drivers of <!--del_lnk--> vehicles with <!--del_lnk--> license plates having an odd number as the last digit were allowed to purchase gasoline for their cars only on odd-numbered days of the month, while drivers of vehicles with even-numbered license plates were allowed to purchase fuel only on even-numbered days. The rule did not apply on the 31st day of those months containing 31 days, or on <!--del_lnk--> February 29 in <!--del_lnk--> leap years — the latter never came into play, as the restrictions had been abolished by 1976.<p><a id="Conservation_and_reduction_in_demand" name="Conservation_and_reduction_in_demand"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conservation and reduction in demand</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16111.jpg.htm" title="Gas stations abandoned during the fuel crisis in the winter of 1973-74 were sometimes used for other purposes. This station at Potlatch, Washington, west of Olympia was turned into a religious meeting hall."><img alt="Gas stations abandoned during the fuel crisis in the winter of 1973-74 were sometimes used for other purposes. This station at Potlatch, Washington, west of Olympia was turned into a religious meeting hall." height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Potlatch_gas.jpg" src="../../images/161/16111.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16111.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Gas stations abandoned during the fuel crisis in the winter of 1973-74 were sometimes used for other purposes. This station at <!--del_lnk--> Potlatch, Washington, west of Olympia was turned into a religious meeting hall.</div> </div> </div> <p>The U.S. government response to the embargo was quick but of limited effectiveness. To conserve gasoline, the <!--del_lnk--> National Maximum Speed Law imposed a nationwide 55 mph (89 km/h) speed limit which ended up lasting 12 years, for reasons mostly unrelated to the oil crisis. President Nixon named <!--del_lnk--> William Simon as an official "energy czar," and in 1977, a cabinet-level <!--del_lnk--> Department of Energy was created, leading to the creation of the United States's <!--del_lnk--> Strategic Petroleum Reserve.<p>Year-round <!--del_lnk--> Daylight Saving Time was implemented: at 2:00 a.m. local time on <!--del_lnk--> January 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1974, clocks were advanced one hour across the nation. The move spawned significant criticism because it forced many children to commute to school before sunrise. As a result, the clocks were turned back on the last Sunday in October as originally scheduled, and in 1975 clocks were set forward one hour at 2:00 a..m. on <!--del_lnk--> February 23, the later date being adopted to address the aforementioned issue. The pre-existing daylight-saving rules, calling for the clocks to be advanced one hour on the last Sunday in April, were restored in 1976.<p>The crisis also prompted a call for individuals and businesses to conserve energy — most notably a campaign by the <!--del_lnk--> Advertising Council using the tag line "Don't Be Fuelish." Many <a href="../../wp/n/Newspaper.htm" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a> carried full-page advertisements that featured cut-outs which could be attached to light switches emblazoned with the slogan "Last Out, Lights Out: Don't Be Fuelish".<p>The U.S. "Big Three" automakers' first order of business after Corporate Average Fuel Economy (<!--del_lnk--> CAFE) standards were enacted was to downsize existing automobile categories. By the end of the 1970s, 121-inch <!--del_lnk--> wheelbase vehicles were a thing of the past. Before the mass production of automatic overdrive transmissions and electronic fuel injection, the traditional FR (front engine/rear wheel drive) layout was being phased out for the more efficient and/or integrated FF (front engine/front wheel drive), starting with compact cars. Using the <!--del_lnk--> Volkswagen Rabbit as the archetype, much of Detroit went FF after 1980 in response to CAFE's 27.5 <!--del_lnk--> MPG mandate. Vehicles such as the <!--del_lnk--> Ford Fairmont were short-lived in the early 1980s.<p>Downsizing automobiles might have been considered profitable; however, the smaller size affected safety regulations. Some consider the product liability cases against the <!--del_lnk--> Ford Pinto during the late 1970s the result of automakers failing to take user safety into consideration. As full-sized vehicles were being phased out and/or downsized, light truck/van conversions (which later evolved into modern-day <!--del_lnk--> sport utility and <!--del_lnk--> crossover vehicles) were deemed as viable replacements.<p><a id="Search_for_alternatives" name="Search_for_alternatives"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Search for alternatives</span></h2> <p>The energy crisis led to greater interest in <!--del_lnk--> renewable energy, especially <a href="../../wp/w/Wood_fuel.htm" title="Wood fuel">wood fuel</a> and spurred research in <!--del_lnk--> solar power and <!--del_lnk--> wind power. It also led to greater pressure to exploit <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North American</a> oil sources, and increased the West's dependence on <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> and <!--del_lnk--> nuclear power.<p>In <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, heating oil ceased being considered an appropriate winter heating fuel. This often meant that a lot of oil-fired room heaters that were popular from the late-1950s to the early-1970s were considered outdated. It also meant that some enterprising individuals designed aftermarket gas-conversion kits that let these heaters burn <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> or <!--del_lnk--> propane.<p>But the initial moves toward more efficient automobiles and alternative sources of energy stalled as oil prices fell and memories of <!--del_lnk--> gasoline shortages of 1973 faded.<p>For the handful of industrialized nations that were net energy exporters the effects of the oil crisis were very different. In <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> the industrial east suffered many of the same problems of the United States. In oil rich <!--del_lnk--> Alberta there was a sudden and massive influx of money that quickly made it the richest province in the country. The federal government attempted to correct this imbalance through the creation of the government-owned <!--del_lnk--> Petro-Canada and later the <!--del_lnk--> National Energy Program. These efforts produced a great deal of anger in the west producing a sentiment of alienation that has remained a central element of Canadian politics to this day. Overall the oil embargo had a sharply negative effect on the Canadian economy. The economic malaise in the United States easily crossed the border and increases in unemployment and stagflation hit Canada as hard as the United States despite Canadian fuel reserves.<p>The <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> was also a net oil exporter and the increase in the price of oil had an immediate effect on that country. The Soviet economy had stagnated for several years and the increase in the price of oil had a beneficial effect, especially after the bloc's <!--del_lnk--> internal terms of trade were adjusted to reflect the increased value of <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> oil. The increase in foreign currency reserves allowed the import of grain and other foodstuffs from abroad, increased production of consumer goods and the ability to keep military spending at its traditional levels. Some historians believe the windfall in oil revenues during this period kept the Soviet Union in existence for a considerably longer period of time than would otherwise have occurred. When in 1991 the Soviet Union was disbanded, the price of oil was at a level of just 12 dollars per barrel.<p><a id="Macroeconomic_effects" name="Macroeconomic_effects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Macroeconomic effects</span></h2> <p>The 1973 oil crisis was a major factor in Japan's economy shifting away from oil-intensive industries and resulted in huge Japanese investments in industries like <a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" title="Electronics">electronics</a>.<p>The Western nations' <!--del_lnk--> central banks sharply cut <!--del_lnk--> interest rates to encourage growth, deciding that <!--del_lnk--> inflation was a secondary concern. Although this was the orthodox <!--del_lnk--> macroeconomic prescription at the time, the resulting <!--del_lnk--> stagflation surprised <!--del_lnk--> economists and central bankers, and the policy is now considered by some to have deepened and lengthened the adverse effects of the embargo.<p>Long-term effects of the embargo are still being felt. Public suspicion of the oil companies, who were thought to be profiteering or even working in collusion with OPEC, continues unabated (seven of the fifteen top <!--del_lnk--> Fortune 500 companies in 1974 were oil companies, with total assets of over $100 billion).<p><a id="Effects_on_international_relations" name="Effects_on_international_relations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Effects on international relations</span></h2> <p>The <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> policies of the Nixon administration also suffered a major blow in the aftermath of the oil embargo. They had focused on <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a> and the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, but the latent challenge to U.S. hegemony coming from the Third World was now starkly evident. U.S. power was under attack even in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<p>The oil embargo was announced roughly just one month after a right-wing military coup in <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> <!--del_lnk--> toppled elected socialist president <!--del_lnk--> Salvador Allende on <!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1973. The U.S.'s subsequent assistance to this government did little in the short-run to curb the activities of socialist <!--del_lnk--> guerrillas in the region. The response of the Nixon administration was to propose doubling of the amount of military arms sold by the United States. As a consequence, a Latin American bloc was organized and financed in part by <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> and its oil revenues, which quadrupled between 1970 and 1975.<p>In addition, Western Europe and Japan began switching from pro-Israel to more pro-Arab policies (some of which are still in effect today). This change further strained the Western alliance system, for the United States, which imported only 12% of its oil from the Middle East (compared with 80% for the Europeans and over 90% for Japan), remained staunchly committed to its backing of Israel.<p>A year after the unveiling of the 1973 oil embargo, the nonaligned bloc in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> passed a resolution demanding the creation of a "new international economic order" in which <!--del_lnk--> resources, <!--del_lnk--> trade, and <a href="../../wp/m/Market.htm" title="Market">markets</a> would be distributed more equitably, with the local populations of nations within the global South receiving a greater share of benefits derived from the exploitation of southern resources, and greater respect for the right to self-directed development in the South be afforded by the North.<p><a id="Decline_of_OPEC" name="Decline_of_OPEC"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decline of OPEC</span></h2> <p>Since 1973, OPEC failed to hold on to its preeminent position, and by 1981, its production was surpassed by that of other countries. Additionally, its own member nations were divided among themselves. <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, trying to gain back market share, increased production and caused downward pressure on prices, making high-cost oil production facilities less profitable or even unprofitable. The world price of oil, which had reached a peak in 1979, at more than US$80 a barrel (503 US$/m³) in 2004 dollars, decreased during the early 1980s to US$38 a barrel (239 US$/m³). In real prices, oil briefly fell back to pre-1973 levels. Overall, the reduction in price was a windfall for the oil-consuming nations: United States, Japan, Europe and especially the Third World.<p>Part of the decline in prices and economic and geopolitical power of OPEC comes from the move away from oil consumption to alternate energy sources. OPEC had relied on the famously limited <!--del_lnk--> price sensitivity of oil demand to maintain high consumption, but had underestimated the extent to which other sources of supply would become profitable as the price increased. Electricity generation from <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_power.htm" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, home heating from natural gas and <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> blended gasoline all reduced the demand for oil.<p>At the same time, the drop in prices represented a serious problem for oil-producing countries in Northern Europe and the <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> region. For a handful of heavily populated, impoverished countries, whose economies were largely dependent on oil — including <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, and <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a> — governments and business leaders failed to prepare for a market reversal, the price drop placed them in wrenching, sometimes desperate situations.<p>When reduced demand and over-production produced a glut on the world market in the mid-1980s, oil prices plummeted and the cartel lost its unity. Oil exporters such as Mexico, Nigeria, and Venezuela, whose economies had expanded frantically, were plunged into near-bankruptcy, and even Saudi Arabian economic power was significantly weakened. The divisions within OPEC made subsequent concerted action more difficult.<p>Nevertheless, the 1973 oil shock provided dramatic evidence of the potential power of Third World resource suppliers in dealing with the developed world. The vast reserves of the leading Middle East producers guaranteed the region its strategic importance, but the politics of oil still proves dangerous for all concerned to this day..<p>In thirty-year-old <!--del_lnk--> British government documents released in January 2004, it was revealed that the United States considered invading <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> during the crisis and seizing the oil fields in those countries. According to the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a>, other possibilities, such as the replacement of Arab rulers by "more amenable" leaders, or a show of force by "<!--del_lnk--> gunboat diplomacy," were officially rejected as untenable. <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_oil_crisis"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Egypt', 'Syria', 'Yom Kippur War', 'Petroleum', 'Israel', 'Syria', 'Egypt', 'United States', 'Petroleum', 'Arab-Israeli conflict', 'World War II', 'Mineral', 'Middle East', 'United States dollar', 'Richard Nixon', 'Bretton Woods system', 'World War II', 'Gold', 'Venezuela', 'United Kingdom', 'Netherlands', 'Syria', 'Yom Kippur War', 'Iran', 'Wheat', 'Yom Kippur War', 'United States', 'Netherlands', 'Demand', 'Yom Kippur War', 'Egypt', 'Syria', 'Israel', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Iran', 'Iraq', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Kuwait', 'Qatar', 'Netherlands', 'Portugal', 'South Africa', 'Richard Nixon', 'Algeria', 'Newspaper', 'Wood fuel', 'North America', 'Coal', 'Australia', 'Natural gas', 'Canada', 'Soviet Union', 'Russia', 'Electronics', 'Cold War', "People's Republic of China", 'Soviet Union', 'Latin America', 'Chile', 'Venezuela', 'United Nations', 'Market', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Nuclear power', 'Natural gas', 'Ethanol', 'Persian Gulf', 'Mexico', 'Nigeria', 'Algeria', 'Libya', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Kuwait', 'BBC']
1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens,Megatons,Nuclear weapon,Cubic mile,Rock (geology),Wheat,Timber,Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,Energy,Moon,Jimmy Carter" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens"; var wgTitle = "1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens"; var wgArticleId = 673671; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-1980_eruption_of_Mount_St_Helens"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geology_and_geophysics.htm">Geology and geophysics</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p>The <b>1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</b> (<!--del_lnk--> VEI = 5, 1.2 km³ of material erupted) is the most significant <a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" title="Volcano">volcanic eruption</a> to occur in the lower 48 <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> in recorded history, exceeding the destructive power and volume of material released by the 1915 eruption of <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Lassen Peak (the 1912 eruption of <!--del_lnk--> Novarupta in <!--del_lnk--> Alaska was the most powerful historic eruption in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a>, although Alaska was not a U.S. state at the time). The eruption was preceded by a two-month-long series of <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> and <!--del_lnk--> steam-venting episodes, caused by an injection of <a href="../../wp/m/Magma.htm" title="Magma">magma</a> at shallow depth below the mountain which created a huge bulge and a fracture system on <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_St._Helens.htm" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a>' north slope. An earthquake at 8:32 a.m. on <!--del_lnk--> May 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1980, caused the entire weakened north face to slide away, suddenly exposing the partly molten, gas- and <!--del_lnk--> steam-rich <!--del_lnk--> rock in the <a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" title="Volcano">volcano</a> to lower pressure. The rock responded by exploding into a super-heated mix of pulverized <!--del_lnk--> lava and older rock that sped toward <!--del_lnk--> Spirit Lake so fast that it quickly passed the avalanching north face.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> volcanic ash column rose high into the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and deposited ash in eleven U.S. states. At the same time, <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Ice.htm" title="Ice">ice</a>, and several entire <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> on the <!--del_lnk--> mountain melted, forming a series of large <!--del_lnk--> lahars (volcanic <!--del_lnk--> mudslides) that reached as far as the <a href="../../wp/c/Columbia_River.htm" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a>. Less severe outbursts continued into the next day only to be followed by other large but not as destructive eruptions later in 1980. By the time the ash settled, 57 people (including innkeeper <!--del_lnk--> Harry Truman and geologist <!--del_lnk--> David A. Johnston) and thousands of <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a> were dead, hundreds of <!--del_lnk--> square miles (mi²) reduced to wasteland, over a billion <!--del_lnk--> U.S. dollars in damage had occurred, and the once-graceful face of Mount St. Helens was scarred with a huge crater open to the north. The area was later preserved, as it was, in the <!--del_lnk--> Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:552px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23031.jpg.htm" title="Mount St Helens from Monitor Ridge showing the cone of devastation, the huge crater open to the north, and the post-eruption lava dome inside it. The small photo on the left was taken from Spirit Lake before the eruption and the small photo on the right was taken after the eruption from approximately the same place. Spirit Lake can also be seen in the larger image, as well as two other Cascade volcanos."><img alt="Mount St Helens from Monitor Ridge showing the cone of devastation, the huge crater open to the north, and the post-eruption lava dome inside it. The small photo on the left was taken from Spirit Lake before the eruption and the small photo on the right was taken after the eruption from approximately the same place. Spirit Lake can also be seen in the larger image, as well as two other Cascade volcanos." height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Helens_from_Monitor_Ridge_feather.jpg" src="../../images/230/23031.jpg" width="550" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23031.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mount St Helens from Monitor Ridge showing the cone of devastation, the huge crater open to the north, and the post-eruption lava dome inside it. The small photo on the left was taken from Spirit Lake <b>before</b> the eruption and the small photo on the right was taken <b>after</b> the eruption from approximately the same place. Spirit Lake can also be seen in the larger image, as well as two other Cascade volcanos.</div> </div> </div> <p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p> <br clear="right" /> <p><a id="Buildup_to_disaster" name="Buildup_to_disaster"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Buildup to disaster</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/266/26620.jpg.htm" title="Mount St. Helens, May 17, 1980."><img alt="Mount St. Helens, May 17, 1980." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sthelens1.jpg" src="../../images/230/23032.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/266/26620.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mount St. Helens, <!--del_lnk--> May 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1980.</div> </div> </div> <p>Several small earthquakes beginning as early as <!--del_lnk--> March 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1980, indicated that magma may have been moving below the volcano. Then on <!--del_lnk--> March 20 at 3:47 p.m. <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Standard Time (all times will be in PST), a shallow <!--del_lnk--> Richter magnitude 4.2 <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a>, centered below the mountain's north flank, definitely signaled the <a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" title="Volcano">volcano</a>'s violent return from 123 years of hibernation. A gradually building <!--del_lnk--> earthquake swarm saturated area <!--del_lnk--> seismographs and started to climax at about noon on <!--del_lnk--> March 25, reaching peak levels in the next two days (a total of 174 shocks of 2.6 or greater were recorded during those two days). Shocks of 3.2 or greater occurred at a slightly increasing rate through April and May with five earthquakes of magnitude 4 or above per day in early April, and 8 per day the week before <!--del_lnk--> May 18. Initially there was no direct sign of eruption, but small earthquake-induced <a href="../../wp/a/Avalanche.htm" title="Avalanche">avalanches</a> of snow and ice were reported from aerial observations.<p>Then at 12:36 p.m. on <!--del_lnk--> March 27, at least one but possibly two nearly simultaneous <!--del_lnk--> phreatic eruptions (exploding <!--del_lnk--> groundwater-derived <!--del_lnk--> steam) ejected smashed rock from within the old summit <!--del_lnk--> crater, excavating a new crater 250 feet (76 m) wide and sending an ash column about 6,000 feet (1800 m) into the air. Also by this date, a 16,000-foot-long (4900 m), east-trending fracture system had developed across the summit area. This was followed by more earthquake storms and a series of steam explosions that sent ash 10,000 to 11,000 feet (3050 to 3350 m) above their vent. Most of this ash fell within 3 to 12 miles (5 to 19 km) from its vent but some was carried as far as 150 miles (240 km) south to <!--del_lnk--> Bend, Oregon, and 285 miles (459 km) east to <!--del_lnk--> Spokane, Washington.<p>A second, new crater and a blue flame were observed on <!--del_lnk--> March 29. The flame danced to and from the two craters and was probably created by burning gases. <!--del_lnk--> Static electricity generated from ash clouds rolling down the mountain sent out <!--del_lnk--> lightning bolts that were up to two miles (3 km) long. Ninety-three separate outbursts were reported on <!--del_lnk--> March 30, and <!--del_lnk--> harmonic tremors were detected on <!--del_lnk--> April 3, alarming geologists and prompting the <!--del_lnk--> governor to declare a state of emergency.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23033.jpg.htm" title="USGS photo showing a pre-avalanche eruption on April 10."><img alt="USGS photo showing a pre-avalanche eruption on April 10." height="98" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Helens_April_10%2C_1980.jpg" src="../../images/230/23033.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23033.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> USGS photo showing a pre-avalanche eruption on <!--del_lnk--> April 10.</div> </div> </div> <p>By <!--del_lnk--> April 8 the two craters merged, eventually creating one that was 1,700 to 850 feet (520 to 260 m) wide. A <!--del_lnk--> USGS team determined in the last week of April that a 1.5-mile-diameter (2.4 km) section of St. Helens' north face was displaced out at least 270 feet (82 m). For the rest of April and early May this bulge grew 5 to 6 feet per day (1.5 to 1.8 m), and by mid-May it extended more than 400 feet (120 m) north. As the bulge moved northward, the summit area behind it progressively sank, forming a complex, down-dropped block called a <!--del_lnk--> graben. Geologists announced on <!--del_lnk--> April 30 that sliding of the bulge area was the greatest immediate danger and that such a <!--del_lnk--> landslide may spark an eruption. These changes in the volcano's shape were related to the overall deformation that increased the volume of the mountain by 0.03 cubic miles (125,000,000 m³) by mid-May. This volume increase presumably corresponded to the volume of magma that pushed into the volcano and deformed its surface. Because the intruded magma remained below ground and was not directly visible, it was called a <!--del_lnk--> cryptodome, in contrast to a true <!--del_lnk--> lava dome exposed at the surface.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23034.jpg.htm" title="Photo showing the bulge on April 27."><img alt="Photo showing the bulge on April 27." height="98" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Helens_April_27%2C_1980_showing_bulge.jpg" src="../../images/230/23034.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23034.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Photo showing the bulge on <!--del_lnk--> April 27.</div> </div> </div> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 7, eruptions similar to those in March and April resumed, and over the next several days the bulge grew to huge proportions. All activity to this point was confined to the 350-year-old summit dome and did not involve any new <a href="../../wp/m/Magma.htm" title="Magma">magma</a>. A total of about 10,000 earthquakes were recorded prior to the <!--del_lnk--> May 18 event, with most concentrated in a small zone less than 1.6 miles (2.6 km) directly below the bulge. Visible eruptions ceased on <!--del_lnk--> May 16, reducing public interest and consequently the number of spectators in the area. Mounting public pressure then forced officials to allow a limited number of people to enter the danger zone on <!--del_lnk--> May 17 to gather whatever property they could carry. Another trip was scheduled for 10 a.m. the next morning. Since that was Sunday, more than 300 loggers would not be working in the area. By the time of the climactic eruption, an estimated 0.11 cubic kilometers of dacite magma had intruded into the volcano. The rising magma forced the volcano's north flank outward nearly 500 feet (150 m) and heated the volcano's <!--del_lnk--> groundwater system, causing many steam-driven explosions (phreatic eruptions).<p><a id="North_face_slides_away" name="North_face_slides_away"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">North face slides away</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23035.gif.htm" title="Sequence of events on May 18."><img alt="Sequence of events on May 18." height="258" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Msh_may18_sequence.gif" src="../../images/230/23035.gif" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23035.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sequence of events on May 18.</div> </div> </div> <p>At 7 a.m. on <!--del_lnk--> May 18, USGS volcanologist <!--del_lnk--> David A. Johnston, who had Saturday night duty at an observation post about 6 miles (10 km) north of the mountain, <a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" title="Radio">radioed</a> in the results of some <!--del_lnk--> laser-beam measurements he had made moments earlier. Mount St. Helens' activity that day did not show any change from the pattern of the preceding month. The rate of bulge movement, <!--del_lnk--> sulfur-dioxide gas emission, and ground temperature readings did not reveal any unusual changes that might indicate a catastrophic eruption.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23036.jpg.htm" title="North Fork Toutle River valley filled with landslide deposits."><img alt="North Fork Toutle River valley filled with landslide deposits." height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:North_Fork_Toutle_River_valley_in_November_1983.jpg" src="../../images/230/23036.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23036.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> North Fork Toutle River valley filled with landslide deposits.</div> </div> </div> <p>Without warning at 8:32 a.m., a magnitude 5.1 earthquake centered directly below the north slope triggered that part of the mountain to slide, approximately 7–20 seconds (about 10 seconds seems most reasonable) after the shock. One of the largest landslides in recorded history, the slide traveled at 110 to 155 miles per hour (175 to 250 km/h) and moved across Spirit Lake's west arm; part of it hit a 1,150-foot-high (350 m) ridge about 6 miles (9.5 km) north. Some of the slide spilled over the ridge, but most of it moved 13 miles (21 km) down the North Fork <!--del_lnk--> Toutle River, filling its valley up to 600 feet (180 m) deep with avalanche debris. An area of about 24 mile² (62 km²) was covered, and the total volume of the deposit was about 0.7 mile³ (2.9 km³).<p>Most of St. Helens' former north side became a rubble deposit 17 miles (27 km) long, averaging 150 feet (46 m) thick; the slide was thickest at one mile (1.6 km) below Spirit Lake and thinnest at its western margin. All the water in Spirit Lake was temporarily displaced by the landslide, sending 600-foot-high (180 m) <a href="../../wp/w/Wave.htm" title="Wave">waves</a> crashing into a ridge north of the lake and adding 295 feet (90 m) of new avalanche debris above the old lakebed, raising its surface level by about 200 feet (60 m). As the water moved back into its <!--del_lnk--> basin, it pulled thousands of trees felled by a super-heated wall of volcanic gas and searing ash and rock that overtook the landslide seconds before (see below).<p><a id="Pyroclastic_flows" name="Pyroclastic_flows"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pyroclastic flows</span></h2> <p><a id="Initial_lateral_blast" name="Initial_lateral_blast"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Initial lateral blast</span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23037.png.htm" title="Computer graphic showing the May 18 landslide (green) being overtaken by the initial pyroclastic flow (red)."><img alt="Computer graphic showing the May 18 landslide (green) being overtaken by the initial pyroclastic flow (red)." height="185" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Computer_animation_showing_May_18%2C_1980_St_Helens_landslide.png" src="../../images/230/23037.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23037.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Computer graphic showing the <!--del_lnk--> May 18 landslide (green) being overtaken by the initial pyroclastic flow (red).</div> </div> </div> <p>The landslide suddenly exposed the dacite magma in St. Helens' neck to much lower pressure, causing the gas-charged, partially molten rock and high-pressure steam above it to explode a few seconds after the slide started. <!--del_lnk--> Explosions burst through the trailing part of the landslide, blasting rock debris northward. The resulting blast laterally directed the <!--del_lnk--> pyroclastic flow of super-heated volcanic gases, ash and <!--del_lnk--> pumice from new lava, and pulverized old rock hugged the ground while initially moving at 220 mph (350 km/h) but quickly accelerating to 670 mph (1080 km/h) (it may have briefly passed the <!--del_lnk--> speed of sound).<p>Pyroclastic-flow material passed up the moving avalanche and spread outward, devastating a fan-shaped area 23 miles (37 km) across and 19 miles (30 km) long. In all, about 230 <!--del_lnk--> square miles (600 km²) of <a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" title="Forest">forest</a> were knocked down within an 8-mile (13 km) inner-fan area, and extreme heat killed <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">trees</a> miles beyond the blow-down zone. At its vent the lateral blast probably did not last longer than about 30 seconds, but the northward radiating and expanding blast cloud continued for about another minute.<p>Superheated flow material flashed <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> in Spirit Lake and North Fork Toutle River to steam, creating a larger, secondary explosion that was heard as far away as <!--del_lnk--> British Columbia, <!--del_lnk--> Montana, <!--del_lnk--> Idaho, and <!--del_lnk--> Northern California. Yet many areas closer to the eruption (<!--del_lnk--> Portland, Oregon, for example) did not hear the blast. This so-called "quiet zone" extended radially a few tens of miles from the volcano and was created due to the complex response of the eruption's <a href="../../wp/s/Sound.htm" title="Sound">sound</a> waves to differences in temperature and air motion of the atmospheric layers and, to a lesser extent, local <!--del_lnk--> topography.<p><a id="Lateral_blast_result" name="Lateral_blast_result"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lateral blast result</span></h3> <p>Everyone in the quiet zone did see the resulting huge ash cloud that was sent skyward from St. Helens' northern foot. The near-supersonic lateral blast, loaded with volcanic debris, caused widespread devastation as far as 19 miles (30 km) from the volcano. The area affected by the blast can be subdivided into three roughly concentric zones:<ol> <li><i>Direct blast zone</i>, the innermost zone, averaged about 8 miles (13 km) in radius, an area in which virtually everything, natural or artificial, was obliterated or carried away. For this reason, this zone also has been called the "tree-removal zone." The flow of the material carried by the blast was not deflected by topographic features in this zone.<li><i>Channelized blast zone</i>, an intermediate zone, extended out to distances as far as 19 miles (30 km) from the volcano, an area in which the flow flattened everything in its path and was channeled to some extent by topography. In this zone, the force and direction of the blast are strikingly demonstrated by the parallel alignment of toppled large trees, broken off at the base of the trunk as if they were blades of <!--del_lnk--> grass mown by a <!--del_lnk--> scythe. This zone was also known as the "tree-down zone."<li><i>Seared zone</i>, also called the "standing dead" zone, the outermost fringe of the impacted area, a zone in which trees remained standing but were singed brown by the hot <a href="../../wp/g/Gas.htm" title="Gas">gases</a> of the blast. Later studies indicated that one-third of the 0.045 cubic miles (188,000,000 m³) of material in the flow was new lava, and the rest was fragmented, older rock.</ol> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23038.jpg.htm" title="Photographer Reid Blackburn's car after the eruption."><img alt="Photographer Reid Blackburn's car after the eruption." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reid_Blackburn%27s_car_after_May_18%2C_1980_St._Helens_eruption.jpg" src="../../images/230/23038.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23038.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Photographer Reid Blackburn's car after the eruption.</div> </div> </div> <p>By the time this pyroclastic flow hit its first <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">human</a> victims, it was still as much as 680°F (360°C) and filled with suffocating gas and flying angular material. Most of the 57 people known to have died in that day's eruption succumbed to suffocation while several died from burns. Lodge owner <!--del_lnk--> Harry Truman was buried under hundreds of feet (tens of metres) of avalanche material. Volcanologist <!--del_lnk--> David A. Johnston was one of those killed, as was <!--del_lnk--> Reid Blackburn, a <i><!--del_lnk--> National Geographic</i> photographer.<p><a id="Later_flows" name="Later_flows"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Later flows</span></h3> <p>Subsequent outpourings of pyroclastic material from the breach left by the landslide consisted mainly of new magmatic debris rather than fragments of preexisting volcanic rocks. The resulting deposits formed a fan-like pattern of overlapping sheets, tongues, and lobes. At least 17 separate pyroclastic flows occurred during the <!--del_lnk--> May 18 eruption, and their aggregate volume was about 0.05 mile³ (208,000,000 m³).<p>The flow deposits were still about 570°F to 785°F (300°C to 420°C) two weeks after they erupted. Secondary steam-blast eruptions fed by this heat created pits on the northern margin of the pyroclastic-flow deposits, at the south shore of Spirit Lake, and along the upper part of the North Fork Toutle River. These steam-blast explosions continued sporadically for weeks or months after the emplacement of pyroclastic flows, and at least one occurred about a year later, on <!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1981.<p><a id="Ash_column_grows" name="Ash_column_grows"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ash column grows</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23039.jpg.htm" title="Photo of the lower part of the May 18 ash column."><img alt="Photo of the lower part of the May 18 ash column." height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Helens_May_18%2C_1980_showing_ash_column.jpg" src="../../images/230/23039.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23039.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Photo of the lower part of the <!--del_lnk--> May 18 ash column.</div> </div> </div> <p>As the avalanche and initial pyroclastic flow were still advancing, a huge ash column grew to a height of 12 miles (19 km) above the expanding crater in less than 10 minutes and spewed <!--del_lnk--> tephra into the <!--del_lnk--> stratosphere for 10 straight hours. Near the volcano, the swirling ash particles in the atmosphere generated <!--del_lnk--> lightning, which in turn started many <!--del_lnk--> forest fires. During this time, parts of the now-<!--del_lnk--> mushroom-shaped ash-cloud column collapsed, sending additional pyroclastic flows speeding down St. Helens' flanks. Later, slower flows came directly from the new north-facing crater and consisted of glowing pumice bombs and very hot pumiceous ash. Some of these hot flows covered ice or water which flashed to steam, creating craters up to 65 feet (20 m) in diameter and sending ash as much as 6,500 feet (1980 m) into the air.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23040.png.htm" title="Map of ash distribution."><img alt="Map of ash distribution." height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1980_St._Helens_ashmap.png" src="../../images/230/23040.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23040.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of ash distribution.</div> </div> </div> <p>Strong high-<!--del_lnk--> altitude wind carried much of this material east-northeasterly from the volcano at an average speed of about 60 mph (100 km/h). By 9:45 a.m. it had reached <!--del_lnk--> Yakima, Washington, 90 miles (145 km) away, and by 11:45 a.m. it was over <!--del_lnk--> Spokane, Washington. A total of 4 to 5 inches (100 to 130 mm) of ash fell on Yakima, and areas as far east as Spokane were plunged into darkness by noon where visibility was reduced to 10 feet (3 m) and half an inch (10 mm) of ash fell. Continuing east, St. Helens' ash fell in the western part of <a href="../../wp/y/Yellowstone_National_Park.htm" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a> by 10:15 p.m. and was seen on the ground in <a href="../../wp/d/Denver%252C_Colorado.htm" title="Denver, Colorado">Denver, Colorado</a>, the next day. In time ashfall from this eruption was reported as far away as <a href="../../wp/m/Minnesota.htm" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma, and some of the ash drifted around the globe within about 2 weeks.<p>During the 9 hours of vigorous eruptive activity, about 540 million tons of ash fell over an area of more than 22,000 mile² (60,000 km²). The total volume of the ash before its compaction by <a href="../../wp/r/Rain.htm" title="Rain">rainfall</a> was about 0.3 mile³ (1.3 km³). The volume of the uncompacted ash is equivalent to about 0.05 mile³ (208,000,000 m³) of solid rock, or only about 7% of the amount of material that slid off in the debris avalanche. By around 5:30 p.m. on <!--del_lnk--> May 18, the vertical ash column declined in stature, but less severe outbursts continued through the night and the following several days.<p><a id="Mudslides_flow_downstream" name="Mudslides_flow_downstream"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mudslides flow downstream</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23041.jpg.htm" title="Mudline next to Muddy River from the 1980 lahars."><img alt="Mudline next to Muddy River from the 1980 lahars." height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mudline_from_1980_St_Helens_lahars_next_to_Muddy_River.jpg" src="../../images/230/23041.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23041.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mudline next to Muddy River from the 1980 <!--del_lnk--> lahars.</div> </div> </div> <p>The hot, exploding material also broke apart and melted nearly all of the mountain's <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> along with most of the overlying <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a>. As in many previous St. Helens' eruptions, this created huge <!--del_lnk--> lahars (volcanic <!--del_lnk--> mudflows) and muddy <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">floods</a> that affected 3 of the 4 <!--del_lnk--> stream drainage systems on the mountain and which started to move as early as 8:50 a.m. Lahars traveled as fast as 90 mph (145 km/h) while still high on the volcano but progressively slowed to about 3 mph (5 km/h) on the flatter and wider parts of rivers. Mudflows off the southern and eastern flanks had the consistency of wet <!--del_lnk--> concrete as they raced down Muddy River, Pine Creek, and Smith Creek to their confluence at the <!--del_lnk--> Lewis River. Bridges were taken out at the mouth of Pine Creek and the head of Swift Reservoir, which rose 2.6 feet (0.8 m) by noon to accommodate the nearly 18 million yard³ (13 million m³) of additional water, mud, and debris.<p>Glacier and snow melt mixed with tephra on the volcano's northeast slope to create much larger lahars. These mudflows traveled down the north and south forks of the Toutle River and joined at the confluence of the Toutle forks and the <!--del_lnk--> Cowlitz River near <!--del_lnk--> Castle Rock, Washington, at 1:00 p.m. Ninety minutes after the eruption, the first mudflow had moved 27 river miles (43 km) upstream where observers at <!--del_lnk--> Weyerhaeuser's Camp saw a 12-foot-high (3.7 m) wall of muddy water and debris pass. Near the confluence of the Toutle's north and south forks at <!--del_lnk--> Silver Lake, a record <!--del_lnk--> flood stage of 23.5 feet (7.16 m) was recorded.<p>A large but slower-moving mudflow with a mortar-like consistency was mobilized in early afternoon at the head of North Fork Toutle. By 2:30 p.m. the massive mudflow had destroyed Weyerhauser's Camp Baker, and in the following hours seven bridges were carried away. Part of the flow backed up for 2.5 miles (4 km) soon after entering the Cowlitz River but most continued downstream. After traveling 17 miles (27 km) more, an estimated 3.9 million yard³ (2.98 million m³) of material were injected into the <a href="../../wp/c/Columbia_River.htm" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a>, reducing the river's depth by 25 feet (7.6 m) for a four-mile (6 km) stretch. The resulting 13-foot (4 m) river depth temporarily closed the busy channel to <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">ocean</a>-going <!--del_lnk--> freighters, costing <!--del_lnk--> Portland, Oregon, an estimated five million <!--del_lnk--> US dollars. Ultimately more than 65 million yards³ (50 million m³) of sediment were dumped along the lower Cowlitz and Columbia Rivers.<p><a id="Aftermath" name="Aftermath"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aftermath</span></h2> <p><a id="Direct_results" name="Direct_results"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Direct results</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23042.jpg.htm" title="Map showing 1980 eruption deposits."><img alt="Map showing 1980 eruption deposits." height="252" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Helens_map_showing_1980_eruption_deposits.jpg" src="../../images/230/23042.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23042.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map showing 1980 eruption deposits.</div> </div> </div> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> May 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1980, event was the most deadly and economically destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Fifty-seven people were killed and 200 homes, 47 bridges, 15 miles (24 km) of railways and 185 miles (300 km) of <!--del_lnk--> highway were destroyed. U.S. President <a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> surveyed the damage and stated it looked more desolate than a <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">moonscape</a>. A film crew was dropped by <!--del_lnk--> helicopter on St. Helens on <!--del_lnk--> May 23 to document the destruction. Their <!--del_lnk--> compasses, however, spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred the next day (see below), but the crew survived and were rescued two days after that.<p>In all, St. Helens released an amount of <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> equivalent to 27,000 <!--del_lnk--> Hiroshima-sized <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_weapon.htm" title="Nuclear weapon">atomic bombs</a> (approximately 350 <!--del_lnk--> megatons) and ejected more than 1 <!--del_lnk--> cubic mile (4 km³) of material. One-fourth of that volume was fresh lava in the form of ash, pumice, and volcanic bombs while the rest was fragmented, older <!--del_lnk--> rock. The removal of the north side of the mountain reduced St. Helens' height by about 1,313 feet (400 m) and left a crater 1 to 2 miles (2 to 3 km) wide and 2,100 feet (640 m) deep with its north end open in a huge breach.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23043.jpg.htm" title="St. Helens in September 1980."><img alt="St. Helens in September 1980." height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Helens_in_September_1980.jpg" src="../../images/230/23043.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23043.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> St. Helens in September 1980.</div> </div> </div> <p>More than 4 billion board feet (14.6 km³) of <!--del_lnk--> timber were damaged or destroyed, primarily by the lateral blast. At least 25% of the destroyed timber was salvaged after September 1980. Downwind of the volcano, in areas of thick ash accumulation, many agricultural crops, such as <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Apple.htm" title="Apple">apples</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Potato.htm" title="Potato">potatoes</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> alfalfa, were destroyed. As many as 1,500 <!--del_lnk--> elk and 5,000 <!--del_lnk--> deer were killed, and an estimated 12 million <!--del_lnk--> Chinook and <!--del_lnk--> Coho salmon fingerlings died when their hatcheries were destroyed. Another estimated 40,000 young <!--del_lnk--> salmon were lost when they swam through <!--del_lnk--> turbine blades of <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric generators due to the need to have low <!--del_lnk--> reservoirs levels along the Lewis River to accommodate possible mudflows and <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">flood</a> waters.<p><a id="Digging_out" name="Digging_out"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Digging out</span></h3> <p>The ash fall created some temporary but major problems with <a href="../../wp/t/Transport.htm" title="Transport">transportation</a>, <!--del_lnk--> sewage disposal, and <!--del_lnk--> water treatment systems. Visibility was greatly decreased during the ash fall, closing many <!--del_lnk--> highways and <!--del_lnk--> roads. <!--del_lnk--> Interstate 90 from <a href="../../wp/s/Seattle%252C_Washington.htm" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Spokane was closed for a week and a half. Air transportation was disrupted for a few days to 2 weeks as several <!--del_lnk--> airports in eastern Washington shut down due to ash accumulation and poor visibility. Over a thousand commercial flights were cancelled following airport closures. Fine-grained, gritty ash caused substantial problems for <!--del_lnk--> internal-combustion engines and other mechanical and electrical equipment. The ash contaminated oil systems, clogged air filters, and scratched moving surfaces. Fine ash caused <!--del_lnk--> short circuits in electrical transformers, which in turn caused power <!--del_lnk--> blackouts.<p>Removing and disposing of the ash was a monumental task for some eastern Washington communities. State and Federal agencies estimated that over 2.4 million yards³ (1.8 million m³) of ash—equivalent to about 900,000 tons in weight—were removed from highways and airports in Washington. Ash removal cost $2.2 million and took 10 weeks in Yakima. The need to remove ash quickly from transportation routes and civil works dictated the selection of some disposal sites. Some cities used old quarries and existing sanitary <!--del_lnk--> landfills; others created dumpsites wherever expedient. To minimize wind reworking of ash dumps, the surfaces of some disposal sites have been covered with topsoil and seeded with <!--del_lnk--> grass.<p><a id="Cost" name="Cost"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cost</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23044.jpg.htm" title="One of the 200 homes destroyed by the eruption."><img alt="One of the 200 homes destroyed by the eruption." height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Home_destroyed_by_1980_St_Helens_eruption1.jpg" src="../../images/230/23044.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23044.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> One of the 200 homes destroyed by the eruption.</div> </div> </div> <p>Early estimates of the cost of the eruption ranged from <!--del_lnk--> US $2–3 billion. A refined estimate of $1.1 billion was determined in a study by the <!--del_lnk--> International Trade Commission at the request of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Congress.htm" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a>. A supplemental appropriation of $951 million for disaster relief was voted by Congress, of which the largest share went to the <!--del_lnk--> Small Business Administration, <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Emergency Management Agency.<p>There were also indirect and intangible costs of the eruption. <!--del_lnk--> Unemployment in the immediate region of Mount St. Helens rose tenfold in the weeks immediately following the eruption and then nearly returned to normal once timber salvaging and ash-cleanup operations were underway. Only a small percentage of residents left the region because of lost jobs owing to the eruption. Several months after <!--del_lnk--> May 18, a few residents reported suffering <!--del_lnk--> stress and <a href="../../wp/e/Emotion.htm" title="Emotion">emotional</a> problems, even though they had coped successfully during the crisis. Counties in the region requested funding for mental health programs to assist such people.<p>Initial public reaction to the <!--del_lnk--> May 18 eruption nearly dealt a crippling blow to <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a>, an important industry in Washington. Not only was tourism down in the Mount St. Helens–<!--del_lnk--> Gifford Pinchot National Forest area, but conventions, meetings, and social gatherings also were canceled or postponed at cities and resorts elsewhere in Washington and neighboring <a href="../../wp/o/Oregon.htm" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> not affected by the eruption. The negative impact on tourism and conventioneering, however, proved only temporary. Mount St. Helens, perhaps because of its reawakening, has regained its appeal for tourists. The <!--del_lnk--> National Forest Service and the State of Washington opened visitor centers and provided access for people to view the volcano's devastation.<p><a id="Later_eruptions" name="Later_eruptions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Later eruptions</span></h2> <p>St. Helens produced five more explosive eruptions between May and October of 1980. Through early 1990, a total of at least 21 periods of eruptive activity had occurred. The volcano remains active, with smaller, dome-building eruptions continuing into 2006.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23045.jpg.htm" title="Eruption on July 22, 1980."><img alt="Eruption on July 22, 1980." height="265" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Helens_July_22%2C_1980_eruption.jpg" src="../../images/230/23045.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23045.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Eruption on <!--del_lnk--> July 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1980.</div> </div> </div> <p>An eruption occurred on <!--del_lnk--> May 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1980 at 2:30 a.m. that sent an ash column 9 miles (14 km) into the atmosphere. The eruption was preceded by a sudden increase in earthquake activity and occurred during a <!--del_lnk--> rain storm. Erratic <a href="../../wp/w/Wind.htm" title="Wind">wind</a> from the storm carried ash from the eruption to the south and west, lightly dusting large parts of western Washington and <a href="../../wp/o/Oregon.htm" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>. Pyroclastic flows exited the northern breach and covered avalanche debris, lahars, and other pyroclastic flows deposited by the <!--del_lnk--> May 18 eruption.<p>At 7:05 p.m. on <!--del_lnk--> June 12, a plume of ash billowed 2.5 miles (4 km) above the volcano. At 9:09 p.m. a much stronger explosion sent an ash column about 10 miles (16 km) into the air. A <!--del_lnk--> dacite dome then oozed into existence on the crater floor, growing to a height of 200 feet (60 m) and a width of 1,200 feet (365 m) inside a week.<p>A series of large explosions on <!--del_lnk--> July 22 broke more than a month of relative quiet. The July eruptive episode was preceded by several days of measurable expansion of the summit area, heightened earthquake activity, and changed emission rates of <!--del_lnk--> sulfur dioxide and <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. The first hit at 5:14 p.m. as an ash column shot 10 miles (16 km) and was followed by a faster blast at 6:25 p.m. that pushed the ash column above its previous maximum height in just 7.5 minutes. The final explosion started at 7:01 p.m. and continued for over two hours. When the relatively small amount of ash settled over eastern Washington, the dome built in June was gone.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23046.jpg.htm" title="The growing third dome on October 24, 1980."><img alt="The growing third dome on October 24, 1980." height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Helens_dome_on_October_24%2C_1980.jpg" src="../../images/230/23046.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23046.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The growing third dome on <!--del_lnk--> October 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1980.</div> </div> </div> <p>Seismic activity and gas emission steadily increased in early August, and on <!--del_lnk--> August 7 at 4:26 p.m., an ash cloud slowly expanded 8 miles (13 km) skyward. Small pyroclastic flows were sent through the northern breach and weaker outpouring of ash rose from the crater. This continued until 10:32 p.m. when a second large blast sent ash high into the air. A second dacite dome filled this vent a few days later.<p>Two months of repose were ended by an eruption lasting from <!--del_lnk--> October 16 to <!--del_lnk--> October 18. This event obliterated the second dome, sent ash 10 miles (16 km) in the air and created small, red-hot pyroclastic flows. A third dome began to form within 30 minutes after the final explosion on <!--del_lnk--> October 18, and within a few days, it was about 900 feet (275 m) wide and 130 feet (40 m) high.<p>All of the post-1980 eruptions were quiet dome-building events, beginning with the <!--del_lnk--> December 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1980, to <!--del_lnk--> January 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, episode. By 1987 the third dome had grown to be more than 3,000 feet (900 m) wide and 800 feet (240 m) high. At this rate and assuming additional destructive eruptions do not occur, St. Helens' summit should be restored sometime in the mid to late 22nd century. See the main <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_St._Helens.htm" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a> article for the most recent updates.<br style="clear:both;" /> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Volcano', 'U.S. state', 'California', 'United States', 'Earthquake', 'Magma', 'Mount St. Helens', 'Volcano', "Earth's atmosphere", 'Snow', 'Ice', 'Glacier', 'Columbia River', 'Animal', 'Earthquake', 'Volcano', 'Avalanche', 'Magma', 'Radio', 'Wave', 'Forest', 'Tree', 'Water', 'Sound', 'Gas', 'Human', 'Yellowstone National Park', 'Denver, Colorado', 'Minnesota', 'Rain', 'Glacier', 'Snow', 'Flood', 'Columbia River', 'Ocean', 'United States', 'Jimmy Carter', 'Moon', 'Energy', 'Nuclear weapon', 'Wheat', 'Apple', 'Potato', 'Flood', 'Transport', 'Seattle, Washington', 'United States Congress', 'Emotion', 'Tourism', 'Oregon', 'Wind', 'Oregon', 'Carbon dioxide', 'Mount St. Helens']
1997_Pacific_hurricane_season	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="1997 Pacific hurricane season,1950-1969 Pacific hurricane seasons,1972 Pacific hurricane season,1976 Pacific hurricane season,1982 Pacific hurricane season,1983 Pacific hurricane season,1991 Pacific hurricane season,1992 Pacific hurricane season,1995-1999 North Indian cyclone seasons,1995 Pacific hurricane season,1996-97 Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclone season" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>1997 Pacific hurricane season</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "1997_Pacific_hurricane_season"; var wgTitle = "1997 Pacific hurricane season"; var wgArticleId = 2187605; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-1997_Pacific_hurricane_season"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">1997 Pacific hurricane season</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Natural_Disasters.htm">Natural Disasters</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption><big><b>1997 Pacific hurricane season</b></big></caption> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16126.png.htm" title="Season summary map"><img alt="Season summary map" height="159" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1997_Pacific_hurricane_season_map.png" src="../../images/161/16126.png" width="250" /></a><br /><small><i>Season summary map</i></small></td> </tr> <tr> <th>First storm formed:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Last storm dissipated:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1997 <small>record</small></td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th>Strongest storm:</th> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Linda</i> - 902 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (902 hpa) <small>(record)</small>, 160 knots (300 km/h) <small>(record)</small></td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0;"> <th>Total storms:</th> <td>19</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th>Major storms (<!--del_lnk--> Cat. 3+):</th> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total damage:</th> <td>>$7.6 billion (1997 <!--del_lnk--> USD)<small>(record)</small></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total fatalities:</th> <td>234-404 direct</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"> </td> </tr> <tr align="center" style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Pacific hurricane seasons</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> 1995, <!--del_lnk--> 1996, <b>1997</b>, <!--del_lnk--> 1998, <!--del_lnk--> 1999</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>1997 Pacific hurricane season</b> was an annual event in <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a> <a href="../../wp/m/Meteorology.htm" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>. It was one of the most active seasons. With hundreds of deaths and billions of dollars in damage, this season the costliest and one of the deadliest <!--del_lnk--> Pacific hurricane seasons.<p>Hurricanes Linda, Pauline, and Nora were the most notable storms in 1997. <!--del_lnk--> Linda became the most intense east Pacific hurricane in recorded history. <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Pauline killed several hundred people in <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> due to heavy flooding, while <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Nora caused flooding and damage in the <!--del_lnk--> Southwestern United States. In addition, Super Typhoons Oliwa and <!--del_lnk--> Paka originated in region before crossing the International Date Line and causing significant damage in the western Pacific.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Season_summary" name="Season_summary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Season summary</span></h2> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background:transparent;text-align:center"> <tr> <td colspan="7" nowrap><small><!--del_lnk--> Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale</small></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#5ebaff;width:1.8em" title="Tropical Depression: 0–38 mph (0–62 km/h)">TD</td> <td style="background-color:#00faf4;width:1.8em" title="Tropical Storm: 39–73 mph (63–117 km/h)">TS</td> <td style="background-color:#ffffcc;width:1.8em" title="Category 1: 74–95 mph (119–153 km/h)">1</td> <td style="background-color:#ffe775;width:1.8em" title="Category 2: 96–110 mph (154–177 km/h)">2</td> <td style="background-color:#ffc140;width:1.8em" title="Category 3: 111–130 mph (178–209 km/h)">3</td> <td style="background-color:#ff8f20;width:1.8em" title="Category 4: 131–155 mph (210–249 km/h)">4</td> <td style="background-color:#ff6060;width:1.8em" title="Category 5: >=156 mph (>=250 km/h)">5</td> </tr> </table> <p>The 1997 Pacific hurricane season officially started on <!--del_lnk--> May 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1997 in the eastern Pacific, and on <!--del_lnk--> June 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1997 in the central Pacific, and lasted until <!--del_lnk--> November 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1997. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>. This season exceeded these boundaries appreciably, as Tropical Storm Paka formed <!--del_lnk--> December 2, and dissipated nineteen days later after moving into the Western Pacific.<p>The 1997 Pacific hurricane season was fairly active, due to the strong <a href="../../wp/e/El_Ni%25C3%25B1o-Southern_Oscillation.htm" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> that was occurring at the time. El Niño causes wind shear to be reduced and water temperatures to increase, resulting in conditions more favourable for tropical cyclones in the East Pacific.<p>There were 24 cyclones in total, including five unnamed tropical depressions. Of these, 19 were in the east Pacific (east of 140° W). Of these, eight peaked at tropical storm intensity, while ten reached hurricane status. Seven of these reached Category 3 intensity or higher on the <!--del_lnk--> Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale, including Super Typhoons Oliwa and Paka, which became typhoons after crossing into the western Pacific.<p>Activity in the central Pacific was also above average. Two tropical storms formed, as did several tropical depressions. A number of storms moved in from the east. With a total of nine tropical cyclones entering or forming there, this was the fourth highest number since satellite observations began.<p>The first storm formed on <!--del_lnk--> June 1. The last storm dissipated <!--del_lnk--> December 21, which gives this season the latest known end. However, if <!--del_lnk--> December 6, the date the last storm crossed the dateline is taken to be the end, this season has the second latest end, behind the <!--del_lnk--> 1983 season and tied with <!--del_lnk--> 1957 season.<p><a id="Storms" name="Storms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Storms</span></h2> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Andres" name="Tropical_Storm_Andres"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Andres</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Andres</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16127.jpg.htm" title="TropicalStormAndres1997.JPG"><img alt="TropicalStormAndres1997.JPG" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TropicalStormAndres1997.JPG" src="../../images/161/16127.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16128.png.htm" title="Andres 1997 track.png"><img alt="Andres 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andres_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16128.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> June 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> June 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">50 <!--del_lnk--> mph (85 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 998 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Andres originated as a disturbance that had slowly organized formed into Tropical Depression One-E on <!--del_lnk--> June 1. The next day, it reached tropical storm status. After a brief period of a normal track to the northwest, Andres was picked up by westerly winds and became the first named storm to threaten <!--del_lnk--> Central America. Initially forecast to cross the isthmus and enter the <a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a>, Andres instead turned to the southeast and paralleled the coast. This was the first time any East Pacific storm had taken such a path. Andres then turned back to the northeast. It weakened to a depression and made landfall near <!--del_lnk--> San Salvador on <!--del_lnk--> June 7 and dissipated shortly thereafter.<p>The only casualties were two fishermen who were reported missing. <!--del_lnk--> Power outages, flooding rivers, several <!--del_lnk--> car crashes, and damage to roughly ten homes was attributed to Andres. Damage was noted in parts of <a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Blanca" name="Tropical_Storm_Blanca"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Blanca</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Blanca</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16129.jpg.htm" title="TropicalStormBlanca1997.JPG"><img alt="TropicalStormBlanca1997.JPG" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TropicalStormBlanca1997.JPG" src="../../images/161/16129.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16130.png.htm" title="Blanca 1997 track.png"><img alt="Blanca 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blanca_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16130.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> June 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> June 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">45 <!--del_lnk--> mph (75 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1002 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Blanca was a short-lived tropical storm that briefly threatened land. Tropical Depression Two-E formed <!--del_lnk--> June 9 and strengthened into Tropical Storm Blanca six hours later. It moved northwest and briefly threatened land on <!--del_lnk--> June 10 as <!--del_lnk--> warnings and watches were established by the <!--del_lnk--> Meteorological Service of Mexico. Then, a ridge of high pressure turned Blanca away from the coast.<p>Despite moving over warm waters, a weakening trend unexpectly began, and Blanca was downgraded to a depression. and Blanca lost its circulation shortly after being downgraded on <!--del_lnk--> June 12.<p>Rains from Blanca were significant. There was no damage or casualties as Blanca's impact was generally minimal.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Carlos" name="Tropical_Storm_Carlos"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Carlos</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Carlos</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16131.jpg.htm" title="Tropical storm carlos (1997).jpg"><img alt="Tropical storm carlos (1997).jpg" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_storm_carlos_%281997%29.jpg" src="../../images/161/16131.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16132.png.htm" title="Carlos 1997 track.png"><img alt="Carlos 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Carlos_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16132.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> June 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> June 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">50 <!--del_lnk--> mph (85 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 996 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 25, a <!--del_lnk--> tropical wave that drifted in from the Atlantic became a tropical depression and that same day developed into Tropical Storm Carlos. As it moved west, Carlos encountered shearing winds and cooler waters and lost its tropical storm status after barely a day, and finally dissipated <!--del_lnk--> June 28. Except for <!--del_lnk--> Socorro Island, which the system passed close to, Carlos never threatened land.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Dolores" name="Hurricane_Dolores"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Dolores</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Dolores</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffffcc;"><!--del_lnk--> 1</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16133.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane dolores (1997).JPG"><img alt="Hurricane dolores (1997).JPG" height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_dolores_%281997%29.JPG" src="../../images/161/16133.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16134.png.htm" title="Dolores 1997 track.png"><img alt="Dolores 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dolores_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16134.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> July 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> July 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">95 <!--del_lnk--> mph (150 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 975 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Dolores began as Tropical Depression Six-E, forming late on <!--del_lnk--> July 5 and reaching tropical storm status the following day. Moving westward, Dolores strengthened into the first hurricane of the season on <!--del_lnk--> July 7. It reached a peak windspeed of 80 knots (150 km/h). Dolores then became the first hurricane in over two years to cross the 125° W <!--del_lnk--> meridian. The storm then started losing strength. Dolores dropped down to a depression on <!--del_lnk--> July 11 and dissipated late the next day after crossing into the Central Pacific Hurricane Centre's area of responsibility. The hurricane was not a threat to any land.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Enrique" name="Hurricane_Enrique"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Enrique</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Enrique</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffc140;"><!--del_lnk--> 3</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16135.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane enrique (1997).jpg"><img alt="Hurricane enrique (1997).jpg" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_enrique_%281997%29.jpg" src="../../images/161/16135.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16136.png.htm" title="Enrique 1997 track.png"><img alt="Enrique 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Enrique_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16136.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> July 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> July 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">115 <!--del_lnk--> mph (185 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 960 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Enrique was the first major hurricane of the season. It originiated on <!--del_lnk--> July 12 when a tropical depression formed. It strengthened into a tropical storm twelve hours later, and became a hurricane on <!--del_lnk--> July 13. Enrique began fluctuating in intensity and reached its peak intensity of 100 knots (190 km/h) and 960 mbar (960 hPa) on <!--del_lnk--> July 14. Enrique then began to weaken, and dissipated over cooler waters on <!--del_lnk--> July 16. Enrique never threatened land.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Felicia" name="Hurricane_Felicia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Felicia</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Felicia</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff8f20;"><!--del_lnk--> 4</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16137.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane felicia (1997).JPG"><img alt="Hurricane felicia (1997).JPG" height="149" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_felicia_%281997%29.JPG" src="../../images/161/16137.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16138.png.htm" title="Felicia 1997 track.png"><img alt="Felicia 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Felicia_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16138.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> July 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> July 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">135 <!--del_lnk--> mph (215 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 948 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Depression Eight-E, the storm that would become Felicia, formed south of the <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexican</a> port of <!--del_lnk--> Manzanillo, Colima, on <!--del_lnk--> July 13. Its development was delayed by <!--del_lnk--> wind shear due to its proximity to Enrique. It became a tropical storm late <!--del_lnk--> July 15 as it moved west-northwestward. It became a hurricane <!--del_lnk--> July 17. Its development was again stalled by shear. After the shear let up, Felicia’s winds reached 115 knots (215 km/h) and its pressure fell to 948 mbar (948 hPa), making it the second major hurricane of the season. Felicia then began weakening. Shortly before being downgraded to a tropical storm, it crossed 140° W. Felicia was sheared and dissipated <!--del_lnk--> July 22, having never threatened land.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Guillermo" name="Hurricane_Guillermo"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Guillermo</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Guillermo</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff6060;"><!--del_lnk--> 5</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16139.jpg.htm" title="HurricaneGuillermo1997.JPG"><img alt="HurricaneGuillermo1997.JPG" height="103" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HurricaneGuillermo1997.JPG" src="../../images/161/16139.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16140.png.htm" title="Guillermo 1997 track.png"><img alt="Guillermo 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Guillermo_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16140.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> July 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> August 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1997<br /> (extratropical after <!--del_lnk--> August 15)</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">160 <!--del_lnk--> mph (260 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 919 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>A tropical wave that drifted across the <!--del_lnk--> shear-ridden Atlantic emerged into the Pacific Ocean on <!--del_lnk--> July 27. It organized into a depression <!--del_lnk--> July 30 and was named Tropical Storm Guillermo the next day. It quickly intensified, reaching hurricane status on <!--del_lnk--> August 1. Guillermo became a major hurricane <!--del_lnk--> August 2. It reached Category 4 intensity on <!--del_lnk--> August 3 before weakening slightly and restrengthening. The hurricane attained Category 5 strength <!--del_lnk--> August 4. Guillermo's peak intensity was 919 mbar (919 hPa) and 140 knots (260 km/h).<p>Guillermo then weakened slowly, becoming a tropical storm <!--del_lnk--> August 8. It crossed 140° W and entered the Central Pacific. It weakened to a depression late <!--del_lnk--> August 10 but restrengthened back into a storm 24 hours later when it encountered a small area of warm water. It weakened to a depression for the second and final time <!--del_lnk--> August 15 and lost tropical characteristics early the next day.<p>Guillermo's remnants recurved over the far northern Pacific. They were tracked to a point 500 <!--del_lnk--> nautical miles west of <!--del_lnk--> Vancouver Island. The remnants hung on for a few more days and drifted south before being absorbed by a mid-latitude cyclone <!--del_lnk--> August 24 off the coast of <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Hilda" name="Tropical_Storm_Hilda"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Hilda</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Hilda</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16141.jpg.htm" title="Tropical storm hilda (1997).JPG"><img alt="Tropical storm hilda (1997).JPG" height="142" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_storm_hilda_%281997%29.JPG" src="../../images/161/16141.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16142.png.htm" title="Hilda 1997 track.png"><img alt="Hilda 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hilda_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16142.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> August 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">50 <!--del_lnk--> mph (85 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1000 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>A tropical wave that had showed hints of development emerged into the East Pacific and organized into Tropical Depression Ten-E on <!--del_lnk--> August 10. Its development was inhibited by shear from a large <!--del_lnk--> mid-latitude cyclone. The depression managed to become a tropical storm late on <!--del_lnk--> August 11. Hilda was a tropical storm for less than three days. Shear weakened Hilda to a depression <!--del_lnk--> August 14 and destroyed the cyclone early on <!--del_lnk--> August 15. Hilda was no threat to land.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Ignacio" name="Tropical_Storm_Ignacio"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Ignacio</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Ignacio</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16143.jpg.htm" title="Tropical storm ignacio (1997).JPG"><img alt="Tropical storm ignacio (1997).JPG" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_storm_ignacio_%281997%29.JPG" src="../../images/161/16143.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16144.png.htm" title="Ignacio 1997 track.png"><img alt="Ignacio 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ignacio_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16144.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> August 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1997<br /> (extratropical after <!--del_lnk--> August 19)</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">40 <!--del_lnk--> mph (65 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1005 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Storm Ignacio formed first as a depression in an area of disturbed weather on <!--del_lnk--> August 17. 12 hours later, it organized into a tropical storm. Ignacio's location of tropical cyclogenesis was further north and west of where most East Pacific tropical cyclones form. Steering currents pulled Ignacio north, where it encountered wind shear and cooler waters. Ignacio lost tropical characteristics <!--del_lnk--> August 19. The remnants moved north, bringing gusty winds to California coastal waters before dissipating. They were then absorbed by the same cyclone that absorbed the remnants of Hurricane Guillermo. It caused rainfall as far north as the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Washington.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Jimena" name="Hurricane_Jimena"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Jimena</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Jimena</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff8f20;"><!--del_lnk--> 4</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16145.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane jimena (1997).JPG"><img alt="Hurricane jimena (1997).JPG" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_jimena_%281997%29.JPG" src="../../images/161/16145.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16146.png.htm" title="Jimena 1997 track.png"><img alt="Jimena 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jimena_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16146.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> August 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">140 <!--del_lnk--> mph (225 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 942 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>The next hurricane of the season, Jimena, had a very rapid intensification and an equally rapid decay. Tropical Depression Twelve-E formed <!--del_lnk--> August 25 from an area of disturbed weather in a rather easterly location. It became a tropical storm the next day and a hurricane on <!--del_lnk--> August 27. Intensification was rapid, with winds increasing from 65 to 115 knots (120 to 215 km/h) in the space of 12 to 15 hours.<p>It moved north-northwest. Jimena encountered an upper level trough. This caused very heavy wind shear which reduced its winds from 115 to 30 knots (215 to 60 km/h) in the space of a day. Jimena completely dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> August 30, not long after entering the Central Pacific. Hurricane Jimena was of no threat to land.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Super_Typhoon_Oliwa" name="Super_Typhoon_Oliwa"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Super Typhoon Oliwa</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Super Typhoon Oliwa</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff6060;"><!--del_lnk--> 5</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16147.jpg.htm" title="Super typhoon oliwa.JPG"><img alt="Super typhoon oliwa.JPG" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Super_typhoon_oliwa.JPG" src="../../images/161/16147.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16148.png.htm" title="Oliwa 1997 track.png"><img alt="Oliwa 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Oliwa_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16148.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> September 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">160 <!--del_lnk--> mph (260 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 898 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Super Typhoon Oliwa began as a tropical disturbance that had meandered south of <a href="../../wp/j/Johnston_Atoll.htm" title="Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a> organized into Tropical Depression Two-C on <!--del_lnk--> September 2. Later that day, it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Oliwa (<!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian for Oliver) as it slowly moved towards the west. It crossed the <!--del_lnk--> dateline late on <!--del_lnk--> September 3 and entered the <!--del_lnk--> Joint Typhoon Warning Centre's Area of Responsibility. In the Pacific Ocean, tropical cyclones are not renamed when they cross basin boundaries, so Oliwa kept its name.<p>Oliwa passed south of <a href="../../wp/w/Wake_Island.htm" title="Wake Island">Wake</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 6, where it caused heavy rains but no damage. On <!--del_lnk--> September 7, Oliwa started a period of rapid strengthening, becoming a typhoon on <!--del_lnk--> September 8 and a Super Typhoon 8 hours later. Oliwa stayed at that intensity for over two days. While still a strong super typhoon, Oliwa passed near the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Marianas Islands. It then started weakening as it curved towards Japan. It made landfall as a minimal typhoon <!--del_lnk--> September 16. It quickly dissipated later that same day. Oliwa caused "damage and several fatalities" in Japan.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Kevin" name="Tropical_Storm_Kevin"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Kevin</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Kevin</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16149.jpg.htm" title="Tropical storm kevin (1997).JPG"><img alt="Tropical storm kevin (1997).JPG" height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_storm_kevin_%281997%29.JPG" src="../../images/161/16149.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16150.png.htm" title="Kevin 1997 track.png"><img alt="Kevin 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kevin_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16150.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> September 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">60 <!--del_lnk--> mph (95 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 994 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Storm Kevin, first displayed hints of development while crossing the Atlantic Ocean, and soon developed enough circulation to be a depression in the Pacific on <!--del_lnk--> September 3. It became a tropical storm on the morning of <!--del_lnk--> September 4. The environment was unfavourable, and two days later, Kevin weakened to a depression when deep convection ceased. It dissipated early on <!--del_lnk--> September 7, having never posed a threat to land.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Linda" name="Hurricane_Linda"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Linda</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Linda</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff6060;"><!--del_lnk--> 5</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16151.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Linda 12 sept 1997 2100Z.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Linda 12 sept 1997 2100Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Linda_12_sept_1997_2100Z.jpg" src="../../images/161/16151.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16152.png.htm" title="Linda 1997 track.png"><img alt="Linda 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Linda_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16152.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> September 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">185 <!--del_lnk--> mph (300 <!--del_lnk--> km/h) (record in <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">E. Pacific</a>),<br /> 902 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Hurricane Linda became the most powerful East Pacific hurricane ever observed when, on <!--del_lnk--> September 12, it reached a maximum windspeed of 160 knots (300 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 902 mbar (902 hPa).<p>Linda had no effect on any land, other than <!--del_lnk--> Socorro Island. However, early forecasts predicted that Linda would <!--del_lnk--> make landfall in California. The landfall never materialized, and Linda dissipated early <!--del_lnk--> September 18 while far out to sea. <!--del_lnk--> Warnings or watches were not necessary for any location.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Marty" name="Tropical_Storm_Marty"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Marty</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Marty</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16153.jpg.htm" title="Tropical storm marty (1997).JPG"><img alt="Tropical storm marty (1997).JPG" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_storm_marty_%281997%29.JPG" src="../../images/161/16153.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16154.png.htm" title="Marty 1997 track.png"><img alt="Marty 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Marty_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16154.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> September 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">45 <!--del_lnk--> mph (75 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1002 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Marty was a weak and short-lived tropical cyclone. Two tropical waves contributed to an area of disturbed weather that organized into Tropical Depression Fifteen-E late on <!--del_lnk--> September 12. Moving glacially in a westward direction, it strengthened into a tropical storm in the morning of <!--del_lnk--> September 14. Marty's forward speed slowed even more, and it turned to the south. It then encountered an unfavourable environment, and shear destroyed the cyclone late on <!--del_lnk--> September 16.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Nora" name="Hurricane_Nora"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Nora</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Nora</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff8f20;"><!--del_lnk--> 4</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16155.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Nora 21 sept 1997 1530Z.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Nora 21 sept 1997 1530Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Nora_21_sept_1997_1530Z.jpg" src="../../images/161/16155.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16156.png.htm" title="Nora 1997 track.png"><img alt="Nora 1997 track.png" height="111" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nora_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16156.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> September 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">135 <!--del_lnk--> mph (215 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 950 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Nora was the first hurricane to bring <!--del_lnk--> gale-force winds to the <!--del_lnk--> Continental United States since <!--del_lnk--> Kathleen in 1976. A tropical wave organized into Tropical Depression Sixteen-E on <!--del_lnk--> September 16 quickly strengthened into a tropical storm. Nora eventually peaked at Category 4. It then encountered water temperature anomalies, and fluctuated in strength. Then, a <!--del_lnk--> trough pulled Nora northward and accelerated the storm. After weakening to a Category 1, Nora made landfall in northern <!--del_lnk--> Baja California and stayed a tropical storm as it entered the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. It dissipated over <!--del_lnk--> Arizona, but its remnants kept going north.<p>Rains were heavy, and damage amounted to "several hundred million dollars" in the United States. Several hundred people were rendered homeless, and there was wind and flood damage in <!--del_lnk--> Arizona. Nora killed two people in Mexico, and several indirect deaths were reported in <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Olaf" name="Tropical_Storm_Olaf"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Olaf</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Olaf</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16157.jpg.htm" title="Tropical storm olaf (1997).JPG"><img alt="Tropical storm olaf (1997).JPG" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_storm_olaf_%281997%29.JPG" src="../../images/161/16157.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16158.png.htm" title="Olaf 1997 track.png"><img alt="Olaf 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Olaf_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16158.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> October 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">70 <!--del_lnk--> mph (110 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 989 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Storm Olaf was a weak but persistent tropical storm that made two landfalls and took an erratic path. A tropical depression formed <!--del_lnk--> September 26, was upgraded a tropical storm at the next advisory. The cyclone immediately moved north. Instead of strengthening into a hurricane as forecast, Olaf unexpectedly weakened. On <!--del_lnk--> September 29, Olaf made landfall near <!--del_lnk--> Salina Cruz, <!--del_lnk--> Oaxaca.<p>Olaf dissipated, and its remnants reversed direction and moved far out to sea. During later reanalysis, Olaf was found to be a tropical depression during most of this time, but at the time was considered dissipated. Olaf's remnants reformed, and started moving southeast on <!--del_lnk--> October 5. Olaf then turned to the north, and on <!--del_lnk--> October 12 made a second landfall near <!--del_lnk--> Manzanillo, <!--del_lnk--> Colima, as a tropical depression. Olaf dissipated, and the remnants again moved out to sea where they did not regenerate.<p>Olaf resulted in some reports of damage and flooding in Mexico and Guatemala. Several people were reported missing. All of its damage was from its first landfall.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Pauline" name="Hurricane_Pauline"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Pauline</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Pauline</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff8f20;"><!--del_lnk--> 4</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16159.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Pauline 07 oct 1997.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Pauline 07 oct 1997.jpg" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Pauline_07_oct_1997.jpg" src="../../images/161/16159.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16160.png.htm" title="Pauline 1997 track.png"><img alt="Pauline 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pauline_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16160.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> October 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> October 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">135 <!--del_lnk--> mph (215 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 948 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical depression Eighteen-E formed <!--del_lnk--> October 5. In a favourable environment, the cyclone to rapidly intensified, reaching Category 4 intensity. After twice peaking at that intensity, interaction with land weakened Pauline to a Category 2 by the time it made landfall on <!--del_lnk--> October 9. It accelerated to the northwest, and passed over a mountainous region. The mountains disrupted Pauline's circulation, and squeezed the moisture from the hurricane. Pauline dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> October 10 while over <!--del_lnk--> Jalisco.<p>Hurricane Pauline was the deadliest storm of the season. Landslides and flooding caused by heavy rain caused tragic loss of life and left thousands homeless. Casualties were at least 230. The <!--del_lnk--> Red Cross reported that 400 deaths, but this was disputed by Mexican officials. Regardless, Pauline was Mexico's deadliest hurricane since <!--del_lnk--> 1976's Liza.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p>In addition, the hurricane caused $7.5 billion in damage (1997 USD). <a id="Hurricane_Rick" name="Hurricane_Rick"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Rick</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Rick</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffe775;"><!--del_lnk--> 2</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16161.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane rick (1997).JPG"><img alt="Hurricane rick (1997).JPG" height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_rick_%281997%29.JPG" src="../../images/161/16161.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16162.png.htm" title="Rick 1997 track.png"><img alt="Rick 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rick_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16162.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> November 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> November 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">100 <!--del_lnk--> mph (160 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 973 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Hurricane Rick was the first November cyclogenesis since the <!--del_lnk--> 1991 season. A <!--del_lnk--> tropical wave acquired enough organization to be called a tropical depression on <!--del_lnk--> November 7. It moved north before a trough of <!--del_lnk--> low pressure turned it to the northeast. It was named on <!--del_lnk--> November 8, and was upgraded to a hurricane the next day. It reached its peak intensity of 80 knots (160 km/h) and 973 mbar (973 hPa) <!--del_lnk--> November 9. Rick made landfall in <!--del_lnk--> Oaxaca—the same area devastated by Hurricane Pauline one month earlier—and quickly weakened, dissipating early <!--del_lnk--> November 11.<p>The storm downed trees, washed out recently repaired roads and disrupted communications in some small population centers. No one was killed.<p>Rick is one of only seven known hurricanes to form in the Pacific Ocean east of the dateline in the month of November. The other ones are <!--del_lnk--> Nina, <!--del_lnk--> Ruby, <!--del_lnk--> Iwa, <!--del_lnk--> Winnie, 1991's Nora, and 2006's Sergio.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Super_Typhoon_Paka" name="Super_Typhoon_Paka"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Super Typhoon Paka</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Super Typhoon Paka</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff6060;"><!--del_lnk--> 5</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16163.gif.htm" title="Typhoon Paka.gif"><img alt="Typhoon Paka.gif" height="111" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Typhoon_Paka.gif" src="../../images/161/16163.gif" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16164.png.htm" title="Paka 1997 track.png"><img alt="Paka 1997 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Paka_1997_track.png" src="../../images/161/16164.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> December 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1997—<!--del_lnk--> December 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">185 <!--del_lnk--> mph (297 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 901 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Depression Five-C formed on <!--del_lnk--> December 2, two days after the season ended. It was the second December tropical depression east of the dateline; <!--del_lnk--> 1983's Hurricane Winnie was the only other one. The depression strengthed into Tropical Storm Paka (<!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian for Pat) while west of <a href="../../wp/p/Palmyra_Atoll.htm" title="Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a>. The system began to move westward at a steady pace. As Paka moved westward, dry air and wind shear disrupted its development until it crossed the dateline on <!--del_lnk--> December 6.<p>After entering the Western Pacific, the cyclone encountered a more favorable environment, resulting in Paka's rapid intensification. It became a typhoon on <!--del_lnk--> December 10 and passed near <!--del_lnk--> Kwajalein with winds of 100 knots (190 km/h). It strengthened further, twice reaching Category 5 intensity. While a Category 4 storm, Paka passed close to Guam on <!--del_lnk--> December 17, causing "major damage". Afterwards, Paka encountered a hostile environment and completely dissipated by the evening of <!--del_lnk--> December 22.<p><a id="Other_storms" name="Other_storms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other storms</span></h3> <p>In addition to the named storms, there were also five tropical depressions that did not reach storm strength. Two of the depressions were in the eastern Pacific while three formed in the central Pacific. None of them threatened land.<p>Tropical Depression Three-E formed <!--del_lnk--> June 21. Moving rapidly westward, it never strengthened and dissipated early on <!--del_lnk--> June 24. Several days later, on <!--del_lnk--> June 29, Five-E formed at midday and erratically moved to the west. After slowing down greatly, the depression dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> July 4.<p>Tropical Depression One-C formed on <!--del_lnk--> July 26 from a disturbance that had been showing signs of development for three days. It moved west to southwest through an unfavorable environment. On the morning of <!--del_lnk--> July 27, it was destroyed by wind shear caused by an upper-level <!--del_lnk--> trough. Tropical Depression Three-C was formed when a tropical disturbance organized into a depression on <!--del_lnk--> October 6. It moved slowly moved westward without intensifying, and dissipated the next day. Nearly a month later, Tropical Depression Four-C formed at night on <!--del_lnk--> October 30 and in a similar location to where One-C formed. Moving westward, it weakened gradually when it encountered a large <!--del_lnk--> mass of dry air, and dissipated late on <!--del_lnk--> October 31.<p><a id="Season_statistics" name="Season_statistics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Season statistics</span></h2> <p><a id="Timeline" name="Timeline"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Timeline</span></h3> <p> <map id="b8215a0adea411a417033de707b00ffd" name="b8215a0adea411a417033de707b00ffd"> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> </map><img src="../../images/456/45627.png" usemap="#b8215a0adea411a417033de707b00ffd" /><p>The season began with the formation of Tropical Depression One-E on <!--del_lnk--> June 1 and ended with the dissipation of Tropical Depression Paka on <!--del_lnk--> December 22. The season can alternatively be considered to end on <!--del_lnk--> December 6, the day Tropical Storm Paka crossed the <!--del_lnk--> international dateline. No named storms formed in May, three in June, four in July, four in August, five in September, one in October, and one in November. Very unusually, a tropical storm formed in December, after the season ended. The only other time this happened since the <!--del_lnk--> satellite era began was in <!--del_lnk--> 1983.<p><a id="Accumulated_Cyclone_Energy" name="Accumulated_Cyclone_Energy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Accumulated Cyclone Energy</span></h3> <table align="right" class="wikitable"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="4"><b>Accumulated Cyclone Energy</b></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Name</th> <th>ACE</th> <th>Name</th> <th>ACE</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Guillermo</td> <td>37.0 (2.97)</td> <td>Olaf</td> <td>2.44</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Linda</td> <td>28.6</td> <td>Andres</td> <td>2.39</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Nora</td> <td>23.4</td> <td>Hilda</td> <td>1.74</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Felicia</td> <td>16.2 (0.665)</td> <td>Kevin</td> <td>1.56</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Jimena</td> <td>11.8</td> <td>Blanca</td> <td>1.13</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Pauline</td> <td>11.3</td> <td>Carlos</td> <td>0.970</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dolores</td> <td>8.36</td> <td>Marty</td> <td>0.858</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Enrique</td> <td>7.88</td> <td>Oliwa</td> <td>(0.810)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Rick</td> <td>3.46</td> <td>Ignacio</td> <td>0.378</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Paka</td> <td>(3.45)</td> <td colspan="2"> </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Total: 160 (7.89)</th> </tr> </table> <p><!--del_lnk--> Accumulated Cyclone Energy is a measure of how active a hurricane season is. It is calculated by squaring the windspeed of a cyclone with at least tropical storm-force winds every six hours, summing the results, and dividing that total by 10<sup>4</sup>. This explains why Hurricane Guillermo has a higher ACE than Linda. It was not as strong as that storm, but because it was above tropical storm force for a longer time, it reached a higher ACE level. As a tropical cyclone does not have gale-force winds until it becomes a tropical storm, tropical depressions are not included in these tables. For all storms, ACE is given to three <!--del_lnk--> significant figures. The ACE in the east Pacific proper (140°W to North America) is given; the ACE in the central Pacific (the international dateline to 140°W) is given in brackets.<p>The table includes the ACE for Oliwa and Paka only during those storm's time east of the dateline. Their ACE west of the dateline is part of the totals of the <!--del_lnk--> 1997 typhoon season.<p>The Nation Hurricane Centre uses ACE to rank hurricane seasons as above-normal, near-normal, and below-normal. It defines below-normal as having an ACE less than 9510<sup>4</sup> kt<sup>2</sup> kt<sup>2</sup>; It defines above normal as having an ACE above 15010<sup>4</sup> kt<sup>2</sup> along with the numbers of any two of the following above average: tropical storms (15), hurricanes (9), or major hurricanes (4); It defines near-normal as having an ACE between 10010<sup>4</sup> kt<sup>2</sup> and 15010<sup>4</sup> kt<sup>2</sup>, or an ACE above 15010<sup>4</sup> kt<sup>2</sup> with fewer than two of the numbers of the following above average: tropical storms (15), hurricanes (9), or major hurricanes (4).<p>This season has a total of 17 tropical storms, 9 hurricanes, 7 major hurricanes. The total ACE of this season is 16010<sup>4</sup> kt<sup>2</sup> in the east Pacific proper. This qualifies this season as above-normal. As of the start of the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 season, it is the most recent above-normal season.<p><a id="Impact" name="Impact"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Impact</span></h3> <center> <table align="center" class="wikitable"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="5">Impact (summary)</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Date of strike</th> <th>Location</th> <th>Deaths</th> <th>Cost</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Andres</td> <td bgcolor="#5EBAFF"><!--del_lnk--> June 7</td> <td bgcolor="#5EBAFF">Near <!--del_lnk--> San Salvador, <a href="../../wp/e/El_Salvador.htm" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a></td> <td>2</td> <td>unknown</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Blanca</td> <td bgcolor="#00FAF4"><!--del_lnk--> June 10</td> <td bgcolor="#00FAF4"><!--del_lnk--> Puerto Angel</td> <td>0</td> <td>minimal</td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Nora</td> <td bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><!--del_lnk--> September 25</td> <td bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><!--del_lnk--> Punta Eugenia</td> <td rowspan="2">6-7</td> <td rowspan="2">≥100 million (1997 USD)</td> </tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><!--del_lnk--> September 25</td> <td bgcolor="#FFFFCC">SSE of <!--del_lnk--> San Fernando</td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Olaf</td> <td bgcolor="#5EBAFF"><!--del_lnk--> September 29</td> <td bgcolor="#5EBAFF">near <!--del_lnk--> Salina Cruz</td> <td rowspan="2">several</td> <td rowspan="2">unknown</td> </tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#5EBAFF"><!--del_lnk--> October 12</td> <td bgcolor="#5EBAFF">near <!--del_lnk--> Manzanillo</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Pauline</td> <td bgcolor="#FFE775"><!--del_lnk--> October 9</td> <td bgcolor="#FFE775">near <!--del_lnk--> Puerto Escondido</td> <td>230-400</td> <td>7.5 billion (1997 USD)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Rick</td> <td bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><!--del_lnk--> November 10</td> <td bgcolor="#FFFFCC">near <!--del_lnk--> Puerto Escondido</td> <td>0</td> <td>unknown</td> </tr> </table> </center> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p>This table summarizes the death toll for selected cyclones. This table is restricted to storms that threatened land only. The colour behind the date and location of landfall indicates its strength at that landfall or near miss. This table excludes <!--del_lnk--> Socorro Island as <!--del_lnk--> watches and warnings are not issued for that location.<p>While east of the dateline, Oliwa and Paka had no impact on land. However, in the western Pacific, Oliwa passed close to <!--del_lnk--> Agrihan and made landfall at Category 1 strength in southern <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>. Paka never made landfall, but its southern <!--del_lnk--> eyewall passed over <a href="../../wp/g/Guam.htm" title="Guam">Guam</a> while it was a Category 4. Both did significant damage, and Oliwa killed seven people. Overall, this season's death toll makes it the deadliest since <!--del_lnk--> 1982.<p>This season is also the costliest on record. The over 7.5 billion dollars of damage from Hurricane Pauline, along with the "several hundred million dollars" of damage from Hurricane Nora makes this by far the costliest, breaking the old record held by the <!--del_lnk--> 1992 season.<p><a name="1997_storm_names"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">1997 storm names</span></h2> <p>The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1997. The names not retired from this list were used again in the <!--del_lnk--> 2003 season. This is the same list used for the <!--del_lnk--> 1991 season except for Felicia, which replaced <!--del_lnk--> Fefa. A storm was named Felicia for the first time in 1997. Also, the name "Dolores" was misspelled "Delores" in the 1991 season, and in this and subsequent seasons, the typo was corrected. Names that were not assigned are marked in <font color="gray">gray</font>.<table width="90%"> <tr> <td> <ul> <li>Andres<li>Blanca<li>Carlos<li>Dolores<li>Enrique<li>Felicia<li>Guillermo<li>Hilda</ul> </td> <td> <ul> <li>Ignacio<li>Jimena<li>Kevin<li><!--del_lnk--> Linda<li>Marty<li><!--del_lnk--> Nora<li>Olaf<li><!--del_lnk--> Pauline</ul> </td> <td> <ul> <li>Rick<li><font color="gray">Sandra <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Terry <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Vivian <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Waldo <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Xina <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">York <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Zelda <i>(unused)</i></font></ul> </td> </tr> </table> <p>Two names from the Central Pacific list were also used during the 1997 season—Oliwa and <!--del_lnk--> Paka. This was the first usage for both names.<p><a id="Retirement" name="Retirement"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Retirement</span></h3> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 1998: Pauline. It was replaced in the <!--del_lnk--> 2003 season by Patricia.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_Pacific_hurricane_season"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Tropical cyclone', 'Meteorology', 'Mexico', 'Pacific Ocean', 'El Niño', 'Caribbean Sea', 'Nicaragua', 'Mexico', 'California', 'U.S. state', 'Johnston Atoll', 'Wake Island', 'Pacific Ocean', 'United States', 'California', 'Palmyra Atoll', 'El Salvador', 'Japan', 'Guam']
19th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="19th century,10th century,10th century BC,11th century,11th century BC,12th century,12th century BC,13th century,13th century BC,14th century,14th century BC" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>19th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "19th_century"; var wgTitle = "19th century"; var wgArticleId = 34571; var wgCurRevisionId = 92520917; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-19th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">19th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a> - <b>19th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1800s <!--del_lnk--> 1810s <!--del_lnk--> 1820s <!--del_lnk--> 1830s <!--del_lnk--> 1840s <!--del_lnk--> 1850s <!--del_lnk--> 1860s <!--del_lnk--> 1870s <!--del_lnk--> 1880s <!--del_lnk--> 1890s</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>19th century</b> lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1801 through <!--del_lnk--> 1900 in the <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calendar.<p>Historians sometimes define a "Nineteenth Century" <!--del_lnk--> historical era stretching from <!--del_lnk--> 1815 (The <!--del_lnk--> Congress of Vienna) to <!--del_lnk--> 1914 (The outbreak of the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">First World War</a>); alternatively, <!--del_lnk--> Eric Hobsbawm defined the <!--del_lnk--> "Long Nineteenth Century" as spanning the years <!--del_lnk--> 1789 to <!--del_lnk--> 1914.<p>During this century, the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish, <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese, and <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> empires began to crumble and the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Mughal empires ceased.<p>Following the <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleonic_Wars.htm" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> became the world's leading power, controlling one quarter of the World's population and one third of the land area. It enforced a <!--del_lnk--> Pax Britannica, encouraged trade, and battled rampant <!--del_lnk--> piracy.<p><a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful <!--del_lnk--> slave revolt in Haiti, Britain forced the <!--del_lnk--> Barbary pirates to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, <!--del_lnk--> banned slavery throughout its domain, and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade. Slavery was then abolished in <!--del_lnk--> Russia, <!--del_lnk--> America, and <!--del_lnk--> Brazil (see <!--del_lnk--> Abolitionism).<p>Electricity, steel, and petroleum fueled a <!--del_lnk--> Second Industrial Revolution which enabled <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> to become <!--del_lnk--> Great Powers that <!--del_lnk--> raced to create empires of their own. However, <!--del_lnk--> Russia and <a href="../../wp/q/Qing_Dynasty.htm" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a> China failed to keep pace with the other world powers which led to massive social unrest in both empires.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/139/13954.jpg.htm" title="Map of the world from 1897. The British Empire (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century."><img alt="Map of the world from 1897. The British Empire (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century." height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:British_Empire_1897.jpg" src="../../images/139/13954.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/139/13954.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the world from 1897. The British Empire (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century.</div> </div> </div> <p><a name="1800s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1800s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1801: The <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Great Britain and the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Ireland merge to form the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1801-<!--del_lnk--> 15: <!--del_lnk--> Barbary Wars between the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Barbary States of <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1803: The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> buys out <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>'s territorial claims in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> via the <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana Purchase. This begins America's westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its <a href="../../wp/m/Manifest_Destiny.htm" title="Manifest Destiny">Manifest Destiny</a> which involves <!--del_lnk--> annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1804: <!--del_lnk--> Haitian Republic founded.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1804: <!--del_lnk--> Austrian Empire founded by <!--del_lnk--> Francis I.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1805-<!--del_lnk--> 48: <!--del_lnk--> Muhammad Ali modernizes <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1806: <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> dissolved as a consequence of the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Lunéville.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1808-<!--del_lnk--> 09: <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> conquers <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a> from <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Finnish War.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1809: <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> strips the <!--del_lnk--> Teutonic Knights of their last holdings in <!--del_lnk--> Bad Mergentheim.</ul> <p><a name="1810s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1810s</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/120/12035.jpg.htm" title="1816: Shaka rises to power over the Zulu kingdom"><img alt="1816: Shaka rises to power over the Zulu kingdom" height="292" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KingShaka.jpg" src="../../images/120/12035.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/120/12035.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 1816: <a href="../../wp/s/Shaka.htm" title="Shaka">Shaka</a> rises to power over the <a href="../../wp/z/Zulu.htm" title="Zulu">Zulu</a> kingdom</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1810: The <!--del_lnk--> University of Berlin, the world's first research university, is founded. Among its students and faculty are <!--del_lnk--> Hegel, <a href="../../wp/k/Karl_Marx.htm" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a>, and <a href="../../wp/o/Otto_von_Bismarck.htm" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a>. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1810s-<!--del_lnk--> 20s: Most of the Latin American colonies free themselves from the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish and <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese Empires after the <!--del_lnk--> Mexican War of Independence and the <!--del_lnk--> South American Wars of Independence.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1812-<!--del_lnk--> 15: <!--del_lnk--> War of 1812 between the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom<li><!--del_lnk--> 1813-<!--del_lnk--> 1907: The contest between the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russia for control of <!--del_lnk--> Central Asia is referred to as <!--del_lnk--> the Great Game.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1815: The <!--del_lnk--> Congress of Vienna redraws the <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> map. The <!--del_lnk--> Concert of Europe attempts to preserve this settlement, but it fails to stem the tide of liberalism and nationalism that sweeps over the continent.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1815: <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon's</a> defeat at <!--del_lnk--> Waterloo brings a conclusion to the <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleonic_Wars.htm" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> and marks the beginning of a <!--del_lnk--> Pax Britannica which lasts until 1870.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1816: <!--del_lnk--> Year Without a Summer<li><!--del_lnk--> 1816-<!--del_lnk--> 28: <a href="../../wp/s/Shaka.htm" title="Shaka">Shaka</a>'s <a href="../../wp/z/Zulu.htm" title="Zulu">Zulu</a> kingdom becomes the largest in <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Africa.htm" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1819: The modern city of <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> is established by the <a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>.</ul> <p><a name="1820s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1820s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1820: <!--del_lnk--> Liberia founded by the <!--del_lnk--> American Colonization Society for freed American slaves.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1821-<!--del_lnk--> 27: Greece becomes the first country to break away from the Ottoman Empire after the <a href="../../wp/g/Greek_War_of_Independence.htm" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1825: <a href="../../wp/e/Erie_Canal.htm" title="Erie Canal">Erie Canal</a> opened connecting the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Lakes.htm" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> to the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1826-<!--del_lnk--> 28: After the final <!--del_lnk--> Russo-Persian War, the <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a> took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1825-<!--del_lnk--> 28: The <!--del_lnk--> Argentina-Brazil War results in the independence of <a href="../../wp/u/Uruguay.htm" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>.</ul> <p><a name="1830s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1830s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1830: <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> <!--del_lnk--> invades and occupies Algeria.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1830: The <!--del_lnk--> Belgian Revolution in the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of the Netherlands led to the creation of <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1830: The <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Gran Colombia is dissolved and the nations of <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, and <a href="../../wp/p/Panama.htm" title="Panama">Panama</a> take its place.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1833: <!--del_lnk--> Slavery Abolition Act bans slavery throughout the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1833-<!--del_lnk--> 76: <!--del_lnk--> Carlist Wars in <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1834: <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Inquisition.htm" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> officially ends.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1835-<!--del_lnk--> 36: The <!--del_lnk--> Texas Revolution in <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> resulted in the short-lived <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Texas.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1837-<!--del_lnk--> 1901: <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>'s reign is considered the apex of the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and is referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> Victorian era.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1838-<!--del_lnk--> 40: Civil war in the <!--del_lnk--> United Provinces of Central America led to the foundings of <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/El_Salvador.htm" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Honduras.htm" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, and <a href="../../wp/c/Costa_Rica.htm" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1839-<!--del_lnk--> 60: After two <!--del_lnk--> Opium Wars, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> gain many concessions from <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> and the <a href="../../wp/q/Qing_Dynasty.htm" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a> goes into decline.</ul> <p><a name="1840s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1840s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1840: <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand founded.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1844: <!--del_lnk--> Millerite movement awaits the <!--del_lnk--> Second Advent of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a> on October 22. Christ's non-appearance becomes known as the <!--del_lnk--> Great Disappointment.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1844 - Persian Prophet the <!--del_lnk--> Báb announces his revelation, founding <!--del_lnk--> Bábísm. He announced to the world of the coming of "<!--del_lnk--> He whom God shall make manifest." He is considered the forerunner of <!--del_lnk--> Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the <a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" title="Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1845-<!--del_lnk--> 49: The <!--del_lnk--> Irish Potato Famine led to the <!--del_lnk--> Irish diaspora.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1846-<!--del_lnk--> 48: The <!--del_lnk--> Mexican-American War leads to <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>'s cession of much of the modern-day <!--del_lnk--> Southwestern United States.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1846-<!--del_lnk--> 47: <!--del_lnk--> Mormon migration to <!--del_lnk--> Utah.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1848: <i><!--del_lnk--> The Communist Manifesto</i> published.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1848: <!--del_lnk--> Revolutions of 1848 in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1848-<!--del_lnk--> 58: <!--del_lnk--> California Gold Rush</ul> <p><a name="1850s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1850s</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16678.jpeg.htm" title="The Charge of the Light Brigade during the Crimean War"><img alt="The Charge of the Light Brigade during the Crimean War" height="114" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CatonWoodvilleLightBrigade.jpeg" src="../../images/3/334.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16678.jpeg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Charge of the Light Brigade during the <a href="../../wp/c/Crimean_War.htm" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1850: The <!--del_lnk--> Little Ice Age ends around this time.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1851-<!--del_lnk--> 60s: <!--del_lnk--> Victorian gold rush in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1851-<!--del_lnk--> 64: The <!--del_lnk--> Taiping Rebellion in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> is the bloodiest conflict of the century.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1854: The <!--del_lnk--> Convention of Kanagawa formally ends <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>'s policy of <!--del_lnk--> isolation.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1854-<!--del_lnk--> 56: <a href="../../wp/c/Crimean_War.htm" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> between France, the United Kingdom, the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1855: <!--del_lnk--> Bessemer process enables <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> to be mass produced.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1856: World's first <a href="../../wp/o/Oil_refinery.htm" title="Oil refinery">oil refinery</a> in <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1857-<!--del_lnk--> 58: <!--del_lnk--> Indian rebellion of 1857<li><!--del_lnk--> 1859: <a href="../../wp/t/The_Origin_of_Species.htm" title="The Origin of Species">The Origin of Species</a> published.</ul> <p><a name="1860s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1860s</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/127/12772.jpg.htm" title="The first vessels sail through the Suez Canal"><img alt="The first vessels sail through the Suez Canal" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SuezCanalKantara.jpg" src="../../images/3/335.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/127/12772.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The first vessels sail through the <a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1861-<!--del_lnk--> 65: <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> between the <!--del_lnk--> Union and seceding <!--del_lnk--> Confederacy<li><!--del_lnk--> 1861: Russia <!--del_lnk--> abolishes serfdom.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1861-<!--del_lnk--> 67: <!--del_lnk--> French intervention in Mexico<li><!--del_lnk--> 1863: Formation of the <a href="../../wp/i/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement.htm" title="International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">International Red Cross</a> is followed by the adoption of the <!--del_lnk--> First Geneva Convention in 1864.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1864-<!--del_lnk--> 66: The <!--del_lnk--> Chincha Islands War was an attempt by Spain to regain its South American colonies.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1864-<!--del_lnk--> 70: The <!--del_lnk--> War of the Triple Alliance ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1865-<!--del_lnk--> 77: <!--del_lnk--> Reconstruction in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1866: Successful <!--del_lnk--> transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in <!--del_lnk--> 1858.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1866: <!--del_lnk--> Austro-Prussian War results in the dissolution of the <!--del_lnk--> German Confederation and the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> North German Confederation and the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1866-<!--del_lnk--> 69: After the <!--del_lnk--> Meiji Restoration, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> embarks on a program of rapid <!--del_lnk--> modernization.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1867: The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> <!--del_lnk--> purchased Alaska from <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1867: <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Confederation formed.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1869: <a href="../../wp/f/First_Transcontinental_Railroad.htm" title="First Transcontinental Railroad">First Transcontinental Railroad</a> completed in <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1869: The <a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> opens linking the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> to the <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>.</ul> <p><a name="1870s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1870s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1870-<!--del_lnk--> 71: The <!--del_lnk--> Franco-Prussian War results in the unifications of <!--del_lnk--> Germany and <!--del_lnk--> Italy, the collapse of the <!--del_lnk--> Second French Empire, the breakdown of Pax Britannica, and the emergence of a <!--del_lnk--> New Imperialism.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1871-<!--del_lnk--> 1914: <!--del_lnk--> Second Industrial Revolution<li><!--del_lnk--> 1870s-<!--del_lnk--> 90s: <!--del_lnk--> Long Depression in Western Europe and North America<li><!--del_lnk--> 1872: <a href="../../wp/y/Yellowstone_National_Park.htm" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a> is created.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1873: Maxwell's <i><!--del_lnk--> A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</i> published.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1874: The <a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> is dissolved.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1875-<!--del_lnk--> 1900: 26 million Indians perished in India due to <!--del_lnk--> famine.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1876-<!--del_lnk--> 1914: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> Gilded Age.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1877: <!--del_lnk--> Great Railroad Strike in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide <!--del_lnk--> labor strike.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1877-<!--del_lnk--> 78: The <!--del_lnk--> Balkans are freed from the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> after another <!--del_lnk--> Russo-Turkish War in the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Berlin.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1878: First commercial <a href="../../wp/t/Telephone_exchange.htm" title="Telephone exchange">telephone exchange</a> in <!--del_lnk--> New Haven, Connecticut.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1879: <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Zulu War in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1879-<!--del_lnk--> 84: <!--del_lnk--> War of the Pacific between <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>.</ul> <p><a name="1880s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1880s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1880-<!--del_lnk--> 1902: The United Kingdom conquers Dutch settlers in South Africa in two <!--del_lnk--> Boer Wars.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1881: First electrical <!--del_lnk--> power plant and <!--del_lnk--> grid in <!--del_lnk--> Godalming, Britain.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1884-<!--del_lnk--> 85: The <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Conference signals the start of the European <a href="../../wp/s/Scramble_for_Africa.htm" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>. Attending nations also agree to ban trade in <!--del_lnk--> slaves.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1884-<!--del_lnk--> 85: The <!--del_lnk--> Sino-French War led to the formation of <!--del_lnk--> French Indochina.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1888: <!--del_lnk--> Slavery banned in Brazil.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1889: <!--del_lnk--> Hazrat <!--del_lnk--> Mirza Ghulam Ahmad establishes the <!--del_lnk--> Ahmadi Muslim Community.</ul> <p><a name="1890s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> 1890s</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 1890: The <!--del_lnk--> Wounded Knee Massacre was the last battle in the American <!--del_lnk--> Indian Wars. This event represents the end of the <!--del_lnk--> American Old West.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1894-<!--del_lnk--> 95: After the <!--del_lnk--> First Sino-Japanese War, <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> cedes <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> to <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> and grants Japan a free hand in <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1895-<!--del_lnk--> 1896: <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> defeated <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> First Italo-Abyssinian War.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1896: <!--del_lnk--> Olympic games revived in <a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1896: <!--del_lnk--> Klondike Gold Rush in Canada.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1897: <!--del_lnk--> Gojong, or Emperor Gwangmu, proclaims the short-lived <!--del_lnk--> Korean Empire.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1898: The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> gains control of <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> after the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish-American War.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1898-<!--del_lnk--> 1900: The <!--del_lnk--> Boxer Rebellion in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> is suppressed by an <!--del_lnk--> Eight-Nation Alliance.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1899-<!--del_lnk--> 1913: The <!--del_lnk--> Philippine-American War.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Gilbert and Sullivan, playwright, composer, lovers<li><!--del_lnk--> William Gilbert Grace, English cricketer<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish novelist, essayist, and poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Baron Haussmann, civic planner<li><!--del_lnk--> Sándor Körösi Csoma, explorer of the <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibetan</a> <!--del_lnk--> culture<li><!--del_lnk--> Hong Xiuquan inspired China's <!--del_lnk--> Taiping Rebellion, perhaps the bloodiest civil war in human history<li><!--del_lnk--> Fitz Hugh Ludlow, writer and explorer<li><a href="../../wp/f/Florence_Nightingale.htm" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a>, nursing pioneer<li><!--del_lnk--> Ignaz Semmelweis, proponent of <!--del_lnk--> hygienic practices<li><!--del_lnk--> Dr. John Snow, the founder of <!--del_lnk--> epidemiology<li><!--del_lnk--> F R Spofforth, Australian <!--del_lnk--> cricket<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sitting_Bull.htm" title="Sitting Bull">Sitting Bull</a>, a leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Lakota<li><!--del_lnk--> Chief Joseph, a leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Nez Percé<li>[[Ned Kelly][EG]], Australian folk hero, and outlaw</ul> <p><a id="Anthropology" name="Anthropology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/317.jpg.htm" title="Franz Boas one of the pioneers of modern anthropology"><img alt="Franz Boas one of the pioneers of modern anthropology" height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FranzBoas.jpg" src="../../images/3/317.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/317.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Franz Boas one of the pioneers of modern <a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a></div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Lewis H. Morgan<li><!--del_lnk--> Franz Boas<li><!--del_lnk--> Edward Burnett Tylor<li><!--del_lnk--> Karl Verner<li><a href="../../wp/b/Brothers_Grimm.htm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai<li><!--del_lnk--> Johann Jakob Bachofen<li><!--del_lnk--> Theodore Gericault</ul> <p><a id="Painters" name="Painters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Painters</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12909.jpg.htm" title="Monet's Impression, Sunrise, which gave the name to Impressionism"><img alt="Monet's Impression, Sunrise, which gave the name to Impressionism" height="138" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Claude_Monet%2C_Impression%2C_soleil_levant%2C_1872.jpg" src="../../images/3/336.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12909.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/c/Claude_Monet.htm" title="Claude Monet">Monet</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Impression, Sunrise, which gave the name to <a href="../../wp/i/Impressionism.htm" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a></div> </div> </div> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Realism and <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> of the early 19th century gave way to <a href="../../wp/i/Impressionism.htm" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> being the dominant art capital of the world. 19th century painters included:<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Paul Cezanne<li><!--del_lnk--> Edgar Degas<li><!--del_lnk--> Eugène Delacroix<li><!--del_lnk--> Caspar David Friedrich<li><!--del_lnk--> Antonio de La Gandara<li><!--del_lnk--> Théodore Géricault<li><a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres<li><a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2589douard_Manet.htm" title="Édouard Manet">Édouard Manet</a><li><a href="../../wp/c/Claude_Monet.htm" title="Claude Monet">Claude Monet</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Berthe Morisot<li><!--del_lnk--> Camille Pissarro<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre-Auguste Renoir<li><!--del_lnk--> Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec<li><a href="../../wp/j/J._M._W._Turner.htm" title="J. M. W. Turner">Joseph Mallord William Turner</a><li><!--del_lnk--> William Morris - with arts & craft</ul> <p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" title="Music">Music</a></span></h3> <p><!--del_lnk--> Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the nineteenth century was referred to as being in the <!--del_lnk--> Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as <a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_van_Beethoven.htm" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Franz Liszt, <a href="../../wp/f/Fr%25C3%25A9d%25C3%25A9ric_Chopin.htm" title="Frédéric Chopin">Frédéric Chopin</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky.htm" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Wagner.htm" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>. Others included:<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Hector Berlioz<li><!--del_lnk--> Georges Bizet<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Borodin<li><!--del_lnk--> Johannes Brahms<li><!--del_lnk--> Anton Bruckner<li><!--del_lnk--> Claude Debussy<li><a href="../../wp/a/Anton%25C3%25ADn_Dvo%25C5%2599%25C3%25A1k.htm" title="Antonín Dvořák">Antonín Dvořák</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Edvard Grieg<li><a href="../../wp/f/Felix_Mendelssohn.htm" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Modest Mussorgsky<li><a href="../../wp/n/Niccol%25C3%25B2_Paganini.htm" title="Niccolò Paganini">Niccolò Paganini</a><li><a href="../../wp/f/Franz_Schubert.htm" title="Franz Schubert">Franz Schubert</a><li><a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Schumann.htm" title="Robert Schumann">Robert Schumann</a><li><a href="../../wp/g/Giuseppe_Verdi.htm" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a></ul> <p><a id="Literature" name="Literature"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/l/Literature.htm" title="Literature">Literature</a></span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/153/15377.jpg.htm" title="Charles Dickens"><img alt="Charles Dickens" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Charles_Dickens_3.jpg" src="../../images/3/338.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/153/15377.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Dickens.htm" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/97/9755.jpg.htm" title="Mark Twain in 1894"><img alt="Mark Twain in 1894" height="177" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Twain_in_Tesla%27s_Lab.jpg" src="../../images/3/339.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/97/9755.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/m/Mark_Twain.htm" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a> in 1894</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/340.jpg.htm" title="Jane Austen"><img alt="Jane Austen" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jane_Austen_%28chopped%29_2.jpg" src="../../images/3/340.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/340.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Austen.htm" title="Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/26/2687.jpg.htm" title="Daguerreotype of Edgar Allan Poe"><img alt="Daguerreotype of Edgar Allan Poe" height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Edgar_Allan_Poe_2.jpg" src="../../images/3/341.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/26/2687.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Daguerreotype of <a href="../../wp/e/Edgar_Allan_Poe.htm" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a></div> </div> </div> <p>On the literary front the new century opens with <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the <a href="../../wp/s/Steam_engine.htm" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> railway. <!--del_lnk--> William Wordsworth and <a href="../../wp/s/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge.htm" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> are considered the initiators of the new school in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, while in the continent the German <i><!--del_lnk--> Sturm und Drang</i> spreads its influence as far as <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>.<p>French arts had been hampered by the <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleonic_Wars.htm" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> but subsequently developed rapidly. <!--del_lnk--> Modernism began.<p>The Goncourts and <!--del_lnk--> Emile Zola in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. On February 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1848, <a href="../../wp/k/Karl_Marx.htm" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Engels published the Communist Manifesto.<p>There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians <a href="../../wp/l/Leo_Tolstoy.htm" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Anton Chekov and <a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>; the English <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Dickens.htm" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>, <!--del_lnk--> John Keats, and <a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Austen.htm" title="Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a>; the Irish <!--del_lnk--> Oscar Wilde; the Americans <a href="../../wp/e/Edgar_Allan_Poe.htm" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mark_Twain.htm" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a>; and the French <a href="../../wp/v/Victor_Hugo.htm" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Honoré de Balzac, <!--del_lnk--> Jules Verne and <!--del_lnk--> Charles Baudelaire. Some others of note included:<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer<li><!--del_lnk--> Charlotte Brontë<li><!--del_lnk--> Emily Brontë<li><!--del_lnk--> Lord Byron<li><!--del_lnk--> Georg Büchner<li><!--del_lnk--> François-René de Chateaubriand<li><!--del_lnk--> Kate Chopin<li><a href="../../wp/s/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge.htm" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Emily Dickinson<li><!--del_lnk--> Arthur Conan Doyle<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexandre Dumas, père (1802-1870)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ralph Waldo Emerson<li><!--del_lnk--> Gustave Flaubert<li><!--del_lnk--> Margaret Fuller<li><!--del_lnk--> Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<li><!--del_lnk--> Nikolai Gogol<li><!--del_lnk--> Manuel González Prada<li><!--del_lnk--> Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda<li><!--del_lnk--> Juana Manuela Gorriti<li><!--del_lnk--> Nathaniel Hawthorne<li><!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Hölderlin<li><!--del_lnk--> Heinrich Heine<li><a href="../../wp/h/Henrik_Ibsen.htm" title="Henrik Ibsen">Henrik Ibsen</a><li><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_James.htm" title="Henry James">Henry James</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Jules Laforgue<li><!--del_lnk--> Giacomo Leopardi<li><!--del_lnk--> Alessandro Manzoni<li><!--del_lnk--> Stéphane Mallarmé<li><!--del_lnk--> José Martí<li><!--del_lnk--> Clorinda Matto de Turner<li><!--del_lnk--> Herman Melville<li><a href="../../wp/a/Aleksandr_Pushkin.htm" title="Aleksandr Pushkin">Aleksandr Pushkin</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Arthur Rimbaud<li><!--del_lnk--> John Ruskin<li><!--del_lnk--> George Sand (Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mary Shelley<li><!--del_lnk--> Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle)<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Louis Stevenson<li><!--del_lnk--> Harriet Beecher Stowe<li><!--del_lnk--> Paul Verlaine<li><a href="../../wp/w/Walt_Whitman.htm" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a><li><!--del_lnk--> William Wordsworth<li><!--del_lnk--> Alfred, Lord Tennyson<li><!--del_lnk--> Émile Zola</ul> <p><a id="Science" name="Science"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">Science</a></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/29/2918.jpg.htm" title="Charles Darwin"><img alt="Charles Darwin" height="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Charles_Darwin_1881.jpg" src="../../images/3/342.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/29/2918.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></div> </div> </div> <p>The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term <b><!--del_lnk--> scientist</b> was coined in 1833 by <!--del_lnk--> William Whewell. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, who in 1859 published the book <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Origin_of_Species.htm" title="The Origin of Species">The Origin of Species</a></i>, which introduced the idea of <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a> by <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_selection.htm" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_Pasteur.htm" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the <!--del_lnk--> asymmetry of crystals. <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Alva Edison gave the world light with his invention of the <!--del_lnk--> lightbulb. <!--del_lnk--> Karl Weierstrass and other mathematicians also carried out the <!--del_lnk--> arithmetization of analysis. Other important 19th century scientists included:<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Amedeo Avogadro, physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> Johann Jakob Balmer, mathematician, physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> Henri Becquerel, physicist<li><a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Graham_Bell.htm" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a>, inventor<li><!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Boltzmann, physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> János Bolyai, mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> Louis Braille, inventor of <!--del_lnk--> braille<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Bunsen, chemist<li><a href="../../wp/m/Marie_Curie.htm" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, physicist, chemist<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre Curie, physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> Louis Daguerre, chemist<li><!--del_lnk--> Gottfried Daimler, engineer, industrial designer and industrialist<li><!--del_lnk--> Christian Doppler, physicist, mathematician<li><a href="../../wp/m/Michael_Faraday.htm" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, scientist<li><!--del_lnk--> Léon Foucault, physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> Gottlob Frege, mathematician, logician and philosopher<li><a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.htm" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>, mathematician, physicist, astronomer<li><!--del_lnk--> Josiah Willard Gibbs, physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> Ernst Haeckel, biologist<li><!--del_lnk--> Heinrich Hertz, physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexander von Humboldt, naturalist, explorer<li><!--del_lnk--> Nikolai Lobachevsky, mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> William Thomson, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Kelvin, physicist<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Koch, physician, bacteriologist<li><!--del_lnk--> Justus von Liebig, chemist<li><!--del_lnk--> Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors<li><!--del_lnk--> Wilhelm Maybach, car-engine and automobile designer and industrialist.<li><a href="../../wp/j/James_Clerk_Maxwell.htm" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>, physicist<li><a href="../../wp/g/Gregor_Mendel.htm" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>, biologist<li><a href="../../wp/d/Dmitri_Mendeleev.htm" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>, chemist<li><!--del_lnk--> Samuel Morey, inventor<li><!--del_lnk--> Nicéphore Niépce,inventor<li><a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_Nobel.htm" title="Alfred Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a>, chemist, engineer, inventor<li><a href="../../wp/l/Louis_Pasteur.htm" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>, microbiologist and chemist<li><!--del_lnk--> Bernhard Riemann, mathematician<li><a href="../../wp/n/Nikola_Tesla.htm" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a>, inventor</ul> <p><a id="Philosophy_and_religion" name="Philosophy_and_religion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/27/2725.jpg.htm" title="Karl Marx"><img alt="Karl Marx" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Karl_Marx.jpg" src="../../images/3/343.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/27/2725.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Karl Marx</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/53/5371.jpg.htm" title="Friedrich Nietzsche"><img alt="Friedrich Nietzsche" height="159" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FWNietzscheSiebe.jpg" src="../../images/3/344.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/53/5371.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Friedrich Nietzsche</div> </div> </div> <p>The Latter-day Saint religious movement was founded during the 19th century by <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Smith, Jr. and <!--del_lnk--> Brigham Young, which led to the set of doctrines, practices, and cultures called <!--del_lnk--> Mormonism. In 1844 a young merchant from Persia proclaimed that he was the <!--del_lnk--> Báb ("the Gate" in Arabic), founding the <!--del_lnk--> Bábí Faith and proclaimed to be the forerunner of "<!--del_lnk--> He whom God shall make manifest." In 1863, <!--del_lnk--> Bahá'u'lláh (a title meaning "In the Glory of God"), himself a follower of the <!--del_lnk--> Báb, proclaimed His mission as the Promised One of all religions. He is the founder of the <a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" title="Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Nikolai of Japan was a religious leader who introduced <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Orthodoxy into Japan. Other prominent religious figures and philosophers of the 19th century include:<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Bakunin, anarchist<li><!--del_lnk--> William Booth, social reformer, founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Salvation Army<li><!--del_lnk--> Auguste Comte, philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, philosopher<li><a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25B8ren_Kierkegaard.htm" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, philosopher<li><a href="../../wp/k/Karl_Marx.htm" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, political philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> John Stuart Mill, philosopher<li><a href="../../wp/f/Friedrich_Nietzsche.htm" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Hindu mystic<li><!--del_lnk--> Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, founder of French <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialism</a><li><!--del_lnk--> William Morris, social reformer</ul> <p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">Politics</a></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/345.jpg.htm" title="Otto Von Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor"><img alt="Otto Von Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bismarck1894.jpg" src="../../images/3/345.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/345.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Otto Von Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/346.jpg.htm" title="The last shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu in French military uniform"><img alt="The last shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu in French military uniform" height="256" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TokugawaYoshinobu.JPG" src="../../images/3/346.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/346.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The last <!--del_lnk--> shogun <b>Tokugawa Yoshinobu</b> in French military uniform</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/o/Otto_von_Bismarck.htm" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> chancellor<li><a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> general, first consul and emperor<li><!--del_lnk--> Napoleon III<li><!--del_lnk--> Cecil Rhodes<li><!--del_lnk--> John C. Calhoun, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> senator<li><!--del_lnk--> Henry Clay, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> senator<li><!--del_lnk--> Jefferson Davis, President of the <!--del_lnk--> Confederate States of America just before and during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Joseph Fouché, French politician<li><!--del_lnk--> Giuseppe Garibaldi, unifier of <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Piedmontese soldier<li><!--del_lnk--> Gojong of Joseon, <!--del_lnk--> Korean emperor<li><!--del_lnk--> William Lloyd Garrison, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> abolitionist leader<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a>, British prime minister<li><a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> general and president<li><!--del_lnk--> Theodor Herzl, founder of modern political <a href="../../wp/z/Zionism.htm" title="Zionism">Zionism</a><li><a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Jackson.htm" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> general and president<li><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Jefferson.htm" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> statesman, philosopher, and president<li><!--del_lnk--> Lajos Kossuth, Hungarian governor; leader of the war of independence<li><!--del_lnk--> Hong Xiuquan, revolutionary, self-proclaimed <!--del_lnk--> Son of God<li><a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Disraeli%252C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.htm" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a>, novelist and politician<li><!--del_lnk--> Libertadores, <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> liberators<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert E. Lee, <!--del_lnk--> Confederate general<li><a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> president; led the nation during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Sir John A. Macdonald, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, first Prime Minister of Canada<li><!--del_lnk--> Mutsuhito, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> emperor<li><!--del_lnk--> Tokugawa Yoshinobu,　<a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> <!--del_lnk--> Shogun　(The Last Shogun)<li><!--del_lnk--> István Széchenyi, aristocrat, leader of the Hungarian reform movement<li><!--del_lnk--> Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, French politician<li><a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>, British monarch<li><!--del_lnk--> Klemens von Metternich, Austrian Chancellor</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10501.jpg.htm" title="One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by Nicéphore Niépce"><img alt="One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by Nicéphore Niépce" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Joseph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg" src="../../images/3/347.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10501.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by <!--del_lnk--> Nicéphore Niépce</div> </div> </div> <p>Research became institutionalized at research universities such as the <!--del_lnk--> University of Berlin and at corporate laboratories such as Edison's <!--del_lnk--> Menlo Park which accelerated the rate at which discoveries and innovations were made.<ul> <li><a href="../../wp/t/Telephone.htm" title="Telephone">Telephone</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Railways<li><a href="../../wp/l/London_Underground.htm" title="London Underground">The Tube</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Department stores<li><!--del_lnk--> Epidemiology<li><!--del_lnk--> Mail order businesses<li><!--del_lnk--> Philology<li><a href="../../wp/p/Postage_stamp.htm" title="Postage stamp">Postage stamps</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Public buses<li><!--del_lnk--> Subway</ul> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1790s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1790</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1791</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1792</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1793</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1794</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1795</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1796</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1797</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1798</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1799</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1800s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1800</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1801</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1802</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1803</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1804</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1805</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1806</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1807</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1808</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1809</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1810s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1810</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1811</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1812</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1813</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1814</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1815</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1816</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1817</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1818</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1819</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1820s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1820</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1821</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1822</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1823</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1824</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1825</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1826</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1827</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1828</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1829</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1830s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1830</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1831</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1832</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1833</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1834</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1835</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1836</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1837</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1838</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1839</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1840s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1840</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1841</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1842</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1843</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1844</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1845</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1846</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1847</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1848</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1849</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1850s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1850</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1851</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1852</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1853</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1854</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1855</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1856</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1857</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1858</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1859</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1860s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1860</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1861</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1862</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1863</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1864</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1865</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1866</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1867</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1868</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1869</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1870s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1870</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1871</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1872</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1873</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1874</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1875</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1876</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1877</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1878</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1879</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1880s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1880</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1881</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1882</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1883</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1884</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1885</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1886</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1887</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1888</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1889</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1890s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1890</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1891</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1892</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1893</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1894</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1895</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1896</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1897</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1898</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1899</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1900s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1900</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1901</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1902</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1903</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1904</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1905</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1906</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1907</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1908</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1909</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><strong class="selflink">19th</strong></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 12780 bytes Post-expand include size: 9725 bytes Template argument size: 1265 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34571-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061207083125 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['18th century', '20th century', 'World War I', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'Napoleonic Wars', 'British Empire', 'Slavery', 'Germany', 'Japan', 'United States', 'Qing Dynasty', 'United States', 'North Africa', 'United States', 'France', 'North America', 'Manifest Destiny', 'Egypt', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'Russia', 'Finland', 'Sweden', 'Napoleon', 'Shaka', 'Zulu', 'Karl Marx', 'Otto von Bismarck', 'United States', 'British Empire', 'Europe', 'Napoleon I of France', 'Napoleonic Wars', 'Shaka', 'Zulu', 'Southern Africa', 'Singapore', 'British East India Company', 'Greek War of Independence', 'Erie Canal', 'Great Lakes', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Persian Empire', 'Uruguay', 'France', 'Belgium', 'Colombia', 'Ecuador', 'Venezuela', 'Panama', 'British Empire', 'Spain', 'Spanish Inquisition', 'Mexico', 'Victoria of the United Kingdom', 'British Empire', 'Guatemala', 'El Salvador', 'Honduras', 'Nicaragua', 'Costa Rica', 'Russia', 'China', 'Qing Dynasty', 'Jesus Christ', "Bahá'í Faith", 'Mexico', 'Europe', 'Crimean War', 'Australia', 'China', 'Japan', 'Crimean War', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Russia', 'Steel', 'Oil refinery', 'Romania', 'The Origin of Species', 'Suez Canal', 'American Civil War', 'International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement', 'United States', 'Japan', 'United States', 'Russia', 'First Transcontinental Railroad', 'United States', 'Suez Canal', 'Mediterranean Sea', 'Red Sea', 'Yellowstone National Park', 'British East India Company', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Telephone exchange', 'South Africa', 'Peru', 'Bolivia', 'Chile', 'Scramble for Africa', 'China', 'Taiwan', 'Japan', 'Korea', 'Ethiopia', 'Italy', 'Athens', 'United States', 'Cuba', 'Puerto Rico', 'Philippines', 'China', 'Tibet', 'Florence Nightingale', 'Sitting Bull', 'Anthropology', 'Anthropology', 'Brothers Grimm', 'Claude Monet', 'Impressionism', 'Romanticism', 'Impressionism', 'Paris', 'Vincent van Gogh', 'Édouard Manet', 'Claude Monet', 'J. M. W. Turner', 'Music', 'Ludwig van Beethoven', 'Frédéric Chopin', 'Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky', 'Richard Wagner', 'Antonín Dvořák', 'Felix Mendelssohn', 'Niccolò Paganini', 'Franz Schubert', 'Robert Schumann', 'Giuseppe Verdi', 'Literature', 'Charles Dickens', 'Mark Twain', 'Jane Austen', 'Edgar Allan Poe', 'Romanticism', 'Steam engine', 'Samuel Taylor Coleridge', 'England', 'Italy', 'Spain', 'Napoleonic Wars', 'France', 'Karl Marx', 'Leo Tolstoy', 'Fyodor Dostoevsky', 'Charles Dickens', 'Jane Austen', 'Edgar Allan Poe', 'Mark Twain', 'Victor Hugo', 'Samuel Taylor Coleridge', 'Henrik Ibsen', 'Henry James', 'Aleksandr Pushkin', 'Walt Whitman', 'Science', 'Charles Darwin', 'Charles Darwin', 'The Origin of Species', 'Evolution', 'Natural selection', 'Louis Pasteur', 'Alexander Graham Bell', 'Marie Curie', 'Michael Faraday', 'Carl Friedrich Gauss', 'James Clerk Maxwell', 'Gregor Mendel', 'Dmitri Mendeleev', 'Alfred Nobel', 'Louis Pasteur', 'Nikola Tesla', 'Philosophy', 'Religion', "Bahá'í Faith", 'Søren Kierkegaard', 'Karl Marx', 'Friedrich Nietzsche', 'Socialism', 'Politics', 'Otto von Bismarck', 'Germany', 'Napoleon I of France', 'France', 'United States', 'United States', 'American Civil War', 'Italy', 'United States', 'William Ewart Gladstone', 'Ulysses S. Grant', 'United States', 'Zionism', 'Andrew Jackson', 'United States', 'Thomas Jefferson', 'United States', 'Benjamin Disraeli', 'Latin America', 'Abraham Lincoln', 'United States', 'American Civil War', 'Canada', 'Japan', 'Japan', 'Victoria of the United Kingdom', 'Telephone', 'London Underground', 'Postage stamp', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '20th century', '21st century']
1_Ceres	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Ceres (dwarf planet),Footer SolarSystem,Footer SolarSystem,10 Hygiea,1108 Demeter,1801,1802,1984,1991,2001,2005" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Ceres (dwarf planet)</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Ceres_(dwarf_planet)"; var wgTitle = "Ceres (dwarf planet)"; var wgArticleId = 5595163; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Ceres_dwarf_planet"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ceres (dwarf planet)</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width: 23em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"> <caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>Ceres <a class="image" href="../../images/230/23016.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="25" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ceres_symbol.svg" src="../../images/230/23013.png" width="25" /></a></b></caption> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: black; text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23014.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="275" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ceres_optimized.jpg" src="../../images/230/23014.jpg" width="275" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: .9em; line-height: 1.2em;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Discovery <sup><!--del_lnk--> A</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Discoverer</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Giuseppe Piazzi</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Discovery date</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1801</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Alternate<br /> designations <sup><!--del_lnk--> B</sup></th> <td>A899 OF; 1943 XB</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Category</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Main belt,<!--del_lnk--> Dwarf Planet</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Orbital elements <sup><!--del_lnk--> C</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <center><small><!--del_lnk--> Epoch <!--del_lnk--> November 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 (<!--del_lnk--> JD 2453700.5)</small></center> </td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity <i>(e)</i></th> <td>0.080</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Semi-major axis <i>(a)</i></th> <td>413.715 <!--del_lnk--> Gm (2.766 <!--del_lnk--> AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Perihelion <i>(q)</i></th> <td>380.612 Gm (2.544 AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Aphelion <i>(Q)</i></th> <td>446.818 Gm (2.987 AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period <i>(P)</i></th> <td>1679.819 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a> (4.599 <!--del_lnk--> a)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mean orbital speed</th> <td>17.882 km/<!--del_lnk--> s</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Inclination <i>(i)</i></th> <td>10.587<!--del_lnk--> °</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of the<br /> ascending node <i>(Ω)</i></th> <td>80.410°</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Argument of<br /> perihelion <i>(ω)</i></th> <td>73.271°</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mean anomaly <i>(M)</i></th> <td>108.509°</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Physical characteristics <sup><!--del_lnk--> D</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Dimensions</th> <td>975×909 km</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mass</th> <td>9.46 ± 0.04 × 10<sup>20</sup> <!--del_lnk--> kg </td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Density</th> <td>2.08 g/<!--del_lnk--> cm³</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Surface <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a></th> <td>0.27 m/s²</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Escape velocity</th> <td>0.51 km/s</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Rotation period</th> <td>0.3781 d</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Spectral class</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> G-type asteroid</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Absolute magnitude</th> <td>3.34</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Albedo (<!--del_lnk--> geometric)</th> <td>0.113</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Mean surface<br /><!--del_lnk--> temperature</th> <td>~167 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /><i>max:</i> 239 K (-34 ° <!--del_lnk--> C)</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Ceres</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈsiːriz/</span>, <!--del_lnk--> Latin: <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>Cerēs</i></span>), also designated <b>1 Ceres</b> or <b>(1) Ceres</b> (See <i><!--del_lnk--> Minor Planet Names</i>), is the smallest <!--del_lnk--> dwarf planet in the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> and the only one located in the main <!--del_lnk--> asteroid belt. Its name is derived from the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" title="Roman mythology">Roman</a> <!--del_lnk--> goddess <!--del_lnk--> Ceres — the goddess of growing plants and of motherly love. It was discovered on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1801, by <!--del_lnk--> Giuseppe Piazzi. With a diameter of about 950 km, Ceres is by far the <!--del_lnk--> largest and most massive body in the asteroid belt, and contains approximately a third of the belt's total mass. Recent observations have revealed that it is spherical, unlike the irregular shapes of smaller asteroids with less gravity.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Name" name="Name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Name</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23015.jpg.htm" title="Piazzi's Book "Della scoperta del nuovo pianeta Cerere Ferdinandea" outlining the discovery of Ceres"><img alt="Piazzi's Book "Della scoperta del nuovo pianeta Cerere Ferdinandea" outlining the discovery of Ceres" height="147" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Piazzi_Cerere.jpg" src="../../images/230/23015.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23015.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Piazzi's Book <i>"Della scoperta del nuovo pianeta Cerere Ferdinandea"</i> outlining the discovery of Ceres</div> </div> </div> <p>Ceres was originally named <b>Ceres Ferdinandea</b> (<b>Cerere Ferdinandea</b>) after both the mythological figure <!--del_lnk--> Ceres (<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" title="Roman mythology">Roman goddess</a> of plants and motherly love) and <!--del_lnk--> King Ferdinand III of Sicily. "Ferdinandea" was not acceptable to other nations of the world and was thus dropped. Ceres was also called <b><!--del_lnk--> Hera</b> for a short time in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>. In Greece, it is called Δήμητρα (<!--del_lnk--> Demeter), after the goddess Ceres' Greek equivalent; in English usage, Demeter is the name of a different asteroid (<!--del_lnk--> 1108 Demeter).<p>Due to the rarity of the usage, there is no consensus as to the proper adjectival form of the name, although the <!--del_lnk--> nonce forms <i>Cerian</i> and <i>Cerean</i> have been used in fiction. Grammaticially, the form <i>Cererean</i> would be correct (cf. its <!--del_lnk--> genetive, <i>Cereris</i>).<p><a id="Symbol" name="Symbol"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Symbol</span></h4> <p>Ceres' <!--del_lnk--> astronomical symbol is a <!--del_lnk--> sickle (<a class="image" href="../../images/230/23016.png.htm" title="Sickle variant symbol of Ceres"><img alt="Sickle variant symbol of Ceres" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ceres_symbol.svg" src="../../images/230/23016.png" width="20" /></a>), similar to <a href="../../wp/v/Venus.htm" title="Venus">Venus</a>' symbol (<a class="image" href="../../images/141/14170.png.htm" title="Astronomical symbol of Venus"><img alt="Astronomical symbol of Venus" height="22" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Venus_symbol.svg" src="../../images/230/23017.png" width="22" /></a>) which is the female gender symbol and Venus' hand mirror. There have been several variants of the sickle design, including <a class="image" href="../../images/230/23018.png.htm" title="Old symbol of Ceres"><img alt="Old symbol of Ceres" height="18" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1_Ceres_%280%29.png" src="../../images/230/23018.png" width="10" /></a>, <!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Mirror variant symbol of Ceres" height="18" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1_Ceres_%281%29.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="10" /> and <a class="image" href="../../images/230/23020.png.htm" title="Other sickle variant symbol of Ceres"><img alt="Other sickle variant symbol of Ceres" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1_Ceres_%283%29.png" src="../../images/230/23020.png" width="13" /></a>.<p><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2> <p>Piazzi was searching for a star listed by Francis Wollaston as Mayer 87 because it was not in Mayer's zodiacal catalogue in the position given. Instead, Piazzi found a moving star-like object, which he thought at first was a <a href="../../wp/c/Comet.htm" title="Comet">comet</a>.<p>Piazzi observed Ceres a total of 24 times, the final time on <!--del_lnk--> February 11, when illness interrupted. On <!--del_lnk--> January 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1801, Piazzi announced his discovery in letters to fellow astronomers, among them his fellow countryman, <!--del_lnk--> Barnaba Oriani of <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a>. He reported it as a comet but "since its movement is so slow and rather uniform, it has occurred to me several times that it might be something better than a comet". In April, Piazzi sent his complete observations to Oriani, <!--del_lnk--> Bode, and <!--del_lnk--> Lalande in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>. They were shortly thereafter published in the September, 1801 issue of the <i>Monatliche Correspondenz</i>.<p>To recover Ceres, <a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.htm" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>, then only 24 years old, developed a method of orbit determination from three observations. In only a few weeks, he predicted its path, and sent his results to <!--del_lnk--> Franz Xaver, Baron von Zach, the editor of the <i>Monatliche Correspondenz</i>. On <!--del_lnk--> December 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1801, von Zach and <!--del_lnk--> Heinrich W. M. Olbers unambiguously confirmed the recovery of Ceres.<p><a id="Status" name="Status"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Status</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23021.jpg.htm" title="Ceres (left) in comparison with the Moon (right)."><img alt="Ceres (left) in comparison with the Moon (right)." height="154" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Confronto_Ceres_Lua.jpg" src="../../images/230/23021.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23021.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ceres (left) in comparison with the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a> (right).</div> </div> </div> <p><!--del_lnk--> Johann Elert Bode believed Ceres to be the "missing <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planet</a>" that <!--del_lnk--> Johann Daniel Titius had proposed to exist between <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>, at a distance of 419 million km (2.8 AU) from the Sun. Ceres was assigned a planetary symbol, and remained listed as a planet in astronomy books and tables (along with <!--del_lnk--> 2 Pallas, <a href="../../wp/3/3_Juno.htm" title="3 Juno">3 Juno</a> and <a href="../../wp/4/4_Vesta.htm" title="4 Vesta">4 Vesta</a>) for about half a century until further asteroids were discovered. Due to Ceres' small size, its relatively high inclination, and its sharing an orbital region with <!--del_lnk--> 2 Pallas, Sir <!--del_lnk--> William Herschel coined in 1802 the term <i><a href="../../wp/a/Asteroid.htm" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a></i> ("star-like") for such bodies, writing, "they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them, even by very good telescopes".<p>The 2006 debate surrounding <a href="../../wp/p/Pluto.htm" title="Pluto">Pluto</a> and what constitutes a 'planet' led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet. An unsuccessful proposal before the <!--del_lnk--> International Astronomical Union for the <a href="../../wp/d/Definition_of_planet.htm" title="Definition of a planet">definition of a planet</a> would have defined a planet as "a celestial body that (a) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (b) is in orbit around a star, and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet". Had this resolution been adopted, this would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun. Instead, the new definition of 'planet' is "a celestial body that is in orbit around the sun, has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a ... nearly round shape, and has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit." By this definition, Ceres (along with Pluto) cannot be classified as a planet, and both are now classified as "<!--del_lnk--> dwarf planets".<p>The classification of Ceres has changed more than once. At the time of its discovery it was considered a <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planet</a>, but upon the realization that it represented the first of a class of many similar bodies, it was reclassified as an <a href="../../wp/a/Asteroid.htm" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> for over 150 years. As the first such body to be discovered, it was given the designation 1 Ceres under the modern system of <!--del_lnk--> asteroid numbering. After the discovery of the <!--del_lnk--> trans-Neptunian object <a href="../../wp/e/Eris_%2528dwarf_planet%2529.htm" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> International Astronomical Union put forward a proposal to once again define Ceres as a planet, along with <a href="../../wp/e/Eris_%2528dwarf_planet%2529.htm" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pluto.htm" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>'s moon <!--del_lnk--> Charon. This draft definition was not accepted, and in its place an alternate <a href="../../wp/d/Definition_of_planet.htm" title="Definition of planet">definition of "planet"</a> came into effect as of <!--del_lnk--> August 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. Under this definition, Ceres is a 'dwarf planet', although it remains unclear as to whether or not it is also classified as an asteroid.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23022.png.htm" title="Orbit of Ceres"><img alt="Orbit of Ceres" height="228" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ceres_Orbit.svg" src="../../images/230/23022.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23022.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Orbit of Ceres</div> </div> </div> <p><a id="Orbit" name="Orbit"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Orbit</span></h2> <p>Ceres follows an orbit between Mars and Jupiter, within the main <!--del_lnk--> asteroid belt, with a period of 4.6 years. The orbit is moderately inclined (i=10.6° to be compared with 7° for Mercury and 17° for Pluto) and moderately <!--del_lnk--> eccentric (e=0.08 to compare with 0.09 for Mars).<p> <br /> The diagram illustrates the orbits of Ceres (blue) and several planets (white/grey). The segments of orbits below the ecliptic are plotted in darker colours, and the orange plus sign is the Sun's location. The top left diagram is a polar view that shows the location of Ceres in the gap between Mars and Jupiter. The top right is a close-up demonstrating the locations of the <!--del_lnk--> perihelia (q) and <!--del_lnk--> aphelia (Q) of Ceres and Mars. Interestingly, the perihelia of Ceres (as well as those of several other of the largest MBAs) and Mars are on the opposite sides of the Sun. The bottom diagram is a perspective view showing the inclination of the orbit of Ceres compared to the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.<p><a id="Physical_characteristics" name="Physical_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical characteristics</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23023.jpg.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope images of Ceres, taken in 2003/4 with a resolution of about 30 km. The nature of the bright spot is uncertain. A movie was also made."><img alt="Hubble Space Telescope images of Ceres, taken in 2003/4 with a resolution of about 30 km. The nature of the bright spot is uncertain. A movie was also made." height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ceres_Rotation.jpg" src="../../images/230/23023.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23023.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> images of Ceres, taken in 2003/4 with a resolution of about 30 km. The nature of the bright spot is uncertain. A movie was also made.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23024.png.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope UV image of Ceres, taken in 1995 with a resolution of about 60 km. The "Piazzi" feature is the dark spot in the center."><img alt="Hubble Space Telescope UV image of Ceres, taken in 1995 with a resolution of about 60 km. The "Piazzi" feature is the dark spot in the center." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1_ceres.png" src="../../images/230/23024.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23024.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">UV</a> image of Ceres, taken in 1995 with a resolution of about 60 km. The "Piazzi" feature is the dark spot in the centre.</div> </div> </div> <p>Ceres is the largest object in the <!--del_lnk--> asteroid belt, which mostly lies between <!--del_lnk--> Mars and <!--del_lnk--> Jupiter. However, it is not the largest object besides the Sun, planets and their satellites, in the solar system: the <a href="../../wp/k/Kuiper_belt.htm" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a> is known to contain larger objects, including <a href="../../wp/e/Eris_%2528dwarf_planet%2529.htm" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Pluto.htm" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 50000 Quaoar, <!--del_lnk--> 90482 Orcus, and <a href="../../wp/9/90377_Sedna.htm" title="90377 Sedna">90377 Sedna</a>.<p>At certain points in its orbit, Ceres can reach a magnitude of 7.0. This is generally regarded as being just barely too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but under exceptional viewing conditions a very sharp-sighted person may be able to see the asteroid with the naked eye. The only other asteroid that can be seen with the naked eye is <a href="../../wp/4/4_Vesta.htm" title="4 Vesta">4 Vesta</a>.<p>Ceres' size and mass are sufficient to give it a nearly spherical shape. That is, it is close to <!--del_lnk--> hydrostatic equilibrium. Other large asteroids such as <!--del_lnk--> 2 Pallas, <a href="../../wp/3/3_Juno.htm" title="3 Juno">3 Juno</a>, and <a href="../../wp/4/4_Vesta.htm" title="4 Vesta">4 Vesta</a> are known to be quite irregular, while lightcurve analysis of <!--del_lnk--> 10 Hygiea indicates it is oblong although it appears spheroidal in low-resolution images (presumably due to viewing angle).<p>With a mass of 9.5×10<sup>20</sup> kg, Ceres comprises about a third of the estimated total 3.0±0.2×10<sup>21</sup> kg mass of all the asteroids in the solar system (note how all these amount to only about 4% of the mass of the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>).<p>There are some indications that the surface of Ceres is relatively warm and that it may have a tenuous <!--del_lnk--> atmosphere and <!--del_lnk--> frost. The maximum temperature with the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> overhead was estimated from measurements to be 235 <!--del_lnk--> K (about -38 °<!--del_lnk--> C) on <!--del_lnk--> May 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1991. Taking into account also the <!--del_lnk--> heliocentric distance at the time, this gives an estimated maximum of ~239 K at <!--del_lnk--> perihelion.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23025.jpg.htm" title="Diagram showing differentiated layers of Ceres"><img alt="Diagram showing differentiated layers of Ceres" height="201" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ceres_Cutaway.jpg" src="../../images/230/23025.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23025.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram showing differentiated layers of Ceres</div> </div> </div> <p>A study led by Peter Thomas of <a href="../../wp/c/Cornell_University.htm" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> suggests that Ceres has a differentiated interior: observations coupled with computer models suggest the presence of a rocky core overlain with an icy <!--del_lnk--> mantle. This mantle of thickness from 120 to 60 km could contain 200 million cubic kilometres of water, which is more than the amount of <a href="../../wp/f/Fresh_water.htm" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> on the Earth.<p>There has been some ambiguity regarding surface features on Ceres. Low resolution <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> images taken in 1995 showed a dark spot on its surface which was nicknamed "Piazzi" in honour of the discoverer of Ceres. This was thought to be a crater. Later images with a higher resolution taken over a whole rotation with the <!--del_lnk--> Keck telescope using <!--del_lnk--> adaptive optics showed no sign of "Piazzi". However, two dark features were seen to move with the asteroid's rotation, one with a bright central region. These are presumably craters. More recent visible light <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> images of a full rotation taken in 2003 and 2004 show an enigmatic white spot, the nature of which is currently unknown. The dark albedo features seen with Keck are, however, not immediately recognizable in these images.<p>These last observations also determined that Ceres' north pole points (give or take about 5°) in the direction of <!--del_lnk--> right ascension 19 h 24 min, <!--del_lnk--> declination +59°, in the <!--del_lnk--> constellation <!--del_lnk--> Draco. This means that Ceres' <!--del_lnk--> axial tilt is very small (about 4±5°).<p>Ceres was long thought to be the parent body of the "Ceres <!--del_lnk--> asteroid family". However, that grouping is now defunct because Ceres has been shown to be an interloper in its "own" family, and physically unrelated. The bulk of that asteroid group is now called the <!--del_lnk--> Gefion family.<p><a id="Observations" name="Observations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Observations</span></h2> <p>Some notable observation milestones for Ceres include:<p>An <!--del_lnk--> occultation of a <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> by Ceres was observed in <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> and across the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean on <!--del_lnk--> November 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1984.<p>Features on Ceres' surface have been telescopically imaged several times in recent years.<p>These include:<ul> <li><a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a> <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> images with 50 km resolution taken in 1995.<li>Visible images with 60 km resolution taken with the <!--del_lnk--> Keck telescope in 2002 using <!--del_lnk--> adaptive optics.<li><!--del_lnk--> Infrared images with 30 km resolution also taken with the <!--del_lnk--> Keck telescope in 2002 using <!--del_lnk--> adaptive optics.<li>The best resolution to date (30 km) visible light images using <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble</a> again in 2003 and 2004.</ul> <p>Radio signals from spacecraft in orbit around <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a> and on its surface have been used to estimate the mass of Ceres from the perturbations induced by it onto the motion of Mars.<p><a id="Exploration_of_Ceres" name="Exploration_of_Ceres"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Exploration of Ceres</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23026.jpg.htm" title="Artist's conception of Dawn visiting Ceres and Vesta."><img alt="Artist's conception of Dawn visiting Ceres and Vesta." height="191" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dawn_Flight_Configuration_2.jpg" src="../../images/230/23026.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23026.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Artist's conception of Dawn visiting Ceres and Vesta.</div> </div> </div> <p>To date no space probes have visited Ceres. However, <!--del_lnk--> NASA is currently developing the <!--del_lnk--> Dawn Mission, with a projected launch in 2007. According to the current mission profile, Dawn is expected to explore the asteroid <a href="../../wp/4/4_Vesta.htm" title="4 Vesta">4 Vesta</a> in 2011 before arriving at Ceres in 2015.<p><a id="Namesakes" name="Namesakes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Namesakes</span></h2> <ul> <li>The chemical element <a href="../../wp/c/Cerium.htm" title="Cerium">cerium</a> (atomic number 58) was discovered in 1803 by <!--del_lnk--> Berzelius and <!--del_lnk--> Klaproth, working independently. Berzelius named the element after Ceres. <li><!--del_lnk--> William Hyde Wollaston discovered <a href="../../wp/p/Palladium.htm" title="Palladium">palladium</a> (atomic number 46) as early as 1802 and at first called it <i>Ceresium</i>. By the time he openly published his discovery in 1805, the name was already taken (by Berzelius) and he switched it to palladium in honour of <!--del_lnk--> 2 Pallas. </ul> <p><a id="Aspects" name="Aspects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aspects</span></h2> <table class="wikitable"> <tr align="center" style="align:center; background:#ffc0c0"> <th>Stationary,<br /><!--del_lnk--> retrograde</th> <th><!--del_lnk--> Opposition</th> <th>Distance to<br /> Earth (<!--del_lnk--> AU)</th> <th>Maximum<br /> brightness (mag)</th> <th>Stationary,<br /><!--del_lnk--> prograde</th> <th><!--del_lnk--> Conjunction<br /> to Sun</th> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td align="center">1.68631</td> <td align="center">7.0</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 12, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> <td align="center">1.98278</td> <td align="center">7.6</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td align="center">1.83690</td> <td align="center">7.2</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> <td align="center">1.58526</td> <td align="center">6.9</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2010</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2010</td> <td align="center">1.81988</td> <td align="center">7.0</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2010</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td align="center">1.99211</td> <td align="center">7.7</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 12, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> <td align="center">1.68842</td> <td align="center">6.7</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2013</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2013</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> <td align="center">1.63294</td> <td align="center">7.0</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 25, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> <td align="center">1.94252</td> <td align="center">7.5</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> <td align="center">1.90844</td> <td align="center">7.4</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2017</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> <td align="center">1.59531</td> <td align="center">8.8</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2019</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 29, <!--del_lnk--> 2019</td> <td align="center">1.74756</td> <td align="center">7.0</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2019</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> <td align="center">1.99916</td> <td align="center">7.7</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2021</td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_%28dwarf_planet%29"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Day', 'Gravity', 'Solar System', 'Roman mythology', 'Roman mythology', 'Germany', 'Venus', 'Comet', 'Milan', 'Paris', 'Carl Friedrich Gauss', 'Moon', 'Planet', 'Mars', 'Jupiter', '3 Juno', '4 Vesta', 'Asteroid', 'Pluto', 'Definition of a planet', 'Planet', 'Asteroid', 'Eris (dwarf planet)', 'Eris (dwarf planet)', 'Pluto', 'Definition of planet', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Ultraviolet', 'Kuiper belt', 'Eris (dwarf planet)', 'Pluto', '90377 Sedna', '4 Vesta', '3 Juno', '4 Vesta', 'Moon', 'Sun', 'Cornell University', 'Fresh water', 'Ultraviolet', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Star', 'Mexico', 'Florida', 'Ultraviolet', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Mars', '4 Vesta', 'Cerium', 'Palladium']
1st_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="1st century,88,87,86,85,89,90s,92,91,90,84" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>1st century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "1st_century"; var wgTitle = "1st century"; var wgArticleId = 34628; var wgCurRevisionId = 92610187; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-1st_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">1st century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f3f3f3"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st century BC</a> - <b>1st century</b> - <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0s <!--del_lnk--> 10s <!--del_lnk--> 20s <!--del_lnk--> 30s <!--del_lnk--> 40s <!--del_lnk--> 50s <!--del_lnk--> 60s <!--del_lnk--> 70s <!--del_lnk--> 80s <!--del_lnk--> 90s</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>1st century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 1 to <!--del_lnk--> 100 according the Gregorian calendar. For the astronomical calendar it is from 0 to 99.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <ul> <li>1: <a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" title="Lion">Lions</a> became <!--del_lnk--> extinct in <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe.<li>8–23: <!--del_lnk--> Wang Mang overthrew <!--del_lnk--> Han dynasty of China<li>28–75 <!--del_lnk--> Emperor Ming of Han, <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> reaches <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a><li>29-33: <!--del_lnk--> Crucifixion of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Masoretes adds vowel pointings to the text of the <!--del_lnk--> Tanakh, the <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew Bible<li><!--del_lnk--> Buddhist monks in <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> first write down <a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>'s teachings, creating the <!--del_lnk--> Pali canon<li><!--del_lnk--> Tacitus mentions the <!--del_lnk--> Suiones, who will one day be called the <!--del_lnk--> Swedes.<li><!--del_lnk--> Kaundinya, an Indian Brahmin marries <!--del_lnk--> Soma and establishes the Pre-Angkor Cambodian Kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Funan.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Goths settle in northern <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, which they called <!--del_lnk--> Gothiscandza, and shape the <!--del_lnk--> Wielbark culture.<li>Christian <!--del_lnk--> Council of Jerusalem<li><!--del_lnk--> July 19, <!--del_lnk--> 64: <!--del_lnk--> Great Fire of Rome, first Roman mass <!--del_lnk--> Persecution of Christians, earliest significant recognition of <!--del_lnk--> Christians in Rome<li><!--del_lnk--> 66-<!--del_lnk--> 73 <!--del_lnk--> First Jewish-Roman War<li>70, August: destruction of <!--del_lnk--> Herod's Temple in <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> by the Romans under <!--del_lnk--> Titus<li>79, August: <a href="../../wp/p/Pompeii.htm" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Herculaneum destroyed by eruption of <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Vesuvius.htm" title="Mount Vesuvius">Mount Vesuvius</a><li>Jewish <!--del_lnk--> Council of Jamnia<li>Spread of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, reaches largest size under <!--del_lnk--> Trajan<li><!--del_lnk--> Arena (colosseum) is constructed, origin of the name <!--del_lnk--> Arena</ul> <p><a id="Significant_persons" name="Significant_persons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant persons</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/525/52579.jpg.htm" title="Bronze statue of Augustus, Archaeological Museum, Athens."><img alt="Bronze statue of Augustus, Archaeological Museum, Athens." height="323" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Acaugustus.jpg" src="../../images/234/23417.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/525/52579.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bronze statue of Augustus, Archaeological Museum, Athens.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/383.jpg.htm" title="Bust of Caligula."><img alt="Bust of Caligula." height="336" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Caligula_bust.jpg" src="../../images/3/383.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/383.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bust of Caligula.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Apollonius of Tyana<li><!--del_lnk--> Arminius<li><a href="../../wp/b/Boudica.htm" title="Boudica">Boudica</a>, also known as Boadicea<li><a href="../../wp/a/Augustus.htm" title="Augustus">Augustus</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Caligula<li><a href="../../wp/c/Claudius.htm" title="Claudius">Claudius</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Clement I of Rome, 4th <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Rome<li><!--del_lnk--> Domitian<li><!--del_lnk--> Galba<li><!--del_lnk--> Hero of Alexandria<li><!--del_lnk--> Hillel the Elder<li><!--del_lnk--> Ignatius of Antioch, 3rd <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Antioch<li><!--del_lnk--> James the Just, 1st <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Jerusalem<li><!--del_lnk--> Jesus <!--del_lnk--> Christ<li><!--del_lnk--> John the Baptist<li><a href="../../wp/j/Josephus.htm" title="Josephus">Josephus</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Livy<li><!--del_lnk--> Nero<li><!--del_lnk--> Nerva<li><!--del_lnk--> Otho<li><a href="../../wp/p/Paul_of_Tarsus.htm" title="Paul of Tarsus">Paul of Tarsus</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Philo<li><!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder<li><!--del_lnk--> Pontius Pilate, <!--del_lnk--> prefect of <!--del_lnk--> Judea who executed <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <!--del_lnk--> Christ<li><!--del_lnk--> Seneca the Younger<li><!--del_lnk--> Strabo, wrote book of Geography<li><!--del_lnk--> Tacitus<li><!--del_lnk--> Tiberius<li><!--del_lnk--> Titus<li><!--del_lnk--> Trajan<li><!--del_lnk--> Vespasian<li><!--del_lnk--> Vitellius<li><!--del_lnk--> Wang Chong</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Codex, the first form of the modern book, appears in the Roman empire<li>Year <!--del_lnk--> 78 - the beginning of the Saka Era South Asian calendar system.<li><!--del_lnk--> Bookbinding<li>Various inventions by <!--del_lnk--> Hero of Alexandria, including the <!--del_lnk--> steam turbine (aeolipile), <!--del_lnk--> vending machine, <!--del_lnk--> machine gun, <!--del_lnk--> water organ, <!--del_lnk--> Nintendo Wii and various other water-powered machines.<li><!--del_lnk--> Drew Zimmerman Begins the hobby of ruining wikipedia pages.</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 0s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 9 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 8 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 7 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 6 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 5 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 4 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 3 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1 BC</td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 0s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"> </td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 3</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 4</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 5</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 6</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 7</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 8</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 9</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 10s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 10</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 11</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 12</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 13</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 14</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 15</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 16</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 17</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 18</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 19</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 20s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 20</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 21</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 22</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 23</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 24</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 25</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 26</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 27</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 28</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 29</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 30s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 30</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 31</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 32</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 33</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 34</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 35</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 36</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 37</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 38</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 39</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 40s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 40</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 41</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 42</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 43</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 44</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 45</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 46</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 47</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 48</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 49</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 50s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 50</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 51</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 52</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 53</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 54</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 55</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 56</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 57</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 58</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 59</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 60s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 60</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 61</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 62</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 63</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 64</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 65</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 66</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 67</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 68</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 69</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 70s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 70</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 71</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 72</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 73</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 74</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 75</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 76</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 77</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 78</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 79</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 80s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 80</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 81</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 82</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 83</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 84</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 85</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 86</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 87</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 88</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 89</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 90s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 90</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 91</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 92</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 93</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 94</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 95</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 96</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 97</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 98</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 99</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 100s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 100</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 101</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 102</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 103</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 104</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 105</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 106</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 107</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 108</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 109</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <strong class="selflink">1st</strong></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 6785 bytes Post-expand include size: 5526 bytes Template argument size: 261 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34628-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061207024407 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['1st century BC', '2nd century', 'Lion', 'Buddhism', 'China', 'Jesus Christ', 'Sri Lanka', 'Buddha', 'Poland', 'Jerusalem', 'Pompeii', 'Mount Vesuvius', 'Roman Empire', 'Boudica', 'Augustus', 'Claudius', 'Josephus', 'Paul of Tarsus', 'Jesus', '1st century BC', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
1st_century_BC	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="1st century BC,18 BC,37 BC,44 BC,49 BC,31 BC,Korea,Baekje,Samguk Sagi,Roman Republic,Chronology of Jesus' birth and death" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>1st century BC</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "1st_century_BC"; var wgTitle = "1st century BC"; var wgArticleId = 34835; var wgCurRevisionId = 91784452; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-1st_century_BC"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">1st century BC</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f3f3f3"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd century BC - <b>1st century BC</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 90s BC <!--del_lnk--> 80s <!--del_lnk--> 70s <!--del_lnk--> 60s <!--del_lnk--> 50s <!--del_lnk--> 40s <!--del_lnk--> 30s <!--del_lnk--> 20s <!--del_lnk--> 10s <!--del_lnk--> 0s BC</td> </tr> </table> <p>(<!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium BC - <b><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium BC</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium)<p>The 1st century BC started on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 100 BC and ended on <!--del_lnk--> December 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the <b>last century BC</b>. The <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Anno Domini">AD</a>/BC notation does not use a <!--del_lnk--> year zero. Scientific notation does, however, uses a minus sign, so '2 BC' is equal to 'year -1'.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/76/7620.jpg.htm" title="Bust of Julius Caesar"><img alt="Bust of Julius Caesar" height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Julius_caesar.jpg" src="../../images/235/23532.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/76/7620.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bust of Julius Caesar</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 92 BC <!--del_lnk--> Lucullus invades <!--del_lnk--> Armenia insinuating the centuries long Roman vs Persian Wars.<li><!--del_lnk--> 57 BC <!--del_lnk--> Silla is founded in southeastern Korea (traditional date according to Samguk Sagi)<li><!--del_lnk--> 53 BC The <!--del_lnk--> Parthians defeat the <!--del_lnk--> Romans under <!--del_lnk--> Crassus in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Carrhae<li><!--del_lnk--> 49 BC <!--del_lnk--> January 10: <a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> crossed the <!--del_lnk--> Rubicon river, precipitating war with <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 44 BC Julius Caesar murdered<li><!--del_lnk--> 37 BC <!--del_lnk--> Goguryeo is founded in southern <!--del_lnk--> Manchuria (traditional date according to Samguk Sagi)<li><!--del_lnk--> 31 BC <!--del_lnk--> Roman Civil War: <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Actium - Off the western coast of <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a>, forces of <a href="../../wp/a/Augustus.htm" title="Octavian">Octavian</a> defeat troops under <a href="../../wp/m/Mark_Antony.htm" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII.htm" title="Cleopatra VII of Egypt">Cleopatra</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 18 BC <!--del_lnk--> Baekje is founded in midwestern <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a> (traditional date according to <!--del_lnk--> Samguk Sagi)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Roman Republic becomes the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a><li>Birth of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus of Nazareth</a> See: <!--del_lnk--> Chronology of Jesus' birth and death and <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Anno Domini">Anno Domini</a> for further details</ul> <p><a id="Significant_persons" name="Significant_persons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant persons</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/348.jpg.htm" title="Cicero Denouncing Catiline by Cesare Maccari.One of several political conflicts in the Roman Republic during this century"><img alt="Cicero Denouncing Catiline by Cesare Maccari.One of several political conflicts in the Roman Republic during this century" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Maccari-Cicero.jpg" src="../../images/3/348.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/348.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Cicero Denouncing Catiline</i> by Cesare Maccari.One of several political conflicts in the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Republic during this century</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Burebista, greatest king of Dacia<li><!--del_lnk--> Catiline, attempted to overthrow Roman Republic<li><!--del_lnk--> Caesar Augustus, <!--del_lnk--> Roman emperor<li><!--del_lnk--> Cicero, Roman politician and writer<li><a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII.htm" title="Cleopatra VII of Egypt">Cleopatra VII of Egypt</a>, Egyptian ruler<li><!--del_lnk--> Herod the Great<li><!--del_lnk--> Hillel the Elder, Jewish rabbi<li><!--del_lnk--> Horace, Roman poet<li><a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, Roman politician<li><!--del_lnk--> Livy, Roman historian<li><!--del_lnk--> Lucretius, Roman philosopher<li><a href="../../wp/m/Mark_Antony.htm" title="Mark Antony">Marcus Antonius</a>, Roman politician<li><!--del_lnk--> Marcus Junius Brutus, Caesar's adopted son, supposedly killed him<li><!--del_lnk--> Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Roman statesman and general<li><!--del_lnk--> Sextus Pompeius, pirate<li><!--del_lnk--> Ptolemy XIII of Egypt, drowned in Nile<li><!--del_lnk--> Ovid, Roman poet<li><a href="../../wp/v/Virgil.htm" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, Roman poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Spartacus, gladiator<li><!--del_lnk--> Sima Qian, Chinese historian<li><!--del_lnk--> Tigranes the Great, king of <!--del_lnk--> Armenia</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Sunspots, first recorded by Chinese<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Antikythera mechanism is made<li>The first <!--del_lnk--> dome was built by the romans<li>Glass blowing is invented in <!--del_lnk--> Roman Syria</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 100s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 109 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 108 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 107 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 106 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 105 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 104 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 103 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 102 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 101 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 100 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 90s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 99 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 98 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 97 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 96 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 95 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 94 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 93 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 92 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 91 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 90 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 80s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 89 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 88 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 87 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 86 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 85 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 84 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 83 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 82 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 81 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 80 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 70s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 79 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 78 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 77 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 76 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 75 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 74 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 73 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 72 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 71 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 70 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 60s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 69 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 68 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 67 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 66 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 65 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 64 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 63 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 62 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 61 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 60 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 50s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 59 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 58 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 57 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 56 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 55 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 54 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 53 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 52 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 51 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 50 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 40s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 49 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 48 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 47 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 46 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 45 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 44 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 43 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 42 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 41 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 40 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 30s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 39 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 38 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 37 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 36 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 35 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 34 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 33 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 32 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 31 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 30 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 20s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 29 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 28 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 27 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 26 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 25 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 24 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 23 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 22 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 21 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 20 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 10s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 19 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 18 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 17 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 16 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 15 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 14 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 13 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 12 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 11 BC</td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 10 BC</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 0s BC</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 9 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 8 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 7 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 6 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 5 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 4 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 3 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2 BC</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1 BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 0s</b></td> <td> </td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 3</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 4</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 5</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 6</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 7</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 8</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 9</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><strong class="selflink">1st BC</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 7301 bytes Post-expand include size: 5856 bytes Template argument size: 261 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34835-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061203135101 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_century_BC"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['1st century', 'Anno Domini', 'Julius Caesar', 'Rome', 'Greece', 'Octavian', 'Mark Antony', 'Cleopatra VII of Egypt', 'Korea', 'Roman Empire', 'Jesus', 'Anno Domini', 'Cleopatra VII of Egypt', 'Julius Caesar', 'Mark Antony', 'Virgil', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
2-6-0	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2-6-0,0-10-0,0-10-2,0-12-0,0-2-2,0-4-0,0-4-2,0-4-4,0-4-4-0,0-4-4-2,0-6-0" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2-6-0</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2-6-0"; var wgTitle = "2-6-0"; var wgArticleId = 1089049; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2-6-0"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2-6-0</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16165.jpg.htm" title="SRC 89 working on the daily passenger train in 1993."><img alt="SRC 89 working on the daily passenger train in 1993." height="177" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SRC_89_19930000_PA_Strasburg.jpg" src="../../images/161/16165.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16165.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> SRC 89 working on the daily <!--del_lnk--> passenger train in 1993.</div> </div> </div> <p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Whyte notation for the classification of <!--del_lnk--> steam locomotives by <!--del_lnk--> wheel arrangement, a <b>2-6-0</b> has a pair of <!--del_lnk--> leading wheels followed by six <!--del_lnk--> driving wheels. This arrangement is commonly called a <b>Mogul</b>. This type of locomotive was built from the early 1860s to the 1920s.<p>The equivalent <!--del_lnk--> UIC classification is <b>1'C</b>.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p>Although locomotives of this wheel arrangement were built as early as 1852, these first examples had their leading axles mounted directly and rigidly on the frame of the locomotive rather than on a separate truck or bogie. In these early 2-6-0s, the leading axle was merely used to distribute the weight of the locomotive over a larger number of wheels. It did not serve the same purpose as the leading trucks of the <a href="../../wp/4/4-4-0.htm" title="4-4-0">Americans</a> or <a href="../../wp/4/4-6-0.htm" title="4-6-0">Ten-Wheelers</a> that had been in use for at least a decade.<p>The first 2-6-0 with a rigidly mounted leading axle was the <i>Pawnee</i>, built for heavy freight service on the <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia & Reading. In total, about 30 locomotives of this type were built for various railroads. While they were generally successful in slow, heavy freight service, the railroads that used them didn't see any great advantages in them over the <!--del_lnk--> 0-6-0 or <!--del_lnk--> 0-8-0 designs of the time. Essentially, this design was an 0-8-0 with the lead axle unpowered.<p>The first true 2-6-0 wasn't built until the early 1860s, the first few being built in 1860 for the <!--del_lnk--> Louisville & Nashville railroad. The design that we know today required the invention of a single-axle swivelling truck. Such a truck was first patented by <!--del_lnk--> Levi Bissell in 1858. The <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey Locomotive and Machine Company built their first 2-6-0 in 1861 as the <i>Passaic</i> for the <!--del_lnk--> Central Railroad of New Jersey. The <!--del_lnk--> Erie Railroad followed in 1862 with the first large order of this locomotive type. In 1863, <!--del_lnk--> Rogers built what some cite as the first 2-6-0 built in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> for the <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey Railroad and Transportation Company.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16166.jpg.htm" title="Boston and Maine Railroad 2-6-0 1366 on train 136 at Wyoming (Melrose, MA). September 18, 1947."><img alt="Boston and Maine Railroad 2-6-0 1366 on train 136 at Wyoming (Melrose, MA). September 18, 1947." height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:200601222048202210.jpg" src="../../images/161/16166.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16166.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Boston and Maine Railroad 2-6-0 1366 on train 136 at Wyoming (<!--del_lnk--> Melrose, MA). <!--del_lnk--> September 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1947.</div> </div> </div> <p>The railroads that used these first 2-6-0 examples noted their increased pulling power, but also found that their rather rigid suspension made them more prone to derailments than the 4-4-0s of the day. Many railroad mechanics attributed their derailments to having too little weight on the leading truck. In 1864, <!--del_lnk--> William S. Hudson, then the superintendent of Rogers, patented an equalized leading truck that was able to move independently of the driving axles. This equalized suspension worked much better over the uneven tracks of the day. The first locomotive built with such a leading truck was likely completed in 1865 for the New Jersey Railroad and Transportation Company as their number 39.<p>It is likely that the locomotive class name <i>Mogul</i> derives from a locomotive built by <!--del_lnk--> Taunton in 1866 for the Central Railroad of New Jersey; that locomotive was named <i>Mogul</i>. However it has also been suggested that, in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, it derived from the engine of that name, built in 1879 by <!--del_lnk--> Neilson and Company for the <!--del_lnk--> Great Eastern Railway.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-6-0"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['4-4-0', '4-6-0', 'United States', 'England']
2-8-0	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2-8-0,0-10-0,0-10-2,0-12-0,0-2-2,0-4-0,0-4-2,0-4-4,0-4-4-0,0-4-4-2,0-6-0" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2-8-0</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2-8-0"; var wgTitle = "2-8-0"; var wgArticleId = 1090642; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2-8-0"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2-8-0</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16167.jpg.htm" title="A Chinese-built 2-8-0 on display at the National Railroad Museum in Green Bay, WI, April 26, 2004."><img alt="A Chinese-built 2-8-0 on display at the National Railroad Museum in Green Bay, WI, April 26, 2004." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2-8-0_at_NRM%2C_Green_Bay%2C_20040426.jpg" src="../../images/161/16167.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16167.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a>-built 2-8-0 on display at the <!--del_lnk--> National Railroad Museum in <!--del_lnk--> Green Bay, WI, <!--del_lnk--> April 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2004.</div> </div> </div> <p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Whyte notation, a <b>2-8-0</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> railroad <!--del_lnk--> steam locomotive that has a single-axle <!--del_lnk--> leading truck followed by four powered <!--del_lnk--> driving axles. In the US, this <!--del_lnk--> wheel arrangement is commonly called a <b>Consolidation</b>.<p>The equivalent <!--del_lnk--> UIC classification is <b>1-D</b>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p>Of all the locomotive types that were created and experimented with in the early part of the 19th century, the 2-8-0 was a relative latecomer. The <a href="../../wp/2/2-6-0.htm" title="2-6-0">2-6-0</a>, often considered the logical forerunner to the 2-8-0, was first created in the early 1860s.<p>The first locomotive of this wheel arrangement was likely built by the <a href="../../wp/p/Pennsylvania_Railroad.htm" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a> (PRR), but like the first 2-6-0s, this first 2-8-0 had a leading axle that was rigidly attached to the locomotive's frame. To create this 2-8-0, the PRR's master mechanic <!--del_lnk--> John P. Laird modified an existing <!--del_lnk--> 0-8-0, the <i>Bedford</i> between 1864 and 1865.<p>The locomotive <i>Consolidation</i>, built in 1865 is widely considered the first true 2-8-0 built in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. It is this locomotive that is the origin of the class name.<p>Only a few railroads purchased this locomotive type upon its introduction by <!--del_lnk--> Baldwin. Even the <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore & Ohio, which had nearly 180 of this locomotive type in regular service by 1885, didn't purchase any of this type until 1873.<p>The 2-8-0 design was given a major boost in 1875 when the PRR made it the railroad's standard freight locomotive. 1875 was also the year that the Erie Railroad began replacing its <a href="../../wp/4/4-4-0.htm" title="4-4-0">4-4-0s</a> in freight service with 2-8-0s. The railroads found that the 2-8-0 could move trains twice as heavy for half the cost of their earlier brethren. From a financial standpoint, the choice of freight locomotives was clear.<p><a id="European_use" name="European_use"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">European use</span></h2> <p>The 2-8-0 was also a popular type in Europe, again largely as a freight hauler.<p><a id="Germany" name="Germany"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Germany</span></h3> <p>The 2-8-0 enjoyed a brief period of popularity in Germany during the period of the State Railways (Länderbahnen) prior to the establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> Deutsche Reichsbahn Gesellschaft (German National Railways) in <!--del_lnk--> 1920. The DRG chose the <!--del_lnk--> 2-10-0 as the heavy freight locomotive type for the new, unified rail system. Under the DRG's classification system, all 2-8-0s were assigned to series (<i>Baureihe</i>) BR 56, with different types receiving sub-classifications. The earliest type was the Prussian G7<sup>3</sup> of 1893.<p><a id="United_Kingdom" name="United_Kingdom"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">United Kingdom</span></h3> <p>The 2-8-0 was the standard heavy freight steam locomotive type in the 20th Century. The first 2-8-0 built in Britain was the <!--del_lnk--> Great Western Railway's <!--del_lnk--> 2800 Class from 1903. Other systems followed the GWR's lead; notable British 2-8-0s include the <!--del_lnk--> LMS Stanier Class 8F, the <!--del_lnk--> GCR Class 8K, and the <!--del_lnk--> WD Austerity 2-8-0 of the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> period.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-8-0"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['China', '2-6-0', 'Pennsylvania Railroad', 'United States', '4-4-0', 'World War II']
2003_Atlantic_hurricane_season	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2003 Atlantic hurricane season,2003 Atlantic hurricane season,1887 Atlantic hurricane season,18 September,1933 Atlantic hurricane season,1936 Atlantic hurricane season,1950,1969 Atlantic hurricane season,1992 Atlantic hurricane season,1995 Atlantic hurricane season,1997 Atlantic hurricane season" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2003 Atlantic hurricane season</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2003_Atlantic_hurricane_season"; var wgTitle = "2003 Atlantic hurricane season"; var wgArticleId = 733555; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2003_Atlantic_hurricane_season"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2003 Atlantic hurricane season</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Natural_Disasters.htm">Natural Disasters</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption><big><b>2003 Atlantic hurricane season</b></big></caption> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16170.png.htm" title="Season summary map"><img alt="Season summary map" height="184" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2003_Atlantic_hurricane_season_map.png" src="../../images/161/16170.png" width="250" /></a><br /><small><i>Season summary map</i></small></td> </tr> <tr> <th>First storm formed:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2003</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Last storm dissipated:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2003</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th>Strongest storm:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Isabel - 915 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (27.01 <!--del_lnk--> inHg), 145 knots (165 mph)</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0;"> <th>Total storms:</th> <td>16</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th>Major storms (<!--del_lnk--> Cat. 3+):</th> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total damage:</th> <td>$4 billion (2003 <!--del_lnk--> USD)<br /> $4.3 billion (2005 USD)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total fatalities:</th> <td>92</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"> </td> </tr> <tr align="center" style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic hurricane seasons</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> 2001, <!--del_lnk--> 2002, <b>2003</b>, <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2004 Atlantic hurricane season">2004</a>, <a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>2003 Atlantic hurricane season</b> officially began on <!--del_lnk--> June 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2003, and lasted until <!--del_lnk--> November 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2003. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</a> form in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic basin">Atlantic basin</a>, although the season technically lasted from <!--del_lnk--> April 20 to <!--del_lnk--> December 11 due to out-of-season storm activity caused by <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Ana_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Ana (2003)">Tropical Storms Ana</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Peter.<p>The season was tied for the sixth most active on record, behind the <a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1933, <!--del_lnk--> 1995, <!--del_lnk--> 1887, and <!--del_lnk--> 1969 seasons, and tied with the <!--del_lnk--> 1936 season. Two unusual events happened in the 2003 season. The first was the formation of <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Ana_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Ana (2003)">Tropical Storm Ana</a>, the first Atlantic tropical storm on record to form in April. The other was the December formation of <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Odette_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Odette (2003)">Tropical Storms Odette</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Peter, making 2003 the first time two Atlantic tropical storms formed in December since the <!--del_lnk--> 1887 Atlantic hurricane season.<p>Other notable storms include <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Fabian, <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Isabel, and <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Juan. Fabian struck <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> as a <!--del_lnk--> Category 3 hurricane, the first direct hit since 1926, causing $300 million in damage. Isabel, which reached <!--del_lnk--> Category 5 strength, made landfall on the <!--del_lnk--> Outer Banks of <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina, causing widespread damage across the Mid-Atlantic amounting to $3.7 billion with 16 direct deaths. Lastly, Juan caused considerable destruction to <!--del_lnk--> Nova Scotia, particularly <!--del_lnk--> Halifax, as a Category 2 hurricane, the first hurricane of significant strength to hit the province since 1893. All three names were retired.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Storms" name="Storms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Storms</span></h2> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Ana" name="Tropical_Storm_Ana"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Ana</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Ana</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16171.jpg.htm" title="TS Ana 2003.jpg"><img alt="TS Ana 2003.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Ana_2003.jpg" src="../../images/161/16171.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16172.png.htm" title="Ana 2003 track.png"><img alt="Ana 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ana_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16172.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> April 20—<!--del_lnk--> April 24</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">60 <!--del_lnk--> mph (95 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 994 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Ana formed as a <!--del_lnk--> subtropical storm on <!--del_lnk--> April 20 as a non-tropical low, and began taking on tropical characteristics. By <!--del_lnk--> April 21, Subtropical Storm Ana had developed a warm core and was designated a tropical storm. By <!--del_lnk--> April 24 it had become <!--del_lnk--> extratropical, and was absorbed by a frontal system near <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> two days later. It was the only Atlantic storm ever to have formed in April in recorded history. A subtropical storm in the <!--del_lnk--> 1992 Atlantic hurricane season was the first recorded tropical or subtropical cyclone in April, although there have likely been other cyclones that were undetected. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Depression_Two" name="Tropical_Depression_Two"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Depression Two</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Depression Two</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #5ebaff;"><!--del_lnk--> TD</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16173.jpg.htm" title="TD 02 11 jun 2003 1015Z.jpg"><img alt="TD 02 11 jun 2003 1015Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TD_02_11_jun_2003_1015Z.jpg" src="../../images/161/16173.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16174.png.htm" title="2-L 2003 track.png"><img alt="2-L 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2-L_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16174.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> June 11—<!--del_lnk--> June 12</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">35 <!--del_lnk--> mph (55 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1008 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>A low pressure system formed from a tropical wave about 1500 miles (1075 km) east of the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Antilles and developed into a tropical depression on <!--del_lnk--> June 11. It moved west by north and reached a peak strength of 35 mph and minimum central pressure of 1008 mb. It experienced strong shear and dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> June 12 without strengthening to a tropical storm. It was only the third storm to develop east of the Lesser Antilles in June since 1967.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Bill" name="Tropical_Storm_Bill"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Bill</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Bill</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16175.jpg.htm" title="TS Bill 2003.jpg"><img alt="TS Bill 2003.jpg" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Bill_2003.jpg" src="../../images/161/16175.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16176.png.htm" title="Bill 2003 track.png"><img alt="Bill 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bill_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16176.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> June 29—<!--del_lnk--> July 2</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">60 <!--del_lnk--> mph (95 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 997 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 29, a low pressure area drifting north over the southern <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> organized into a tropical depression over the <!--del_lnk--> Yucatán Peninsula, an unusual occurrence as tropical cyclones don't usually form over land. The depression moved offshore and strengthened into Tropical Storm Bill. Initially disorganized, it moved northward, steadily strengthening while becoming more tropical. Bill crossed the gulf, and made landfall west of <!--del_lnk--> Cocodrie, <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana with winds of 60 mph. Although a relatively weak storm, Bill is blamed for four deaths and $50 million in estimated damages. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Claudette" name="Hurricane_Claudette"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Claudette</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Claudette</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffffcc;"><!--del_lnk--> 1</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16177.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane claudette july 15 2003.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane claudette july 15 2003.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_claudette_july_15_2003.jpg" src="../../images/161/16177.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16178.png.htm" title="Claudette 2003 track.png"><img alt="Claudette 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Claudette_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16178.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> July 7—<!--del_lnk--> July 17</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">90 <!--del_lnk--> mph (145 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 979 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>The system that became Claudette was recognized as a tropical depression near the <!--del_lnk--> Windward Islands on <!--del_lnk--> July 7. By <!--del_lnk--> July 11, Claudette had reached the <!--del_lnk--> Yucatán Peninsula. A few hours after landfall at <!--del_lnk--> Puerto Morelos, Claudette emerged over the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Claudette would restrengthen, and made landfall a second time on <!--del_lnk--> July 15 at <!--del_lnk--> Matagorda Island near <!--del_lnk--> Port O'Connor, Texas as a strong Category 1 storm. After its final landfall, Claudette remained at tropical storm strength for more than a day, an unusual occurrence. Most tropical systems weaken rapidly after landfall, as they are separated from the warm waters that power them.<p>Claudette was responsible for one direct death, from a falling tree. Inland towns in Texas, such as <!--del_lnk--> Goliad sustained significant wind damage. Estimated US damage was $180 million. No significant damage was reported from <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Danny" name="Hurricane_Danny"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Danny</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Danny</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffffcc;"><!--del_lnk--> 1</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16179.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane danny 2003.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane danny 2003.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_danny_2003.jpg" src="../../images/161/16179.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16180.png.htm" title="Danny 2003 track.png"><img alt="Danny 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Danny_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16180.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> July 16—<!--del_lnk--> July 21</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">75 <!--del_lnk--> mph (120 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1000 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Hurricane Danny was named on <!--del_lnk--> July 17 in the open ocean east of <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> from a tropical wave. Initially expected to remain a tropical depression, Danny began the northeastward leg of an anti-cyclonic loop around an area of high pressure in the central Atlantic, and strengthened over unusually favorable conditions in the north Atlantic for July. The storm reached hurricane strength on <!--del_lnk--> July 19, but weakened 24 hours later over the cool waters of the north Atlantic. By <!--del_lnk--> July 21 Danny had lost its identity as a tropical cyclone. Danny caused no reported damage and never threatened land. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Depression_Six" name="Tropical_Depression_Six"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Depression Six</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Depression Six</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #5ebaff;"><!--del_lnk--> TD</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16181.jpg.htm" title="TD Six 2003.jpg"><img alt="TD Six 2003.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TD_Six_2003.jpg" src="../../images/161/16181.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16182.png.htm" title="6-L 2003 track.png"><img alt="6-L 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:6-L_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16182.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> July 19—<!--del_lnk--> July 21</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">35 <!--del_lnk--> mph (55 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1010 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>A low pressure system formed from a tropical wave about 1035 miles (1665 km) east of the Lesser antilles and developed into a tropical depression on <!--del_lnk--> July 19. It moved west by north and reached a peak strength of 35 mph and minimum central pressure of 1010 mb. It never had a closed circulation, and it dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> July 21 without strengthening to a tropical storm. The northern part split off and became Tropical Depression Seven.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Depression_Seven" name="Tropical_Depression_Seven"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Depression Seven</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Depression Seven</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #5ebaff;"><!--del_lnk--> TD</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16183.jpg.htm" title="TD Seven 2003.jpg"><img alt="TD Seven 2003.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TD_Seven_2003.jpg" src="../../images/161/16183.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16184.png.htm" title="7-L 2003 track.png"><img alt="7-L 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:7-L_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16184.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> July 25—<!--del_lnk--> July 27</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">35 <!--del_lnk--> mph (55 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1016 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>A low pressure system formed from the northern remnants of Tropical Depression Six about 60 miles (95 km) east of <!--del_lnk--> Daytona Beach, Florida and developed into a tropical depression on <!--del_lnk--> July 25. It moved northwest and reached a peak strength of 35 mph and minimum central pressure of 1016 mb. It formed very close to land and never developed into a tropical storm, making landfall near <!--del_lnk--> St. Catherines Island, Georgia on <!--del_lnk--> July 26 and it dissipated over Georgia on <!--del_lnk--> July 27.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Erika" name="Hurricane_Erika"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Erika</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Erika</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffffcc;"><!--del_lnk--> 1</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16185.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Erika 16 aug 2003 1345Z.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Erika 16 aug 2003 1345Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Erika_16_aug_2003_1345Z.jpg" src="../../images/161/16185.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16186.png.htm" title="Erika 2003 track.png"><img alt="Erika 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Erika_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16186.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 14—<!--del_lnk--> August 17</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">75 <!--del_lnk--> mph (120 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 986 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Hurricane Erika formed out of a non-tropical low first spotted 1000 nm east of Bermuda on <!--del_lnk--> August 9. As it approached Florida on <!--del_lnk--> August 14, the low began taking on tropical characteristics, and almost developed a closed circulation. When the low emerged into the Gulf of Mexico, the presence of a fully closed circulation and active convection resulted in a classification as Tropical Storm Erika. A high pressure system over the southern United States caused Erika to move quickly westerward. On <!--del_lnk--> August 16, Erika's motion slowed and the storm intensified. Landfall was at the Mexican town of <!--del_lnk--> Boca San Rafael, about 40 miles (65 km) south of <!--del_lnk--> Matamoros, Tamaulipas.<p>Erika was not classified as a hurricane while active. A post-storm analysis of radar data revealed sustained hurricane force winds just before landfall, and the storm was upgraded after the fact.<p>Erika was responsible for two deaths due to flooding in Mexico. Large amounts of flood-related damage were reported in north-eastern Mexico. Minor coastal damage and beach erosion occurred in South <!--del_lnk--> Texas. <!--del_lnk--> Damage was limited to one building experiencing roof damage, with total damage in Texas amounting to $10,000 (2003 USD). <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Depression_Nine" name="Tropical_Depression_Nine"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Depression Nine</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Depression Nine</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #5ebaff;"><!--del_lnk--> TD</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16187.jpg.htm" title="TD 9 22 aug 2003 1215Z.jpg"><img alt="TD 9 22 aug 2003 1215Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TD_9_22_aug_2003_1215Z.jpg" src="../../images/161/16187.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16188.png.htm" title="9-L 2003 track.png"><img alt="9-L 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:9-L_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16188.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 21—<!--del_lnk--> August 22</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">35 <!--del_lnk--> mph (55 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1007 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>A Tropical Depression formed from a low pressure created by a tropical wave on <!--del_lnk--> August 21, about 160 miles (255 km) south of Puerto Rico. It had maximum strength of 35 mph and a minimum pressure of 1007 mbar. It was expected gain tropical storm status, but wind shear from from the southwest caused it to dissipate on <!--del_lnk--> August 22.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Fabian" name="Hurricane_Fabian"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Fabian</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Fabian</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff8f20;"><!--del_lnk--> 4</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16189.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane fabian 2003.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane fabian 2003.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_fabian_2003.jpg" src="../../images/161/16189.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16190.png.htm" title="Fabian 2003 track.png"><img alt="Fabian 2003 track.png" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fabian_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16190.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 25—<!--del_lnk--> September 8</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">145 <!--del_lnk--> mph (230 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 939 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Fabian was a powerful <!--del_lnk--> Cape Verde-type hurricane that formed in late August in the tropical Atlantic Ocean. It moved generally west-northwestward, peaking at 145 mph before turning to the northwest. On <!--del_lnk--> September 5, Fabian hit <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> at Category 3 strength. Although it was not technically a landfall, Fabian's eyewall passed directly over the island, causing severe damage. The hurricane continued to the northeast, became extratropical on <!--del_lnk--> September 8, and dissipated on the 9th in the north Atlantic. Fabian was responsible for eight deaths, and caused an estimated 300 million (2003 USD) in damage to Bermuda, making it the worst Bermuda hurricane since 1926. Because of its destruction, the name was retired after this season, and will be replaced by Fred in 2009. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Grace" name="Tropical_Storm_Grace"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Grace</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Grace</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16191.jpg.htm" title="Tropical Storm Grace (2003).jpg"><img alt="Tropical Storm Grace (2003).jpg" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_Storm_Grace_%282003%29.jpg" src="../../images/161/16191.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16192.png.htm" title="Grace 2003 track.png"><img alt="Grace 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Grace_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16192.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 30—<!--del_lnk--> September 2</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">40 <!--del_lnk--> mph (65 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1007 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Storm Grace formed from a disturbance in the central Gulf of Mexico on <!--del_lnk--> August 30. Grace was an ill-defined storm which formed a second circulation center. The second, stronger centre moved onshore near <!--del_lnk--> San Luis Pass at the western end of <!--del_lnk--> Galveston Island on <!--del_lnk--> August 31. The storm quickly weakened and merged with a frontal system in eastern <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma on <!--del_lnk--> September 2. While Grace was responsible for heavy rainfall along the Texas coast, damage was minor and totaled to $113,000 (2003 USD). There were no deaths. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Henri" name="Tropical_Storm_Henri"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Henri</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Henri</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16193.jpg.htm" title="TS Henri 05 sept 2003 1745Z.jpg"><img alt="TS Henri 05 sept 2003 1745Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Henri_05_sept_2003_1745Z.jpg" src="../../images/161/16193.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16194.png.htm" title="Henri 2003 track.png"><img alt="Henri 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Henri_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16194.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 3—<!--del_lnk--> September 8</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">60 <!--del_lnk--> mph (95 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 997 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Henri formed from a tropical wave in the Gulf of Mexico on <!--del_lnk--> September 5. Under the influence of a mid-latitude trough, it moved eastward. Despite strong wind shear, Henri's winds quickly increased to 60 mph, but fell off to 30 kt before landfall as a tropical depression near <!--del_lnk--> Clearwater, Florida. It crossed the state, and dissipated on the 9th off the North Carolina coast due to vertical shear. The extratropical renmant moved northward, and moved inland on September 12.<p>Henri was responsible for up to 10 inches of rainfall across Florida, but damage was minimal. The remnants of Henri caused heavy flooding across the Mid-Atlantic of up to 10 inches. In <!--del_lnk--> Delaware, 194 homes were damaged from the flooding. The rainfall caused rivers to exceed flood stage, including the Red Clay Creek in Delaware which peaked at 17.27 feet. Damage totaled to $19.5 million (2003 USD), though no deaths occurred. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Isabel" name="Hurricane_Isabel"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Isabel</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Isabel</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff6060;"><!--del_lnk--> 5</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16195.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane isabel2 2003.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane isabel2 2003.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_isabel2_2003.jpg" src="../../images/161/16195.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16196.png.htm" title="Isabel 2003 track.png"><img alt="Isabel 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Isabel_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16196.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 6—<!--del_lnk--> September 20</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">165 <!--del_lnk--> mph (270 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 915 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>A tropical wave off the coast of Africa was named Tropical Storm Isabel on <!--del_lnk--> September 6. The storm moved westward and intensified to hurricane strength. By <!--del_lnk--> September 11, Isabel had reached Category 5 strength, with winds of 165 mi/h. Isabel would remain at or near Category 5 for 5 days while moving west-northwest across the Atlantic. On <!--del_lnk--> September 15, as Isabel approached the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>, vertical wind shear increased, and Isabel began to weaken. Now on a more northern track, Isabel made landfall near <!--del_lnk--> Drum Inlet, North Carolina on <!--del_lnk--> September 18 at Category 2 strength. Isabel remained a hurricane until it reached southern Virginia, and was eventually absorbed by a larger system over far northern <!--del_lnk--> Ontario, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, near <!--del_lnk--> James Bay, maintaining at least tropical storm intensity for most of the way up.<p>Isabel was directly responsible for 16 deaths, 10 in Virginia. Indirect deaths were more numerous, with 35 people losing their lives across nine states, the District of Columbia and Canada. Widespread damage was reported, most in Virginia and not in North Carolina as one would expect. Total damages were estimated at $3.37 billion, with two-thirds of that total applying to Virginia.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p> <a id="Tropical_Depression_Fourteen" name="Tropical_Depression_Fourteen"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Depression Fourteen</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Depression 14</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #5ebaff;"><!--del_lnk--> TD</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16197.jpg.htm" title="TD 14 09 sept 2003 1445Z.jpg"><img alt="TD 14 09 sept 2003 1445Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TD_14_09_sept_2003_1445Z.jpg" src="../../images/161/16197.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16198.png.htm" title="14-L 2003 track.png"><img alt="14-L 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:14-L_2003_track.png" src="../../images/161/16198.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 8—<!--del_lnk--> September 10</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">35 <!--del_lnk--> mph (55 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1007 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>A tropical wave off of Africa became a Tropical Depression on <!--del_lnk--> September 8, about 290 miles (465 km) southeast of the <!--del_lnk--> Cape Verde Islands. It had a maximum strength of 35 mph, and minimum pressure of 1007 mbar. This depression was forecast to become a tropical storm for some of its life, and was even projected to become a minimal hurricane when it first formed. However, an upper level low created shear from the south, which caused it to dissipate on <!--del_lnk--> September 10.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Juan" name="Hurricane_Juan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Juan</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Juan</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffe775;"><!--del_lnk--> 2</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/161/16199.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane juan 2003.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane juan 2003.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_juan_2003.jpg" src="../../images/161/16199.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16200.png.htm" title="Juan 2003 track.png"><img alt="Juan 2003 track.png" height="105" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Juan_2003_track.png" src="../../images/162/16200.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 24—<!--del_lnk--> September 29</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">105 <!--del_lnk--> mph (170 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 969 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>A large upper-level low combined with a westward moving tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on <!--del_lnk--> September 24. Initially subtropical in nature yet classified tropical, it strengthened and reached tropical storm strength on <!--del_lnk--> September 25, while 300 nm southeast of Bermuda. Juan moved northward, strengthening into a hurricane on the 26th and peaking at 105 mph on the 27th, due to warmer than usual water temperatures. Juan continued northward and made landfall near <!--del_lnk--> Halifax, Nova Scotia as a strong Category 2 hurricane with sustained winds of 100 mph. Juan was responsible for eight deaths, and, with a damage toll of $200 million, is considered the worst hurricane to hit Halifax in 110 years.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Kate" name="Hurricane_Kate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Kate</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Kate</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffc140;"><!--del_lnk--> 3</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16201.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane kate 2003.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane kate 2003.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_kate_2003.jpg" src="../../images/162/16201.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16202.png.htm" title="Kate 2003 track.png"><img alt="Kate 2003 track.png" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kate_2003_track.png" src="../../images/162/16202.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 25—<!--del_lnk--> October 7</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">125 <!--del_lnk--> mph (205 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 952 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Kate formed from a depression in the open Atlantic on <!--del_lnk--> September 27. Kate followed an unusual path, often changing directions radically. The system took the NHC off track. Kate eventually strengthened to a strong Category 3 hurricane, and slipped southeast of <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland while a Category 1 hurricane. It eventually headed northward and became extratropical. No significant damage or fatalities were reported in relation to Kate, although heavy rain was reported in coastal areas of southeastern Newfoundland. Hurricane Kate was most remembered for the fear it brought to the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Hurricane Centre as it neared Canada, especially being less than a week after <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Juan.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p> <a id="Tropical_Storm_Larry" name="Tropical_Storm_Larry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Larry</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Larry</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16203.jpg.htm" title="TS Larry 05 oct 2003 1645Z.jpg"><img alt="TS Larry 05 oct 2003 1645Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Larry_05_oct_2003_1645Z.jpg" src="../../images/162/16203.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16204.png.htm" title="Larry 2003 track.png"><img alt="Larry 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Larry_2003_track.png" src="../../images/162/16204.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> October 1—<!--del_lnk--> October 6</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">65 <!--del_lnk--> mph (100 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 993 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>A westward moving tropical wave developed a weak low pressure system to the east of the <!--del_lnk--> Yucatán Peninsula on <!--del_lnk--> September 27. It moved westward, and became associated with a cold front. An extratropical storm formed late on <!--del_lnk--> September 30, and while drifting over the warm waters of the Bay of Campeche, it became Tropical Storm Larry on <!--del_lnk--> October 1. A strong ridge of high pressure from Florida to Texas prevented any northward motion, leaving Larry to nearly stall. Larry meandered slowly southward, steadily strengthening to a 65 mph tropical storm. The storm made landfall in <!--del_lnk--> Tabasco near Paraiso on the 6th, and dissipated later that day. The renmant low crossed over into the Pacific where it dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> October 7. Five deaths were officially reported, due to inland flooding. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Mindy" name="Tropical_Storm_Mindy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Mindy</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Mindy</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16205.jpg.htm" title="TS Mindy 11 oct 2003 1145Z.jpg"><img alt="TS Mindy 11 oct 2003 1145Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Mindy_11_oct_2003_1145Z.jpg" src="../../images/162/16205.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16206.png.htm" title="Mindy 2003 track.png"><img alt="Mindy 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mindy_2003_track.png" src="../../images/162/16206.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> October 10—<!--del_lnk--> October 14</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">45 <!--del_lnk--> mph (75 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1002 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>A strong tropical wave with a weak circulation that had just passed over the <a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> was named Tropical Storm Mindy on <!--del_lnk--> October 10. It moved to the west-northwest, where it briefly reached a peak of 45 mph winds. Conditions were never favorable for development, and on October 12 Mindy weakened to a depression. Two days later, the storm had dissipated completely. Mindy caused significant rainfall over <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> and the Dominican Republic, but caused no reported damages or fatalities. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Nicholas" name="Tropical_Storm_Nicholas"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Nicholas</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Nicholas</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16207.jpg.htm" title="TS Nicholas 17 oct 2003 1345Z.jpg"><img alt="TS Nicholas 17 oct 2003 1345Z.jpg" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Nicholas_17_oct_2003_1345Z.jpg" src="../../images/162/16207.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16208.png.htm" title="Nicholas 2003 track.png"><img alt="Nicholas 2003 track.png" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nicholas_2003_track.png" src="../../images/162/16208.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> October 13—<!--del_lnk--> October 23</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">70 <!--del_lnk--> mph (110 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 990 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Storm Nicholas formed on <!--del_lnk--> October 14 in the southern Atlantic. Due to continual wind shear, Nicholas would never undergo significant strengthening. Nicholas slowly travelled northwest, and became extratropical on <!--del_lnk--> October 23.<p>The extratropical low that was Nicholas performed two anticyclonic loops while continuing to move westward, and was finally absorbed into a non-tropical low on <!--del_lnk--> November 1. There are no fatalities or damages associated with Tropical Storm Nicholas. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Odette" name="Tropical_Storm_Odette"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Odette</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Odette</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16209.jpg.htm" title="TS Odette 06 dec 2003 1315Z.jpg"><img alt="TS Odette 06 dec 2003 1315Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Odette_06_dec_2003_1315Z.jpg" src="../../images/162/16209.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16210.png.htm" title="Odette 2003 track.png"><img alt="Odette 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Odette_2003_track.png" src="../../images/162/16210.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> December 4—<!--del_lnk--> December 7</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">65 <!--del_lnk--> mph (95 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 993 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Odette was a rare December tropical storm (the first since <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Lili in 1984) that formed on <!--del_lnk--> December 4, days after the official end of hurricane season. Odette strengthened and made landfall near <!--del_lnk--> Cabo Falso in the Dominican Republic on <!--del_lnk--> December 6 as a moderately strong tropical storm. A day later, Odette became extratropical, and eventually merged with a cold front.<p>Eight deaths were directly attributed to this tropical storm in the <a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> due to mudslides or flash flooding. In addition, two deaths were indirectly caused by the storm. Approximately 35% of the nation's <a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" title="Banana">banana</a> crop was destroyed. Fortunately, little damage occurred in <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Peter" name="Tropical_Storm_Peter"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Peter</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Peter</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16211.jpg.htm" title="TS Peter 09 dec 2003 1515Z.jpg"><img alt="TS Peter 09 dec 2003 1515Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Peter_09_dec_2003_1515Z.jpg" src="../../images/162/16211.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16212.png.htm" title="Peter 2003 track.png"><img alt="Peter 2003 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Peter_2003_track.png" src="../../images/162/16212.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> December 7—<!--del_lnk--> December 11</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">70 <!--del_lnk--> mph (110 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 990 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Peter was a short-lived storm, primarily notable for being the second December storm of the season, the first time this has occurred since the <!--del_lnk--> 1887 season. It is also notable for being only the second storm to reach the 'P' name since naming began in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1950, and one of only three storms total to do this. The other storms were <!--del_lnk--> Pablo in the <!--del_lnk--> 1995 season and <!--del_lnk--> Philippe in the <a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005 season</a>.<p>Peter formed as a subtropical storm on <!--del_lnk--> December 7 from an extratropical gale. By <!--del_lnk--> December 9, Peter had become a strong tropical storm, nearly reaching hurricane strength. The organization would not last, as Peter became an extratropical low on <!--del_lnk--> December 11 and was absorbed by a cold front. No deaths or damages are associated with Peter. The formation of Peter made 2003 the busiest season since <!--del_lnk--> 1995. <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Accumulated_Cyclone_Energy_.28ACE.29_Ranking" name="Accumulated_Cyclone_Energy_.28ACE.29_Ranking"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) Ranking</span></h2> <table align="right" class="wikitable"> <tr> <th colspan="6">ACE (10<sup>4</sup> kt<sup>2</sup>) – Storm</th> </tr> <tr> <th>1</th> <td>63.28</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Isabel</td> <th>9</th> <td>2.76</td> <td><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Odette_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Odette (2003)">Odette</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>2</th> <td>43.16</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Fabian</td> <th>10</th> <td>2.63 </td> <td><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Ana_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Ana (2003)">Ana</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>3</th> <td>21.89  </td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Kate</td> <th>11</th> <td>2.10</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Erika</td> </tr> <tr> <th>4</th> <td>9.40</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Juan</td> <th>12</th> <td>1.39</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Bill</td> </tr> <tr> <th>5</th> <td>9.24</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Claudette </td> <th>13</th> <td>1.10</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Peter</td> </tr> <tr> <th>6</th> <td>7.25</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Nicholas</td> <th>14</th> <td>0.85</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Mindy</td> </tr> <tr> <th>7</th> <td>4.56</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Danny</td> <th>15</th> <td>0.53</td> <td><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Henri_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Henri (2003)">Henri</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>8</th> <td>4.15</td> <td><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Larry_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Larry (2003)">Larry</a></td> <th>16</th> <td>0.49</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Grace</td> </tr> </table> <p>The table on the right shows the <!--del_lnk--> ACE for each storm in the season. The ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed for, so hurricanes that lasted a long time (such as <!--del_lnk--> Isabel and <!--del_lnk--> Fabian) have higher ACEs. Isabel was one of the very few hurricanes since 1950 to have an ACE of over 50 10<sup>4</sup> kt<sup>2</sup>.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Season_impact" name="Season_impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Season impact</span></h2> <table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"> <caption style="font-size:150%"><b>2003 <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic hurricane statistics</b></caption> <tr style="background:silver;"> <th rowspan="2">Storm Name</th> <th rowspan="2">Active Dates</th> <th align="center" rowspan="2">Storm <!--del_lnk--> category<p>at peak intensity</th> <th rowspan="2">Max <p>Wind<p>(<!--del_lnk--> mph)</th> <th rowspan="2">Min. <p>Press.<p>(<!--del_lnk--> mbar)</th> <th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> ACE</th> <th align="center" colspan="3">Landfall(s)</th> <th align="center" rowspan="2">Damage <p>(millions<p><!--del_lnk--> USD)</th> <th rowspan="2">Deaths</th> </tr> <tr style="background:silver;"> <th>Where</th> <th>When</th> <th>Wind <p>(<!--del_lnk--> mph)</th> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Ana_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Ana (2003)">Ana</a></th> <td rowspan="1">20 - 24 April</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">60</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">994</td> <td rowspan="1"> 2.63</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">2 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1">Two</th> <td rowspan="1">1 June</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Depression</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">35</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1008</td> <td rowspan="1"> 0</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Bill</th> <td rowspan="1">28 June - 2 July</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">60</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">997</td> <td rowspan="1"> 1.39</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> King Lake, Louisiana</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> June 30</td> <td align="right" style="background:#00faf4; color:black">60</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">50 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">4 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Claudette</th> <td rowspan="2">8 - 17 July</td> <td align="center" rowspan="2">Category 1 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="2">90</td> <td align="right" rowspan="2">979</td> <td rowspan="2"> 9.24</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Puerto Morelos, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 11 July</td> <td align="right" style="background:#00faf4; color:black">50</td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">180</td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">1 (2) </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Matagorda Island, <!--del_lnk--> Texas</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 15 July</td> <td align="right">90</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Danny</th> <td rowspan="1">16 - 21 July</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 1 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">75</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1000</td> <td rowspan="1"> 4.56</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1">Six</th> <td rowspan="1">19 - 21 July</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Depression</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">35</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1010</td> <td rowspan="1"> 0</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1">Seven</th> <td rowspan="1">25 - 27 Jul</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Depression</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">35</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1016</td> <td rowspan="1"> 0</td> <td align="left" style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> St. Catherines Island, Georgia</td> <td align="left" style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 26 July</td> <td align="right" style="background:#5ebaff; color:black">30</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Erika</th> <td rowspan="1">14 - 17 Aug</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 1 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">75</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">986</td> <td rowspan="1">2.10</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Boca San Rafael, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 16 August</td> <td align="right" style="background:#ffffcc; color:black">75</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">.01+</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">2</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Nine</th> <td rowspan="1">21 - 22 August</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Depression</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">35</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1007</td> <td rowspan="1"> 0</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ff8f20; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Fabian</th> <td rowspan="1">27 Aug - 8 Sept</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 4 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">145</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">939</td> <td rowspan="1"> 43.16</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffc140; color:black"><a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a></td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffc140; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 5 September</td> <td align="right" style="background:#ffc140; color:black">115</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">300</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">8</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Grace</th> <td rowspan="1">30 Aug - 2 Sept</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">40</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1007</td> <td rowspan="1"> 0.49</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> San Luis Pass, Texas</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 31 August</td> <td align="right" style="background:#00faf4; color:black">40</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">.1 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Henri_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Henri (2003)">Henri</a></th> <td rowspan="1">3 - 8 Sept</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">60</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">997</td> <td rowspan="1"> 0.53</td> <td align="left" style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Clearwater, Florida</td> <td align="left" style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 6 Sept</td> <td align="right" style="background:#5ebaff; color:black">35</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">20.6 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ff6060; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Isabel</th> <td rowspan="1">6 - 19 Sept</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 5 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">165</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">915</td> <td rowspan="1"> 63.28</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffe775; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Drum Inlet, <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffe775; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 18 Sept</td> <td align="right" style="background:#ffe775; color:black">105</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">3370 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">16 (34)</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1">Fourteen</th> <td rowspan="1">8 - 10 Sept.</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Depression</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">35</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1007</td> <td rowspan="1"> 0</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffe775; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Juan</th> <td rowspan="1">24 - 29 Sept</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 2 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">105</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">969</td> <td rowspan="1"> 9.40</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffe775; color:black">near <!--del_lnk--> Halifax, Nova Scotia</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffe775; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 29 Sept</td> <td align="right" style="background:#ffe775; color:black">100</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">200 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">4 (4) </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffc140; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Kate</th> <td rowspan="1">25 Sept - 7 Oct</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 3 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">130</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">952</td> <td rowspan="1">21.89</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Larry_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Larry (2003)">Larry</a></th> <td rowspan="1">1 - 6 Oct</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">65</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">993</td> <td rowspan="1"> 4.15</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Paraiso, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 5 Oct</td> <td align="right" style="background:#00faf4; color:black">60</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">53.6 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">5 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Mindy</th> <td rowspan="1">10 - 14 Oct</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">45</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1002</td> <td rowspan="1">0.85</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">.05 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Nicholas</th> <td rowspan="1">13 - 23 Oct</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">70</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">990</td> <td rowspan="1"> 7.25</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Odette_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Odette (2003)">Odette</a></th> <td rowspan="1">4 - 7 Dec</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">65</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">993</td> <td rowspan="1">2.76</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Cabo Falso, <a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 6 Dec</td> <td align="right" style="background:#00faf4; color:black">60</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">8 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">8 (2) </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Peter</th> <td rowspan="1">7 - 11 Dec</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">70</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">990</td> <td rowspan="1"> 1.10</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr bgcolor="silver"> <th align="center" colspan="11">Season Aggregates</th> </tr> <tr bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> <td align="center"><b>21 cyclones</b></td> <td align="default"><!--del_lnk--> April 21<br /> -<!--del_lnk--> Dec. 11</td> <td align="center"> </td> <td align="right">165</td> <td align="right"><b>915</b></td> <td><b>174.68</b></td> <td align="center" colspan="3">12 Landfalls</td> <td align="right"><b>4200</b></td> <td align="right">48 (44)</td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Storm_names" name="Storm_names"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Storm names</span></h2> <p>The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 2003. The names not retired from this list will be used again in the <!--del_lnk--> 2009 season. This is the same list used for the <!--del_lnk--> 1997 season. Storms were named Larry, Mindy, Nicholas, Odette, and Peter for the first time in 2003. Names that were not assigned are marked in <font color="gray">gray</font>.<table width="80%"> <tr> <td> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Ana_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Ana (2003)">Ana</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Bill<li><!--del_lnk--> Claudette<li><!--del_lnk--> Danny<li><!--del_lnk--> Erika<li><!--del_lnk--> Fabian<li><!--del_lnk--> Grace</ul> </td> <td> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Henri_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Henri (2003)">Henri</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Isabel<li><!--del_lnk--> Juan<li><!--del_lnk--> Kate<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Larry_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Larry (2003)">Larry</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Mindy<li><!--del_lnk--> Nicholas</ul> </td> <td> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Odette_%25282003%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Odette (2003)">Odette</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Peter<li><font color="gray">Rose <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Sam <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Teresa <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Victor <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Wanda <i>(unused)</i></font></ul> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Retirement" name="Retirement"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Retirement</span></h3> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> World Meteorological Organization retired three names in the spring of 2004: Fabian, Isabel, and Juan. They will be replaced in the <!--del_lnk--> 2009 season by Fred, Ida, and Joaquin.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_Atlantic_hurricane_season"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['2004 Atlantic hurricane season', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Tropical cyclone', 'Atlantic basin', 'Tropical Storm Ana (2003)', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Tropical Storm Ana (2003)', 'Tropical Storm Odette (2003)', 'Bermuda', 'Portugal', 'Gulf of Mexico', 'Mexico', 'Bermuda', 'Bermuda', 'Bahamas', 'Canada', 'Dominican Republic', 'Puerto Rico', 'Dominican Republic', 'Banana', 'Haiti', 'Atlantic Ocean', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Tropical Storm Odette (2003)', 'Tropical Storm Ana (2003)', 'Tropical Storm Henri (2003)', 'Tropical Storm Larry (2003)', 'Tropical Storm Ana (2003)', 'Mexico', 'Mexico', 'Bermuda', 'Tropical Storm Henri (2003)', 'Tropical Storm Larry (2003)', 'Mexico', 'Tropical Storm Odette (2003)', 'Dominican Republic', 'Tropical Storm Ana (2003)', 'Tropical Storm Henri (2003)', 'Tropical Storm Larry (2003)', 'Tropical Storm Odette (2003)']
2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2004 Atlantic hurricane season,2004 Atlantic hurricane season,16 September,1886 Atlantic hurricane season,1933 Atlantic hurricane season,1935 Atlantic hurricane season,1950 Atlantic hurricane season,1952 Atlantic hurricane season,1955 Atlantic hurricane season,1969 Atlantic hurricane season,1980 Atlantic hurricane season" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2004 Atlantic hurricane season</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season"; var wgTitle = "2004 Atlantic hurricane season"; var wgArticleId = 723742; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2004 Atlantic hurricane season</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Natural_Disasters.htm">Natural Disasters</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption><big><b>2004 Atlantic hurricane season</b></big></caption> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16213.png.htm" title="Season summary map"><img alt="Season summary map" height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season_map.png" src="../../images/162/16213.png" width="250" /></a><br /><small><i>Season summary map</i></small></td> </tr> <tr> <th>First storm formed:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Last storm dissipated:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th>Strongest storm:</th> <td><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Ivan</a> - 910 mbar (26.87 <!--del_lnk--> inHg), 165 <!--del_lnk--> mph (270 <!--del_lnk--> km/h)</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0;"> <th>Total storms:</th> <td>15</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th>Major storms (<!--del_lnk--> Cat. 3+):</th> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total damage:</th> <td>$42 billion (2004 <!--del_lnk--> USD)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total fatalities:</th> <td>3,132+</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"> </td> </tr> <tr align="center" style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic hurricane seasons</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> 2002, <a href="../../wp/2/2003_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2003 Atlantic hurricane season">2003</a>, <b>2004</b>, <a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>2004 Atlantic hurricane season</b> officially began on <!--del_lnk--> June 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, and lasted until <!--del_lnk--> November 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2004. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</a> form in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic basin">Atlantic basin</a>. However, the 2004 season exceeded these conventional limits slightly, as Tropical Storm Otto formed on the last day of the season and lasted two days into December. The season was well above average in activity, with fifteen named storms and one of the highest <!--del_lnk--> Accumulated Cyclone Energy totals ever observed.<p>The season was notable as one of the deadliest and most costly Atlantic hurricane seasons on record, with at least 3,132 deaths and roughly $42 billion (2004 <!--del_lnk--> US dollars) in damage. The most notable storms for the season were the four hurricanes that made landfall in the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> of <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, three of them with at least 115 mph (185 km/h) sustained winds: <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Charley.htm" title="Hurricane Charley">Charley</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Frances, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Ivan</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Jeanne. Jeanne wreaked havoc in <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, killing approximately 3,000 people, while Ivan raged through <a href="../../wp/g/Grenada.htm" title="Grenada">Grenada</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/c/Cayman_Islands.htm" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a>; Frances and Jeanne both hit the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a> at full force, while Charley caused significant damage in <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. Furthermore, all four of these hurricanes, as well as one tropical storm, hit the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> of <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, with Frances and Jeanne hitting nearly the exact same location within three weeks of each other; floodwaters in the <!--del_lnk--> southeastern United States were brought to near-record levels.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Seasonal_forecasts" name="Seasonal_forecasts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Seasonal forecasts</span></h2> <table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; text-align:right;"> <caption><b>Predictions of tropical activity in the 2004 season</b></caption> <tr style="background:#ccccff"> <td align="center"><b>Source</b></td> <td align="center"><b>Date</b></td> <td align="center"><b><font style="font-size: 80%;">Tropical<br /> storms</font></b></td> <td align="center"><b><font style="font-size: 80%;">Hurricanes</font></b></td> <td align="center"><b><font style="font-size: 80%;">Major<br /> hurricanes</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> CSU</td> <td align="left"><i>Average <font style="font-size: 80%;">(1950–2000)</font></i></td> <td>9.6</td> <td>5.9</td> <td>2.3</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> NOAA</td> <td align="left"><i>Average</i></td> <td>11</td> <td>6</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">NOAA</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 17 May <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td> <td>12–15</td> <td>6-8</td> <td>2-4</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">CSU</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28 May <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td> <td>14</td> <td>8</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">CSU</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 6 August <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td> <td>13</td> <td>7</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Actual activity</b></td> <td><b>15</b></td> <td><b>9</b></td> <td><b>6</b></td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Pre-season_outlook" name="Pre-season_outlook"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pre-season outlook</span></h3> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 17, prior to the start of the season, <!--del_lnk--> NOAA forecasters predicted a 50% probability of activity above the normal range, with 12–15 tropical storms, 6–8 of those becoming hurricanes, and 2–4 of those hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 strength on the <!--del_lnk--> Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale.<p>Noted hurricane expert Dr. <!--del_lnk--> William Gray's <!--del_lnk--> May 28 prediction was similar, with 14 named storms, 8 reaching hurricane strength, and 3 reaching Category 3 strength.<p><a id="Mid-season_outlook" name="Mid-season_outlook"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mid-season outlook</span></h3> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 6, Dr. Gray announced he had revised his predictions slightly downwards, citing mild <a href="../../wp/e/El_Ni%25C3%25B1o-Southern_Oscillation.htm" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> conditions, to 13 named storms, 7 hurricanes, and 3 reaching category 3. Several days later, NOAA released an updated prediction as well, with a 90% probability of above-to-near normal activity, but the same number of storms forecast.<p>A normal season, as defined by NOAA, has 6 to 14 tropical storms, 4 to 8 of which reach hurricane strength, and 1 to 3 of those reaching Category 3 strength.<p>The season ended up with 16 tropical depressions, 15 named storms, 9 hurricanes, and six major hurricanes, placing it well above all forecasts.<p><a id="Seasonal_activity" name="Seasonal_activity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Seasonal activity</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16214.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan sank and stacked numerous boats at Bayou Grande Marina at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida."><img alt="Hurricane Ivan sank and stacked numerous boats at Bayou Grande Marina at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida." height="271" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Ivan2.jpg" src="../../images/162/16214.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16214.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hurricane Ivan sank and stacked numerous boats at Bayou Grande Marina at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.</div> </div> </div> <p>This season had 16 tropical depressions, 15 named storms, 9 hurricanes, and 6 major hurricanes (Category 3 or higher on the <!--del_lnk--> Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale). The <!--del_lnk--> Accumulated Cyclone Energy figure of 225 ranks this as the fourth most active season since 1950 (behind the <a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005 season</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> 1950 season and the <!--del_lnk--> 1995 season).<p>August 2004 was unusually active, with eight named storms forming during the month. In an average year, only three or four storms would be named in August. The formation of eight named storms in August breaks the old record of seven for the month, set in the <!--del_lnk--> 1933 and <!--del_lnk--> 1995 seasons. It also ties with September in the <!--del_lnk--> 2002 season for the most Atlantic tropical storms to form in any month.<p><a id="Deaths_and_damage" name="Deaths_and_damage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Deaths and damage</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16215.jpg.htm" title="Hurricanes Frances (top left) and Ivan (bottom right) on September 5"><img alt="Hurricanes Frances (top left) and Ivan (bottom right) on September 5" height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Frances-Ivan.jpg" src="../../images/162/16215.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16215.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hurricanes Frances (top left) and Ivan (bottom right) on <!--del_lnk--> September 5</div> </div> </div> <p>The 2004 season was very deadly, with over 3,000 deaths related to the flooding rains or winds caused by the storms. Nearly all of the deaths were reported in Haiti following the floods and mudslides caused by then-Tropical Storm Jeanne.<p>A tropical low in May brought torrential flooding to <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> and the <a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>, killing 2,000 people and causing great damage. Though it was not officially classified as a tropical storm, it did have a circulation with loosely organized convection, resembling a <!--del_lnk--> subtropical cyclone.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Records_and_notable_events" name="Records_and_notable_events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Records and notable events</span></h2> <p>The 2004 season had numerous unusual occurrences. The first named storm of the season formed on <!--del_lnk--> August 1, giving the season the fifth-latest start since the <!--del_lnk--> 1952 season. <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Bonnie_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Bonnie (2004)">Tropical Storm Bonnie</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Charley.htm" title="Hurricane Charley">Hurricane Charley</a> became the first storms to sequentially hit the same <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> — <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> — within 24 hours of each other in recorded history. For the remainder of the season, Florida was hit by three more hurricanes: <!--del_lnk--> Frances, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Ivan</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Jeanne. It was the first time four hurricanes have hit one state in one season since four hurricanes hit the <!--del_lnk--> Texas coast in the <!--del_lnk--> 1886 season, including the <!--del_lnk--> Indianola Hurricane of 1886 that destroyed the city of <!--del_lnk--> Indianola.<div style="clear: right"> </div> <table align="right" class="wikitable" style="margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;"> <tr> <th colspan="4">Most intense Atlantic hurricanes<br /><small>Intensity is measured solely by <!--del_lnk--> central pressure</small></th> </tr> <tr class="references-small"> <th>Rank</th> <th>Hurricane</th> <th>Season</th> <th>Min. pressure</th> </tr> <tr> <th>1</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Wilma</td> <td><a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005</a></td> <td align="center">882 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>2</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Gilbert</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1988</td> <td align="center">888 mbar (hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>3</th> <td><a href="../../wp/l/Labor_Day_Hurricane_of_1935.htm" title="Labor Day Hurricane of 1935">"Labor Day"</a></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1935</td> <td align="center">892 mbar (hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>4</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Rita</td> <td><a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005</a></td> <td align="center">895 mbar (hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>5</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Allen</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td> <td align="center">899 mbar (hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>6</th> <td><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Katrina</a></td> <td><a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005</a></td> <td align="center">902 mbar (hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">7</th> <td><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Camille.htm" title="Hurricane Camille">Camille</a></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1969</td> <td align="center">905 mbar (hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Mitch.htm" title="Hurricane Mitch">Mitch</a></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1998</td> <td align="center">905 mbar (hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>9</th> <td><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Ivan</a></td> <td><strong class="selflink">2004</strong></td> <td align="center">910 mbar (hPa)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>10</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Janet</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1955</td> <td align="center">914 mbar (hPa)</td> </tr> <tr class="small"> <th colspan="4">Source: <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Department of Commerce</th> </tr> </table> <p>Other storms were individually unusual. <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Alex_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Alex (2004)">Hurricane Alex</a> was the strongest hurricane on record to intensify north of 38°N latitude. One storm, Tropical Storm Earl, died out, and its remains crossed over into the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, regenerated, and became Hurricane Frank in the eastern Pacific.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16216.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Jeanne caused severe damage in Florida, Haiti, and other Caribbean countries."><img alt="Hurricane Jeanne caused severe damage in Florida, Haiti, and other Caribbean countries." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jeanne_sign_damage_Orlando.jpg" src="../../images/162/16216.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16216.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Jeanne caused severe damage in <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, and other Caribbean countries.</div> </div> </div> <p>The most unusual storm of the season was <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Hurricane Ivan</a>. Ivan first impressed meteorologists by becoming the first major <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic hurricane (Category 3 or above) on record to form as low as 10ºN latitude. Ivan was also recorded as the sixth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record up to that point (afterwards pushed to 9th by <a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005</a>'s <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Katrina</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Rita and <!--del_lnk--> Wilma), with a minimum central pressure of 910 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa). One very unusual occurrence in relation to Ivan happened on <!--del_lnk--> September 22, when a remnant <!--del_lnk--> low from Ivan — which had traveled in a circular motion over the southeastern United States — was reclassified as a tropical depression as it moved over the <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>. The system was given the name Ivan and eventually strengthened into a respectable <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Tropical storm">tropical storm</a> with winds of 65 mph (100 km/h) before making landfall along the coast of <!--del_lnk--> Texas, causing minimal flooding and damage.<p>Although not part of the <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic hurricane season, one event in the <!--del_lnk--> South Atlantic was so unusual as to merit mention. On <!--del_lnk--> March 25, a tropical cyclone (unofficially named <!--del_lnk--> Cyclone Catarina) formed in the <!--del_lnk--> South Atlantic. Catarina is considered to be the first tropical cyclone to have formed in the South Atlantic since satellite observations began. It made landfall late on <!--del_lnk--> March 27 in the <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> state of <!--del_lnk--> Santa Catarina. The storm killed at least three and caused over $350 million (2004 <!--del_lnk--> USD) in damage.<p><a id="Storms" name="Storms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Storms</span></h2> <center> </center> <p><a id="Hurricane_Alex" name="Hurricane_Alex"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Alex</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Alex</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffc140;"><!--del_lnk--> 3</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16217.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane alex2 2004.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane alex2 2004.jpg" height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_alex2_2004.jpg" src="../../images/162/16217.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16218.png.htm" title="Alex 2004 track.png"><img alt="Alex 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Alex_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16218.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> July 31—<!--del_lnk--> August 6</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">120 <!--del_lnk--> mph (190 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 957 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>The first storm of the season formed at the end of July off the coast of <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina. Alex strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane, and on <!--del_lnk--> August 3 came within 10 miles (16 km) of the <!--del_lnk--> Outer Banks of <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina without making landfall. Damage was limited to flooding and wind damage, and in <!--del_lnk--> Dare County, North Carolina, was estimated at $2.4 million. One minor injury was reported.<p>Alex later headed out to sea and strengthened to a Category 3 hurricane, making it only the second hurricane on record to have reached Category 3 strength north of 38° N latitude, before becoming extratropical over the north Atlantic.<p>For the official forecasts, see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> archive on Hurricane Alex.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Bonnie" name="Tropical_Storm_Bonnie"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Bonnie</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Bonnie</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/224/22496.jpg.htm" title="TS Bonnie 2004.jpg"><img alt="TS Bonnie 2004.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Bonnie_2004.jpg" src="../../images/162/16219.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16220.png.htm" title="Bonnie 2004 track.png"><img alt="Bonnie 2004 track.png" height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bonnie_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16220.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 3—<!--del_lnk--> August 14</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">65 <!--del_lnk--> mph (100 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1001 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 3, a tropical wave approaching the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Antilles organized into Tropical Depression Two. As the storm traveled west over the islands, it dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> August 4. The remnants of Tropical Depression Two continued westward and, on <!--del_lnk--> August 9, had strengthened into Tropical Storm Bonnie in the <!--del_lnk--> Yucatan Channel. Although appearing disorganized, Bonnie showed unusual structure, with a closed eye wall and a ten-mile (16 km) wide eye being reported by <!--del_lnk--> hurricane hunters late on August 9 and early on <!--del_lnk--> August 10, a feature almost unheard of in tropical cyclones of that intensity. Bonnie was a very small storm, with tropical storm-force winds extending only 30 miles (50 km) out from the centre. Upper level shear weakened the storm, and Bonnie made landfall as a 45 mph tropical storm just south of <!--del_lnk--> Apalachicola, Florida on <!--del_lnk--> August 12. It accelerated northeastward, and became a remnant area of low pressure on <!--del_lnk--> August 14 to the southeast of <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey.<p>Bonnie caused minor to moderate damage across its path. In the southeast <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, the storm caused a tornado outbreak that caused $500,000 (2004 USD) in damage and 3 deaths. In <!--del_lnk--> New Brunswick, slick rains from the remnants of Bonnie caused an indirect fatality.<p>For the official forecasts, see:<ul> <li>the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> archive on Tropical Storm Bonnie.<li>the HPC's <!--del_lnk--> advisory archive on Bonnie after landfall.</ul> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Charley" name="Hurricane_Charley"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Charley</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Charley</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff8f20;"><!--del_lnk--> 4</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16221.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Charley 2004.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Charley 2004.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Charley_2004.jpg" src="../../images/162/16221.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16222.png.htm" title="Charley 2004 track.png"><img alt="Charley 2004 track.png" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Charley_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16222.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 9—<!--del_lnk--> August 14</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">150 <!--del_lnk--> mph (240 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 941 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Hurricane Charley formed east of the <!--del_lnk--> Windward Islands on <!--del_lnk--> August 9 and moved rapidly west across the <a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean</a>. As it neared Jamaica, it became a hurricane and grazed that island on <!--del_lnk--> August 11, passing through the <a href="../../wp/c/Cayman_Islands.htm" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a> the next morning. On <!--del_lnk--> August 12, Charley passed over mainland <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> as a Category 3 hurricane just west of <!--del_lnk--> Havana.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 13, Charley unexpectedly underwent rapid strengthening, jumping from a Category 2 to a powerful Category 4 storm in a few hours, while at the same time taking a sharp turn to the northeast. Charley made landfall as a Category 4 hurricane near <!--del_lnk--> Port Charlotte, Florida. Although the storm caused serious damage, much of this was limited to a narrow swath associated with the hurricane's eye wall. Charley was a very fast-moving, compact storm, and so much of its damage was attributed to high winds rather than heavy rain, as is the case in most hurricanes. Charley remained a hurricane across the entire Florida peninsula and passed near <!--del_lnk--> Orlando and <!--del_lnk--> Daytona Beach. It later made a second landfall near <!--del_lnk--> North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, on <!--del_lnk--> August 14. Charley dissipated near <!--del_lnk--> Cape Cod, <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts on <!--del_lnk--> August 15.<p>Charley caused approximately $14 billion in damage to the United States, making it the fourth costliest hurricane in U.S. history. Fifteen deaths were directly attributed to Charley; four in <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, one in <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, and ten in <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>.<p>For the official forecasts, see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> archive on Hurricane Charley.<div style="clear:both;"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Danielle" name="Hurricane_Danielle"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Danielle</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Danielle</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffe775;"><!--del_lnk--> 2</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16223.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Danielle 16 aug 2004 1815Z.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Danielle 16 aug 2004 1815Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Danielle_16_aug_2004_1815Z.jpg" src="../../images/162/16223.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16224.png.htm" title="Danielle 2004 track.png"><img alt="Danielle 2004 track.png" height="95" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Danielle_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16224.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 13—<!--del_lnk--> August 21</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">110 <!--del_lnk--> mph (175 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 964 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>At 11 a.m. AST on <!--del_lnk--> August 13, a tropical wave formed into Tropical Depression Four around 275 miles (440 km) southeast of <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Verde.htm" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a>. It was the first of five <!--del_lnk--> Cape Verde-type hurricanes of 2004. Twelve hours later, TD4 strengthened and was named Tropical Storm Danielle. Late on <!--del_lnk--> August 14, Danielle's wind speeds increased, and it was classified as a hurricane. Danielle moved northwest, peaking at Category Two. It was predicted to curve towards the <!--del_lnk--> Azores, but on <!--del_lnk--> August 18 lost motion and slackened to a tropical storm. By <!--del_lnk--> August 19, the storm had become stationary with minimal storm strength 810 miles (1305 km) southwest of the <!--del_lnk--> Azores. The storm was downgraded to a tropical depression the next day, and degenerated to a broad low-pressure area on <!--del_lnk--> August 21.<p>For the official forecasts, see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> archive on Hurricane Danielle.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Earl" name="Tropical_Storm_Earl"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Earl</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Earl</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16225.jpg.htm" title="Tropical Storm Earl (2004).jpg"><img alt="Tropical Storm Earl (2004).jpg" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_Storm_Earl_%282004%29.jpg" src="../../images/162/16225.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16226.png.htm" title="Earl 2004 track.png"><img alt="Earl 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Earl_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16226.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 13—<!--del_lnk--> August 16</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">50 <!--del_lnk--> mph (80 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1009 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Earl formed initially as the fifth tropical depression of the season on <!--del_lnk--> August 13 east of the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Antilles. After traveling west, it reached tropical storm strength on <!--del_lnk--> August 14 around 375 miles (605 km) southeast of <a href="../../wp/b/Barbados.htm" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> August 15, Earl passed just south of <a href="../../wp/g/Grenada.htm" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> and entered the Caribbean. The storm had degenerated by that point, and that night would have been classified as a tropical wave. However, the government of <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> denied access to their airspace for storm <!--del_lnk--> reconnaissance aircraft. An on-site assessment of Earl's circulation was needed, since satellite observations are inaccurate for that purpose. Earl also posed a threat to land, so advisories continued for another 12 hours.<p>The next morning a reconnaissance aircraft was able to reach the storm. It found no closed circulation, and Earl was reclassified as a tropical wave at 11 a.m. AST on <!--del_lnk--> August 16. Remnants of the storm continued across the Caribbean and into <!--del_lnk--> Central America, later becoming Tropical Depression 8E and then Hurricane Frank in the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> (the first time since 1996, when Hurricane Cesar became Douglas in the Pacific). Earl caused minor damage to <a href="../../wp/g/Grenada.htm" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> and <!--del_lnk--> St. Vincent and the Grenadines.<p>For the official forecasts, see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> archive on Tropical Storm Earl. See also <!--del_lnk--> 2004 Pacific hurricane season for information on Earl after it crossed oceans.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Frances" name="Hurricane_Frances"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Frances</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Frances</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff8f20;"><!--del_lnk--> 4</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16227.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Frances 2004.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Frances 2004.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Frances_2004.jpg" src="../../images/162/16227.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16228.png.htm" title="Frances 2004 track.png"><img alt="Frances 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Frances_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16228.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 25—<!--del_lnk--> September 10</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">145 <!--del_lnk--> mph (230 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 935 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Frances began as Tropical Depression Six on <!--del_lnk--> August 24, and it became a named storm on <!--del_lnk--> August 25 while well east of the <!--del_lnk--> Windward Islands. Frances strengthened rapidly, reaching Category 4 intensity by <!--del_lnk--> August 27. Initially forecast to turn north and potentially threaten <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>, conditions changed and Frances's predicted track shifted westward. After grazing the <a href="../../wp/t/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands.htm" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a>, it plowed through the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>. From <!--del_lnk--> September 2 through <!--del_lnk--> September 4, Frances slowly ground its way across the Bahamas. Its slow movement allowed a record 2.5 to 3 million Floridians to evacuate their homes. However, as it ground its way across the Bahamas, it weakened to a Category 2 hurricane due to wind shear, although it was still a very large storm.<p>After sitting stationary off the coast of Florida for nearly 24 hours, Frances finally moved onto the coast of <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> in the early hours of <!--del_lnk--> September 5. It traveled northwest over land, briefly emerging over the <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> and striking the Florida panhandle. As it passed over <!--del_lnk--> Georgia on <!--del_lnk--> September 6, it caused heavy rainfall across the southern U.S. Over 15 inches of rain were recorded in some places in <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia, causing heavy flooding. Frances was downgraded to a tropical depression and dissipated over <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania on <!--del_lnk--> September 9.<p>Damage to the United States was approximately $9 billion, making it the 10th costliest hurricane in U.S. history. Most of Hurricane Frances's damage occurred in Florida as a result of the storm's slow movement, large size, and long duration of winds. The storm is directly responsible for seven deaths; one in the Bahamas and six in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Hurricane Frances also produced a record-setting 123 tornadoes as it moved its way through the United States.<p>For official forecasts, see:<ul> <li>the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> archive for Hurricane Frances.<li>the HPC's <!--del_lnk--> advisory archive on Frances after landfall.</ul> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Gaston" name="Hurricane_Gaston"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Gaston</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Gaston</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffffcc;"><!--del_lnk--> 1</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16229.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Gaston 2004.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Gaston 2004.jpg" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Gaston_2004.jpg" src="../../images/162/16229.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16230.png.htm" title="Gaston 2004 track.png"><img alt="Gaston 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gaston_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16230.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 27—<!--del_lnk--> September 1</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">75 <!--del_lnk--> mph (120 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 986 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Depression Seven formed at 5 p.m. EDT (2100 UTC) on <!--del_lnk--> August 27, around 140 miles (225 km) southeast of <!--del_lnk--> Charleston, South Carolina. The depression meandered off the coast for the rest of the day, strengthening into Tropical Storm Gaston by midday <!--del_lnk--> August 28. At 10 a.m. EDT (1400 UTC) on <!--del_lnk--> August 29, Gaston made landfall on the coast of <!--del_lnk--> Bulls Bay, South Carolina, near the towns of <!--del_lnk--> McClellanville and <!--del_lnk--> Awendaw. It was downgraded to a tropical depression later that day. The storm made landfall in almost the same location as <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Hugo in 1989.<p>At landfall the storm was originally classified as just shy of hurricane strength. While wind damage in South Carolina was minimal, the slow-moving storm produced five to ten inches (125 to 250 mm) of rain along its path, causing extensive flooding. Gaston moved north over land, weakening to a tropical depression but still bringing torrential rain to central <!--del_lnk--> Virginia, where at least eight people were killed in the ensuing floods. The <!--del_lnk--> Shockoe Bottom entertainment district near downtown <a href="../../wp/r/Richmond%252C_Virginia.htm" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond</a> was devastated by the flooding. Total damage was estimated at about $130 million.<p>Late on <!--del_lnk--> August 30, as Tropical Depression Gaston crossed <!--del_lnk--> Chesapeake Bay, its winds strengthened, and it was again classified as a tropical storm. It headed out over the Atlantic and became extratropical on <!--del_lnk--> September 1, about 185 miles (300 km) southeast of <!--del_lnk--> Halifax, Nova Scotia.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 19, after a detailed analysis by the NHC, surface-level winds were determined to be about 75 mph (120 km/h) at landfall, and Gaston was reclassified as a Category 1 hurricane.<p>For official forecasts, see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> archive on Hurricane Gaston.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Hermine" name="Tropical_Storm_Hermine"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Hermine</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Hermine</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16231.jpg.htm" title="TS Hermine 2004.jpg"><img alt="TS Hermine 2004.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TS_Hermine_2004.jpg" src="../../images/162/16231.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16232.png.htm" title="Hermine 2004 track.png"><img alt="Hermine 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hermine_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16232.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> August 27—<!--del_lnk--> August 31</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">60 <!--del_lnk--> mph (95 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1002 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Hermine formed out of an organized area of disturbed weather that had formed about 325 miles (520 km) southeast of <!--del_lnk--> Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, or 360 miles (580 km) west of <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>, and moved rapidly north towards <!--del_lnk--> Cape Cod. On its northward trek, Hermine left behind most of its convection. The storm made landfall near <!--del_lnk--> New Bedford, Massachusetts, early on <!--del_lnk--> August 31, appearing as little more than a low-level swirl of clouds. It became extratropical a few hours later. The remnant low centre tracked up the Bay of Fundy later on <!--del_lnk--> August 31. Some rainfall and thunderstorms over <!--del_lnk--> Long Island and parts of <!--del_lnk--> New England were attributed to Hermine, but most people did not realize a tropical storm had struck.<p>There were no casualties or reports of major damage caused by Hermine. Locally heavy rain did fall in portions of southern <!--del_lnk--> New Brunswick, which received 40-55 mm. Minor basement flooding and street closures were also reported in <!--del_lnk--> Moncton, New Brunswick.<p>For the official forecasts, see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> archive on Tropical Storm Hermine.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Ivan" name="Hurricane_Ivan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Ivan</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Ivan</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff6060;"><!--del_lnk--> 5</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16233.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Ivan.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Ivan.jpg" src="../../images/162/16233.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16234.png.htm" title="Ivan 2004 track.png"><img alt="Ivan 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ivan_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16234.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 2—<!--del_lnk--> September 24</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">165 <!--del_lnk--> mph (265 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 910 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Ivan was a <!--del_lnk--> Cape Verde-type hurricane that began as Tropical Depression Nine on <!--del_lnk--> September 2. It became a tropical storm on <!--del_lnk--> September 3, and a hurricane on <!--del_lnk--> September 5 while 1,040 miles (1670 km) east of the Windward Islands, at 9.9° N. Later that day, while at 10.6° N, it unexpectedly underwent rapid strengthening, reaching Category 4 intensity by that evening. It was the strongest storm to have ever been known to intensify that far south. Ivan weakened slightly while continuing westward, and struck <a href="../../wp/g/Grenada.htm" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 7.<p>While moving westward through the <a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a>, Ivan quickly intensified to a Category 5 hurricane. It fluctuated in strength over the next few days, and passed within 30 miles (50 km) of <!--del_lnk--> Grand Cayman on <!--del_lnk--> September 11. Ivan grazed western <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> as a Category 5, and moved into the Gulf of Mexico. The hurricane turned northward over cooler waters, and made landfall in southern <!--del_lnk--> Alabama on <!--del_lnk--> September 16 as a 120 mph (195 km/h) hurricane. Ivan weakened rapidly to a tropical depression over Alabama, accelerated to the northeast, and became extratropical over the <!--del_lnk--> Delmarva Peninsula on <!--del_lnk--> September 18. Ivan's remnants turned to the southeast then southwest, and gradually re-organized over the warm Gulf Stream waters. After crossing southern <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 21 the system regained tropical characteristics over the Gulf of Mexico, and became a tropical storm on <!--del_lnk--> September 23 while 140 miles (220 km) south of <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana. Ivan moved to the northwest, and reached winds of 60 mph (95 km/h) before making landfall near <!--del_lnk--> Cameron, Louisiana. Ivan quickly deteriorated over <!--del_lnk--> Texas, and dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> September 24.<p>Hurricane Ivan directly killed 92 people throughout the Caribbean and United States and caused approximately $13 billion in damage to the United States, making it the fifth costliest hurricane in United States history. The hurricane destroyed 90% of Grenada's structures and devastated the island's economy, and destroyed 85% of the buildings on Grand Cayman. The combination of Hurricane Ivan with the previous rains of Frances brought many rivers in the Southeastern U.S. to near-record flood levels. Ivan was the strongest storm of the season, and the only 2004 Atlantic hurricane to reach Category 5 intensity. Its low pressure reading of 910 mbar made it the sixth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record at the time.<p>For official forecasts see:<ul> <li>the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> public advisory archive on Hurricane Ivan.<li>the HPC's <!--del_lnk--> advisory archive on Ivan after landfall.</ul> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Depression_Ten" name="Tropical_Depression_Ten"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Depression Ten</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Depression Ten</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #5ebaff;"><!--del_lnk--> TD</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16235.jpg.htm" title="TD ten 2004.jpg"><img alt="TD ten 2004.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TD_ten_2004.jpg" src="../../images/162/16235.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16236.png.htm" title="10-L 2004 track.png"><img alt="10-L 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:10-L_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16236.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 7—<!--del_lnk--> September 9</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">35 <!--del_lnk--> mph (60 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 1013 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>In addition to the fifteen named storms, there was a single tropical depression, Tropical Depression 10, which did not strengthen into a tropical storm. It formed on <!--del_lnk--> September 7 from a tropical wave, and after moving northeastward it dissipated near the <!--del_lnk--> Azores on <!--del_lnk--> September 9.<p>For official forecasts, see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> advisory archive on Tropical Depression Ten<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Jeanne" name="Hurricane_Jeanne"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Jeanne</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Jeanne</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffc140;"><!--del_lnk--> 3</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16237.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane jeanne 2004.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane jeanne 2004.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_jeanne_2004.jpg" src="../../images/162/16237.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16238.png.htm" title="Jeanne 2004 track.png"><img alt="Jeanne 2004 track.png" height="105" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jeanne_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16238.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 13—<!--del_lnk--> September 28</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">120 <!--del_lnk--> mph (190 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 951 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Jeanne formed as a tropical depression east-southeast of <a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> on the evening of <!--del_lnk--> September 13. Having strengthened to a tropical storm, Jeanne crossed <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 15. It then moved toward <!--del_lnk--> Hispaniola, barely reaching hurricane strength before making landfall on <!--del_lnk--> September 16. It tracked slowly across the northern coast of the <a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, its heavy rains bringing mudslides and flooding. Jeanne's unusually slow journey was actually caused by a weakening Hurricane Ivan. Ivan broke up a trough that was fueling Jeanne's steering currents. Interaction with Hispaniola caused it to degenerate into a tropical depression.<p>After wreaking havoc on Hispaniola, Jeanne struggled to reorganize. However, it eventually began strengthening and headed north. After performing a complete loop over the open Atlantic, it headed westwards, strengthening into a Category 3 hurricane and passing over the islands of <!--del_lnk--> Great Abaco and <!--del_lnk--> Grand Bahama in the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 25. Jeanne made landfall later in the day in Florida just 2 miles (3 kilometers) from where Frances had struck 3 weeks earlier. Building on the rainfall of <!--del_lnk--> Frances and <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Ivan</a>, Jeanne brought near-record flood levels as far north as <a href="../../wp/w/West_Virginia.htm" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> and <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey before its remnants turned east into the open Atlantic.<p>Jeanne is blamed for at least 3,006 deaths in <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> with about 2,800 in <!--del_lnk--> Gonaïves alone, which was nearly washed away by floods and mudslides. The storm also caused 7 deaths in <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, 18 in the <a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> and at least 4 in <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, bringing the total number of deaths to at least 3,025. Final property damage in the United States was $6,800,000,000, making this the 13th costliest hurricane in U.S. history.<p>For official forecasts see:<ul> <li>the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> public advisory archive on Hurricane Jeanne.<li>the HPC's <!--del_lnk--> advisory archive on Jeanne after landfall.</ul> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Karl" name="Hurricane_Karl"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Karl</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Karl</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ff8f20;"><!--del_lnk--> 4</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16239.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Karl 21 sept 2004 1315Z.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Karl 21 sept 2004 1315Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Karl_21_sept_2004_1315Z.jpg" src="../../images/162/16239.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16240.png.htm" title="Karl 2004 track.png"><img alt="Karl 2004 track.png" height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Karl_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16240.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 16—<!--del_lnk--> September 28</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">145 <!--del_lnk--> mph (230 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 938 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Depression Twelve formed from a tropical wave about 670 miles (1,080 km) west-southwest of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Verde.htm" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> islands on <!--del_lnk--> September 16. It became Tropical Storm Karl at 11 p.m. AST (0300 UTC) that day. Early on <!--del_lnk--> September 18, it strengthened rapidly to become a hurricane and was a major hurricane later that day.<p>Karl continued strengthening and became a 145 mph (230 km/h) Category 4 hurricane on <!--del_lnk--> September 21. It fluctuated in intensity over the next few days, reaching Category 4 strength on two different occasions. It moved steadily northwards, staying hundreds of miles from any land, until it began to weaken and become extratropical over cooler waters. Karl was still of Category 1 strength when it became an extratropical system on <!--del_lnk--> September 24 over the far northern Atlantic at about 47° N. The extratropical system struck the <!--del_lnk--> Faeroe Islands two days later with 144 km/h (89 mph) wind gusts. <!--del_lnk--> <p>For official forecasts see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> public advisory archive on Hurricane Karl.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Hurricane_Lisa" name="Hurricane_Lisa"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hurricane Lisa</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Hurricane Lisa</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #ffffcc;"><!--del_lnk--> 1</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16241.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Lisa 02 oct 2004 1300Z.jpg"><img alt="Hurricane Lisa 02 oct 2004 1300Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Lisa_02_oct_2004_1300Z.jpg" src="../../images/162/16241.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16242.png.htm" title="Lisa 2004 track.png"><img alt="Lisa 2004 track.png" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lisa_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16242.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> September 19—<!--del_lnk--> October 3</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">75 <!--del_lnk--> mph (120 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 987 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Tropical Depression Thirteen developed from a tropical wave 650 miles (1,045 km) west-southwest of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Verde.htm" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> islands on <!--del_lnk--> September 19. It became Tropical Storm Lisa at 8 a.m. AST on <!--del_lnk--> September 20 with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (80 km/h). A very small storm, its development was hindered by its proximity to Hurricane Karl. On <!--del_lnk--> September 22, Lisa began merging with a large tropical disturbance to its east and weakened to a tropical depression for a couple of days before regaining tropical storm strength on <!--del_lnk--> September 25. By then it was heading generally northwards in the mid-Atlantic. Lisa went through several phases of weakening and strengthening as it headed north, finally reaching hurricane strength on <!--del_lnk--> October 1, and again the next day.<p>At the time, Lisa earned the record for being a named tropical cyclone (i.e., after first reaching Tropical Storm strength) for 11 days before becoming a hurricane. (<!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Dennis of <!--del_lnk--> 1981 took longer overall but dropped to a tropical wave before regenerating.) However, <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Irene beat this record in the <!--del_lnk--> 2005 Atlantic Hurricane Season. (Subsequent reevaluation determined that Lisa only became a hurricane on <!--del_lnk--> October 2, after 11¾ days as a named cyclone. Its total development time from tropical depression to hurricane, at 12½ days, is second only to <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Josephine of <!--del_lnk--> 1990.)<p>Lisa was a hurricane only briefly, moving over cooler waters and weakening to a tropical storm. It became extratropical early on <!--del_lnk--> October 3 while located about 475 miles (760 km) north-northwest of the <!--del_lnk--> Azores. It never threatened any land area.<p>For official forecasts see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> public advisory archive on Hurricane Lisa.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Matthew" name="Tropical_Storm_Matthew"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Matthew</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Matthew</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/225/22535.jpg.htm" title="Tropical Storm Matthew (2004).jpg"><img alt="Tropical Storm Matthew (2004).jpg" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_Storm_Matthew_%282004%29.jpg" src="../../images/162/16243.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16244.png.htm" title="Matthew 2004 track.png"><img alt="Matthew 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Matthew_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16244.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> October 8—<!--del_lnk--> October 10</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">45 <!--del_lnk--> mph (70 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 997 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Matthew began with a tropical wave that entered the southwestern Gulf of Mexico. This wave grew into a large area of low pressure in the western Gulf. The nontropical low began feeding moisture into a cold front that was traversing the United States, causing heavy rainfall across Louisiana, <!--del_lnk--> East Texas, and <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas.<p>On the afternoon of <!--del_lnk--> October 8, the low pressure system developed into Tropical Storm Matthew 260 miles (420 km) east-southeast of <!--del_lnk--> Brownsville, Texas. Matthew was a minimal tropical storm, and its sustained winds stayed at or near 40 mph (64 km/h) from its naming until landfall on <!--del_lnk--> October 10. It became extratropical inland over <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana later in the day, and dissipated when it was near <!--del_lnk--> El Dorado, Arkansas.<p>Matthew brought up to 12 inches (300 mm) of rain to southern Louisiana. About a dozen homes were flooded in <!--del_lnk--> Terrebonne Parish after a <a href="../../wp/c/Canal.htm" title="Canal">canal</a> <!--del_lnk--> levee burst, and streets in <!--del_lnk--> St. Bernard Parish were reportedly under 2 feet (60 cm) of water. The remnants of Matthew continued to spin inland and delivered heavy rainfall for at least five more days. No injuries or deaths were reported.<p>For official forecasts see:<ul> <li>the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> public advisory archive on Tropical Storm Matthew.<li>the HPC's <!--del_lnk--> advisory archive on Matthew after landfall.</ul> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Subtropical_Storm_Nicole" name="Subtropical_Storm_Nicole"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Subtropical Storm Nicole</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Subtropical Storm Nicole</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> SS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16245.jpg.htm" title="STS Nicole 10 oct 2004 1530Z.jpg"><img alt="STS Nicole 10 oct 2004 1530Z.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:STS_Nicole_10_oct_2004_1530Z.jpg" src="../../images/162/16245.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16246.png.htm" title="Nicole 2004 track.png"><img alt="Nicole 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nicole_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16246.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> October 10—<!--del_lnk--> October 11</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">50 <!--del_lnk--> mph (85 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 986 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>Early on <!--del_lnk--> October 10, the National Hurricane Centre determined that a low-pressure system to the west of <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> had acquired sufficient organization to be named <!--del_lnk--> Subtropical Storm Nicole. It brought light rain to Bermuda and briefly threatened it before heading towards the northeast. Nicole continued heading generally northeastward over cooler waters and was declared fully <!--del_lnk--> extratropical on <!--del_lnk--> October 11 while 345 miles (555 km) south-southeast of <!--del_lnk--> Halifax, Nova Scotia. The <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Hurricane Centre continued to issue advisories on, as they called it, post-tropical Storm Nicole (actually a system absorbed by another extratropical low) for another day as it moved closer to land and dropped heavy rainfall on the <!--del_lnk--> Maritimes. The low containing the remnants of Nicole finally merged with another larger low-pressure area while in the vicinity of <!--del_lnk--> Anticosti Island on <!--del_lnk--> October 14. No injuries or deaths were reported.<p>Since 2002, subtropical storms have been assigned names from the same sequence as tropical storms. Nicole was the first named storm under this dispensation that never achieved tropical status.<p>For official forecasts, see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> public advisory archive on Subtropical Storm Nicole.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Tropical_Storm_Otto" name="Tropical_Storm_Otto"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tropical Storm Otto</span></h3> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" width="300"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size:12pt; background-color:#EEEEEE; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#EEEEEE; width:100%;"> <tr> <th style="width:30px;"> </th> <th><b>Tropical Storm Otto</b></th> <th style="border-left:1px solid #AAAAAA; padding:0; width:30px;background: #00faf4;"><!--del_lnk--> TS</th> </tr> </table> </th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding:5px;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:#F9F9F9; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:94%; line-height:125%;"> <tr align="center" valign="center"> <td style="padding-right:5px; padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16247.jpg.htm" title="Tropical Storm Otto 2004.jpg"><img alt="Tropical Storm Otto 2004.jpg" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tropical_Storm_Otto_2004.jpg" src="../../images/162/16247.jpg" width="150" /></a></td> <td style="padding-bottom:5px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/162/16248.png.htm" title="Otto 2004 track.png"><img alt="Otto 2004 track.png" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Otto_2004_track.png" src="../../images/162/16248.png" width="150" /></a></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Duration</th> <td style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> November 29—<!--del_lnk--> December 2</td> </tr> <tr style="border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; padding:0.1ex 0 0.1ex 5px;" valign="top">Intensity</th> <td nowrap style="padding:0.1ex 5px;" valign="top" width="100%">50 <!--del_lnk--> mph (80 <!--del_lnk--> km/h), 995 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</td> </tr> </table> <p>After a period of inactivity lasting seven weeks, Tropical Storm Otto formed on <!--del_lnk--> November 30, the last day of the official hurricane season. It developed from a nontropical low-pressure system over the central North Atlantic Ocean. Otto moved generally south and southwest for a few days as a minimal tropical storm before degenerating on <!--del_lnk--> December 2.<p>For official forecasts, see the NHC's <!--del_lnk--> public advisory archive on Tropical Storm Otto.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Season_summary" name="Season_summary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Season summary</span></h2> <table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"> <caption style="font-size:150%"><b>2004 <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic hurricane statistics</b></caption> <tr style="background:silver;"> <th rowspan="2">Storm Name</th> <th rowspan="2">Active Dates</th> <th align="center" rowspan="2">Storm <!--del_lnk--> category<p>at peak intensity</th> <th rowspan="2">Max <p>Wind<p>(<!--del_lnk--> mph)</th> <th rowspan="2">Min. <p>Press.<p>(<!--del_lnk--> mbar)</th> <th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> ACE</th> <th align="center" colspan="3">Landfall(s)</th> <th align="center" rowspan="2">Damage <p>(millions<p><!--del_lnk--> USD)</th> <th rowspan="2">Deaths</th> </tr> <tr style="background:silver;"> <th>Where</th> <th>When</th> <th>Wind <p>(<!--del_lnk--> mph)</th> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffc140; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Alex_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Alex (2004)">Alex</a></th> <td rowspan="1">July 31 - August 6</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 3 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">120</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">957</td> <td rowspan="1"> 11.4</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">7.5 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">1 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Bonnie_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Bonnie (2004)">Bonnie</a></th> <td rowspan="1">August 3 - 13</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">65</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1001</td> <td rowspan="1"> 2.62</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> St. Vincent Island, Florida</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> August 12</td> <td align="right" style="background:#00faf4; color:black">45</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">1.27 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">3 (1) </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ff8f20; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="5"><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Charley.htm" title="Hurricane Charley">Charley</a></th> <td rowspan="5">August 9 - 14</td> <td align="center" rowspan="5">Category 4 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="5">150</td> <td align="right" rowspan="5">941</td> <td rowspan="5"> 10.6</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffc140; color:black"><small><!--del_lnk--> Playa del Cajio, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></small></td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffc140; color:black"><small><!--del_lnk--> 13 August</small></td> <td align="right" style="background:#ffc140; color:black">120</td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">16000</td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">15 (20) </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ff8f20; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Cayo Costa, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a></small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> August 13</small></td> <td align="right">150</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ff8f20; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Punta Gorda, Florida</small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> August 13</small></td> <td align="right">145</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Cape Romain, South Carolina</small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> August 14</small></td> <td align="right">80</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina</small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> August 14</small></td> <td align="right">75</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffe775; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Danielle</th> <td rowspan="1">August 13 - 21</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 2 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">110</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">964</td> <td rowspan="1"> 12.1</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Earl</th> <td rowspan="1">August 13 - 15</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">50</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1009</td> <td rowspan="1">0.77</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black"> ?</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ff8f20; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="6"><!--del_lnk--> Frances</th> <td rowspan="6">27 Aug - 8 Sept</td> <td align="center" rowspan="6">Category 4 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="6">145</td> <td align="right" rowspan="6">936</td> <td rowspan="6"> 45.9</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffc140; color:black"><small><!--del_lnk--> San Salvador Island, <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a></small></td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffc140; color:black"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 2</small></td> <td align="right" style="background:#ffc140; color:black">125</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">9600</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">7 (42)</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffc140; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Cat Island, <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a></small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 3</small></td> <td align="right">115</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffe775; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Eleuthera, <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a></small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> September 3</small></td> <td align="right">110</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffe775; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Grand Bahama Island</small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 4</small></td> <td align="right">105</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffe775; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Hutchinson Island South, Florida</small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 5</small></td> <td align="right">105</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <td align="left"><small>Mouth of <!--del_lnk--> Aucilla River, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a></small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 6</small></td> <td align="right">60</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Gaston</th> <td rowspan="1">Aug 27 - Sept 1</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 1 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">75</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">985</td> <td rowspan="1"> 2.72</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Awendaw, South Carolina</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> 29 August</td> <td align="right" style="background:#ffffcc; color:black">75</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">130 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">8 (1) </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Hermine</th> <td rowspan="1">Aug 27 - 31</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">60</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1002</td> <td rowspan="1"> 1.34</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> New Bedford, Massachusetts</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> August 31</td> <td align="right" style="background:#00faf4; color:black">40</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black"> ? </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ff6060; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="2"><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Ivan</a></th> <td rowspan="2">Sept 2 - 24</td> <td align="center" rowspan="2">Category 5 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="2">165</td> <td align="right" rowspan="2">910</td> <td rowspan="2"> 70.4</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffc140; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Pine Beach, Alabama</td> <td align="left" style="background:#ffc140; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Sept 16</td> <td align="right" style="background:#ffc140; color:black">120</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">17200 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">92 (32)</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Holly Beach, Louisiana</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Sept 24</td> <td align="right">35</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1">Ten</th> <td rowspan="1">Sept 7 - 9</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Depression</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">35</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">1009</td> <td rowspan="1"> 0</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffc140; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="5"><!--del_lnk--> Jeanne</th> <td rowspan="5">24 - 29 Sept</td> <td align="center" rowspan="5">Category 3 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="5">120</td> <td align="right" rowspan="5">950</td> <td rowspan="5"> 24.2</td> <td align="left" style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"><small>near <a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></small></td> <td align="left" style="background:#5ebaff; color:black"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 14</small></td> <td align="right" style="background:#5ebaff; color:black">35</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">7000 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">3035+  </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <td align="left"><small>Near <!--del_lnk--> Guayama, <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 15</small></td> <td align="right">70</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"> <td align="left"><small>Eastern tip of <a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 16</small></td> <td align="right">80</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffc140; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Abaco Island, <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a></small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 25</small></td> <td align="right">115</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffc140; color:black"> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Hutchinson Island South, Florida</small></td> <td align="left"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sept 26</small></td> <td align="right">120</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ff8f20; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Karl</th> <td rowspan="1">Sept 16 - Sept 24</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 4 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">145</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">938</td> <td rowspan="1">28.4</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0</td> </tr> <tr style="background:#ffffcc; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Lisa</th> <td rowspan="1">Sept 19 - Oct 3</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Category 1 Hurricane</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">75</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">987</td> <td rowspan="1"> 12.2</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Matthew_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Matthew (2004)">Matthew</a></th> <td rowspan="1">Oct 8 - 10</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">45</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">997</td> <td rowspan="1">1.01</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Cocodrie, Louisiana</td> <td align="left" style="background:#00faf4; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> Oct 9</td> <td align="right" style="background:#00faf4; color:black">40</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">.03 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Nicole</th> <td rowspan="1">Oct 10 - 11</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">50</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">986</td> <td rowspan="1"> N/A</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> </tr> <tr style="background:#00faf4; color:black"> <th align="left" rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Otto</th> <td rowspan="1"><!--del_lnk--> Nov 29 - <!--del_lnk--> Dec 3</td> <td align="center" rowspan="1">Tropical Storm</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">50</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1">995</td> <td rowspan="1">1.01</td> <td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="3">none</td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0 </td> <td align="right" rowspan="1" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:black">0) </td> </tr> <tr bgcolor="silver"> <th align="center" colspan="11">Season Aggregates</th> </tr> <tr bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> <td align="center"><b>15 cyclones</b></td> <td align="default"><!--del_lnk--> July 31<br /> -<!--del_lnk--> Dec. 3</td> <td align="center"> </td> <td align="right">165</td> <td align="right"><b>910</b></td> <td><b>225</b></td> <td align="center" colspan="3">22 Landfalls</td> <td align="right"><b>50000</b></td> <td align="right">48 (44)</td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Accumulated_Cyclone_Energy_.28ACE.29_Ranking" name="Accumulated_Cyclone_Energy_.28ACE.29_Ranking"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) Ranking</span></h2> <table align="right" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em"> <tr> <th colspan="7">ACE (10<sup>4</sup> kt<sup>2</sup>) – Storm</th> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">1.</td> <td> </td> <td>70.4 – <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Ivan</a></td> <td> </td> <td align="right">9.</td> <td> </td> <td>2.72   – <!--del_lnk--> Gaston</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">2.</td> <td> </td> <td>45.9 – <!--del_lnk--> Frances</td> <td>   </td> <td>10.</td> <td> </td> <td>2.62   – <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Bonnie_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Bonnie (2004)">Bonnie</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">3.</td> <td> </td> <td>28.4 – <!--del_lnk--> Karl</td> <td> </td> <td>11.</td> <td> </td> <td>1.34   – <!--del_lnk--> Hermine</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">4.</td> <td> </td> <td>24.2 – <!--del_lnk--> Jeanne</td> <td> </td> <td>12.</td> <td> </td> <td>1.01   – <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Matthew_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Matthew (2004)">Matthew</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">5.</td> <td> </td> <td>12.2 – <!--del_lnk--> Lisa</td> <td> </td> <td>13.</td> <td> </td> <td>1.01   – <!--del_lnk--> Otto</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">6.</td> <td> </td> <td>12.1 – <!--del_lnk--> Danielle</td> <td> </td> <td>14.</td> <td> </td> <td>0.77   – <!--del_lnk--> Earl</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">7.</td> <td> </td> <td>11.4 – <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Alex_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Alex (2004)">Alex</a></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">8.</td> <td> </td> <td>10.6 – <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Charley.htm" title="Hurricane Charley">Charley</a></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> </table> <p>The tropical storms of 2004 ranked from highest to lowest <!--del_lnk--> Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) given to three <!--del_lnk--> significant figures. The total for the season was 225. This makes it the fourth most energetic season since 1950.<p>ACE measures the strength and duration of a tropical cyclone. Hurricane Ivan, because it was such a long lasting and strong Cape Verde-type hurricane, contributed almost one-third of the ACE value for 2004. Ivan had the second-highest ACE of any tropical cyclone recorded in the Atlantic, behind only <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane San Ciriaco of 1899.<br style="clear:both;" /> <p><a id="Storm_names" name="Storm_names"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Storm names</span></h2> <p>The following names were used for named storms that formed in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic basin">Atlantic basin</a> in 2004. The names not retired from this list will be used again in the 2010 season. This is the same list used for the <!--del_lnk--> 1998 season except for Gaston and Matthew, which replaced <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Georges.htm" title="Hurricane Georges">Georges</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Mitch.htm" title="Hurricane Mitch">Mitch</a>. Storms were named Gaston, Matthew, and Otto for the first time in 2004. Names that were not assigned are marked in <font color="gray">gray</font>.<table width="90%"> <tr> <td> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Alex_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Alex (2004)">Alex</a><li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Bonnie_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Bonnie (2004)">Bonnie</a><li><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Charley.htm" title="Hurricane Charley">Charley</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Danielle<li><!--del_lnk--> Earl<li><!--del_lnk--> Frances<li><!--del_lnk--> Gaston</ul> </td> <td> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Hermine<li><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Ivan</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Jeanne<li><!--del_lnk--> Karl<li><!--del_lnk--> Lisa<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Matthew_%25282004%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Matthew (2004)">Matthew</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Nicole</ul> </td> <td> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Otto<li><font color="gray">Paula <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Richard <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Shary <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Tomas <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Virginie <i>(unused)</i></font><li><font color="gray">Walter <i>(unused)</i></font></ul> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Retirement" name="Retirement"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Retirement</span></h3> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> World Meteorological Organization retired four names in the spring of 2005: Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne. They will be replaced in 2010 by Colin, Fiona, Igor, and Julia. The 2004 season was tied with the <!--del_lnk--> 1955 season and <!--del_lnk--> 1995 season for the most storm names retired after a single season until the <a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005 season</a>, when five names were retired.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Hurricane Ivan', '2003 Atlantic hurricane season', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Tropical cyclone', 'Atlantic basin', 'U.S. state', 'Florida', 'Hurricane Charley', 'Hurricane Ivan', 'Haiti', 'Grenada', 'Jamaica', 'Cayman Islands', 'Bahamas', 'Cuba', 'U.S. state', 'Florida', 'El Niño', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Haiti', 'Dominican Republic', 'Tropical Storm Bonnie (2004)', 'Hurricane Charley', 'U.S. state', 'Florida', 'Hurricane Ivan', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Labor Day Hurricane of 1935', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Hurricane Katrina', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Hurricane Camille', 'Hurricane Mitch', 'Hurricane Ivan', 'Hurricane Alex (2004)', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Florida', 'Haiti', 'Hurricane Ivan', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'Gulf of Mexico', 'Tropical storm', 'Brazil', 'United States', 'Caribbean Sea', 'Cayman Islands', 'Cuba', 'Jamaica', 'Cuba', 'Florida', 'Cape Verde', 'Barbados', 'Grenada', 'Venezuela', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Grenada', 'Bermuda', 'Turks and Caicos Islands', 'Bahamas', 'Florida', 'Gulf of Mexico', 'United States', 'Richmond, Virginia', 'Bermuda', 'Grenada', 'Caribbean Sea', 'Cuba', 'Florida', 'Guadeloupe', 'Puerto Rico', 'Dominican Republic', 'Haiti', 'Bahamas', 'Hurricane Ivan', 'West Virginia', 'Haiti', 'Puerto Rico', 'Dominican Republic', 'Florida', 'Cape Verde', 'Cape Verde', 'Canal', 'Bermuda', 'Hurricane Alex (2004)', 'Tropical Storm Bonnie (2004)', 'Hurricane Charley', 'Mexico', 'Florida', 'Bahamas', 'Bahamas', 'Bahamas', 'Florida', 'Hurricane Ivan', 'Guadeloupe', 'Puerto Rico', 'Dominican Republic', 'Bahamas', 'Tropical Storm Matthew (2004)', 'Hurricane Ivan', 'Tropical Storm Bonnie (2004)', 'Tropical Storm Matthew (2004)', 'Hurricane Alex (2004)', 'Hurricane Charley', 'Atlantic basin', 'Hurricane Georges', 'Hurricane Mitch', 'Hurricane Alex (2004)', 'Tropical Storm Bonnie (2004)', 'Hurricane Charley', 'Hurricane Ivan', 'Tropical Storm Matthew (2004)', '2005 Atlantic hurricane season']
2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake,Kata Noi Beach,Thailand,1138 Aleppo earthquake,1556 Shaanxi earthquake,1755 Lisbon earthquake,1952,1970 Bhola cyclone,2003,2004,2005" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake"; var wgTitle = "2004 Indian Ocean earthquake"; var wgArticleId = 1328236; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geology_and_geophysics.htm">Geology and geophysics</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children still cares for more than 500 Tsunami orphans. For more information see <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami_One_Year_On.htm" title="SOS Children: Tsunami">SOS Children: Tsunami one year on</a></div> <!-- start content --> <div class="metadata topicon" id="featured-star" style="right:10px; display:none;"> <div style="position: relative; width: 14px; height: 14px; overflow: hidden"> <div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; font-size: 100px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 100px; z-index: 3"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information.">   </span></div> <div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2"><a class="image" href="../../images/0/24.png.htm" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png" src="../../images/0/24.png" width="14" /></a></div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:307px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/175/17519.jpg.htm" title="The tsunami caused by the December 26, 2004 earthquake strikes Ao Nang, Thailand."><img alt="The tsunami caused by the December 26, 2004 earthquake strikes Ao Nang, Thailand." height="221" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2004-tsunami.jpg" src="../../images/160/16041.jpg" width="305" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/175/17519.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The tsunami caused by the <!--del_lnk--> December 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2004 earthquake strikes <!--del_lnk--> Ao Nang, Thailand.</div> </div> </div> <p>The <b>2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</b>, known by the scientific community as the <b>Sumatra-Andaman earthquake</b>, was an undersea <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> that occurred at 00:58:53 <!--del_lnk--> UTC (07:58:53 local time) <!--del_lnk--> December 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2004 with an <!--del_lnk--> epicentre off the west coast of <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. The earthquake triggered a series of devastating <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a> that spread throughout the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, killing large numbers of people and inundating coastal communities across <!--del_lnk--> South and <!--del_lnk--> Southeast Asia, including parts of <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, and <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>. Although initial estimates have put the worldwide death toll at over 275,000 with thousands of others missing, recent analysis compiled lists a total of 229,866 persons lost, including 186,983 dead and 42,883 missing. The figure excludes 400 to 600 people who are believed to have perished in <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> which is more than that government's official figure of only 61 dead. The catastrophe is one of the <!--del_lnk--> deadliest disasters in <a href="../../wp/m/Modern_history.htm" title="Modern history">modern history</a>. The disaster is known in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> and in the international media as the <b>Asian Tsunami</b>, and also called the <b><!--del_lnk--> Boxing Day Tsunami</b> in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> as it took place on <!--del_lnk--> Boxing Day. Coincidentally, the tsunami occurred exactly one year after the 2003 earthquake that devastated the southern <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iranian</a> city of <!--del_lnk--> Bam.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> magnitude of the earthquake was originally recorded as 9.0 on the <!--del_lnk--> Richter scale, but has been upgraded to between 9.1 and 9.3. At this magnitude, it is the <!--del_lnk--> second largest earthquake ever recorded on a <!--del_lnk--> seismograph. This earthquake was also reported to be the longest duration of faulting ever observed, lasting between 500 and 600 seconds, and it was large enough that it caused the entire planet to vibrate at least half an inch, or over a centimetre. It also triggered earthquakes in other locations as far away as <!--del_lnk--> Alaska.<p>The earthquake originated in the Indian Ocean just north of <!--del_lnk--> Simeulue island, off the western coast of northern Sumatra. The resulting tsunami devastated the shores of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and other countries with waves up to 30 m (100 ft). It caused serious damage and deaths as far as the east coast of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, with the furthest recorded death due to the tsunami occurring at <!--del_lnk--> Rooi Els in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, 8,000 km (5,000 mi) away from the epicentre. In total, eight people in South Africa died due to abnormally high sea levels and waves.<p>The plight of the many <!--del_lnk--> affected people and countries prompted a widespread <!--del_lnk--> humanitarian response. In all, the worldwide community donated more than US$7 billion in humanitarian aid to those affected by the earthquake.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Earthquake_characteristics" name="Earthquake_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Earthquake characteristics</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16042.gif.htm" title="Epicentre of the earthquake, just north of Simeulue Island"><img alt="Epicentre of the earthquake, just north of Simeulue Island" height="248" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Earthquake_20041226_epicentre.gif" src="../../images/160/16042.gif" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16042.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Epicentre of the earthquake, just north of <!--del_lnk--> Simeulue Island</div> </div> </div> <p>The earthquake was initially reported as moment magnitude, Mw 9.0. (Notice that this is <i>not</i> the so-called Richter scale or local magnitude scale, ML, which is known to saturate at higher magnitudes.) In February 2005 some scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.3. Although the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre has accepted these new numbers, the <!--del_lnk--> United States Geological Survey has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. The most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude of Mw 9.1 to 9.3. Dr. Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology believes that Mw = 9.2 is a good representative value for the size of this great earthquake. Reference: EERI Publication 2006-06, page 14 [www.eeri.org]<p>The <!--del_lnk--> hypocentre of the main earthquake was at 3.316°N, 95.854°E (<span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 3°19′N 95°51.24′E</span>), approximately 160 km (100 mi) west of Sumatra, at a depth of 30 km (19 mi) below <!--del_lnk--> mean sea level (initially reported as 10 km). The earthquake itself (apart from the tsunami) was felt as far away as <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Maldives.htm" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>.<p>Indonesia lies between the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Ring of Fire along the north-eastern islands adjacent to and including <!--del_lnk--> New Guinea and the <!--del_lnk--> Alpide belt along the south and west from <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Java, <!--del_lnk--> Bali, <!--del_lnk--> Flores, and <!--del_lnk--> Timor. The December 2004 earthquake actually occurred within the Alpide belt. <p>Since 1900 the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 <!--del_lnk--> Great Chilean Earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 <!--del_lnk--> Good Friday Earthquake in <!--del_lnk--> Prince William Sound (9.2). The only other recorded earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or greater was off <!--del_lnk--> Kamchatka, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, on <!--del_lnk--> November 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1952 (magnitude 9.0). Each of these <!--del_lnk--> megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean, but the death toll from these was significantly lower. The worst of these caused only a few thousand deaths, primarily because of the lower <!--del_lnk--> population density along the coasts near affected areas and the much greater distances to more populated coasts.<p>Other very large megathrust earthquakes occurred in 1868 (<a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Nazca Plate and <!--del_lnk--> South American Plate); 1827 (<a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1812 (<a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean Plate and South American Plate) and 1700 (<!--del_lnk--> Cascadia Earthquake, western U.S. and <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Juan de Fuca Plate and <!--del_lnk--> North American Plate). These are all believed to have been of greater than magnitude 9, but no accurate measurements were available at the time.<p><a id="Tectonic_plates" name="Tectonic_plates"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tectonic plates</span></h3> <p>The earthquake was unusually large in geographical extent. An estimated 1,200 km (750 mi) of <!--del_lnk--> faultline slipped about 15 m (50 ft) along the <!--del_lnk--> subduction zone where the <!--del_lnk--> India Plate dives under the <!--del_lnk--> Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over a period of several minutes. Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved the formation of a rupture about 400 km (250 mi) long and 100 km (60 mi) wide, located 30 km (19 mi) beneath the sea bed—the longest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at a speed of about 2.8 km/s (1.7 <!--del_lnk--> mi/s) or 10,000 km/h (6,300 mph), beginning off the coast of <!--del_lnk--> Aceh and proceeding north-westerly over a period of about 100 seconds. A pause of about another 100 seconds took place before the rupture continued northwards towards the <!--del_lnk--> Andaman and <!--del_lnk--> Nicobar Islands. However, the northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about 2.1 km/s (1.3 <!--del_lnk--> mi/s) or 7,600 km/h (4,700 mph), continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault changes from subduction to <!--del_lnk--> strike-slip (the two plates push past one another in opposite directions). This reduced the speed of the water displacement and so reducing the size of the tsunami that hit the northern part of the Indian Ocean.<p>The India Plate is part of the great <!--del_lnk--> Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and <a href="../../wp/b/Bay_of_Bengal.htm" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a>, and is drifting north-east at an average of 6 cm/year (2 inches per year). The India Plate meets the <!--del_lnk--> Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great <!--del_lnk--> Eurasian Plate) at the <!--del_lnk--> Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the <!--del_lnk--> Nicobar Islands, the <!--del_lnk--> Andaman Islands and northern <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>. The India Plate slips deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the crust above and trigger melt which exits the earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a <!--del_lnk--> volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian plate subducts the Eurasian plate has created the <!--del_lnk--> Sunda Arc.<p>As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the sea bed is estimated to have risen by several metres, displacing an estimated 30 km³ (7 cu mi) of water and triggering devastating <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> waves. The waves did not originate from a <!--del_lnk--> point source, as mistakenly depicted in some illustrations of their spread, but radiated outwards along the entire 1,200 km (750 mi) length of the rupture (acting as a <!--del_lnk--> line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> and the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>. The raising of the sea bed significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated 0.1 mm.<p><a id="Aftershocks_and_other_earthquakes" name="Aftershocks_and_other_earthquakes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aftershocks and other earthquakes</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:308px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16043.gif.htm" title="Locations of initial earthquake and all aftershocks measuring greater than 4.0 from December 26, 2004-January 10, 2005. The initial quake is indicated by the large star in the lower right square of the grid. (Credit: USGS)"><img alt="Locations of initial earthquake and all aftershocks measuring greater than 4.0 from December 26, 2004-January 10, 2005. The initial quake is indicated by the large star in the lower right square of the grid. (Credit: USGS)" height="396" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Neic_slav_fig72.gif" src="../../images/160/16043.gif" width="306" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16043.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Locations of initial earthquake and all aftershocks measuring greater than 4.0 from <!--del_lnk--> December 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2004-<!--del_lnk--> January 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. The initial quake is indicated by the large star in the lower right square of the grid. (Credit: <!--del_lnk--> USGS)</div> </div> </div> <p>Numerous <!--del_lnk--> aftershocks were reported off the <!--del_lnk--> Andaman Islands, the <!--del_lnk--> Nicobar Islands and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed. The largest aftershock of magnitude 8.7 was located off the Sumatran island of <!--del_lnk--> Nias. A debate arose among seismologists over whether the <a href="../../wp/2/2005_Sumatra_earthquake.htm" title="2005 Sumatra earthquake">2005 Sumatra earthquake</a> should be considered an aftershock of the December 2004 event or a "triggered earthquake" (an earthquake brought about by a previous earthquake), as it was larger than typical aftershocks but on the same fault. Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the region daily for up to three or four months. As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth's interior.<p>The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in an uninhabited region west of New Zealand's <!--del_lnk--> sub-Antarctic <!--del_lnk--> Auckland Islands, and north of Australia's <!--del_lnk--> Macquarie Island. This is unusual, since earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more occur only about once per year on average. Some seismologists have speculated about a connection between these two earthquakes, saying that the former one might have been a catalyst to the Indian Ocean earthquake, as the two earthquakes happened on opposite sides of the <!--del_lnk--> Indo-Australian Plate. However, the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship in this incident. Coincidentally, the earthquake struck almost exactly one year (to the hour) after a 6.6 magnitude earthquake killed an estimated 30,000 people in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Bam in <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> on <!--del_lnk--> December 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2003.<p>An earthquake of magnitude 8.7 was reported shortly at 16:09:37 UTC (23:09:37 local time) on <!--del_lnk--> March 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, approximately at the same location (see <!--del_lnk--> 2005 Sumatran earthquake). It was likely a very large aftershock of the original earthquake. This earthquake had strong aftershocks of its own, including magnitude 6.0 and 6.1 earthquakes. At 8.7 it ranks as the 7th largest earthquake since 1900. A 6.7 magnitude earthquake struck on <!--del_lnk--> April 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, at 10:29 UTC (17:29 local time) about 120 km (75 mi) south-west of the city of <!--del_lnk--> Padang.<p>Some scientists confirm that the December earthquake had activated <!--del_lnk--> Leuser Mountain, a volcano in Aceh province along the same range of peaks as <!--del_lnk--> Mount Talang, while the <!--del_lnk--> 2005 Sumatran earthquake had sparked activity in <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Toba.htm" title="Lake Toba">Lake Toba</a>, an ancient crater in Sumatra. Geologists say that the eruption of <!--del_lnk--> Mount Talang in April 2005 is connected to the December earthquake.<p><a id="Power_of_the_earthquake" name="Power_of_the_earthquake"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Power of the earthquake</span></h3> <p>The total energy released by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake has been estimated as <!--del_lnk--> 3.35 exajoules (3.35×10<sup>18</sup> <!--del_lnk--> joules). This is equivalent to over 930 terawatt hours, 0.8 gigatons of <!--del_lnk--> TNT, or about as much energy as is used in the United States in 11 days. However, the most reliable seismic energy release estimate, as of <!--del_lnk--> September 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, is 1.1×10<sup>18</sup> joules. This corresponds to about 0.25 <!--del_lnk--> gigatons of TNT. The earthquake is estimated to have resulted in an oscillation of the Earth's surface of about 20–30 cm (8–12 in), equivalent to the effect of the <!--del_lnk--> tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon. The shock waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet; as far away as the U.S. state of <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma, where vertical movements of 3 mm (0.12 in) were recorded. The entire Earth's surface is estimated to have moved vertically by up to 1 cm.<p>The shift of mass and the massive release of energy very slightly altered the Earth's rotation. The exact amount is yet undetermined, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 <!--del_lnk--> microseconds (2.68 µs, or about one billionth of the length of a day), due to a decrease in the <!--del_lnk--> oblateness of the Earth. It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in the direction of 145° east <!--del_lnk--> longitude, or perhaps by up to 5 or 6 cm (2.0 to 2.4 in). However, because of tidal effects of the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 <!--del_lnk--> µs per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural <!--del_lnk--> Chandler wobble of the Earth can be up to 15 <!--del_lnk--> m (50 ft).<p>More spectacularly, there was 10 m (33 ft) movement laterally and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the <!--del_lnk--> Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the <!--del_lnk--> Sunda Plate), may have moved south-west by up to 20 m (66 ft), and some early estimates said up to 36 m (118 ft). However, more accurate data released, more than a month following the earthquake, present a more manageable figure of 20 cm (7.9 in). Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The <!--del_lnk--> Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south-west by around 1.25 m (4.1 ft) and to have sunk by 1 m (3.28 ft).<p>In February 2005 the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> vessel <!--del_lnk--> HMS <i>Scott</i> surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between 1,000 m and 5,000 m (3,300 ft and 16,500 ft) west of Sumatra. The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam <!--del_lnk--> sonar system, revealed that the earthquake had made a huge impact on the topography of the seabed. Previous activity on the fault over geological periods of time had created large thrust ridges, about 1,500 m high, which collapsed in places during the earthquake to produce large <!--del_lnk--> landslides several kilometres across. One landslide consisted of a single block of material some 100 m high and 2 km long (300 ft by 1.25 mi). The force of the displaced water was such that individual blocks of rock, massing millions of tons apiece, were dragged as much as 10 km (7 mi) across the seabed. An <!--del_lnk--> oceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.<p>By a beneficial and remarkable coincidence, the <!--del_lnk--> TOPEX/Poseidon and <!--del_lnk--> Jason 1 satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean. These satellites carry <a href="../../wp/r/Radar.htm" title="Radar">radars</a> that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies of the order of 50 cm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami. Unlike data from <!--del_lnk--> tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for complex effects close to the coast. Inversion of this height data may help adjust the parameters for the source earthquake.<p><a id="Tsunami_characteristics" name="Tsunami_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tsunami characteristics</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16044.gif.htm" title="Animation of the tsunami caused by the earthquake showing how the tsunami radiated from the entire length of the 1,200 kilometer (750 mi) rupture."><img alt="Animation of the tsunami caused by the earthquake showing how the tsunami radiated from the entire length of the 1,200 kilometer (750 mi) rupture." height="276" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_edit.gif" src="../../images/160/16044.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Animation of the tsunami caused by the earthquake showing how the tsunami radiated from the entire length of the 1,200 kilometer (750 mi) rupture.</div> </div> </div> <p>The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in a <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami which causes damage far away from its source is sometimes called a "teletsunami", and is much more likely to be produced by vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal motion.<p>The tsunami, like all others, behaved very differently in deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunami waves form only a small hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at a very high speed of 500 to 1,000 km/h (310 to 620 mph); in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres an hour but in doing so forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of 24 m (80 ft) when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to 30 m (100 ft) in some areas when travelling inland.<p><a href="../../wp/r/Radar.htm" title="Radar">Radar</a> satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water: at two hours after the earthquake, the maximum height was 60 <!--del_lnk--> cm (2 <!--del_lnk--> ft). These are the first such observations ever made. However, these observations could not have been used to provide a warning, because the satellites were not intended for that purpose and the data took hours to analyse.<p>According to <!--del_lnk--> Tad Murty, vice-president of the <!--del_lnk--> Tsunami Society, the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about five <!--del_lnk--> megatons of <!--del_lnk--> TNT (20 <!--del_lnk--> petajoules). This is more than twice the total explosive energy used during all of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> (including the two <!--del_lnk--> atomic bombs), but still a couple of <!--del_lnk--> orders of magnitude less than the energy released in the earthquake itself. In many places the waves reached as far as 2 <!--del_lnk--> km (1.24 <!--del_lnk--> mi) inland.<p>Because the 1,200 km (745.6 mi) of faultline affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north-south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east-west direction. <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, which lies at the northern end of the <a href="../../wp/b/Bay_of_Bengal.htm" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a>, had very few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicentre. It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region.<p>Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes <!--del_lnk--> diffract around such landmasses. Thus, the Indian state of <a href="../../wp/k/Kerala.htm" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> was hit by the tsunami despite being on the western coast of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, and the western coast of Sri Lanka also suffered substantial impacts. Also distance alone is no guarantee of safety; <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away.<p>Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours (for <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>) to reach the various coastlines. The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit very quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was also struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre, because the tsunami travelled more slowly in the shallow <!--del_lnk--> Andaman Sea off its western coast.<p>The tsunami was noticed as far as <!--del_lnk--> Struisbaai in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, some 8,500 km (5,300 mi) away, where a 1.5 m (5 ft) high tide surged on shore about 16 hours after the earthquake. It took a relatively long time to reach this spot at the southernmost point of Africa, probably because of the broad continental shelf off South Africa and because the tsunami would have followed the South African coast from east to west. The tsunami also reached <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, where tidal gauges at Japan's <!--del_lnk--> Syowa Base recorded oscillations of up to a meter, with disturbances lasting a couple of days.<p>Some of the tsunami's energy escaped into the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts of North and South America, typically around 20 to 40 cm (7.9 to 15.7 in). At <!--del_lnk--> Manzanillo, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, a 2.6 m (8.5 ft) crest-to-trough tsunami was measured. This puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorised that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the <!--del_lnk--> mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins of the continental plates.<p><a id="Signs_and_warnings" name="Signs_and_warnings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Signs and warnings</span></h3> <p>Despite a lag of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the victims were taken completely by surprise. There were no <!--del_lnk--> tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to detect tsunamis or to warn the general populace living around the ocean. Tsunami detection is not easy because while a tsunami is in deep water it has little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it. Setting up the communications infrastructure to issue timely warnings is an even bigger problem, particularly in a relatively poor part of the world.<p>Tsunamis are much more frequent in the Pacific Ocean because of earthquakes in the <!--del_lnk--> "Ring of Fire", and an effective tsunami warning system has long been in place there. Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where this earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last major tsunami was caused by the <a href="../../wp/k/Krakatoa.htm" title="Krakatoa">Krakatoa</a> eruption of 1883. It should be noted that not every earthquake produces large tsunamis; on <!--del_lnk--> March 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami.<p>In the aftermath of the disaster, there is now an awareness of the need for a tsunami warning system for the Indian Ocean. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> started working on an <!--del_lnk--> Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System and by 2005 had the initial steps in place. Some have even proposed creating a unified global tsunami warning system, to include the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16045.jpg.htm" title="Maximum recession of tsunami waters at Kata Noi Beach, Thailand, before the third, and strongest, tsunami wave (sea visible in the right corner, the beach is at the extreme left), 10:25 a.m. local time."><img alt="Maximum recession of tsunami waters at Kata Noi Beach, Thailand, before the third, and strongest, tsunami wave (sea visible in the right corner, the beach is at the extreme left), 10:25 a.m. local time." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KataNoiReceding.jpg" src="../../images/160/16045.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16045.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Maximum recession of tsunami waters at <!--del_lnk--> Kata Noi Beach, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, before the third, and strongest, tsunami wave (sea visible in the right corner, the beach is at the extreme left), 10:25 a.m. local time.</div> </div> </div> <p>The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthquake itself. However, tsunamis can strike thousands of miles away where the earthquake is only felt weakly or not at all. Also, in the minutes preceding a tsunami strike, the sea often recedes temporarily from the coast. People in Pacific regions are more familiar with tsunamis and often recognise this phenomenon as a sign to head for higher ground. However, around the Indian Ocean, this rare sight reportedly induced people, especially children, to visit the coast to investigate and collect stranded fish on as much as 2.5 km (1.6 mi) of exposed beach, with fatal results.<p>One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the tsunami was on the Indonesian island of <!--del_lnk--> Simeulue, very close to the epicentre. Island folklore recounted an earthquake and tsunami in 1907, and the islanders fled to inland hills after the initial shaking yet before the tsunami struck. On Maikhao beach in northern <!--del_lnk--> Phuket, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, a 10-year-old British girl named <!--del_lnk--> Tilly Smith had studied tsunamis in geography class at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely. <!--del_lnk--> John Chroston, a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground.<p><a id="Retreat_and_rise_cycle" name="Retreat_and_rise_cycle"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Retreat and rise cycle</span></h3> <p>The tsunami was a succession of several waves, occurring in retreat and rise cycles with a period of over 30 minutes between each peak. The third wave was the most powerful and reached highest, occurring about an hour and a half after the first wave. Smaller tsunamis continued to occur for the rest of the day.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery"> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/160/16046.jpg.htm" title="Image:2ndTsunamiWave.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/160/16046.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Second tsunami wave starting to retreat, <!--del_lnk--> Kata Noi Beach, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, 10:17 a.m.</div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/160/16047.jpg.htm" title="Image:KataNoiRecedingWaters.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/160/16047.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Receding waters after the second tsunami, 10:20 a.m.</div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 26px 0;"><a href="../../images/160/16048.jpg.htm" title="Image:KataNoiHighest.jpg"><img alt="" height="93" src="../../images/160/16048.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>3rd tsunami wave, 11:00 a.m.</div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0;"><a href="../../images/160/16049.jpg.htm" title="Image:KataNoiMoreWaves.JPG"><img alt="" height="85" src="../../images/160/16049.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>4th tsunami wave, 11:22 a.m.</div> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Damage_and_casualties" name="Damage_and_casualties"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Damage and casualties</span></h2> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Geological Survey initially recorded the toll as 283,100 killed, 14,100 missing, and 1,126,900 people displaced. Early news reports after the earthquake spoke of a toll in the hundreds, but the numbers rose steadily over the following week. However, more recent figures indicate that the actual casualties were 186,983 dead and 42,883 missing, for a total of 229,866, as more and more displaced survivors have been found and name duplications eliminated from the lists of victims. Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten <!--del_lnk--> worst earthquakes in recorded history, as well as the single worst tsunami in history.<p>Relief agencies report that one-third of the dead appear to be children. This is a result of the high proportion of children in the populations of many of the affected regions and because children were the least able to resist being overcome by the surging waters. <!--del_lnk--> Oxfam went on to report that as many as four times more women than men were killed in some regions because they were waiting on the beach for the fishermen to return and looking after their children in the houses.<p>In addition to the large number of local residents, up to 9,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the peak holiday travel season were among the dead or missing, especially people from the <!--del_lnk--> Nordic countries. The European nation hardest hit may have been <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, whose death toll was 428 dead, with 116 missing.<p><!--del_lnk--> States of emergency were declared in <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/m/Maldives.htm" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> has declared that the current relief operation will be the costliest ever. <!--del_lnk--> UN Secretary-General <a href="../../wp/k/Kofi_Annan.htm" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a> has stated that reconstruction would probably take between five and ten years. Governments and <!--del_lnk--> non-governmental organisations fear the final <!--del_lnk--> death toll may double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive <!--del_lnk--> humanitarian response.<p>For purposes of establishing timelines of local events, the <a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">time zones</a> of affected areas are: UTC+3: (Kenya, Madagascar, Somalia, Tanzania); UTC+4: (Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles); UTC+5: (Maldives); UTC+5:30: (India); UTC+6: (Bangladesh, Sri Lanka); UTC+6:30: (Cocos Islands, Myanmar); UTC+7: (Indonesia (western), Thailand); UTC+8: (Malaysia, Singapore). Since the earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 <!--del_lnk--> UTC, add the above offsets to find the local time of the earthquake.<table class="prettytable"> <tr style="text-align: center; background: #eee"> <th rowspan="2">Country where<br /> deaths occurred</th> <th colspan="2">Deaths</th> <th rowspan="2">Injured</th> <th rowspan="2">Missing</th> <th rowspan="2">Displaced</th> </tr> <tr style="text-align: center; background: #eee"> <th>Confirmed</th> <th>Estimated<sup>1</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Indonesia</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 130,736</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 167,736</td> <td>—</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 37,063</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 500,000+</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Sri Lanka<sup>2</sup></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 35,322</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 35,322</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 21,411</td> <td> </td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 516,150</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> India</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 12,405</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 18,045</td> <td>—</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 5,640</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 647,599</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Thailand</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 5,395<sup>3</sup></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 8,212</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 8,457</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2,817</td> <td>7,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Somalia</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 78</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 289</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 5,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Myanmar (Burma)</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 61</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 400-600</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 45</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 200</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 3,200</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Maldives</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 82</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 108</td> <td>—</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 26</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 15,000+</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Malaysia</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 68–  <!--del_lnk--> 69</td> <td>75</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 299</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 6</td> <td>—</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Tanzania</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 10</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 13</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Seychelles</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 3</td> <td>3</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 57</td> <td>—</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 200</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Bangladesh</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2</td> <td>2</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> South Africa</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2<sup>4</sup></td> <td>2</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Yemen</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2</td> <td>2</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Kenya</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Madagascar</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1,000+</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="left">Total</th> <td>~184,168</td> <td>~230,210</td> <td>~125,000</td> <td>~45,752</td> <td>~1.69 million</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" colspan="6" style="padding: 0 5px 0 5px"> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="small"> <p><i>Note: All figures are approximate and subject to change. The first column links to more details on specific countries.</i><br /><sup>1</sup> Includes those reported under 'Confirmed'. If no separate estimates are available, the number in this column is the same as reported under 'Confirmed'.<br /><sup>2</sup> Does not include approximately 19,000 missing people initially declared by <!--del_lnk--> Tamil Tiger authorities from regions under their control <!--del_lnk--> .<br /><sup>3</sup> Data includes at least 2,464 foreigners.<br /><sup>4</sup> Does not include South African citizens who died outside of South Africa (eg, tourists in Thailand). For more information on those deaths, see <!--del_lnk--> this</div> <p> <br clear="both" /><a id="Countries_affected" name="Countries_affected"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Countries affected</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:312px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16050.png.htm" title="Countries most affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake."><img alt="Countries most affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake." height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_-_affected_countries.png" src="../../images/160/16050.png" width="310" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16050.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Countries most affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>The earthquake and resulting tsunami affected many countries in Southeast Asia and beyond, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Seychelles and others. Many other countries, especially Australia and those in Europe, had large numbers of citizens traveling in the region on holiday. Countries like Sweden and Germany lost over 500 citizens in the disaster.<p><a id="Casualties_in_historical_context" name="Casualties_in_historical_context"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Casualties in historical context</span></h3> <p>This <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> was the fourth most powerful earthquake recorded since 1900, and the confirmed <!--del_lnk--> death toll is just under 200,000 due to the ensuing tsunami. The deadliest earthquakes since 1900 were the <!--del_lnk--> Tangshan, China earthquake of 1976, in which at least 255,000 were killed; the earthquake of 1927 in <!--del_lnk--> Xining, <!--del_lnk--> Qinghai, China (200,000); the <!--del_lnk--> Great Kanto earthquake which struck <a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> in 1923 (143,000); and the <!--del_lnk--> Gansu, China, earthquake of 1920 (200,000). The deadliest known earthquake in history occurred in <!--del_lnk--> 1556 in Shaanxi, China, with an estimated death toll of 830,000, though figures from this time period may not be reliable.<table align="left" class="wikitable"> <tr> <th colspan="5"><b>Deadliest earthquakes</b></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Rank</th> <th>Earthquake</th> <th>Country</th> <th>Year</th> <th>Fatalities</th> </tr> <tr> <th>1</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> "Shaanxi"</td> <td><a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a></td> <td>1556</td> <td>830,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>2</th> <td><strong class="selflink">"Indian Ocean"</strong></td> <td>nr. <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td> <td>2004</td> <td>283,100</td> </tr> <tr> <th>3</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> "Tangshan"</td> <td><a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a></td> <td>1976</td> <td>242,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>4</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> "Aleppo"</td> <td><a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a></td> <td>1138</td> <td>230,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>5</th> <td>"Gansu"</td> <td><a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a></td> <td>1920</td> <td><i>c.</i> 200,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="5"> <dl> <dd> </dl> </th> </tr> </table> <p>The 2004 tsunami is the deadliest in recorded history. Prior to 2004, the deadliest recorded tsunami in the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> was in 1782, when 40,000 people were killed by a tsunami in the <a href="../../wp/s/South_China_Sea.htm" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a>. The tsunami created by the 1883 eruption of <a href="../../wp/k/Krakatoa.htm" title="Krakatoa">Krakatoa</a> is thought to have resulted in 36,000 deaths. The most deadly tsunami between 1900 and 2004 occurred in 1908 in <!--del_lnk--> Messina, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, on the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, where the earthquake and tsunami killed 70,000. The most deadly tsunami in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> resulted from the <a href="../../wp/1/1755_Lisbon_earthquake.htm" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">1755 Lisbon earthquake</a>, which, combined with the toll from the actual earthquake and resulting fires, killed over 100,000.<p>The 2004 earthquake and tsunami seem to be the deadliest <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_disaster.htm" title="Natural disaster">natural disaster</a> since either the 1976 <!--del_lnk--> Tangshan earthquake or the <!--del_lnk--> 1970 Bhola cyclone, or could conceivably exceed both of these. Because of uncertainty over death tolls, it might never be known for sure which of these natural disasters was the deadliest.<p><a id="Human_component_in_magnitude_of_damage" name="Human_component_in_magnitude_of_damage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Human component in magnitude of damage</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/267/26722.jpg.htm" title="A village near the coast of Sumatra lies in ruin on January 2, 2005. This picture was taken by a United States military helicopter crew from the USS Abraham Lincoln that was conducting humanitarian operations."><img alt="A village near the coast of Sumatra lies in ruin on January 2, 2005. This picture was taken by a United States military helicopter crew from the USS Abraham Lincoln that was conducting humanitarian operations." height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sumatra_devastation1.jpg" src="../../images/160/16051.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/267/26722.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A village near the coast of <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> lies in ruin on <!--del_lnk--> January 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. This picture was taken by a United States military helicopter crew from the USS Abraham Lincoln that was conducting humanitarian operations.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16052.jpg.htm" title="Indonesians gather under an approaching helicopter to receive food and supplies."><img alt="Indonesians gather under an approaching helicopter to receive food and supplies." height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2004_Indian_Ocean_Earthquake_relief2.jpg" src="../../images/160/16052.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16052.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Indonesians gather under an approaching helicopter to receive food and supplies.</div> </div> </div> <p>The human destruction of <!--del_lnk--> coral reefs played a significant role in the destruction caused by the tsunami. Many countries across Asia, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, have put forth efforts to destroy the coral surrounding their beaches, and instead make way for shrimp farms and other economic choices. On the <!--del_lnk--> Surin Island chain of Thailand's coast, many people were saved as the tsunami rushed against the coral reefs protecting the islands. However, there were many fewer people on these islands, which helps explain the lower death toll. Many reefs areas around the Indian Ocean have been exploded with dynamite because they are considered impediments to shipping, an important part of the South Asian economy. Similarly, the removal of coastal <!--del_lnk--> mangrove trees is believed to have intensified the effect of the tsunami in some locations. These trees, which lined the coast but were removed to make way for coastal residences, might have blocked the force of the tsunami. Another factor is the removal of coastal sand <a href="../../wp/d/Dune.htm" title="Dune">dunes</a>.<p><a id="Humanitarian.2C_economic_and_environmental_impact" name="Humanitarian.2C_economic_and_environmental_impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Humanitarian, economic and environmental impact</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>A great deal of <!--del_lnk--> humanitarian aid was needed because of widespread damage of the <a href="../../wp/i/Infrastructure.htm" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>, shortages of food and water, and economic damage. <!--del_lnk--> Epidemics were of special concern due to the high <!--del_lnk--> population density and <!--del_lnk--> tropical climate of the affected areas. The main concern of humanitarian and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking water to contain the spread of diseases such as <a href="../../wp/c/Cholera.htm" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <!--del_lnk--> diphtheria, <!--del_lnk--> dysentery, <!--del_lnk--> typhoid and <!--del_lnk--> hepatitis A and <!--del_lnk--> B.<p>There was also a great concern that the death toll could rise further as diseases and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response, this was minimised.<p>In the days after the event, significant effort was spent in <!--del_lnk--> burying bodies hurriedly for fear of disease. However, the <!--del_lnk--> public health risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been the best way to allocate resources. The <!--del_lnk--> World Food Programme provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.<p>Nations all over the world provided over US$7 billion in aid for damaged regions, with the governments of <!--del_lnk--> Australia pledging US$819.9 million (including a US$760.6-million aid package for Indonesia), <!--del_lnk--> Germany offering US$660 million, <!--del_lnk--> Japan offering US$500 million, <!--del_lnk--> Canada offering US$343 million, <!--del_lnk--> Norway and <!--del_lnk--> The Netherlands offering both US$183 million, the <!--del_lnk--> United States offering US$35 million initially (increased to US$350 million), and the <!--del_lnk--> World Bank offering US$250 million. According to <!--del_lnk--> USAID, the US has pledged additional funds in long-term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild their lives. On <!--del_lnk--> February 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, President Bush asked Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">$</a>950 million. Officials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former President George H. W. Bush, and former President Bill Clinton to lead a U.S. effort to provide private aid to the tsunami victims.<p>In mid-March the <!--del_lnk--> Asian Development Bank reported that over US$4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka reported that it had received no foreign government aid, while foreign individuals had been generous. Lots of charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the UK the public donated roughly £330,000,000 sterling (nearly US$600,000,000). This considerably outweighed the donation by the government and came to about £5.50 (US$10) donated by each and every citizen.<p>In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on post-tsunami rebuilding have been found executed in northeast Sri Lanka after heavy fighting, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said. There had been reports and rumors that the local aid workers had been killed.<p><a id="Economic_impact" name="Economic_impact"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Economic impact</span></h3> <p>The impact on <!--del_lnk--> coastal fishing communities and fisherfolk, some of the poorest people in the region, has been devastating with high losses of income earners as well as boats and fishing gear. In Sri Lanka artisanal fishery, where the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicate that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions have been destroyed by the wave surges, which will have adverse economic effects both at local and national levels.<p>But some economists believe that damage to the affected national economies will be minor because losses in the tourism and fishing industries are a relatively small percentage of the <!--del_lnk--> GDP. However, others caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas drinking water supplies and farm fields may have been contaminated for years by salt water from the ocean.<p>Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have affected shipping in the <!--del_lnk--> Malacca Straits by changing the depth of the seabed and by disturbing navigational buoys and old shipwrecks. Compiling new navigational charts may take months or years.<p>Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return, pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even resorts on the Pacific coast of Thailand, which were completely untouched, were hit by cancellations. One year after the tsunami hit, tourism is beginning to climb again, with a full recovery expected sometime in 2006.<p><a id="Environmental_impact" name="Environmental_impact"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Environmental impact</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16053.jpg.htm" title="Tsunami Inundation, Khao Lak, North of Phuket, Thailand ASTER Images and SRTM Elevation Model."><img alt="Tsunami Inundation, Khao Lak, North of Phuket, Thailand ASTER Images and SRTM Elevation Model." height="185" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TsunamiAftermathNorthofPhuket_NASA.jpg" src="../../images/160/16053.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16053.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Tsunami Inundation, <!--del_lnk--> Khao Lak, North of <!--del_lnk--> Phuket, Thailand ASTER Images and SRTM Elevation Model.</div> </div> </div> <p>Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean earthquake has caused an enormous environmental impact that will affect the region for many years to come. It has been reported that severe damage has been inflicted on <!--del_lnk--> ecosystems such as <!--del_lnk--> mangroves, <!--del_lnk--> coral reefs, <a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" title="Forest">forests</a>, coastal <!--del_lnk--> wetlands, <a href="../../wp/v/Vegetation.htm" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a>, sand <!--del_lnk--> dunes and <!--del_lnk--> rock formations, animal and plant <a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and <!--del_lnk--> groundwater. In addition, the spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial chemicals, <!--del_lnk--> water pollution and the destruction of <!--del_lnk--> sewage collectors and treatment plants threaten the environment even further, in untold ways. The environmental impact will take a long time and significant resources to assess.<p>According to specialists, the main effect is being caused by poisoning of the <!--del_lnk--> freshwater supplies and the soil by <a href="../../wp/s/Seawater.htm" title="Seawater">saltwater</a> infiltration and deposit of a <a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" title="Salt">salt</a> layer over arable land. It has been reported that in the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are totally without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand and earth; and <!--del_lnk--> aquifers were invaded through porous rock. Salted-over soil becomes sterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. It also causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover. The <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is working with governments of the region in order to determine the severity of the ecological impact and how to address it. UNEP has decided to earmark a US$1,000,000 emergency fund and to establish a Task Force to respond to requests for technical assistance from countries affected by the tsunami. In response to a request from the <!--del_lnk--> Maldivian Government, the Australian Government sent ecological experts to help restore marine environments and coral reefs—the lifeblood of Maldivian tourism. Much of the ecological expertise has been rendered from work with the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Barrier_Reef.htm" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>, in Australia's north-eastern waters.<p><a id="Other_effects" name="Other_effects"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other effects</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16054.jpg.htm" title="A note signed by former United States Presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton, First Lady Laura Bush, and President George W. Bush expressing their condolences during a visit to the embassy of Sri Lanka in Washington, D.C., Monday, January 3, 2005. The President wrote, “We pray for the victims and families of this epic disaster. And the American government and American people are dedicated to helping you recover.”"><img alt="A note signed by former United States Presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton, First Lady Laura Bush, and President George W. Bush expressing their condolences during a visit to the embassy of Sri Lanka in Washington, D.C., Monday, January 3, 2005. The President wrote, “We pray for the victims and families of this epic disaster. And the American government and American people are dedicated to helping you recover.”" height="307" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LETTEBUSH.jpg" src="../../images/160/16054.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16054.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A note signed by former United States Presidents <a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Clinton.htm" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>, First Lady <!--del_lnk--> Laura Bush, and President <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> expressing their condolences during a visit to the embassy of <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, Monday, <!--del_lnk--> January 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. The President wrote, “We pray for the victims and families of this epic disaster. And the American government and American people are dedicated to helping you recover.”</div> </div> </div> <p>Many health professionals and aid workers have reported widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami. Traditional beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family must bury the body of the dead. Some psychologists interpret this as evidence of psychological trauma.<p>The hardest hit area, <!--del_lnk--> Aceh, is considered to be a religiously conservative <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islamic</a> society and has had no tourism nor any Western presence in recent years due to armed conflict between the <!--del_lnk--> Indonesian military and <!--del_lnk--> Acehnese separatists. Some believe that the tsunami was punishment for lay <!--del_lnk--> Muslims shirking their daily prayers and/or following a materialistic lifestyle. Others have said that Allah was angry that there were Muslims killing other Muslims in an ongoing conflict. In what may be the most significant positive result of the tsunami, the widespread devastation led the main rebel group <!--del_lnk--> GAM to declare a cease-fire on <!--del_lnk--> December 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, followed by the Indonesian government, and the two groups resumed long-stalled peace talks, which resulted in a peace agreement signed <!--del_lnk--> August 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. The agreement explicitly cites the tsunami as a justification.<p>The extensive international media coverage of the tsunami, and the role of mass media and journalists in reconstruction, were discussed by editors of newspapers and broadcast media in tsunami-affected areas, in special video-conferences set up by the <!--del_lnk--> Asia Pacific Journalism Centre.<!--del_lnk--> <p>In another positive note of the tsunami, the water washed away centuries of sand from some of the ruins of a 1,200-year-old lost city at <!--del_lnk--> Mahabalipuram on the south coast of India. The site, containing such notable structures as a half-buried granite lion near a 7th-century Mahablipuram temple and a relic depicting an elephant, is part of what archaeologists believe to be an ancient port city that was swallowed by the sea hundreds of years ago.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['SOS Children: Tsunami', 'Earthquake', 'Sumatra', 'Indonesia', 'Tsunami', 'Indian Ocean', 'Indonesia', 'Sri Lanka', 'India', 'Thailand', 'Myanmar', 'Modern history', 'Asia', 'Australia', 'Canada', 'New Zealand', 'United Kingdom', 'Iran', 'Africa', 'South Africa', 'Bangladesh', 'India', 'Malaysia', 'Myanmar', 'Thailand', 'Singapore', 'Maldives', 'Sumatra', 'Russia', 'Peru', 'Colombia', 'Venezuela', 'Canada', 'Bay of Bengal', 'Sumatra', 'Tsunami', 'Mexico', 'Chile', 'Arctic', '2005 Sumatra earthquake', 'Iran', 'Lake Toba', 'Moon', 'Royal Navy', 'Radar', 'Tsunami', 'Radar', 'World War II', 'Bangladesh', 'Bay of Bengal', 'Kerala', 'India', 'Somalia', 'Somalia', 'South Africa', 'Antarctica', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Mexico', 'Krakatoa', 'United Nations', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Thailand', 'Thailand', 'Thailand', 'Sweden', 'Sri Lanka', 'Indonesia', 'Maldives', 'United Nations', 'Kofi Annan', 'Time zone', 'Earthquake', 'Tokyo', 'China', 'Indonesia', 'China', 'Syria', 'China', 'Pacific Ocean', 'South China Sea', 'Krakatoa', 'Italy', 'Mediterranean Sea', 'Atlantic Ocean', '1755 Lisbon earthquake', 'Natural disaster', 'Sumatra', 'Dune', 'Infrastructure', 'Cholera', 'United States dollar', 'Forest', 'Vegetation', 'Biodiversity', 'Seawater', 'Salt', 'Agriculture', 'Great Barrier Reef', 'George H. W. Bush', 'Bill Clinton', 'George W. Bush', 'Sri Lanka', 'Washington, D.C.', 'Islam']
2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2005 Atlantic hurricane season,1887 Atlantic hurricane season,1925 Atlantic hurricane season,1928 Okeechobee Hurricane,1933 Atlantic hurricane season,1936 Atlantic hurricane season,1950 Atlantic hurricane season,1954,1955 Atlantic hurricane season,1959 Atlantic hurricane season,1960 Atlantic hurricane season" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2005 Atlantic hurricane season</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season"; var wgTitle = "2005 Atlantic hurricane season"; var wgArticleId = 1142605; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2005 Atlantic hurricane season</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Storms.htm">Storms</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption><big><b>2005 Atlantic hurricane season</b></big></caption> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23047.png.htm" title="Season summary map"><img alt="Season summary map" height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season_map.png" src="../../images/230/23047.png" width="250" /></a><br /><small><i>Season summary map</i></small></td> </tr> <tr> <th>First storm formed:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Last storm dissipated:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 (record)</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th>Strongest storm:</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Wilma - 882 mbar (26.05 <!--del_lnk--> inHg) - record, 185 mph (295 km/h)</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0;"> <th>Total storms:</th> <td>28 (record)</td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <th>Major storms (<!--del_lnk--> Cat. 3+):</th> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total damage:</th> <td>≥$120 billion (2005 <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">USD</a> - record)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total fatalities:</th> <td>≥2,280</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"> </td> </tr> <tr align="center" style="background-color:#F0F0F0; border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA;"> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic hurricane seasons</b><br /><a href="../../wp/2/2003_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2003 Atlantic hurricane season">2003</a>, <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2004 Atlantic hurricane season">2004</a>, <b>2005</b>, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>2005 Atlantic hurricane season</b> was the most active <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history, shattering previous records on repeated occasions. The impact of the season was widespread and ruinous with at least 2,280 deaths and record damages of over $100 billion <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">USD</a>. Of the storms that made <!--del_lnk--> landfall, five of the seven <!--del_lnk--> major hurricanes—<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis">Dennis</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Emily, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Katrina</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Rita, and <!--del_lnk--> Wilma—were responsible for most of the destruction. The <!--del_lnk--> Mexican states of <!--del_lnk--> Quintana Roo and <!--del_lnk--> Yucatán and the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> of <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana were each struck twice by major hurricanes; <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi, <!--del_lnk--> Texas, and <!--del_lnk--> Tamaulipas were each struck once and in each case brushed by at least one more. The most catastrophic effects of the season were felt on the United States' <!--del_lnk--> Gulf Coast, where a 30-foot (10 meter) <!--del_lnk--> storm surge from Hurricane Katrina caused devastating flooding that inundated <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans, Louisiana and destroyed most structures on the Mississippi coastline, and in <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, where <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Stan combined with an extratropical system to cause deadly mudslides.<p>The season officially began on <!--del_lnk--> June 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, and lasted until <!--del_lnk--> November 30, although it effectively persisted into January 2006 due to continued storm activity. A record twenty-eight <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical</a> and <!--del_lnk--> subtropical storms formed, of which a record fifteen became hurricanes. Of these, seven strengthened into major hurricanes, a record-tying five became Category 4 hurricanes and a record four reached Category 5 strength, the highest categorization for hurricanes on the <!--del_lnk--> Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. Among these Category 5 storms were Hurricanes <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Katrina</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Wilma, the former the costliest and the latter the most intense Atlantic hurricane on record.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Seasonal_forecasts" name="Seasonal_forecasts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Seasonal forecasts</span></h2> <table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; text-align:right;"> <caption><b>Predictions of tropical activity in the 2005 season</b></caption> <tr style="background:#ccccff"> <td align="center"><b>Source</b></td> <td align="center"><b>Date</b></td> <td align="center"><b><font style="font-size: 80%;">Tropical<br /> storms</font></b></td> <td align="center"><b><font style="font-size: 80%;">Hurricanes</font></b></td> <td align="center"><b><font style="font-size: 80%;">Major<br /> hurricanes</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> CSU</td> <td align="left"><i>Average <font style="font-size: 80%;">(1950–2000)</font></i></td> <td>9.6</td> <td>5.9</td> <td>2.3</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> NOAA</td> <td align="left"><i>Average</i></td> <td>11</td> <td>6</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">CSU</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 3 December <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td> <td>11</td> <td>6</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">CSU</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 1 April <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td>13</td> <td>7</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">NOAA</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 16 May <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td>12–15</td> <td>7–9</td> <td>3–5</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">CSU</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31 May <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td>15</td> <td>8</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">NOAA</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 2 August <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td>18–21</td> <td>9–11</td> <td>5–7</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">CSU</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 5 August <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td>20</td> <td>10</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Actual activity</b></td> <td><b>28</b></td> <td><b>15</b></td> <td><b>7</b></td> </tr> </table> <p>Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane expert Dr. <!--del_lnk--> William M. Gray and his associates at <!--del_lnk--> Colorado State University (CSU), and separately by forecasters with the U.S. Government's <!--del_lnk--> National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Prior to and during the 2005 season, Dr. Gray issued four forecasts, each time increasing the predicted level of activity. The NOAA issued two forecasts, one shortly before the season and one two months into the season, drastically increasing the predicted level of activity in the second release. Nonetheless, all forecasts fell far short of the actual activity of the season.<p><a id="Preseason_forecasts" name="Preseason_forecasts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Preseason forecasts</span></h3> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Dr. Gray's team issued its first extended-range forecast for the 2005 season, predicting a slightly above-average season. Additionally, the team predicted a greatly increased chance of a major hurricane striking the <!--del_lnk--> East Coast of the United States and the <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> peninsula. Though the forecast predicted above-average activity, the level predicted was significantly less than the <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2004 Atlantic hurricane season">2004 season</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> April 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, after confirming that <a href="../../wp/e/El_Ni%25C3%25B1o-Southern_Oscillation.htm" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation">El Niño</a> conditions would not develop, Dr. Gray and his team revised the December forecast upward, expecting thirteen tropical storms instead of eleven and seven hurricanes instead of six. In addition, the chance of a storm impacting the United States was raised slightly.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, 15 days before the season began, NOAA issued its outlook for the 2005 season, forecasting a 70% chance of above-normal activity. The <!--del_lnk--> accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) value for the season was predicted to be 120–190% of the median. Shortly thereafter, on <!--del_lnk--> May 31, the day before the season officially began, Dr. Gray's team revised its April forecast upwards to 15 named storms, 8 hurricanes, and 4 major hurricanes.<p><a id="Midseason_outlook" name="Midseason_outlook"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Midseason outlook</span></h3> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 2, after an extraordinarily active early season, the NOAA released an updated outlook on the remainder of the season, significantly raising the expected level of activity to numbers about double those of a normal season. The ACE value was now forecast to be 180 to 270% of the median. The NOAA also noted a higher than normal confidence in the forecast of above-normal activity. On <!--del_lnk--> August 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, Dr. Gray and his associates followed suit and issued their updated forecast; it was consistent with NOAA's update. Although neither the NOAA nor Dr. Gray had ever forecast such high levels of activity, even the midseason outlooks fell far short of the actual level of activity.<p><a id="Storms" name="Storms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Storms</span></h2> <center> </center> <p><a id="June_and_July" name="June_and_July"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">June and July</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23048.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis making landfall in Florida"><img alt="Hurricane Dennis making landfall in Florida" height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dennis-7-10-05-1915z.jpg" src="../../images/230/23048.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23048.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis">Hurricane Dennis</a> making landfall in <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a></div> </div> </div> <p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Arlene"></span>On <!--del_lnk--> June 9, nearly two months earlier than when the <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2004 Atlantic hurricane season">2004 season</a> started, <!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Arlene formed in the western <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean, crossing <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> before making landfall on the <!--del_lnk--> Florida Panhandle on the 11th. Arlene caused only moderate damage, although one swimmer was caught in a <!--del_lnk--> riptide and drowned in <!--del_lnk--> Miami Beach, Florida.<p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Bret"></span><!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Bret formed in the <!--del_lnk--> Bay of Campeche on <!--del_lnk--> June 28 and made landfall in <!--del_lnk--> Veracruz the next morning. The storm damaged hundreds of homes and caused flooding which killed two people.<p><span id="Hurricane_Cindy"></span><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Cindy formed in the Gulf of Mexico on <!--del_lnk--> July 4. Originally thought to be a tropical storm, Cindy made landfall in <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana on the 5th as a minimal hurricane, dropping up to 5 inches (130 mm) of rain, spawning several tornadoes, and killing three people. Cindy was upgraded to a hurricane in the post-storm analysis.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23049.jpg.htm" title="Satellite photo of Hurricane Emily near peak intensity"><img alt="Satellite photo of Hurricane Emily near peak intensity" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Emily.jpg" src="../../images/230/23049.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23049.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite photo of <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Emily near peak intensity</div> </div> </div> <p><span id="Hurricane_Dennis"></span>On <!--del_lnk--> July 5, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis">Hurricane Dennis</a> formed in the eastern Caribbean; it crossed <a href="../../wp/g/Grenada.htm" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> before intensifying into a Category 4 hurricane, the strongest ever recorded in July with a pressure of 930 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa). Dennis struck <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> at full force, then made a final landfall on the <!--del_lnk--> Florida Panhandle. The hurricane killed 89 people (mostly in <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>) and caused $4–$6 billion in damages in <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p><span id="Hurricane_Emily"></span>Soon thereafter, <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Emily formed in the Atlantic on <!--del_lnk--> July 11. It entered the <a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> and quickly intensified to a Category 4 storm, breaking Dennis's record for July intensity when its pressure reached 929 mbar (hPa). Emily then briefly reached Category 5 intensity—the earliest such storm ever recorded in the Atlantic. Emily crossed the <!--del_lnk--> Yucatán Peninsula at Category 4 strength before hitting <!--del_lnk--> Tamaulipas at Category 3 strength. Emily killed at least 14 people over the course of its path. An estimated $400 million in damages have been reported.<p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Franklin"></span><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Franklin_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Franklin (2005)">Tropical Storm Franklin</a> formed off <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="The Bahamas">the Bahamas</a> on <!--del_lnk--> July 18. The storm moved northeast and became extratropical off the coast of <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic Canada without ever having threatened land.<p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Gert"></span><!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Gert followed soon after on <!--del_lnk--> July 24. Gert struck Veracruz near where Emily had hit a few days before; roughly 1,000 people were evacuated for fear of flooding, but no damages or deaths were reported.<p><a id="August" name="August"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">August</span></h3> <p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Harvey"></span>Like July, August also got off to a fast start: <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Harvey_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Harvey (2005)">Tropical Storm Harvey</a> formed southwest of <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> on <!--del_lnk--> August 3. Harvey dropped some rain on Bermuda as it moved to the northeast; it became extratropical on <!--del_lnk--> August 8 in the open <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>.<p><span id="Hurricane_Irene"></span>The tropical depression that would become <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Irene formed west of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Verde.htm" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde Islands</a> on <!--del_lnk--> August 4. The system moved west and north and did not reach hurricane strength until <!--del_lnk--> August 14, at which point it became the second <!--del_lnk--> Cape Verde-type hurricane of the season. Irene turned northeast and briefly reached <!--del_lnk--> Category 2 status before weakening and becoming extratropical on <!--del_lnk--> August 18. It never posed a threat to land.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/256/25606.jpg.htm" title="Eye of Hurricane Katrina as seen from a Hurricane Hunter aircraft"><img alt="Eye of Hurricane Katrina as seen from a Hurricane Hunter aircraft" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Katrina_Eye_viewed_from_Hurricane_Hunter.jpg" src="../../images/230/23050.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/256/25606.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Eye of <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> as seen from a <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Hunter aircraft</div> </div> </div> <p><span id="Tropical_Depression_Ten"></span><!--del_lnk--> Tropical Depression Ten formed east of the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Antilles on <!--del_lnk--> August 13. The system dissipated the next day. Its remnants soon merged with another system and eventually contributed to the formation of Hurricane Katrina.<p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Jose"></span><!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Jose followed, forming in the <!--del_lnk--> Bay of Campeche on <!--del_lnk--> August 22. It strengthened rapidly but quickly reached the coast and made landfall in the <!--del_lnk--> Mexican state of <!--del_lnk--> Veracruz on <!--del_lnk--> August 23, preventing further strengthening. Jose forced 25,000 people to evacuate their homes in Veracruz and killed six people in the state of <!--del_lnk--> Oaxaca; two more were reported missing. In all, damage in Mexico amounted to $45 million (2005 USD).<p><span id="Hurricane_Katrina"></span><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> formed in mid-August over <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="The Bahamas">the Bahamas</a>. It became a tropical storm on <!--del_lnk--> August 24 and reached hurricane intensity before making landfall in south <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> as a minimal hurricane. A few hours later, the storm entered the <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> and intensified rapidly into a <!--del_lnk--> Category 5 hurricane while crossing the <!--del_lnk--> Loop Current on <!--del_lnk--> August 28. Katrina made landfall on <!--del_lnk--> August 29 near the mouth of the <a href="../../wp/m/Mississippi_River.htm" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> as an extremely large Category 3 hurricane. Storm surge caused catastrophic damage along the coastlines of <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana, <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi, and <!--del_lnk--> Alabama. Levees separating <!--del_lnk--> Lake Pontchartrain from <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans, Louisiana were breached by the surge, ultimately flooding about 80% of the city. Wind damage was reported well inland, impeding relief efforts. Katrina is estimated to be responsible for at least $81.2 billion in damages, making it the costliest natural disaster in U.S. history. It was the deadliest U.S. hurricane since the <a href="../../wp/1/1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane.htm" title="1928 Okeechobee Hurricane">1928 Okeechobee Hurricane</a>, killing at least 1,836 people.<p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Lee"></span><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Lee_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Lee (2005)">Tropical Storm Lee</a> formed out in the Atlantic on <!--del_lnk--> August 31 but dissipated several days later without having threatened land.<p><a id="September" name="September"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">September</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23051.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Ophelia off the coast of North Carolina"><img alt="Hurricane Ophelia off the coast of North Carolina" height="229" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Ophelia_September_15_2005.jpg" src="../../images/230/23051.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23051.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Ophelia off the coast of <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina</div> </div> </div> <p><span id="Hurricane_Maria"></span><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Maria led off the month of September, forming as a tropical storm well east of the <!--del_lnk--> Leeward Islands on <!--del_lnk--> September 2. Maria reached its peak as a <!--del_lnk--> Category 3 hurricane on <!--del_lnk--> September 5, turning northeast and weakening before becoming extratropical on the 10th. Unusually, this extratropical storm strengthened as it moved toward <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>; its remnants struck <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> where one person was killed in a landslide.<p><span id="Hurricane_Nate"></span><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Nate formed southwest of Bermuda on <!--del_lnk--> September 5 and moved northeast as it strengthened into a strong Category 1 hurricane. Nate became extratropical on the 10th; the storm never approached land, although it did interfere with Canadian naval vessels en route to the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf Coast to help in Katrina relief efforts.<p><span id="Hurricane_Ophelia"></span><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Ophelia formed as a tropical depression in <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="The Bahamas">the Bahamas</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 6 and almost immediately made landfall on <!--del_lnk--> Grand Bahama. It became a tropical storm off the coast of Florida before strengthening into a large Category 1 storm and raking a long stretch of the southern <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina coast with heavy winds and storm surge on the 12th and 13th. The hurricane's eye never made landfall and moved back out to sea before becoming extratropical on the 17th and striking <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic Canada. Damages were around $70 million.<p><span id="Hurricane_Philippe"></span><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Philippe_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Philippe (2005)">Hurricane Philippe</a> formed east of the <!--del_lnk--> Leeward Islands on <!--del_lnk--> September 17. It moved northwards, reaching <!--del_lnk--> Category 1 intensity before weakening and finally dissipating on the 23rd. No landmasses were affected.<p><span id="Hurricane_Rita"></span><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Rita formed as a tropical storm over the <a href="../../wp/t/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands.htm" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 18. The storm reached Category 2 intensity as it moved south of the <!--del_lnk--> Florida Keys on <!--del_lnk--> September 20. Rapid intensification ensued as Rita moved into the <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>, and Rita became a Category 5 hurricane on the 21st, becoming the third (now fourth) most intense hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic Basin. Rita made landfall near the <!--del_lnk--> Texas-<!--del_lnk--> Louisiana border on <!--del_lnk--> September 24. Major flooding was reported in <!--del_lnk--> Port Arthur and <!--del_lnk--> Beaumont, Texas, while <!--del_lnk--> Cameron and <!--del_lnk--> Calcasieu Parishes in Louisiana were devastated. Offshore oil platforms throughout Rita's path also suffered significant damage. Six people are confirmed dead from Rita's direct effects, and total damage from the storm is estimated at about $10 billion. One hundred and thirteen indirect deaths have been reported, mostly from the mass exodus from <a href="../../wp/h/Houston%252C_Texas.htm" title="Houston, Texas">Houston, Texas</a> and surrounding counties.<p><span id="Tropical_Depression_Nineteen"></span><!--del_lnk--> Tropical Depression Nineteen formed west of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Verde.htm" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde Islands</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 30 but dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> October 2 without having threatened land.<p><a id="October" name="October"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">October</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23053.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Stan shortly before landfall in Veracruz"><img alt="Hurricane Stan shortly before landfall in Veracruz" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Stan_on_October_4_2005.jpg" src="../../images/230/23053.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23053.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Stan shortly before landfall in <!--del_lnk--> Veracruz</div> </div> </div> <p><span id="Hurricane_Stan"></span><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Stan was the first October storm, reaching tropical storm status on <!--del_lnk--> October 2 just before crossing the <!--del_lnk--> Yucatán Peninsula. In the <!--del_lnk--> Bay of Campeche, Stan briefly reached hurricane strength before making landfall south of <!--del_lnk--> Veracruz, Veracruz, on <!--del_lnk--> October 4. Stan was a part of a large system of rainstorms, which dropped torrential rainfall that caused catastrophic flooding and mudslides over southern Mexico and <!--del_lnk--> Central America. Well over 1,000 total deaths were caused by the flooding, of which 80–100 are directly attributed to Stan.<p><span id="Unnamed_Subtropical_Storm"></span> An initially unnoticed <!--del_lnk--> Unnamed Subtropical Storm was discovered by the NHC during the postseason analysis. This short-lived <!--del_lnk--> subtropical storm formed on <!--del_lnk--> October 4 south of the Azores and was absorbed by an extratropical low the next day, after passing over those islands.<p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Tammy"></span><!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Tammy led a brief existence before making landfall in northeastern <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> on <!--del_lnk--> October 5. Tammy dropped heavy rains over portions of the southeast United States before merging with a frontal system that would eventually cause the <!--del_lnk--> Northeast U.S. flooding of October 2005.<p><span id="Subtropical_Depression_Twenty-two"></span><!--del_lnk--> Subtropical Depression Twenty-two formed southeast of <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> on <!--del_lnk--> October 8. It dissipated the next day, although its remnants approached New England and contributed to the <!--del_lnk--> Northeast U.S. flooding of October 2005.<p><span id="Hurricane_Vince"></span><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Vince_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Vince (2005)">Hurricane Vince</a> formed over unfavorably cold water in the east Atlantic near the <!--del_lnk--> Madeira Islands on <!--del_lnk--> October 8 as a <!--del_lnk--> subtropical storm. It was first recorded by the NHC on <!--del_lnk--> October 9 when it became tropical, and shortly thereafter, it briefly strengthened into a hurricane. The storm made an even more unusual landfall in <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> on <!--del_lnk--> October 11, making it the first tropical cyclone on record to impact Spain.<p><span id="Hurricane_Wilma"></span><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Wilma formed on <!--del_lnk--> October 17 in the western Caribbean southwest of <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> and rapidly strengthened. On <!--del_lnk--> October 19 it became the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic basin, with 185 mph (295 km/h) winds and a central pressure of 882 <!--del_lnk--> mbar (<!--del_lnk--> hPa). The hurricane moved slowly and struck <!--del_lnk--> Quintana Roo on <!--del_lnk--> October 22 as a <!--del_lnk--> Category 4 hurricane, causing very heavy damage to <!--del_lnk--> Cancún and <!--del_lnk--> Cozumel. After emerging into the <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>, Wilma passed north of <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> before striking southern <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> on the 24th as a Category 3 storm, then moving into the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> and becoming extratropical. Wilma is directly credited with 22 deaths; total damages are estimated at around $29 billion, mostly in the United States, Mexico, and Cuba.<p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Alpha"></span><!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Alpha formed in the eastern Caribbean on <!--del_lnk--> October 22 and crossed <!--del_lnk--> Hispaniola, causing major flooding before merging with Wilma. A total of 42 people are reported dead from the storm in <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> and the <a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>.<p><span id="Hurricane_Beta"></span><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Beta formed in the southern Caribbean on <!--del_lnk--> October 26 and strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane before making landfall in the <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombian</a> islands of <!--del_lnk--> San Andrés & Providencia and in <a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> on the 30th. Damage and fatality reports have not yet been released to the public.<p><a id="November.2C_December.2C_and_January" name="November.2C_December.2C_and_January"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">November, December, and January</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/136/13687.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Epsilon viewed from the International Space Station"><img alt="Hurricane Epsilon viewed from the International Space Station" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Epsilon_ISS012-E-10097.jpg" src="../../images/136/13687.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/136/13687.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Epsilon viewed from the <a href="../../wp/i/International_Space_Station.htm" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></div> </div> </div> <p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Gamma"></span>Tropical activity declined only very slowly as the season wound down. <!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Gamma initially formed on <!--del_lnk--> November 15 in the central Caribbean, and degenerated into a tropical wave before reforming. Although the storm dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> November 20 without having made landfall, rainfall from Gamma caused 41 deaths in <a href="../../wp/h/Honduras.htm" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Belize.htm" title="Belize">Belize</a>.<p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Delta"></span><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Delta_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Delta (2005)">Tropical Storm Delta</a> formed in the eastern Atlantic on <!--del_lnk--> November 23; it approached but never attained hurricane strength. Delta became extratropical on the 28th shortly before striking the <!--del_lnk--> Canary Islands at full force, causing seven deaths and toppling <!--del_lnk--> El Dedo de Dios, a famous land formation on <!--del_lnk--> Gran Canaria.<p><span id="Hurricane_Epsilon"></span><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Epsilon_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Epsilon (2005)">Hurricane Epsilon</a> formed as a tropical storm on <!--del_lnk--> November 29 in a hostile environment in the middle of the Atlantic. It reached hurricane strength on <!--del_lnk--> December 2 and defied forecasting by persisting for over a week before dissipating.<p><span id="Tropical_Storm_Zeta"></span><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Zeta_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)">Tropical Storm Zeta</a> became the final storm of the season when it formed on <!--del_lnk--> December 30, six hours short of tying the record of <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Alice of 1954 as the latest-forming named storm in a season. Zeta dissipated on <!--del_lnk--> January 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, having become the longest-lived January tropical cyclone in <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic basin history.<div style="clear: both"> </div> <p><a id="Deaths_and_damage" name="Deaths_and_damage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Deaths and damage</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:177px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/50/5080.jpg.htm" title="Damage in Navarre Beach, Florida from Hurricane Dennis"><img alt="Damage in Navarre Beach, Florida from Hurricane Dennis" height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beach_front_home_damaged_by_hurricane_dennis_2005.jpg" src="../../images/230/23054.jpg" width="175" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/50/5080.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Damage in <!--del_lnk--> Navarre Beach, Florida from <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis">Hurricane Dennis</a></div> </div> </div> <p>The storms of the season were extraordinarily damaging and were responsible for significant loss of life. Total damages are estimated to be over $100 billion (2005 <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">USD</a>), and at least 2,280 people have been confirmed dead.<p>The hardest-hit area was the <!--del_lnk--> United States Gulf Coast from eastern <!--del_lnk--> Texas to the <!--del_lnk--> Florida Panhandle. First to strike the area was Hurricane Dennis, which caused $2.23 billion in damages along the Florida Panhandle. <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> caused catastrophic damage to the Gulf Coast, devastating a long stretch of coast along <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana, <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi, and <!--del_lnk--> Alabama with a 30-foot (9 m) storm surge. Wind damage was reported well inland, slowing down recovery efforts. Storm surge also breached levees in the city of <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans, Louisiana, flooding about 80% of the city. Total damages have been estimated at $81.2 billion, and at least 1,836 people were killed by the storm; Katrina is the costliest hurricane in U.S. history, surpassing 1992's <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Andrew.htm" title="Hurricane Andrew">Hurricane Andrew</a>, and the deadliest hurricane in the U.S. since 1928. <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Rita struck near the same area, re-flooded New Orleans, (though to a far less degree than Katrina) and caused extensive damage along the coastlines of <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana and <!--del_lnk--> Texas; total damages are estimated at about $10 billion. <!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Arlene and <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Cindy also struck the Gulf Coast but caused much lighter damage.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18032.jpg.htm" title="Flooding in New Orleans from Hurricane Katrina"><img alt="Flooding in New Orleans from Hurricane Katrina" height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded.jpg" src="../../images/230/23055.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18032.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Flooding in <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans from <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></div> </div> </div> <p>The <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexican</a> state of <!--del_lnk--> Quintana Roo was also heavily hit, suffering billions of dollars in damages when Hurricanes <!--del_lnk--> Emily and <!--del_lnk--> Wilma both made landfall between <!--del_lnk--> Cozumel and <!--del_lnk--> Cancún. Wilma was particularly devastating, lashing the area with major hurricane-force winds for over a full day, and was possibly the most damaging hurricane in Mexican history.<p>Wilma caused widespread heavy damage in south <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, causing $20.6 billion in damages total in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Hurricanes Katrina and Rita had struck the same area earlier, causing lesser (but still significant) damage, and Tropical Storm Arlene killed one person caught in a <!--del_lnk--> rip current. Hurricane Dennis also brushed the area on its track northward.<p>In October the remnants of Tropical Storm Tammy and Subtropical Depression Twenty-two met over the <!--del_lnk--> Northeastern United States, causing <!--del_lnk--> intense flooding.<p>Southeastern <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina suffered some damage from the slow-moving <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Ophelia; damages from that storm were originally estimated at $1.6 billion, but finalized at only $70 million. The remainder of the Atlantic coast escaped the major storms, although some regions were affected by the remnants of several storms (including Katrina, Ophelia, Tammy, Subtropical Depression 22, and Wilma).<p>Northeastern Mexico, including <!--del_lnk--> Veracruz and <!--del_lnk--> Tamaulipas, was struck repeatedly. Hurricane Emily struck Tamaulipas directly, causing severe damage. Tropical Storms Bret, Gert, and Jose also made landfall in the area but caused minimal damage, although they did cause 12 deaths.<p>Southern Mexico, along with portions of Central America, suffered heavy flooding and mudslides from <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Stan and nearby nontropical rains. Over 2,000 people have been confirmed dead in total, with some towns completely wiped out, though most of these deaths were not related to the hurricane. Central America also suffered flooding from <!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Gamma and Hurricane Wilma, and <a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> was struck directly by <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Beta. No damage figures are available for any of these storms.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23056.jpg.htm" title="Flooding in Carolina Beach, North Carolina after Hurricane Ophelia in September 2005"><img alt="Flooding in Carolina Beach, North Carolina after Hurricane Ophelia in September 2005" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CAROLINA_BEACH.jpg" src="../../images/230/23056.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23056.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Flooding in <!--del_lnk--> Carolina Beach, North Carolina after <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Ophelia in September 2005</div> </div> </div> <p>The island of <!--del_lnk--> Hispaniola escaped the worst storms; however, at least 89 people were killed in <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> from the effects of Hurricanes Dennis and Wilma and <!--del_lnk--> Tropical Storm Alpha.<p><a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> was struck by Hurricane Dennis at peak strength, causing $1.4 billion in damages; it was the worst hurricane to hit Cuba in over 40 years. Some areas of Cuba also suffered heavy damage from Hurricanes Rita and Wilma.<p>Unusual impacts were felt in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and nearby islands from four storms. <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Maria intensified and affected northern Europe as a vicious extratropical storm, while <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Vince_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Vince (2005)">Hurricane Vince</a> maintained tropical characteristics onto the <!--del_lnk--> Iberian Peninsula as a weak tropical depression. <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Delta_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Delta (2005)">Tropical Storm Delta</a> struck the <!--del_lnk--> Canary Islands just after becoming extratropical, causing extensive damages before reaching <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> as a weak extratropical system. In addition, the <!--del_lnk--> Azores were affected by the <!--del_lnk--> unnamed subtropical storm at its peak strength. Eight people were killed by those storms, and significant damage was reported as a result of Maria and Delta, although no figures are available.<p>No major land effects were felt as a result of Franklin, Harvey, Irene, Tropical Depression 10, Lee, Nate, Philippe, Tropical Depression 19, Epsilon, or Zeta.<p><a id="Economic_impact" name="Economic_impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economic impact</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23057.gif.htm" title="Hurricane Rita at landfall, along with the location of several refineries"><img alt="Hurricane Rita at landfall, along with the location of several refineries" height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Rita%27s_Path_at_Landfall.gif" src="../../images/230/23057.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23057.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Rita at landfall, along with the location of several refineries</div> </div> </div> <p>The level of activity of the season had far-reaching economic consequences. Because of the vulnerability of both oil extracting and <a href="../../wp/r/Refining.htm" title="Refining">refining</a> capacity in the Gulf of Mexico, storms led to speculative spikes in the price of <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">crude oil</a>. The damage to refinery capacity in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> caused gasoline to soar to record prices (even adjusted for <!--del_lnk--> inflation). Governments in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> tapped strategic reserves of gasoline and petroleum, and shortages were reported in the days after <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Katrina</a> in areas heavily dependent on the <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> for refined gasoline. Even weeks after the storm, prices remained elevated as the shortage in production remained over one million barrels per day.<p><!--del_lnk--> Rita damaged wells in the western Gulf of Mexico which were primarily exploratory, leading to concerns that future production would be damped for some time to come. Additionally, as the storm churned in the Gulf, forecasters predicted that it would strike <a href="../../wp/h/Houston%252C_Texas.htm" title="Houston, Texas">Houston, Texas</a>, the location of many major <a href="../../wp/o/Oil_refinery.htm" title="Oil refinery">oil refineries</a> that survived Katrina, leading to additional spikes in oil prices before the predictions changed. In Georgia, Governor <!--del_lnk--> Sonny Perdue declared "<!--del_lnk--> snow days" on <!--del_lnk--> September 26 and <!--del_lnk--> September 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, at all Georgia public schools to conserve fuel for <!--del_lnk--> school buses in anticipation of Rita's impact. However, as the storm veered away from Houston shortly before landfall, damage to refining capacity was not as great as feared.<p>Agriculture in multiple countries was hard hit by extremely heavy rains from severe storms during the season. Early in the season, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis">Hurricane Dennis</a> caused significant damages to various <a href="../../wp/c/Citrus.htm" title="Citrus">citrus</a> and <a href="../../wp/v/Vegetable.htm" title="Vegetable">vegetable</a> crops in <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, though the damages were not crippling. In <!--del_lnk--> Central America, <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Stan and associated nontropical storms dropped upwards of 20 inches (500 mm) of rain, causing, in addition to severe flash floods and mud slides, heavy damage to crops, especially to the <a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" title="Banana">banana</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Coffee.htm" title="Coffee">coffee</a> crops, which were nearly ready to be harvested. This caused significant economic disruption in <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> and surrounding nations, as the rural economies are highly dependent on the coffee and banana crops. When <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Beta struck <a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> later in the season, it also caused heavy damages to the banana crop, but the harvests had already ended, mitigating economic disruption.<p>Katrina also had significant political consequences, as President <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana governor <!--del_lnk--> Kathleen Blanco, and <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans mayor <!--del_lnk--> Ray Nagin all came under heavy criticism for what were considered sluggish or inappropriate responses to <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> December 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, congressional hearings began to investigate whether these claims had any merit. In addition, <!--del_lnk--> Michael Brown, head of the United States <!--del_lnk--> Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), was forced to resign from his post after the organization came under fire for what was perceived as an insufficient response to Katrina.<p><a id="Forecasting_uncertainty" name="Forecasting_uncertainty"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Forecasting uncertainty</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/192/19200.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Vince formed in cold waters in the northeast Atlantic."><img alt="Hurricane Vince formed in cold waters in the northeast Atlantic." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2005_10_09_1200_rgb_12-12-0.jpg" src="../../images/192/19200.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/192/19200.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Vince formed in cold waters in the northeast Atlantic.</div> </div> </div> <p>A number of storms that formed in 2005 exhibited unusual behaviour and challenged forecasters' ability to make correct predictions. <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Vince_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Vince (2005)">Hurricane Vince</a> formed farther northeast in the Atlantic than any other tropical cyclone on record, and then unexpectedly reached hurricane strength over waters considered too cold to support a hurricane. <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Wilma became one of the fastest-intensifying hurricanes on record, and later strengthened unexpectedly in the face of strong <!--del_lnk--> wind shear. <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Delta_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Delta (2005)">Tropical Storm Delta</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Epsilon_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Epsilon (2005)">Hurricane Epsilon</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Zeta_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)">Tropical Storm Zeta</a> all formed over the cold waters of the late-season eastern Atlantic, much like Hurricane Vince (though at lower latitudes). All three persisted in the face of heavy wind shear, and Epsilon managed to reach hurricane strength over waters well below the temperatures previously thought necessary for hurricane formation. Epsilon became the longest-lasting December hurricane while Zeta became the longest-lasting storm in January.<p><a id="Records_and_notable_events" name="Records_and_notable_events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Records and notable events</span></h2> <p>The 2005 season broke numerous records for tropical cyclone activity, although records before 1944 are incomplete.<p><a id="Number_of_storms" name="Number_of_storms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Number of storms</span></h3> <table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; text-align:right;"> <caption><b>Storm formation during the 2005 season</b></caption> <tr style="background:#ccccff"> <th align="left">Systems</th> <th>Average</th> <th> <center>Old<br /> Record</center> </th> <th>2005</th> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">Storms</td> <td>10</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 21</td> <td><b>28</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">Hurricanes</td> <td>6</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 12</td> <td><b>15</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">Category 3+ Hurricanes</td> <td>2</td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> 8</b></td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left">Category 5 Hurricanes</td> <td>0.3</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2 (<!--del_lnk--> tie)</td> <td><b>4</b></td> </tr> </table> <p>During the season 28 storms formed (27 named and one unnamed), surpassing almost all records for storm formation in the Atlantic. More tropical storms, hurricanes, and Category 5 hurricanes formed during the season than in any previously recorded Atlantic season; the only major record for number of storms the season did not capture was most major hurricanes, still held by the <!--del_lnk--> 1950 season.<p>The season was the first season to use "V" and "W" names, and when the season ran out of official alphabetical names after the use of <!--del_lnk--> Wilma, forecasters resorted to using letters from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek alphabet for the first time (although <!--del_lnk--> Alpha and <!--del_lnk--> Delta had been used for subtropical storms in the 1970s).<p>Almost every storm in 2005 has set a record for early formation. Of the twenty-eight storms which formed, twenty-two of them qualified as the earliest-forming storm of that number; starting with <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis">Hurricane Dennis</a>, almost every storm was such.<p><a id="Intense_storms" name="Intense_storms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Intense storms</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23058.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Wilma near peak intensity of 882 mbar"><img alt="Hurricane Wilma near peak intensity of 882 mbar" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wilma1315z-051019-1kg12.jpg" src="../../images/230/23058.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23058.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hurricane Wilma near peak intensity of 882 <!--del_lnk--> mbar</div> </div> </div> <p>Three of the six most intense hurricanes on record formed in 2005, topped off by Hurricane Wilma's 882 <!--del_lnk--> mbar minimum pressure, shattering the 17-year-old record set by <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Gilbert. Hurricanes Emily, Katrina and Rita also attained Category 5 intensity, and Hurricanes Rita and Katrina became the fourth and sixth most intense recorded Atlantic storms, respectively. Hurricane Emily was not originally recorded as a Category 5 storm, but it was upgraded in the post-storm analysis by the <!--del_lnk--> National Hurricane Centre. The 2005 season is the only season on record with four Category 5 storms on the <!--del_lnk--> Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale; the previous record was only two. In addition, Hurricane Dennis reached Category 4 status, tying the record set by the <!--del_lnk--> 1999 season with five Category 4 storms.<p><a id="Early_strength_and_activity" name="Early_strength_and_activity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early strength and activity</span></h3> <p>In July, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis">Hurricane Dennis</a> became the strongest storm to form prior to August and the earliest Category 4 storm to form in the Caribbean. When <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Emily reached Category 5 intensity later in the month, the 2005 season became the only season to have two hurricanes reach Category 4 intensity before the end of July; Emily also broke Dennis's nine-day-old record for the strongest storm on record before August. Emily was also the first Category 5 hurricane ever recorded in July and the earliest by nearly three weeks (beating <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Allen). The high level of activity and strength was reflected in the <!--del_lnk--> accumulated cyclone energy value at the end of July; at 63 it was the highest ever.<p>Additionally, seven storms formed before the end of July, breaking the record of five set in the <!--del_lnk--> 1887, <!--del_lnk--> 1933, <!--del_lnk--> 1936, <!--del_lnk--> 1959, <!--del_lnk--> 1966, and <!--del_lnk--> 1995 seasons. Five of those storms formed <i>during</i> July, also a new record.<p><a id="Late_activity" name="Late_activity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Late activity</span></h3> <p>After forming on <!--del_lnk--> November 29, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Epsilon_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Epsilon (2005)">Hurricane Epsilon</a> became the longest-lasting December hurricane on record when it maintained hurricane strength from <!--del_lnk--> December 2 to <!--del_lnk--> December 7. Epsilon is the third-strongest hurricane ever recorded in the month of December; only <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Nicole of 1998 and an unnamed storm in the <!--del_lnk--> 1925 season were stronger.<p>When <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Zeta_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)">Tropical Storm Zeta</a> formed on <!--del_lnk--> December 30, it came second only to <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Alice (also <!--del_lnk--> December 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1954, but later in the day) as the latest ever that the last storm of the season formed. Zeta also became only the second storm, after Alice, to persist through the end of year and still be active at the start of the next. In addition, Zeta was the longest-lived tropical cyclone to form in December and cross over into the next year, and it was also the longest-lived January tropical cyclone.<p><a id="Storm_names" name="Storm_names"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Storm names</span></h2> <table style="float:right; text-align:left; margin-left:1em"> <caption><b>2005 storm names</b></caption> <tr> <td width="25%"> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Arlene<li><!--del_lnk--> Bret<li><!--del_lnk--> Cindy<li><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis">Dennis</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Emily<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Franklin_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Franklin (2005)">Franklin</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Gert</ul> </td> <td width="25%"> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Harvey_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Harvey (2005)">Harvey</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Irene<li><!--del_lnk--> Jose<li><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Katrina</a><li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Lee_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Lee (2005)">Lee</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Maria<li><!--del_lnk--> Nate</ul> </td> <td width="25%"> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Ophelia<li><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Philippe_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Philippe (2005)">Philippe</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Rita<li><!--del_lnk--> Stan<li><!--del_lnk--> Tammy<li><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Vince_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Vince (2005)">Vince</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Wilma</ul> </td> <td valign="top"> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Alpha<li><!--del_lnk--> Beta<li><!--del_lnk--> Gamma<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Delta_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Delta (2005)">Delta</a><li><a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Epsilon_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Hurricane Epsilon (2005)">Epsilon</a><li><a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Zeta_%25282005%2529.htm" title="Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)">Zeta</a></ul> </td> </tr> </table> <p>The names to the right were used for tropical storms and hurricanes that formed in the North Atlantic in 2005. This was the same list used for the <!--del_lnk--> 1999 season, with the exceptions of Franklin and Lee, which replaced <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Floyd.htm" title="Hurricane Floyd">Floyd</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Lenny.htm" title="Hurricane Lenny">Lenny</a>. The names not retired from this list will be used again in the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season. Storms were named Franklin, Lee, Maria, Nate, Ophelia, Philippe, Rita, Stan, Tammy, Vince, Wilma, Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, and Zeta for the first time in 2005 (the names Alpha and Delta had been previously used in <!--del_lnk--> 1972 for two <!--del_lnk--> subtropical storms, but this is the first time they have been used in this way). This season used fifteen previously unused names, the most ever in an Atlantic season. Additionally, a subtropical storm that formed in early October was not recognized as such at the time and so did not receive a name.<p>Vince and Wilma were the first named "<!--del_lnk--> V" and "<!--del_lnk--> W" storms ever in the Atlantic basin. The naming of Wilma exhausted the 2005 list, the first time in Atlantic naming history that all names in the list have been used. Beginning with Alpha, the 2005 season was the first time in Atlantic hurricane history that Greek letters were used due to the exhaustion of the primary list.<p><a id="Retirement" name="Retirement"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Retirement</span></h3> <p>In the spring of 2006, the <!--del_lnk--> World Meteorological Organization retired five hurricane names: <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" title="Hurricane Dennis">Dennis</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Katrina</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Rita, <!--del_lnk--> Stan, and <!--del_lnk--> Wilma. Their replacements in the 2011 season will be Don, Katia, Rina, Sean, and Whitney, respectively. This surpassed the previous record for the number of hurricane names retired after a single season, four (held by the <!--del_lnk--> 1955, <!--del_lnk--> 1995, and <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" title="2004 Atlantic hurricane season">2004</a> seasons).<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['United States dollar', '2003 Atlantic hurricane season', '2004 Atlantic hurricane season', 'United States dollar', 'Hurricane Dennis', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'U.S. state', 'Florida', 'Cuba', 'Bahamas', 'Haiti', 'Guatemala', 'Tropical cyclone', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'Florida', '2004 Atlantic hurricane season', 'El Niño-Southern Oscillation', 'Hurricane Dennis', 'Florida', '2004 Atlantic hurricane season', 'Cuba', 'Hurricane Dennis', 'Grenada', 'Cuba', 'Haiti', 'Cuba', 'United States', 'Caribbean Sea', 'Tropical Storm Franklin (2005)', 'The Bahamas', 'Tropical Storm Harvey (2005)', 'Bermuda', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Cape Verde', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'The Bahamas', 'Florida', 'Gulf of Mexico', 'Mississippi River', '1928 Okeechobee Hurricane', 'Tropical Storm Lee (2005)', 'Iceland', 'Norway', 'The Bahamas', 'Hurricane Philippe (2005)', 'Turks and Caicos Islands', 'Gulf of Mexico', 'Houston, Texas', 'Cape Verde', 'Florida', 'Bermuda', 'Hurricane Vince (2005)', 'Spain', 'Jamaica', 'Gulf of Mexico', 'Cuba', 'Florida', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Haiti', 'Dominican Republic', 'Colombia', 'Nicaragua', 'International Space Station', 'Honduras', 'Belize', 'Tropical Storm Delta (2005)', 'Hurricane Epsilon (2005)', 'Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)', 'Hurricane Dennis', 'United States dollar', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'Hurricane Andrew', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'Mexico', 'Florida', 'United States', 'Nicaragua', 'Haiti', 'Cuba', 'Europe', 'Hurricane Vince (2005)', 'Tropical Storm Delta (2005)', 'Morocco', 'Refining', 'Petroleum', 'United States', 'Europe', 'United States', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'Gulf of Mexico', 'Houston, Texas', 'Oil refinery', 'Hurricane Dennis', 'Citrus', 'Vegetable', 'Cuba', 'Banana', 'Coffee', 'Guatemala', 'Nicaragua', 'George W. Bush', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'Hurricane Vince (2005)', 'Tropical Storm Delta (2005)', 'Hurricane Epsilon (2005)', 'Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)', 'Hurricane Dennis', 'Hurricane Dennis', 'Hurricane Epsilon (2005)', 'Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)', 'Hurricane Dennis', 'Tropical Storm Franklin (2005)', 'Tropical Storm Harvey (2005)', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'Tropical Storm Lee (2005)', 'Hurricane Philippe (2005)', 'Hurricane Vince (2005)', 'Tropical Storm Delta (2005)', 'Hurricane Epsilon (2005)', 'Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)', 'Hurricane Floyd', 'Hurricane Lenny', 'Hurricane Dennis', 'Hurricane Katrina', '2004 Atlantic hurricane season']
2005_Hertfordshire_Oil_Storage_Terminal_fire	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire,2005,2006,3Com Corporation,7 July 2005 London bombings,Addenbrooke's Hospital,Al-Qaeda,Aviation fuel,BBC News,BBC News 24,Bedfordshire" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2005_Hertfordshire_Oil_Storage_Terminal_fire"; var wgTitle = "2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire"; var wgArticleId = 3384168; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2005_Hertfordshire_Oil_Storage_Terminal_fire"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Recent_History.htm">Recent History</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table align="right" width="200px"> <tr> <td> <table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="width:188px; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%; float:right;clear:both; margin: 0 0 1em 1em"> <tr> <td> <div style="position: relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:5;left:5;"> <div style="position:absolute;display: block; left:135px; top:201px; width:8px;height:8px;padding:0;"><a class="image" href="../../images/12/1256.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dot4gb.svg" src="../../images/12/1256.png" width="8" /></a></div> </div><a class="image" href="../../images/12/1257.png.htm" title="Hemel Hempstead in the UK"><img alt="Hemel Hempstead in the UK" height="259" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gb4dot.svg" src="../../images/12/1257.png" width="180" /></a></div> <div class="thumbcaption">Hemel Hempstead in the UK</div> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16249.jpg.htm" title="In this satellite photo the pollution from the explosions, appearing black, is spreading in two main streams from the explosion site at the apex of the inverted 'v'. The orange dot is a marker not the actual fire. "><img alt="In this satellite photo the pollution from the explosions, appearing black, is spreading in two main streams from the explosion site at the apex of the inverted 'v'. The orange dot is a marker not the actual fire. " height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hemel_Hempstead_fuel_explosion_map.jpg" src="../../images/162/16249.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16249.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In this satellite photo the pollution from the explosions, appearing black, is spreading in two main streams from the explosion site at the apex of the inverted 'v'.<br /><small>The orange dot is a marker not the actual fire. </small></div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16250.jpg.htm" title="The fire seen from a vantage point between the Northgate and 3Com buildings."><img alt="The fire seen from a vantage point between the Northgate and 3Com buildings." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buncefield2.jpg" src="../../images/162/16250.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16250.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The fire seen from a vantage point between the Northgate and 3Com buildings.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16251.jpg.htm" title="Smoke from blasts, six hours after and twenty five miles away in Buckinghamshire."><img alt="Smoke from blasts, six hours after and twenty five miles away in Buckinghamshire." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blast_seen_from_Bucks%2C_twenty_five_miles_away%2C_at_1200.jpg" src="../../images/162/16251.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16251.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Smoke from blasts, six hours after and twenty five miles away in <!--del_lnk--> Buckinghamshire.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16252.jpg.htm" title="The smoke plume from Dunsmore, Bucks (about twenty miles away)."><img alt="The smoke plume from Dunsmore, Bucks (about twenty miles away)." height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buncefield-Smoke.jpg" src="../../images/162/16252.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16252.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The smoke plume from <!--del_lnk--> Dunsmore, <!--del_lnk--> Bucks (about twenty miles away).</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16253.jpg.htm" title="Smoke is visible from the banks of the Thames in Fulham, West London (about twenty two miles away)."><img alt="Smoke is visible from the banks of the Thames in Fulham, West London (about twenty two miles away)." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Smoke_Visible_from_London.jpg" src="../../images/162/16253.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16253.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Smoke is visible from the banks of the <!--del_lnk--> Thames in <!--del_lnk--> Fulham, West <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> (about twenty two miles away).</div> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire</b> began after a series of explosions early on the morning of <!--del_lnk--> 11 December <!--del_lnk--> 2005. The terminal, generally known as the <!--del_lnk--> Buncefield Depot, is an oil storage facility located near the <a href="../../wp/m/M1_motorway.htm" title="M1 motorway">M1 motorway</a> on the edge of <!--del_lnk--> Hemel Hempstead in <!--del_lnk--> Hertfordshire, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. These were some of <!--del_lnk--> the largest explosions ever to occur in the country, and the incident has been described as the biggest of its kind in peacetime <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. The tank fires were extinguished by the afternoon of <!--del_lnk--> 13 December <!--del_lnk--> 2005. However, one storage tank re-ignited in the evening, and the firefighters left it to burn, rather than attempting to re-extinguish it.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="The_incident" name="The_incident"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The incident</span></h2> <p><a id="Explosion_and_fire" name="Explosion_and_fire"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Explosion and fire</span></h3> <p>The first and largest explosion occurred at 06:03 <!--del_lnk--> UTC near container 912. From all accounts, it seems to have been an unconfined vapour cloud explosion. An <!--del_lnk--> inversion layer permitted people to hear it from a hundred miles (160 km) away; there are reports it was heard as far away as <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> British Geological Survey monitored the event, which measured 2.4 on the <!--del_lnk--> Richter scale. People were woken in their beds even in South London. Subsequent explosions occurred at 06:27 and 06:28. Witnesses observed flames hundreds of feet high from many miles away, with the smoke cloud visible from space, and as far north as Lincolnshire.<p>Damage from the blasts, ranging from broken windows and blown-in or warped front doors to an entire wall being removed from a warehouse, occurred more than half a mile (800 m) away. Buildings in neighbouring <!--del_lnk--> St Albans also suffered: for example, Townsend School had serious blast damage, and a window was blown out of <!--del_lnk--> St Albans Abbey (both c. 5 miles (8 km) from the site). Several nearby office blocks were hit so badly that almost every window, front and back, was blown in as the explosion ripped through them. Had this happened during the working day, these offices would have been full of people; there is no doubt that this would have caused dozens of deaths. Reports also indicated that cars in nearby streets caught fire. The roof of at least one house was blown off. Buildings in the vicinity were evacuated by police, not only because of the smoke and possibility of more explosions but because of the danger of structural damage making the buildings unstable.<p>There were 43 reported injuries; two people were deemed to be seriously injured enough to be kept in hospital, one in <!--del_lnk--> Watford General Hospital, with breathing difficulties, and another in Hemel Hempstead Hospital; they were not in a life-threatening condition. Some early media reports spoke of eight fatalities, but these may have been persons missing. All members of staff from the terminal were accounted for.<p>Hertfordshire police and fire services and the <!--del_lnk--> MP for the area, <!--del_lnk--> Mike Penning, have made clear that there were seven fuel tanks on the site which, as of 14:00 on <!--del_lnk--> 12 December, had not been affected; these tanks were at risk of exploding if the fire were to spread.<p><a id="Tackling_the_blaze" name="Tackling_the_blaze"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tackling the blaze</span></h3> <p>Around 150 firefighters began to tackle the blaze at 08:20 on the morning of <!--del_lnk--> 12 December, putting in containment measures before applying a large quantity of foam. Plans had been in place to start using foam at midnight on <!--del_lnk--> 11 December, but were delayed by last-minute concerns over possible <a href="../../wp/p/Pollution.htm" title="Pollution">pollution</a> of local rivers and underlying water sources from contaminated water used to fight the fires. Six high volume pumps were used to extract 25,000 litres of water per minute from a reservoir 2.4 kilometers from the fire, with six more high volume pumps deployed at various locations to serve as boosters. 32,000 litres of aerated foam per minute were directed against the fire for just over four hours, after which the pumping rate was reduced. Half the 20 individual fires were reported extinguished by midday. By 16:30 it was reported that a further two tank fires had been extinguished, but that one of the earlier extinguished tanks had ruptured and re-ignited, and was now threatening to cause the explosion of an adjacent tank. This led to the M1 motorway being closed again, the public exclusion area being widened and firefighters being temporarily withdrawn until the risk from the threatened tank could be determined.<p>Firefighting operations were resumed at about 20:00 and it was still anticipated that all fires could be extinguished during the night. Further damage occurred to one of the storage tanks in the early hours of the morning, causing firefighters to be withdrawn once more, but operations resumed at 08:30. By midday on the <!--del_lnk--> 13 December, all but three fires had been extinguished, although the largest tank was still burning. The smoke plume had been considerably reduced and was more grey, indicating the amount of vapourised water now joining the smoke. Firefighters were confident that the remaining fires could be extinguished during the day. It was reported at 16:45 that all tank fires were now extinguished, although some smaller fires remained. 75% of firefighters for Hertfordshire were involved in fighting the fire, together with support from 16 other brigades.<p>A further fire broke out during the early morning of <!--del_lnk--> 14 December. Firefighters were of the view that extinguishing it would leave the risk of petroleum vapour re-igniting or exploding, so it would be better to allow the fire, which was well contained, to burn itself out.<p>Hertfordshire Fire Service's deputy chief Mark Yates stated that escaping petroleum vapour was the most likely cause of the original explosion and fire.<p>Some chemical components of firefighting foams may present considerable risks to water resources and various ecosystems, particularly those in riverine environments.<p><a id="Smoke_cloud" name="Smoke_cloud"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Smoke cloud</span></h3> <p>The black smoke cloud, which was clearly visible from satellite photographs, drifted at high altitude (around 9,000 feet, 2750 m) towards <!--del_lnk--> Reading and <!--del_lnk--> Swindon, and could be seen across much of <!--del_lnk--> South East England. The small particles in the smoke, which contained <!--del_lnk--> hydrocarbons, can be an <!--del_lnk--> irritant but had low <!--del_lnk--> toxicity and were not expected to cause any long-term harm. The <!--del_lnk--> Met Office issued warnings that the smoke in the atmosphere could come down in rainfall during the night of <!--del_lnk--> 11 December.<p>For the first two days of the fire, the high thermal energy made the <!--del_lnk--> plume highly buoyant; this, together with settled weather conditions, allowed the plume to rise to a great height with little cross-mixing. When the fire was reduced in intensity it was reported to be possible that the plume would be less buoyant and that ground-level smoke concentrations could then rise significantly.<p>By <!--del_lnk--> 12 December, it was reported that the smoke cloud had reached northern <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>; it was expected to arrive in northern <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> by the weekend.<p>To investigate the smoke cloud the <!--del_lnk--> Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements, a research aircraft operated jointly by <!--del_lnk--> NERC and the Met Office, made two flights on the 12th and <!--del_lnk--> 13 December. In the first flight the edge of the plume was followed along the south coast of England. <!--del_lnk--> Carbon monoxide, <!--del_lnk--> nitrogen oxides and <a href="../../wp/o/Ozone.htm" title="Ozone">ozone</a> concentrations were found to be low with <!--del_lnk--> soot particles being the major component in the cloud. The second flight went into the centre of the plume to obtain data to help forecasting and emergency teams.<p><a id="Reactions_and_responses" name="Reactions_and_responses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reactions and responses</span></h2> <p><a id="Evacuations_and_closures" name="Evacuations_and_closures"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Evacuations and closures</span></h3> <p>Around 2,000 people from the Hemel Hempstead area were evacuated from their homes, and emergency services asked residents of the smoke-affected areas to close their windows and doors and stay inside. <!--del_lnk--> Hertfordshire Constabulary advised people who had houses with smashed windows to seek refuge with friends or family nearby if possible. Some people whose homes were damaged by the blast were placed in <!--del_lnk--> hotels, while others stayed in a nearby <!--del_lnk--> shopping centre. <!--del_lnk--> Total, the operator of the Buncefield depot, set up a helpline for people whose properties had been badly damaged by the explosion, and called in local authorities and the <!--del_lnk--> Salvation Army to provide accommodation or other help for those affected by the explosion.<p>About 227 <!--del_lnk--> schools across Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire as well as <a href="../../wp/l/Library.htm" title="Library">libraries</a> and other public buildings were closed on <!--del_lnk--> December 12 and <!--del_lnk--> December 13 for public safety. Police and local authorities advised residents to consult the "Hertfordshire Direct" website for up-to-date information. The <!--del_lnk--> University of Hertfordshire campus located further afield in <!--del_lnk--> Hatfield remained open. Meanwhile, 78 schools in <!--del_lnk--> Luton Borough were closed on <!--del_lnk--> 13 December and a limited number of schools in <!--del_lnk--> Bedfordshire. These were closed on the advice of Hertfordshire's Health Protection Agency that all schools should be closed in a 10-mile radius of the incident site due to concerns of the smoke plume and children's health. They reopened as normal on 14 December. <!--del_lnk--> (ref)<p><a id="Transport_disruption" name="Transport_disruption"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transport disruption</span></h3> <p>The incident occurred close to junction 8 of the <a href="../../wp/m/M1_motorway.htm" title="M1 motorway">M1 motorway</a>. The motorway was shut between junctions 12 and 6a (about eighteen miles or 29 km) shortly after the incident. Other roads in the vicinity, including the short <!--del_lnk--> M10 motorway, were also closed.<p>Some local <!--del_lnk--> petrol stations reported long queues as people started <!--del_lnk--> panic buying. A spokesman for the <!--del_lnk--> Department for Trade and Industry gave assurances that no petrol shortage was likely to result from the incident.<p>The Oil Terminal supplied 30% of <!--del_lnk--> Heathrow Airport's fuel, and because of the fire, the airport had to start rationing aircraft's fuel. Some long-haul flights to the Far-East and Australia had to "pit-stop" at <!--del_lnk--> Stansted Airport or other European airports to refuel, while short-haul operators were asked to fuel their planes for the round trip before flying to Heathrow. Fuel shortages continued for months after the explosion.<p><a id="Business_disruption" name="Business_disruption"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Business disruption</span></h3> <p>A number of companies were affected by inability to reach premises used for distribution, even where the premises themselves were largely unaffected by the blast.<p>The worst hit of the buildings were the <!--del_lnk--> Northgate Information Solutions headquarters and the <!--del_lnk--> Fujifilm building, both of which were totally devastated. Northgate is an IT company, one of the directors of which is <!--del_lnk--> Stephen Lander, former head of <!--del_lnk--> MI5. As of <!--del_lnk--> December 13 their building was completely unusable, and it may have to be demolished if it is found to be unsafe. The Fujifilm building was rendered unsafe, and demolition began soon afterwards. By June 2006 it had been completely removed from the site.<p>The Northgate and Fujifilm buildings were closest to the blast, although the surrounding Catherine House (to the north), Keystone Distribution building (to the west), and <!--del_lnk--> 3Com Corporation and RO buildings (to the south), were also extensively damaged. As a result of the destruction of the equipment in the Northgate building several websites they host were briefly inaccessible — including that of the <!--del_lnk--> Labour Party. <!--del_lnk--> Addenbrooke's Hospital in Cambridge was also affected with the IT system dealing with admissions and discharges needing to be replaced for several days by a manual system.<p><a id="Local_criticism" name="Local_criticism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Local criticism</span></h3> <p>Criticisms were expressed by local citizens and the local MP that originally the depot had been constructed away from other buildings, but that developmental pressures had led to both houses and commercial premises being built near to the depot.<p><a id="Legal_actions" name="Legal_actions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Legal actions</span></h3> <p>A total of 2,700 claims have been filed by residents, businesses and insurers. A group of 146 claimants is hoping to bring a class action against Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd. On 17 March 2006 a High Court official, Senior Master Turner, adjourned a hearing on whether to permit the class action until October 2006 at the earliest. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Groundwater_pollution" name="Groundwater_pollution"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Groundwater pollution</span></h3> <p>In May 2006 <!--del_lnk--> Three Valleys Water announced that it had detected the fire retardant <!--del_lnk--> perfluorooctane sulfonate (<!--del_lnk--> PFOS), used in fire fighting foam, in a ground water bore hole close to the Buncefield site. It stated that no water from this well entered the public water supply and that a nearby well and pumping station had been closed since the fire as a precaution. The chemical is a known health risk and the UK government had been about to ban its use. However just prior to the announcement the <!--del_lnk--> Drinking Water Inspectorate announced that it was increasing the safe level of the chemical in drinking water. This prompted the Hemel Hempstead MP, <!--del_lnk--> Mike Penning to accuse the government of changing the rules to suit the situation in which PFOS levels in drinking water in the area may rise in the future. <!--del_lnk--> (ref)<p><a id="Enquiry" name="Enquiry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Enquiry</span></h2> <p>A government enquiry held jointly by the <!--del_lnk--> Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the <!--del_lnk--> Environment Agency was started, but calls for a full public enquiry were declined <!--del_lnk--> . The Board included <!--del_lnk--> Lord Newton of Braintree, Prof <!--del_lnk--> Dougal Drysdale, an authority on fire safety and Dr <!--del_lnk--> Peter Baxter, a medical expert. Environment Agency and HSE staff were also on the board. The board's aim was to identify the immediate causes of the explosion, rather than consider who was to blame for any deficiencies, so as not to prejudice further legal proceedings. An initial progress report by the Major Incident Investigation Board on 22nd February 2006 did not go into the causes of the explosion, but looked at the environmental impact.<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <p>A further announcement was made on 9 May 2006 about the sequence of events which enabled the explosion to occur. Starting at 19:00 on the evening of 10 December Tank 912, towards the north west of the main depot, was filled with <!--del_lnk--> unleaded petrol. At midnight the terminal closed, and a check was made of the contents of tanks which found everything normal. From approximately 03:00 the <!--del_lnk--> level gauge for Tank 912 began indicating an unchanging level reading, despite filling continuing at 550 cubic metres per hour. Calculations show that the tank would have begun to overflow at about 05:20. 40 minutes later, an estimated 300 tonnes of petrol would have spilled down the side of the tank onto the ground inside <!--del_lnk--> bund A, a semi-enclosed compound surrounding several tanks. There is evidence suggesting that a high level switch, which should have detected that the tank was full and shut off the supply, failed to operate. CCTV footage shows a cloud of vapour from 1-2 metres deep flowing away from the tank. By 06:01, when the first explosion occurred, the cloud had spread beyond the boundaries of the site.<p>The extent of the damage meant it was not possible to determine the exact source of ignition, but possibilities include an emergency <!--del_lnk--> generator and the depot's fire pump system. The investigators did not believe that it was caused either by the driver of a fuel tanker, as had been speculated, or by anyone using a mobile phone.<p>It was felt unlikely that the explosion had a widespread effect on air quality at ground level.<p><a id="The_terminal" name="The_terminal"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The terminal</span></h2> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal (HOSL - Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd), generally known as the Buncefield complex, was the fifth largest oil-products storage depot in the UK, with a capacity of approximately 60 million <!--del_lnk--> Imperial gallons (273 million litres) of fuel, although it was not always filled. This was approximately 5% of UK oil storage capacity. It was a major hub on the <!--del_lnk--> UK's oil pipeline network (UKOP) with pipelines to <!--del_lnk--> Humberside and <!--del_lnk--> Merseyside and is an important fuel source to the British aviation industry, providing aircraft fuel for local airports including <!--del_lnk--> London Gatwick, <!--del_lnk--> London Heathrow and <!--del_lnk--> Luton airports. Approximately half of the complex is dedicated to the storage of <!--del_lnk--> aviation fuel. The remainder of the complex stores <!--del_lnk--> petrol and <!--del_lnk--> diesel fuel for <!--del_lnk--> petrol stations across much of the <!--del_lnk--> South-East of England. The terminal is owned by <!--del_lnk--> TOTAL UK Limited (60%) and <!--del_lnk--> Texaco 40%.<p>The seat of the fire, and the worst damaged section, was "HOSL West", used by Total and Texaco to store a variety of fuels, and the neighbouring <!--del_lnk--> British Pipeline Agency area.<p><a id="Initial_speculation_on_causes" name="Initial_speculation_on_causes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Initial speculation on causes</span></h2> <p>The police issued a statement saying that they were treating the incident as an accident as opposed to a <!--del_lnk--> terrorist attack. Rumours of a deliberate attack, in the form of an aeroplane deliberately crashed into the site, spread in the initial aftermath of the explosion as a result of the distinctive noise the event made. They may have been given some credence because of the proximity of Luton airport to the site of the incident, and the fact that numerous flight paths crisscross the area.<p>Italian television stations early on the morning of the fire described the event as a possible terrorist attack and went to the extent of showing features on the <!--del_lnk--> July 2005 terrorist bombings. Speculation about the possible terrorist nature of the blasts was prompted by the fact that a videotape allegedly released by <!--del_lnk--> al-Qaeda four days previously had called for attacks on fuel depots and refineries containing oil "stolen" from Muslim countries. However, the cause of the blasts will likely not be known until a full investigation is completed.<p>An oil industry specialist speculated on <!--del_lnk--> BBC News that a vapour leak could have built up to explosive concentrations because of the ground frost in the area keeping vapour concentration at ground level. This would have resulted in a <!--del_lnk--> fuel-air explosion. It is industry practice for detection systems to be in place to reveal leakages. In order for this scenario to be fulfilled, there must have been a leakage that was not picked up by the leak detection system.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> BBC News 24 interview with a petrol tanker driver, who was about to load his tanker at 06:00, reported a cloud of mist rolling in from the tank farm area behind the loading bay. All electric lights were turned off and they were ordered to leave the site on foot. As he was doing so, the blast blew him off his feet. In another interview, a security guard in a nearby office building reported an unusual smell of petrol inside his building before the explosion. Hertfordshire police reported speaking to a tanker driver concerned that switching the engine cut-off on his tanker might have triggered the explosion.<p>Other safety experts spoke of a known "Weekend effect" in industry, in which weekend maintenance creates an unsafe condition.<p>A retired military explosives safety officer submitted his published paper on this explosion to HSE's in-house Inquiry. The paper was designed to help those who lived close to petrol storage depots and who were worried about the risks they and their buildings faced. It held views different from those of other experts whose opinions had been voiced publicly. It was critical of HSE's general safety culture and showed that in the UK the severities and frequencies of explosions like that at Buncefield were unacceptably high.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Hertfordshire_Oil_Storage_Terminal_fire"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['London', 'M1 motorway', 'England', 'Europe', 'France', 'Netherlands', 'Pollution', 'France', 'Spain', 'Ozone', 'Library', 'M1 motorway']
2005_Kashmir_earthquake	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2005 Pakistan earthquake,1906 San Francisco earthquake,1935,1935 Quetta earthquake,2001 Gujarat Earthquake,2004 Indian Ocean earthquake,2005,Afghanistan,Aftershock,Altitude,Amritsar" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2005 Pakistan earthquake</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2005_Pakistan_earthquake"; var wgTitle = "2005 Pakistan earthquake"; var wgArticleId = 8037082; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2005_Pakistan_earthquake"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2005 Pakistan earthquake</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Natural_Disasters.htm">Natural Disasters</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children played a central role after the 2005 Kashmir Earthquake. For more information see <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan_Earthquake_Summary.htm" title="SOS Children in Kashmir">SOS Children: Kashmir Earthquake</a></div> <!-- start content --> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="3" style="color:black"><i><b>2005 Kashmir earthquake</b></i></th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="3"><a class="image" href="../../images/160/16025.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="185" longdesc="/wiki/Image:8oct05_sasia_quake_neic.jpg" src="../../images/160/16025.jpg" width="240" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="left" style="font-size:90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #CFCFCF;">Date</th> <td align="left" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #CFCFCF;"><!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="left" style="font-size:90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #CFCFCF;">Magnitude</th> <td align="left" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #CFCFCF;">7.6 <!--del_lnk--> M<sub>w</sub></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="left" style="font-size:90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #CFCFCF;">Countries affected</th> <td align="left" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #CFCFCF;"><a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="left" style="font-size:90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #CFCFCF;">Casualties</th> <td align="left" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #CFCFCF;">74,500+ dead<br /> 106,000+ injured</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>Kashmir earthquake</b> (also known as the <b>South Asia earthquake</b> or <b>Pakistan earthquake</b>)lots of people died and i had a few friends whose family and friends died in it of 2005 was a major <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> whose <!--del_lnk--> epicenter was the <!--del_lnk--> Pakistan-administered <!--del_lnk--> disputed region of <a href="../../wp/k/Kashmir_region.htm" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>. The earthquake occurred at 08:50:38 <!--del_lnk--> Pakistan Standard Time (03:50:38 <!--del_lnk--> UTC) on <!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. It registered a minimum magnitude of 7.6 on the <!--del_lnk--> moment magnitude scale making it a major earthquake similar in intensity to the <!--del_lnk--> 1935 Quetta earthquake, the <!--del_lnk--> 2001 Gujarat Earthquake, and the <!--del_lnk--> 1906 San Francisco earthquake. As of 8 November, the Pakistani government's official death toll was 73,276, while officials say nearly 1,400 people died in Indian-administered Kashmir and four people in Afghanistan.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16026.gif.htm" title="Map depicting tectonic plates shows Indian subcontinent and Eurasian landplate divide through Pakistan and Kashmir where earthquake activity is common."><img alt="Map depicting tectonic plates shows Indian subcontinent and Eurasian landplate divide through Pakistan and Kashmir where earthquake activity is common." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Earthquake_Information_for_Pakistan.gif" src="../../images/160/16026.gif" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16026.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map depicting tectonic plates shows Indian subcontinent and Eurasian landplate divide through Pakistan and Kashmir where earthquake activity is common.</div> </div> </div> <p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Human_impact" name="Human_impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Human impact</span></h2> <p>Most of the affected people lived in mountainous regions with access impeded by <!--del_lnk--> landslides that blocked the roads, leaving an estimated 3.3 million homeless in Pakistan. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">UN</a> reported that more than 4 million people were directly affected, prior to the commencement of winter snowfall in the <!--del_lnk--> Himalayan region. It is estimated that damages incurred are well over <!--del_lnk--> US$ 5 billion (30 billion <!--del_lnk--> Pakistani rupees) Five crossing points were opened on the <!--del_lnk--> Line of Control (LoC) between <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> to facilitate the flow of humanitarian and medical aid to the affected region. <p><a id="The_earthquake" name="The_earthquake"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The earthquake</span></h2> <p>Kashmir lies in the area of collision of the <!--del_lnk--> Eurasian and <!--del_lnk--> Indian tectonic plates. . The geological activity born out of this collision, also responsible for the birth of the Himalayan mountain range, is the cause of unstable <!--del_lnk--> seismicity in the region. The <!--del_lnk--> United States Geological Survey (USGS) measured its magnitude as a minimum of 7.6 on the moment magnitude scale, with its epicenter at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">34°29′35″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">73°37′44″E</span></span>, about 19 km (11.8 miles) northeast of <!--del_lnk--> Muzaffarabad, Pakistan, and 100 km (65 miles) north-northeast of the national capital <!--del_lnk--> Islamabad. The earthquake is classified as "major" by the USGS. The <!--del_lnk--> hypocenter was located at a depth of 26 km (16.2 miles) below the surface . The <!--del_lnk--> Japan Meteorological Agency estimated its magnitude at a minimum of 7.8. By comparison, the <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake.htm" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a> had a magnitude of 9.15. The earthquake caused widespread destruction in northern Pakistan, as well as damage in <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and northern <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>. The worst hit areas were Pakistan-administered Kashmir, Pakistan's <!--del_lnk--> North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), and western and southern parts of the Kashmir valley in the <!--del_lnk--> Indian-administered Kashmir. It also affected some parts of the Pakistani province of <!--del_lnk--> Punjab and the city of <a href="../../wp/k/Karachi.htm" title="Karachi">Karachi</a> experienced a minor <!--del_lnk--> aftershock of magnitude 4.6. There have been many <!--del_lnk--> secondary earthquakes in the region, mainly to the northwest of the original epicenter. A total of 147 <!--del_lnk--> aftershocks were registered in the first day after the initial quake, of which one had a magnitude of 6.2 Twenty-eight of these aftershocks occurred with magnitudes greater. On October 19, a series of strong aftershocks, one with a magnitude of 5.8, occurred about 65 km (40.5 miles) north-northwest of <!--del_lnk--> Muzaffarabad. There have been more than 978 <!--del_lnk--> aftershocks with a magnitude of 4.0 and above, as of 27 October that continue to occur daily. (See <!--del_lnk--> USGS for a list of recent aftershocks and effects.)<p><a id="Casualties" name="Casualties"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Casualties</span></h2> <div> <table border="1" cellpadding="4" class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 30%; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; clear: right"> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="4"><b>2005 Kashmir earthquake casualties</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" style="background: #E9E9E9;"><b>Location</b></td> <td align="center" style="background: #E9E9E9;"><b>Dead</b></td> <td align="center" style="background: #E9E9E9;"><b>Injured</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> (<!--del_lnk--> NWFP & <a href="../../wp/k/Kashmir_region.htm" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>)</td> <td>73,276    </td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 100,000    </td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> (<a href="../../wp/k/Kashmir_region.htm" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>)</td> <td>1,360     </td> <td>6,266</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></td> <td>4</td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #E9E9E9;"><b>Total</b></td> <td style="background: #E9E9E9;"><b>74,500+</b></td> <td style="background: #E9E9E9;"><b>106,000+</b></td> </tr> </table> <div> <p>Most of the casualties resulting from the earthquake were in Pakistan where the official confirmed death toll is 73,276, putting it higher than the massive scale of destruction of the <!--del_lnk--> Quetta earthquake of <!--del_lnk--> May 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1935. Nearly 1,400 people died in Indian-administered Kashmir, according to officials. <!--del_lnk--> International donors have estimated that about 86,000 died but this has not been confirmed or endorsed by Pakistani authorities.<p>As Saturday is a normal school day in the region, most students were at schools when the earthquake struck. Many were buried under collapsed school buildings. Many people were also trapped in their homes and, because it was the month of <!--del_lnk--> Ramadan, most people were taking a nap after their pre-dawn meal and did not have time to escape during the earthquake. Reports indicate that entire towns and villages were completely wiped out in Northern Pakistan with other surrounding areas also suffering severe damage.<p>"...a second, massive wave of death will happen if we do not step up our efforts now", Kofi Annan said on <!--del_lnk--> 20 October with reference to the thousand remote villages in which people are in need of medical attention, food, clean water and shelter and the 120,000 survivors that have not yet been reached. <p>Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz "made the appeal to survivors" on <!--del_lnk--> 26 October to come down to valleys and cities for relief, because bad weather, mountainous terrain, landslides and blocked roads are making it difficult for relief workers to reach each house and the winter snows are imminent.<a id="Damage" name="Damage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Damage</span></h2><a id="Pakistan" name="Pakistan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pakistan</span></h3> <ul> <li>An assessment of damaged buildings in <!--del_lnk--> Muzaffarabad and the surrounding area, by the Earthquake Engineering Centre of the University of Engineering and Technology, <!--del_lnk--> Peshawar, showed that about 60% of the buildings in urban areas were <i>unreinforced</i> solid concrete block masonry buildings and it was the collapse of more than 60% of these buildings that was responsible for the majority of deaths and injuries. <li>Pakistani television reports widespread severe damage to <!--del_lnk--> Balakot (almost completely wiped out), <!--del_lnk--> Garhi Habibullah, <!--del_lnk--> Rawalakot, and <!--del_lnk--> Muzaffarabad (near the epicenter) where 30,000 are thought to have died. The Pakistani Army spokesman, <!--del_lnk--> Major General Shaukat Sultan, told a press conference on 10 October that reports of damage in Rawalakot were exaggerated; 90 percent of the garrison city is still standing.<li>The quake triggered landslides, burying entire villages and roads in many areas of <!--del_lnk--> North-West Frontier Province and Pakistan-administered Kashmir.<li>Hundreds of thousands of buildings are thought to have collapsed or sustained severe damage.<li>One of two residential towers (Margalla Towers in F-10 sector, Islamabad), believed to contain up to sixty apartments each, collapsed in the earthquake in Islamabad. Pakistani government officials at the site stated the number of people affected by the collapse was in the hundreds, most of whom are feared dead. Efforts by rescue workers are ongoing. Over fifty-two people were rescued from the collapsed residential "Margalla Towers".<li>A team from the <!--del_lnk--> International Rescue Corps at the site said they located three more victims on the Sunday morning using audio detection equipment after the difficult task of arranging total silence at the crowded rescue site. <li>The <!--del_lnk--> Karakoram highway is blocked at several points, hindering relief efforts.<li>Damage to buildings and several casualties have been reported in surrounding provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Punjab and <!--del_lnk--> Balochistan.</ul><a id="India" name="India"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">India</span></h3> <ul> <li>1,500 houses were destroyed in <!--del_lnk--> Uri. About 90% of the families living in the town, which has a population of 30,000, were affected by the quake. *More than 1,100 houses were flattened in Jammu and Kashmir. The main <!--del_lnk--> minaret of the <!--del_lnk--> Hazratbal shrine, which houses a <!--del_lnk--> relic of the <a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" title="Prophet Muhammad">Prophet Muhammad</a> was damaged. <li>The 200-year-old Moti Mahal <!--del_lnk--> fort in <!--del_lnk--> Poonch district, Kashmir, collapsed. <li>Buildings in Delhi and <!--del_lnk--> Amritsar were damaged, and tremors caused panic in <!--del_lnk--> Gujarat.<li>The tremors were also felt in <!--del_lnk--> Uttar Pradesh, <!--del_lnk--> Uttaranchal, <!--del_lnk--> Himachal Pradesh, <!--del_lnk--> Rajasthan, and <!--del_lnk--> Madhya Pradesh.<li>There were over 1300 dead.</ul><a id="Afghanistan" name="Afghanistan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Afghanistan</span></h3> <p>Four deaths were reported in Afghanistan, including a young girl who died in Jalalabad after a wall collapsed on her. The quake was felt in <!--del_lnk--> Kabul, but the effects were minimal to a certain extent.<a id="Rescue_and_relief_operations" name="Rescue_and_relief_operations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Rescue and relief operations</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:322px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16027.jpg.htm" title="Humanitarian aid reaches the devastated far flung areas of Northern Pakistan"><img alt="Humanitarian aid reaches the devastated far flung areas of Northern Pakistan" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kashmir2005_aid.jpg" src="../../images/160/16027.jpg" width="320" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16027.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Humanitarian aid reaches the devastated far flung areas of Northern Pakistan</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:322px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16028.jpg.htm" title="Pakistani Soldiers carry tents away from a U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter here October 19. The United States is taking part in the multinational effort to provide humanitarian assistance and support to Pakistan and Afghanistan following the devastating October 8 earthquake."><img alt="Pakistani Soldiers carry tents away from a U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter here October 19. The United States is taking part in the multinational effort to provide humanitarian assistance and support to Pakistan and Afghanistan following the devastating October 8 earthquake." height="212" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pakistan_aid.jpg" src="../../images/160/16028.jpg" width="320" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16028.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Pakistani Soldiers carry tents away from a U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter here October 19. The United States is taking part in the multinational effort to provide humanitarian assistance and support to Pakistan and Afghanistan following the devastating October 8 earthquake.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:322px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16029.jpg.htm" title="Heavy snowfall in the region around the epicenter, shown here in a January 6, 2006 NASA satellite image, has hampered relief efforts since beginning shortly after the earthquake struck."><img alt="Heavy snowfall in the region around the epicenter, shown here in a January 6, 2006 NASA satellite image, has hampered relief efforts since beginning shortly after the earthquake struck." height="320" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pakistan_earthquake_satellite.jpg" src="../../images/160/16029.jpg" width="320" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16029.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Heavy snowfall in the region around the epicenter, shown here in a January 6, 2006 NASA satellite image, has hampered relief efforts since beginning shortly after the earthquake struck.</div> </div> </div> <p>Relief efforts in many remote villages are hampered, as roads are buried in rubble and many affected areas remain inaccessible. Heavy equipment is needed to clear the roads and to rescue survivors buried under the earthquake wreckage, as many rescuers are still picking the rubble with <!--del_lnk--> pickaxes and their bare hands, looking for survivors.<p>Rescue effort are also affected by the numerous <!--del_lnk--> aftershocks that continue to rattle the region and put rescue workers in danger as they search through the wreckage for survivors. Five crossing points are to be opened on the <!--del_lnk--> Line of Control (LoC) between <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> in the province of <a href="../../wp/k/Kashmir_region.htm" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>. The first has been opened at Chakan Da Bagh in Poonch, the second at Kaman Post in Uri (on the road between <!--del_lnk--> Srinagar and <!--del_lnk--> Muzaffarabad) and the third across the Neelum river between Chiliana in Pakistan and Tithwal in India. These will facilitate the flow of relief goods and allow people to meet relatives across the <!--del_lnk--> Line of Control.<p>In many areas there is no power, or adequate food or water; there is also the danger of disease spreading , including <a href="../../wp/m/Measles.htm" title="Measles">measles</a>. Distributing relief supplies to the victims is especially urgent as the victims face the risk of exposure to cold weather due to the region's high <!--del_lnk--> altitude and the approaching <a href="../../wp/w/Winter.htm" title="Winter">winter</a>. Food, medicine supplies, tents and blankets have been identified by relief workers as essential items. On <!--del_lnk--> October 10, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> warned that the earthquake left 2.5 million people homeless and they are in need of shelter. The UN made an appeal to raise US$272 million to help victims.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 13, <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a> started to fall on the Indian side of Kashmir. Many regions are facing an increasing threat of being cut off from help as snow forces closures of even more roads in the mountainous region. <a id="Pakistan_2" name="Pakistan_2"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pakistan</span></h3> <p>In Northern Pakistan and Pakistan-administered Kashmir, the Pakistan Army has been directed to ask the concerned authorities to carry out an immediate assessment of the extent of damage caused by it. The Government of Pakistan opened President's Relief Fund for Earthquake relief operation, where donations can be made and also appealed for International Aid as the magnitude of the disaster becomes clear. Earthquake relief blankets, tents, medicine, warm clothes, food and many more supplies are needed. Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) has offered free delivery of goods from anywhere in the world to Pakistan. Turkey has offered to airlift relief goods that arrive in Turkey to Pakistan free of cost. Pakistani Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Shaukat Aziz spoke on the telephone with authorities in four provinces plus Azad Kashmir, and directed them to utilize all machinery and make all possible efforts to help the victims. He said the entire federal administration, civil and military authorities have been alerted, and relief goods have been provided to them for the victims of the quake. Most of the roads are closed in the Northern Sector near the earthquake, and some have been completely washed out or blocked by landslides, so the Pakistani army is flying supplies in by helicopter. In Garhi Habibullah, a town 205 miles (328 km) from the devastated city of Balakot in north-west Pakistan, a few Kashmiri fighters known as the mujahideen put aside their weapons and spent two days in helping rescue dozens of girls who were trapped in a collapsed building of a girls' school. However, some terrorist groups operating in Kashmir continued to attack and kill Kashmiris in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir to prove that despite reports by India that claimed that terrorist training camps in Pakistan were destroyed, the militant network was still alive. On October 10, Monday, survivors were still being found and rescued from the wreckage including a 2-year-old girl in Islamabad. Then on Wednesday, a Russian rescue team rescued a 5-year-old girl in Muzaffarabad who has been trapped for nearly 100 hours. On October 14 the Pakistan government agreed that unaccompanied children from the disaster should be taken to the SOS Children emergency shelter in Islamabad for family tracing in a central database and help and created a credit programme for affected families. They also agreed that SOS should be temporary guardian until relatives were traced. The Pakistani people from all regions and walks of life donated a huge amount of relief supplies in both goods and money for the earthquake victims which is unprecedented in the history of nations. The magnitude of this disaster is so vast that the Government alone cannot provide relief to the people affected by this earthquake. The response of the people of Pakistan to help the government in its relief efforts has been overwhelming in the shape of donations, relief goods and volunteers working in the hospitals and the earthquake hit areas. The injured are being ferried from remote areas to the hospitals of Rawalpindi and Islamabad through helicopters every day. The relatives of these injured patients follow them to the twin-cities by road and pursue a long and painful search for their loved ones. Devastated with heavy losses of human lives and homes, these poor people often travel on foot from one hospital to another looking for their injured loved ones. Three surgeons from Harley Street went out for a week to help with the victims of the earthquake and set up a field hospital in the town of Bagh.<p>In late 2006, a staggering $20 billion development scheme was mooted by Pakistan for reconstruction and rehabilitation of the earth-quake hit zones in Azad Kashmir. <!--del_lnk--> A land use plan for <!--del_lnk--> Muzaffarabad city had been prepared by <!--del_lnk--> Japan International Cooperation Agency.<a id="India_2" name="India_2"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">India</span></h3> <ul> <li>In the Indian-administered <!--del_lnk--> Jammu and Kashmir, the injured are being treated at <!--del_lnk--> Srinagar's <!--del_lnk--> SMHS hospital and the <!--del_lnk--> Uri <!--del_lnk--> Field Hospital, with many <!--del_lnk--> makeshift medical facilities being set up to help the injured. Hundreds of people have been brought in, many of them critically injured. In keeping with a traditional duty since independence, the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Army has undertaken a key role in coordinating and running relief operations.</ul> <ul> <li>Indian Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Manmohan Singh, and Leader of the Opposition <!--del_lnk--> L.K. Advani visited quake-hit areas An <!--del_lnk--> ex gratia of <!--del_lnk--> Rs one <!--del_lnk--> lakh (100,000 <!--del_lnk--> Indian rupees, about US$2255) to the next of kin of those killed in the quake was being released from <!--del_lnk--> the Prime Minister's National Relief Fund.</ul> <ul> <li>As of <!--del_lnk--> 10 October 2005, many areas in the <!--del_lnk--> Baramulla district with about 15,000 people remain inaccessible. The army is attempting to reach these people using helicopters</ul><a id="International_response" name="International_response"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">International response</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Many countries, international organizations and non-governmental organizations have offered relief aid to the region, in the form of donation as well as relief supplies including food, medical supplies, tents and blankets.<p>Rescue and relief workers were sent to the region from different parts of the world and they brought along rescue equipment, including <!--del_lnk--> helicopters and <!--del_lnk--> rescue dogs.<p>The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> has appealed for donations to raise at least US$272 million to help victims of the quake.<a id="Notes" name="Notes"></a></div> </div> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 22870 bytes Post-expand include size: 8219 bytes Template argument size: 6174 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:8037082-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061127205939 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Pakistan_earthquake"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['SOS Children in Kashmir', 'Pakistan', 'India', 'Afghanistan', 'Earthquake', 'Kashmir', 'United Nations', 'India', 'Pakistan', '2004 Indian Ocean earthquake', 'Afghanistan', 'India', 'Karachi', 'Pakistan', 'Kashmir', 'India', 'Kashmir', 'Afghanistan', 'Prophet Muhammad', 'India', 'Pakistan', 'Kashmir', 'Measles', 'Winter', 'United Nations', 'Snow', 'United Nations']
2005_Lake_Tanganyika_earthquake	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake,2005,African Great Lakes,Angola,BBC News,Burundi,Burundian Civil War,CNN,December 5,December 6,Democratic Republic of the Congo" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2005_Lake_Tanganyika_earthquake"; var wgTitle = "2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake"; var wgArticleId = 3330614; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2005_Lake_Tanganyika_earthquake"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Natural_Disasters.htm">Natural Disasters</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:148px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16030.jpg.htm" title="Location of earthquake"><img alt="Location of earthquake" height="146" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2005_Lake_Tanganyika_earthquake.jpg" src="../../images/160/16030.jpg" width="146" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Location of earthquake</div> </div> </div> <p>An <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> along the <a href="../../wp/e/East_Africa.htm" title="East Africa">East African</a> <i><a href="../../wp/g/Great_Rift_Valley.htm" title="Great Rift Valley">Great Rift Valley</a></i> faultline struck at 12:19:55 (<!--del_lnk--> UTC) (14:19:55 local time at the <!--del_lnk--> epicentre) on <!--del_lnk--> 5 December <!--del_lnk--> 2005 approximately 10 km (6 miles) below the surface of <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Tanganyika.htm" title="Lake Tanganyika">Lake Tanganyika</a>. Its <!--del_lnk--> estimated magnitude was between 6.3 and 6.8.<p>Early reports indicated that the heaviest damage was sustained by the eastern provinces of the <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> (DRC), a region already ravaged by extensive war and extreme poverty. The area houses tens of thousands of <!--del_lnk--> refugees displaced by conflicts, such as the <a href="../../wp/s/Second_Congo_War.htm" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Burundian Civil War, that have plagued the <a href="../../wp/a/African_Great_Lakes.htm" title="African Great Lakes">African Great Lakes</a> for the last decade.<p>Two deaths have been reported so far. Dozens of houses collapsed in the DRC city of <!--del_lnk--> Kalemie. <!--del_lnk--> Michel Bonnardeaux, a <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">UN</a> spokesman, said that most of the casualties were caused by falling <a href="../../wp/z/Zinc.htm" title="Zinc">zinc</a> or <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> roofs.<p>Although earthquakes with magnitudes in the 6-7 range are not normally associated with massive damage, in East Africa such seismic events can wreak havoc. The quake was centred roughly below Lake Tanganyika and — in addition to the DRC, where the most widespread damage has been reported — it was felt in <a href="../../wp/b/Burundi.htm" title="Burundi">Burundi</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Rwanda.htm" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>, and as far away as the coastal city of <!--del_lnk--> Mombasa in <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>.<p>The tremor was felt in places as far as <!--del_lnk--> Luanda, <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a>, where it was felt for around 20 seconds, enough to send people running in panic in search of a shelter. No damage was reported there.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Lake_Tanganyika_earthquake"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Earthquake', 'East Africa', 'Great Rift Valley', 'Lake Tanganyika', 'Democratic Republic of the Congo', 'Second Congo War', 'African Great Lakes', 'United Nations', 'Zinc', 'Steel', 'Burundi', 'Tanzania', 'Rwanda', 'Kenya', 'Angola']
2005_Sumatra_earthquake	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2005 Sumatra earthquake,2005 Sumatran earthquake,1833,1861,2004 Indian Ocean earthquake,2005,AUD,April 2,Australia,Australian Defence Force,Banda Aceh" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2005 Sumatra earthquake</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2005_Sumatra_earthquake"; var wgTitle = "2005 Sumatra earthquake"; var wgArticleId = 1660314; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2005_Sumatra_earthquake"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2005 Sumatra earthquake</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Natural_Disasters.htm">Natural Disasters</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16032.jpg.htm" title="Epicentre map from NOAA"><img alt="Epicentre map from NOAA" height="350" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tsumap.jpg" src="../../images/160/16032.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16032.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Epicentre map from <!--del_lnk--> NOAA</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16033.jpg.htm" title="USGS image depicting earthquake zones for the Sunda Trench - Damage zones for 1833 and 1861, then 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, and 28 March 2005 Sumatran earthquake."><img alt="USGS image depicting earthquake zones for the Sunda Trench - Damage zones for 1833 and 1861, then 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, and 28 March 2005 Sumatran earthquake." height="211" longdesc="/wiki/Image:USGS_Sunda_Trench.JPG" src="../../images/160/16033.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16033.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> USGS image depicting earthquake zones for the <!--del_lnk--> Sunda Trench - Damage zones for <!--del_lnk--> 1833 and <!--del_lnk--> 1861, then <!--del_lnk--> 26 December <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake.htm" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> 28 March <!--del_lnk--> 2005 Sumatran earthquake.</div> </div> </div> <p>The <b>2005 Sumatra earthquake</b> was a major earthquake on <!--del_lnk--> March 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, located off the west coast of northern <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. Approximately 1300 people were killed by the earthquake, mostly on the island of <!--del_lnk--> Nias. The event caused panic in the region, which had recently been devastated by the massive <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> triggered by the <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake.htm" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a>, but this earthquake generated a relatively tiny tsunami that caused limited damage.<p>The earthquake occurred at 16:09:36 <!--del_lnk--> UTC (11:09:36 P.M. local time) on <!--del_lnk--> March 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. The <!--del_lnk--> hypocenter was located at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">2°04′35″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">97°00′58″E</span></span>, 30 km (18.6 miles) below the surface of the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, where <!--del_lnk--> subduction is forcing the <!--del_lnk--> Indo-Australian Plate to the south-west under the <!--del_lnk--> Eurasian plate Sunda edge. The area is 200 km west of <!--del_lnk--> Sibolga, <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, or 1400 km northwest of <a href="../../wp/j/Jakarta.htm" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>, roughly halfway between the islands of <!--del_lnk--> Nias and <!--del_lnk--> Simeulue. Seismic recordings give the <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> a <!--del_lnk--> magnitude of about 8.7, and effects were felt as far away as <a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, a distance of 1000 km <!--del_lnk--> .<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Earthquake_and_damage" name="Earthquake_and_damage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Earthquake and damage</span></h2> <p>The earthquake lasted for about two minutes in total. In the twenty-four hours immediately after the event, there were eight major aftershocks, measuring between 5.5 and 6.0. A debate arose among seismologists over whether this should be considered an aftershock of the December 2004 event, or a "triggered earthquake" as it was larger than typical aftershocks but on the same fault.<p>On the Indonesian island of <!--del_lnk--> Nias, off the coast of Sumatra, hundreds of buildings were destroyed by the earthquake. The death toll on Nias was at least one thousand, with 220 dying in <!--del_lnk--> Gunungsitoli, the island's largest town. Nearly half of Gunungsitoli's population (27,000) fled the town. The control tower at the nearby airport (<!--del_lnk--> Banaka) collapsed, forcing relief flights to operate out of <!--del_lnk--> Sibolga on nearby Sumatra.<p>The earthquake was strongly felt across the island of <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, and caused widespread <!--del_lnk--> power outages in the Indonesian city of <!--del_lnk--> Banda Aceh, already devastated by the December 2004 tsunami, and prompted thousands to flee their homes and seek higher ground <!--del_lnk--> . It was also strongly felt along the west coast of Thailand and Malaysia, and in <a href="../../wp/k/Kuala_Lumpur.htm" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a> high-rise buildings were evacuated. The earthquake was felt less strongly in the <a href="../../wp/m/Maldives.htm" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>.<p><a id="Tsunami" name="Tsunami"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tsunami</span></h2> <p>The earthquake caused great concern around the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> that it might trigger a tsunami similar to the massive one generated three months earlier by the <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake.htm" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a> on December 26, 2004. Evacuations were carried out in coastal regions of <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>. This earthquake, however, produced a relatively tiny tsunami. A three-meter tsunami caused moderate damage to port and airport facilities on <!--del_lnk--> Simeulue, and a two-meter tsunami was recorded on the west coast of Nias. Much smaller waves, most detectable only in <!--del_lnk--> tide gauge recording systems, were recorded across the Indian Ocean; for example, a 25 <!--del_lnk--> cm wave was recorded at <!--del_lnk--> Colombo, Sri Lanka.<p><a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> warnings were issued by the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre, operated by the US <!--del_lnk--> National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) <!--del_lnk--> , and by the government of <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>. There were initial concerns that a major tsunami could be generated, particularly travelling south from the event's hypocenter.<p>Portions of Thailand's southern coast were evacuated as a precaution, and NOAA advised an evacuation of 600 miles of coastline in Sumatra. Evacuations also occurred in the northern <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysian</a> states of <!--del_lnk--> Penang and <!--del_lnk--> Kedah, as well as the eastern coast of <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, where ten people were killed in the confusion of the evacuation. Many of the southern states of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> were also put on high alert; all of these areas had seen significant damage from December's tsunami. After the detection of a minor tsunami south of the epicenter, including a 30 cm tsunami on Australia's <!--del_lnk--> Cocos Islands, the island states of <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> in the Indian Ocean issued warnings to their populations.<p>Although tsunami warning systems for the region had been actively discussed since the December 2004 earthquake, none had yet been implemented in the Indian Ocean.<p><a id="Humanitarian_response" name="Humanitarian_response"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Humanitarian response</span></h2> <p>The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> worked with the Indonesian government to take further actions to prevent a possible catastrophe after the strong earthquake, and the US <!--del_lnk--> State Department has announced that it will help countries affected by a possible tsunami. The government of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> announced aid of <!--del_lnk--> USD 2 million for the earthquake victims <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> announced it would provide <!--del_lnk--> AUD 1 million in emergency aid, and, at the request of the <!--del_lnk--> Indonesian Government, dispatched <!--del_lnk--> Australian Defence Force medical teams and equipment to Nias. The Australian naval ship <!--del_lnk--> HMAS Kanimbla <!--del_lnk--> , having only recently left Aceh, was redeployed to the region from <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. At about 9:30 (UTC) <!--del_lnk--> 2 April 2005, one of Kanimbla's two Sea King helicopters, <!--del_lnk--> Shark 02, crashed on the island of Nias while taking medical personnel to a village. Nine personnel were killed, and two others sustained injuries but were rescued from the site by the other helicopter. The crash occurred one day before a <!--del_lnk--> state visit by <!--del_lnk--> President of Indonesia <!--del_lnk--> Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono to Australia, where he and <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Australia <a href="../../wp/j/John_Howard.htm" title="John Howard">John Howard</a> expressed mutual sorrow for their countries' losses.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Sumatra_earthquake"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['2004 Indian Ocean earthquake', 'Sumatra', 'Indonesia', 'Tsunami', '2004 Indian Ocean earthquake', 'Indian Ocean', 'Sumatra', 'Jakarta', 'Earthquake', 'Bangkok', 'Thailand', 'Sumatra', 'Kuala Lumpur', 'Maldives', 'India', 'Sri Lanka', 'Indian Ocean', '2004 Indian Ocean earthquake', 'Thailand', 'Malaysia', 'Sri Lanka', 'Tsunami', 'Thailand', 'Malaysia', 'Sri Lanka', 'India', 'Mauritius', 'Madagascar', 'Seychelles', 'United Nations', 'India', 'Australia', 'Singapore', 'John Howard']
2006_Autumn_Newsletter_Focus_On_Bethlehem	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>Autumn 2006 Charity Newsletter: Focus On Bethlehem</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" /> <meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." /> <meta name="robots" content="all" /> <meta name="keywords" content="children charity" /> <meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" /> </head> <body> <div id="container"> <div id="header"> <div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div> <div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div> <div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">SOS News</a> > <strong>Autumn 2006 Newsletter: Focus On Bethlehem</strong></div> <div id="col"> <div id="nav"> <span class="boxtop"></span> <ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm" id="selected">Charity News</a> <ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/b/By_Topic.htm">News by Topic</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Archive.htm">News Archive</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul> <span class="boxbot"></span> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <h2>Change a child's life today, forever ...</h2><p><strong>24/08/2006</strong></p> <p><strong>Bethlehem</strong></p><p>With a population of over three million, the Palestinian Territories have been devastated by years of conflict - and children are often the hardest hit. Unemployment runs at 57%, and 75% of people live on less than £1.30 a day. 53% of the population are under 16. The social and economic problems which will confront future generations are potentially devastating. The situation has already affected many Palestinian children through increased rates of divorce, poverty, disease, and the overall lack of care.</p><img src="../../wp/1/10174_Bethelehem11.jpg" width="500" height="333" alt="SOS mother and her children" class="left" /><p>SOS Children began working in the West Bank in the Palestinian Territories in 1966 and just two years later children were welcomed to the first SOS Children’s Village and its SOS Nursery, which now has 70 little pupils. After much negotiation the second SOS Children’s Village in Rafah in the Gaza Strip was opened in 2001, together with an SOS School and Nursery. Since 2002, SOS Children has been supporting health projects in the Gaza Strip by running a small neighbourhood medical centre.</p><p>SOS Children's Village Bethlehem is situated near the historical Shepherd's Field and cares for 100 orphaned and abandoned children in ten family houses . SOS Aunts support the SOS Mothers on a day-to-day basis. The village is already full to capacity, so two additional houses will be added to the village within the next two years. With the number of children in need of our support increasing we have also extended the SOS School and are opening another youth house for boys. Children living with their SOS families enjoy activities such as dancing and karate lessons, leadership conferences, and sports and summer camps.</p><img src="../../wp/2/2319_Bethlehem3.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="Sisters supported by SOS Children in the Palestinian Territories" class="right" /><p>The SOS Children’s Village also offers psychological support to local children. Two permanent psycho-social relief service centres, located in Hebron and Nablus now operate alongside the previously established mobile psycho-social centre. The mobile centre visited Ramallah, Nablus, Jenin, and Tulkarem in 2005 and supported over 4,000 people. The permanent centres received over 2,800 people.</p><img src="../../wp/1/10175_Bethlehem.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="A new family with SOS Children" class="left" /><p>SOS Children's Family Strengthening Programme helps prevent child abandonment. We support over 200 families in Bethlehem by providing essential services for children and their guardians. Such support includes paying school fees and offering skills training to guardians. We also help families become self sufficient through income generating schemes.</p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Autumn_2006_Newsletter_Contents.htm">Back to Autumn 2006 Newsletter Contents</a>.</p> </div> <table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;"> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="clearboth"></div> </div> <div id="footer"> <span id="botright"></span> <p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> \| <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> \| 01223 365589 \| <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p> <p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p> <p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p> </div> </div> </body> </html>	["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.']
2006_Christmas_Cards	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>2006 Charity Christmas cards</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" /> <meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." /> <meta name="robots" content="all" /> <meta name="keywords" content="children charity" /> <meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" /> </head> <body> <div id="container"> <div id="header"> <div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div> <div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div> <div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">SOS News</a> > <strong>2006 Christmas cards</strong></div> <div id="col"> <div id="nav"> <span class="boxtop"></span> <ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm" id="selected">Charity News</a> <ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/b/By_Topic.htm">News by Topic</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Archive.htm">News Archive</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul> <span class="boxbot"></span> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <h2>2006 Charity Christmas cards for SOS Children</h2><p><strong>01/10/2006</strong></p> <p>Here are the designs we have chosen for our Christmas cards this year. As always, a high proportion of the price of these cards is a direct donation to our charity. </p><p>If you would like to place an order for any of our Christmas cards you can:<br /><ul><li><p>email <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a></p></li><li><p>call us on 01223 365589</p></li><li><p>place your order online at http://www.christmas-cards.org.uk/sos/</p></li></ul><h3>Postage</h3> <p>Postage for one pack of cards costs £1.50, two to four packs £2.50, five to seven packs £5.50, eight to 10 packs £6.50, and for more than 10 packs, postage is free. The maximum time for delivery is 21 days.</p><h3>Skating Bears</h3> <img src="../../wp/s/Skating_Bears1.jpg" width="600" height="404" alt="Skating Bears - SOS Children charity Christmas card" class="centre" /><p>Pack of 10 cards, 168 x 113 mm, £4.99. The message inside says "With best wishes for Christmas and the New Year".</p><h3>Starry Night</h3> <img src="../../wp/s/Starry_Night1.jpg" width="599" height="650" alt="SOS Children charity Christmas card - Starry Night" class="centre" /><p>Pack of 10 cards, 112 x 118 mm, £3.99. The message inside reads "Season's Greetings".</p><h3>Sprouts</h3> <img src="../../wp/s/Sprouts.jpg" width="559" height="515" alt="SOS Children charity Christmas card" class="centre" /><p>A pack of 10 cards, 113 x 119 mm, £3.99. The message inside says "Season's Greetings".</p><h3>On Christmas Day</h3> <img src="../../wp/o/On_Christmas_Day.jpg" width="377" height="283" alt="On Christmas Day - charity Christmas card" class="centre" /><p>Pack of 8 cards, 127 x 93 mm, £2.99. The message inside says "With best wishes for Christmas and the New Year".</p><h3>Snowdrop</h3> <img src="../../wp/s/Snowdrop1.jpg" width="386" height="600" alt="SOS Children charity Christmas card - snowdrop" class="centre" /><p>Pack of 8 cards, 93 x 126 mm, £2.99. The message inside says "Season's Greetings".</p><h3>Travelling Musicians</h3> <img src="../../wp/t/Travelling_Musicians.jpg" width="650" height="495" alt="Travelling Musicians - SOS Children charity Christmas card" class="centre" /><p>Pack of 10 cards, 185 x 139 mm, £4.99. The message inside reads "With best wishes for Christmas and the New Year".</p> </div> <table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;"> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="clearboth"></div> </div> <div id="footer"> <span id="botright"></span> <p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> \| <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> \| 01223 365589 \| <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p> <p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p> <p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p> </div> </div> </body> </html>	["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.']
2007_01_08_Winter_News_A_Year_Of_Charity_Fundraisi	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>Winter 2006/2007 Newsletter: A Year of Charity fundraising</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" /> <meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." /> <meta name="robots" content="all" /> <meta name="keywords" content="children charity" /> <meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" /> </head> <body> <div id="container"> <div id="header"> <div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div> <div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div> <div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">SOS News</a> > <strong>Winter 2006/2007 Newsletter: A Year of Charity fundraising</strong></div> <div id="col"> <div id="nav"> <span class="boxtop"></span> <ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm" id="selected">Charity News</a> <ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/b/By_Topic.htm">News by Topic</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Archive.htm">News Archive</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul> <span class="boxbot"></span> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <h2>2006 - A Year of Charity fundraising</h2><p><strong>08/01/2007</strong></p> <p>Supporters who have raised money for SOS Children throughout 2006 for a variety of projects, some of which we highlight here:</p><img src="../../wp/r/Rosanna_Yeung_skydive1.jpg" width="200" height="137" alt="skydive for Blantyre, Malawi" class="left" /><ul><li><p><strong>Rosanna Yeung</strong> raised over £2,000 For the SOS Children's Village Blantyre, Malawi from a tandem skydive. You can see Rosanna in action in the photograph.</p></li><li><p>A Fashion show at <strong>Guildford High School</strong> supported our ongoing work in The Gambia.</p></li><li><p><strong>Oldham Collage</strong> raised funds for a temporary shelter at Rawalpindi, Pakistan, following the earthquake in October 2005.</p></li></ul><img src="../../wp/c/CV_Zanzibar.jpg" width="358" height="187" alt="SOS Children's village Pemba, Mozambique" class="right" /><ul><li><p>Instead of gifts for their wedding, <strong>Emma McDonald and Alistair Thompson</strong> asked friends and family to support the SOS Children's Village Pemba, Mozambique. The resulting donations total over £3,000. What a great alternative!</p></li></ul><p>Don’t forget you can choose to support SOS Children in many ways - from birthday and wedding gifts, through to anniversary and retirement gifts. What about getting active in your fundraising? A new year and why not get healthy at the same time - marathons, half marathons and sponsored events. If you and friends, family and colleagues get together you could hold a raffle or a make collection at work. Endless ways to give hope to orphans. We have a <a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate and Help</a> section for more details that might suit you. If you would like some inspiration you can take a look at our <a href="../../wp/a/A_To_Z_Fundraising.htm">A to Z of Fundraising</a>.</p><p>To see how you can fundraise for projects in need of funding please contact Caroline on 01223 365589 or email <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a>.</p><h3>World Orphan Week</h3> <p>Thank you to everyone taking part in World Orphan Week - from 'Balloon Races' to 'Big Nights In' to a 'Walk for WOW'. You did a fantastic job!</p><p>As you can see from these picture essays, a great deal was done to raise awareness of Word Orphan Week through balloon races started in:<br /><ul><li><p><a href="../../wp/c/Cambridge_Wow_Balloon_Launch.htm">Cambridge</a></p></li><li><p><a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Newcastle_Balloon_Launch.htm">Newcastle</a></p></li><li><p><a href="../../wp/e/Ealing_Wow_Balloon_Launch.htm">Ealing</a></p></li><li><p><a href="../../wp/r/Reigate_Wow_Balloon_Launch.htm">Reigate</a></p></li></ul><p>Congratulations to all who took part in the Balloon Races for World Orphan Week and to Parkside College, Cambridge whose balloon travelled the furthest - all the way to Belgium! Thank you to everyone involved in World Orphan Week - more details can be seen on the <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Main.htm">World Orphan Week</a> pages. </p><p>To get involved and become one of our <a href="../../wp/v/Volunteering.htm">volunteers</a> you can contact Rebecca Cook on 01223 365589 or email <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a>.</p><p>Next page:<a href="../../wp/w/Winter_2006_2007_Newsletter_A_Childs_Life.htm">Change a child's Life Today</a>. </p><p>Back to the : <a href="../../wp/w/Winter_2006_2007_Newsletter_Contents.htm">contents page</a></p> </div> <table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;"> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="clearboth"></div> </div> <div id="footer"> <span id="botright"></span> <p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> \| <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> \| 01223 365589 \| <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p> <p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p> <p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p> </div> </div> </body> </html>	["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.']
20th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="20th century,10th century,10th century BC,11th century,11th century BC,12th century,12th century BC,13th century,13th century BC,14th century,14th century BC" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>20th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "20th_century"; var wgTitle = "20th century"; var wgArticleId = 34558; var wgCurRevisionId = 92769720; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-20th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">20th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> - <b>20th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1900s <!--del_lnk--> 1910s <!--del_lnk--> 1920s <!--del_lnk--> 1930s <!--del_lnk--> 1940s <!--del_lnk--> 1950s <!--del_lnk--> 1960s <!--del_lnk--> 1970s <!--del_lnk--> 1980s <!--del_lnk--> 1990s</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>20th century</b> began on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1901 and ended on <!--del_lnk--> December 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2000, according to the <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calendar. A common misunderstanding was that it started in <!--del_lnk--> 1900 and ended in <!--del_lnk--> 1999 even though popular culture reflected the correct numbering convention in such things such as the movie, <i>2001</i>, which dealt with the begining of the next century. Some historians consider the era from about <!--del_lnk--> 1914 to <!--del_lnk--> 1992 to be the <!--del_lnk--> Short Twentieth Century.<p>The twentieth century was a period of radical departure in the way almost every previous area of human activity. Accelerating scientific understanding, better communications, faster transportation transformed the world in those hundred years more than any time in the past. It was a century that started with steam powered ships as the most sophisticated means of transport, and ended with the <!--del_lnk--> space shuttle. Horses, and other pack animals, Western humanity's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years were replaced by <!--del_lnk--> automobiles within the span of a few decades.<p>The twentieth century saw a remarkable shift in the way that vast numbers of people lived, as a result of technological, medical, social, ideological, and political innovation. Arguably more technological advances occurred in any 10 year period following World War I than the sum total of new technological development in any previous <i>century</i>. Terms like <!--del_lnk--> ideology, <!--del_lnk--> world war, <!--del_lnk--> genocide, and <!--del_lnk--> nuclear war entered common usage and became an influence on the lives of everyday people. <a href="../../wp/w/War.htm" title="War">War</a> reached an unprecedented scale and level of sophistication; in the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">Second World War (1939-1945)</a> alone, approximately <!--del_lnk--> 57 million people died, mainly due to massive improvements in weaponry. The trends of mechanization of goods and services and networks of global communication, which were begun in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, continued at an ever-increasing pace in the 20th. In spite of the terror and chaos, the 20th century saw many attempts at world peace. Virtually every aspect of life in virtually every human society changed in some fundamental way or another during the twentieth century and for the first time, any individual could influence the course of history no matter their background. Arguably, the 20th century re-shaped the face of the planet in more ways than any previous century.<ul> <li><a href="../../wp/t/Technology.htm" title="Technology">Technology</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Death rates<li><!--del_lnk--> Infant mortality<li><!--del_lnk--> Infectious disease<li><!--del_lnk--> Life expectancy<li><!--del_lnk--> Maternal death rates<li><!--del_lnk--> Battles</ul> <p>Scientific discoveries such as <!--del_lnk--> relativity and <!--del_lnk--> quantum physics radically changed the worldview of scientists, causing them to realize that the universe was much more complex than they had previously believed, and dashing the hopes at the end of the preceding century that the last few details of knowledge were about to be filled in.<p>For a more coherent overview of the historical events of the century, see <!--del_lnk--> The 20th century in review.<p>The 20th century has sometimes been called, both within and outside the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> American Century, though this is a controversial term.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Important_developments.2C_events_and_achievements" name="Important_developments.2C_events_and_achievements"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Important developments, events and achievements</span></h2> <p><a id="Science_and_Technology" name="Science_and_Technology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Science and Technology</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/386.jpg.htm" title="Ford assembly line, 1913"><img alt="Ford assembly line, 1913" height="211" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AssemblyLine.jpeg" src="../../images/3/386.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/386.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ford assembly line, 1913</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>The <!--del_lnk--> assembly line and <!--del_lnk--> mass production of motor vehicles and other goods allowed manufacturers to produce more and cheaper products. This allowed the <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">automobile</a> to become the most important means of transportation.<li>The invention of <!--del_lnk--> fixed-wing aircraft and the <a href="../../wp/j/Jet_engine.htm" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a> allowed for the world to become "smaller." <!--del_lnk--> Space flight increased knowledge of the rest of the universe and allowed for global real-time communications via <!--del_lnk--> geosynchronous satellites.<li><a href="../../wp/m/Mass_media.htm" title="Mass media">Mass media</a> technologies such as <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" title="Radio">radio</a>, and <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> allow the communication of political messages and entertainment with unprecedented impact<li>Mass availability of the <a href="../../wp/t/Telephone.htm" title="Telephone">telephone</a> and later, the <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computer</a>, especially through the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a>, provides people with new opportunities for near-instantaneous communication<li>Applied <a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, notably in its miniaturized form as <a href="../../wp/i/Integrated_circuit.htm" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>, made possible the above mentioned rise of <a href="../../wp/m/Mass_media.htm" title="Mass media">mass media</a>, telecommunications, ubiquitous <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computing</a>, and all kinds of "intelligent" appliances; as well as many advances in natural sciences such as physics, by the use of <a href="../../wp/m/Moore%2527s_Law.htm" title="Moore's Law">exponentially growing</a> calculation power (see <!--del_lnk--> supercomputer).<li>The development of <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> fertilizer, <!--del_lnk--> insecticides and <!--del_lnk--> herbicides resulted in significantly higher agricultural yield. <!--del_lnk--> Chemical warfare is massively used in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<li>Advances in fundamental <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a> through the <!--del_lnk--> theory of relativity and <a href="../../wp/q/Quantum_mechanics.htm" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> led to the development of <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_weapon.htm" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> (known informally as "the Bomb" and dropped on the industrial town of <!--del_lnk--> Hiroshima and the historic town of <!--del_lnk--> Nagasaki), the <!--del_lnk--> nuclear reactor, the semiconductor and the <!--del_lnk--> laser. Quantum mechanics also led to the development of applied electronics, <!--del_lnk--> radiation therapy, and synthesis of many new chemicals, including antibiotics and plastics. <!--del_lnk--> Fusion power was studied extensively but remained an experimental technology at the end of the century.<li>Inventions such as the <!--del_lnk--> washing machine and <!--del_lnk--> air conditioning led to an increase in both the quantity and quality of <!--del_lnk--> leisure time for the <!--del_lnk--> middle class in <!--del_lnk--> developed countries.<li>Most influential inventions in the 20th century: <!--del_lnk--> antibiotics, <!--del_lnk--> oral contraceptives, new <!--del_lnk--> plastics, <!--del_lnk--> transistors, <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a><li><!--del_lnk--> More...</ul> <p><a id="Wars_and_politics" name="Wars_and_politics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wars and politics</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/147/14799.jpg.htm" title="Warfare in the early 20th Century (1914-1918)Clockwise from top: front line Trenches, a British Mark I Tank crossing a trench, the Royal Navy battleship HMS Irresistible sinking after striking a mine at the battle of the Dardanelles, a Vickers machine gun crew with gas masks and a Sopwith Camel biplane."><img alt="Warfare in the early 20th Century (1914-1918)Clockwise from top: front line Trenches, a British Mark I Tank crossing a trench, the Royal Navy battleship HMS Irresistible sinking after striking a mine at the battle of the Dardanelles, a Vickers machine gun crew with gas masks and a Sopwith Camel biplane." height="410" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WW1_TitlePicture_For_Wikipedia_Article.jpg" src="../../images/147/14799.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/147/14799.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Warfare in the early 20th Century (1914-1918)</b><br /><i>Clockwise from top:</i> <!--del_lnk--> front line <a href="../../wp/t/Trench_warfare.htm" title="Trench warfare">Trenches</a>, a <!--del_lnk--> British <!--del_lnk--> Mark I Tank crossing a trench, the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> <!--del_lnk--> battleship <!--del_lnk--> HMS Irresistible sinking after striking a <!--del_lnk--> mine at the <!--del_lnk--> battle of the Dardanelles, a <!--del_lnk--> Vickers machine gun crew with <!--del_lnk--> gas masks and a <!--del_lnk--> Sopwith Camel <!--del_lnk--> biplane.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>After decades of fight of the <!--del_lnk--> Women's suffrage movement, the right to vote for women is introduced in all western countries.<li>In the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish-American War Spain loses its last colonies. The USA occupy <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> and the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and wins the <!--del_lnk--> Philippine-American War against the independence movement.<li>Rising <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> and increasing national awareness were among the causes of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the first of two wars to involve all the major world powers including <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations. World War I led to the creation of many new countries, especially in <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Europe. Ironically, it was said by many to be the 'War to end all Wars'.<li>The economic and political aftermath of World War I and the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression led to the rise of <a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" title="Fascism">Fascism</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> in Europe, and shortly to <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. This war also involved Asia and the Pacific, in the form of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> aggression against <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> and the United States. Among soldiers, civilians also suffered greatly in World War II -- from the bombing of cities on both sides, and in the German <!--del_lnk--> genocide of the <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jews</a> and others, known as <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. In 1945 the <!--del_lnk--> Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki take place.<li>A violent <!--del_lnk--> war broke up in <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1936 when General <!--del_lnk--> Francisco Franco rebelled against the <!--del_lnk--> Second Spanish Republic. Almost 1,000,000 people died. Many consider this war as a testing battleground for WWII as the Nazi armies bombed some Spanish territories.<li>During <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, in <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> the Bolshevik putsch took over the <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_Revolution_of_1917.htm" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution of 1917</a>, precipitating the rise of <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communism</a>. After the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>'s involvement in World War II, Communism became a major force in global politics, spreading all over the world: notably, to Eastern <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Indochina and <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. This led to the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and <!--del_lnk--> proxy wars with <!--del_lnk--> the West, including wars in <!--del_lnk--> Korea (<!--del_lnk--> 1950-<!--del_lnk--> 1953) and <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1957-<!--del_lnk--> 1975).<li>The <!--del_lnk--> civil rights movement in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> and the movement against <!--del_lnk--> Apartheid in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> challenge successfully <!--del_lnk--> segregationist practices.<li>The "fall of Communism" in the late <!--del_lnk--> 1980s freed Eastern and Central Europe from Soviet supremacy. It also led to the dissolution of the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslavia into <!--del_lnk--> successor states, many rife with <!--del_lnk--> ethnic nationalism, and left the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> as the world's <!--del_lnk--> superpower.<li>Through the <a href="../../wp/l/League_of_Nations.htm" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and, after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, international cooperation increased. Other efforts included the formation of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, leading to a common currency in much of <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe, the <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">euro</a> around the turn of the millennium.<li>The end of <!--del_lnk--> colonialism led to the independence of many <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asian</a> countries. During the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, many of these aligned with the USA, the USSR, or China for defense.<li>The creation of <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>, a <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> state in a mostly <!--del_lnk--> Arab region of the world, fueled many conflicts in the region, which were also influenced by the vast <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> fields in many of the <!--del_lnk--> Arab countries.</ul> <p><a id="Culture_and_entertainment" name="Culture_and_entertainment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Culture and entertainment</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/387.jpg.htm" title=""Film" refers to the celluloid media on which motion pictures reside"><img alt=""Film" refers to the celluloid media on which motion pictures reside" height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Film_reel_and_film.jpg" src="../../images/3/387.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/387.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "<a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">Film</a>" refers to the celluloid media on which motion pictures reside</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>As the century begins, <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> is the artistic capital of the world, where both French and foreign writers, composers and visual artists gather. By the end of the century, the focal point of global culture had moved to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, especially <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles.<li><a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">Movies</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" title="Music">music</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Mass_media.htm" title="Mass media">media</a> had a major influence on <a href="../../wp/f/Fashion.htm" title="Fashion">fashion</a> and trends in all aspects of life. As many movies and music originate from the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, American culture spread rapidly over the world.<li>After gaining political rights in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and much of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> in the first part of the century, and with the advent of new <a href="../../wp/b/Birth_control.htm" title="Birth control">birth control</a> techniques women became more independent throughout the century.<li><!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll and <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">Jazz</a> styles of music are developed in the United States, and quickly become the dominant forms of popular music in America, and later, the world.<li>Modern art developed new styles such as <a href="../../wp/e/Expressionism.htm" title="Expressionism">expressionism</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cubism.htm" title="Cubism">cubism</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> surrealism.<li>The <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">automobile</a> provided vastly increased transportation capabilities for the average member of Western societies in the early to mid-century, spreading even further later on. City design throughout most of the West became focused on transport via car. The car became a leading symbol of modern society, with styles of car suited to and symbolic of particular lifestyles.<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sport.htm" title="Sport">Sports</a> became an important part of society, becoming an activity not only for the privileged. Watching sports, later also on <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a>, became a popular activity.</ul> <p><a id="Disease_and_medicine" name="Disease_and_medicine"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Disease and medicine</span></h3> <p><a id="Medicine" name="Medicine"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Medicine</span></h4> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Antibiotics drastically reduced mortality from bacterial diseases and their <!--del_lnk--> prevalence.<li><!--del_lnk--> X-rays became powerful diagnostic tool for wide spectrum of diseases, from bone fractures to cancer. In <!--del_lnk--> 1960-s, <!--del_lnk--> Computerized tomography had been invented.<li>Another important diagnostic tool is <!--del_lnk--> sonography.<li>Development of <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin.htm" title="Vitamins">vitamins</a> virtually eliminated <a href="../../wp/s/Scurvy.htm" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a> and other vitamin-deficiency diseases.<li>New psychiatric drugs were developed. This includes <!--del_lnk--> antipsychotics which are efficient in treating <!--del_lnk--> hallucinations and <!--del_lnk--> delusions, and <!--del_lnk--> antidepressants for treating <!--del_lnk--> depression. However, some of these drugs have serious side effects, and they usually cannot heal a psychiatric disease, only treat it.<li>Role of <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco_smoking.htm" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smoking</a> in developing <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and other diseases had been proved in <!--del_lnk--> 1950-s (see <!--del_lnk--> British Doctors Study).<li>New methods for <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> treatment, namely <!--del_lnk--> chemotherapy, <!--del_lnk--> radiation therapy, and <!--del_lnk--> immunotherapy, were developed. As a result, in many cases cancer can be completely healed.<li>New methods for <!--del_lnk--> heart surgery were developed.<li><!--del_lnk--> Cocaine and <!--del_lnk--> heroin were found to be dangerous addictive drugs, and their wide usage had been outlawed.<li><!--del_lnk--> Contraceptive drugs were developed, which reduced <!--del_lnk--> overpopulation.</ul> <p><a id="Diseases" name="Diseases"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Diseases</span></h4> <ul> <li>An <!--del_lnk--> influenza pandemic, the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Flu, killed 25 million between <!--del_lnk--> 1918 and <!--del_lnk--> 1919<li><a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> killed millions of people. AIDS treatments remain inaccessible to people living with HIV/AIDS in <!--del_lnk--> developing countries, but even with the best available treatment, most patients eventually die from AIDS.<li>Due to increased <!--del_lnk--> life span, the prevalence of <!--del_lnk--> old age diseases, including <a href="../../wp/a/Alzheimer%2527s_disease.htm" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Parkinson's disease increased.</ul> <p><a id="Natural_resources_and_the_environment" name="Natural_resources_and_the_environment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table class="infobox sisterproject"> <tr> <td style="width:50px; height:67px;"> <div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="67" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Commons-logo.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="50" /></span></div> </td> <td style="padding-left:5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Wikimedia Commons has media related to: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><i><b><!--del_lnk--> 20th century</b></i></div> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1890s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1890</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1891</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1892</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1893</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1894</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1895</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1896</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1897</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1898</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1899</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1900s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 1900</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1901</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1902</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1903</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1904</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1905</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1906</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1907</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1908</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1909</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1910s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1910</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1911</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1912</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1913</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1914</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1915</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1916</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1917</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1918</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1919</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1920s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1920</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1921</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1922</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1923</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1924</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1925</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1926</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1927</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1928</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1929</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1930s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1930</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1931</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1932</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1933</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1934</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1935</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1936</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1937</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1938</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1939</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1940s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1940</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1941</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1942</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1943</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1944</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1945</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1946</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1947</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1948</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1949</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1950s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1950</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1951</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1952</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1953</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1954</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1955</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1956</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1957</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1958</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1959</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1960s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1960</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1961</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1962</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1963</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1964</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1965</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1966</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1967</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1968</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1969</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1970s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1970</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1971</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1972</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1973</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1974</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1975</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1976</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1977</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1978</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1979</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1980s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1981</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1982</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1983</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1984</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1985</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1986</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1987</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1988</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1989</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1990s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 1990</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1992</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1993</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1994</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1995</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1996</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1998</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1999</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2000s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2000</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2001</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2002</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2003</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2004</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> </tr> </table> <table class="toccolours" style="width: 100%; margin:0 auto;"> <tr> <th align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#ccccff"><!--del_lnk--> Modernism</th> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2">20th century - <!--del_lnk--> Modernity - <a href="../../wp/e/Existentialism.htm" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Modernism (music)</b>: <!--del_lnk--> 20th century classical music - <a href="../../wp/a/Atonality.htm" title="Atonality">Atonality</a> - <!--del_lnk--> Serialism - <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">Jazz</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Modernist literature</b> - <!--del_lnk--> Modernist poetry</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Modern art</b> - <!--del_lnk--> Symbolism (arts) - <a href="../../wp/i/Impressionism.htm" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a> - <a href="../../wp/e/Expressionism.htm" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a> - <a href="../../wp/c/Cubism.htm" title="Cubism">Cubism</a> - <!--del_lnk--> Surrealism - <!--del_lnk--> Dadaism - <!--del_lnk--> Futurism (art) - <!--del_lnk--> Fauvism - <!--del_lnk--> Pop Art - <!--del_lnk--> Minimalism</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Modern dance</b> - <!--del_lnk--> Expressionist dance</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Modern architecture</b> - <!--del_lnk--> Brutalism - <!--del_lnk--> De Stijl - <!--del_lnk--> Functionalism - <!--del_lnk--> Futurism - <!--del_lnk--> International Style - <!--del_lnk--> Organicism - <!--del_lnk--> Visionary architecture</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" style="font-size:90%;">...Preceded by <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></td> <td align="right" style="font-size:90%;">Followed by <!--del_lnk--> Post-modernism...</td> </tr> <tr> <td><small><!--del_lnk--> Edit this box</small></td> </tr> </table> <p> <br /> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><strong class="selflink">20th</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 13081 bytes Post-expand include size: 11650 bytes Template argument size: 803 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34558-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061208070915 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['19th century', '21st century', 'War', 'World War II', '19th century', 'Technology', 'United States', 'Automobile', 'Jet engine', 'Mass media', 'Film', 'Radio', 'Television', 'Telephone', 'Computer', 'Internet', 'Electronics', 'Integrated circuit', 'Mass media', 'Computer', "Moore's Law", 'Nitrogen', 'World War I', 'Physics', 'Quantum mechanics', 'Nuclear weapon', 'Internet', 'Trench warfare', 'Royal Navy', 'Cuba', 'Puerto Rico', 'Philippines', 'Nationalism', 'World War I', 'Germany', 'France', 'Italy', 'Japan', 'United States', 'Fascism', 'Nazism', 'World War II', 'Japan', 'China', 'Jew', 'The Holocaust', 'Spain', 'World War I', 'Russia', 'Russian Revolution of 1917', 'Communism', 'Soviet Union', 'Europe', 'China', 'Cuba', 'Cold War', 'Vietnam War', 'United States', 'South Africa', 'Soviet Union', 'United States', 'League of Nations', 'World War II', 'United Nations', 'European Union', 'Euro', 'Africa', 'Asia', 'Cold War', 'Israel', 'Jew', 'Petroleum', 'Film', 'Paris', 'United States', 'New York City', 'Film', 'Music', 'Mass media', 'Fashion', 'United States', 'United States', 'Europe', 'Birth control', 'Jazz', 'Expressionism', 'Cubism', 'Automobile', 'Sport', 'Television', 'Vitamins', 'Scurvy', 'Tobacco smoking', 'Cancer', 'Cancer', 'AIDS', "Alzheimer's disease", 'Existentialism', 'Atonality', 'Jazz', 'Impressionism', 'Expressionism', 'Cubism', 'Romanticism', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '21st century']
21st_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="21st century,10th century,10th century BC,11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings,11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings,11th century,11th century BC,12P/Pons-Brooks,12th century,12th century BC,13th century" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>21st century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "21st_century"; var wgTitle = "21st century"; var wgArticleId = 34572; var wgCurRevisionId = 92701976; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-21st_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">21st century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox"> <tr> <td align="right" style="width: 75px"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Millennium:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium - <b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 4th millennium</td> </tr> </table> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> - <b>21st century</b> - <!--del_lnk--> 22nd century</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 2000s <!--del_lnk--> 2010s <!--del_lnk--> 2020s <!--del_lnk--> 2030s <!--del_lnk--> 2040s <!--del_lnk--> 2050s <!--del_lnk--> 2060s <!--del_lnk--> 2070s <!--del_lnk--> 2080s <!--del_lnk--> 2090s</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>21st century</b> is the present century of the <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calendar. It began on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2001 and will last to <!--del_lnk--> December 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2100, though common usage mistakenly believes <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2000 to <!--del_lnk--> December 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2099 to hold this distinction. Technologically it is different from the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> mostly by changes brought about by the <!--del_lnk--> Digital Revolution of the <!--del_lnk--> 1980s, <!--del_lnk--> 1990s and <!--del_lnk--> 2000s.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Important_developments.2C_events.2C_achievements" name="Important_developments.2C_events.2C_achievements"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Important developments, events, achievements</span></h2> <p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 2002 <a href="../../wp/e/East_Timor.htm" title="East Timor">East Timor</a> gains independence from <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2003 <!--del_lnk--> International Criminal Court opens<li><!--del_lnk--> 2003 - <!--del_lnk--> 2005 A series of <!--del_lnk--> nonviolent revolutions known as the <!--del_lnk--> colour revolutions overthrew authoritarian regimes in <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kyrgyzstan.htm" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2004 <!--del_lnk--> EU Enlargement: 10 countries join, 8 of which are former <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communist">Communist</a> nations.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2005 <!--del_lnk--> UN Security Council decides <!--del_lnk--> war criminals in <!--del_lnk--> Darfur will be tried by the International Criminal Court (Resolution 1593) <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> 2006 <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> gains independence and becomes the 192nd member of the <!--del_lnk--> UN.</ul> <p><a id="Science_and_technology" name="Science_and_technology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Science and technology</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 2001 <!--del_lnk--> Dennis Tito becomes the first <!--del_lnk--> space tourist by paying $20 million to board the <a href="../../wp/i/International_Space_Station.htm" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2002 <i><!--del_lnk--> Mars Odyssey</i> arrives in orbit around <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2003 <a href="../../wp/s/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster.htm" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Columbia</i> disaster</a> <!--del_lnk--> February 1.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2003 <!--del_lnk--> Dolly the sheep dies prematurely <!--del_lnk--> February 14.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2003 The <!--del_lnk--> Chinese space programme launches its first manned space flight, <i><!--del_lnk--> Shenzhou 5</i> on <!--del_lnk--> October 15.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2003 <!--del_lnk--> Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) spreads around the globe.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2003 New discovery of a old dwarf human species, <i><a href="../../wp/h/Homo_floresiensis.htm" title="Homo floresiensis">Homo floresiensis</a></i> by modern humans (published in October, <!--del_lnk--> 2004).<li><!--del_lnk--> 2004 <a href="../../wp/m/Mars_Exploration_Rover.htm" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rovers</a> land on <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a>; <i><!--del_lnk--> Opportunity</i> discovers proof that that area of <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a> was once covered in water.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2004 <i><a href="../../wp/c/Cassini-Huygens.htm" title="Cassini-Huygens">Cassini-Huygens</a></i> probe arrives at <!--del_lnk--> Saturn.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2004 <i><!--del_lnk--> SpaceShipOne</i> makes first privately-funded <!--del_lnk--> human spaceflight, <!--del_lnk--> June 21<li><!--del_lnk--> 2005 <i><!--del_lnk--> Huygens</i> probe lands on <!--del_lnk--> Titan, the largest of Saturn's moons, <!--del_lnk--> January 14.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2005 <i><!--del_lnk--> Deep Impact</i> probe impacts <!--del_lnk--> Comet Tempel 1, <!--del_lnk--> July 4.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2006 <i><!--del_lnk--> New Horizons</i> launches on a 10 year voyage to <a href="../../wp/p/Pluto.htm" title="Pluto">Pluto</a> <!--del_lnk--> January 20.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2006 <i><a href="../../wp/m/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter.htm" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a></i> arrives at <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a>.</ul> <p><a id="Conflicts_and_civil_unrest" name="Conflicts_and_civil_unrest"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Conflicts and civil unrest</span></h3> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lankan_Civil_War.htm" title="Sri Lanka civil war">Sri Lanka civil war</a> (1983-present)<li><a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">September 11, 2001 attacks</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 12 October 2002 Bali bombing<li><a href="../../wp/d/Darfur_conflict.htm" title="Darfur conflict">Darfur conflict</a> (2003-present)<li><!--del_lnk--> 11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings<li><!--del_lnk--> September 2004 <!--del_lnk--> Beslan hostage crisis<li><!--del_lnk--> 7 July 2005 London bombings<li><!--del_lnk--> 2005 civil unrest in France<li><!--del_lnk--> 2006 East Timor crisis<li><!--del_lnk--> 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings<li><!--del_lnk--> 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict</ul> <p><a id="Worldwide_deaths_from_war_and_terror_attacks" name="Worldwide_deaths_from_war_and_terror_attacks"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Worldwide deaths from war and terror attacks</span></h4> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/s/Second_Congo_War.htm" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a>, approximately 1.8 million deaths (3.8 million since <!--del_lnk--> 1998)<li><a href="../../wp/d/Darfur_conflict.htm" title="Darfur conflict">Darfur conflict</a>, approximately 400,000 deaths<li><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Invasion in Iraq, most estimates claim 40,000 – 50,000 Iraqi and 3,100 coalition deaths. In 2004, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Lancet</i> estimated that about "98,000 more deaths than expected (8000–194,000) happened after the invasion." <!--del_lnk--> <li>Civil War in <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a>, 3,000 deaths<li><a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>, 2,993 deaths<li>December 13, 2001 attacks, <!--del_lnk--> Terrorist attack on Indian Parliament (2001), terrorists storm the Indian Parliament Builiding in <a href="../../wp/n/New_Delhi.htm" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a> and kill six police officers.<li><!--del_lnk--> October 12, <!--del_lnk--> 2002 <!--del_lnk--> Bali terrorist bombings kill 202 people.<li><!--del_lnk--> March 11, 2004 suicide terrorist attacks shake several train stations on Spain's capital <a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, killing 190 people and injuring 1,247.<li><!--del_lnk--> July 7, 2005 suicide terrorist attacks shake <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> transport system killing 52 people and injuring 700.<li><!--del_lnk--> 29 October 2005 Delhi Bombings, terrorists attack various markets in <a href="../../wp/n/New_Delhi.htm" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>, killing 61 people and injuring 188 more, right before the start of the festival season in India.</ul> <p>Furthermore, there are several wars and dictatorships continuing from the 20th century. In most cases, the death toll is unclear. See also <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Natural_disasters" name="Natural_disasters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Natural disasters</span></h3> <ul> <li>Up to 50,000 people were killed in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, and other <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> countries in the summer of <!--del_lnk--> 2003 due to a prolonged <!--del_lnk--> heat wave coinciding with a shortage of medical and nursing staff.<li><!--del_lnk--> Earthquake in <!--del_lnk--> Bam, <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> on <!--del_lnk--> December 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2003 killed more than 26,000 people.<li><a href="../../wp/2/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake.htm" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> December 26 an undersea earthquake in the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> created a large <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a>, which impacted land across the region and caused approximately 310,000 deaths in <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and other countries in the region.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2004 hurricanes <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Charley.htm" title="Hurricane Charley">Charley</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Frances, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" title="Hurricane Ivan">Ivan</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Jeanne batter <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean in <!--del_lnk--> August and <!--del_lnk--> September, causing over 3,200 deaths, 3,000 of which resulted from Jeanne's torrential flooding rains in <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>. The hurricanes caused a combined $50 billion in damage in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> 2005, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> impacts the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Gulf Coast as a strong Category 3 hurricane with top sustained winds before landfall near 125 mph, flooding <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans, and causing significant damage in <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi, <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee, and <!--del_lnk--> Alabama. The current number of fatalities stands at 1,836. Katrina surpassed <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Andrew.htm" title="Hurricane Andrew">Hurricane Andrew</a> in cost of damage, approaching $75 billion and becoming the costliest natural disaster in U.S history.<li><a href="../../wp/2/2005_Kashmir_earthquake.htm" title="2005 Kashmir earthquake">Earthquake in Kashmir</a> on <!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, which has <!--del_lnk--> so far claimed at least 87,350 lives in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Stan hit <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> along the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf of Campeche in October <!--del_lnk--> 2005 and moved into <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>. Hurricane Stan combined with powerful storms already occurring in the region and contributed to the deaths of 1,620 people. It is unclear how many deaths are due directly to Stan and how many from the already existing storms, or perhaps a combination of the two.</ul> <p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 2001- <!--del_lnk--> NASCAR (American stock car) driver <!--del_lnk--> Dale Earnhardt dies after hitting the wall on the last lap of the <!--del_lnk--> Daytona 500. Earnhardt's son, <!--del_lnk--> Dale Earnhardt Jr., claimed a tearful victory in the next race held at Daytona, less than four months later.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2002- In the <!--del_lnk--> 2002 FIFA World Cup held in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> won the <!--del_lnk--> Football World Cup becoming the first team to win the trophy 5 times.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2002- <!--del_lnk--> 2002 Winter Olympics held in <a href="../../wp/s/Salt_Lake_City%252C_Utah.htm" title="Salt Lake City, Utah">Salt Lake City</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Utah, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2003- <!--del_lnk--> Australia wins the <!--del_lnk--> 2003 Cricket World Cup<li><!--del_lnk--> 2003- <!--del_lnk--> England wins the <!--del_lnk--> 2003 Rugby World Cup, becoming the first team from the <!--del_lnk--> northern hemisphere to win the cup.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2004- <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a> wins the <!--del_lnk--> European Football Championship for the first time.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2004- <!--del_lnk--> 2004 Summer Olympics held in <!--del_lnk--> Athens, Greece.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2004- <!--del_lnk--> Michael Schumacher wins his 5th consecutive <!--del_lnk--> Formula One World Drivers Championship.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2005- American cyclist <a href="../../wp/l/Lance_Armstrong.htm" title="Lance Armstrong">Lance Armstrong</a> wins his 7th consecutive <a href="../../wp/t/Tour_de_France.htm" title="Tour de France">Tour de France</a> and retires.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2006- <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Winter Olympics held in <!--del_lnk--> Torino, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2006- <!--del_lnk--> 2006 FIFA World Cup in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, won by <!--del_lnk--> Italy.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2006- Floyd Landis wins the <!--del_lnk--> Tour De France, but later, it would be known that he was indeed doped. <!--del_lnk--> Óscar Pereiro Sio is not yet, but will be crowned as <!--del_lnk--> Tour De France champion, later this year.</ul> <p><a id="Issues_and_concerns" name="Issues_and_concerns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Issues and concerns</span></h2> <p>Some of the things that have dominated discussion and debate so far in this century include:<ul> <li><b><a href="../../wp/g/Globalization.htm" title="Globalization">Globalization</a>.</b> Advances in <!--del_lnk--> telecommunications and <a href="../../wp/t/Transport.htm" title="Transportation">transportation</a>, the expansion of <a href="../../wp/c/Capitalism.htm" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> free trade agreements have resulted in unprecedented global economic and cultural integration. This has caused (and is continuing to cause) huge economic and cultural shifts which have been the subject of considerable controversy. Gladly, the gradual shift towards greener capitalism, aka <!--del_lnk--> ethicism, promises to make good the globalization movement, and bring more unity to an often too divided world. It is summised* <!--del_lnk--> that gradual ethical steps in three main areas (animals and the environment, employees, and consumers), are what will turn the tide in a favourable direction. The three stakeholders responsible for these changes are: governance, industry, and consumers.</ul> <ul> <li><b><!--del_lnk--> Overpopulation.</b> The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <!--del_lnk--> estimates that <!--del_lnk--> world population will reach 9.1 billion by mid-century. Such growth raises questions of ecological <!--del_lnk--> sustainability and creates many <!--del_lnk--> economic and <!--del_lnk--> political disruptions. In response, many countries have adopted policies which either force or encourage their citizens to have fewer children, and others have limited <!--del_lnk--> immigration. Considerable debate exists over what the ultimate carrying capacity of the planet may be; whether or not population growth containment policies are necessary; to what degree growth can safely occur thanks to increased economic and ecological efficiency; and how markets should accommodate demographic shifts. Evidence forms that developed countries (such as <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>) suffer population <i>implosion,</i> and the population debate is strongly tied with poverty.</ul> <ul> <li><b><a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" title="Poverty">Poverty</a>.</b> Poverty remains the root cause of many of the world's other ills, including <a href="../../wp/f/Famine.htm" title="Famine">famine</a>, <!--del_lnk--> disease, and insufficient <a href="../../wp/e/Education.htm" title="Education">education</a>. Poverty contains many self-reinforcing elements (for instance, poverty can make education an unaffordable luxury, which tends to result in continuing poverty) that various aid groups hope to rectify in this century.</ul> <ul> <li>Moral issues, such as <a href="../../wp/m/Mass_media.htm" title="Mass media">media</a> content, <!--del_lnk--> gay rights, and <!--del_lnk--> abortion continue from <!--del_lnk--> 1990s and late <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>.</ul> <ul> <li><b><!--del_lnk--> Disease.</b> <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Malaria.htm" title="Malaria">malaria</a> each kill over a million people annually. <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">HIV</a> remains without a cure or vaccine, and is growing rapidly in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and much of the <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> continent. <!--del_lnk--> Antibiotic resistance is a growing concern for organisms such as <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. Other diseases, such as <!--del_lnk--> SARS, <!--del_lnk--> ebola, and <!--del_lnk--> flu variations, are also causes for concern. The <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> has <!--del_lnk--> warned of a possible coming flu <!--del_lnk--> pandemic resulting from <!--del_lnk--> bird flu <!--del_lnk--> mutations.</ul> <ul> <li><b><a href="../../wp/w/War.htm" title="War">War</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Terrorism.htm" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>.</b> <!--del_lnk--> Active conflicts continue around the world, including civil wars in the <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> (the largest war since <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Chechnya, <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> (mainly in <!--del_lnk--> Darfur). The <a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">9/11 terrorist attacks</a> triggered invasions of <!--del_lnk--> Afghanistan and partially and controversially <!--del_lnk--> Iraq. The <!--del_lnk--> War on Terrorism has seen controversies over <!--del_lnk--> civil liberties, accusations of <!--del_lnk--> torture, continued terrorist attacks and ongoing instability, violence, and military occupation. Violence continues in the <a href="../../wp/a/Arab-Israeli_conflict.htm" title="Arab-Israeli conflict">Arab-Israeli conflict</a>. Considerable concern remains about <!--del_lnk--> nuclear proliferation, especially in <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>, and the availability of <!--del_lnk--> weapons of mass destruction to rogue groups.</ul> <ul> <li><b><a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">Global warming</a>.</b> The overwhelming majority of climate scientists think that the earth is currently undergoing significant <!--del_lnk--> anthropogenic (human-induced) <a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">global warming</a>. <!--del_lnk--> The resulting economic and ecological costs are hard to predict, and by the end of the 21st century could be quite severe.</ul> <ul> <li><b>Other environmental changes.</b> Trends such as increased <a href="../../wp/p/Pollution.htm" title="Pollution">pollution</a>, <!--del_lnk--> deforestation and <a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> loss occurring in the 20th century are likely to continue into the 21st century.</ul> <ul> <li><b><!--del_lnk--> Resource depletion</b> may be a significant issue, with economic and environmental implications. Resources that could be depleted soon include <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>.</ul> <ul> <li><b>Global power.</b> Issues surrounding the cultural, economic, and military dominance of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and its role in the world community have become even more pointed given its recent military activities, problematic relations with the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, disagreement over several international treaties, and its economic policies with regard to globalization. Integration of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> and the <a href="../../wp/a/African_Union.htm" title="African Union">African Union</a> have proceeded.</ul> <ul> <li><b><!--del_lnk--> Intellectual property.</b> The increasing popularity of digital formats for entertainment media such as movies and music, and the ease of copying and distributing it via the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a> and <!--del_lnk--> peer-to-peer networks, has raised concerns in the media industry about <!--del_lnk--> copyright infringement. Much debate is proceeding about the proper bounds between protection of <!--del_lnk--> copyright, <!--del_lnk--> trademark and <!--del_lnk--> patent rights versus <!--del_lnk--> fair use and the <!--del_lnk--> public domain, where some argue that such laws have shifted greatly towards intellectual property owners and away from the interests of the general public in recent years, while others say that such legal change is needed to deal with the threat of new technologies against the rights of authors and artists (or, as others put it, against the outmoded business models of the current entertainment industry). <!--del_lnk--> Domain name "cybersquatting" and access to patented drugs to combat epidemics in third-world countries are other IP concerns.</ul> <ul> <li><b><a href="../../wp/t/Technology.htm" title="Technology">Technology</a></b> developments show no sign of ending. <!--del_lnk--> Communications and control technology continues to augment the intelligence of individual humans, collections of humans, and machines. Cultures are forced into the position of sharply defining humanity and determining boundaries on desire, thought, communication, behaviour, and manufacturing. Some predict that by the middle of this century there will be a <!--del_lnk--> Technological Singularity if <!--del_lnk--> artificial intelligences are created that are smarter than humans. If these then create even smarter AI's technological change will accelerate in ways that are impossible for us to foresee.</ul> <ul> <li><b><a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">Energy</a></b> is becoming scarce and more expensive, due to the escalating <!--del_lnk--> demand for <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> ("oil") and oil-based products such as <!--del_lnk--> gasoline and <!--del_lnk--> kerosene, unmatched by production. Discovery of new <!--del_lnk--> oil fields has not been sufficient to sustain current levels of production, and some fear that the earth may be running out of economically viable oil. While complete depletion will not happen in the near future, some fear that a <!--del_lnk--> peak in production will cause an end to the trend of <a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" title="Economics">economic</a> expansion in modern society, perhaps resulting in a collapse of modern <a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" title="Civilization">civilization</a> itself. Most economists argue that alternative sources of energy will prevent this disaster.</ul> <p>The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> lists global issues on its agenda <!--del_lnk--> here and lists a set of <!--del_lnk--> Millennium Goals to attempt to address some of these issues.<p>However, it is important to note that the current year is only 2006, which means we are only at the start of the century. Therefore, it is impossible to make detailed predictions about the future of this century.<p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <p><a id="Influential_people_in_politics_as_of_2006" name="Influential_people_in_politics_as_of_2006"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Influential people in politics as of 2006</span></h3> <p>(in alphabetical order)<ul> <li><a href="../../wp/m/Mahmoud_Abbas.htm" title="Mahmoud Abbas">Mahmoud Abbas</a>, Palestinian President<li>King <!--del_lnk--> Abdullah of Saudi Arabia<li><!--del_lnk--> Rashad Alaiyan, President of Greece<li><a href="../../wp/k/Kofi_Annan.htm" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a>, Secretary General of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a><li><!--del_lnk--> José María Aznar, Former Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Jan Peter Balkenende, Prime Minister of the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a><li><!--del_lnk--> José Manuel Durão Barroso, President of the European Commission<li><!--del_lnk--> Silvio Berlusconi, former <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italian</a> Prime Minister and leader of the opposition <!--del_lnk--> House of Freedoms coalition<li><!--del_lnk--> Peter McColocough, Formed and headed the IFTO (Ireland Food Trade Organization).<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tony_Blair.htm" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a>, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom<li><a href="../../wp/g/Gordon_Brown.htm" title="Gordon Brown">Gordon Brown</a>, Chancellor of the Exchequer (<a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">U.K.</a>)<li><a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>, President of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States of America</a><li><a href="../../wp/f/Fidel_Castro.htm" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>, President of <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Jacques Chirac, President of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Hugo Chávez, President of <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Jean Chrétien, former Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, President of <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Helen Clark, Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a><li><a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Clinton.htm" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>, former President of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States of America</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Luigi R. Einaudi, <!--del_lnk--> Secretary-General of the <!--del_lnk--> Organization of American States<li><!--del_lnk--> Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkish</a> Prime Minister<li><!--del_lnk--> Vicente Fox, President of <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Lawrence Gonzi, <a href="../../wp/m/Malta.htm" title="Malta">Maltese</a> Prime Minister<li><a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Harper.htm" title="Stephen Harper">Stephen Harper</a>, Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a><li><a href="../../wp/j/John_Howard.htm" title="John Howard">John Howard</a>, Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Saddam Hussein, deposed President of <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, currently held by US forces<li><!--del_lnk--> Hu Jintao, President of the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Abdul Kalam, President of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Moshe Katsav, <!--del_lnk--> President of <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Hamid Karzai, <!--del_lnk--> President of <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, President of <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Kim Jong-il, General Secretary of the <!--del_lnk--> Korean Workers' Party and chairman of the National Defense Commission of <a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" title="North Korea">North Korea</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Junichiro Koizumi, Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Lech Kaczyński, <!--del_lnk--> President of <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Nestor Kirchner, <!--del_lnk--> President of <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, President of the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Paul Martin, former Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Thabo Mbeki, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South African</a> president and current leader of the <a href="../../wp/a/African_Union.htm" title="African Union">African Union</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Angela Merkel, German <i><!--del_lnk--> Bundeskanzler</i> (chancellor)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pervez Musharraf <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistani</a> President<li><!--del_lnk--> Ehud Olmert, <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a><li><a href="../../wp/o/Osama_bin_Laden.htm" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Al-Qaeda leader<li><!--del_lnk--> Romano Prodi, <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Italy<li><!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin, President of the <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> Federation<li><!--del_lnk--> Anders Fogh Rasmussen, Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Muammar al-Qaddafi, <!--del_lnk--> Leader of <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a><li><a href="../../wp/c/Condoleezza_Rice.htm" title="Condoleezza Rice">Condoleezza Rice</a>, <!--del_lnk--> United States Secretary of State<li><!--del_lnk--> Karl Rove, President Bush's senior advisor, chief political strategist, and deputy chief of staff in charge of policy.<li><!--del_lnk--> Gerhard Schröder, former German <i><!--del_lnk--> Bundeskanzler</i> (chancellor)<li><a href="../../wp/a/Ariel_Sharon.htm" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a>, Prime Minister of <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Luis Inácio da Silva, President of <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Dr. Manmohan Singh, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indian</a> <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister<li><!--del_lnk--> Javier Solana, Foreign policy chief of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, President of <a href="../../wp/l/Latvia.htm" title="Latvia">Latvia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Ong Keng Yong, Secretary-General of <!--del_lnk--> ASEAN<li><!--del_lnk--> Viktor Yushchenko, President of <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a><li><!--del_lnk--> José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, President of <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></ul> <p><a id="Influential_people_in_religion_as_of_2006" name="Influential_people_in_religion_as_of_2006"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Influential people in religion as of 2006</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Tenzin Gyatso, 14th <!--del_lnk--> Dalai Lama of <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Ayatollah Khamenei<li><!--del_lnk--> Stanley Hauerwas, proclaimed in <!--del_lnk--> 2001 "America's Best Theologian"<li><!--del_lnk--> Gordon B. Hinckley, President of <!--del_lnk--> The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints<li><!--del_lnk--> Li Hongzhi, Founder of <!--del_lnk--> Falun Gong<li><a href="../../wp/p/Pope_Benedict_XVI.htm" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a><li><a href="../../wp/p/Pope_John_Paul_II.htm" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> <i>(now deceased)</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Jaime Cardinal Sin <i>(now deceased)</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Rick Warren, Founder of <!--del_lnk--> Saddleback Church in California, United States and author of <!--del_lnk--> The Purpose-Driven Life<li><!--del_lnk--> Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Transcendental Meditation movement.<li><a href="../../wp/r/Rowan_Williams.htm" title="Rowan Williams">Rowan Williams</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a><li><!--del_lnk--> The Dalai Lama</ul> <p><a id="Influential_people_in_technology_as_of_2006" name="Influential_people_in_technology_as_of_2006"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Influential people in technology as of 2006</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Steve Ballmer, <!--del_lnk--> CEO of <!--del_lnk--> Microsoft Corporation<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Gates.htm" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a>, co founder and chairman of <!--del_lnk--> Microsoft Corporation<li><!--del_lnk--> Steve Jobs, founder of <!--del_lnk--> Apple Computer<li><!--del_lnk--> Larry Page and <!--del_lnk--> Sergey Brin, founders of the <a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" title="Google">Google</a> search engine<li><!--del_lnk--> Burt Rutan, founder of <!--del_lnk--> Scaled Composites and creator of <!--del_lnk--> SpaceShipOne<li><a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Stallman.htm" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a>, founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Free Software Foundation<li><a href="../../wp/l/Linus_Torvalds.htm" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a>, creator of the <a href="../../wp/l/Linux.htm" title="Linux">Linux</a> <!--del_lnk--> kernel</ul> <p><a id="Influential_people_in_science_as_of_2006" name="Influential_people_in_science_as_of_2006"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Influential people in science as of 2006</span></h3> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Richard Dawkins<li><!--del_lnk--> Brian Greene</ul> <p><a id="Influential_people_in_mathematics_as_of_2006" name="Influential_people_in_mathematics_as_of_2006"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Influential people in mathematics as of 2006</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Laurent Lafforgue<li><!--del_lnk--> Grigori Perelman</ul> <p><a id="Influential_people_in_the_arts_as_of_2006" name="Influential_people_in_the_arts_as_of_2006"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Influential people in the arts as of 2006</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> JJ Abrams, creator of television shows <!--del_lnk--> Alias and <!--del_lnk--> Lost<li><!--del_lnk--> Katie Couric, anchor of the <!--del_lnk--> CBS <!--del_lnk--> Evening News and former anchor of <!--del_lnk--> NBC's <!--del_lnk--> Today<li><!--del_lnk--> David Lynch<li><!--del_lnk--> Pedro Almodóvar<li><!--del_lnk--> Peter Jackson, director of <a href="../../wp/t/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_film_trilogy.htm" title="The Lord of the Rings film trilogy">the Lord of the Rings film trilogy</a> and <a href="../../wp/k/King_Kong_%25282005_film%2529.htm" title="King Kong (2005 film)">the 2005 remake</a> of <!--del_lnk--> King Kong<li><!--del_lnk--> Madonna<li><!--del_lnk--> Bon Jovi<li><!--del_lnk--> Bono, lead singer of Irish rock band <a href="../../wp/u/U2.htm" title="U2">U2</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Bob Geldof<li><!--del_lnk--> J.K. Rowling, author of the <a href="../../wp/h/Harry_Potter.htm" title="Harry Potter">Harry Potter</a> book series<li><!--del_lnk--> Wong Kar-Wai<li><!--del_lnk--> Hou Hsiao-Hsien<li><!--del_lnk--> Bill T. Jones<li><!--del_lnk--> George Lucas, creator of the <a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars.htm" title="Star Wars">Star Wars</a> film series and the <!--del_lnk--> Lucasfilm company<li><!--del_lnk--> Steven Spielberg, director of <a href="../../wp/j/Jaws_%2528film%2529.htm" title="Jaws (film)">Jaws</a>, <!--del_lnk--> E.T. and <!--del_lnk--> Jurassic Park<li><!--del_lnk--> John le Carré<li><!--del_lnk--> Christopher Nolan<li><!--del_lnk--> Lars von Trier<li><!--del_lnk--> Hayao Miyazaki<li><!--del_lnk--> Will Smith, actor and hip-hop artist<li><!--del_lnk--> Tyra Banks, actress and daytime <!--del_lnk--> talk show host</ul> <p><a id="Astronomical_events" name="Astronomical_events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Astronomical events</span></h2> <ul> <li>Tuesday, <!--del_lnk--> June 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2004: First <a href="../../wp/t/Transit_of_Venus.htm" title="Transit of Venus">transit of Venus</a> for 122 years<li><!--del_lnk--> November 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2006: <!--del_lnk--> Transit of Mercury<li><!--del_lnk--> 2009: <!--del_lnk--> Triple conjunction <!--del_lnk--> Jupiter-<!--del_lnk--> Neptune<li>2010/2011: Triple conjunction Jupiter-<!--del_lnk--> Uranus<li>Wednesday, <!--del_lnk--> June 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2012: Transit of <!--del_lnk--> Venus to occur a second time this century<li><!--del_lnk--> May 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2016: Transit of <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528planet%2529.htm" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a><li>Monday, <!--del_lnk--> August 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2017: First total <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_eclipse.htm" title="Solar eclipse">solar eclipse</a> of the 21st century for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, and the first visible in the continental US since <!--del_lnk--> February 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1979.<li><!--del_lnk--> November 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2019: Transit of Mercury<li>2024 (plus or minus 5 years): Next predicted return of Comet <!--del_lnk--> 12P/Pons-Brooks.<li>2025/2026: Triple conjunction <!--del_lnk--> Saturn-Neptune<li>Friday, <!--del_lnk--> April 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2029: The <a href="../../wp/a/Asteroid.htm" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> <!--del_lnk--> 99942 Apophis (previously better known by its <!--del_lnk--> provisional designation 2004 MN<sub>4</sub>) will pass within 30,000 km (18,600 mi) of the Earth.<li><!--del_lnk--> November 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2032: Transit of Mercury<li>2037/2038: Triple conjunction Jupiter-Uranus<li><!--del_lnk--> November 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2039: Transit of Mercury<li>2041/2042: Triple conjunction <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a>-Uranus<li><!--del_lnk--> October 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2044: <!--del_lnk--> Occultation of <!--del_lnk--> Regulus by Venus. The last was on <!--del_lnk--> July 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1959. After 2044 the next occultation of Regulus by Venus will occur on <!--del_lnk--> October 21, <!--del_lnk--> 3187, although some sources claim it will occur again on <!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2271.<li>2047/2048: Triple conjunction Jupiter-Neptune<li><!--del_lnk--> May 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2049: Transit of Mercury<li><!--del_lnk--> November 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2052: Transit of Mercury<li>2061: Next return of <a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Halley.htm" title="Comet Halley">Comet Halley</a>.<li>2063: Triple conjunction Mars-Uranus<li><!--del_lnk--> November 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2065: Transit of Mercury<li><!--del_lnk--> November 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2065: At 12:45 UTC, Venus will occult Jupiter. This event will be the first occultation of a planet by another since <!--del_lnk--> January 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1818. This event will be very difficult to observe, because the elongation of Venus and Jupiter from the Sun on that date will be only 7 degrees.<li>2066: Triple conjunction Jupiter-Uranus<li><!--del_lnk--> July 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2067: At 11:56 UTC, Mercury will occult Neptune. This rare event will be very difficult to observe.<li>2071/2072: Triple conjunction Mars-Neptune<li><!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2078: Transit of Mercury<li>2079: Triple conjunction Saturn-Uranus<li><!--del_lnk--> August 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2079: At 01:30 UTC, Mercury will occult <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a><li>Friday, <!--del_lnk--> November 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2084: <!--del_lnk--> Transit of Earth as seen from Mars<li><!--del_lnk--> November 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2085: Transit of Mercury<li>2085/2086: Triple conjunction Jupiter-Neptune<li><!--del_lnk--> October 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2088: At 13:43 UTC, Mercury will occult Jupiter<li>2088/2089: Triple conjunction Mars-Neptune<li>2093: Triple conjunction Jupiter-Uranus<li><!--del_lnk--> April 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2094: At 10:48 UTC, Mercury will occult Jupiter<li><!--del_lnk--> May 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2095: Transit of Mercury<li><!--del_lnk--> November 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2098: Transit of Mercury</ul> <p><a id="Science_fiction_set_in_the_remaining_years_of_the_21st_century" name="Science_fiction_set_in_the_remaining_years_of_the_21st_century"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Science fiction set in the remaining years of the 21st century</span></h2> <p><a id="Television_and_film" name="Television_and_film"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Television and film</span></h3> <ul> <li>The new series of <a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" title="Doctor Who">Doctor Who</a> which began in <!--del_lnk--> 2005 has events that take place in the 21st century.<li>In the sequel to <i><!--del_lnk--> 2001: A Space Odyssey</i>, a joint American-Soviet space expedition is sent to Jupiter in <i><!--del_lnk--> 2010: The Year We Make Contact</i>.<li>The popular <!--del_lnk--> adult swim series <!--del_lnk--> Sealab 2021 takes place in the year 2021.<li>The events of <i><a href="../../wp/s/Stargate_SG-1.htm" title="Stargate SG-1">Stargate SG-1</a></i> continue into the early 21st century.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Stargate Atlantis</i> is set in the early 21st century.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Transformers: The Movie</i>: is set in the year 2005. The subsequent third season of the <!--del_lnk--> Transformers series takes place after the events of the movie.<li>The Japanese anime show <i><!--del_lnk--> The Super Dimension Fortress Macross</i> spans the years <!--del_lnk--> 1999 to <!--del_lnk--> 2012 (its final episode takes place in January of 2012, and a direct to video epilogue featurette takes place in September 2012). Its prequel and sequels take place in <!--del_lnk--> 2008 (<i><!--del_lnk--> Macross Zero</i>), <!--del_lnk--> 2040 (<i><!--del_lnk--> Macross Plus</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> 2045-<!--del_lnk--> 2046 (<i><!--del_lnk--> Macross 7</i>). A dramatized historical fiction movie about the First Space War, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Super Dimension Fortress Macross: Do You Remember Love?</i>, premieres in <!--del_lnk--> 2031.<li>The American cartoon show <i><!--del_lnk--> Robotech</i>, composed from the footage of three unrelated anime series (including <i><!--del_lnk--> Macross</i>, above) spans the years 1999 to <!--del_lnk--> 2015, <!--del_lnk--> 2030-<!--del_lnk--> 2031 and <!--del_lnk--> 2044-<!--del_lnk--> 2045.<li>Part of <i><!--del_lnk--> Back to the Future Part II</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2015.<li>The Japanese anime series <i><!--del_lnk--> Neon Genesis Evangelion</i> is also set in <!--del_lnk--> 2015.<li>The modern classic film <i><a href="../../wp/b/Blade_Runner.htm" title="Blade Runner">Blade Runner</a></i> takes place in November, <!--del_lnk--> 2019.<li>The film <i><!--del_lnk--> The Running Man</i> starring <a href="../../wp/a/Arnold_Schwarzenegger.htm" title="Arnold Schwarzenegger">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a> is set in 2019.<li>Both parts of the <i><a href="../../wp/s/Star_Trek__Deep_Space_Nine.htm" title="Star Trek: Deep Space Nine">Star Trek: Deep Space Nine</a></i> episode "<!--del_lnk--> Past Tense" take place in <!--del_lnk--> 2024.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> anime universe of <i><!--del_lnk--> Ghost in the Shell</i>, its sequel <i><!--del_lnk--> Ghost in the Shell: Innocence</i>, and anime television series based on the same premise (<i><!--del_lnk--> Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex 2nd GiG</i>), are centered somewhere around <!--del_lnk--> 2029.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Terminator</i> is set up during the early years of the 21st century in terms of the wars between humans & Skynet. Some of the intervening years are dealt with by the, at the moment 2, sequels, <i><!--del_lnk--> Terminator 2: Judgment Day</i> & <i><!--del_lnk--> Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines</i> with the whole <!--del_lnk--> franchise building to a conclusion of the War in <!--del_lnk--> 2029.<li>The 2002 version of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Time Machine</i> has scenes that take place in the <!--del_lnk--> 2030s.<li>The <a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" title="Doctor Who">Doctor Who</a> story <i><!--del_lnk--> The Enemy of the World</i> is set in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 2030.<li>The anime OAV series <i><!--del_lnk--> Bubblegum Crisis</i> (2032-33), its sequel <i><!--del_lnk--> Bubblegum Crash</i> (2034), and its TV-series re-imagining <i><!--del_lnk--> Bubblegum Crisis 2040</i> (2040).<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Demolition Man</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2032.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> I, Robot</i> was set in <!--del_lnk--> 2035.</ul> <ul> <li>Deep space vessel <!--del_lnk--> <i>Event Horizon</i> was sent to test an artificial wormhole (<a href="../../wp/b/Black_hole.htm" title="Black hole">black hole</a>) in deep space in the year <!--del_lnk--> 2040. The lost ship is found 7 years later by a rescue team on board the ship <i>Lewis and Clark</i> on low orbit around the planet <a href="../../wp/n/Neptune.htm" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Outward Urge</i> has a major nuclear war in <!--del_lnk--> 2044 and the first manned landing on <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 2094.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Minority Report</i> was set in <!--del_lnk--> 2054.<li>The 1998 remake of <i><!--del_lnk--> Lost in Space</i> was set in <!--del_lnk--> 2058.<li>Most of <i><!--del_lnk--> Star Trek: First Contact</i> takes place in <!--del_lnk--> 2063. In Star Trek canon, the human <!--del_lnk--> Zefram Cochrane develops faster-than-light travel and makes first contact with <!--del_lnk--> an alien race during this year.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within</i> is set in 2065.<li>The <a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" title="Doctor Who">Doctor Who</a> story <i><!--del_lnk--> The Moonbase</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2070.<li>The Japanese anime show <i><!--del_lnk--> Cowboy Bebop</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2071.<li>The Nickelodeon cartoon <i><!--del_lnk--> My Life as a Teenage Robot</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2072.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Equilibrium</i> is set in 2072.<li>The <a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" title="Doctor Who">Doctor Who</a> story <i><!--del_lnk--> Day of the Daleks</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2073, albeit in an alternative <!--del_lnk--> timeline.<li>The film <i><!--del_lnk--> Total Recall</i>, and the <a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" title="Doctor Who">Doctor Who</a> story <i><!--del_lnk--> Warriors of the Deep</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2084.<li>In <i><!--del_lnk--> Star Trek: Insurrection</i>, it is discovered that the <!--del_lnk--> Ba'ku moved to the <!--del_lnk--> Briar Patch at some point in this century.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Jetsons</i> is supposed to take place in the late 21st century.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Zenon: Girl of the 21st Century (film)</i> and its sequels takes place in the years 2049-2051.</ul> <ul> <li>The final episode of <!--del_lnk--> X-Files sets 2012 as the date for alien colonization.<li>The CGI animated series <i><!--del_lnk--> Cubix: Robots for Everyone</i> takes place in <!--del_lnk--> 2040.<li>The <a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" title="Doctor Who">Doctor Who</a> story <i><!--del_lnk--> The Seeds of Death</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2090.<li>The <a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" title="Doctor Who">Doctor Who</a> story <i><!--del_lnk--> Nightmare of Eden</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2096.</ul> <p><a id="Computer_and_video_games" name="Computer_and_video_games"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Computer and video games</span></h3> <ul> <li><i><!--del_lnk--> Duke Nukem 3D</i> is set in the early 21st century and contains evidence (such as calendars) that suggest it is more specifically set in <!--del_lnk--> October or <!--del_lnk--> December <!--del_lnk--> 2007<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Uplink</i> is set on the internet of the year <!--del_lnk--> 2010.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Perfect Dark Zero</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2020 and <i><!--del_lnk--> Perfect Dark</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2023.<li>The races in <i><!--del_lnk--> San Francisco Rush 2049</i> take place in <!--del_lnk--> 2049.<li>The events of <i><!--del_lnk--> Deus Ex</i> take place in <!--del_lnk--> 2052.<li>The levels "Breaking and Entering" and "You Genius, U-Genix" in <i><!--del_lnk--> TimeSplitters: Future Perfect</i> take place in <!--del_lnk--> 2052.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> System Shock</i> is set in <!--del_lnk--> 2072.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Future Cop: LAPD</i> takes place in the year <!--del_lnk--> 2098.<li>The discovery of the Zohar in <i><!--del_lnk--> Xenosaga</i> takes place in 20XX.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Great War of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Fallout</i> universe starts on <!--del_lnk--> October 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2077; <!--del_lnk--> nuclear bombs are launched, nobody knows who the aggressor was.<li>The events of <i><!--del_lnk--> Shin Megami Tensei: Nocturne</i> occur in 20XX.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Mercenaries: Playground of Destruction, the 2nd Korean War starts early in this century<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Mega Man Classic series takes place in the 21st century.<li>The arcade game <i><!--del_lnk--> Robotron: 2084</i> takes place in the year <!--del_lnk--> 2084.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> One Must Fall: 2097</i> takes place in <!--del_lnk--> 2097.<li>The <i><!--del_lnk--> Mr. Driller</i> series (and <i><!--del_lnk--> Dig Dug: Digging Strike</i>, a game in its related timeline) takes place in 20XX.<li>The events of <!--del_lnk--> Half-Life 2 and its <!--del_lnk--> expansion packs takes place around 2013.<li>The video game and cartoon <!--del_lnk--> 20X6 of <a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" title="Homestar Runner">Homestar Runner</a> supposedly takes place in the seventh year of an unspecified decade in the 21st century.</ul> <p><a id="Novels" name="Novels"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Novels</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Arthur C Clarke's <i><!--del_lnk--> 2010: Odyssey Two</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> 2061: Odyssey Three</i>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Tad Williams' <i><!--del_lnk--> Otherland</i> series is set at some undefined point in the 21st century<li><!--del_lnk--> Neal Stephenson's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Diamond Age</i> is also set in the 21st century, after some disaster befell the centralized telephone network. This led people to build a decentralized network, which they used to transfer money, thus destroying normal methods of taxation and bringing down most large governments.<li><i>Red Mars</i> of <!--del_lnk--> Kim Stanley Robinson's <!--del_lnk--> Mars trilogy begins in <!--del_lnk--> 2027.<li>Some books by <!--del_lnk--> Arkady and Boris Strugatsky are set in 21st century<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Turnabout" by <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Peterson Haddix, is set in 2005-06, 2057, and mainly 2085.</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1990s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 1990</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1992</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1993</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1994</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1995</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1996</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1997</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1998</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1999</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2000s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 2000</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2001</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2002</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2003</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2004</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2010s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2010</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2013</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2017</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2019</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2020s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2021</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2022</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2023</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2024</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2025</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2026</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2027</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2028</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2029</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2030s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2030</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2031</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2032</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2033</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2034</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2035</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2036</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2037</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2038</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2039</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2040s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2040</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2041</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2042</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2043</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2044</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2045</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2046</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2047</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2048</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2049</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2050s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2050</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2051</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2052</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2053</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2054</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2055</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2056</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2057</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2058</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2059</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2060s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2060</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2061</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2062</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2063</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2064</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2065</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2066</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2067</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2068</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2069</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2070s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2070</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2071</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2072</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2073</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2074</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2075</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2076</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2077</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2078</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2079</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2080s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2080</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2081</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2082</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2083</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2084</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2085</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2086</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2087</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2088</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2089</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2090s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2090</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2091</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2092</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2093</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2094</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2095</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2096</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2097</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2098</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2099</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2100s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 2100</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2101</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2102</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2103</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2104</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2105</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2106</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2107</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2108</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2109</td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['20th century', '20th century', 'East Timor', 'Indonesia', 'Georgia (country)', 'Ukraine', 'Kyrgyzstan', 'Lebanon', 'Communist', 'Montenegro', 'International Space Station', 'Mars', 'Space Shuttle Columbia disaster', 'Homo floresiensis', 'Mars Exploration Rover', 'Mars', 'Mars', 'Cassini-Huygens', 'Pluto', 'Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter', 'Mars', 'Sri Lanka civil war', 'September 11, 2001 attacks', 'Darfur conflict', 'Second Congo War', 'Darfur conflict', "Côte d'Ivoire", 'September 11, 2001 attacks', 'New Delhi', 'Madrid', 'London', 'New Delhi', 'France', 'Italy', 'Europe', 'Iran', '2004 Indian Ocean earthquake', 'Indian Ocean', 'Tsunami', 'Indonesia', 'Sri Lanka', 'India', 'Thailand', 'Hurricane Charley', 'Hurricane Ivan', 'Florida', 'Haiti', 'United States', 'Hurricane Katrina', 'Hurricane Andrew', '2005 Kashmir earthquake', 'India', 'Pakistan', 'Mexico', 'Guatemala', 'South Korea', 'Japan', 'Brazil', 'Salt Lake City, Utah', 'United States', 'Greece', 'Lance Armstrong', 'Tour de France', 'Italy', 'Germany', 'Globalization', 'Transportation', 'Capitalism', 'Democracy', 'United Nations', 'Japan', 'Poverty', 'Famine', 'Education', 'Mass media', '20th century', 'AIDS', 'Tuberculosis', 'Malaria', 'HIV', 'India', 'Africa', 'Tuberculosis', 'World Health Organization', 'War', 'Terrorism', 'Democratic Republic of the Congo', 'World War II', "Côte d'Ivoire", 'Somalia', 'Senegal', 'Colombia', 'Sudan', 'September 11, 2001 attacks', 'Arab-Israeli conflict', 'Iran', 'North Korea', 'Global warming', 'Global warming', 'Pollution', 'Biodiversity', 'Petroleum', 'Natural gas', 'United States', 'United Nations', 'European Union', 'African Union', 'Internet', 'Technology', 'Energy', 'Petroleum', 'Economics', 'Civilization', 'United Nations', 'Mahmoud Abbas', 'Kofi Annan', 'United Nations', 'Spain', 'Netherlands', 'Italy', 'Tony Blair', 'Gordon Brown', 'United Kingdom', 'George W. Bush', 'United States', 'Fidel Castro', 'Cuba', 'France', 'Venezuela', 'Canada', 'Italy', 'New Zealand', 'Bill Clinton', 'United States', 'Turkey', 'Mexico', 'Malta', 'Stephen Harper', 'Canada', 'John Howard', 'Australia', 'Iraq', "People's Republic of China", 'India', 'Israel', 'Afghanistan', 'Iran', 'North Korea', 'Japan', 'Poland', 'Argentina', 'Philippines', 'Canada', 'South Africa', 'African Union', 'Pakistan', 'Israel', 'Osama bin Laden', 'Russia', 'Denmark', 'Libya', 'Condoleezza Rice', 'Ariel Sharon', 'Israel', 'Brazil', 'India', 'European Union', 'Latvia', 'Ukraine', 'Spain', 'Tibet', 'Pope Benedict XVI', 'Pope John Paul II', 'Rowan Williams', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Bill Gates', 'Google', 'Richard Stallman', 'Linus Torvalds', 'Linux', 'Stephen Hawking', 'The Lord of the Rings film trilogy', 'King Kong (2005 film)', 'U2', 'Harry Potter', 'Star Wars', 'Jaws (film)', 'Transit of Venus', 'Mercury (planet)', 'Solar eclipse', 'United States', 'Asteroid', 'Mars', 'Comet Halley', 'Mars', 'Doctor Who', 'Stargate SG-1', 'Blade Runner', 'Arnold Schwarzenegger', 'Star Trek: Deep Space Nine', 'Doctor Who', 'Australia', 'Black hole', 'Neptune', 'Mars', 'Doctor Who', 'Doctor Who', 'Doctor Who', 'Doctor Who', 'Doctor Who', 'Homestar Runner']
2nd_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="2nd century,100,100s,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>2nd century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "2nd_century"; var wgTitle = "2nd century"; var wgArticleId = 34744; var wgCurRevisionId = 90267194; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-2nd_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">2nd century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st century</a> - <b><strong class="selflink">2nd century</strong></b> - <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 100s <!--del_lnk--> 110s <!--del_lnk--> 120s <!--del_lnk--> 130s <!--del_lnk--> 140s <!--del_lnk--> 150s <!--del_lnk--> 160s <!--del_lnk--> 170s <!--del_lnk--> 180s <!--del_lnk--> 190s</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>2nd century</b> is the period from <!--del_lnk--> 101 - <!--del_lnk--> 200 in accordance with the <!--del_lnk--> Julian calendar in the <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Christian Era">Christian Era</a>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/62/6263.jpg.htm" title="Pieces of Hadrian's Wall remain near Greenhead and along the route, though large sections have been dismantled over the years to use the stones for various nearby construction projects."><img alt="Pieces of Hadrian's Wall remain near Greenhead and along the route, though large sections have been dismantled over the years to use the stones for various nearby construction projects." height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hadrian%27s_wall_at_Greenhead_Lough.jpg" src="../../images/62/6263.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/62/6263.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Pieces of Hadrian's Wall remain near Greenhead and along the route, though large sections have been dismantled over the years to use the stones for various nearby construction projects.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>96–180: <!--del_lnk--> Five Good Emperors of Rome: <!--del_lnk--> Nerva, <!--del_lnk--> Trajan, <!--del_lnk--> Hadrian, <!--del_lnk--> Antoninus Pius, <!--del_lnk--> Marcus Aurelius<li>The <a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">kingdom</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Aksum emerges<li>120-150: <!--del_lnk--> Bulgars migrate to <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a><li>122–132: <a href="../../wp/h/Hadrian%2527s_Wall.htm" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> across Britain<li>132–135: <!--del_lnk--> Bar Kokhba's revolt against Rome<li>144: <!--del_lnk--> Marcion, rejected by Church of Rome, founds <!--del_lnk--> Marcionism<li>167-175: First <!--del_lnk--> Marcomanni War<li>178-180: Second Marcomanni War (depicted in the movie <!--del_lnk--> <i>Gladiator</i>)</ul> <p><a id="Significant_persons" name="Significant_persons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant persons</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Rabbi Akiva Head of all the Jewish Sages<li><!--del_lnk--> Rabbi Yehuda haNasi Prince of the Jewish people<li><!--del_lnk--> Commodus, Roman Emperor, claimed to be <!--del_lnk--> Hercules <!--del_lnk--> reincarnated<li><!--del_lnk--> Galen, medical writer<li><!--del_lnk--> Irenaeus, 2nd Bishop of Lyons<li><!--del_lnk--> Montanus, Christian <!--del_lnk--> heretic<li><!--del_lnk--> Nagarjuna, founder of <!--del_lnk--> Madhyamaka Buddhism<li><!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Younger<li><!--del_lnk--> Plutarch, Roman historian<li><a href="../../wp/p/Ptolemy.htm" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, Greek astronomer<li><!--del_lnk--> Septimius Severus, Roman Emperor<li><!--del_lnk--> Suetonius, Roman historian<li><!--del_lnk--> Valentinius, most famous Christian <!--del_lnk--> Gnostic<li><!--del_lnk--> Zhang Daoling, <!--del_lnk--> Taoist hermit, ascended to heaven</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/c/Cai_Lun.htm" title="Cai Lun">Cai Lun</a> invents paper (c. 105)<li><a href="../../wp/p/Ptolemy.htm" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> compiles a catalogue of all <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">stars</a> visible to the naked eye.<li>132: <!--del_lnk--> Zhang Heng invents first <!--del_lnk--> seismometer</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 90s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 90</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 91</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 92</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 93</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 94</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 95</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 96</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 97</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 98</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 99</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 100s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 100</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 101</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 102</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 103</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 104</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 105</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 106</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 107</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 108</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 109</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 110s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 110</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 111</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 112</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 113</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 114</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 115</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 116</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 117</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 118</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 119</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 120s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 120</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 121</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 122</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 123</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 124</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 125</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 126</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 127</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 128</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 129</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 130s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 130</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 131</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 132</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 133</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 134</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 135</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 136</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 137</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 138</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 139</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 140s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 140</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 141</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 142</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 143</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 144</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 145</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 146</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 147</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 148</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 149</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 150s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 150</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 151</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 152</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 153</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 154</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 155</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 156</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 157</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 158</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 159</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 160s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 160</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 161</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 162</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 163</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 164</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 165</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 166</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 167</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 168</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 169</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 170s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 170</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 171</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 172</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 173</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 174</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 175</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 176</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 177</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 178</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 179</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 180s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 180</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 181</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 182</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 183</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 184</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 185</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 186</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 187</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 188</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 189</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 190s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 190</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 191</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 192</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 193</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 194</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 195</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 196</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 197</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 198</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 199</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 200s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 200</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 201</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 202</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 203</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 204</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 205</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 206</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 207</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 208</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 209</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <strong class="selflink">2nd</strong></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8746 bytes Post-expand include size: 8631 bytes Template argument size: 476 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34744-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061126192045 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['1st century', '3rd century', 'Christian Era', 'Monarchy', 'Europe', "Hadrian's Wall", 'Ptolemy', 'Cai Lun', 'Ptolemy', 'Star', '1st century BC', '1st century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
3_Juno	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="3 Juno,MinorPlanets Footer,MinorPlanets Footer,10 Hygiea,15 Eunomia,1804,1839,1958,1979,1 Ceres,2001" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>3 Juno</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "3_Juno"; var wgTitle = "3 Juno"; var wgArticleId = 80130; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-3_Juno"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">3 Juno</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width: 23em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"> <caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>3 Juno <a class="image" href="../../images/162/16282.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="25" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Juno_symbol.svg" src="../../images/162/16282.png" width="25" /></a></b></caption> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: black; text-align: center;">[[Image:<a class="image" href="../../images/162/16283.gif.htm" title="Juno moving among background stars"><img alt="Juno moving among background stars" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Juno_mpl_anim.gif" src="../../images/162/16283.gif" width="140" /></a>\|275px\|]]</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: .9em; line-height: 1.2em;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Discovery <sup><!--del_lnk--> A</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Discoverer</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Karl Ludwig Harding</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Discovery date</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1804</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Alternate<br /> designations <sup><!--del_lnk--> B</sup></th> <td><i>none</i></td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Category</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Main belt (<!--del_lnk--> Juno clump)</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Orbital elements <sup><!--del_lnk--> C</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <center><small><!--del_lnk--> Epoch <!--del_lnk--> November 25, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 (<!--del_lnk--> JD 2453699.5)</small></center> </td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity <i>(e)</i></th> <td>0.2583</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Semi-major axis <i>(a)</i></th> <td>399.155 <!--del_lnk--> G<!--del_lnk--> m (2.668 <!--del_lnk--> AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Perihelion <i>(q)</i></th> <td>296.03 Gm (1.979 AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Aphelion <i>(Q)</i></th> <td>502.276 Gm (3.358 AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period <i>(P)</i></th> <td>1591.93 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a> (4.36 <!--del_lnk--> a)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mean orbital speed</th> <td>17.93 km/<!--del_lnk--> s</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Inclination <i>(i)</i></th> <td>12.971<!--del_lnk--> °</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of the<br /> ascending node <i>(Ω)</i></th> <td>170.125°</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Argument of<br /> perihelion <i>(ω)</i></th> <td>247.839°</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mean anomaly <i>(M)</i></th> <td>7.879°</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Physical characteristics <sup><!--del_lnk--> D</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Dimensions</th> <td>290×240×190 km</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mass</th> <td>3.0×10<small><sup>19</sup></small> <!--del_lnk--> kg</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Density</th> <td>3.4 g/<!--del_lnk--> cm³</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Surface <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a></th> <td>0.12 m/s²</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Escape velocity</th> <td>0.18 km/s</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Rotation period</th> <td>0.3004 d</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Spectral class</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> S-type asteroid</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Absolute magnitude</th> <td>5.33</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Albedo (<!--del_lnk--> geometric)</th> <td>0.238</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Mean surface<br /><!--del_lnk--> temperature</th> <td>~163 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /><i>max:</i> 301 K (+28° <!--del_lnk--> C)<sup></sup></td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Juno</b> <i>(jew'-noe</i> (<!--del_lnk--> key)), designated <b>3 Juno</b> in the Minor Planet Centre catologue system, was the third <a href="../../wp/a/Asteroid.htm" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> to be discovered and is one of the largest <!--del_lnk--> main belt asteroids, being the second heaviest of the stony <!--del_lnk--> S-type. It was discovered on <!--del_lnk--> September 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1804 by <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> <!--del_lnk--> astronomer <!--del_lnk--> Karl L. Harding and named after the mythological figure <!--del_lnk--> Juno, the highest Roman goddess. The adjectival form of the name is <i>Junonian</i>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16284.png.htm" title="Size comparison: the first 10 asteroids profiled against Earth's Moon. Juno is third from the left."><img alt="Size comparison: the first 10 asteroids profiled against Earth's Moon. Juno is third from the left." height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Moon_and_Asteroids_1_to_10_at_10_km_per_px.png" src="../../images/162/16284.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16284.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Size comparison: the first 10 asteroids profiled against Earth's <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>. Juno is third from the left.</div> </div> </div> <p>Juno is one of the largest asteroids, containing approximately 1.0% the mass of the entire asteroid belt. In a ranking by size, it is tenth. It vies with <!--del_lnk--> 15 Eunomia for the honour of being the largest of the stony <!--del_lnk--> S-type asteroids, although the newest estimates put Juno in second place. Amongst S-types it is unusually reflective, which may be indicative of different surface properties. This high reflectivity along with Juno's high eccentricity (the highest of any known object until <!--del_lnk--> Polyhymnia was discovered in 1854) explains its relatively high magnitude and its discovery predating that of the larger asteroids <!--del_lnk--> Hygiea, <!--del_lnk--> Europa, <!--del_lnk--> Davida and <!--del_lnk--> Interamnia. It is the main body in the <!--del_lnk--> Juno family.<p>Juno was originally considered a planet, along with <a href="../../wp/1/1_Ceres.htm" title="1 Ceres">1 Ceres</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 2 Pallas, and <a href="../../wp/4/4_Vesta.htm" title="4 Vesta">4 Vesta</a>. It was re-classified as an asteroid, with the other three, when many more additional asteroids were discovered. Juno's small size and irregular shape preclude it from being considered a <!--del_lnk--> dwarf planet under the <!--del_lnk--> IAU classification.<p>Juno rotates in a <!--del_lnk--> prograde direction, with the north pole pointing towards <!--del_lnk--> ecliptic coordinates (β, λ) = (27°, 103°) with a 10° uncertainty. This gives an <!--del_lnk--> axial tilt of 51°.<p>Spectroscopic studies of the Junonian surface permit the conclusion that Juno could be the body of origin of ordinary <!--del_lnk--> chondrites, a common group of stony meteorites composed of iron-containing <!--del_lnk--> silicates such as <!--del_lnk--> olivine and <!--del_lnk--> pyroxene. The maximum temperature on the surface, when the sun is overhead, was measured at about 293 <!--del_lnk--> K on <!--del_lnk--> October 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2001. Taking into account also the <!--del_lnk--> heliocentric distance at the time, this gives an estimated maximum of 301 K (+28°<!--del_lnk--> C) at <!--del_lnk--> perihelion .<p>Infrared images reveal that it possesses an approximately 100 km wide crater or ejecta feature, the result of a geologically young impact.<p><a id="Observations" name="Observations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Observations</span></h2> <p>Some notable observation milestones for Juno include:<p>Juno was the first asteroid for which an <!--del_lnk--> occultation was observed. It passed in front of a dim <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> (SAO 112328) on <!--del_lnk--> February 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1958. Since then, several occultations by Juno have been observed, the most fruitful being on <!--del_lnk--> December 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1979 which was registered by 18 observers.<p>Radio signals from spacecraft in orbit around <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a> and/or on its surface have been used to estimate the mass of Juno from the tiny perturbations induced by it onto the motion of <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a>.<p>A study by <!--del_lnk--> James L. Hilton (1999) suggests that Juno's <!--del_lnk--> orbit changed (slightly) around <!--del_lnk--> 1839, "very likely" due to perturbations from a passing asteroid, whose identity has not been determined yet. An alternate yet unlikely explanation is an impact by a sizeable body.<p>In 1996, Juno was imaged by the <!--del_lnk--> Hooker Telescope at <!--del_lnk--> Mount Wilson Observatory, using <!--del_lnk--> adaptive optics. The images spanned a whole rotation period and revealed an irregular (lumpy) shape with a dark feature, interpreted as a fresh impact site.<p> <br clear="all" /> <p><a id="Aspects" name="Aspects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aspects</span></h2> <table class="wikitable"> <tr align="center" style="align:center; background:#ffc0c0"> <th>Stationary,<br /> retrograde</th> <th>Opposition</th> <th>Distance to<br /> Earth (AU)</th> <th>Maximum<br /> brightness (mag)</th> <th>Stationary,<br /> prograde</th> <th>Conjunction<br /> to Sun</th> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td align="center">1.06025</td> <td align="center">7.5</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td align="center">2.13320</td> <td align="center">9.7</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 12, <!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> <td align="center">2.28071</td> <td align="center">10.1</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> <td align="center">1.18972</td> <td align="center">7.6</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td align="center">1.78236</td> <td align="center">8.9</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2010</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> <td align="center">2.37727</td> <td align="center">10.2</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2013</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2013</td> <td align="center">1.67506</td> <td align="center">8.9</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2013</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> <td align="center">1.33782</td> <td align="center">8.2</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 12, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> <td align="center">2.30641</td> <td align="center">10.0</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2017</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2017</td> <td align="center">2.07904</td> <td align="center">9.7</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2017</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> <td align="center">1.03276</td> <td align="center">7.4</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> <td align="center">2.07425</td> <td align="center">9.6</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 29, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 25, <!--del_lnk--> 2019</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2021</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2021</td> <td align="center">2.31368</td> <td align="center">10.1</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2021</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> </tr> </table> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3_Juno"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Day', 'Gravity', 'Asteroid', 'Germany', 'Moon', '1 Ceres', '4 Vesta', 'Star', 'Mars', 'Mars']
3rd_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="3rd century,10th century,10th century BC,11th century,11th century BC,12th century,12th century BC,13th century,13th century BC,14th century,14th century BC" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>3rd century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "3rd_century"; var wgTitle = "3rd century"; var wgArticleId = 34743; var wgCurRevisionId = 90310827; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-3rd_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">3rd century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd century</a> - <b><strong class="selflink">3rd century</strong></b> - <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 200s <!--del_lnk--> 210s <!--del_lnk--> 220s <!--del_lnk--> 230s <!--del_lnk--> 240s <!--del_lnk--> 250s <!--del_lnk--> 260s <!--del_lnk--> 270s <!--del_lnk--> 280s <!--del_lnk--> 290s</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>3rd century</b> is the period from <!--del_lnk--> 201 - <!--del_lnk--> 300 in accordance with the <!--del_lnk--> Julian calendar in the <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Christian Era">Christian Era</a>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2> <p><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/420.jpg.htm" title="The Baths of Caracalla, in 2003"><img alt="The Baths of Caracalla, in 2003" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BathsOfCaracalla.jpg" src="../../images/4/420.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/420.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Baths of Caracalla, in 2003</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>212: <!--del_lnk--> Constitutio Antoniniana grants <a href="../../wp/c/Citizenship.htm" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a> to all free Roman men<li>212-216: <!--del_lnk--> Baths of Caracalla<li>230-232: <!--del_lnk--> Sassanid dynasty of Persia launches a war to reconquer lost lands in the Roman east<li>235-284: <!--del_lnk--> Crisis of the Third Century shakes <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a><li>250-538: <!--del_lnk--> Kofun era, the first part of the <!--del_lnk--> Yamato period in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a><li>258: <!--del_lnk--> Valerian's Massacre of Christians<li>260: Roman <!--del_lnk--> Emperor Valerian I is taken captive by <!--del_lnk--> Shapur I of Persia<li>184-280: Period of the <!--del_lnk--> Three Kingdoms<li>280-420: <!--del_lnk--> Jin Dynasty (265-420) of China<li><!--del_lnk--> Sarnath becomes a centre of <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> arts in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a><li>Diffusion of <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a> as a food crop from <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> into <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> begins<li>The Kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Funan reaches its zenith under the rule of <!--del_lnk--> Fan Shih-man<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Goths move from <!--del_lnk--> Gothiscandza to <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> and shape the <!--del_lnk--> Chernyakhov culture</ul> <p><a id="Significant_persons" name="Significant_persons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant persons</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Clement of Alexandria<li><!--del_lnk--> Diocletian, <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> emperor<li><!--del_lnk--> Diophantus of Alexandria, wrote <i>Arithmetica</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Hippolytus, considered first <!--del_lnk--> Antipope<li><!--del_lnk--> Liu Hui, Chinese mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> Mani (prophet), founder of <!--del_lnk--> Manichaeism<li><!--del_lnk--> Origen<li><!--del_lnk--> Pappus of Alexandria, Greek mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> Plotinus, founder of <!--del_lnk--> Neoplatonism<li><!--del_lnk--> Tertullian, sometimes called <i>father of Latin church</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Wang Pi, <!--del_lnk--> Taoist<li><!--del_lnk--> M. Sattonius Iucundus, restorer of the <!--del_lnk--> Thermae in <!--del_lnk--> Heerlen<li><!--del_lnk--> Zhuge Liang, known as the greatest strategist during the period of the <!--del_lnk--> Three Kingdoms<li><!--del_lnk--> Liu Bei, founding emperor of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Shu<li><!--del_lnk--> Cao Cao, founding emperor of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Wei</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li>A primitive form of <a href="../../wp/g/Glasses.htm" title="Glasses">glasses</a> were developed for a nearsighted princess in <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Compass invented in China</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 190s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 190</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 191</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 192</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 193</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 194</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 195</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 196</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 197</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 198</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 199</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 200s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 200</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 201</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 202</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 203</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 204</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 205</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 206</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 207</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 208</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 209</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 210s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 210</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 211</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 212</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 213</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 214</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 215</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 216</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 217</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 218</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 219</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 220s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 220</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 221</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 222</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 223</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 224</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 225</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 226</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 227</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 228</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 229</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 230s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 230</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 231</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 232</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 233</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 234</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 235</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 236</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 237</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 238</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 239</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 240s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 240</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 241</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 242</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 243</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 244</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 245</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 246</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 247</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 248</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 249</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 250s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 250</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 251</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 252</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 253</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 254</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 255</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 256</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 257</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 258</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 259</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 260s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 260</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 261</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 262</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 263</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 264</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 265</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 266</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 267</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 268</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 269</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 270s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 270</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 271</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 272</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 273</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 274</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 275</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 276</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 277</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 278</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 279</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 280s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 280</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 281</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 282</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 283</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 284</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 285</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 286</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 287</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 288</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 289</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 290s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 290</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 291</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 292</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 293</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 294</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 295</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 296</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 297</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 298</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 299</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 300s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 300</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 301</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 302</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 303</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 304</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 305</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 306</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 307</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 308</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 309</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <strong class="selflink">3rd</strong></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8746 bytes Post-expand include size: 8653 bytes Template argument size: 488 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34743-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061126230326 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['2nd century', '4th century', 'Christian Era', 'Citizenship', 'Roman Empire', 'Japan', 'Buddhism', 'India', 'Maize', 'Mexico', 'North America', 'Ukraine', 'Roman Empire', 'Glasses', 'Syria', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
4-2-0	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="4-2-0,0-10-0,0-10-2,0-12-0,0-2-2,0-4-0,0-4-2,0-4-4,0-4-4-0,0-4-4-2,0-6-0" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>4-2-0</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "4-2-0"; var wgTitle = "4-2-0"; var wgArticleId = 1080739; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-4-2-0"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">4-2-0</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16294.jpg.htm" title="The Chicago and North Western Railway's first locomotive, 4-2-0 Pioneer."><img alt="The Chicago and North Western Railway's first locomotive, 4-2-0 Pioneer." height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CNW_4-2-0.jpg" src="../../images/162/16294.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16294.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago_and_North_Western_Railway.htm" title="Chicago and North Western Railway">Chicago and North Western Railway</a>'s first locomotive, 4-2-0 <i><!--del_lnk--> Pioneer</i>.</div> </div> </div> <p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Whyte notation, a <b>4-2-0</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> railroad <!--del_lnk--> steam locomotive that consists of a 4-wheel <!--del_lnk--> leading truck followed by a single <!--del_lnk--> driving axle. This type of locomotive, often called a <b>Jervis</b> type, was common on <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> railroads from the 1830s through the 1850s.<p>The equivalent <!--del_lnk--> UIC classification is <b>2'A</b>.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p>The first 4-2-0 built was the <i>Experiment</i> (later named <i>Brother Jonathan</i>) for the <!--del_lnk--> Mohawk and Hudson Railroad in 1832. It was built by the <!--del_lnk--> West Point Foundry based on a design by <!--del_lnk--> John B. Jervis. Having little else to reference, the manufacturers patterned the boiler and valve gears after locomotives built by <a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Stephenson.htm" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</a> of England.<p>This had developed from the <!--del_lnk--> 2-2-2 design of his first <!--del_lnk--> Long Boiler locomotive, which he had altered to place two pairs wheels at the front with the outside cylinders between them to improve stability.<p>A few examples of Stephenson locomotives were already in operation in America, so engineers did not have to travel too far to get their initial ideas.<p>The design is a modification of the <!--del_lnk--> 0-4-0 design then common in <!--del_lnk--> America. The 0-4-0 proved to be too rigid for the railroads of the day, often derailing on the tight curves and quick elevation changes of American railroads. For the 4-2-0, Jervis designed a four-wheel leading truck under the locomotive's smoke box that swiveled independently from the main frame of the locomotive. The pistons powered a single driving axle at the rear of the locomotive, just behind the firebox. This design resulted in a much more stable locomotive that was able to guide itself into curves more easily than the 0-4-0.<p>This design proved so effective on American railroads that many of the early 0-4-0s were rebuilt as 4-2-0s. The 4-2-0 excelled in its ability to stay on the track. But with only one driving axle, the locomotive's weight was spread over a small proportion of the powered wheels, which meant its total power was substantially reduced.<p>One possible solution, patented in 1835 by Charles and George E. Sellers, caused the locomotive to tip upward while it was ascending a grade. This plan placed more of the locomotive's weight on the driving axle, but by reducing the weight on the leading truck, also made it more prone to derailments.<p>A more practical solution, first put into production by Norris, moved the driving axle to a location on the frame in front of the locomotive's firebox. <!--del_lnk--> Cantilevering the weight of the firebox and the locomotive crew behind the driving axle placed more weight on the driving axle without substantially reducing the weight on the leading truck. However, Norris's design led to a shorter wheelbase, which tended to offset any gains in the tractive force on the driving axle by reducing the locomotive's overall stability.<p>As the 1840s approached, and more American railroads were experimenting with the new <a href="../../wp/4/4-4-0.htm" title="4-4-0">4-4-0</a> locomotive type, the 4-2-0 fell out of favour as it was not as able to pull a paying load on the railroad as the 4-4-0.<p>4-2-0s were built into the 1850s, but their use was restricted to light-duty trains as most railroads by this time had found them unsuitable for regular work.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-2-0"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Chicago and North Western Railway', 'United States', 'Robert Stephenson', '4-4-0']
4-4-0	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="4-4-0,0-10-0,0-10-2,0-12-0,0-2-2,0-4-0,0-4-2,0-4-4,0-4-4-0,0-4-4-2,0-6-0" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>4-4-0</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "4-4-0"; var wgTitle = "4-4-0"; var wgArticleId = 1057852; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-4-4-0"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">4-4-0</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16295.jpg.htm" title="Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad #87, delivered 1873-10-27 from the Mason Machine Works of Taunton, Massachusetts. This is a 5 ft (1524 mm) gauge 4-4-0 with 54 in (1.37 m) drivers. Shown during delivery on flatcars due to gauge incompatibility. Note the elaborate ornamentation. #87 is a wood-burner with a spark-arresting "balloon" stack."><img alt="Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad #87, delivered 1873-10-27 from the Mason Machine Works of Taunton, Massachusetts. This is a 5 ft (1524 mm) gauge 4-4-0 with 54 in (1.37 m) drivers. Shown during delivery on flatcars due to gauge incompatibility. Note the elaborate ornamentation. #87 is a wood-burner with a spark-arresting "balloon" stack." height="127" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Old_4-4-0.jpg" src="../../images/162/16295.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16295.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad #87, delivered <!--del_lnk--> 1873-<!--del_lnk--> 10-27 from the <!--del_lnk--> Mason Machine Works of <!--del_lnk--> Taunton, Massachusetts. This is a 5 ft (1524 mm) gauge 4-4-0 with 54 in (1.37 m) drivers. Shown during delivery on flatcars due to gauge incompatibility. Note the elaborate ornamentation. #87 is a wood-burner with a spark-arresting "balloon" stack.</div> </div> </div> <p>A <b>4-4-0</b> is a type of <!--del_lnk--> steam locomotive. In the <!--del_lnk--> Whyte notation, 4-4-0 signifies that it has a two-axle <!--del_lnk--> bogie to help guide it into curves, and two <!--del_lnk--> driving axles coupled by a <!--del_lnk--> connecting rod. The 4-4-0 is most commonly known as the <b>American</b> type due to the large number of this type that were produced and used there, but the type subsequently became very popular in <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> where large numbers were produced. Almost every major <!--del_lnk--> railway that operated in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> in the first half of the 19th century owned and operated locomotives of this type. The famous locomotive named <i><!--del_lnk--> The General</i> was a 4-4-0.<p>The equivalent <!--del_lnk--> UIC classification is <b>2'B</b>.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16296.jpg.htm" title="An 1880s woodcut of a 4-4-0 locomotive."><img alt="An 1880s woodcut of a 4-4-0 locomotive." height="86" longdesc="/wiki/Image:440woodcut.jpg" src="../../images/162/16296.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16296.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An 1880s woodcut of a 4-4-0 locomotive.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16297.jpg.htm" title="Pennsylvania Railroad class D6 4-4-0 #317, built in 1881. This high-drivered (78") passenger locomotive is coal-fired, indicated by the straight stack. Elaborate decoration is now out of fashion."><img alt="Pennsylvania Railroad class D6 4-4-0 #317, built in 1881. This high-drivered (78") passenger locomotive is coal-fired, indicated by the straight stack. Elaborate decoration is now out of fashion." height="88" longdesc="/wiki/Image:PRR_D6_317.jpg" src="../../images/162/16297.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16297.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/p/Pennsylvania_Railroad.htm" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a> class <!--del_lnk--> D6 4-4-0 #317, built in 1881. This high-drivered (78") passenger locomotive is coal-fired, indicated by the straight stack. Elaborate decoration is now out of fashion.</div> </div> </div> <p>The first use of the name <i>American</i> to describe locomotives of this wheel arrangement was made by <i>Railroad Gazette</i> in April 1872. Before that time, this wheel arrangement was known as a <b>Standard</b> or <b>Eight-Wheeler</b>. This locomotive type was so successful on US railroads that many earlier <a href="../../wp/4/4-2-0.htm" title="4-2-0">4-2-0</a> and <!--del_lnk--> 2-4-0 locomotives were rebuilt as 4-4-0s by the middle of the 19th century.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="American_Designs" name="American_Designs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">American Designs</span></h2> <p>The first 4-4-0 design was developed by <!--del_lnk--> Henry R. Campbell, then the chief <!--del_lnk--> engineer for the <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railway. Campbell received a <!--del_lnk--> patent for the design in February 1836, and he soon set to work building the first 4-4-0. New locomotive construction in the USA had begun only five years earlier at the <!--del_lnk--> West Point Foundry with the <i><!--del_lnk--> Best Friend of Charleston</i> in 1831.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16298.jpg.htm" title="Atlantic and St. Lawrence Railroad locomotive Coos circa 1856 in Longueuil, Quebec. The short wheelbases of the leading wheels, drivers and the tender bogies were soon expanded on locomotives of this type."><img alt="Atlantic and St. Lawrence Railroad locomotive Coos circa 1856 in Longueuil, Quebec. The short wheelbases of the leading wheels, drivers and the tender bogies were soon expanded on locomotives of this type." height="95" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Atlantic_%26_St._Lawrence_Railroad_Locomotive.jpg" src="../../images/162/16298.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16298.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic and St. Lawrence Railroad locomotive <i>Coos</i> circa 1856 in <!--del_lnk--> Longueuil, Quebec. The short wheelbases of the <!--del_lnk--> leading wheels, <!--del_lnk--> drivers and the tender <!--del_lnk--> bogies were soon expanded on locomotives of this type.</div> </div> </div> <p>For the time, Campbell's 4-4-0 was a giant among locomotives. Its <!--del_lnk--> cylinders measured 14 <!--del_lnk--> inch (356 <!--del_lnk--> mm) in diameter with a 16 in (406 mm) <!--del_lnk--> piston stroke, it boasted 54 in (1.37 m) diameter driving wheels, could maintain 90 <!--del_lnk--> lbf/in² (620 <!--del_lnk--> kPa) of steam <!--del_lnk--> pressure and weighed 12 <!--del_lnk--> short tons (11 <!--del_lnk--> metric tons). Campbell's locomotive was estimated to be able to pull a 450 short ton (410 metric ton) train at 15 <!--del_lnk--> mph (24 <!--del_lnk--> km/h) on level track, beating the strongest of <!--del_lnk--> Baldwin's <a href="../../wp/4/4-2-0.htm" title="4-2-0">4-2-0s</a> in tractive effort by around 63%.<p>However, with all of the increased power in Campbell's design, the frame and driving gear of his locomotive proved too rigid for the railroads of the time, thus Campbell's prototype was too prone to <!--del_lnk--> derailments. At about the same time as Campbell was building his 4-4-0, the company of <!--del_lnk--> Eastwick and Harrison was building its own version of the 4-4-0. This locomotive, named <i>Hercules</i>, was completed in 1837 for the <!--del_lnk--> Beaver Meadow Railroad. The <i>Hercules</i> was built with a leading bogie that was separate from the locomotive frame, making it much more suitable to the tight curves and quick grade changes of early railroads.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16299.jpg.htm" title="An Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway type 4-4-0 steam locomotive leads one of that railroad's passenger trains across Kansas circa 1895."><img alt="An Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway type 4-4-0 steam locomotive leads one of that railroad's passenger trains across Kansas circa 1895." height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ATSF_1890s_passenger_train.jpg" src="../../images/162/16299.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16299.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An <!--del_lnk--> Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway type 4-4-0 steam locomotive leads one of that railroad's <!--del_lnk--> passenger trains across <!--del_lnk--> Kansas <i>circa</i> 1895.</div> </div> </div> <p>Even though <i>Hercules</i> and its successors from Eastwick and Harrison proved the viability of the new wheel arrangement, the company remained the sole builders of this type of locomotive for another two years. <!--del_lnk--> William Norris built that company's first 4-4-0 in 1839, followed by <!--del_lnk--> Rogers, <!--del_lnk--> Locks and Canals and <!--del_lnk--> Newcastle in 1840. Henry Campbell didn't sit idly by while other manufacturers started building their own 4-4-0s. Like many executives of the modern era, Campbell sued other manufacturers and railroads for infringing on his patent. Baldwin settled with Campbell in 1845 by purchasing a license to build 4-4-0s.<p>As the 1840s progressed, the design of the 4-4-0 changed little, but the dimensions of a typical example of this type increased. The <!--del_lnk--> boiler lengthened, drive wheels grew in diameter and the fire grate increased in area. Early 4-4-0s were short enough that it was most practical to connect the pistons to the rear driving axle, but as the boiler lengthened, the <!--del_lnk--> connecting rod was more frequently connected to the front driving axle.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16300.jpg.htm" title="Ex-Virginia and Truckee Railroad #119, a type 4-4-0 steam locomotive, rides atop a Union Pacific Railroad flatcar as it stops in Ogden, Utah on May 9, 1969 just prior to the 100th anniversary of the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad."><img alt="Ex-Virginia and Truckee Railroad #119, a type 4-4-0 steam locomotive, rides atop a Union Pacific Railroad flatcar as it stops in Ogden, Utah on May 9, 1969 just prior to the 100th anniversary of the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad." height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:OP-19492.jpg" src="../../images/163/16300.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16300.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ex-<!--del_lnk--> Virginia and Truckee Railroad #119, a type 4-4-0 steam locomotive, rides atop a <!--del_lnk--> Union Pacific Railroad <!--del_lnk--> flatcar as it stops in <!--del_lnk--> Ogden, Utah on May 9, 1969 just prior to the 100th anniversary of the completion of the <a href="../../wp/f/First_Transcontinental_Railroad.htm" title="First Transcontinental Railroad">First Transcontinental Railroad</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>In the following decade, locomotive manufacturers began extending the wheelbase of both the leading bogie and the driving axles. By placing the axles farther from each other, manufacturers were able to mount a wider boiler completely above the wheels that extended beyond the sides of the wheels. This gave newer locomotives increased heating and steam capacity which translated to higher tractive effort. It was in this decade, the 1850s that the 4-4-0 began to look like the locomotives that are preserved today. There are fewer than 40 surviving 4-4-0s in the United States today, not counting reproductions.<p>The design and subsequent improvements of the 4-4-0 proved so successful that by 1872, 60% of Baldwin's locomotive construction was of this type, and it is estimated that fully 85% of all locomotives in operation in the USA were 4-4-0s. However, the 4-4-0 was soon supplanted by bigger designs, like the <a href="../../wp/2/2-6-0.htm" title="2-6-0">2-6-0</a> and <a href="../../wp/2/2-8-0.htm" title="2-8-0">2-8-0</a>, even though the 4-4-0 was still favored for express services. The widespread adoption of the <a href="../../wp/4/4-6-0.htm" title="4-6-0">4-6-0</a> and even larger locomotives helped seal its fate as a product of the past. By 1900, the 4-4-0 was obsolete in US locomotive manufacture, although they continued to serve <!--del_lnk--> branch lines and private industry into the mid 20th century. The last 4-4-0 built was a diminutive Baldwin product in 1945, built for the <!--del_lnk--> United Railways of Yucatan.<p><a id="British_designs" name="British_designs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">British designs</span></h2> <p>The 4-4-0 in Britain was primarily favoured for passenger services, although several types were used for mixed traffic services in later years.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Great Western Railway City class 4-4-0 locomotive <i><!--del_lnk--> City of Truro</i> was designed by <!--del_lnk--> George Jackson Churchward and built at the GWR Swindon Works in 1903. It was reputedly the first steam locomotive in Europe to travel in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h), reaching a speed of 102.3 mph (164 km/h) whilst hauling the "Ocean Mails" special from Plymouth to London Paddington on 9 May 1904.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16301.jpg.htm" title="Schools class locomotive Stowe constructed 1934"><img alt="Schools class locomotive Stowe constructed 1934" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:440locomotivestowe.jpg" src="../../images/163/16301.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16301.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Schools class locomotive <i>Stowe</i> constructed 1934</div> </div> </div> <p><!--del_lnk--> Southern Railway locomotive <i>Stowe</i> is a schools class 4-4-0 locomotive designed by R.E.L. Maunsell. The Schools class was the most powerful 4-4-0 design constructed. All the engines were named after <!--del_lnk--> public schools. This engine recorded a speed of 95 mph in 1938, the fastest known time for this class of locomotive, pulling a four coach train. It was built in 1934 at Eastleigh at a cost of £5000. It recorded more than 1 million miles of service operation, and together with its tender, the locomotive weighed 110 tons.<p>Three examples of this locomotive design are known to survive, <i>Cheltenham</i> owned by the <!--del_lnk--> National Railway Museum, <i>Repton</i> owned by the <!--del_lnk--> NYMR, and <i>Stowe</i> maintained by the <!--del_lnk--> Maunsell Locomotive Society. <i>Stowe</i> was purchased from <!--del_lnk--> British Railways for the <!--del_lnk--> National Motor Museum when it was assigned to be scrapped in 1962. It was moved to the <!--del_lnk--> East Somerset Railway, and then to the <!--del_lnk--> Bluebell Railway, where it was put into running order. <!--del_lnk--> <p>See also <!--del_lnk--> Southern Railways Schools class Locomotives.<p>Another famous class of 4-4-0s were the <!--del_lnk--> Great Eastern Railway's <!--del_lnk--> Claud Hamilton Class, designed by <!--del_lnk--> James Holden, versions of which were lated adopted by the <!--del_lnk--> LNER.<p>The type was also used widely on other British railways, particularly in Scotland and East Anglia where tracks that could take lighter weights and more restricted gauges were common.<p><a name="4-4-0T_tank_engines"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">4-4-0T tank engines</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Highland Railway O Class</ul> <p><a id="Crown_Metal_Products" name="Crown_Metal_Products"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Crown Metal Products</span></h2> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Crown Metal Products Company of <!--del_lnk--> Wyano, Pennsylvania built <!--del_lnk--> live steam reproductions of classic 4-4-0 designs between 1960 and 1989 for use by <!--del_lnk--> amusement parks. The largest of these ran on 36" <!--del_lnk--> Narrow Gauge <!--del_lnk--> track of which 18 were produced. Most are patterned after 19th century American <!--del_lnk--> designs, though those produced for <!--del_lnk--> Busch Gardens have <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> styling. Many of these are still in daily operation at parks such as <!--del_lnk--> Paramount's Kings Island , <!--del_lnk--> Michael Jackson's <!--del_lnk--> Neverland Ranch, and Omaha's <!--del_lnk--> Henry Doorly Zoo (see <!--del_lnk--> Omaha Zoo Railroad).<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In Fiction</span></h2> <p>Edward the Blue Engine and Molly from <!--del_lnk--> Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends are of the 4-4-0 wheel arrangement<br /> <table align="center" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 auto;"> <tr> <td align="center"><b><!--del_lnk--> Steam locomotive types</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><i><b>Single engine types</b></i></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-2-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-2-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-2-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-2-4 \| <a href="../../wp/4/4-2-0.htm" title="4-2-0">4-2-0</a> \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-2-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-2-4 \| <a href="../../wp/6/6-2-0.htm" title="6-2-0">6-2-0</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-4-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 0-4-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 0-4-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-4-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-4-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-4-4 \| <strong class="selflink">4-4-0</strong> \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-4-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-4-4</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-6-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 0-6-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 0-6-4 \| <a href="../../wp/2/2-6-0.htm" title="2-6-0">2-6-0</a> \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-6-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-6-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-6-6 \| <a href="../../wp/4/4-6-0.htm" title="4-6-0">4-6-0</a> \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-6-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-6-4</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-8-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 0-8-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 0-8-4 \| <a href="../../wp/2/2-8-0.htm" title="2-8-0">2-8-0</a> \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-8-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-8-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-8-6 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-8-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-8-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-8-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-8-6 \| <!--del_lnk--> 6-8-6</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-10-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 0-10-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-10-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-10-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-10-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-10-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-10-2</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-12-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-12-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-12-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-12-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-12-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-14-4</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><i><b><!--del_lnk--> Duplex engine types</b></i></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 4-4-4-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 6-4-4-6 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-4-6-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-6-4-4</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><i><b><!--del_lnk--> Garratt (articulated) types</b></i></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-4-0+0-4-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-6-0+0-6-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-6-2+2-6-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-8-0+0-8-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-8-4+4-8-4</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><i><b><!--del_lnk--> Mallet (articulated) types</b></i></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-4-4-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 0-4-4-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-4-4-2</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-6-6-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-6-6-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-6-6-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-6-6-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-6-6-6 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-6-8-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-6-6-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-6-6-4</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 0-8-8-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-8-8-0 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-8-8-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-8-8-4 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-8-8-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 4-8-8-4</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 2-10-10-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-8-8-8-2 \| <!--del_lnk--> 2-8-8-8-4</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 7617 bytes Post-expand include size: 3106 bytes Template argument size: 1528 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:1057852-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061124000445 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-4-0"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Great Britain', 'North America', 'Pennsylvania Railroad', '4-2-0', '4-2-0', 'First Transcontinental Railroad', '2-6-0', '2-8-0', '4-6-0', 'Europe', '4-2-0', '6-2-0', '2-6-0', '4-6-0', '2-8-0']
4-6-0	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="4-6-0,0-10-0,0-10-2,0-12-0,0-2-2,0-4-0,0-4-2,0-4-4,0-4-4-0,0-4-4-2,0-6-0" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>4-6-0</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "4-6-0"; var wgTitle = "4-6-0"; var wgArticleId = 1085771; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-4-6-0"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">4-6-0</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:307px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16302.jpg.htm" title="A Finnish 4-6-0, built by Tampella in 1915"><img alt="A Finnish 4-6-0, built by Tampella in 1915" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Finnish460.jpg" src="../../images/163/16302.jpg" width="305" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16302.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finnish</a> 4-6-0, built by <!--del_lnk--> Tampella in 1915</div> </div> </div> <p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Whyte notation, a <b>4-6-0</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> railroad <!--del_lnk--> steam locomotive that has a two-axle <!--del_lnk--> leading truck followed by three <!--del_lnk--> driving axles. This wheel arrangement became the second-most popular configuration for new steam locomotives in <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">America</a> in the mid-19th century. It is commonly called a <b>Ten-wheeler</b>.<p>The equivalent <!--del_lnk--> UIC classification is <b>2'C</b>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="United_States" name="United_States"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">United States</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16303.jpg.htm" title="A 4-6-0 camelback locomotive."><img alt="A 4-6-0 camelback locomotive." height="58" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Camelback.jpg" src="../../images/163/16303.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16303.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A 4-6-0 <!--del_lnk--> camelback locomotive.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16304.jpg.htm" title="Soo Line #2645, a Brooks 4-6-0 built in 1900, on display in North Freedom, Wisconsin."><img alt="Soo Line #2645, a Brooks 4-6-0 built in 1900, on display in North Freedom, Wisconsin." height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SOO_2645_North_Freedom%2C_WI%2C_2004-10-10.jpg" src="../../images/163/16304.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16304.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Soo Line #2645, a <!--del_lnk--> Brooks 4-6-0 built in 1900, on display in <!--del_lnk--> North Freedom, Wisconsin.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16305.jpg.htm" title="Restored Southern Pacific Lines No. 2353, a 4-6-0 oil-burning steam locomotive built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1912. The cylindrical tender, specifically designed to carry fuel oil, was a signature feature of the railroad."><img alt="Restored Southern Pacific Lines No. 2353, a 4-6-0 oil-burning steam locomotive built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1912. The cylindrical tender, specifically designed to carry fuel oil, was a signature feature of the railroad." height="90" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Southern_Pacific_Lines_4-6-0_No._2353.JPG" src="../../images/163/16305.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16305.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Restored <!--del_lnk--> Southern Pacific Lines No. 2353, a 4-6-0 <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a>-burning steam locomotive built by the <!--del_lnk--> Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1912. The cylindrical <!--del_lnk--> tender, specifically designed to carry fuel oil, was a signature feature of the railroad.</div> </div> </div> <p>The first 4-6-0 built in America was the <i>Chesapeake</i>. It was built by <!--del_lnk--> Norris in March 1847 for the <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia and Reading railroad. There is still a question as to who was the original designer of this type. Many authorities attribute the design to <!--del_lnk--> Septimus Norris, but in a paper written in 1885, George E. Sellers attributes the design to <!--del_lnk--> John Brandt.<p>Brandt worked for the Erie Railway between 1842 and 1851. The Erie's own management didn't feel it in their best interests to pursue construction, so Brandt showed the design to <!--del_lnk--> Baldwin and Norris. Baldwin was similarly unimpressed, but Norris liked the idea. According to Sellers, <!--del_lnk--> James Millholland, of the Reading, saw the 4-6-0 design as well and ordered one from Norris for the Reading. However, Sellers may have misrecalled a few of the specifics as Millholland did not work for the Reading until 1848, a year later. Also, Sellers lists the first 4-6-0 constructed as the <i>Susquehanna</i>, which was the Erie railroad's first 4-6-0.<p>The attribution to Septimus Norris lies in a patent that many sources cite for this locomotive type that was filed in 1846. However, such a patent has not yet been found in searches at the <!--del_lnk--> USPTO. Septimus Norris did file a patent in 1854 for running gears, and the patent application showed a 4-6-0 in the drawing. Norris' wording in the 1854 patent was vague in regard to the 4-6-0 wheel arrangement; the filing didn't specifically claim invention of the 4-6-0 type.<p>A few days after William Norris completed the <i>Chesapeake</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Hinkley completed their first 4-6-0, the <i>New Hampshire</i> for the <!--del_lnk--> Boston and Maine Railroad. The first 4-6-0 from <!--del_lnk--> Rogers was the previously mentioned <i>Susquehanna</i> for the Erie Railroad.<p>Baldwin's first 4-6-0 did not appear until 1852. Through the 1860s and into the 1870s, demand for the 4-6-0 grew as more railroad executives switched from purchasing a single, general-purpose type of locomotive (at that time, the <a href="../../wp/4/4-4-0.htm" title="4-4-0">4-4-0</a>), to purchasing locomotives for specific purposes. Both the <a href="../../wp/p/Pennsylvania_Railroad.htm" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore and Ohio were early adopters of the 4-6-0, using them for fast freight and heavy passenger trains.<p> <br clear="both" /> <p><a id="United_Kingdom" name="United_Kingdom"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">United Kingdom</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16306.jpg.htm" title="British Railways 73129, a Class 5MT 4-6-0 takes on coal at Swanick May 22, 2005."><img alt="British Railways 73129, a Class 5MT 4-6-0 takes on coal at Swanick May 22, 2005." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:73129_Caprotti_standard_five.jpg" src="../../images/163/16306.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16306.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> British Railways 73129, a <!--del_lnk--> Class 5MT 4-6-0 takes on coal at Swanick <!--del_lnk--> May 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2005.</div> </div> </div> <p>The first 4-6-0 to be introduced to Britain was the <!--del_lnk--> Highland Railway Jones Goods Class in 1894, but the type later mostly found use as <!--del_lnk--> mixed traffic and passenger locomotives, British freight trains being generally too slow to require a four-wheel <!--del_lnk--> leading truck.<p> <br clear="both" /> <p> <br /> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-6-0"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Finland', 'United States', 'Petroleum', '4-4-0', 'Pennsylvania Railroad']
450_Village_030107	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>Landmark for SOS Children's Villages</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" /> <meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." /> <meta name="robots" content="all" /> <meta name="keywords" content="children charity" /> <meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" /> </head> <body> <div id="container"> <div id="header"> <div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div> <div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div> <div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">SOS News</a> > <strong>Celebrating the 450th SOS Children's Village</strong></div> <div id="col"> <div id="nav"> <span class="boxtop"></span> <ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm" id="selected">Charity News</a> <ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/b/By_Topic.htm">News by Topic</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Archive.htm">News Archive</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul> <span class="boxbot"></span> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <h2>Celebrating the 450th SOS Children's Village</h2><p><strong>03/01/2007</strong></p> <img src="../../wp/c/CV_Chiang_Rai.jpg" width="400" height="300" alt="Children and their mother, SOS Children's Village Chiang Rai, Thailand" class="left" /><p>In December, SOS Children’s Villages celebrated another landmark in history with the official opening of the 450th SOS Children’s Village in Chiang Rai, Thailand.</p><p>The ceremony was presided over by Her Royal Highness Princess Soamsawali, which officially opened the 14 family houses which will provide a new family home to 140 needy children. A nursery school adjacent to the village will provide a basic education to 100 children, both from the village and the surrounding community. For poor families, especially for single mothers, the day care provided by the nursery is vital to enable them to earn a living and ensures that their children receive at least one hot meal every day.</p><p>During the ceremony, the Princess presented the President of SOS Children’s Villages International, the charity’s umbrella organisation, with Thailand’s highest civilian honour for a foreign national - "Knight Commander: The Most Admirable Order of the Direkgunabhorn" for the outstanding social work the charity has undertaken in Thailand.</p><img src="../../wp/c/Chiang_Rai_nursery.jpg" width="312" height="237" alt="Children at the SOS nursery school, Chiang Rai" class="right" /><p>The new village is located in Chiang Rai, capital of the northern province of the same name, in one of the poorest areas of Thailand. Local communities have traditionally cultivated poppies for the production of opium, which in addition to being illegal, causes drug-related problems as well as deforestation due to the slash and burn techniques used. The resulting ecological problems, such as flooding and landslides, simply add to the hardship for the people in the area. </p><p>Scores of children, driven by poverty and malnutrition, cross the Thai-Burmese border every day. Because of the lack of schools in their home country or fees their families cannot afford to pay, most of these migrant children have never attended school and are therefore forced to earn their living by any means they can find. Many of them do not speak the Thai language, and end up doing menial work in tea parlours, restaurants or hotels. Many youngsters move to the larger cities in the South, where they hope to find a better life.</p><p>The Thai government has launched a number of projects to help these children but there is still a great need for long-term family-based care. In response, SOS Children started a fundraising campaign locally, raising funds to buy a piece of land for a new SOS Children's Village, which will provide many of these children with hope for the future. </p><p>Two of the family homes at the village have been converted into a temporary social centre, where children who suffer from malnutrition are cared for and supported back to health. The programme will run until it is no longer necessary, when the two houses will once more be used as family homes.</p><p><strong>Relevant Countries:</strong> <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand_A.htm">Thailand</a>.</p> </div> <table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;"> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="clearboth"></div> </div> <div id="footer"> <span id="botright"></span> <p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> \| <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> \| 01223 365589 \| <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p> <p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p> <p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p> </div> </div> </body> </html>	["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.']
47_Ursae_Majoris	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="47 Ursae Majoris,1996,2001,2002,47 Ursae Majoris b,47 Ursae Majoris c,51 Pegasi,70 Virginis,Absolute magnitude,Accretion (science),Allen Steele" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>47 Ursae Majoris</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "47_Ursae_Majoris"; var wgTitle = "47 Ursae Majoris"; var wgArticleId = 1197737; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-47_Ursae_Majoris"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">47 Ursae Majoris</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>47 Ursae Majoris</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;">Observation data<br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Epoch <!--del_lnk--> J2000.0</small></th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ursa Major</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td>10<sup>h</sup> 59<sup>m</sup> 28.0<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td>+40° 25′ 49″</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Apparent magnitude <small>(V)</small></b></td> <td>+5.03</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;">Characteristics</th> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G1V</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><b>B-V <!--del_lnk--> colour index</b></td> <td>0.61</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><b>U-B <!--del_lnk--> colour index</b></td> <td>0.13</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Variable type</b></td> <td>none</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;"><!--del_lnk--> Astrometry</th> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radial velocity <small>(R<sub>v</sub>)</small></b></td> <td>+12.6 <!--del_lnk--> km/s</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Proper motion <small>(μ)</small></b></td> <td>RA: -315.92 <!--del_lnk--> mas/<!--del_lnk--> yr<br /> Dec.: 55.15 <!--del_lnk--> mas/<!--del_lnk--> yr</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Parallax <small>(π)</small></b></td> <td>71.04 ± 0.66 <!--del_lnk--> mas</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Distance</b></td> <td>45.9 ± 0.4 <!--del_lnk--> ly<br /> (14.1 ± 0.1 <!--del_lnk--> pc)</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Absolute magnitude <small>(M<sub>V</sub>)</small></b></td> <td>4.29</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;">Details</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b></td> <td>1.03 <!--del_lnk--> <i>M</i><sub>☉</sub></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b></td> <td>1.26 <!--del_lnk--> <i>R</i><sub>☉</sub></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Luminosity</b></td> <td>1.54 <!--del_lnk--> <i>L</i><sub>☉</sub></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b></td> <td>5,740 <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Metallicity</b></td> <td>110%</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Rotation</b></td> <td>~3 km/s.</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Age</b></td> <td>6.03 × 10<sup>9</sup> <!--del_lnk--> years</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;"><!--del_lnk--> Other designations</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <div style="width: 250px;"><!--del_lnk--> Gl 407, <!--del_lnk--> HR 4277, <!--del_lnk--> BD +41°2147, <!--del_lnk--> HD 95128, <!--del_lnk--> LTT 12934, <!--del_lnk--> GCTP 2556.00, <!--del_lnk--> SAO 43557, FK5 1282, GC 15087, <!--del_lnk--> HIP 53721.</div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><b>47 Ursae Majoris</b> (abbreviated 47 UMa) is a <!--del_lnk--> yellow dwarf <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> similar to our <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> located approximately 46 <!--del_lnk--> light-years away in the <!--del_lnk--> constellation <!--del_lnk--> Ursa Major. <!--del_lnk--> As of 2002, 47 Ursae Majoris is known to have two <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planets</a> orbiting it. 47 Ursae Majoris is ranked 72nd in the list of top 100 target stars for the <!--del_lnk--> NASA <!--del_lnk--> Terrestrial Planet Finder mission.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Distance_and_visibility" name="Distance_and_visibility"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distance and visibility</span></h2> <p>47 Ursae Majoris is located fairly close to our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>: according to <!--del_lnk--> astrometric measurements made by the <!--del_lnk--> Hipparcos astrometry <!--del_lnk--> satellite, the star exhibits a <!--del_lnk--> parallax of 71.04 <!--del_lnk--> milliarcseconds, corresponding to a distance of 14.1 <!--del_lnk--> parsecs. With an <!--del_lnk--> apparent magnitude of +5.03, it is visible to the <!--del_lnk--> naked eye under good conditions.<p><a id="Stellar_characteristics" name="Stellar_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Stellar characteristics</span></h2> <p>47 Ursae Majoris has a similar <!--del_lnk--> mass to that of our Sun. It is slightly more <!--del_lnk--> metal-rich than the Sun, having around 110% of the solar abundance of <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a>. With a <!--del_lnk--> spectral type of G1V, it is also slightly hotter than the Sun, at around 5,855 <!--del_lnk--> K. 47 Ursae Majoris has an <!--del_lnk--> absolute magnitude of +4.29, implying it has a visual <!--del_lnk--> luminosity around 60% greater than the Sun.<p>Like the Sun, 47 Ursae Majoris is on the <!--del_lnk--> main sequence, converting <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> to <a href="../../wp/h/Helium.htm" title="Helium">helium</a> in its core by <!--del_lnk--> nuclear fusion. Based on its <!--del_lnk--> chromospheric activity, the star may be around 6,000 million <!--del_lnk--> years old, though <!--del_lnk--> evolutionary models suggest an older age of around 8,700 million years.<p><a id="Planetary_system" name="Planetary_system"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Planetary system</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16307.png.htm" title="Orbits of the 47 Ursae Majoris system (black) compared to the planets of our solar system (blue)"><img alt="Orbits of the 47 Ursae Majoris system (black) compared to the planets of our solar system (blue)" height="252" longdesc="/wiki/Image:47UmaOrbits.svg" src="../../images/163/16307.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16307.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Orbits of the 47 Ursae Majoris system (black) compared to the planets of our solar system (blue)</div> </div> </div> <p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1996 an extrasolar planet was announced in orbit around 47 Ursae Majoris by <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Marcy and <!--del_lnk--> R. Paul Butler. The discovery was made by observing the change in the star's <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity as the planet's <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a> pulled it around. The measurements were made by observing the <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift of the star's <!--del_lnk--> spectrum. The planet, designated <a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris_b.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris b">47 Ursae Majoris b</a> was the first long-<!--del_lnk--> period extrasolar planet discovered. Unlike the majority of known long-period extrasolar planets, 47 Ursae Majoris b has a low-<!--del_lnk--> eccentricity orbit. The planet is at least 2.63 times the mass of <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> and takes 1,089 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a> to orbit its star. If located in our solar system, it would lie between the orbits of <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a> and Jupiter.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2001, preliminary astrometric measurements suggest the orbit of 47 Ursae Majoris b is <!--del_lnk--> inclined at an angle of 63.1° to the plane of the sky. If these measurements are confirmed, this implies the planet's true mass is around 2.9 times that of Jupiter.<p>A second planet, designated <a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris_c.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris c">47 Ursae Majoris c</a> was announced in <!--del_lnk--> 2002 by <!--del_lnk--> Debra Fischer, Geoffrey Marcy and R. Paul Butler. The discovery was made using the same <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity method used to detect the first planet. 47 Ursae Majoris c is also in a long-period orbit, taking around 2,594 days to complete. The eccentricity of the orbit is not as well known as that of the inner planet, though it is likely to be low.<p>The two known planets are in a similar configuration to Jupiter and <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn.htm" title="Saturn">Saturn</a> in our solar system: the ratio of orbital periods in both cases is close to 5:2, and the mass ratios are similar. The smaller scale and higher masses of the 47 Ursae Majoris system implies that the planets experience stronger mutual perturbations than Jupiter and Saturn do, which suggests the true masses of the planets are not much greater than the lower limits obtained by the radial velocity method.<p>Simulations suggest that the inner part of the <!--del_lnk--> habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris could host a terrestrial planet on a stable orbit, though the outer regions of the habitable zone would be disrupted by the gravitational influence of the planet 47 Ursae Majoris b. However, the presence of a giant planet within 2.5 <!--del_lnk--> AU of the star may have disrupted planet formation in the inner system, and reduced the amount of <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> delivered to inner planets during <!--del_lnk--> accretion. This may mean any <!--del_lnk--> terrestrial planets orbiting in the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris are likely to be small and dry.<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="text-align:center; border-collapse:collapse;"> <tr bgcolor="#A0B0FF"> <th>Companion<br /><small>(In order from star)</small></th> <th>Mass<br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> M<sub>J</sub>)</small></th> <th>Orbital period<br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a>)</small></th> <th>Semimajor axis<br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> AU)</small></th> <th>Eccentricity</th> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris_b.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris b">b</a></td> <td>>2.63 ± 0.23</td> <td>1089.0 ± 2.9</td> <td>2.13 ± 0.12</td> <td>0.061 ± 0.014</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris_c.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris c">c</a></td> <td>>0.79 ± 0.13</td> <td>2594 ± 90</td> <td>3.79 ± 0.24</td> <td>0.00 ± 0.12</td> </tr> </table> <p><a name="47_Ursae_Majoris_in_fiction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">47 Ursae Majoris in fiction</span></h2> <p>47 Ursae Majoris is the setting of the <!--del_lnk--> Coyote series by <!--del_lnk--> Allen Steele: much of the action takes place on Coyote, a fictional <a href="../../wp/p/Planetary_habitability.htm" title="Planetary habitability">habitable</a> <!--del_lnk--> moon of 47 Ursae Majoris b, which is named Bear in the books.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/47_Ursae_Majoris"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Star', 'Sun', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Solar system', 'Iron', 'Hydrogen', 'Helium', 'Gravity', '47 Ursae Majoris b', 'Jupiter', 'Day', 'Mars', '47 Ursae Majoris c', 'Saturn', 'Water', 'Day', '47 Ursae Majoris b', '47 Ursae Majoris c', 'Planetary habitability']
47_Ursae_Majoris_b	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="47 Ursae Majoris b,1996,47 Ursae Majoris,47 Ursae Majoris c,51 Pegasi b,70 Virginis b,Allen Steele,Ammonia,Apsis,Astrometric,Astronomical unit" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>47 Ursae Majoris b</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "47_Ursae_Majoris_b"; var wgTitle = "47 Ursae Majoris b"; var wgArticleId = 6056396; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-47_Ursae_Majoris_b"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">47 Ursae Majoris b</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>47 Ursae Majoris b</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><small><a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">Extrasolar planet</a></small></th> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Lists of extrasolar planets</small></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Parent star</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Star</b></td> <td><a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris">47 Ursae Majoris</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ursa Major</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>α</i>)</td> <td>10<sup>h</sup> 59<sup>m</sup> 28.0<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>δ</i>)</td> <td>+40° 25′ 49″</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G1V</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><!--del_lnk--> Orbital elements</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Semimajor axis</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td>2.13 ± 0.12 <!--del_lnk--> AU</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>e</i>)</td> <td>0.061 ± 0.014</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>P</i>)</td> <td>1089.0 ± 2.9 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Inclination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>i</i>)</td> <td> ?°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of<br /><!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ω</i>)</td> <td>172 ± 15°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Time of <!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>τ</i>)</td> <td>2,450,356 ± 34 <!--del_lnk--> JD</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Physical characteristics</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>m</i>)</td> <td>>2.63 ± 0.23 <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>M</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>r</i>)</td> <td> ? <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>R</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Density</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ρ</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> kg/<!--del_lnk--> m<sup>3</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>T</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Discovery information</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery date</b></td> <td>1996</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discoverer(s)</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Marcy, <!--del_lnk--> Butler et al.</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Detection method</b></td> <td>Doppler Spectroscopy</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery status</b></td> <td>Confirmed</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>47 Ursae Majoris b</b> is an <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</a> orbiting the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>-like <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> <a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris">47 Ursae Majoris</a>. It is located in a long-<!--del_lnk--> period, near-circular <!--del_lnk--> orbit and is the innermost known planet in its <!--del_lnk--> planetary system. 47 Ursae Majoris b was discovered in <!--del_lnk--> 1996 and has a <!--del_lnk--> mass at least 2.63 times that of <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2> <p>Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, 47 Ursae Majoris b was discovered by detecting the changes in its star's <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity as the planet's <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a> pulls the star around. This was achieved by observing the <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift of the <!--del_lnk--> spectrum of 47 Ursae Majoris. After the discovery of the first extrasolar planet around a Sun-like star, <!--del_lnk--> 51 Pegasi b, astronomers <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Marcy and <!--del_lnk--> R. Paul Butler searched through their observational data for signs of extrasolar planets and soon discovered two: 47 Ursae Majoris b and <!--del_lnk--> 70 Virginis b. The discovery of 47 Ursae Majoris b was announced in 1996.<p><a id="Orbit_and_mass" name="Orbit_and_mass"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Orbit and mass</span></h2> <p>47 Ursae Majoris b orbits at a distance of 2.13 <!--del_lnk--> AU from its star, taking 1,089 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a> to complete a <!--del_lnk--> revolution. It was the first long-period planet around a <!--del_lnk--> main sequence star to be discovered. Unlike the majority of known long-period extrasolar planets, the <!--del_lnk--> eccentricity of the orbit of 47 Ursae Majoris b is low. The planet lies close to a 2:5 <!--del_lnk--> orbital resonance with the outer planet <a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris_c.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris c">47 Ursae Majoris c</a>, a similar configuration to Jupiter and Saturn in our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>. In addition, the ratio of the masses of the two planets is similar to the mass ratio of Jupiter and Saturn.<p>A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect 47 Ursae Majoris b is that only a lower limit on the planet's mass can be obtained. Preliminary <!--del_lnk--> astrometric measurements suggest the planet's orbit is <!--del_lnk--> inclined at an angle of 63.1° to the plane of the sky. If confirmed, this would imply the true mass of the planet is around 2.9 times that of Jupiter. In any case, the mass cannot be much greater than the lower limit or the system would be unstable.<p><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2> <p>Given the planet's high mass, it is likely that 47 Ursae Majoris b is a <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" title="Gas giant">gas giant</a> with no <!--del_lnk--> solid surface. Since the planet has only been detected indirectly, properties such as its <!--del_lnk--> radius, composition and <!--del_lnk--> temperature are unknown. Assuming a composition similar to that of Jupiter and an environment close to <!--del_lnk--> chemical equilibrium, the upper atmosphere of the planet is expected to contain <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> <a href="../../wp/c/Cloud.htm" title="Cloud">clouds</a>, as opposed to the <a href="../../wp/a/Ammonia.htm" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> clouds typical of Jupiter.<p>While 47 Ursae Majoris b lies outside its star's <!--del_lnk--> habitable zone, its gravitational influence would disrupt the orbit of planets in the outer part of the habitable zone. In addition, it may have disrupted the formation of <!--del_lnk--> terrestrial planets and reduced the delivery of water to any inner planets in the system. Therefore planets located in the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris are likely to be small and dry.<p><a name="47_Ursae_Majoris_b_in_fiction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">47 Ursae Majoris b in fiction</span></h2> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Coyote series by <!--del_lnk--> Allen Steele is mainly set on Coyote, a fictional habitable <!--del_lnk--> moon of 47 Ursae Majoris b, which is named Bear in the books.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/47_Ursae_Majoris_b"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Extrasolar planet', '47 Ursae Majoris', 'Day', 'Jupiter', 'Jupiter', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Sun', 'Star', '47 Ursae Majoris', 'Jupiter', 'Gravity', 'Day', '47 Ursae Majoris c', 'Solar system', 'Gas giant', 'Water', 'Cloud', 'Ammonia']
47_Ursae_Majoris_c	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="47 Ursae Majoris c,2002,47 Ursae Majoris,47 Ursae Majoris b,Apsis,Asteroid belt,Astronomical unit,Constellation,Cubic metre,Day,Debra Fischer" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>47 Ursae Majoris c</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "47_Ursae_Majoris_c"; var wgTitle = "47 Ursae Majoris c"; var wgArticleId = 6056405; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-47_Ursae_Majoris_c"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">47 Ursae Majoris c</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>47 Ursae Majoris c</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><small><a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">Extrasolar planet</a></small></th> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Lists of extrasolar planets</small></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Parent star</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Star</b></td> <td><a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris">47 Ursae Majoris</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ursa Major</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>α</i>)</td> <td>10<sup>h</sup> 59<sup>m</sup> 28.0<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>δ</i>)</td> <td>+40° 25′ 49″</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G1V</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><!--del_lnk--> Orbital elements</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Semimajor axis</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td>3.79 ± 0.24 <!--del_lnk--> AU</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>e</i>)</td> <td>0.00 ± 0.12</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>P</i>)</td> <td>2594 ± 90 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Inclination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>i</i>)</td> <td> ?°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of<br /><!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ω</i>)</td> <td>127 ± 56°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Time of <!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>τ</i>)</td> <td>2,451,360 ± 500 <!--del_lnk--> JD</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Physical characteristics</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>m</i>)</td> <td>>0.79 ± 0.13 <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>M</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>r</i>)</td> <td> ? <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>R</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Density</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ρ</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> kg/<!--del_lnk--> m<sup>3</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>T</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Discovery information</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery date</b></td> <td>2002</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discoverer(s)</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Fischer, <!--del_lnk--> Butler,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Marcy, et al.</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Detection method</b></td> <td>Doppler Spectroscopy</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery status</b></td> <td>Confirmed</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>47 Ursae Majoris c</b> is an <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</a> orbiting the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>-like <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> <a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris">47 Ursae Majoris</a>, making one <!--del_lnk--> orbital revolution every 2,594 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a>. The planet was discovered in <!--del_lnk--> 2002 and has a <!--del_lnk--> mass at least 79% that of <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>. 47 Ursae Majoris is the outermost known planet in its <!--del_lnk--> planetary system.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2> <p>Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, 47 Ursae Majoris c was discovered by detecting changes in its star's <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity caused by the planet's <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. This was done by measuring the <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift of the star's <!--del_lnk--> spectrum.<p>At the time of discovery, 47 Ursae Majoris was already known to host one extrasolar planet, designated <a href="../../wp/4/47_Ursae_Majoris_b.htm" title="47 Ursae Majoris b">47 Ursae Majoris b</a>. Further measurements of the radial velocity revealed another periodicity in the data unaccounted for by the first planet. This periodicity could be fitted by assuming a second planet, designated 47 Ursae Majoris c existed in the system with an <!--del_lnk--> orbital period close to 7 <!--del_lnk--> years. Observations of the <!--del_lnk--> photosphere of 47 Ursae Majoris suggest that the periodicity could not be explained by stellar activity, making the planet interpretation more likely. The planet was announced in 2002.<p><a id="Orbit_and_mass" name="Orbit_and_mass"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Orbit and mass</span></h2> <p>47 Ursae Majoris c orbits further out than the previously-known planet 47 Ursae Majoris b, at a distance comparable to that of the outer <!--del_lnk--> asteroid belt in our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>. It is slightly less massive than <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>. The orbital <!--del_lnk--> eccentricity is not well constrained, but it is likely to be low. The planet is located close to the 5:2 <!--del_lnk--> orbital resonance with 47 Ursae Majoris b, a similar configuration to Jupiter and <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn.htm" title="Saturn">Saturn</a> in our solar system. In addition, the ratio of the masses of 47 Ursae Majoris b and c is similar to the mass ratio of Jupiter and Saturn.<p>A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect 47 Ursae Majoris c is that only a lower limit on the planet's mass can be obtained. This lower limit is 0.792 times the mass of Jupiter. Stability considerations suggest that the true mass of the planet is likely to lie close to this lower limit.<p><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2> <p>Since 47 Ursae Majoris c was detected indirectly, properties such as its <!--del_lnk--> radius, composition and <!--del_lnk--> temperature are unknown. Based on its high mass, the planet is likely to be a <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" title="Gas giant">gas giant</a> with no <!--del_lnk--> solid surface.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/47_Ursae_Majoris_c"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Extrasolar planet', '47 Ursae Majoris', 'Day', 'Jupiter', 'Jupiter', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Sun', 'Star', '47 Ursae Majoris', 'Day', 'Jupiter', 'Gravity', '47 Ursae Majoris b', 'Solar system', 'Jupiter', 'Saturn', 'Gas giant']
4_Vesta	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="4 Vesta,MinorPlanets Footer,MinorPlanets Footer,1807,1996,1 Ceres,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>4 Vesta</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "4_Vesta"; var wgTitle = "4 Vesta"; var wgArticleId = 47200; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-4_Vesta"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">4 Vesta</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width: 23em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"> <caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>4 Vesta <a class="image" href="../../images/162/16287.png.htm" title="Modern astrological symbol of Vesta"><img alt="Modern astrological symbol of Vesta" height="25" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vesta_symbol.svg" src="../../images/162/16285.png" width="25" /></a></b></caption> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: black; text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/245/24530.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="275" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vesta-HST.jpg" src="../../images/162/16286.jpg" width="275" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: .9em; line-height: 1.2em;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Discovery <sup><!--del_lnk--> A</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Discoverer</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Discovery date</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1807</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Alternate<br /> designations <sup><!--del_lnk--> B</sup></th> <td><i>none</i></td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Category</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Main belt (<!--del_lnk--> Vesta family)</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Orbital elements <sup><!--del_lnk--> C</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <center><small><!--del_lnk--> Epoch <!--del_lnk--> November 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 (<!--del_lnk--> JD 2453700.5)</small></center> </td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity <i>(e)</i></th> <td>0.08902</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Semi-major axis <i>(a)</i></th> <td>353.268 <!--del_lnk--> G<!--del_lnk--> m (2.361 <!--del_lnk--> AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Perihelion <i>(q)</i></th> <td>321.82 Gm (2.151 AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Aphelion <i>(Q)</i></th> <td>384.72 Gm (2.572 AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period <i>(P)</i></th> <td>1325.46 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a> (3.63 <!--del_lnk--> a)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mean orbital speed</th> <td>19.34 <!--del_lnk--> km/<!--del_lnk--> s</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Inclination <i>(i)</i></th> <td>7.133<!--del_lnk--> °</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of the<br /> ascending node <i>(Ω)</i></th> <td>103.926°</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Argument of<br /> perihelion <i>(ω)</i></th> <td>150.297°</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mean anomaly <i>(M)</i></th> <td>205.652°</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Physical characteristics <sup><!--del_lnk--> D</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Dimensions</th> <td>578×560×458 km </td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mass</th> <td>2.7×10<sup>20</sup> <!--del_lnk--> kg</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Density</th> <td>3.4 g/<!--del_lnk--> cm³</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Surface <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a></th> <td>0.22 m/s²</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Escape velocity</th> <td>0.35 km/s</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Rotation period</th> <td>0.2226 d</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Spectral class</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> V-type asteroid</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Absolute magnitude</th> <td>3.20</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Albedo (<!--del_lnk--> geometric)</th> <td>0.423 </td> </tr> <tr> <th>Mean surface<br /><!--del_lnk--> temperature</th> <td><i>min:</i> 85 <!--del_lnk--> K (-188° <!--del_lnk--> C)<br /><i>max:</i> 255 K (-18 °C)</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>4 Vesta</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈvɛstə/</span>, (<!--del_lnk--> key) <i>ves'-tə</i>) is the second most massive object in the <!--del_lnk--> asteroid belt, with a mean <!--del_lnk--> diameter of about 530 <!--del_lnk--> km and an estimated mass 9% the mass of the entire asteroid belt. Its size and unusually bright surface make Vesta the brightest asteroid, and the only one ever visible to the naked eye from <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a> besides <a href="../../wp/1/1_Ceres.htm" title="1 Ceres">1 Ceres</a>, which is visible under exceptional viewing conditions. Due to the availability of rock samples in the form of the <!--del_lnk--> HED meteorites, it has also been the most studied.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16284.png.htm" title="Size comparison: the first 10 asteroids profiled against Earth's Moon. Vesta is fourth from the left. (The leftmost object, 1 Ceres, is now classified as a dwarf planet)"><img alt="Size comparison: the first 10 asteroids profiled against Earth's Moon. Vesta is fourth from the left. (The leftmost object, 1 Ceres, is now classified as a dwarf planet)" height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Moon_and_Asteroids_1_to_10_at_10_km_per_px.png" src="../../images/162/16284.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16284.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Size comparison: the first 10 asteroids profiled against Earth's <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>. Vesta is fourth from the left. (The leftmost object, <a href="../../wp/1/1_Ceres.htm" title="1 Ceres">1 Ceres</a>, is now classified as a <!--del_lnk--> dwarf planet)</div> </div> </div> <p>Vesta was discovered by the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> <!--del_lnk--> astronomer <!--del_lnk--> Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers on <!--del_lnk--> March 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1807. He allowed the prominent <!--del_lnk--> mathematician <a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.htm" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> to name the asteroid after the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" title="Roman mythology">Roman</a> virgin <!--del_lnk--> goddess of home and hearth, <!--del_lnk--> Vesta.<p>After the discovery of Vesta in 1807, no further asteroids were discovered for 38 years. During this time the four known asteroids were counted among the planets, and each had its own planetary symbol. Vesta's symbol is a stylized hearth (see at top right of article).<br clear="left" /> <p><a id="Symbol_and_Terminology" name="Symbol_and_Terminology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Symbol and Terminology</span></h2> <p>When designated by a symbol, Vesta is normally represented by <a class="image" href="../../images/162/16287.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vesta_symbol.svg" src="../../images/162/16287.png" width="20" /></a>, but sometimes by <a class="image" href="../../images/6/663.png.htm" title="Old symbol of Vesta"><img alt="Old symbol of Vesta" height="18" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Vesta_%280%29.png" src="../../images/162/16288.png" width="12" /></a> or <a class="image" href="../../images/6/664.jpg.htm" title="Old planetary symbol of Vesta"><img alt="Old planetary symbol of Vesta" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:100px-Simbolo_di_Vesta.jpg" src="../../images/162/16289.jpg" width="13" /></a>. All are simplifications of the original <a class="image" href="../../images/162/16290.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="41" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Vesta_Unsimplified_Symbol.png" src="../../images/162/16290.png" width="27" /></a>.<br clear="left" /> <p>With <a href="../../wp/c/Ceres_%2528dwarf_planet%2529.htm" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a> reclassified as a <!--del_lnk--> dwarf planet in 2006, it has been suggested that the IAU may no longer consider Ceres an asteroid, which would make Vesta the largest asteroid in the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. It is possible that Vesta may be classified as a <!--del_lnk--> dwarf planet in the future, if it is proven that its shape is due to <!--del_lnk--> hydrostatic equilibrium.<p><a id="Physical_characteristics" name="Physical_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical characteristics</span></h2> <p>Vesta is the second-most-massive body in the <!--del_lnk--> asteroid belt. Vesta does have a differentiated interior . It is in the Inner Main Belt, which lies interior to the <!--del_lnk--> Kirkwood gap at 2.50 AU. It is similar to <!--del_lnk--> 2 Pallas in volume (to within uncertainty), but significantly more massive. Vesta's shape is relatively close to a gravitationally relaxed <!--del_lnk--> oblate spheroid , but the large concavity and protrusion at the pole (see 'Surface Features' below) precluded it from being considered a <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planet</a> under <!--del_lnk--> IAU Resolution XXVI 5. In any case, this resolution was rejected by the IAU membership and Vesta will continue to be called an asteroid.<p>Its rotation is relatively fast for an asteroid (5.342 h) and <!--del_lnk--> prograde, with the north pole pointing in the direction of <!--del_lnk--> right ascension 20 h 32 min, <!--del_lnk--> declination +48° with an uncertainty of about 10°. This gives an <!--del_lnk--> axial tilt of 29°.<p>Temperatures on the surface have been estimated to lie between about -20°<!--del_lnk--> C with the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> overhead, dropping to about -190°<!--del_lnk--> C at the winter pole. Typical day-time and night-time temperatures are -60°<!--del_lnk--> C and -130°<!--del_lnk--> C, respectively. This estimate is for <!--del_lnk--> May 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1996, very close to <!--del_lnk--> perihelion, while details vary somewhat with seasons .<p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h2> <p>For Vesta, there is a large collection of potential samples accessible to scientists, in the form of over 200 <!--del_lnk--> HED meteorites, giving insight into Vesta's geologic history and structure.<p>Vesta is thought to consist of a <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metallic</a> <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a>-<a href="../../wp/n/Nickel.htm" title="Nickel">nickel</a> <!--del_lnk--> core, an overlying rocky <!--del_lnk--> olivine <!--del_lnk--> mantle, with a surface <a href="../../wp/c/Crust_%2528geology%2529.htm" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a>. From the first appearance of <!--del_lnk--> Ca-Al-rich inclusions (the first solid matter in the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, forming about 4567 million years ago), a likely timeline is as follows:<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> accretion completed after about 2-3 million years.<li>Complete or almost complete melting due to <!--del_lnk--> radioactive decay of <sup>26</sup><a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">Al</a>, leading to separation of the metal core at about 4-5 million years.<li>Progressive crystallization of a <!--del_lnk--> convecting molten <!--del_lnk--> mantle. Convection stopped when about 80% of the material had crystallized, at about 6-7 million years.<li><!--del_lnk--> Extrusion of the remaining molten material to form the <a href="../../wp/c/Crust_%2528geology%2529.htm" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a>. Either as <!--del_lnk--> basaltic <!--del_lnk--> lavas in progressive <!--del_lnk--> eruptions, or possibly forming a short-lived <a href="../../wp/m/Magma.htm" title="Magma">magma</a> ocean.<li>The deeper layers of the crust <!--del_lnk--> crystallize to form <!--del_lnk--> plutonic rocks, while older <!--del_lnk--> basalts are <a href="../../wp/m/Metamorphic_rock.htm" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphosed</a> due to the pressure of newer surface layers.<li>Slow cooling of the interior.</ul> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16291.jpg.htm" title="Elevation diagram of 4 Vesta viewed from the south-east, showing the south pole crater. As determined from Hubble Space Telescope images of May 1996."><img alt="Elevation diagram of 4 Vesta viewed from the south-east, showing the south pole crater. As determined from Hubble Space Telescope images of May 1996." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vesta_elevation_HST1996.jpg" src="../../images/162/16291.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16291.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Elevation diagram of 4 Vesta viewed from the south-east, showing the south pole crater. As determined from <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> images of May 1996.</div> </div> </div> <p>Vesta is the only known intact asteroid that has been resurfaced in this manner. However, the presence of <!--del_lnk--> iron meteorites and <!--del_lnk--> achondritic meteorite classes without identified parent bodies indicates that there once were other differentiated <!--del_lnk--> planetesimals with <!--del_lnk--> igneous histories, which have since been shattered by impacts.<p>Vesta's crust is reasoned to consist of (in order of increasing depth):<ul> <li>A <!--del_lnk--> lithified <!--del_lnk--> regolith, the source of <!--del_lnk--> howardites and <!--del_lnk--> brecciated <!--del_lnk--> eucrites.<li><!--del_lnk--> Basaltic <!--del_lnk--> lava flows, a source of non-cumulate <!--del_lnk--> eucrites.<li>Plutonic rocks consisting of <!--del_lnk--> pyroxene, <!--del_lnk--> pigeonite and <!--del_lnk--> plagioclase, the source of cumulate <!--del_lnk--> eucrites.<li>Plutonic rocks rich in <!--del_lnk--> orthopyroxene with large grain sizes, the source of <!--del_lnk--> diogenites.</ul> <p>On the basis of the sizes of <!--del_lnk--> V-type asteroids (thought to be pieces of Vesta's crust ejected during large impacts), and the depth of the south polar crater (see below), the crust is thought to be roughly 10 <!--del_lnk--> km thick.<p><a id="Surface_features" name="Surface_features"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Surface features</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16292.jpg.htm" title="Elevation map of 4 Vesta, as determined from Hubble Space Telescope images of May 1996."><img alt="Elevation map of 4 Vesta, as determined from Hubble Space Telescope images of May 1996." height="141" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vesta_elevation_map_HST1996.jpg" src="../../images/162/16292.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16292.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Elevation map of 4 Vesta, as determined from <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> images of May 1996.</div> </div> </div> <p>Some Vestian surface features have been resolved using the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> and ground based telescopes, e.g. the <!--del_lnk--> Keck Telescope.<p>The most prominent surface feature is an enormous crater 460 <!--del_lnk--> km in diameter centered near the south pole. Its width is 80% of the entire diameter of Vesta. The floor of this crater is about 13 km below, and its rim rises 4-12 km above the surrounding terrain, with total surface relief of about 25 km. A central peak rises 18 km above the crater floor. It is estimated that the impact responsible excavated about 1% of the entire volume of Vesta, and it is likely that the <!--del_lnk--> Vesta family and <!--del_lnk--> V-type asteroids are the products of this collision. If this is the case, then the fact that 10 km fragments of the <!--del_lnk--> Vesta family and <!--del_lnk--> V-type asteroids have survived bombardment until the present indicates that the crater is only about 1 billion years old or younger. It would also be the original site of origin of the <!--del_lnk--> HED meteorites. In fact, all the known <!--del_lnk--> V-type asteroids taken together account for only about 6% of the ejected volume, with the rest presumably either in small fragments, ejected by approaching the 3:1 <!--del_lnk--> Kirkwood gap, or perturbed away by the <!--del_lnk--> Yarkovsky effect or <!--del_lnk--> radiation pressure. <!--del_lnk--> Spectroscopic analyses of the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble</a> images have shown that this crater has penetrated deep through several distinct layers of the crust, and possibly into the <!--del_lnk--> mantle which is indicated by spectral signatures of <!--del_lnk--> olivine. Interestingly Vesta was not disrupted nor resurfaced by an impact of this magnitude.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16293.jpg.htm" title="Spectral and albedo maps of 4 Vesta, as determined from Hubble Space Telescope images from November 1994."><img alt="Spectral and albedo maps of 4 Vesta, as determined from Hubble Space Telescope images from November 1994." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vesta_spectral_map_HST1994.jpg" src="../../images/162/16293.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/162/16293.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Spectral and <!--del_lnk--> albedo maps of 4 Vesta, as determined from <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> images from November 1994.</div> </div> </div> <p>Several other large craters about 150 km wide and 7 km deep are also present. A dark <!--del_lnk--> albedo feature about 200 km across has been named <i>Olbers</i> in honour of Vesta's discoverer, but it does not appear in <!--del_lnk--> elevation maps as a fresh crater would, and its nature is presently unknown, perhaps an old <!--del_lnk--> basaltic surface. It serves as a reference point with the 0° <!--del_lnk--> longitude <!--del_lnk--> prime meridian defined to pass through its centre.<p>The eastern and western hemispheres show markedly different terrains. From preliminary spectral analyses of the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> images, the eastern hemisphere appears to be some kind of high <!--del_lnk--> albedo, heavily cratered "highland" terrain with aged <!--del_lnk--> regolith, and craters probing into deeper plutonic layers of the crust. On the other hand, large regions of the western hemisphere are taken up by dark geologic units thought to be surface <!--del_lnk--> basalts, perhaps analogous to the <!--del_lnk--> lunar maria.<p><a id="Fragments" name="Fragments"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fragments</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/6/650.png.htm" title="4 Vesta and 1 Ceres alongside Earth's Moon."><img alt="4 Vesta and 1 Ceres alongside Earth's Moon." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Vesta_1_Ceres_Moon_at_20_km_per_px.png" src="../../images/6/650.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/6/650.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 4 Vesta and <a href="../../wp/1/1_Ceres.htm" title="1 Ceres">1 Ceres</a> alongside Earth's <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>Various small solar system objects are believed to be fragments of Vesta caused by collisions. The <!--del_lnk--> Vestoid asteroids and <!--del_lnk--> HED meteorites are examples. The <!--del_lnk--> V-type asteroid <!--del_lnk--> 1929 Kollaa has been determined to have a composition akin to cumulate <!--del_lnk--> eucrite meteorites, indicating its origin deep within Vesta's crust.<p>Because a number of meteorites are believed to be Vestian fragments, Vesta is currently one of only five identified <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">Solar system</a> bodies for which we have physical samples, the others being <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a>, the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>, comet <!--del_lnk--> Wild 2, and <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a> itself.<p><a id="Exploration_of_Vesta" name="Exploration_of_Vesta"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Exploration of Vesta</span></h2> <p>The first space mission to Vesta will be <!--del_lnk--> NASA's <i><!--del_lnk--> Dawn</i> <!--del_lnk--> probe, which will enter <!--del_lnk--> orbit around the asteroid for nine months in 2010-2011.<p> <br clear="all" /> <p><a id="Aspects" name="Aspects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aspects</span></h2> <table class="wikitable"> <tr> <th>Stationary,<br /> retrograde</th> <th>Opposition</th> <th>Distance to<br /> Earth (AU)</th> <th>Maximum<br /> brightness (mag)</th> <th>Stationary,<br /> prograde</th> <th>Conjunction<br /> to Sun</th> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> <td align="center">1.55042</td> <td align="center">6.2</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td align="center">1.14003</td> <td align="center">5.4</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2007</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> <td align="center">1.54136</td> <td align="center">6.5</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2008</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2010</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2010</td> <td align="center">1.40719</td> <td align="center">6.1</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2010</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2009</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td align="center">1.22987</td> <td align="center">5.6</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2011</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2010</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> October 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> <td align="center">1.58942</td> <td align="center">6.4</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2013</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2012</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> <td align="center">1.21837</td> <td align="center">5.7</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2014</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2013</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> <td align="center">1.43731</td> <td align="center">6.2</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2015</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> December 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2017</td> <td align="center">1.51465</td> <td align="center">6.2</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2017</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2016</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> June 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> <td align="center">1.14132</td> <td align="center">5.3</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> August 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2018</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 29, <!--del_lnk--> 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> September 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2019</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2019</td> <td align="center">1.57063</td> <td align="center">6.5</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2019</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> January 25, <!--del_lnk--> 2021</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> March 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2021</td> <td align="center">1.34751</td> <td align="center">6.0</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2021</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> July 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2020</td> </tr> </table> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_Vesta"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Day', 'Gravity', 'Earth', '1 Ceres', 'Moon', '1 Ceres', 'Germany', 'Carl Friedrich Gauss', 'Roman mythology', 'Ceres (dwarf planet)', 'Solar System', 'Planet', 'Sun', 'Metal', 'Iron', 'Nickel', 'Crust (geology)', 'Solar System', 'Aluminium', 'Crust (geology)', 'Magma', 'Metamorphic rock', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Hubble Space Telescope', '1 Ceres', 'Moon', 'Solar system', 'Mars', 'Moon', 'Earth']
4th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="4th century,402,401,400,403,404,406,405,400s,399,394" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>4th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "4th_century"; var wgTitle = "4th century"; var wgArticleId = 34643; var wgCurRevisionId = 89773619; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-4th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">4th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd century</a> - <b>4th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 300s <!--del_lnk--> 310s <!--del_lnk--> 320s <!--del_lnk--> 330s <!--del_lnk--> 340s <!--del_lnk--> 350s <!--del_lnk--> 360s <!--del_lnk--> 370s <!--del_lnk--> 380s <!--del_lnk--> 390s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, the <b>4th century</b> (per the <!--del_lnk--> Julian/<!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calendar and <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Anno Domini">anno Domini</a> era) was that <!--del_lnk--> century which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 301 to <!--del_lnk--> 400.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2> <p><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/244/24410.jpg.htm" title="Contemporary bronze head of Constantine I."><img alt="Contemporary bronze head of Constantine I." height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Musei_Capitolini-testa_bronzea_di_Costantino-antmoose.jpg" src="../../images/244/24410.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/244/24410.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Contemporary <!--del_lnk--> bronze <!--del_lnk--> head of <!--del_lnk--> Constantine I.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 301: <a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> first to adopt <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> as <!--del_lnk--> state religion<li><!--del_lnk--> 306–<!--del_lnk--> 337: <!--del_lnk--> Constantine I, ends persecution of <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christians</a> in the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, calls <a href="../../wp/f/First_Council_of_Nicaea.htm" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a>, see also <!--del_lnk--> Constantinian shift, <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople becomes new seat of government (<!--del_lnk--> New Rome)<li><!--del_lnk--> 378: <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Adrianople<li><!--del_lnk--> 378–<!--del_lnk--> 395: <!--del_lnk--> Theodosius I, Roman emperor, bans <!--del_lnk--> pagan worship, Christianity is made the official religion of the Empire.<li><!--del_lnk--> 383: <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Fei River in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a></ul> <p><a id="Significant_People" name="Significant_People"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant People</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Arius, founder of <!--del_lnk--> Arianism<li><!--del_lnk--> Athanasius, opponent of Arius<li>Saint <a href="../../wp/a/Augustine_of_Hippo.htm" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, theologian<li>Saint <!--del_lnk--> Ambrose, <!--del_lnk--> bishop of Milan<li><!--del_lnk--> Basil of Caesarea, reformer of <a href="../../wp/c/Christian_monasticism.htm" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Eusebius, famous Christian Church historian<li><!--del_lnk--> Frumentius, Apostle of Ethiopia<li><!--del_lnk--> Ge Hong, Chinese <a href="../../wp/a/Alchemy.htm" title="Alchemy">alchemist</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman Historian<li>Saint <!--del_lnk--> Martin of Tours<li><!--del_lnk--> Pachomius, founder of <a href="../../wp/c/Christian_monasticism.htm" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Ulfilas, apostle of the Goths<li><!--del_lnk--> Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo, King of ancient Korean state <!--del_lnk--> Goguryeo who greatly expanded its territory</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Kama Sutra<li><!--del_lnk--> Codex Sinaiticus, <!--del_lnk--> Codex Vaticanus, earliest Christian bibles</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 290s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 290</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 291</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 292</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 293</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 294</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 295</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 296</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 297</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 298</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 299</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 300s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 300</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 301</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 302</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 303</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 304</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 305</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 306</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 307</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 308</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 309</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 310s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 310</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 311</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 312</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 313</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 314</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 315</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 316</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 317</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 318</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 319</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 320s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 320</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 321</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 322</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 323</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 324</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 325</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 326</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 327</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 328</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 329</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 330s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 330</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 331</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 332</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 333</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 334</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 335</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 336</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 337</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 338</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 339</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 340s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 340</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 341</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 342</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 343</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 344</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 345</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 346</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 347</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 348</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 349</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 350s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 350</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 351</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 352</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 353</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 354</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 355</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 356</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 357</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 358</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 359</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 360s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 360</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 361</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 362</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 363</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 364</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 365</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 366</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 367</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 368</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 369</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 370s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 370</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 371</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 372</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 373</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 374</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 375</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 376</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 377</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 378</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 379</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 380s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 380</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 381</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 382</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 383</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 384</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 385</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 386</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 387</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 388</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 389</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 390s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 390</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 391</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 392</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 393</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 394</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 395</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 396</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 397</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 398</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 399</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 400s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 400</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 401</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 402</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 403</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 404</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 405</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 406</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 407</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 408</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 409</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <strong class="selflink">4th</strong></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8746 bytes Post-expand include size: 8649 bytes Template argument size: 484 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34643-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061124050047 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['3rd century', '5th century', 'Time', 'Anno Domini', 'Armenia', 'Christianity', 'Christianity', 'Roman Empire', 'First Council of Nicaea', 'China', 'Augustine of Hippo', 'Christian monasticism', 'Alchemy', 'Christian monasticism', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
55_Cancri	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="55 Cancri,1997,1998,2002,2004,2005,51 Pegasi,55 Cancri b,55 Cancri c,55 Cancri d,55 Cancri e" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>55 Cancri</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "55_Cancri"; var wgTitle = "55 Cancri"; var wgArticleId = 947736; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-55_Cancri"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">55 Cancri</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>55 Cancri AB</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;">Observation data<br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Epoch <!--del_lnk--> J2000.0</small></th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Cancer</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><b>55 Cancri A</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td>08<sup>h</sup> 52<sup>m</sup> 35.8<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td>+28° 19′ 51″</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Apparent magnitude <small>(V)</small></b></td> <td>5.95</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><b>55 Cancri B</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td>08<sup>h</sup> 52<sup>m</sup> 40.9<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td>+28° 19′ 59″</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Apparent magnitude <small>(V)</small></b></td> <td>13.15</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;">Characteristics</th> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G8V / M3.5-4V</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><b>B-V <!--del_lnk--> colour index</b></td> <td>0.86 / 1.66</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><b>U-B <!--del_lnk--> colour index</b></td> <td>0.65 / 1.21</td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Variable type</b></td> <td>none / ?</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;"><!--del_lnk--> Astrometry</th> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radial velocity <small>(R<sub>v</sub>)</small></b></td> <td>27.3 <!--del_lnk--> km/s</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Proper motion <small>(μ)</small></b></td> <td>RA: -485.46 <!--del_lnk--> mas/<!--del_lnk--> yr<br /> Dec.: -234.40 <!--del_lnk--> mas/<!--del_lnk--> yr</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Parallax <small>(π)</small></b></td> <td>79.80 ± 0.84 <!--del_lnk--> mas</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Distance</b></td> <td>40.9 ± 0.4 <!--del_lnk--> ly<br /> (12.5 ± 0.1 <!--del_lnk--> pc)</td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Absolute magnitude <small>(M<sub>V</sub>)</small></b></td> <td>5.46 / 12.66</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;">Details</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b></td> <td>0.95 / 0.13 <!--del_lnk--> <i>M</i><sub>☉</sub></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b></td> <td>1.1 / 0.30 <!--del_lnk--> <i>R</i><sub>☉</sub></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Luminosity</b></td> <td>0.61 / 0.0076 <!--del_lnk--> <i>L</i><sub>☉</sub></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b></td> <td>5240 / ? <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Metallicity</b></td> <td>186% / ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Rotation</b></td> <td>42 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a> / ?</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align: baseline;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Age</b></td> <td>5.5 × 10<sup>9</sup> <!--del_lnk--> years</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0;"><!--del_lnk--> Other designations</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <div style="width: 250px;">ρ<sup>1</sup> Cancri, <!--del_lnk--> Gl 324, <!--del_lnk--> BD +28°1660, <!--del_lnk--> HD 75732 <p><b>55 Cancri A</b><p><!--del_lnk--> HR 3522, <!--del_lnk--> LHS 2062, <!--del_lnk--> LTT 12310, <!--del_lnk--> GCTP 2117.00, <!--del_lnk--> SAO 80478, LFT 609, <!--del_lnk--> HIP 43587<p><b>55 Cancri B</b><!--del_lnk--> LHS 2063, <!--del_lnk--> LTT 12311, LFT 610</div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><b>55 Cancri</b> (abbreviated 55 Cnc) is a <a href="../../wp/b/Binary_star.htm" title="Binary star">binary star</a> located around 40 <!--del_lnk--> light-years away in the constellation <!--del_lnk--> Cancer. It has the <!--del_lnk--> Bayer designation Rho<sup>1</sup> Cancri. The system contains a <!--del_lnk--> yellow dwarf <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> (55 Cancri A) similar to our <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> and a <a href="../../wp/r/Red_dwarf.htm" title="Red dwarf">red dwarf</a> (55 Cancri B). The two components are separated by over 1000 times the distance from the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a> to the Sun.<p><!--del_lnk--> As of 2004, four <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planets</a> are known in orbit around 55 Cancri A. Three of the planets are comparable to <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> in mass, while the innermost planet has a mass similar to that of <a href="../../wp/n/Neptune.htm" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>. The 55 Cancri system was the first known four-planet extrasolar <!--del_lnk--> planetary system.<p>55 Cancri A is ranked 63rd in the list of top 100 target stars for the <!--del_lnk--> NASA <!--del_lnk--> Terrestrial Planet Finder mission.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Distance_and_visibility" name="Distance_and_visibility"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distance and visibility</span></h2> <p>The 55 Cancri system is located fairly close to our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>: the <!--del_lnk--> Hipparcos <!--del_lnk--> astrometry <!--del_lnk--> satellite measured the <!--del_lnk--> parallax of 55 Cancri A as 79.80 <!--del_lnk--> milliarcseconds, corresponding to a distance of 12.5 <!--del_lnk--> parsecs. 55 Cancri A has an <!--del_lnk--> apparent magnitude of 5.95, making it visible through <a href="../../wp/b/Binoculars.htm" title="Binoculars">binoculars</a>. It is just visible to the <!--del_lnk--> naked eye under very dark skies. The red dwarf 55 Cancri B is of the 13th magnitude and only visible through a <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescope</a>.<p><a id="System_components" name="System_components"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">System components</span></h2> <p>55 Cancri A is a yellow dwarf star of spectral type G8V. It has a similar mass to our Sun, but is cooler and less <!--del_lnk--> luminous. The star is more enriched than our sun in elements heavier than <a href="../../wp/h/Helium.htm" title="Helium">helium</a>: it is classified as a rare "super <!--del_lnk--> metal-rich" <!--del_lnk--> main sequence star and has around 186% the solar abundance of <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a>. This abundance of metal makes estimating the star's age and mass difficult, as <!--del_lnk--> evolutionary models are less well defined for such stars. One estimate based on <!--del_lnk--> chromospheric activity suggests an age of around 5,500 million <!--del_lnk--> years.<p>55 Cancri B is a red dwarf star located at an estimated distance of 1065 <!--del_lnk--> AU from the primary star, and is much less massive and luminous than our Sun. There are indications that this star may itself be a double star, though this is by no means certain.<p><a id="Planetary_system" name="Planetary_system"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Planetary system</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16309.png.htm" title="Comparison of the orbits of the inner planets of 55 Cancri (black) with the planets of our solar system."><img alt="Comparison of the orbits of the inner planets of 55 Cancri (black) with the planets of our solar system." height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:55CncInnerOrbits.svg" src="../../images/163/16309.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16309.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Comparison of the orbits of the inner planets of 55 Cancri (black) with the planets of our solar system.</div> </div> </div> <p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1997, the discovery of a <!--del_lnk--> 51 Pegasi-like planet <!--del_lnk--> orbiting 55 Cancri A was announced, together with the planet of <!--del_lnk--> Tau Boötis and the inner planet of <a href="../../wp/u/Upsilon_Andromedae.htm" title="Upsilon Andromedae">Upsilon Andromedae</a>. The planet was discovered by measuring the star's <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity, which showed a periodicity of around 14.7 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a> corresponding to a planet at least 78% of the mass of <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>. This planet was designated <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_b.htm" title="55 Cancri b">55 Cancri b</a>, though to distinguish it from the star 55 Cancri B it is occasionally referred to as 55 Cancri Ab. The radial velocity measurements still showed a drift unaccounted-for by this planet, which could be explained by the <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravitational</a> influence of a more distant object.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1998 discovery a possible dust disk around 55 Cancri A was announced. Calculations gave the disk radius at least 40 AU, similar to the <a href="../../wp/k/Kuiper_belt.htm" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a> in our solar system, with an inclination of 25° with respect to the plane of the sky. However, the discovery could not be verified and was later deemed to be spurious, caused instead by background radiation.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/247/24772.jpg.htm" title="Our solar system compared with the solar system of 55 Cancri"><img alt="Our solar system compared with the solar system of 55 Cancri" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Extrasolar_planet_NASA2.jpg" src="../../images/163/16310.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/247/24772.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> compared with the solar system of 55 Cancri</div> </div> </div> <p>After making further radial velocity measurements, a planet orbiting at a distance of around 5 AU was announced in <!--del_lnk--> 2002. This planet received the designation <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_d.htm" title="55 Cancri d">55 Cancri d</a>. At the time of discovery, the planet was thought to be in an orbit of mild <!--del_lnk--> eccentricity (close to 0.1), however this value was increased by later measurements. Even after accounting for these two planets, a periodicity at 43 days remained, possibly due to a third planet. Measurements of the star suggested that this was close to the star's rotation period, which raised the possibility that the 43-day signal was caused by stellar activity. This possible planet received the designation <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_c.htm" title="55 Cancri c">55 Cancri c</a>.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2004 a <a href="../../wp/n/Neptune.htm" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>-mass planet designated <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_e.htm" title="55 Cancri e">55 Cancri e</a> was announced in a 2.8-day orbit. This planet may either be a small <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" title="Gas giant">gas giant</a> or a large <!--del_lnk--> terrestrial planet. The measurements that led to the discovery of this planet also confirmed the existence of 55 Cancri c. In addition, astrometric measurements made by the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> led to an estimate of the <!--del_lnk--> inclination of the orbit of the outer planet: around 53° with respect to the plane of the sky. Assuming the system is <!--del_lnk--> coplanar, this means the true masses of the planets are around 25% greater than the lower limits measured by the radial velocity method.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16311.jpg.htm" title="55 Cnc planets"><img alt="55 Cnc planets" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:55cnc.jpg" src="../../images/163/16311.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16311.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 55 Cnc planets</div> </div> </div> <p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2005 the existence of planet e was questioned by <!--del_lnk--> Jack Wisdom in a reanalysis of the data. According to him, instead of the 2.8-day planet there is a planet with a mass similar to that of Neptune in a 261-day orbit (corresponding to 0.77 AU in distance). This analysis has not been confirmed.<p>Without taking the unconfirmed 261-day planet into account, simulations suggest that there is a wide stable region between the orbits of planets c and d which could contain additional planets. Models predict that one or more terrestrial planets could form in this gap, though such planets would be undetectable with present-day technology. This is of <!--del_lnk--> astrobiological interest since this region includes 55 Cancri A's <!--del_lnk--> habitable zone.<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="text-align:center; border-collapse:collapse;"> <tr bgcolor="#A0B0FF"> <th>Companion<br /><small>(In order from star)</small></th> <th>Mass<br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> M<sub>J</sub>)</small></th> <th>Orbital period<br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a>)</small></th> <th>Semimajor axis<br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> AU)</small></th> <th>Eccentricity</th> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_e.htm" title="55 Cancri e">e</a></td> <td>>0.045 ± 0.01</td> <td>2.81 ± 0.002</td> <td>0.038 ± 0.001</td> <td>0.174 ± 0.127</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_b.htm" title="55 Cancri b">b</a></td> <td>>0.784 ± 0.09</td> <td>14.67 ± 0.0006</td> <td>0.115 ± 0.003</td> <td>0.0197 ± 0.01</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_c.htm" title="55 Cancri c">c</a></td> <td>>0.217 ± 0.04</td> <td>43.93 ± 0.021</td> <td>0.240 ± 0.005</td> <td>0.44 ± 0.08</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_d.htm" title="55 Cancri d">d</a></td> <td>>3.92 ± 0.5</td> <td>4517.4 ± 77.8</td> <td>5.257 ± 0.9</td> <td>0.327 ± 0.28</td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55_Cancri"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Day', 'Binary star', 'Star', 'Sun', 'Red dwarf', 'Earth', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Jupiter', 'Neptune', 'Solar system', 'Binoculars', 'Telescope', 'Helium', 'Iron', 'Upsilon Andromedae', 'Day', 'Jupiter', '55 Cancri b', 'Gravity', 'Kuiper belt', 'Solar system', '55 Cancri d', '55 Cancri c', 'Neptune', '55 Cancri e', 'Gas giant', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Day', '55 Cancri e', '55 Cancri b', '55 Cancri c', '55 Cancri d']
55_Cancri_b	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="55 Cancri b,1996,2002,51 Pegasi b,55 Cancri,55 Cancri c,55 Cancri d,55 Cancri e,Absorption (optics),Alkali metal,Appearance of extrasolar planets" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>55 Cancri b</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "55_Cancri_b"; var wgTitle = "55 Cancri b"; var wgArticleId = 4958116; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-55_Cancri_b"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">55 Cancri b</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>55 Cancri b</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><small><a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">Extrasolar planet</a></small></th> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Lists of extrasolar planets</small></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Parent star</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Star</b></td> <td><a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" title="55 Cancri">55 Cancri A</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Cancer</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>α</i>)</td> <td>08<sup>h</sup> 52<sup>m</sup> 35.8<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>δ</i>)</td> <td>+28° 19′ 51″</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G8V</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><!--del_lnk--> Orbital elements</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Semimajor axis</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td>0.115 ± 0.003 <!--del_lnk--> AU</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>e</i>)</td> <td>0.0197 ± 0.01</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>P</i>)</td> <td>14.67 ± 0.0006 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Inclination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>i</i>)</td> <td> ?°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of<br /><!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ω</i>)</td> <td>131.49 ± 33°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Time of <!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>τ</i>)</td> <td>2,453,021.08 ± 0.01 <!--del_lnk--> JD</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Physical characteristics</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>m</i>)</td> <td>>0.784 ± 0.09 <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>M</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>r</i>)</td> <td> ? <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>R</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Density</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ρ</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> kg/<!--del_lnk--> m<sup>3</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>T</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Discovery information</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery date</b></td> <td>1996</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discoverer(s)</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Butler, <!--del_lnk--> Marcy</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Detection method</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Radial velocity</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery status</b></td> <td>Confirmed</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF">Other designations</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> <div style="width: 250px;">55 Cancri Ab, Rho<sup>1</sup> Cancri b, HD 75732 b</div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><b>55 Cancri b</b> (occasionally referred to as 55 Cancri Ab in order to distinguish it from the <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" title="55 Cancri">55 Cancri B</a>) is an <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</a> orbiting the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>-like star <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" title="55 Cancri">55 Cancri A</a> every 14.7 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a>. It is the second planet in order of distance from its star, and is an example of a <!--del_lnk--> hot Jupiter. Discovered in <!--del_lnk--> 1996 by <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Marcy and <!--del_lnk--> R. Paul Butler, 55 Cancri b was the fourth known extrasolar planet, excluding <!--del_lnk--> pulsar planets.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2> <p>Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, 55 Cancri b was discovered by detecting variations in its star's <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity caused by the planet's <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. By making sensitive measurements of the <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift of the <!--del_lnk--> spectrum of 55 Cancri A, a 15-day periodicity was detected. The planet was announced in 1996, together with the planet of <!--del_lnk--> Tau Boötis and the innermost planet of <a href="../../wp/u/Upsilon_Andromedae.htm" title="Upsilon Andromedae">Upsilon Andromedae</a>.<p>Even when this inner planet, with a <!--del_lnk--> mass at least 78% times that of <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> was accounted for, the star still showed a drift in its radial velocity. This eventually led to the discovery of the outer planet <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_d.htm" title="55 Cancri d">55 Cancri d</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 2002.<p><a id="Orbit_and_mass" name="Orbit_and_mass"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Orbit and mass</span></h2> <p>55 Cancri b is in a short-period orbit, though not so extreme as that of the previously-detected hot Jupiter <!--del_lnk--> 51 Pegasi b. The planet is in a 1:3 <!--del_lnk--> orbital resonance with the nearby planet <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_c.htm" title="55 Cancri c">55 Cancri c</a>.<p>A limitation of the radial velocity method used to discover the planet is that only a lower limit on the mass can be determined. <!--del_lnk--> Astrometric measurements made with the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> suggest that the outer planet is <!--del_lnk--> inclined at around 53° with respect to the plane of the sky. Assuming this measurement is correct and the planetary system is <!--del_lnk--> coplanar, the planet's true mass is 25% greater than the lower limit, at around 1 Jupiter mass.<p><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2> <p>Given the planet's high mass, it is likely that 55 Cancri b is a <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" title="Gas giant">gas giant</a> with no <!--del_lnk--> solid surface. Since the planet has only been detected indirectly, properties such as its <!--del_lnk--> radius, composition and <!--del_lnk--> temperature are unknown. Assuming a composition similar to that of Jupiter and that its environment is close to <!--del_lnk--> chemical equilibrium, 55 Cancri b is predicted to have a <a href="../../wp/c/Cloud.htm" title="Cloud">cloudless</a> upper <!--del_lnk--> atmosphere with a <!--del_lnk--> spectrum dominated by <!--del_lnk--> alkali metal <!--del_lnk--> absorption.<p>The planet is unlikely to have large <!--del_lnk--> moons, since <a href="../../wp/t/Tide.htm" title="Tide">tidal forces</a> would either eject them from orbit or destroy them on short timescales relative to the age of the system.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55_Cancri_b"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Extrasolar planet', '55 Cancri', 'Day', 'Jupiter', 'Jupiter', 'Star', '55 Cancri', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Sun', '55 Cancri', 'Day', 'Gravity', 'Upsilon Andromedae', 'Jupiter', '55 Cancri d', '55 Cancri c', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Gas giant', 'Cloud', 'Tide']
55_Cancri_c	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="55 Cancri c,2002,2004,55 Cancri,55 Cancri b,55 Cancri d,55 Cancri e,Apoapsis,Apsis,Astrometry,Astronomical unit" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>55 Cancri c</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "55_Cancri_c"; var wgTitle = "55 Cancri c"; var wgArticleId = 4958123; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-55_Cancri_c"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">55 Cancri c</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>55 Cancri c</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><small><a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">Extrasolar planet</a></small></th> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Lists of extrasolar planets</small></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Parent star</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Star</b></td> <td><a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" title="55 Cancri">55 Cancri A</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Cancer</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>α</i>)</td> <td>08<sup>h</sup> 52<sup>m</sup> 35.8<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>δ</i>)</td> <td>+28° 19′ 51″</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G8V</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><!--del_lnk--> Orbital elements</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Semimajor axis</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td>0.240 ± 0.005 <!--del_lnk--> AU</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>e</i>)</td> <td>0.44 ± 0.08</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>P</i>)</td> <td>43.93 ± 0.021 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Inclination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>i</i>)</td> <td> ?°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of<br /><!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ω</i>)</td> <td>244.39 ± 11°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Time of <!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>τ</i>)</td> <td>2,453,028.63 ± 0.25 <!--del_lnk--> JD</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Physical characteristics</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>m</i>)</td> <td>>0.217 ± 0.04 <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>M</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>r</i>)</td> <td> ? <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>R</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Density</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ρ</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> kg/<!--del_lnk--> m<sup>3</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>T</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Discovery information</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery date</b></td> <td>2002</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discoverer(s)</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Marcy et al.</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Detection method</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Radial velocity</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery status</b></td> <td>Confirmed</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF">Other designations</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> <div style="width: 250px;">Rho<sup>1</sup> Cancri c, HD 75732 c</div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><b>55 Cancri c</b> is an <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</a> in an <!--del_lnk--> eccentric orbit around the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>-like <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" title="55 Cancri">55 Cancri A</a>, making one <!--del_lnk--> revolution every 43.93 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a>. It is the third known planet in order of distance from its star. 55 Cancri c was discovered in <!--del_lnk--> 2002 and has a <!--del_lnk--> mass comparable to that of <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn.htm" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2> <p>Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, 55 Cancri c was detected by observing changes in its star's <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity. This was achieved by making sensitive measurements of the <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift of the star's <!--del_lnk--> spectrum. At the time of discovery, 55 Cancri A was already known to possess one planet (<a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_b.htm" title="55 Cancri b">55 Cancri b</a>), however there was still a drift in the radial velocity measurements which was unaccounted-for.<p>In 2002, further measurements revealed the presence of a long-period planet in an orbit at around 5 <!--del_lnk--> AU from the star. Even when both of the two planets were accounted for, there was still a periodicity at around 43 days. However this period is close to the rotation period of 55 Cancri A, which led to the possibility that the 43-day period was caused by stellar rotation rather than a planet. Both the 43-day planet (designated 55 Cancri c) and the 5 AU planet (designated <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_d.htm" title="55 Cancri d">55 Cancri d</a>) were announced in the same paper, labelled in order of increasing distance from the star.<p>Further measurements which led to the discovery of the inner planet <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_e.htm" title="55 Cancri e">55 Cancri e</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 2004 lent support to the planet hypotheseis, though 55 Cancri c remains the least certain of the system's three <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jovian</a>-mass planets.<p><a id="Orbit_and_mass" name="Orbit_and_mass"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Orbit and mass</span></h2> <p>The orbit of 55 Cancri c is highly eccentric: at <!--del_lnk--> apoapsis the planet is almost twice as far from its star as it is at <!--del_lnk--> periapsis. It is located closer to 55 Cancri A than <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528planet%2529.htm" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> is to our sun, though it has a longer orbital period than the <!--del_lnk--> hot Jupiters. The planet is in a 3:1 resonance with the inner planet 55 Cancri b, which may help to keep the system stable.<p>A limitation of the radial velocity method used to discover the planet is that only a lower limit on the <!--del_lnk--> mass can be obtained. However <!--del_lnk--> astrometric observations with the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> suggest that the outer planet 55 Cancri d is inclined at 53° to the plane of the sky. If this measurement is confirmed, and assuming the <!--del_lnk--> planetary system is <!--del_lnk--> coplanar, this would mean the true mass of 55 Cancri c is about 25% greater than this lower limit, at around 90% of the mass of Saturn.<p><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2> <p>Since the planet was detected indirectly through observations of its star, properties such as its <!--del_lnk--> radius, composition and <!--del_lnk--> temperature are unknown. With a mass similar to that of Saturn, 55 Cancri c is likely to be a <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" title="Gas giant">gas giant</a>.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55_Cancri_c"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Extrasolar planet', '55 Cancri', 'Day', 'Jupiter', 'Jupiter', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Sun', 'Star', '55 Cancri', 'Day', 'Saturn', '55 Cancri b', '55 Cancri d', '55 Cancri e', 'Jupiter', 'Mercury (planet)', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Gas giant']
55_Cancri_d	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="55 Cancri d,2002,2004,55 Cancri,55 Cancri b,55 Cancri c,55 Cancri e,Ammonia,Appearance of extrasolar planets,Apsis,Astrometry" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>55 Cancri d</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "55_Cancri_d"; var wgTitle = "55 Cancri d"; var wgArticleId = 4958132; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-55_Cancri_d"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">55 Cancri d</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>55 Cancri d</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><small><a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">Extrasolar planet</a></small></th> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Lists of extrasolar planets</small></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Parent star</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Star</b></td> <td><a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" title="55 Cancri">55 Cancri A</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Cancer</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>α</i>)</td> <td>08<sup>h</sup> 52<sup>m</sup> 35.8<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>δ</i>)</td> <td>+28° 19′ 51″</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G8V</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><!--del_lnk--> Orbital elements</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Semimajor axis</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td>5.257 ± 0.9 <!--del_lnk--> AU</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>e</i>)</td> <td>0.327 ± 0.28</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>P</i>)</td> <td>4517.4 ± 77.8 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Inclination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>i</i>)</td> <td> ?°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of<br /><!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ω</i>)</td> <td>234.73 ± 7°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Time of <!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>τ</i>)</td> <td>2,452,837.69 ± 68.87 <!--del_lnk--> JD</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Physical characteristics</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>m</i>)</td> <td>>3.92 ± 0.5 <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>M</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>r</i>)</td> <td> ? <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>R</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Density</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ρ</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> kg/<!--del_lnk--> m<sup>3</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>T</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Discovery information</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery date</b></td> <td>2002</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discoverer(s)</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Marcy et al.</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Detection method</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Radial velocity</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery status</b></td> <td>Confirmed</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF">Other designations</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> <div style="width: 250px;">Rho<sup>1</sup> Cancri d, HD 75732 d</div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><b>55 Cancri d</b> is an <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</a> in a long-period <!--del_lnk--> orbit around the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>-like star <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" title="55 Cancri">55 Cancri A</a>. Located at a similar distance from its star as <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> is from our Sun, it is the fourth and outermost known planet in its <!--del_lnk--> planetary system. 55 Cancri d was discovered in <!--del_lnk--> 2002.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2> <p>Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, 55 Cancri d was detected by observing changes in its star's <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity. This was achieved by making sensitive measurements of the <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift of the star's <!--del_lnk--> spectrum. At the time of discovery, 55 Cancri A was already known to possess one planet (<a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_b.htm" title="55 Cancri b">55 Cancri b</a>), however there was still a drift in the radial velocity measurements which was unaccounted-for.<p>In 2002, further measurements revealed the presence of a long-period planet in an orbit at around 5 <!--del_lnk--> AU from the star. The same measurements also indicated the presence of another inner planet, designated <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_c.htm" title="55 Cancri c">55 Cancri c</a>.<p><a id="Orbit_and_mass" name="Orbit_and_mass"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Orbit and mass</span></h2> <p>When 55 Cancri d was discovered, it was thought to be on a fairly low <!--del_lnk--> eccentricity orbit similar to Jupiter in our solar system, though the <!--del_lnk--> orbital elements were not well determined. Further observations of the star refined the estimates, revealing that the planet's orbit was in fact highly eccentric, more so than any of the planets in our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> (including <a href="../../wp/p/Pluto.htm" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>). The planet is thus an example of an <!--del_lnk--> eccentric Jupiter.<p>A limitation of the radial velocity method used to discover 55 Cancri d is that only a lower limit on the planet's <!--del_lnk--> mass can be obtained. In the case of 55 Cancri d, this lower limit was around 4 times the mass of <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> 2004, <!--del_lnk--> astrometric measurements with the Fine Guidance Sensors on the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> suggest that the planet's orbit is <!--del_lnk--> inclined by around 53° with respect to the plane of the sky. If this measurement is confirmed, it implies that the planet's true mass is 25% greater than the lower limit, at around 4.9 Jupiter masses.<p><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2> <p>Given the planet's high mass, at least 3.9 times that of Jupiter, it is likely that the planet is a <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" title="Gas giant">gas giant</a> with no <!--del_lnk--> solid surface. Since the planet has only been detected indirectly, parameters such as its <!--del_lnk--> radius, composition and <!--del_lnk--> temperature are unknown. Assuming a composition similar to that of Jupiter and that the planet's <!--del_lnk--> atmosphere is close to <!--del_lnk--> chemical equilibrium, it is predicted that 55 Cancri d is covered in a layer of <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> <a href="../../wp/c/Cloud.htm" title="Cloud">clouds</a>: the planet's internal <a href="../../wp/h/Heat.htm" title="Heat">heat</a> probably keeps it too warm to form the <a href="../../wp/a/Ammonia.htm" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>-based clouds that are typical of Jupiter.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55_Cancri_d"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Extrasolar planet', '55 Cancri', 'Day', 'Jupiter', 'Jupiter', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Sun', '55 Cancri', 'Jupiter', '55 Cancri b', '55 Cancri c', 'Solar system', 'Pluto', 'Jupiter', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Gas giant', 'Water', 'Cloud', 'Heat', 'Ammonia']
55_Cancri_e	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="55 Cancri e,2004,2005,55 Cancri,55 Cancri b,55 Cancri c,55 Cancri d,Apsis,Astrometry,Astronomical unit,Astronomy and Astrophysics" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>55 Cancri e</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "55_Cancri_e"; var wgTitle = "55 Cancri e"; var wgArticleId = 4958097; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-55_Cancri_e"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">55 Cancri e</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption style="margin-left: inherit;"><b>55 Cancri e</b></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><small><a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">Extrasolar planet</a></small></th> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Lists of extrasolar planets</small></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/163/16312.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Newneptune.jpg" src="../../images/163/16312.jpg" width="250" /></a><br /> <center><small>Artist's impression of 55 Cancri e</small></center> </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Parent star</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Star</b></td> <td><a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" title="55 Cancri">55 Cancri A</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Cancer</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>α</i>)</td> <td>08<sup>h</sup> 52<sup>m</sup> 35.8<sup>s</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Declination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>δ</i>)</td> <td>+28° 19′ 51″</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spectral type</b></td> <td>G8V</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;"><!--del_lnk--> Orbital elements</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Semimajor axis</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td>0.038 ± 0.001 <!--del_lnk--> AU</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>e</i>)</td> <td>0.174 ± 0.127</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>P</i>)</td> <td>2.81 ± 0.002 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Inclination</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>i</i>)</td> <td> ?°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of<br /><!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ω</i>)</td> <td>261.65 ± 41°</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Time of <!--del_lnk--> periastron</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>τ</i>)</td> <td>2,453,295.31 ± 0.32 <!--del_lnk--> JD</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Physical characteristics</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Mass</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>m</i>)</td> <td>>0.045 ± 0.01 <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>M</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Radius</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>r</i>)</td> <td> ? <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter"><i>R</i><sub>J</sub></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Density</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>ρ</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> kg/<!--del_lnk--> m<sup>3</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Temperature</b></td> <td style="text-align: center">(<i>T</i>)</td> <td> ? <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF;">Discovery information</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery date</b></td> <td>2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discoverer(s)</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> McArthur et al.</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Detection method</b></td> <td>Radial velocity</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b>Discovery status</b></td> <td>Challenged</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background-color: #A0B0FF">Other designations</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> <div style="width: 250px;">Rho<sup>1</sup> Cancri e, HD 75732 e</div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><b>55 Cancri e</b> is an <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</a> with a <!--del_lnk--> mass similar to that of <a href="../../wp/n/Neptune.htm" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> orbiting the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>-like <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" title="55 Cancri">55 Cancri A</a>. It takes less than three <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">days</a> to complete an <!--del_lnk--> orbit and is the innermost known planet in its <!--del_lnk--> planetary system. 55 Cancri e was discovered in <!--del_lnk--> 2004.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2> <p>Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, 55 Cancri e was discovered by detecting variations in its star's <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity. This was achieved by making sensitive measurements of the <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift of the <!--del_lnk--> spectrum of 55 Cancri A. At the time of its discovery, three other planets were known orbiting the star. After accounting for these planets, a signal at around 2.8 days remained, which could be explained by a planet of at least 14.2 <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a> masses in a very close orbit. The same measurements were used to confirm the existence of the uncertain planet <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_c.htm" title="55 Cancri c">55 Cancri c</a>.<p>55 Cancri e was one of the first extrasolar planets with a mass comparable to that of Neptune to be discovered. It was announced at the same time as another "hot Neptune" orbiting the <a href="../../wp/r/Red_dwarf.htm" title="Red dwarf">red dwarf</a> star <!--del_lnk--> Gliese 436.<p><a id="Planet_challenged" name="Planet_challenged"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Planet challenged</span></h3> <p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2005 the existence of planet e was questioned by <!--del_lnk--> Jack Wisdom in a reanalysis of the data. According to him, instead of the 2.8-day planet there is a planet with a mass similar to that of Neptune in a 261-day orbit around 55 Cancri A. This analysis has not been confirmed.<p><a id="Orbit_and_mass" name="Orbit_and_mass"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Orbit and mass</span></h2> <p>55 Cancri e is located in a very close orbit around the star which takes less than three days to complete and falls into the category of "hot Neptunes". The planet's orbit is fairly <!--del_lnk--> eccentric, a result of interactions with the nearby <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>-mass planet <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_b.htm" title="55 Cancri b">55 Cancri b</a> which prevent <a href="../../wp/t/Tide.htm" title="Tide">tidal forces</a> from circularising the orbit.<p>A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect 55 Cancri e is that only a minimum mass can be obtained, in this case around 14.2 times that of Earth, or 80% of the mass of Neptune. <!--del_lnk--> Astrometric observations made with the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> suggest that the outer planet <a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_d.htm" title="55 Cancri d">55 Cancri d</a> is inclined at 53° with respect to the plane of the sky. If these measurements are confirmed and the system is assumed to be <!--del_lnk--> coplanar, the true mass of the planet would therefore be about 25% greater than this lower limit, at around 1 Neptune mass.<p><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2> <p>Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through its <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravitational</a> influence on 55 Cancri A, properties such as its <!--del_lnk--> radius, composition and <!--del_lnk--> temperature are unknown. It is also unknown whether it is a small <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" title="Gas giant">gas giant</a> like Neptune or a large <!--del_lnk--> terrestrial planet. Large terrestrial planets may be formed from material compacted by the inward <!--del_lnk--> migration of the system's gas giants. Alternatively 55 Cancri e may be the <!--del_lnk--> core of a gas giant pushed inwards before it had time to accumulate a significant gaseous envelope.<p>It is considered unlikely that the planet is the evaporated remnant of a gas giant (a <!--del_lnk--> chthonian planet). The existence of transiting <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jovian</a> planets in short period orbits indicates that gas giants can survive for long timescales in the inner regions of a planetary system.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55_Cancri_e"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Extrasolar planet', '55 Cancri', 'Day', 'Jupiter', 'Jupiter', 'Extrasolar planet', 'Neptune', 'Sun', 'Star', '55 Cancri', 'Day', 'Earth', '55 Cancri c', 'Red dwarf', 'Jupiter', '55 Cancri b', 'Tide', 'Hubble Space Telescope', '55 Cancri d', 'Gravity', 'Gas giant', 'Jupiter']
5th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="5th century,494,493,492,495,496,499,498,497,491,490" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>5th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "5th_century"; var wgTitle = "5th century"; var wgArticleId = 34742; var wgCurRevisionId = 89773462; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-5th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">5th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th century</a> - <b><strong class="selflink">5th century</strong></b> - <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 400s <!--del_lnk--> 410s <!--del_lnk--> 420s <!--del_lnk--> 430s <!--del_lnk--> 440s <!--del_lnk--> 450s <!--del_lnk--> 460s <!--del_lnk--> 470s <!--del_lnk--> 480s <!--del_lnk--> 490s</td> </tr> </table> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/432.png.htm" title="Europe in 450"><img alt="Europe in 450" height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Europe_map_450.PNG" src="../../images/4/432.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/432.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Europe in 450</div> </div> </div> <p>The <b>5th century</b> is the period from <!--del_lnk--> 401 - <!--del_lnk--> 500 in accordance with the <!--del_lnk--> Julian calendar in the <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Christian Era">Christian Era</a>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2> <p>The events for which the 5th century is best known for is the <!--del_lnk--> Fall of Rome to <!--del_lnk--> Germanic tribes, ending the 600-year rule of the Romans in <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe. The <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> continued as the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in the Eastern Mediterranean until <!--del_lnk--> 1453. Other notable events include the founding of <!--del_lnk--> Chichen Itza and the writing of <!--del_lnk--> The City of God by <a href="../../wp/a/Augustine_of_Hippo.htm" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a>.<p><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/435.jpg.htm" title="Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor"><img alt="Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor" height="156" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Solidus_Romulus_Augustus-RIC_3406.jpg" src="../../images/4/435.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/435.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>410: <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> sacked by <!--del_lnk--> Visigoths, <a href="../../wp/a/Augustine_of_Hippo.htm" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a> writes <!--del_lnk--> The City of God<li>439: <!--del_lnk--> Vandals conquer <!--del_lnk--> Carthage<li>At some point after 440, the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxons settle in <!--del_lnk--> Britain. The traditional story is that they were invited there by <!--del_lnk--> Vortigern.<li>452: <!--del_lnk--> Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with <a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" title="Attila the Hun">Attila the Hun</a> and convinces him not to sack Rome<li>455: Vandals sack Rome<li>455: <!--del_lnk--> Chichen Itza of Mexico founded<li>476, August 28: Deposition of <!--del_lnk--> Romulus Augustulus by <!--del_lnk--> Odoacer: traditional date for the <!--del_lnk--> Fall of Rome.<li>480: Death of <!--del_lnk--> Julius Nepos in <!--del_lnk--> Dalmatia, the last <!--del_lnk--> de jure <!--del_lnk--> Western Roman Emperor.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> reaches <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.<li>According to the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Mormon, <!--del_lnk--> Moroni buries the <!--del_lnk--> Golden Plates and ends the record around <!--del_lnk--> 421.<li><a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesian</a> settlers reach <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hopewell culture ends.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_persons" name="Significant_persons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant persons</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Agatharcos - Greek artist<li><!--del_lnk--> Flavius Aëtius, last of the great Roman generals<li><!--del_lnk--> Alaric I, king of the <!--del_lnk--> Visigoths that sacked <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a><li><a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" title="Attila the Hun">Attila the Hun</a><li><a href="../../wp/a/Augustine_of_Hippo.htm" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, bishop, theologian<li><!--del_lnk--> Bodhidharma, founder of <!--del_lnk--> Zen Buddhism<li><!--del_lnk--> John Chrysostom, <!--del_lnk--> Patriarch of Constantinople<li><!--del_lnk--> Cyril of Alexandria, <!--del_lnk--> Patriarch of Alexandria<li><!--del_lnk--> Faxian, Chinese Buddhist monk<li><!--del_lnk--> Hawaiiloa, discovered and settled Hawaii<li><!--del_lnk--> Huiyuan, Chinese Buddhist<li><!--del_lnk--> Hypatia of Alexandria, woman philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> St. Jerome hermit, cleric, <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a> translator<li><!--del_lnk--> Pope Leo I<li><!--del_lnk--> Saint Mesrob, Armenian monk<li><!--del_lnk--> Niall Noigiallach, founder of one of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>'s greatest dynasties.<li><!--del_lnk--> St. Patrick, completed the conversion to Christianity in Ireland<li><!--del_lnk--> Socrates Scholasticus, Byzantine Church historian<li><!--del_lnk--> Sozomen, Christian church historian<li><!--del_lnk--> Theoderic the Great, Ostrogothic king</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> stirrup invented in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a><li>heavy <!--del_lnk--> plow in use in Slavic lands<li>metal <!--del_lnk--> horseshoes become common in <!--del_lnk--> Gaul<li><!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon Futhorc alphabet used in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Armenian alphabet created by <!--del_lnk--> Mesrob Mashtots c. <!--del_lnk--> 405</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 390s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 390</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 391</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 392</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 393</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 394</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 395</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 396</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 397</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 398</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 399</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 400s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 400</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 401</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 402</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 403</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 404</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 405</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 406</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 407</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 408</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 409</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 410s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 410</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 411</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 412</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 413</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 414</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 415</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 416</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 417</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 418</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 419</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 420s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 420</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 421</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 422</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 423</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 424</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 425</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 426</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 427</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 428</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 429</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 430s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 430</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 431</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 432</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 433</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 434</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 435</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 436</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 437</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 438</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 439</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 440s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 440</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 441</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 442</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 443</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 444</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 445</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 446</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 447</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 448</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 449</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 450s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 450</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 451</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 452</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 453</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 454</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 455</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 456</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 457</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 458</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 459</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 460s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 460</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 461</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 462</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 463</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 464</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 465</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 466</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 467</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 468</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 469</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 470s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 470</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 471</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 472</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 473</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 474</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 475</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 476</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 477</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 478</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 479</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 480s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 480</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 481</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 482</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 483</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 484</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 485</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 486</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 487</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 488</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 489</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 490s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 490</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 491</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 492</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 493</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 494</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 495</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 496</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 497</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 498</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 499</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 500s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 500</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 501</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 502</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 503</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 504</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 505</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 506</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 507</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 508</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 509</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <strong class="selflink">5th</strong></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8746 bytes Post-expand include size: 8653 bytes Template argument size: 488 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34742-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061124045922 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['4th century', '6th century', 'Christian Era', 'Roman Empire', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Augustine of Hippo', 'Rome', 'Augustine of Hippo', 'Attila the Hun', 'Buddhism', 'Myanmar', 'Indonesia', 'Africa', 'Indonesia', 'Madagascar', 'Rome', 'Attila the Hun', 'Augustine of Hippo', 'Bible', 'Ireland', 'China', 'England', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
6-2-0	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="6-2-0,0-10-0,0-10-2,0-12-0,0-2-2,0-4-0,0-4-2,0-4-4,0-4-4-0,0-4-4-2,0-6-0" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>6-2-0</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "6-2-0"; var wgTitle = "6-2-0"; var wgArticleId = 1118152; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-6-2-0"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">6-2-0</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16313.jpg.htm" title="A drawing of a C&A 6-2-0, circa 1847."><img alt="A drawing of a C&A 6-2-0, circa 1847." height="275" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Crampton_Camden_and_Amboy_RR.jpg" src="../../images/163/16313.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16313.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A drawing of a <!--del_lnk--> C&A 6-2-0, circa 1847.</div> </div> </div> <p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Whyte notation, a <b>6-2-0</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> railroad <!--del_lnk--> steam locomotive that has an unpowered three-axle <!--del_lnk--> leading truck followed by a single powered <!--del_lnk--> driving axle. This <!--del_lnk--> wheel arrangement is often referred to as a <b><!--del_lnk--> Crampton</b>, though that term can refer to some <a href="../../wp/4/4-2-0.htm" title="4-2-0">4-2-0</a> locomotives as well.<p>The equivalent <!--del_lnk--> UIC classification is <b>3'A</b>.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p>The 6-2-0 was one of the earlier wheel arrangements that was experimented with in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> after having proven itself on early <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> railways.<p>On a trip to England, <!--del_lnk--> Robert L. Stevens, president of the <!--del_lnk--> Camden and Amboy (C&A) railroad, saw demonstrations of 6-2-0s on the railways there. When he returned in 1847, Stevens asked his master mechanic <!--del_lnk--> Isaac Dripps to build him a 6-2-0 for use on the C&A. The specifications for the first 6-2-0 included a 38" diameter boiler that would burn <!--del_lnk--> anthracite coal and 96" diameter driving wheels.<p>Designing the locomotive type to burn coal, which was still fairly expensive and difficult to come by, was unusual for the time. The great majority of locomotives of the 1830s and 1840s were built to burn wood, which was very plentiful, cheap and exceptionally easy to obtain along the railroad rights of way. Besides being more expensive, coal required a larger <!--del_lnk--> firebox in which to burn. Dripps rose to the challenge and created an operable design.<p>The first locomotive based on these specifications, named <i><!--del_lnk--> John Stevens</i>, was completed in 1849. Dripps wasn't too sure that the locomotive would prove effective on American railroads, and his reservations turned out to be correct. The locomotive's tractive effort was not sufficient for long term or heavy work. With only one driving axle and three unpowered leading axles, too much of the locomotive's weight was spread over the unpowered lead truck. Almost a century passed before a six-wheel leading truck was used again, on the <!--del_lnk--> PRR S1 and <!--del_lnk--> S2.<p>The C&A's management, on the other hand, thought it performed admirably enough to order several more of them and place them in passenger service. The 6-2-0s were in use as late as 1865.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6-2-0"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['4-2-0', 'United States', 'England']
6th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="6th century,10th century,10th century BC,11th century,11th century BC,12th century,12th century BC,13th century,13th century BC,14th century,14th century BC" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>6th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "6th_century"; var wgTitle = "6th century"; var wgArticleId = 34741; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-6th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">6th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th century</a> - <b>6th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 500s <!--del_lnk--> 510s <!--del_lnk--> 520s <!--del_lnk--> 530s <!--del_lnk--> 540s <!--del_lnk--> 550s <!--del_lnk--> 560s <!--del_lnk--> 570s <!--del_lnk--> 580s <!--del_lnk--> 590s</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>6th century</b> is the period from <!--del_lnk--> 501 - <!--del_lnk--> 600 in accordance with the <!--del_lnk--> Julian calendar in the <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Christian Era">Christian Era</a>.<table class="infobox sisterproject"> <tr> <td style="width:50px; height:67px;"> <div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="67" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Commons-logo.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="50" /></span></div> </td> <td style="padding-left:5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Wikimedia Commons has media related to: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><i><b><!--del_lnk--> 6th century</b></i></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/436.jpg.htm" title="This Buddhist stela from China, Northern Wei period, was built in the early 6th century."><img alt="This Buddhist stela from China, Northern Wei period, was built in the early 6th century." height="438" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buddhist_Stela_Northern_Wei_period.jpg" src="../../images/4/436.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/436.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This <!--del_lnk--> Buddhist <!--del_lnk--> stela from <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Northern Wei period, was built in the early 6th century.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>The first academy of the east the Academy of <!--del_lnk--> Gundeshapur founded in <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> by <!--del_lnk--> Khosrau I of Persia.<li><a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Irish</a> colonists and invaders, the Scots, began migrating to <!--del_lnk--> Caledonia (later known as <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Glendalough <!--del_lnk--> monastery, <!--del_lnk--> Wicklow <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> founded by <!--del_lnk--> St. Kevin<li>The monastery on <!--del_lnk--> Iona is founded by <a href="../../wp/c/Columba.htm" title="Columba">St. Columban</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Zen <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhists</a> enter <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> from <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>.<li>Buddhist <!--del_lnk--> Jataka stories are translated into <!--del_lnk--> Persian by order of the <!--del_lnk--> Zoroastrian king <!--del_lnk--> Khosrau.<li>537: <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Camlann, final battle of <a href="../../wp/k/King_Arthur.htm" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a><li><a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> introduced to <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> from <!--del_lnk--> Baekje in <!--del_lnk--> 552, thus contributing to the changes that occurred in the <!--del_lnk--> Asuka period.<li>Outbreak of <!--del_lnk--> bubonic plague in <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople and the rest of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Plague of Justinian).<li>Establishment of <!--del_lnk--> Karantania, first stable and independent state of <!--del_lnk--> Slovenians and of <!--del_lnk--> Slavs.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Kutriguri <!--del_lnk--> Bulgars move into modern <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a>.<li><a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> influence in <!--del_lnk--> Aksum.<li><!--del_lnk--> Nubia is largely converted to <!--del_lnk--> Coptic Christianity.<li>The area of modern <!--del_lnk--> Aargau falls to the <a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" title="Franks">Franks</a>.<li>The Kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Funan dies out.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Black_Death.htm" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> raged over south east Asia.<li><!--del_lnk--> Silk Road farther into Europe.<li>589-618: <!--del_lnk--> Sui Dynasty of China<li><!--del_lnk--> Old Irish language develops<li><!--del_lnk--> Old Dutch <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a> develops</ul> <p><a id="Significant_persons" name="Significant_persons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant persons</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Pope Gregory the Great (590-604)<li><a href="../../wp/k/King_Arthur.htm" title="King Arthur">Arthur</a>, defeated the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxons<li><!--del_lnk--> Justinian, <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine Emperor (527-565)<li><!--del_lnk--> Khosrau I of Persia, <!--del_lnk--> Sassanid king (531-579)<li><!--del_lnk--> Belisarius, last great Roman general<li><!--del_lnk--> Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beowulf, (fictional?) <!--del_lnk--> king of the Geats<li><!--del_lnk--> Jordanes, author of the <!--del_lnk--> Getica.<li><!--del_lnk--> Procopius, <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> historian.<li><!--del_lnk--> Bozorgmehr, <!--del_lnk--> Persian sage.<li><a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, prophet of <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>, born cca in <!--del_lnk--> 570.<li><!--del_lnk--> Empress Suiko of Japan<li><!--del_lnk--> Taliesin, Welsh poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Abraham Kidunaia<li><!--del_lnk--> Austell</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Dionysius Exiguus creates the <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Anno Domini">Anno Domini</a> system, inspired by the alleged birth of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, in <!--del_lnk--> 525. This is the system upon which the <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calendar and <!--del_lnk--> Common Era systems are based.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Backgammon.htm" title="Backgammon">Backgammon</a> (<i>nard</i>) invented in <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persia</a> by <!--del_lnk--> Burzoe<li><a href="../../wp/c/Chess.htm" title="Chess">Chess</a>, as <!--del_lnk--> chaturanga, entered <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persia</a> from <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and was modified to <!--del_lnk--> shatranj.<li><!--del_lnk--> Breast-strap horse harness in use in <a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" title="Franks">Frankish</a> kingdom<li><a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> acquires silk technology from China<li>Vaghbata, Indian medical books</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 490s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 490</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 491</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 492</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 493</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 494</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 495</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 496</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 497</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 498</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 499</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 500s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 500</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 501</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 502</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 503</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 504</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 505</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 506</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 507</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 508</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 509</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 510s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 510</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 511</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 512</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 513</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 514</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 515</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 516</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 517</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 518</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 519</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 520s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 520</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 521</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 522</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 523</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 524</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 525</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 526</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 527</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 528</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 529</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 530s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 530</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 531</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 532</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 533</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 534</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 535</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 536</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 537</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 538</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 539</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 540s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 540</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 541</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 542</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 543</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 544</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 545</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 546</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 547</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 548</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 549</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 550s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 550</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 551</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 552</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 553</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 554</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 555</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 556</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 557</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 558</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 559</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 560s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 560</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 561</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 562</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 563</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 564</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 565</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 566</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 567</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 568</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 569</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 570s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 570</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 571</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 572</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 573</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 574</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 575</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 576</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 577</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 578</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 579</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 580s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 580</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 581</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 582</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 583</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 584</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 585</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 586</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 587</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 588</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 589</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 590s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 590</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 591</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 592</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 593</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 594</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 595</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 596</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 597</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 598</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 599</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 600s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 600</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 601</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 602</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 603</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 604</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 605</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 606</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 607</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 608</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 609</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <strong class="selflink">6th</strong></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 10162 bytes Post-expand include size: 8951 bytes Template argument size: 506 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34741-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061204102938 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['5th century', '7th century', 'Christian Era', 'China', 'Iran', 'Ireland', 'Scotland', 'Ireland', 'Columba', 'Buddhism', 'Vietnam', 'China', 'King Arthur', 'Buddhism', 'Japan', 'Roman Empire', 'Romania', 'Jew', 'Franks', 'Black Death', 'Language', 'King Arthur', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Muhammad', 'Islam', 'Anno Domini', 'Jesus', 'Backgammon', 'Iran', 'Chess', 'Iran', 'India', 'Franks', 'Byzantine Empire', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '7th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
7th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="7th century,697,696,695,698,699,701,700,700s,694,693" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>7th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "7th_century"; var wgTitle = "7th century"; var wgArticleId = 34735; var wgCurRevisionId = 92254448; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-7th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">7th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th century</a> - <b><strong class="selflink">7th century</strong></b> - <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 600s <!--del_lnk--> 610s <!--del_lnk--> 620s <!--del_lnk--> 630s <!--del_lnk--> 640s <!--del_lnk--> 650s <!--del_lnk--> 660s <!--del_lnk--> 670s <!--del_lnk--> 680s <!--del_lnk--> 690s</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>7th century</b> is the period from <!--del_lnk--> 601 - <!--del_lnk--> 700 in accordance with the <!--del_lnk--> Julian calendar in the <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Christian Era">Christian Era</a>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2> <p><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/8/832.jpg.htm" title=" The first surah in a handwritten copy of the Qur'an."><img alt=" The first surah in a handwritten copy of the Qur'an." height="419" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FirstSurahKoran.jpg" src="../../images/4/437.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/8/832.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> first <!--del_lnk--> surah in a handwritten copy of the Qur'an.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>The <!--del_lnk--> Roman-Persian Wars end.<li><a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> starts in <!--del_lnk--> Arabia, the <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> is documented.<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sutton_Hoo.htm" title="Sutton Hoo">Sutton Hoo</a> <!--del_lnk--> ship burial, East Anglia (modern <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Xuan Zang (aka Hsuan-Tsang) traveled from <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> to <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, before returning to <!--del_lnk--> Chang An in China to translate <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> scriptures.<li>End of sporadic Buddhist rule in the <!--del_lnk--> Sindh.<li><!--del_lnk--> Croats and <!--del_lnk--> Serbs entered their present territory early in the 7th century AD, settling in six distinct tribal delimitations, and setting up early states.<li><!--del_lnk--> Teotihuacan is sacked and burnt.<li>The religion of <!--del_lnk--> Shugendo evolves from <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Taoism.htm" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Shinto.htm" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> and other influences in the mountains of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Bulgars arrive in the <!--del_lnk--> Balkans.<li><!--del_lnk--> Arab traders penetrate the area of <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Chad.htm" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a>.<li>First <a href="../../wp/e/English_poetry.htm" title="English poetry">English poetry</a><li><a href="../../wp/l/Library_of_Alexandria.htm" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a> destroyed again<li><!--del_lnk--> Tang Dynasty of China</ul> <p><a id="Significant_persons" name="Significant_persons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant persons</span></h2> <ul> <li>The <!--del_lnk--> Unknown Archont led the Serbs to the <!--del_lnk--> Balkans from the north<li><!--del_lnk--> Antara Ibn Shaddad, Arab poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Brahmagupta, Indian mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> Cenn Fáelad mac Aillila, Irish scholar, died <!--del_lnk--> 679<li><!--del_lnk--> Gregory the Great (<a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">Pope</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 540-<!--del_lnk--> 604)<li><!--del_lnk--> Saint Cuthbert<li><a href="../../wp/h/Heraclius.htm" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> - Warrior Emperor of <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a> who won numerous victories against the <!--del_lnk--> Sassanids (Persians)<li><!--del_lnk--> Emperor Taizong of Tang China<li><a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>(PBUH) (<!--del_lnk--> 570-<!--del_lnk--> 632), Muslim Prophet<li><!--del_lnk--> Ali ibn Abi Talib (<!--del_lnk--> 600-<!--del_lnk--> 661), cousin of Muhammad(PBUH), central to <!--del_lnk--> Shi'a <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Saint Asaph'<li><!--del_lnk--> Umar, second <!--del_lnk--> caliph of Islam<li><!--del_lnk--> Asparuh - <!--del_lnk--> Khan of the <!--del_lnk--> Bulgars<li><!--del_lnk--> Pulakesi II, a great king comes to power</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li>The <!--del_lnk--> stirrup introduced to <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persia</a> from <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, late 7th century<li>Earliest known record of the game <!--del_lnk--> Chatrang, predecessor to <a href="../../wp/c/Chess.htm" title="Chess">Chess</a></ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 590s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 590</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 591</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 592</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 593</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 594</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 595</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 596</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 597</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 598</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 599</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 600s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 600</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 601</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 602</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 603</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 604</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 605</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 606</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 607</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 608</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 609</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 610s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 610</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 611</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 612</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 613</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 614</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 615</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 616</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 617</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 618</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 619</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 620s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 620</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 621</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 622</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 623</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 624</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 625</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 626</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 627</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 628</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 629</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 630s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 630</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 631</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 632</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 633</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 634</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 635</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 636</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 637</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 638</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 639</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 640s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 640</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 641</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 642</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 643</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 644</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 645</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 646</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 647</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 648</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 649</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 650s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 650</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 651</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 652</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 653</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 654</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 655</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 656</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 657</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 658</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 659</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 660s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 660</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 661</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 662</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 663</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 664</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 665</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 666</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 667</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 668</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 669</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 670s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 670</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 671</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 672</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 673</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 674</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 675</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 676</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 677</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 678</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 679</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 680s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 680</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 681</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 682</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 683</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 684</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 685</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 686</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 687</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 688</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 689</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 690s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 690</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 691</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 692</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 693</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 694</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 695</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 696</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 697</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 698</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 699</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 700s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 700</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 701</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 702</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 703</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 704</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 705</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 706</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 707</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 708</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 709</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <strong class="selflink">7th</strong></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8746 bytes Post-expand include size: 8653 bytes Template argument size: 488 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34735-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061205171458 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['6th century', '8th century', 'Christian Era', 'Islam', "Qur'an", 'Sutton Hoo', 'England', 'China', 'India', 'Buddhism', 'Buddhism', 'Taoism', 'Shinto', 'Japan', 'Lake Chad', 'English poetry', 'Library of Alexandria', 'Pope', 'Heraclius', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Muhammad', 'Islam', 'Iran', 'China', 'Chess', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '8th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
8th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="8th century,10th century,10th century BC,11th century,11th century BC,12th century,12th century BC,13th century,13th century BC,14th century,14th century BC" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>8th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "8th_century"; var wgTitle = "8th century"; var wgArticleId = 34740; var wgCurRevisionId = 91868327; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-8th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">8th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th century</a> - <b><strong class="selflink">8th century</strong></b> - <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 700s <!--del_lnk--> 710s <!--del_lnk--> 720s <!--del_lnk--> 730s <!--del_lnk--> 740s <!--del_lnk--> 750s <!--del_lnk--> 760s <!--del_lnk--> 770s <!--del_lnk--> 780s <!--del_lnk--> 790s</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>8th century</b> is the period from <!--del_lnk--> 701 - <!--del_lnk--> 800 in accordance with the <!--del_lnk--> Julian calendar in the <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Christian Era">Christian Era</a>.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/68/6868.jpg.htm" title="Borobudur from a distance"><img alt="Borobudur from a distance" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Borobudur-complete.jpg" src="../../images/4/438.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/68/6868.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Borobudur from a distance</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>Most of the <!--del_lnk--> Iberian peninsula is conquered by <!--del_lnk--> Arab and <!--del_lnk--> Berber <!--del_lnk--> Muslims, thus ending the <!--del_lnk--> Visigothic rule, and starting almost eight centuries of Muslim presence there.<li>Sometime this century, <!--del_lnk--> Beowulf is probably composed.<li>The <a href="../../wp/p/Picts.htm" title="Picts">Pictish</a> peoples of <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> design the first European triangular <!--del_lnk--> harp<li><!--del_lnk--> Borobodur, the famous <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesian</a> <!--del_lnk--> Buddhist structure, begins construction, probably as a non-Buddhist <!--del_lnk--> shrine.<li>Buddhist <!--del_lnk--> Jataka stories are translated into <!--del_lnk--> Syriac and <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> as <!--del_lnk--> Kalilag and Damnag.<li>An account of <a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>'s life is translated into <!--del_lnk--> Greek by Saint <!--del_lnk--> John of Damascus, and widely circulated to <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christians</a> as the story of <!--del_lnk--> Barlaam and <!--del_lnk--> Josaphat.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Nara period begins in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Moravian principality and the <!--del_lnk--> Principality of Nitra arise in central Europe (see <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Moravia.htm" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</a>)<li>Many <!--del_lnk--> Volga Bulgarians convert to <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<li>The very first <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Viking">Viking</a> raid is carried out on the abbey of <!--del_lnk--> Lindisfarne in northern <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 793.<li><!--del_lnk--> Kanem-Bornu arises north of <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Chad.htm" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a>.<li>Height of the <!--del_lnk--> Classic period in <!--del_lnk--> pre-Columbian <a href="../../wp/m/Maya_civilization.htm" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> history.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_persons" name="Significant_persons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant persons</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Charles Martel, Frankish leader until <!--del_lnk--> 741 (<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Tours.htm" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 732)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pippin the Younger, king of the <a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" title="Franks">Franks</a> until <!--del_lnk--> 768<li><a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, king of the <a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" title="Franks">Franks</a> from <!--del_lnk--> 771 to <!--del_lnk--> 814<li><!--del_lnk--> Alcuin, English monk, scholar, and teacher; <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s advisor in educational affairs<li>The Venerable <a href="../../wp/b/Bede.htm" title="Bede">Bede</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> scholar<li><!--del_lnk--> Harun al-Rashid, fifth <a href="../../wp/a/Abbasid.htm" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> <!--del_lnk--> Caliph<li><!--del_lnk--> Li Po, <!--del_lnk--> Chinese <!--del_lnk--> poet<li><a href="../../wp/d/Du_Fu.htm" title="Du Fu">Du Fu</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Chinese <!--del_lnk--> poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Dae Jo Yeong, founder of ancient <!--del_lnk--> Manchuria state, <!--del_lnk--> Balhae</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li>heavy plow in use in the <a href="../../wp/r/Rhine.htm" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> valley<li>horsecollar in use in <!--del_lnk--> Northern Europe in <strong class="selflink">8th</strong> or <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th century</a> - perhaps introduced from <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> papermaking introduced from <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Arabs<li>beginning of the decline of the Classical <a href="../../wp/m/Maya_civilization.htm" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a><li>ca. 770: <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> <!--del_lnk--> horseshoes come into common use<li><!--del_lnk--> Pattadakal, Chalukya Architecture</ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 690s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 690</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 691</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 692</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 693</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 694</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 695</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 696</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 697</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 698</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 699</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 700s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 700</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 701</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 702</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 703</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 704</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 705</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 706</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 707</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 708</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 709</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 710s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 710</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 711</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 712</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 713</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 714</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 715</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 716</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 717</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 718</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 719</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 720s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 720</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 721</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 722</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 723</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 724</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 725</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 726</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 727</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 728</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 729</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 730s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 730</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 731</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 732</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 733</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 734</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 735</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 736</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 737</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 738</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 739</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 740s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 740</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 741</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 742</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 743</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 744</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 745</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 746</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 747</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 748</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 749</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 750s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 750</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 751</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 752</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 753</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 754</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 755</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 756</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 757</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 758</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 759</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 760s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 760</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 761</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 762</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 763</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 764</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 765</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 766</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 767</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 768</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 769</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 770s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 770</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 771</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 772</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 773</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 774</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 775</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 776</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 777</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 778</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 779</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 780s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 780</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 781</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 782</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 783</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 784</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 785</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 786</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 787</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 788</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 789</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 790s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 790</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 791</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 792</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 793</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 794</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 795</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 796</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 797</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 798</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 799</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 800s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 800</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 801</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 802</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 803</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 804</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 805</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 806</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 807</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 808</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 809</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <strong class="selflink">8th</strong></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8746 bytes Post-expand include size: 8653 bytes Template argument size: 488 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34740-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061203223021 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['7th century', '9th century', 'Christian Era', 'Picts', 'Scotland', 'Indonesia', 'Arabic language', 'Buddha', 'Christianity', 'Japan', 'Great Moravia', 'Islam', 'Viking', 'England', 'Lake Chad', 'Maya civilization', 'Battle of Tours', 'Franks', 'Charlemagne', 'Franks', 'Charlemagne', 'Bede', 'England', 'Abbasid', 'Du Fu', 'Rhine', '9th century', 'Asia', 'China', 'Maya civilization', 'Iron', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '9th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
90377_Sedna	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="90377 Sedna,Footer SolarSystem,Footer TransNeptunian,MinorPlanets Footer,Footer SolarSystem,Footer TransNeptunian,MinorPlanets Footer,(136108) 2003 EL61,(136472) 2005 FY9,(55565) 2002 AW197,(55636) 2002 TX300" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>90377 Sedna</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "90377_Sedna"; var wgTitle = "90377 Sedna"; var wgArticleId = 526042; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-90377_Sedna"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">90377 Sedna</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width: 23em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"> <caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>90377 Sedna</b></caption> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: black; text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/163/16314.jpg.htm" title="Sedna is located in the center of the green circle"><img alt="Sedna is located in the center of the green circle" height="209" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sedna-NASA.JPG" src="../../images/163/16314.jpg" width="275" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: .9em; line-height: 1.2em;">Sedna is located in the centre of the green circle</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Discovery <sup><!--del_lnk--> A</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Discoverer</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> M. Brown,<br /><!--del_lnk--> C. Trujillo,<br /><!--del_lnk--> D. Rabinowitz</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Discovery date</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2003</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Alternate<br /> designations <sup><!--del_lnk--> B</sup></th> <td>2003 VB<sub>12</sub></td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Category</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Trans-Neptunian object</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Orbital elements <sup><!--del_lnk--> C</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <center><small><!--del_lnk--> Epoch <!--del_lnk--> September 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1990 (<!--del_lnk--> JD 2448160.5)</small></center> </td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Eccentricity <i>(e)</i></th> <td>0.855</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Semi-major axis <i>(a)</i></th> <td>78629.540 <!--del_lnk--> G<!--del_lnk--> m (525.606 <!--del_lnk--> AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Perihelion <i>(q)</i></th> <td>11392.832 Gm (76.156 AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Aphelion <i>(Q)</i></th> <td>145866.248 Gm (975.056 AU)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Orbital period <i>(P)</i></th> <td>4401380 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a> (12050.32 <!--del_lnk--> a)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mean orbital speed</th> <td>1.04 km/<!--del_lnk--> s</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Inclination <i>(i)</i></th> <td>11.934<!--del_lnk--> °</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Longitude of the<br /> ascending node <i>(Ω)</i></th> <td>144.514°</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Argument of<br /> perihelion <i>(ω)</i></th> <td>311.122°</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mean anomaly <i>(M)</i></th> <td>357.455°</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFFFC0; text-align: center;">Physical characteristics <sup><!--del_lnk--> D</sup></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Dimensions</th> <td>1180–1800 <!--del_lnk--> km</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Mass</th> <td>1.7-6.1×10<sup>21</sup> <!--del_lnk--> kg</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Density</th> <td>2.0? g/<!--del_lnk--> cm³</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Surface <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a></th> <td>0.33-0.50 m/s²</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Escape velocity</th> <td>0.62-0.95 km/s</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Rotation period</th> <td>0.42 d (10 h) <!--del_lnk--> <sup>1</sup></td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Spectral class</th> <td>(red) B-V=1.24; V-R=0.78 </td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Absolute magnitude</th> <td>1.6</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Albedo (<!--del_lnk--> geometric)</th> <td>>0.2?</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Mean surface<br /><!--del_lnk--> temperature</th> <td>below 33 <!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>90377 Sedna</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> trans-Neptunian object, discovered by <!--del_lnk--> Michael Brown (<!--del_lnk--> Caltech), <!--del_lnk--> Chad Trujillo (<!--del_lnk--> Gemini Observatory) and <!--del_lnk--> David Rabinowitz (<!--del_lnk--> Yale University) on <!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2003. At the time of its discovery it was the most distant observed natural <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> body. Sedna may qualify as a <!--del_lnk--> dwarf planet pending the detailed definition of that category by the <!--del_lnk--> International Astronomical Union.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="General_information" name="General_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">General information</span></h2> <p>Sedna was discovered during a survey conducted with the <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Oschin telescope at <!--del_lnk--> Palomar Observatory near <!--del_lnk--> San Diego, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> (<a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>) using Yale's 160 megapixel Palomar Quest camera and was observed within days on <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescopes</a> from <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Arizona, and <!--del_lnk--> Hawaii). <!--del_lnk--> NASA's orbiting <!--del_lnk--> Spitzer Space Telescope was also pointed toward the object, but could not detect it — putting an upper-bound on its <!--del_lnk--> diameter at roughly three-quarters that of <a href="../../wp/p/Pluto.htm" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>.<p>The object is named after <!--del_lnk--> Sedna, the <!--del_lnk--> Inuit goddess of the sea, who was believed to live in the cold depths of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>. Before Sedna was officially named it had <!--del_lnk--> provisional designation <b>2003 VB<sub>12</sub></b>.<p><a id="Orbital_characteristics" name="Orbital_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Orbital characteristics</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/122/12268.jpg.htm" title="Panels showing the location of Sedna in relation to other astronomical objects. Image courtesy of NASA / JPL-Caltech / R. Hurt"><img alt="Panels showing the location of Sedna in relation to other astronomical objects. Image courtesy of NASA / JPL-Caltech / R. Hurt" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Oort_cloud_Sedna_orbit.jpg" src="../../images/163/16315.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/122/12268.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Panels showing the location of Sedna in relation to other astronomical objects. Image courtesy of NASA / JPL-Caltech / R. Hurt</div> </div> </div> <p>Sedna has a highly <!--del_lnk--> elliptical <!--del_lnk--> orbit, with its <!--del_lnk--> aphelion estimated at 975 <!--del_lnk--> AU and its <!--del_lnk--> perihelion at about 76.16 AU. At its discovery it was approaching perihelion at about 90 AU from the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>. It was the farthest from the Sun that any solar system object had up to then been observed, although some objects like long-period comets originally observed at closer distances were most likely further from the Sun than Sedna but too dim to be observed. <!--del_lnk--> Eris was later detected at 97 AU.<p>Sedna's orbit takes about 12000 <!--del_lnk--> years. It will reach <!--del_lnk--> perihelion in 2075 or 2076.<p>When first discovered, Sedna was believed to have an unusually long rotational period (20 to 50 days). A search was thus made for a <!--del_lnk--> natural satellite, the most likely cause for such a long rotation, but investigation by the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> in March 2004 observed no such object orbiting the planetoid. New measurements from the <!--del_lnk--> MMT telescope suggest a much shorter rotation period, only about 10 hours, rather typical for bodies of its size.<p>A study done by <!--del_lnk--> Hal Levison and <!--del_lnk--> Alessandro Morbidelli of the <!--del_lnk--> Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur (OCA) in <!--del_lnk--> Nice, France, suggested that the most likely explanation for Sedna's orbit was that it had been perturbed by a close (~800 AU) pass by another star in the first 100 million years or so of the solar system's existence, possibly one of the other stars that formed out of the same collapsing nebula as the Sun. They proposed another, less probable scenario that managed to explain Sedna's orbit very well —Sedna could have formed around a <!--del_lnk--> brown dwarf about 20 times less massive than the Sun and have been captured by the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> when the brown dwarf passed through it.<p>Another possible explanation, advanced by Gomez, involves a hypothetical distant ‘planet’ (a planetary-sized companion in the inner <!--del_lnk--> Oort cloud). Recent simulation show that Sedna's orbit characteristics could be explained by perturbations by a Neptune-mass object at 2000 AU (or less), a Jupiter-mass at 5000AU or even an Earth-mass object at 1000AU.<p>Another object, <!--del_lnk--> 2000 CR<sub>105</sub>, has an orbit similar to Sedna's but a bit less extreme: perihelion is 44.3 AU, aphelion is 394 AU, and the orbital period is 3240 years. Its orbit may have resulted from the same processes that produced Sedna's orbit.<p><a id="Physical_characteristics" name="Physical_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical characteristics</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/106/10651.png.htm" title="Sedna compared to Eris, Pluto, 2005 FY9, 2003 EL61, Orcus, Quaoar, Varuna, and Earth."><img alt="Sedna compared to Eris, Pluto, 2005 FY9, 2003 EL61, Orcus, Quaoar, Varuna, and Earth." height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EightTNOs.png" src="../../images/46/4608.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/106/10651.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sedna compared to <!--del_lnk--> Eris, <a href="../../wp/p/Pluto.htm" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 FY<sub>9</sub>, <!--del_lnk--> 2003 EL<sub>61</sub>, <!--del_lnk--> Orcus, <!--del_lnk--> Quaoar, <!--del_lnk--> Varuna, and <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>Sedna has an estimated diameter of between <!--del_lnk--> 1180 and 1800 kilometres (730 to 1120 miles). At the time of its discovery it was the largest object found in the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> since Pluto was discovered in 1930. It is now generally believed to be the 5th largest known <!--del_lnk--> trans-Neptunian object after <!--del_lnk--> Eris, <a href="../../wp/p/Pluto.htm" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 2003 EL<sub>61</sub>, and <!--del_lnk--> 2005 FY<sub>9</sub>. The planetoid is so far from the Sun that the temperature never rises above 33 <!--del_lnk--> kelvins (−240 <!--del_lnk--> °C; −400 <!--del_lnk--> °F).<p>Observations from <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> show that Sedna is one of the reddest objects in the solar system, nearly as red as <!--del_lnk--> Mars. Unlike Pluto and Charon, Sedna appears to have very little methane ice or water ice on its surface; Chad Trujillo and his colleagues at the Gemini Observatory in <!--del_lnk--> Hawaii suggest that Sedna's dark red colour is caused by a <!--del_lnk--> hydrocarbon sludge, or <!--del_lnk--> tholin, like that found on <!--del_lnk--> 5145 Pholus. Its surface is homogeneous in colour and spectrum; this is probably because Sedna, unlike objects nearer the sun, is rarely impacted by other bodies, which would expose bright patches like that on <!--del_lnk--> 8405 Asbolus.<p>Sedna's and <!--del_lnk--> Triton's spectra have been recently compared suggesting the following common model of the surface: 24% Triton <!--del_lnk--> tholin, 7% <!--del_lnk--> amorphous carbon, 26% <!--del_lnk--> methanol ice with 33% <!--del_lnk--> methane.<p><a id="Classification" name="Classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></h2> <p>The discoverers have argued that Sedna is actually the first observed body belonging to the <!--del_lnk--> Oort cloud, saying that it is too far out to be considered a <a href="../../wp/k/Kuiper_belt.htm" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a> object. Because it is a great deal closer to the Sun than was expected for an Oort cloud object, and has an <!--del_lnk--> inclination roughly in line with the planets and the Kuiper belt, they described the <!--del_lnk--> planetoid as being an inner Oort cloud object, situated in the disc reaching from the Kuiper belt to the spherical part of the cloud.<p>A number of explanations have been put forward since, including a passing star and a distant, planet-sized object.<p>Sedna, together with a few other objects discovered since (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> 2000 CR<sub>105</sub>), prompted suggestions of a new category of distant objects named <i>Extended scattered disc</i> (E-SDO), <i>detached objects</i>, <i>Distant Detached Objects</i> (DDO) or <i>Scattered-Extended</i> in the formal classification by <!--del_lnk--> Deep Ecliptic Survey.<p>The last classification, introduces a formal distinction between <i>Scattered-Near</i> objects (which could be scattered by Neptune) e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Eris from <i>Scattered-Extended</i> objects like Sedna. The distinction is made formally, using the orbital elements (see <!--del_lnk--> Tisserand's parameter).<p>The discovery of Sedna had also resurrected the question of which astronomical objects should be considered <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planets</a> and which should not. On <!--del_lnk--> March 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, articles in the popular press reported that <i>"the <!--del_lnk--> tenth planet has been discovered"</i>. This question was answered under the new <!--del_lnk--> International Astronomical Union <a href="../../wp/d/Definition_of_planet.htm" title="Definition of planet">definition of a planet</a>, adopted on <!--del_lnk--> August 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. Sedna may be made a candidate for consideration as a <!--del_lnk--> dwarf planet. It is not, however, considered to be a planet.<br style="clear: left" /> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/90377_Sedna"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Day', 'Gravity', 'Solar system', 'California', 'United States', 'Telescope', 'Chile', 'Spain', 'United States', 'Pluto', 'Arctic Ocean', 'Sun', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'Solar system', 'Pluto', 'Earth', 'Solar system', 'Pluto', 'Chile', 'Kuiper belt', 'Planet', 'Definition of planet']
93_Exhibition	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>The Beautiful Game - Charity Art exhibition for "6 villages for 2006"</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" /> <meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." /> <meta name="robots" content="all" /> <meta name="keywords" content="children charity" /> <meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" /> </head> <body> <div id="container"> <div id="header"> <div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div> <div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div> <div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">SOS News</a> > <strong>The Beautiful Game - Art exhibition for "6 villages for 2006"</strong></div> <div id="col"> <div id="nav"> <span class="boxtop"></span> <ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm" id="selected">Charity News</a> <ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/b/By_Topic.htm">News by Topic</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Archive.htm">News Archive</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul> <span class="boxbot"></span> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <h2>The Beautiful Game - Art exhibition for "6 villages for 2006"</h2><p><strong>11/05/2006</strong></p> <img src="../../wp/t/TheNationalAnthem4.jpg" width="295" height="198" alt="'The National Anthem 4' by Ben Mosley" class="left" /><p>Ninetythree, a new art gallery in East London’s Bow, will be hosting The Beautiful Game, a solo show of paintings and monoprints by young artist Ben Mosley celebrating the multicultural nature of the World Cup throughout June.</p><img src="../../wp/b/BlackBecham_2.jpg" width="206" height="250" alt="'Black Beckham' by Ben Mosley" class="right" /><p>A special launch event will take place on 1 June, at which one of Ben’s paintings will be auctioned. All monies raised from the auction plus donations collected throughout the show will go to the “6 villages for 2006” campaign.</p><h3>Twin Towers up for auction!</h3> <img src="../../wp/t/TwinTowers.jpg" width="250" height="250" alt=""Twin Towers" by Ben Mosely" class="left" /><p>The painting to be auctioned has now been decided upon - one lucky bidder will be able to hang the sacred Twin Towers of Wembley up on their wall. </p><p>Ben's abstract interpretation of the spiritual home of English football will hopefully capture people's imagination and get the bidding high!</p><h3>Find out more!</h3> <p>If you would like more information about the exhibition or how you can take part in the auction please visit: <strong>www.ninetythree.co.uk/93sos</strong></p><p><a href="../../wp/s/Six_Villages.htm">Back to main "6 villages for 2006" page</a></p><p><strong>Relevant Countries:</strong> <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil_A.htm">Brazil</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico_A.htm">Mexico</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria_A.htm">Nigeria</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa_A.htm">South Africa</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine_A.htm">Ukraine</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_A.htm">Vietnam</a>.</p> </div> <table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;"> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="clearboth"></div> </div> <div id="footer"> <span id="botright"></span> <p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> \| <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> \| 01223 365589 \| <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p> <p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p> <p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p> </div> </div> </body> </html>	["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.']
9th_century	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="9th century,10th century,10th century BC,11th century,11th century BC,12th century,12th century BC,13th century,13th century BC,14th century,14th century BC" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>9th century</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "9th_century"; var wgTitle = "9th century"; var wgArticleId = 34739; var wgCurRevisionId = 91867541; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-9th_century"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">9th century</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div style="clear: both"> </div> <table class="infobox"> <tr style="background-color:#f0f0f0"> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Centuries:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th century</a> - <b>9th century</b> - <a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th century</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right"><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Decades:</b></small></td> <td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 800s <!--del_lnk--> 810s <!--del_lnk--> 820s <!--del_lnk--> 830s <!--del_lnk--> 840s <!--del_lnk--> 850s <!--del_lnk--> 860s <!--del_lnk--> 870s <!--del_lnk--> 880s <!--del_lnk--> 890s</td> </tr> </table> <p>As a means of recording the passage of <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a> the <b>9th century</b> was that <!--del_lnk--> century that lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 801 to <!--del_lnk--> 900.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/462.jpg.htm" title="This earthenware dish was made in 9th century Iraq. It is housed in the Smithsonian Institute in Washington, D.C."><img alt="This earthenware dish was made in 9th century Iraq. It is housed in the Smithsonian Institute in Washington, D.C." height="232" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dish_from_9th_century_Iraq.jpg" src="../../images/4/462.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/462.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This <!--del_lnk--> earthenware dish was made in 9th century <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. It is housed in the <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian Institute in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div> </div> </div> <p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Western_European" name="Western_European"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Western European</span></h2> <p><a name=".22Dark_Ages.22_applied_later_to_this_period"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">"Dark Ages" applied later to this period</span></h3> <p>Starting about 400 years after the period, influential figures in the early phases of the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> would refer back to these times, and the 3 centuries previous, as the "<a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" title="Dark Ages">Dark Ages</a>". The reference based on the eclipse of the <a href="../../wp/w/Western_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, after <!--del_lnk--> AD 476, and the general loss of classical art forms, reduction of urban centers, and diffusion of political power to a petty level. Regional enities never grew to the level of nationhood, let alone empire. Only the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Papacy</a> had true international power, and this was somewhat limited due to poor communications between the regions of Europe. Classical civilization's former record was preserved by the efforts of Catholic monks hand copying manuscripts, but since only a tiny percentage of the populace could read and write, little information or knowledge was disseminated. Most western people were engaged in rural agriculture, and the Roman cities were largely in ruins. Still, certain arts, related to the Church and the ruling class, led to at least a small degree of support to artisans. There is a legacy of brass and gold objects preserved in the world's museums from the Europe's "<a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" title="Dark Ages">Dark Ages</a>".<p><a id="Art_of_the_.22Dark_Ages.22" name="Art_of_the_.22Dark_Ages.22"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Art of the "Dark Ages"</span></h3> <p>First and foremost, art existed because the Church required it. The basic tools of the Roman Catholic mass, thousands of golden art objects were made. Sacred cups, vessels, reliqueries, crucifixes, rosaries, altar pieces, and statues of the Virgin and Child or Saints all kept the flame of art from dying out in the period. Architecture began to revive to some extent by the 9th century. It took the form of Church facilities of all kinds, and the first castle fortifications since Roman times began to take form in simple "moat and baily" castles, or simple "strong point" tower structures, with little refinement.<p><a id="Worldwide_Events" name="Worldwide_Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Worldwide Events</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/471.jpg.htm" title="Brass Griffin beverage urn from 9th century"><img alt="Brass Griffin beverage urn from 9th century" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brass_%22Griffin%22_Beverage_Urn.jpg" src="../../images/4/471.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/471.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Brass Griffin beverage urn from 9th century <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="image" href="../../images/87/8723.png.htm" title="3D red_cyan glasses recommended for your viewing pleasure"><img alt="3D red_cyan glasses recommended for your viewing pleasure" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:3d_glasses_red_cyan.svg" src="../../images/87/8723.png" width="37" /></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>An unknown event causes the <!--del_lnk--> decline of the <!--del_lnk--> Maya Classical Era<li><!--del_lnk--> Beowulf might have been written down in this century, though it could also have been in the <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th century</a><li>Reign of <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, and concurrent (and controversially labeled) <!--del_lnk--> Carolingian Renaissance in western Europe<li>Large-scale <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Viking">Viking</a> attacks on Europe begin, devastating countless numbers of people<li><!--del_lnk--> Oseberg <!--del_lnk--> ship burial<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Magyars arrive in what is now <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, forcing the <!--del_lnk--> Serbs and <!--del_lnk--> Bulgars south of the <a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" title="Danube">Danube</a>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Tukolor settle in the <!--del_lnk--> Senegal river valley.<li><!--del_lnk--> Muslim traders settle in the north-west and south-east of <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>.<li>around <!--del_lnk--> 813-around <!--del_lnk--> 915 - period of serious Arab naval raids on shores of Tyrrhenian and Adriatic seas<li><!--del_lnk--> 800 - Arab fleet sails up the <!--del_lnk--> Tiber.<li><!--del_lnk--> 848-<!--del_lnk--> 852 - The west bank of the <!--del_lnk--> Tiber is annexed into the city of <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a>. A <!--del_lnk--> defensive wall, commissioned by <!--del_lnk--> Pope Leo IV, is built around what came to be called the <!--del_lnk--> Leonine City<li><!--del_lnk--> 870 - <!--del_lnk--> Prague Castle founded<li><!--del_lnk--> 800-<!--del_lnk--> 909 - rule of <!--del_lnk--> Aghlabids as independent dynasty in North Africa<li><!--del_lnk--> 850-<!--del_lnk--> 875 - The first <!--del_lnk--> Norse settlers arrive on <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 863-<!--del_lnk--> 879 - period of schism between eastern and western churches<li>Late 9th century: <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> stretches from the mouth of the <a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" title="Danube">Danube</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Epirus and <!--del_lnk--> Bosnia.<li>In <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, some cities became free republics: for instance <!--del_lnk--> Forlì, in the <!--del_lnk--> 889.<li>The Christian <!--del_lnk--> Nubian kingdom reaches its peak of prosperity and military power. (<!--del_lnk--> Early history of Sudan)<li><!--del_lnk--> Harald Fairhair was victorious at the <!--del_lnk--> battle of Hafrsfjord, and <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> was unified into one kingdom.<li><a href="../../wp/c/Chess.htm" title="Chess">Chess</a> reaches <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 867-onward Revival of the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> under the <!--del_lnk--> Macedonian dynasty.</ul> <p><a id="Significant_people" name="Significant_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significant people</span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_the_Great.htm" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Arnulf of Carinthia<li><a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Wang Kon<li><!--del_lnk--> Saint Cyril and <!--del_lnk--> Saint Methodius<li><!--del_lnk--> Kenneth I of Scotland<li><!--del_lnk--> Louis the Pious<li><!--del_lnk--> Adi Sankara<li><!--del_lnk--> Harald I of Norway<li><!--del_lnk--> Boris I of Bulgaria<li><!--del_lnk--> Basil I the Macedonian (Βασίλειο&sigmaf; Α') (<!--del_lnk--> 811 - <!--del_lnk--> 886), ruled (<!--del_lnk--> 867) - (<!--del_lnk--> 886)<li><!--del_lnk--> Amoghavarsha I, a great king</ul> <p><a id="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions" name="Inventions.2C_discoveries.2C_introductions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inventions, discoveries, introductions</span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/v/Vulgar_Latin.htm" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> begins to devolve into various <!--del_lnk--> Romance languages<li>First image of a rotary grindstone in a European source - illustration shows crank, first known use of a crank in the West (<!--del_lnk--> Utrecht Psalter, A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 843)<li>Invention of <a href="../../wp/g/Gunpowder.htm" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> by Chinese <!--del_lnk--> Taoist <a href="../../wp/a/Alchemy.htm" title="Alchemy">Alchemists</a></ul> <p><a id="Decades_and_years" name="Decades_and_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decades and years</span></h2> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <td style="background: #eeeeee"><b><!--del_lnk--> 790s</b></td> <td style="background:"><!--del_lnk--> 790</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 791</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 792</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 793</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 794</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 795</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 796</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 797</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 798</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 799</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 800s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffffff"><!--del_lnk--> 800</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 801</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 802</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 803</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 804</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 805</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 806</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 807</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 808</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 809</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 810s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 810</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 811</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 812</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 813</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 814</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 815</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 816</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 817</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 818</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 819</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 820s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 820</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 821</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 822</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 823</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 824</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 825</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 826</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 827</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 828</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 829</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 830s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 830</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 831</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 832</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 833</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 834</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 835</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 836</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 837</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 838</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 839</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 840s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 840</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 841</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 842</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 843</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 844</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 845</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 846</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 847</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 848</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 849</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 850s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 850</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 851</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 852</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 853</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 854</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 855</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 856</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 857</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 858</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 859</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 860s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 860</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 861</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 862</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 863</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 864</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 865</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 866</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 867</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 868</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 869</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 870s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 870</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 871</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 872</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 873</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 874</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 875</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 876</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 877</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 878</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 879</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 880s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 880</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 881</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 882</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 883</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 884</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 885</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 886</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 887</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 888</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 889</td> </tr> <tr style="background: #ffeedd"> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 890s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 890</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 891</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 892</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 893</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 894</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 895</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 896</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 897</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 898</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 899</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ffddcc"><b><!--del_lnk--> 900s</b></td> <td style="background: #ffeedd"><!--del_lnk--> 900</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 901</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 902</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 903</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 904</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 905</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 906</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 907</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 908</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 909</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th style="background-color:#efefef;">Millennium</th> <th align="center" colspan="10">Century</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 40th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 39th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 38th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 37th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 36th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 35th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 34th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 31st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 30th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 29th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 28th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 27th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 26th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 25th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 24th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 21st BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 20th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 19th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 18th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 17th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 16th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 15th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 14th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 13th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 12th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 11th BC</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st BC</b>:</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 10th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 9th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 8th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 7th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 6th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 5th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 4th BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 3rd BC</td> <td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd BC</td> <td align="right"><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" title="1st century BC">1st BC</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1st</b>:</td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th</a></td> <td align="left">  <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th</a></td> <td align="left">  <strong class="selflink">9th</strong></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 2nd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th</a></td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 3rd</b>:</td> <td align="left"><a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" title="21st century">21st</a></td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 22nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 23rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 24th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 25th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 26th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 27th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 28th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 29th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 30th</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#efefef;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 4th</b>:</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 31st</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 32nd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 33rd</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 34th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 35th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 36th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 37th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 38th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 39th</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> 40th</td> </tr> </table> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 8913 bytes Post-expand include size: 8793 bytes Template argument size: 501 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34739-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061203222925 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9th_century"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['8th century', '10th century', 'Time', 'Iraq', 'Washington, D.C.', 'Renaissance', 'Dark Ages', 'Western Roman Empire', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Dark Ages', '8th century', 'Charlemagne', 'Viking', 'Hungary', 'Danube', 'Madagascar', 'Rome', 'Iceland', 'Bulgaria', 'Danube', 'Italy', 'Norway', 'Chess', 'Japan', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Alfred the Great', 'Charlemagne', 'Vulgar Latin', 'Gunpowder', 'Alchemy', '1st century BC', '1st century', '2nd century', '3rd century', '4th century', '5th century', '6th century', '7th century', '8th century', '10th century', '11th century', '12th century', '13th century', '14th century', '15th century', '16th century', '17th century', '18th century', '19th century', '20th century', '21st century']
A._E._J._Collins	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="A. E. J. Collins,AEJ Collins.ogg,1885,1899 in sports,1914,1917,1999,2004,2005,2006,A. E. J. Collins/scorecard" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>A. E. J. Collins</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "A._E._J._Collins"; var wgTitle = "A. E. J. Collins"; var wgArticleId = 1442182; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-A_E_J_Collins"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">A. E. J. Collins</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Sports_and_games_people.htm">Sports and games people</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:126px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15125.jpg.htm" title="A. E. J. Collins"><img alt="A. E. J. Collins" height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AEJ_Collins.jpg" src="../../images/151/15125.jpg" width="124" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15125.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A. E. J. Collins</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Arthur Edward Jeune (James) Collins</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 18 August <!--del_lnk--> 1885–<!--del_lnk--> 11 November <!--del_lnk--> 1914), typically known by his initials <b>AEJ Collins</b>, was an <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <!--del_lnk--> cricketer and <!--del_lnk--> soldier. He is most famous for achieving the highest-ever recorded score in <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a>: as a 13-year-old schoolboy, he scored 628 not out over four afternoons in June <!--del_lnk--> 1899. Collins' record-making <!--del_lnk--> innings drew a large crowd and increasing media interest; spectators at the <!--del_lnk--> Old Cliftonian match being played nearby were drawn away to watch a junior school <!--del_lnk--> house cricket match.<p>Collins joined the <!--del_lnk--> British Army in 1902. He studied at the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Military Academy, <!--del_lnk--> Woolwich, before becoming an <!--del_lnk--> officer in the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Engineers. He served in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, where he was <!--del_lnk--> killed in action in 1914.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Early_life_and_education" name="Early_life_and_education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life and education</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15126.jpg.htm" title="Collins (left) with R. P. Keigwin at Clifton College, as the school racquets team in 1902."><img alt="Collins (left) with R. P. Keigwin at Clifton College, as the school racquets team in 1902." height="126" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aejcollins_rpkeigwin_lr.jpg" src="../../images/151/15126.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15126.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Collins (left) with <!--del_lnk--> R. P. Keigwin at <!--del_lnk--> Clifton College, as the school racquets team in 1902.</div> </div> </div> <p>Collins was born in <!--del_lnk--> Hazaribagh, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, to Arthur Herbert Collins, a <!--del_lnk--> judge in the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Civil Service, and Mrs Esther Ida Collins. Both of his parents had died by the time he began his education at <!--del_lnk--> Clifton College, <a href="../../wp/b/Bristol.htm" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>, where he held a scholarship.<p>He joined Clifton College in September 1897, becoming a member of Clark's <!--del_lnk--> House, although he later moved to North Town house. He was an excellent sportsman, being in the <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> XI (eleven being the number of players in the team), the <!--del_lnk--> rugby XV, and the cricket XI, and he represented the school in the <!--del_lnk--> racquets pair in 1902 with <!--del_lnk--> R. P. Keigwin. He won a <!--del_lnk--> bronze medal for <!--del_lnk--> boxing at <!--del_lnk--> Aldershot in 1901, along with E. A. Hughes and H. P. Hewett.<p><!--del_lnk--> Tim Rice, in an article for the Electronic Telegraph on <!--del_lnk--> 9 June <!--del_lnk--> 1999 to celebrate the centenary of the score, entitled "On the seventh day AEJ Collins rested", described him thus:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="A. E. J. Collins">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="A. E. J. Collins"><img alt="A. E. J. Collins" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>He was an orphan whose guardians lived in Tavistock, Devon. He was a reserved boy, short and stockily built, fair-haired and pale. He was remembered by contemporaries as one who led by example, rather than by inspiration, although paradoxically he was regarded as likely to fall short of the highest standards as a cricketer because of his recklessness at the crease.</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="A. E. J. Collins">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="A. E. J. Collins"><img alt="A. E. J. Collins" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="The_famous_match" name="The_famous_match"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The famous match</span></h2> <p>In 1899, whilst a 13-year-old schoolboy, Collins scored the highest ever recorded cricket score of 628 not out. This feat took place during a junior school house cricket match between Clarke's House and North Town house. The match was played on an outfield off Guthrie Road, Bristol, now named <i>Collins' Piece</i>. The ground had both a poor surface and a very unusual shape: it was very short (only 60 <!--del_lnk--> yards long), with a wall only 70 yards away forming the <!--del_lnk--> boundary on one side, while the other side was a gentle slope falling away towards the school <!--del_lnk--> sanatorium in the distance. All hits to the long boundary, down the slope, had to be all-run, but the three short boundaries only counted for two runs.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15127.jpg.htm" title="Plaque at Clifton College, fixed in 1962."><img alt="Plaque at Clifton College, fixed in 1962." height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Collinsplaque.jpg" src="../../images/151/15127.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15127.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Plaque at Clifton College, fixed in 1962.</div> </div> </div> <p>On Thursday, <!--del_lnk--> 22 June, Collins, a right-handed <!--del_lnk--> batsman, won the toss for Clarke's House and chose to bat first. Collins hit his first stroke at 3.30 p.m. By the close of play at 6 p.m., he had scored 200 runs.<p>School lessons allowed another two-and-a-half hours' play on Friday, <!--del_lnk--> 23 June, and by then news of an exceptional innings had gone round the school. So brilliant was his play that even an Old Cliftonian match being played nearby lost its interest and a large crowd watched Collins' phenomenal performance. Collins' innings almost ended at 400 when an easy <!--del_lnk--> catch was dropped, but at around 5.30 p.m. – only some five hours after he started – he overtook <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Stoddart's then world-record score of 485 to rapturous applause. At the end of the second day, he remained unbeaten on 509.<p>The match resumed on Monday, <!--del_lnk--> 26 June, at 12.30 p.m., but the school authorities extended the hours available for play in a bid to speed the end of the match. As the crowds continued to grow and media interest escalated, the disruption to school life was considerable. Collins played his part: his approach was described as "downright reckless" as he hit out, and he was dropped twice more when on 605 and 619. By the end of the day, Collins had reached 598 but he was rapidly running out of partners. On Tuesday, <!--del_lnk--> 27 June, after just 25 minutes' play, Collins lost his final partner, Thomas Redfern, caught by Victor Fuller-Eberle at <!--del_lnk--> point for 13, with Collins' score on 628. Collins had played less than seven hours' cricket, <!--del_lnk--> carrying his bat through his side's innings.<p>North Town house, demoralised, were bowled out for 87 in 90 minutes on Tuesday. The match resumed on Wednesday <!--del_lnk--> 28 June, when North Town's second innings went even worse, making 61 in just over an hour, so Clarke House won by an innings and 688 runs. Collins showed some ability as an <!--del_lnk--> all-rounder, with his right-arm medium pace <!--del_lnk--> bowling taking 11 <!--del_lnk--> wickets for 63 <!--del_lnk--> runs.<p>The scorebook hangs in the pavilion at Clifton to this day. The scorers faced a difficult task in accurately recording the innings. One of them, Edward Peglar, is said to have remarked that Collins's score was "628, plus or minus twenty shall we say". The other scorer for the match was JW Hall, whose father in 1868 had batted with <!--del_lnk--> Edward Tylecote, who later played <!--del_lnk--> Test cricket for <!--del_lnk--> England and whose name is on a poem kept with <a href="../../wp/t/The_Ashes.htm" title="The Ashes">the Ashes</a> urn, when Tylecote had set an early world-record score of 404 not out, also at Clifton.<p>Collins became public property for a long while after the match, forever associated with his great score. "Today all men speak of him," wrote one newspaper, "... he has a reputation as great as the most advertised soap: he will be immortalised." After leaving school, he never wanted to be reminded of his famous innings; nevertheless, he has been remembered well beyond his own lifetime.<p>The full scorecard is available <!--del_lnk--> here.<p><a id="Military_career" name="Military_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Military career</span></h2> <p>Collins chose to follow an army career, passing his entrance exams to the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Military Academy at <!--del_lnk--> Woolwich in September 1901 and representing the Royal Military Academy at both football and rugby. He joined the <!--del_lnk--> British Army the following year, being commissioned as a <!--del_lnk--> Second Lieutenant in the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Engineers. Despite the limitations on his sport that the military service caused, he played at <!--del_lnk--> Lord's, scoring 58 and 36 runs in the two innings. He also joined <!--del_lnk--> Clifton Rugby Football Club in February 1905, but never rose above the 2nd XV. He served with the 2nd Sappers and Miners in India, and was promoted to <!--del_lnk--> Lieutenant in 1907.<p>He married Ethel Slater in the spring of 1914, and was sent to France when <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> broke out later that year. He was killed in action, as a <!--del_lnk--> Captain, on <!--del_lnk--> 11 November <!--del_lnk--> 1914 at the <!--del_lnk--> First Battle of Ypres, while serving with the 5th Field Company, Royal Engineers, at the age of 29. His body was never found, but his name is recorded at the <!--del_lnk--> Menin Gate Memorial in <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>. Before his death, he had been <!--del_lnk--> Mentioned in Dispatches. His younger brother Herbert (also an old Cliftonian) was killed in action on <!--del_lnk--> 11 February <!--del_lnk--> 1917.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._J._Collins"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['England', 'Cricket', 'France', 'World War I', 'India', 'Bristol', 'Football (soccer)', 'The Ashes', 'World War I', 'Belgium']
ABO_blood_group_system	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="ABO blood group system,Transfusion medicine,Transfusion medicine,2006,2007,ABO (disambiguation),ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn,ADAMTS13,African Americans,Agglutination (biology),Allele" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>ABO blood group system</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "ABO_blood_group_system"; var wgTitle = "ABO blood group system"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "1586721"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130499530"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-ABO_blood_group_system"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">ABO blood group system</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Health_and_medicine.htm">Health and medicine</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1839.png.htm" title="ABO blood group antigens present on red blood cells and IgM antibodies present in the serum"><img alt="ABO blood group antigens present on red blood cells and IgM antibodies present in the serum" class="thumbimage" height="279" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ABO_blood_type.svg" src="../../images/18/1839.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1839.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ABO blood group <!--del_lnk--> antigens present on <!--del_lnk--> red blood cells and <!--del_lnk--> IgM <!--del_lnk--> antibodies present in the <!--del_lnk--> serum</div> </div> </div> <p>The <b>ABO blood group system</b> is the most important <a href="../../wp/b/Blood_type.htm" title="Blood type">blood type</a> system (or blood group system) in human <!--del_lnk--> blood transfusion. The associated anti-A <!--del_lnk--> antibodies and anti-B antibodies are usually <!--del_lnk--> IgM antibodies, which are usually produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances such as food, bacteria and viruses. ABO blood types are also present in some <!--del_lnk--> animals, for example <a href="../../wp/a/Ape.htm" title="Ape">apes</a> such as <a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bonobo.htm" title="Bonobo">bonobos</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Gorilla.htm" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="ABO_antigens" name="ABO_antigens"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">ABO antigens</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:312px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1840.png.htm" title="Diagram showing the carbohydrate chains which determine the ABO blood group"><img alt="Diagram showing the carbohydrate chains which determine the ABO blood group" class="thumbimage" height="234" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ABO_blood_group_diagram.svg" src="../../images/18/1840.png" width="310" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1840.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram showing the carbohydrate chains which determine the ABO blood group</div> </div> </div> <p>The A <!--del_lnk--> antigen and the B antigen are derived from a common precursor known as the H antigen (or H substance). The H antigen is a <!--del_lnk--> glycosphingolipid (<!--del_lnk--> sphingolipid with <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrates linked to the <!--del_lnk--> ceramide <!--del_lnk--> moiety). Since it lacks N-acetylneuraminic acid (<!--del_lnk--> sialic acid) it is referred to as a <!--del_lnk--> globoside, not a ganglioside. In blood group O the H antigen remains unchanged and consists of a chain of <!--del_lnk--> galactose, <!--del_lnk--> N-Acetylglucosamine, galactose, and <!--del_lnk--> fucose attached to the ceramide. H antigens can be changed into A or B antigens by <!--del_lnk--> enzymes coded by the blood group A or B genes. Type A has an extra <!--del_lnk--> N-Acetylgalactosamine bonded to the galactose near the end, while type B has an extra galactose bonded to the galactose near the end.<p>Individuals with Type A blood can accept blood from donors of type A and type O blood. Individuals with type B blood can receive blood from donors of type B and type O blood. Individuals with type AB blood may receive blood from donors of type A, type B, type AB, or type O blood. Type AB blood is referred to as the universal recipient. Individuals of type O blood may receive blood from donors of type O blood. Type O blood is called the universal donor.<p>Antibodies are not formed against the H antigen, except by those with the <!--del_lnk--> Bombay phenotype.<p>In ABH secretors, ABH antigens are secreted by most <!--del_lnk--> mucous-producing cells of the body interfacing with the environment, including lung, skin, liver, pancreas, stomach, intestines, ovaries and prostate.<p><a id="History_of_discoveries" name="History_of_discoveries"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History of discoveries</span></h2> <p>The ABO blood group system is widely credited to have been discovered by the Austrian scientist <!--del_lnk--> Karl Landsteiner, who found three different blood types in 1900; he was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930 for his work. Due to inadequate communication at the time it was subsequently found that Czech serologist <!--del_lnk--> Jan Janský had independently pioneered the classification of human blood into four groups, but Landsteiner's independent discovery had been accepted by the scientific world while Janský remained in relative obscurity. Janský's classification is however still used in Russia and states of former USSR (see below). In America Moss published his own (very similar) work in 1910.<p>Landsteiner described A, B, and O; Decastrello and Sturli discovered the fourth type, AB, in 1902. <!--del_lnk--> Ludwik Hirszfeld and <!--del_lnk--> E. von Dungern discovered the heritability of ABO blood groups in 1910-11, with <!--del_lnk--> Felix Bernstein demonstrating the correct blood group inheritance pattern of multiple alleles at one locus in 1924. <p><a id="Serology" name="Serology"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Serology</span></h2> <p>Anti-A and anti-B antibodies, which are not present in the newborn, appear in the first years of life. It is possible that food and environmental antigens (<a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacterial</a>, <!--del_lnk--> viral or <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plant</a> antigens) are similar enough to A and B <!--del_lnk--> glycoprotein antigens that antibodies created against the environmental antigens in the first years of life can cross react with ABO-incompatible red blood cells. Anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually <!--del_lnk--> IgM, which are not able to pass through the <!--del_lnk--> placenta to the <!--del_lnk--> fetal blood circulation.<p>The "Light in the Dark theory" however suggests that when budding viruses take with them host cell membranes (in particular from the lung and mucosal epithelium where they are highly expressed)they also take along ABO Blood antigens from those membranes, and may carry them into secondary recipients where these antigens can elicit a host immune response againts these non-self foreign blood antigens. These viral carried blood antigens may be responsible for priming newborns into producing neutralizing antibodies against foreign blood antigens. Support for this theory has come to light in recent experiments with HIV. HIV can be neutralized in "in-vitro" experiments using antibodies against blood group antigens specifically expressed on the HIV producing cell lines. The "Light in the Dark theory" suggests a new novel evolutionary hypothesis that there is true communal immunity, which has developed to reduce the inter-transmissibility of viruses within a population. It suggests that individuals in a population supply and make a diversity of unique antigenic moieties so as to keep the population as a whole more resistant to infection. A system set up ideally to work with variable recessive alleles.<p><a id="ABO_hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn" name="ABO_hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>ABO blood group incompatibilities between the mother and child does not usually cause <!--del_lnk--> hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) because antibodies to the ABO blood groups are usually of the <!--del_lnk--> IgM type, which do not cross the placenta; however, sometimes <!--del_lnk--> IgG ABO antibodies are produced and a baby can develop <!--del_lnk--> ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn.<p><a id="Inheritance" name="Inheritance"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Inheritance</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/137.jpg.htm" title="A and B are codominant, giving the AB phenotype."><img alt="A and B are codominant, giving the AB phenotype." class="thumbimage" height="205" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Codominant.jpg" src="../../images/1/137.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/137.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A and B are <!--del_lnk--> codominant, giving the AB <!--del_lnk--> phenotype.</div> </div> </div> <table class="prettytable" style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:20px"> <tr> <td colspan="5"><b>Blood group inheritance</b></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Mother/Father</th> <th><b>O</b></th> <th><b>A</b></th> <th><b>B</b></th> <th><b>AB</b></th> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center"><b>O</b></td> <td>O</td> <td>O, A</td> <td>O, B</td> <td>A, B</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center"><b>A</b></td> <td>O, A</td> <td>O, A</td> <td>O, A, B, AB</td> <td>A, B, AB</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center"><b>B</b></td> <td>O, B</td> <td>O, A, B, AB</td> <td>O, B</td> <td>A, B, AB</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center"><b>AB</b></td> <td>A, B</td> <td>A, B, AB</td> <td>A, B, AB</td> <td>A, B, AB</td> </tr> </table> <p>Blood groups are inherited from both parents. The ABO blood type is controlled by a single <!--del_lnk--> gene with three <!--del_lnk--> alleles: <i>i</i>, <i>I<sup>A</sup></i>, and <i>I<sup>B</sup></i>. The gene encodes a <!--del_lnk--> glycosyltransferase - that is, an <!--del_lnk--> enzyme that modifies the <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrate content of the <!--del_lnk--> red blood cell antigens. The gene is located on the long arm of the <!--del_lnk--> ninth chromosome (9q34).<p><i>I<sup>A</sup></i> allele gives type A, <i>I<sup>B</sup></i> gives type B, and <i>i</i> gives type O. <i>I<sup>A</sup></i> and <i>I<sup>B</sup></i> are dominant over <i>i</i>, so <i>ii</i> people have type O, <i>I<sup>A</sup>I<sup>A</sup></i> or <i>I<sup>A</sup>i</i> have A, and <i>I<sup>B</sup>I<sup>B</sup></i> or <i>I<sup>B</sup>i</i> have type B. <i>I<sup>A</sup>I<sup>B</sup></i> people have both <!--del_lnk--> phenotypes because A and B express a special dominance relationship: <!--del_lnk--> codominance, which means that type A and B parents can have an AB child. Thus, it is extremely unlikely for a type AB parent to have a type O child (it is not, however, direct proof of <!--del_lnk--> illegitimacy): the <i>cis-AB</i> phenotype has a single enzyme that creates both A and B antigens. The resulting red blood cells do not usually express A or B antigen at the same level that would be expected on common group A<sub>1</sub> or B red blood cells, which can help solve the problem of an apparently genetically impossible blood group.<p>Evolutionary biologists theorize that the <i>I<sup>A</sup></i> allele evolved earliest, followed by <i>O</i> (by the deletion of a single nucleotide, shifting the <!--del_lnk--> reading frame) and then <i>I<sup>B</sup></i>. This chronology accounts for the percentage of people worldwide with each blood type. It is consistent with the accepted patterns of early population movements and varying prevalent blood types in different parts of the world: for instance, B is very common in populations of <!--del_lnk--> Asian descent, but rare in ones of Western <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a> descent.)<p><a id="Population_data" name="Population_data"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Population data</span></h2> <table class="prettytable" style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:20px"> <tr> <td colspan="5"><b>Distribution of blood types among various populations</b></td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left; width: 40%">Population</th> <th style="width: 15%">O</th> <th style="width: 15%">A</th> <th style="width: 15%">B</th> <th style="width: 15%">AB</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Native <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South Americans</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">100%</td> <td style="text-align: center">–</td> <td style="text-align: center">–</td> <td style="text-align: center">–</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">46%</td> <td style="text-align: right">42%</td> <td style="text-align: right">9%</td> <td style="text-align: right">3%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Irish</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">52%</td> <td style="text-align: right">35%</td> <td style="text-align: right">10%</td> <td style="text-align: right">3%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">43%</td> <td style="text-align: right">45%</td> <td style="text-align: right">9%</td> <td style="text-align: right">3%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hongkonger</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">40%</td> <td style="text-align: right">26%</td> <td style="text-align: right">27%</td> <td style="text-align: right">7%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">45.0%</td> <td style="text-align: right">21.4%</td> <td style="text-align: right">29.1%</td> <td style="text-align: right">4.5%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Australian aboriginals</td> <td style="text-align: right">44.4%</td> <td style="text-align: right">55.6%</td> <td style="text-align: center">–</td> <td style="text-align: center">–</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germans</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">42.8%</td> <td style="text-align: right">41.9%</td> <td style="text-align: right">11.0%</td> <td style="text-align: right">4.2%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Bengalis</td> <td style="text-align: right">22.0%</td> <td style="text-align: right">24.0%</td> <td style="text-align: right">38.2%</td> <td style="text-align: right">15.7%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Saami</td> <td style="text-align: right">18.2%</td> <td style="text-align: right">54.6%</td> <td style="text-align: right">4.8%</td> <td style="text-align: right">12.4%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finns</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">31%</td> <td style="text-align: right">44%</td> <td style="text-align: right">17%</td> <td style="text-align: right">8%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romanians</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">34%</td> <td style="text-align: right">41%</td> <td style="text-align: right">19%</td> <td style="text-align: right">6%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russians</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">33%</td> <td style="text-align: right">36%</td> <td style="text-align: right">23%</td> <td style="text-align: right">8%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a></td> <td style="text-align: right">30%</td> <td style="text-align: right">40%</td> <td style="text-align: right">20%</td> <td style="text-align: right">10%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> African Americans</td> <td style="text-align: right">49%</td> <td style="text-align: right">27%</td> <td style="text-align: right">20%</td> <td style="text-align: right">4%</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Kenyan</td> <td style="text-align: right">60%</td> <td style="text-align: right">19%</td> <td style="text-align: right">20%</td> <td style="text-align: right">1%</td> </tr> </table> <p> <br /> <p>The distribution of the blood groups A, B, O and AB varies across the world according to the population or race. There are also variations in blood type distribution within human subpopulations.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> the distribution of blood type frequencies through the population still shows some correlation to the distribution of <!--del_lnk--> placenames and to the successive invasions and migrations including <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Vikings">Vikings</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Danes, <!--del_lnk--> Saxons, <!--del_lnk--> Celts, and <!--del_lnk--> Normans who contributed the <!--del_lnk--> morphemes to the placenames and the <!--del_lnk--> genes to the population.<p><a id="Association_with_von_Wilebrand_factor" name="Association_with_von_Wilebrand_factor"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Association with von Wilebrand factor</span></h2> <p>The ABO antigen is also expressed on the <!--del_lnk--> von Willebrand factor (vWF) <!--del_lnk--> glycoprotein, which participates in <!--del_lnk--> hemostasis (control of bleeding). In fact, having type O blood predisposes to bleeding, as 30% of the total genetic variation observed in plasma vWF is explained by the effect of the ABO blood group, and individuals with group O blood normally have significantly lower plasma levels of vWF (and <!--del_lnk--> Factor VIII) than do non-O individuals. In addition, vWF is degraded more rapidly due to the higher prevalence of blood group O with the Cys1584 variant of vWF (an amino acid <!--del_lnk--> polymorphism in VWF): the gene for <!--del_lnk--> ADAMTS13 (vWF-cleaving <!--del_lnk--> protease) maps to the <!--del_lnk--> ninth chromosome (9q34), the same <!--del_lnk--> locus as ABO blood type. Higher levels of vWF are more common amongst people who have had <!--del_lnk--> ischaemic stroke (from blood clotting) for the first time. The results of this study found that the occurrence was not affected by ADAMTS13 polymorphism, and the only significant genetic factor was the person's blood group.<p><a id="Bombay_phenotype" name="Bombay_phenotype"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Bombay phenotype</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Individuals with the rare Bombay phenotype (<i><!--del_lnk--> hh</i>) do not express <!--del_lnk--> substance H on their red blood cells, and therefore do not bind A or B antigens. Instead, they produce antibodies to substance H (which is present on all red cells except those of hh <!--del_lnk--> genotype) as well as to both A and B antigens, and are therefore compatible only with other <i>hh</i> donors.<p><a id="Nomenclature_in_Europe_former_USSR" name="Nomenclature_in_Europe_former_USSR"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Nomenclature in Europe former USSR</span></h2> <p>In parts of Europe the "O" in ABO blood type is substituted with "0" (zero), signifying the lack of A or B antigen. In the former <!--del_lnk--> USSR and <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, blood types are referenced using numbers and <!--del_lnk--> Roman numerals instead of letters. This is <!--del_lnk--> Janský's original classification of blood types. It designates the blood types of humans as I, II, III, and IV, which are elsewhere designated, respectively, as O, A, B, and AB. The designation A and B with reference to blood groups was proposed by Hirszfeld.<p><a id="Examples_of_ABO_and_Rhesus_D_slide_testing_method" name="Examples_of_ABO_and_Rhesus_D_slide_testing_method"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Examples of ABO and Rhesus D slide testing method</span></h2> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery"> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/5/546.jpg.htm" title="Image:RhO+.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/5/546.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Blood group O positive: neither anti-A nor anti-B have agglutinated, but anti-Rh has<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/5/548.jpg.htm" title="Image:RhB-.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/5/548.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Result: Blood group B negative: anti-A and anti-Rh have not agglutinated but anti-B has<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>In the slide testing method shown above, three drops of blood are placed on a glass slide with liquid reagents. <!--del_lnk--> Agglutination indicates the presence of blood group antigens in the blood.<p><a id="Universal_blood_created_from_other_types" name="Universal_blood_created_from_other_types"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Universal blood created from other types</span></h2> <p>In April 2007 an international team of researchers announced in the journal <i><!--del_lnk--> Nature Biotechnology</i> an inexpensive and efficient way to convert types A, B and AB blood into type O. This is done by using <!--del_lnk--> glycosidase enzymes from specific bacteria to strip the blood group antigens from <!--del_lnk--> red blood cells. The removal of A and B antigens still does not address the problem of the <!--del_lnk--> Rhesus blood group antigen on the blood cells of Rhesus positive individuals, and so blood from Rhesus negative donors must be used. Patient trials will be conducted before the method can be relied on in live situations.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABO_blood_group_system"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Blood type', 'Ape', 'Chimpanzee', 'Bonobo', 'Gorilla', 'Bacterium', 'Plant', 'European', 'South America', 'United Kingdom', 'Ireland', 'France', 'Hong Kong', 'Vietnam', 'Germany', 'Finland', 'Romania', 'Russia', 'Japan', 'United Kingdom', 'Vikings', 'Russia']
AC_DC	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="AC/DC,AC/DC,AC/DC,'74 Jailbreak,1973 in music,1980 in music,2004,2006,AC-DC,AC/DC: Let There Be Rock (movie),AC/DC (video)" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>AC/DC</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "AC/DC"; var wgTitle = "AC/DC"; var wgArticleId = 149225; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-AC_DC"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">AC/DC</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Music.Performers_and_composers.htm">Performers and composers</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width: 21em; font-size: 95%;"> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; background: #87cefa;"><big><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="48" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ACDClogo.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="120" /></big></th> </tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="AC/DC, from left to right: Malcolm Young, Phil Rudd, Angus Young, Cliff Williams and Brian Johnson" height="147" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rudd-Williams-Johnson2.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="220" /><br /> <div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">AC/DC, from left to right: <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm Young, <!--del_lnk--> Phil Rudd, <!--del_lnk--> Angus Young, <!--del_lnk--> Cliff Williams and <!--del_lnk--> Brian Johnson</div> </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background: #87cefa;">Background information</th> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Origin</b></td> <td colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/161/16124.png" width="25" /></a><br /><a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre(s)</b></td> <td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Hard rock<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rock & Roll<br /><!--del_lnk--> Blues rock</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Years active</b></td> <td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1973 — present</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label(s)</b></td> <td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Albert, <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic, <!--del_lnk--> ATCO, <!--del_lnk--> Elektra, <!--del_lnk--> Eastwest, <!--del_lnk--> EMI, <!--del_lnk--> Epic Records</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background: #87cefa;">Members</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Angus Young — lead guitar<br /><!--del_lnk--> Malcolm Young — rhythm guitar<br /><!--del_lnk--> Brian Johnson — vocals<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cliff Williams — bass<br /><!--del_lnk--> Phil Rudd — drums</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background: #87cefa;">Former members</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Bon Scott <small>(Deceased)</small><br /><!--del_lnk--> Dave Evans<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mark Evans<br /><!--del_lnk--> Chris Slade<br /><!--del_lnk--> Simon Wright</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>AC/DC</b> are a <!--del_lnk--> hard rock band formed in <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1973 by brothers <!--del_lnk--> Angus and <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm Young. The band has sold over 150 million albums worldwide and over 68 million albums in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, making it one of the most successful <!--del_lnk--> hard rock acts ever. Their 1980 album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Back in Black</i>, has sold 42 million units worldwide (21 million in the US alone), and is the second highest selling album of all time and the biggest selling album by any band. In their recording career, the band has had two distinctive lead singers; <!--del_lnk--> Bon Scott and then later, <!--del_lnk--> Brian Johnson. For this reason, fans tend to divide its history into the "Bon Scott era" (1974–80), and the "Brian Johnson era" (1980–present).<p>Although the group is generally considered to be a pioneer of <!--del_lnk--> hard rock and <!--del_lnk--> heavy metal music along with <!--del_lnk--> Led Zeppelin, <!--del_lnk--> Deep Purple and <!--del_lnk--> Black Sabbath, the members have always referred to their music as "<!--del_lnk--> rock 'n' roll". The band also accept the description "hard rock" (they are ranked number 4 on <!--del_lnk--> VH1's "<i>100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock</i>"), but they find the "metal" description offensive. At one point they were known as a <!--del_lnk--> punk band, with which designation they also disagreed.<p>In 2005, the band finished second in a list of highest-earning entertainers from Australia—trailing <!--del_lnk--> The Wiggles—despite neither releasing an album nor touring that year.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p>Born in <a href="../../wp/g/Glasgow.htm" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, brothers Angus, Malcolm and <!--del_lnk--> George Young moved, along with most of their family, to Sydney, Australia, in 1963, when they were all still young children. George began playing <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitar</a> first and became a member of Australia's most successful band during the 1960s —<!--del_lnk--> The Easybeats, who were the first local rock act to score an international hit ("<!--del_lnk--> Friday On My Mind" in 1966). Malcolm and Angus soon followed in his footsteps. Malcolm first played with a <!--del_lnk--> Newcastle, New South Wales band called The Velvet Underground (not to be confused with the <!--del_lnk--> New York based <!--del_lnk--> Velvet Underground, which featured <!--del_lnk--> Lou Reed).<p>In 1974, George Young and his ex-Easybeats bandmate, <!--del_lnk--> Harry Vanda, were recording an album as the <b>Marcus Hook Roll Band</b>, called <i>Tales Of Old Granddaddy</i>, when they introduced Angus and Malcolm to a recording studio for the first time, and invited them to contribute to the album. It was following this session that Vanda & Young took the newly formed AC/DC into the studio, marking the beginning of hugely successful collaboration.<p><a id="Early_years" name="Early_years"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early years</span></h3> <p>In November 1973, Malcolm and Angus Young started AC/DC. Malcolm played <!--del_lnk--> rhythm guitar and Angus played <!--del_lnk--> lead guitar, and they recruited <!--del_lnk--> drummer <!--del_lnk--> Colin Burgess (ex-<!--del_lnk--> The Masters Apprentices), <!--del_lnk--> bassist <!--del_lnk--> Larry Van Kriedt, and <!--del_lnk--> vocalist <!--del_lnk--> Dave Evans. They originally intended to have a <!--del_lnk--> keyboardist, but this idea was soon dropped. They played their first gig at a club called 'Chequers' in Sydney on New Year's Eve, 1973. They were later signed to <!--del_lnk--> EMI-distributed <!--del_lnk--> Albert Productions for Austraila and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<p>The early line-ups of the band changed often. <!--del_lnk--> Colin Burgess was the first member fired (it was rumoured this was because he passed out on stage, after someone spiked his drink), and a number of different bassists and drummers passed through the band over the next year, some lasting only a few weeks.<p>A vital innovation was Angus Young's adoption of his now famous school uniform as a regular stage outfit; the original was reputedly Angus' real uniform from his secondary school, <!--del_lnk--> Ashfield Boys High School, in Sydney. This idea was suggested by the Young brothers' sister, Margaret. Angus had also tried different costumes such as <!--del_lnk--> Zorro, a <a href="../../wp/g/Gorilla.htm" title="Gorilla">gorilla</a> and Super-Ang (a parody of <a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a>).<p>The Young brothers soon felt that Evans wasn't a suitable frontman for the group — according to them, he was more of a "<!--del_lnk--> glam rocker", inspired by the likes of <!--del_lnk--> Gary Glitter. Occasionally Evans would be replaced onstage by the band's first manager, Dennis Laughlin (see <!--del_lnk--> Past members of AC/DC). When the band's driver, <!--del_lnk--> Ronald Belford "Bon" Scott — who already had experience as a vocalist — expressed an interest in becoming the vocalist, it soon became apparent that Evans' time with AC/DC was coming to an end. Evans also had personal problems with Laughlin, which contributed to the ill-feeling towards him.<p><a id="Bon_Scott_era_.281974.E2.80.931980.29" name="Bon_Scott_era_.281974.E2.80.931980.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bon Scott era (1974–1980)</span></h3> <p>In September 1974, Dave Evans was replaced by Bon Scott, former lead vocalist with <!--del_lnk--> The Spektors (1964–66), <!--del_lnk--> The Valentines (1966—70) and <!--del_lnk--> Fraternity (1970–73). This signified the beginning of the band's international success. With Evans, they had recorded one single, "Can I Sit Next To You"/"Rockin' In The Parlour". "Can I Sit Next To You" was eventually re-recorded with Bon Scott under the title "<!--del_lnk--> Can I Sit Next To You Girl".<p>By January 1975, the Australian-only album entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> High Voltage</i> was recorded, based on instrumental songs written by the Young brothers and lyrics written by Scott. Within a few months the line-up had stabilised with Scott, the Young brothers, <!--del_lnk--> Mark Evans (bass) and <!--del_lnk--> Phil Rudd (drums). Later that year, the band released the single, "<!--del_lnk--> It's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock 'n' Roll)", which became their perennial rock anthem. It was included on their second album, <i><!--del_lnk--> T.N.T.</i>, again only released in Australia and New Zealand. The album also featured another classic, "<!--del_lnk--> High Voltage".<p>Between 1974 and 1978, aided by regular appearances on the nationally-broadcast <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">TV</a> pop music show, Molly Meldrum's <i><!--del_lnk--> Countdown</i>, AC/DC became one of the most popular and successful acts in Australia.<p><a id="International_success_.281976.E2.80.931978.29" name="International_success_.281976.E2.80.931978.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">International success (1976–1978)</span></h4> <p>In 1976, AC/DC signed an international deal with <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic Records. They worked all over the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> and Europe to establish themselves, touring almost constantly and gaining invaluable experience on the stadium circuit supporting the top hard rock acts of the day, including <!--del_lnk--> Alice Cooper, <a href="../../wp/q/Queen_%2528band%2529.htm" title="Queen (band)">Queen</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Rainbow, <!--del_lnk--> Black Sabbath, <!--del_lnk--> KISS, <!--del_lnk--> Cheap Trick, <!--del_lnk--> Nazareth, <!--del_lnk--> Foreigner, <!--del_lnk--> Thin Lizzy, <!--del_lnk--> Moxy, and <!--del_lnk--> The Who.<p>A compilation of tracks from the Australian LPs, <i><!--del_lnk--> High Voltage</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> T.N.T.</i>, was released by Atlantic Records in 1976. The album was also called <i><!--del_lnk--> High Voltage</i>, and eventually sold three million copies. <i>High Voltage</i> was the first AC/DC album released worldwide, and attracted British punk listeners. The track selection of this album was in fact heavily weighted towards the more recent <i>T.N.T.</i>. Their next album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap</i>, was released in the same year. Like its predecessor, this album exists in both <!--del_lnk--> Australian-only and <!--del_lnk--> international versions. Track listings varied worldwide and the international version of the album also featured one track from <i>T.N.T.</i> The original Australian version includes their popular song "<!--del_lnk--> Jailbreak", which is now more readily available on the 1984 compilation EP <i><!--del_lnk--> '74 Jailbreak</i>, with a live version appearing on the <i><!--del_lnk--> Live</i> album in 1991. <i>Dirty Deeds</i> didn't reach the US until 1981 (after Bon Scott's death), when AC/DC were at the peak of their popularity.<p><a id="Firing_of_Evans_.281977.29" name="Firing_of_Evans_.281977.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Firing of Evans (1977)</span></h4> <p>After the recording of 1977's <!--del_lnk--> Let There Be Rock, <!--del_lnk--> Mark Evans experienced personal differences with <!--del_lnk--> Angus Young and was sacked, being replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Cliff Williams, who began to share the background vocal duties with <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm Young.<p>Neither of the Young brothers has ever gone into any great detail of the split. Conversely, the CEO of <!--del_lnk--> Epic Records, Richard Griffiths, who used to work as a booking agent for AC/DC in the mid-1970s, has stated, <i>"You knew Mark wasn't going to last, he was just too much of a nice guy."</i><p><a id="Continued_Success_.281977.E2.80.931978.29" name="Continued_Success_.281977.E2.80.931978.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Continued Success (1977–1978)</span></h4> <p>AC/DC first played in America on the radio station, AM 600 WTAC (based in <!--del_lnk--> Flint, <!--del_lnk--> Michigan). The station's manager, Peter C. Cavanaugh, booked the band to play in Flint's Capitol Theatre in 1977. The opening act was <!--del_lnk--> The MC5 who were briefly reunited and agreed to play the event. AC/DC opened with their popular song, "<!--del_lnk--> Live Wire" and closed with "It's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock 'n' Roll)".<p>The band were tagged as a <!--del_lnk--> punk rock band by the British press, but they managed to survive the punk upheavals of the late 70s, gaining a <!--del_lnk--> cult following in the UK, with Angus Young becoming notorious for <!--del_lnk--> mooning the audience. Their hard rock sound and Scott's image were a significant influence for <!--del_lnk--> Johnny Rotten, frontman of the popular punk band, the <!--del_lnk--> Sex Pistols.<p>The release of <i><!--del_lnk--> Powerage</i> (1978) marked the debut of bassist <!--del_lnk--> Cliff Williams and followed the blueprint set by <!--del_lnk--> Let There Be Rock with harder riffs. One of the concerts on the <i>Powerage</i> tour, at the Apollo Theatre in Glasgow, was recorded and released as <i><!--del_lnk--> If You Want Blood</i>, featuring classic songs like "<!--del_lnk--> Whole Lotta Rosie", "<!--del_lnk--> Problem Child" or "<!--del_lnk--> Let There Be Rock". This album was the last one to be produced by Harry Vanda and George Young with Bon Scott on vocals.<p>AC/DC's profile was raised in the UK by their appearance on the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a>'s, <i>Rock Goes to College</i> series, on October 28, 1978 at <!--del_lnk--> Essex University, <!--del_lnk--> Colchester, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. The performance was broadcast on the TV channel <!--del_lnk--> BBC1.<p>It was their sixth album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Highway To Hell</i>, produced by <!--del_lnk--> Mutt Lange and released in 1979, that propelled them into the top ranks of hard rock acts. Its <!--del_lnk--> anthemic title track is still a radio staple in the U.S. and Australia. This album was the last to feature Bon Scott on vocals.<p>The album's final track, "<!--del_lnk--> Night Prowler", has two breaths in quick succession at the start of the song, meant to set the fear and loathing tone. The previous albums gave some ground to unheard elements, like backing vocals, but still feature the AC/DC minimalism signature; loud, simple, pounding riffs and grooving backbeats.<p><a id="Bon_Scott.27s_death_.281980.29" name="Bon_Scott.27s_death_.281980.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Bon Scott's death (1980)</span></h4> <p>Bon Scott died on 19 February, 1980 (see <!--del_lnk--> 1980 in music). He had passed out after a night of routine partying in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, and was left in a car owned by an acquaintance of his named Alistair Kinnear. The next day, Bon was found unconscious by Kinnear and immediately rushed to the <!--del_lnk--> King's College hospital in <!--del_lnk--> Camberwell, where he was pronounced dead upon arrival. Although common folklore cites <!--del_lnk--> pulmonary aspiration of <!--del_lnk--> vomit as the cause of his death, the official cause was listed as "Acute alcohol poisoning" and "Death by Misadventure".<p>There are many inconsistencies in the official story, which in recent years have led to many <!--del_lnk--> conspiracy theories, many involving <!--del_lnk--> heroin overdoses. Some think it was murder, and that Bon Scott was killed by fumes from the exhaust being redistributed into the car, and some think Kinnear didn't even exist. It should be noted, however, that Bon was <!--del_lnk--> asthmatic and the temperature was below freezing that morning.<p>Scott's family buried him in <!--del_lnk--> Fremantle, Western Australia, the area to which they emigrated when he was a child.<p><a id="Finding_a_new_voice" name="Finding_a_new_voice"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Finding a new voice</span></h3> <p>After Bon Scott's death, the band members had considered quitting, but they decided that Bon would have wanted AC/DC to continue. Therefore, shortly thereafter, the band lined up various candidates to replace Bon. Among them were ex-<!--del_lnk--> Back Street Crawler vocalist <!--del_lnk--> Terry Slesser, ex-<!--del_lnk--> Moxy frontman Buzz Shearman (who passed on the opportunity due to vocal problems), and ex-<!--del_lnk--> Geordie singer <!--del_lnk--> Brian Johnson.<p>With regard to Brian Johnson, Angus Young stated, "<i>I remember Bon playing me "Little Richard" and then telling me the story of when he saw Brian singing. And he says about that night, 'there's this guy up there screaming at the top of his lungs and then the next thing you know he hits the deck. He's on the floor, rolling around and screaming. I thought it was great, and then to top it off —you couldn't get a better encore— they came in and wheeled the guy off!'</i>" (Johnson was actually diagnosed with <!--del_lnk--> appendicitis later that night, which explains his writhing around on stage).<p>At the AC/DC audition Johnson sang two songs; "<!--del_lnk--> Whole Lotta Rosie" (from <i><!--del_lnk--> Let There Be Rock</i>) and "<!--del_lnk--> Nutbush City Limits" (<!--del_lnk--> Ike & Tina Turner). A few days later, the band told Johnson he would be the new vocalist of AC/DC. Slesser, on the other hand, was not too excited about the idea of joining an established band from the start, and instead went on to have a solo career and co-wrote a song entitled "Rainbow's Gold" which was covered by <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Maiden.htm" title="Iron Maiden">Iron Maiden</a> in 1984.<p><a id="Brian_Johnson_era_.281980.E2.80.93present.29" name="Brian_Johnson_era_.281980.E2.80.93present.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Brian Johnson era (1980–present)</span></h3> <p>With Johnson, the band completed the songwriting that was started while Bon Scott was still alive and began recording <i><!--del_lnk--> Back in Black</i> at <!--del_lnk--> Compass Point Studios in the Bahamas a few months after Scott's death. <i>Back in Black</i>, also produced by Lange, and became their biggest-selling album and a hard rock landmark, featuring hits like; "<!--del_lnk--> Hell's Bells", "<!--del_lnk--> You Shook Me All Night Long" and the title track, "<!--del_lnk--> Back in Black". The album was certified platinum a year after its release and by 1997 it had sold 16 million copies in the U.S. alone.<p>The follow-up album, <i><!--del_lnk--> For Those About to Rock We Salute You</i>, released in 1981, also sold very well and was well received by critics. Two of the band's biggest hit singles to date were featured in this album, "Let's Get It Up", reaching #13 in the UK, and the title track, "<!--del_lnk--> For Those About to Rock", reaching #15 on the UK charts. The band split with Lange for their self-produced 1983 album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Flick of the Switch</i> in an effort to find the rawness and simplicity of their early albums.<p><a id="Departure_of_Rudd_.281983.29" name="Departure_of_Rudd_.281983.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Departure of Rudd (1983)</span></h4> <p>Amid rumours of <!--del_lnk--> alcoholism and drug-induced <!--del_lnk--> paranoia, drummer <!--del_lnk--> Phil Rudd's friendship with Malcolm Young was deteriorating; it is widely accepted that this friendship began deteriorating after Rudd made advances towards Malcolm's wife. After a long period of unfriendliness, the two's dislike for each other grew so strong that, at one point, they got into a fight. Two hours later, Rudd was fired from the band.<p>Though Rudd finished most of the drum tracks for the next album, he was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Simon Wright, after the band held an anonymous audition. With the new line-up, the band released and produced the less successful album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Flick of the Switch</i>, which was was considered underdeveloped and unmemorable, and critics stated that the band had made "the same album nine times". AC/DC was also voted as the eighth biggest disappointment of the year in the 1984 Kerrang!'s readers' poll, however, <i>Flick of the Switch</i> eventually reached No. 4 in the UK charts. <i><!--del_lnk--> Fly on the Wall</i>, produced by the Young brothers in 1985, was also regarded as underdeveloped and directionless. A music concept video with the same name, <!--del_lnk--> Fly on the Wall was also released. It featured the band at a bar, playing five of the album's ten songs and supplemented by a variety of goings-on, including an animated <!--del_lnk--> fly.<p>In 1986, the group returned to the charts with the title track from <i><!--del_lnk--> Who Made Who</i>, the soundtrack to <!--del_lnk--> Stephen King's film <i><!--del_lnk--> Maximum Overdrive</i>. This album also included two new instrumentals along with previous hits such as "Hells Bells" and "<!--del_lnk--> Ride On".<p>In February 1988, AC/DC were inducted into <!--del_lnk--> ARIA Hall of Fame.<p><a id="Regained_popularity_.281988.E2.80.93present.29" name="Regained_popularity_.281988.E2.80.93present.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Regained popularity (1988–present)</span></h4> <p>The next album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Blow Up Your Video</i> (1988), recorded on Miraval Studio in Le Val, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, saw them reunited with their original producers, Harry Vanda and George Young. The album was a selection of nineteen songs recorded for the album, and although it is criticized of having many "<!--del_lnk--> filler tracks", it was still successful; it enjoyed better sales than the band's two previous works, reaching No. 2 in the UK charts, the best position since <i>Back In Black</i> and with a British Top 20 single, "<!--del_lnk--> Heatseeker" and popular songs such as "That's The Way I Wanna Rock And Roll".<p>The <i>Blow Up Your Video World Tour</i> started on February 1988 in <a href="../../wp/p/Perth%252C_Western_Australia.htm" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth</a>, Australia. After the shows in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> in April, <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm Young stated that he needed a rest from touring, principally to reform his alcoholism, so the band temporarily hired another member of the Young family, <!--del_lnk--> Stevie Young.<p>Following the tour, Wright left the group to work on the next <!--del_lnk--> Ronnie James Dio album <i><!--del_lnk--> Lock Up The Wolves</i>, and was replaced by session veteran, <!--del_lnk--> Chris Slade. Johnson was unavailable for several months as he was finalising his divorce, so, the Young brothers wrote all the songs for the next album themselves, as they would do for all subsequent releases. The new album was produced by <!--del_lnk--> Bruce Fairbairn, who had worked previously with <!--del_lnk--> Aerosmith and <!--del_lnk--> Bon Jovi. Released in 1990, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Razors Edge</i> was a big comeback for the band and included the hits "<!--del_lnk--> Thunderstruck" reaching #5 on Billboard's Mainstream Rock Tracks Chart and "<!--del_lnk--> Moneytalks" reaching #23 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album went multi-platinum and went into the top ten in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Several shows of the <!--del_lnk--> Razor's Edge tour were recorded, and the live album titled <!--del_lnk--> Live was released on 1992. The album, produced by Fairbairn, is considered as one of the best live albums of the 90s. A year later, the band recorded the song "<!--del_lnk--> Big Gun", for the soundtrack of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arnold_Schwarzenegger.htm" title="Arnold Schwarzenegger">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a> movie "<!--del_lnk--> Last Action Hero".<p>By 1994, Rudd had returned. Angus and Malcolm invited him to jam with them and eventually, they hired him to replace Chris Slade. His departure was, however, amicable and mainly due to the band's strong desire to return to working with Rudd. In Angus Young's opinion, Slade was the best musician in AC/DC, but the wish to regroup with Rudd was stronger.<p>With the 1980—83 lineup back in position, the group recorded, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ballbreaker</i> in 1995, with <a href="../../wp/h/Hip_hop_music.htm" title="Hip hop music">hip hop</a> and <!--del_lnk--> heavy metal producer <!--del_lnk--> Rick Rubin.<p>Five years later, the band released their sixteenth studio album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Stiff Upper Lip</i>. Produced by <!--del_lnk--> George Young, the album was better received by critics than the previous <i>Ballbreaker</i>, but in part criticized by the lack of ideas. The Australian release includes a bonus disc with live performances of the band from 1996 recorded in Madrid, and three promotional videos.<p><a id="Recent_events" name="Recent_events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Recent events</span></h2> <p>In 2002, <i><!--del_lnk--> Q</i> magazine put AC/DC at the very top of the "50 Bands To See Before You Die" list.<p>In 2003, AC/DC have entered into a long-term, multi-album deal for new recordings, and released newly remastered AC/DC albums. These albums are a part of AC/DC's <i><!--del_lnk--> Remasters</i> series, they contain expanded booklets with rare photographs, memorabilia, and notes. All the albums except <i><!--del_lnk--> Ballbreaker</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Stiff Upper Lip</i> were remastered in 2003; <i>Ballbreaker</i> was re-released in 2005, and <i>Stiff Upper Lip</i> will be re-released in 2010, although a remastered version was released in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>.<p>In May 2003, Malcolm Young accepted a Ted Albert Award for Outstanding Service to Australian Music and paid special tribute to Bon Scott. That same year, the <!--del_lnk--> Recording Industry Association of America upgraded the group's US sales figures, increasing their cumulative sales from 46.5 million to 63 million, making AC/DC the fifth-best-selling band in US music history, behind <a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Led Zeppelin, <!--del_lnk--> Pink Floyd, and the <!--del_lnk--> Eagles. The RIAA also certified the classic <i><!--del_lnk--> Back in Black</i> album as double diamond (20,000,000) US sales, making it the sixth-best-selling U.S. album in history. As of 2005, the album has sold 21 million copies, moving it into fifth place.<p>On July 30 of the same year, the band gave a performance with the <!--del_lnk--> Rolling Stones at <!--del_lnk--> Molson Canadian Rocks for Toronto, in <!--del_lnk--> Toronto, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>. Held before an audience of 500,000, the concert was held to help the city overcome the effects of the 2003 <!--del_lnk--> SARS epidemic. The concert currently holds the record for being the largest paid music event in North American history.<p><a id="Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame_induction" name="Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame_induction"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction</span></h3> <p>During their induction to the <!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in March 2003, AC/DC performed "<!--del_lnk--> Highway To Hell" and "<!--del_lnk--> You Shook Me All Night Long" with guest vocals by <!--del_lnk--> Steven Tyler of <!--del_lnk--> Aerosmith, who inducted the band into the hall. Tyler also called the band's <!--del_lnk--> power chords, "the thunder from down under that gives you the second most powerful surge that can flow through your body."<p>The band thanked their fans for their support in an acceptance speech and Brian Johnson quoted the band's 1977 song "Let There Be Rock":<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="AC/DC">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="AC/DC"><img alt="AC/DC" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>In the beginning, back in 1955, man didn't know about the rock 'n roll show and all that jive. The white man had the schmaltz,<br /> the black man had the blues, but no one knew what they was gonna do but Tchaikovsky had the news, he said: "let there be rock".</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="AC/DC">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="AC/DC"><img alt="AC/DC" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Helen_of_Troy_musical" name="Helen_of_Troy_musical"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Helen of Troy musical</span></h3> <p>Since April 2003, Johnson has been working on a musical version of <!--del_lnk--> Helen of Troy with Sarasota Ballet coreographer, Robert de Warren. The musical is a <i><!--del_lnk--> Les Miserables</i>-style musical with rousing anthems, tender ballads and minimal dialogue. He conceived the project with writers Ian La Frenais, Dick Clement and Brendan Healy after seeing <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical, <i><!--del_lnk--> Cats</i>, and describing it as, "fucking shit, wrist-cuttingly bad".<p><!--del_lnk--> Malcolm McDowell, who made his recording debut singing one of the songs for the soundtrack in Brian's studio, has agreed to play <a href="../../wp/z/Zeus.htm" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>. <!--del_lnk--> The Cranberries singer <!--del_lnk--> Dolores O'Riordan and <!--del_lnk--> Bruce Vilanch are also set to participate.<p>The full show has yet to premiere, but a small public performance, that featured songs written for the musical, was given in <!--del_lnk--> New York on June 13, 2005.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:187px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16326.jpg.htm" title="The street sign for ACDC Lane, Melbourne"><img alt="The street sign for ACDC Lane, Melbourne" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ACDC_Lane.jpg" src="../../images/163/16326.jpg" width="185" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16326.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The street sign for ACDC Lane, Melbourne</div> </div> </div> <p><a id="ACDC_Lane" name="ACDC_Lane"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">ACDC Lane</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> 1 October <!--del_lnk--> 2004 a central <a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> thoroughfare, Corporation Lane, was officially renamed <!--del_lnk--> ACDC Lane in honour of the band (street names in the <!--del_lnk--> City of Melbourne cannot contain the "<!--del_lnk--> /" character). The lane is near <!--del_lnk--> Swanston Street, the location where, on the back of a truck, the band recorded their video for the 1975 hit "It's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock 'n' Roll)". There is another street, in <!--del_lnk--> Leganés, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, which was named after the band in 2 March 2000, called 'Calle de AC/DC'.<p><a id="Family_Jewels_box_set" name="Family_Jewels_box_set"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Family Jewels</i> box set</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>In March, 2005, an official two-disc DVD box-set containing music videos, live clips and promotional videos called <i>Family Jewels</i> was released. The first disc contains videos from the Bon Scott era like the first TV appearance in 1975, "Jailbreak", "Let There Be Rock" and a performance on television ten days before Scott died. The second disk contains material from the Brian Johnson era such as the classic videos for <i><!--del_lnk--> Back in Black</i>.<p><a id="New_album" name="New_album"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">New album</span></h3> <p>AC/DC are currently working on a new studio album: Malcolm Young stated: "the band is currently recording and writing material for the eagerly anticipated next album.", but no release date has been set. In a 2004 interview, Brian Johnson said he was handling lyrics, for the first time since the 1988 album, <i>Blow Up Your Video</i>. He also said Angus Young has written harder riffs than the ones which appeared on <i><!--del_lnk--> Stiff Upper Lip</i>. Brian Johnson, in a 2005 interview, confirmed that the band does not know where the album will be recorded and the producer is yet unknown, and Malcolm Young stated that this new album's "gotta be perfect". There is a possibility that the next release could be a double album. Angus Young also mentioned on a recent radio interview that the next album and tour will be AC/DC's last due the deteriorating quality of <!--del_lnk--> Brian Johnson's singing.<p><a id="Name" name="Name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Name</span></h2> <p>Angus and Malcolm Young claim that they first got the idea for the name after seeing the acronym "AC/DC" on the back of a sewing machine owned by their sister, Margaret Young. AC/DC is an <!--del_lnk--> abbreviation for "<!--del_lnk--> Alternating Current/<!--del_lnk--> Direct Current," indicating a device can be powered by either type of power source. The Young brothers liked the way that this name symbolized the band's raw energy and power-driven performances so the name stuck.<p>In some cultures, "AC/DC" is a slang term implying <!--del_lnk--> bisexuality. The band have said that they were initially unaware of this and that the public brought it to their attention.<p>Some religious figures have suggested that the name stood for "Anti-Christ/Devil's Children", "After Christ/Devil Comes" or "Anti Christ/Death to Christ;" the rumour has long persisted among critics who, already disliking the band's image, use it to paint the band as <!--del_lnk--> Satanists. The band has stated this is not true and has mocked these accusations, for example, Malcolm Young once said: "Me mum would kill me for that!"<p>The name AC/DC is pronounced one letter at a time, although the band is nicknamed "Acca Dacca" by its Australian fans. The name has inspired a rash of <!--del_lnk--> tribute bands, such as BC/DC, from the Canadian province of <!--del_lnk--> British Columbia; AC/DShe, an all-female group from San Francisco and <!--del_lnk--> Hayseed Dixie, an <!--del_lnk--> Appalachian band specializing in <a href="../../wp/b/Bluegrass_music.htm" title="Bluegrass music">bluegrass</a> covers.<p><a id="Discography" name="Discography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discography</span></h2> <p><big><b>Studio albums</b></big><table border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"> <tr> <td><b>Title</b></td> <td><b>Release date</b></td> <td><b>Label</b></td> <td><b>U.S. Album Sales</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> High Voltage</i> (A)</td> <td>February 1975</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Albert</td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> T.N.T.</i> (A)</td> <td>December 1975</td> <td>Albert</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> High Voltage</i></td> <td>September 28 1976</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic</td> <td>3,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap</i> (A)</td> <td>September 1976</td> <td>Albert</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap</i></td> <td>November 1976</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>6,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Let There Be Rock</i> (A)</td> <td>March 1977</td> <td>Albert</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Let There Be Rock</i></td> <td>June 1977</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>2,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Powerage</i></td> <td>May 1978</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>1,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Highway To Hell</i></td> <td>July 1979</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>7,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Back in Black</i></td> <td>July 1980</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>21,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> For Those About to Rock</i></td> <td>November 1981</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>4,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Flick of the Switch</i></td> <td>April 1983</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>1,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> '74 Jailbreak</i></td> <td>October 1984</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ATCO</td> <td>1,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Fly on the Wall</i></td> <td>June 1985</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>1,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Who Made Who</i></td> <td>May 1986</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>5,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Blow Up Your Video</i></td> <td>January 1988</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Epic</td> <td>2,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> The Razor's Edge</i></td> <td>September 1990</td> <td>Atlantic</td> <td>5,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Ballbreaker</i></td> <td>September 1995</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Elektra</td> <td>2,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Volts</i></td> <td>November 1997</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Eastwest</td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Stiff Upper Lip</i></td> <td>February 2000</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> EMI</td> <td>1,000,000</td> </tr> </table> <p><big><b>Live albums</b></big><table border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"> <tr> <td><b>Title</b></td> <td><b>Release date</b></td> <td><b>Label</b></td> <td><b>Producer</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> If You Want Blood You've Got It</i></td> <td>October 1978</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic / <!--del_lnk--> ATCO</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Vanda / <!--del_lnk--> Young</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Live</i></td> <td>October 1992</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Epic</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Bruce Fairbairn</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Live: 2 CD Collector's Edition</i></td> <td>October 1992</td> <td>Epic</td> <td>Bruce Fairbairn</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Live from the Atlantic Studios</i></td> <td>November 1997</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Eastwest</td> <td>George Young</td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Let There Be Rock: The Movie</i></td> <td>November 1997</td> <td>Eastwest</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Tony Platt</td> </tr> </table> <p><big><b>Videography</b></big><ul> <li><i><!--del_lnk--> AC/DC: Let There Be Rock</i> (1980)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Fly on the Wall</i> (1985)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Who Made Who</i> (1986)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> AC/DC</i> (Aus.) (1989)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Clipped</i> (1991)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Live at Donington</i> (1991)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> For Those About to Rock We Salute You</i> (1993)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> No Bull</i> (1996)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Stiff Upper Lip Live</i> (2001)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Live '77</i> (released only in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>) (2003)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Toronto Rocks</i> (2004)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Family Jewels</i> (2005)</ul> <p><a id="Band_members" name="Band_members"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Band members</span></h2> <p><big><b>Current line-up</b></big><ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Angus Young — <!--del_lnk--> lead guitar<li><!--del_lnk--> Malcolm Young — <!--del_lnk--> rhythm guitar, <!--del_lnk--> backing vocals<li><!--del_lnk--> Brian Johnson — <!--del_lnk--> lead vocals<li><!--del_lnk--> Cliff Williams — <!--del_lnk--> bass, <!--del_lnk--> backing vocals<li><!--del_lnk--> Phil Rudd — <!--del_lnk--> drums</ul> <p><big><b>Original line-up</b></big><ul> <li>Angus Young — lead guitar<li>Malcolm Young — rhythm guitar, backing vocals<li><!--del_lnk--> Dave Evans — lead vocals<li><!--del_lnk--> Larry Van Kriedt — bass<li><!--del_lnk--> Colin Burgess — drums</ul> <p><big><b>Vital Members</b></big><ul> <li>Angus Young - lead guitar (1973-present)<li>Malcolm Young - rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1973-present)<li>Bon Scott - lead vocals (1974-1980)<li>Brian Johnson - lead vocals (1980-present)<li>Cliff Williams - Bass, backing vocals (1977-present)<li>Phil Rudd - drums (1975-1983;1994-present)</ul> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC/DC"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Sydney', 'Australia', 'Sydney', 'Australia', 'United States', 'Glasgow', 'Scotland', 'Guitar', 'New Zealand', 'Gorilla', 'Superman', 'Television', 'United Kingdom', 'Queen (band)', 'BBC', 'England', 'London', 'Iron Maiden', 'France', 'Perth, Western Australia', 'Europe', 'United States', 'Arnold Schwarzenegger', 'Hip hop music', 'United Kingdom', 'The Beatles', 'Canada', 'Zeus', 'Melbourne', 'Spain', 'Bluegrass music', 'Japan']
AIDS	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="AIDS,AIDS.ogg,AIDS,1981,1987,1994 expanded World Health Organization AIDS case definition,2003,2004,2005,2006,ACET" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>AIDS</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "AIDS"; var wgTitle = "AIDS"; var wgArticleId = 5069516; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-AIDS"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">AIDS</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Health_and_medicine.htm">Health and medicine</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children supports more than 50,000 Aids Orphans in the community. For more information see <a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm" title="Aids Africa">SOS Children: Aids in Africa</a></div> <!-- start content --> <p> <br clear="all" /> <table class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%; text-align: left;"> <caption style="background: lightgrey; font-size: 95%;"><b>Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)</b><br /><i>Classifications and external resources</i></caption> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: smaller;"> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23069.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red_ribbon.png" src="../../images/230/23069.png" width="120" /></a></span></div> </div> </th> </tr> <tr style="line-height: 1;"> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><small>The <!--del_lnk--> Red ribbon is a symbol for solidarity with HIV-positive people and those living with AIDS.</small></td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> ICD-<!--del_lnk--> 10</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> B<!--del_lnk--> 24.</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> ICD-<!--del_lnk--> 9</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> 042</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> DiseasesDB</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> 5938</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> MedlinePlus</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> 000594</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> eMedicine</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> emerg/253 </td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome</b> (<b>AIDS</b> or <b>Aids</b>) is a <!--del_lnk--> collection of symptoms and infections in <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a> resulting from the specific damage to the <!--del_lnk--> immune system caused by the <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">human immunodeficiency virus</a> (HIV). The late stage of the condition leaves individuals prone to <!--del_lnk--> opportunistic infections and <!--del_lnk--> tumors. Although treatments for AIDS and HIV exist to slow the <a href="../../wp/v/Virus.htm" title="Virus">virus</a>'s progression, there is no known cure. HIV is <!--del_lnk--> transmitted through direct contact of a <!--del_lnk--> mucous membrane or the bloodstream with a <!--del_lnk--> bodily fluid containing HIV, such as <!--del_lnk--> blood, <!--del_lnk--> semen, <!--del_lnk--> vaginal fluid, <!--del_lnk--> preseminal fluid, and <!--del_lnk--> breast milk. This transmission can come in the form of <!--del_lnk--> anal, <!--del_lnk--> vaginal or <!--del_lnk--> oral <!--del_lnk--> sex, <!--del_lnk--> blood transfusion, contaminated <!--del_lnk--> hypodermic needles, exchange between <!--del_lnk--> mother and <!--del_lnk--> baby during <!--del_lnk--> pregnancy, <!--del_lnk--> childbirth, or <!--del_lnk--> breastfeeding, or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.<p>Most researchers believe that HIV originated in <a href="../../wp/s/Sub-Saharan_Africa.htm" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> during the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="Twentieth century">twentieth century</a>; it is now a <!--del_lnk--> pandemic, with an estimated 38.6 <!--del_lnk--> million people now living with the disease worldwide. As of January 2006, the <!--del_lnk--> Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized on <!--del_lnk--> June 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, making it one of the most destructive <!--del_lnk--> epidemics in <!--del_lnk--> recorded history. In 2005 alone, AIDS claimed an estimated 2.4–3.3 million lives, of which more than 570,000 were children. A third of these deaths are occurring in sub-Saharan <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, retarding <!--del_lnk--> economic growth and destroying <!--del_lnk--> human capital. <!--del_lnk--> Antiretroviral treatment reduces both the <!--del_lnk--> mortality and the <!--del_lnk--> morbidity of HIV infection, but routine access to antiretroviral <!--del_lnk--> medication is not available in all countries. HIV/AIDS <!--del_lnk--> stigma is more severe than that associated with other life-threatening conditions and extends beyond the disease itself to providers and even <!--del_lnk--> volunteers involved with the care of people living with HIV.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Infection_by_HIV" name="Infection_by_HIV"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Infection by HIV</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23070.jpg.htm" title="Scanning electron micrograph of HIV-1 budding from cultured lymphocyte."><img alt="Scanning electron micrograph of HIV-1 budding from cultured lymphocyte." height="199" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HIV-budding.jpg" src="../../images/230/23070.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23070.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Scanning electron micrograph of HIV-1 budding from cultured <!--del_lnk--> lymphocyte.</div> </div> </div> <p>AIDS is the most severe manifestation of <!--del_lnk--> infection with HIV. HIV is a <!--del_lnk--> retrovirus that primarily infects vital components of the human <!--del_lnk--> immune system such as <!--del_lnk--> CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells (a subset of <!--del_lnk--> T cells), <!--del_lnk--> macrophages and <!--del_lnk--> dendritic cells. It directly and indirectly destroys CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells. CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system. When HIV kills CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells so that there are fewer than 200 CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells per <!--del_lnk--> microliter (µL) of <!--del_lnk--> blood, <!--del_lnk--> cellular immunity is lost, leading to the condition known as AIDS. <!--del_lnk--> Acute HIV infection progresses over time to clinical <!--del_lnk--> latent HIV infection and then to early <!--del_lnk--> symptomatic HIV infection and later, to AIDS, which is identified on the basis of the amount of CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells in the blood and the presence of certain infections.<p>In the absence of <!--del_lnk--> antiretroviral therapy, the <!--del_lnk--> median <!--del_lnk--> time of progression from HIV infection to AIDS is nine to ten <!--del_lnk--> years, and the median survival time after developing AIDS is only 9.2 <!--del_lnk--> months. However, the rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals, from two <!--del_lnk--> weeks up to 20 years. Many factors affect the rate of progression. These include factors that influence the body's ability to defend against HIV such as the infected person's general immune function. Older people have weaker immune systems, and therefore have a greater risk of rapid disease progression than younger people. Poor access to <!--del_lnk--> health care and the existence of coexisting infections such as <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> also may predispose people to faster disease progression. The infected person's <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetic inheritance</a> plays an important role and some people are <!--del_lnk--> resistant to certain strains of HIV. An example of this is people with the <!--del_lnk--> CCR5-Δ32 mutation are resistant to infection with certain <!--del_lnk--> strains of HIV. HIV is genetically variable and exists as different strains, which cause different rates of clinical disease progression. The use of highly active antiretroviral therapy prolongs both the median time of progression to AIDS and the median survival time.<p><a id="Diagnosis" name="Diagnosis"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diagnosis</span></h2> <p>Since <!--del_lnk--> June 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, many definitions have been developed for <!--del_lnk--> epidemiological surveillance such as the <!--del_lnk--> Bangui definition and the <!--del_lnk--> 1994 expanded World Health Organization AIDS case definition. However, clinical staging of patients was not an intended use for these systems as they are neither sensitive, nor specific. In developing countries, the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> staging system for HIV infection and disease, using clinical and laboratory data, is used and in developed countries, the <!--del_lnk--> Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Classification System is used.<p><a id="WHO_disease_staging_system_for_HIV_infection_and_disease" name="WHO_disease_staging_system_for_HIV_infection_and_disease"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">WHO disease staging system for HIV infection and disease</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>In 1990, the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) grouped these infections and conditions together by introducing a staging system for patients infected with HIV-1. An update took place in September 2005. Most of these conditions are <!--del_lnk--> opportunistic infections that are easily treatable in healthy people.<dl> <dd><i>Stage I:</i> HIV disease is asymptomatic and not categorized as AIDS<dd><i>Stage II:</i> includes minor <!--del_lnk--> mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent <!--del_lnk--> upper respiratory tract infections<dd><i>Stage III:</i> includes unexplained <!--del_lnk--> chronic <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea for longer than a month, severe bacterial infections and <!--del_lnk--> pulmonary tuberculosis<dd><i>Stage IV:</i> includes <!--del_lnk--> toxoplasmosis of the <a href="../../wp/b/Brain.htm" title="Brain">brain</a>, <!--del_lnk--> candidiasis of the <!--del_lnk--> esophagus, <!--del_lnk--> trachea, <!--del_lnk--> bronchi or <!--del_lnk--> lungs and <!--del_lnk--> Kaposi's sarcoma; these diseases are indicators of AIDS.</dl> <p><a id="CDC_classification_system_for_HIV_infection" name="CDC_classification_system_for_HIV_infection"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">CDC classification system for HIV infection</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) originally classified AIDS as GRID which stood for <!--del_lnk--> Gay Related Immune Disease. However, after determining that AIDS is not isolated to <!--del_lnk--> homosexual people the name was changed to the neutral AIDS. In 1993, the CDC expanded their definition of AIDS to include all HIV positive people with a CD4<sup>+</sup> T cell count below 200 per µL of blood or 14% of all <!--del_lnk--> lymphocytes. The majority of new AIDS cases in <!--del_lnk--> developed countries use either this definition or the pre-1993 CDC definition. The AIDS diagnosis still stands even if, after treatment, the CD4<sup>+</sup> T cell count rises to above 200 per µL of blood or other AIDS-defining illnesses are cured.<p><a id="HIV_test" name="HIV_test"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">HIV test</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Many people are unaware that they are infected with HIV. Less than 1% of the sexually active urban population in Africa has been tested, and this proportion is even lower in rural populations. Furthermore, only 0.5% of pregnant women attending urban health facilities are counseled, tested or receive their test results. Again, this proportion is even lower in rural health facilities. Therefore, <!--del_lnk--> donor blood and blood products used in medicine and medical research are screened for HIV. Typical HIV tests, including the HIV <!--del_lnk--> enzyme <!--del_lnk--> immunoassay and the <!--del_lnk--> Western blot assay, detect HIV <!--del_lnk--> antibodies in <!--del_lnk--> serum, <!--del_lnk--> plasma, oral fluid, dried blood spot or <!--del_lnk--> urine of patients. However, the <!--del_lnk--> window period (the time between initial infection and the development of detectable antibodies against the infection) can vary. This is why it can take 3-6 months to <!--del_lnk--> seroconvert and test positive. Commercially available tests to detect other HIV antigens, HIV-<!--del_lnk--> RNA, and HIV-<a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a> in order to detect HIV infection prior to the development of detectable antibodies are available. For the diagnosis of HIV infection these <!--del_lnk--> assays are not specifically approved, but are nonetheless routinely used in <!--del_lnk--> developed countries.<p><a id="Symptoms_and_complications" name="Symptoms_and_complications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Symptoms and complications</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:502px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/186/18667.png.htm" title="A generalized graph of the relationship between HIV copies (viral load) and CD4 counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection; any particular individual's disease course may vary considerably.  CD4+ T Lymphocyte count (cells/mm³)  HIV RNA copies per mL of plasma "><img alt="A generalized graph of the relationship between HIV copies (viral load) and CD4 counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection; any particular individual's disease course may vary considerably.  CD4+ T Lymphocyte count (cells/mm³)  HIV RNA copies per mL of plasma " height="280" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hiv-timecourse.png" src="../../images/230/23071.png" width="500" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/186/18667.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A generalized graph of the relationship between HIV copies (viral load) and CD4 counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection; any particular individual's disease course may vary considerably. <table style="border-collapse:collapse"> <tr> <td style="padding:0"> <div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:blue solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div> </td> <td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">CD4<sup>+</sup> T Lymphocyte count (cells/mm³)</td> </tr> </table> <table style="border-collapse:collapse"> <tr> <td style="padding:0"> <div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:red solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div> </td> <td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">HIV RNA copies per mL of plasma</td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </div> <p>The symptoms of AIDS are primarily the result of conditions that do not normally develop in individuals with healthy <!--del_lnk--> immune systems. Most of these conditions are infections caused by <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Virus.htm" title="Virus">viruses</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">fungi</a> and <!--del_lnk--> parasites that are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that HIV damages. <!--del_lnk--> Opportunistic infections are common in people with AIDS. HIV affects nearly every <!--del_lnk--> organ system. People with AIDS also have an increased risk of developing various cancers such as <!--del_lnk--> Kaposi's sarcoma, <!--del_lnk--> cervical cancer and cancers of the immune system known as <!--del_lnk--> lymphomas.<p>Additionally, people with AIDS often have systemic symptoms of infection like <!--del_lnk--> fevers, <!--del_lnk--> sweats (particularly at night), swollen glands, chills, weakness, and <!--del_lnk--> weight loss. After the diagnosis of AIDS is made, the current average survival time with antiretroviral therapy (<!--del_lnk--> as of 2005) is estimated to be more than 5 years, but because new treatments continue to be developed and because HIV continues to <!--del_lnk--> evolve resistance to treatments, estimates of survival time are likely to continue to change. Without antiretroviral therapy, death normally occurs within a year. Most patients die from opportunistic infections or <!--del_lnk--> malignancies associated with the progressive failure of the immune system.<p>The rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by many factors such as host susceptibility and immune function health care and co-infections, as well as factors relating to the viral strain. The specific opportunistic infections that AIDS patients develop depend in part on the prevalence of these infections in the geographic area in which the patient lives.<p><a id="Major_pulmonary_illnesses" name="Major_pulmonary_illnesses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Major pulmonary illnesses</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23072.jpg.htm" title="X-ray of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia There is increased white (opacity) in the lower lungs on both sides, characteristic of Pneumocystis pneumonia"><img alt="X-ray of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia There is increased white (opacity) in the lower lungs on both sides, characteristic of Pneumocystis pneumonia" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:PCPxray.jpg" src="../../images/230/23072.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23072.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>X-ray of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia</b> There is increased white (opacity) in the lower lungs on both sides, characteristic of <i>Pneumocystis</i> pneumonia</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> <i>Pneumocystis jiroveci</i> pneumonia (originally known as <i>Pneumocystis carinii</i> pneumonia, often-abbreviated PCP) is relatively rare in healthy, <!--del_lnk--> immunocompetent people, but common among HIV-infected individuals. Before the advent of effective diagnosis, treatment and routine <!--del_lnk--> prophylaxis in Western countries, it was a common immediate cause of death. In developing countries, it is still one of the first indications of AIDS in untested individuals, although it does not generally occur unless the CD4 count is less than 200 per µL.<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a> (TB) is unique among infections associated with HIV because it is transmissible to immunocompetent people via the respiratory route, is easily treatable once identified, may occur in early-stage HIV disease, and is preventable with drug therapy. However, <!--del_lnk--> multidrug resistance is a potentially serious problem. Even though its incidence has declined because of the use of directly observed therapy and other improved practices in Western countries, this is not the case in developing countries where HIV is most prevalent. In early-stage HIV infection (CD4 count >300 cells per µL), TB typically presents as a pulmonary disease. In advanced HIV infection, TB often presents atypically with extrapulmonary (systemic) disease a common feature. Symptoms are usually constitutional and are not localized to one particular site, often affecting <!--del_lnk--> bone marrow, <!--del_lnk--> bone, urinary and <!--del_lnk--> gastrointestinal tracts, <!--del_lnk--> liver, regional <!--del_lnk--> lymph nodes, and the <!--del_lnk--> central nervous system. Alternatively, symptoms may relate more to the site of extrapulmonary involvement.</ul> <p><a id="Major_gastro-intestinal_illnesses" name="Major_gastro-intestinal_illnesses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Major gastro-intestinal illnesses</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Esophagitis is an inflammation of the lining of the lower end of the <!--del_lnk--> esophagus (gullet or swallowing tube leading to the <!--del_lnk--> stomach). In HIV infected individuals, this is normally due to fungal (<!--del_lnk--> candidiasis) or viral (<!--del_lnk--> herpes simplex-1 or <!--del_lnk--> cytomegalovirus) infections. In rare cases, it could be due to <!--del_lnk--> mycobacteria.<li>Unexplained chronic <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea in HIV infection is due to many possible causes, including common bacterial (<i><!--del_lnk--> Salmonella</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Shigella</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Listeria</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Campylobacter</i>, or <i><!--del_lnk--> Escherichia coli</i>) and parasitic infections, and uncommon opportunistic infections such as <!--del_lnk--> cryptosporidiosis, <!--del_lnk--> microsporidiosis, <i><!--del_lnk--> Mycobacterium avium</i> complex (MAC) and <!--del_lnk--> cytomegalovirus (CMV) <!--del_lnk--> colitis. In some cases, diarrhea may be a side effect of several drugs used to treat HIV, or it may simply accompany HIV infection, particularly during primary HIV infection. It may also be a side effect of <!--del_lnk--> antibiotics used to treat bacterial causes of diarrhea (common for <i><!--del_lnk--> Clostridium difficile</i>). In the later stages of HIV infection, diarrhea is thought to be a reflection of changes in the way the <!--del_lnk--> intestinal tract absorbs nutrients, and may be an important component of HIV-related <!--del_lnk--> wasting.</ul> <p><a id="Major_neurological_illnesses" name="Major_neurological_illnesses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Major neurological illnesses</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the single-celled <!--del_lnk--> parasite called <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>; it usually infects the brain causing toxoplasma <!--del_lnk--> encephalitis but it can infect and cause disease in the <a href="../../wp/e/Eye.htm" title="Eye">eyes</a> and lungs.<li><!--del_lnk--> Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a <!--del_lnk--> demyelinating disease, in which the gradual destruction of the <!--del_lnk--> myelin sheath covering the <!--del_lnk--> axons of nerve cells impairs the transmission of nerve impulses. It is caused by a virus called <!--del_lnk--> JC virus which occurs in 70% of the population in <!--del_lnk--> latent form, causing disease only when the immune system has been severely weakened, as is the case for AIDS patients. It progresses rapidly, usually causing death within months of diagnosis.<li><!--del_lnk--> AIDS dementia complex (ADC) is a metabolic <!--del_lnk--> encephalopathy induced by HIV infection and fuelled by immune activation of HIV infected brain <!--del_lnk--> macrophages and <!--del_lnk--> microglia which secrete <!--del_lnk--> neurotoxins of both host and viral origin. Specific neurological impairments are manifested by cognitive, behavioural, and motor abnormalities that occur after years of HIV infection and is associated with low CD4<sup>+</sup> T cell levels and high plasma viral loads. Prevalence is 10-20% in Western countries but only 1-2% of HIV infections in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>. This difference is possibly due to the HIV subtype in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>.<li>Cryptococcal meningitis is an infection of the <!--del_lnk--> meninx (the membrane covering the brain and <!--del_lnk--> spinal cord) by the fungus <i><!--del_lnk--> Cryptococcus neoformans</i>. It can cause fevers, <!--del_lnk--> headache, <!--del_lnk--> fatigue, <!--del_lnk--> nausea, and <!--del_lnk--> vomiting. Patients may also develop <!--del_lnk--> seizures and confusion; left untreated, it can be lethal.</ul> <p><a id="Major_HIV-associated_malignancies" name="Major_HIV-associated_malignancies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Major HIV-associated malignancies</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23073.jpg.htm" title="Kaposi's sarcoma"><img alt="Kaposi's sarcoma" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kaposi%27s_Sarcoma.jpg" src="../../images/230/23073.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23073.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Kaposi's sarcoma</div> </div> </div> <p>Patients with HIV infection have substantially increased incidence of several malignant <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancers</a>. This is primarily due to co-infection with an <!--del_lnk--> oncogenic <!--del_lnk--> DNA virus, especially <!--del_lnk--> Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and human <!--del_lnk--> papillomavirus (HPV). The following confer a diagnosis of AIDS when they occur in an HIV-infected person.<ul> <li>Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is the most common tumor in HIV-infected patients. The appearance of this tumor in young homosexual men in 1981 was one of the first signals of the AIDS epidemic. Caused by a <!--del_lnk--> gammaherpes virus called <!--del_lnk--> Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV), it often appears as purplish <!--del_lnk--> nodules on the skin, but can affect other organs, especially the <!--del_lnk--> mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and lungs.<li>High-grade <!--del_lnk--> B cell <!--del_lnk--> lymphomas such as <!--del_lnk--> Burkitt's lymphoma, Burkitt's-like lymphoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), and <!--del_lnk--> primary central nervous system lymphoma present more often in HIV-infected patients. These particular cancers often foreshadow a poor prognosis. In some cases these lymphomas are AIDS-defining. <!--del_lnk--> Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) or KSHV cause many of these lymphomas.<li><!--del_lnk--> Cervical cancer in HIV-infected women is considered AIDS-defining. It is caused by <!--del_lnk--> human papillomavirus (HPV).</ul> <p>In addition to the AIDS-defining tumors listed above, HIV-infected patients are at increased risk of certain other tumors, such as <!--del_lnk--> Hodgkin's disease and <!--del_lnk--> anal and <!--del_lnk--> rectal carcinomas. However, the incidence of many common tumors, such as <!--del_lnk--> breast cancer or <!--del_lnk--> colon cancer, does not increase in HIV-infected patients. In areas where <!--del_lnk--> HAART is extensively used to treat AIDS, the incidence of many AIDS-related malignancies has decreased, but at the same time malignant cancers overall have become the most common cause of death of HIV-infected patients.<p><a id="Other_opportunistic_infections" name="Other_opportunistic_infections"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other opportunistic infections</span></h3> <p>AIDS patients often develop opportunistic infections that present with non-specific symptoms, especially <!--del_lnk--> low-grade fevers and weight loss. These include infection with <i><!--del_lnk--> Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare</i> and <!--del_lnk--> cytomegalovirus (CMV). CMV can cause colitis, as described above, and <!--del_lnk--> CMV retinitis can cause <!--del_lnk--> blindness. <!--del_lnk--> Penicilliosis due to <i><!--del_lnk--> Penicillium marneffei</i> is now the third most common opportunistic infection (after extrapulmonary tuberculosis and <!--del_lnk--> cryptococcosis) in HIV-positive individuals within the endemic area of <!--del_lnk--> Southeast Asia.<p><a id="Transmission_and_prevention" name="Transmission_and_prevention"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Treatment</span></h2> <p>There is currently no <!--del_lnk--> vaccine or cure for <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">HIV</a> or AIDS. The only known methods of prevention are based on avoiding exposure to the virus or, failing that, an antiretroviral treatment directly after a highly significant exposure, called <!--del_lnk--> post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). PEP has a very demanding four week schedule of dosage. It also has very unpleasant side effects including <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea, <!--del_lnk--> malaise, <!--del_lnk--> nausea and <!--del_lnk--> fatigue.<p>Current treatment for HIV infection consists of <!--del_lnk--> highly active antiretroviral therapy, or HAART. This has been highly beneficial to many HIV-infected individuals since its introduction in 1996 when the protease inhibitor-based HAART initially became available. Current optimal HAART options consist of combinations (or "cocktails") consisting of at least three drugs belonging to at least two types, or "classes," of <!--del_lnk--> anti-retroviral agents. Typical regimens consist of two <!--del_lnk--> nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NARTIs or NRTIs) plus either a <!--del_lnk--> protease inhibitor or a <!--del_lnk--> non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI). Because HIV disease progression in children is more rapid than in adults, and laboratory parameters are less predictive of risk for disease progression, particularly for young infants, treatment recommendations are more aggressive for children than for adults. In developed countries where HAART is available, doctors assess the <!--del_lnk--> viral load, rapidity in CD4 decline, and patient readiness while deciding when to recommend initiating treatment.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/186/18668.jpg.htm" title="Abacavir - a nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NARTIs or NRTIs)"><img alt="Abacavir - a nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NARTIs or NRTIs)" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abacavir_%28Ziagen%29_300mg.jpg" src="../../images/186/18668.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/186/18668.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> Abacavir</i> - a nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NARTIs or NRTIs)</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23075.jpg.htm" title="Atazanavir - a protease inhibitor"><img alt="Atazanavir - a protease inhibitor" height="82" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Atazanavir_%28Reyataz%29200mg.jpg" src="../../images/230/23075.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23075.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> Atazanavir</i> - a protease inhibitor</div> </div> </div> <p>HAART allows the stabilisation of the patient’s symptoms and viremia, but it neither cures the patient of HIV, nor alleviates the symptoms, and high levels of HIV-1, often HAART resistant, return once treatment is stopped. Moreover, it would take more than the lifetime of an individual to be cleared of HIV infection using HAART. Despite this, many HIV-infected individuals have experienced remarkable improvements in their general health and quality of life, which has led to the plummeting of HIV-associated <!--del_lnk--> morbidity and <!--del_lnk--> mortality. In the absence of HAART, progression from HIV infection to AIDS occurs at a <!--del_lnk--> median of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing AIDS is only 9.2 months. Still, for some patients - and in many clinical cohorts this may be more than fifty percent of patients - HAART achieves far less than optimal results. This is due to a variety of reasons such as medication intolerance/side effects, prior ineffective antiretroviral therapy and infection with a drug-resistant strain of HIV. However, non-adherence and non-persistence with antiretroviral therapy is the major reason most individuals fail to get any benefit from and develop resistance to HAART. The reasons for non-adherence and non-persistence with HAART are varied and overlapping. Major psychosocial issues, such as poor access to medical care, inadequate social supports, psychiatric disease and drug abuse contribute to non-adherence. The complexity of these HAART regimens, whether due to pill number, dosing frequency, meal restrictions or other issues along with side effects that create intentional non-adherence also has a weighty impact. The side effects include <!--del_lnk--> lipodystrophy, <!--del_lnk--> dyslipidaemia, <!--del_lnk--> insulin resistance, an increase in <!--del_lnk--> cardiovascular risks and <!--del_lnk--> birth defects.<p>Anti-retroviral drugs are expensive, and the majority of the world's infected individuals do not have access to medications and treatments for HIV and AIDS. Research to improve current treatments includes decreasing side effects of current drugs, further simplifying drug regimens to improve adherence, and determining the best sequence of regimens to manage drug resistance. Only a vaccine is postulated to be able to halt the pandemic. This is because a vaccine would possibly cost less, thus being affordable for developing countries, and would not require daily treatments. However, after over 20 years of research, HIV-1 remains a difficult target for a vaccine.<p>A number of studies have shown that measures to prevent opportunistic infections can be beneficial when treating patients with HIV infection or AIDS. <!--del_lnk--> Vaccination against <!--del_lnk--> hepatitis A and B is advised for patients who are not infected with these viruses and are at risk of becoming infected. In addition, AIDS patients should receive vaccination against <!--del_lnk--> Streptococcus pneumoniae and should receive yearly vaccination against <!--del_lnk--> influenza virus. Patients with substantial immunosuppression are also advised to receive prophylactic therapy for <!--del_lnk--> Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP), and many patients may benefit from prophylactic therapy for <!--del_lnk--> toxoplasmosis and <!--del_lnk--> Cryptococcus <a href="../../wp/m/Meningitis.htm" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>.<p>Various forms of <!--del_lnk--> alternative medicine have been used to try to treat symptoms or to try to affect the course of the disease itself, although none is a substitute for conventional treatment. In the first decade of the <!--del_lnk--> epidemic when no useful conventional treatment was available, a large number of people with AIDS experimented with <!--del_lnk--> alternative therapies. The definition of "alternative therapies" in AIDS has changed since that time. Then, the phrase often referred to community-driven treatments, untested by government or pharmaceutical company research, that some hoped would directly suppress the virus or stimulate immunity against it. These kinds of approaches have become less common over time as the benefits of AIDS drugs have become more apparent. Examples of alternative medicine that people hoped would improve their symptoms or their quality of life include massage, herbal and flower remedies and <!--del_lnk--> acupuncture; when used with conventional treatment, many now refer to these as "complementary" approaches. None of these treatments has been proven in controlled trials to have any effect in treating HIV or AIDS directly. However, some may improve feelings of well-being in people who believe in their value. Additionally, people with AIDS, like people with other illnesses such as <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, sometimes use <!--del_lnk--> marijuana to treat pain, combat nausea and stimulate appetite.<p><a id="Epidemiology" name="Epidemiology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Epidemiology</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/123/12327.png.htm" title="Prevalence of HIV among adults per country at the end of 2005 ██ 15-50% ██ 5-15% ██ 1-5% ██ 0.5-1.0% ██ 0.1-0.5% ██ <0.1% ██ no data"><img alt="Prevalence of HIV among adults per country at the end of 2005 ██ 15-50% ██ 5-15% ██ 1-5% ██ 0.5-1.0% ██ 0.1-0.5% ██ <0.1% ██ no data" height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HIV_Epidem.png" src="../../images/230/23076.png" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/123/12327.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Prevalence of HIV among adults per country at the end of 2005 <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#800000; color:#800000;">██</span> 15-50%</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#FF0000; color:#FF0000;">██</span> 5-15%</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#E08040; color:#E08040;">██</span> 1-5%</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#e0c000; color:#e0c000;">██</span> 0.5-1.0%</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#e0e080; color:#e0e080;">██</span> 0.1-0.5%</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#00e080; color:#00e080;">██</span> <0.1%</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#c0c0c0; color:#c0c0c0;">██</span> no data</span></div> </div> </div> <p>UNAIDS and the WHO estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized in 1981, making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history. Despite recent, improved access to antiretroviral treatment and care in many regions of the world, the AIDS epidemic claimed an estimated 2.8 million (between 2.4 and 3.3 million) lives in 2005 of which more than half a million (570,000) were children.<p>Globally, between 33.4 and 46 million people currently live with HIV. In 2005, between 3.4 and 6.2 million people were newly infected and between 2.4 and 3.3 million people with AIDS died, an increase from 2003 and the highest number since 1981.<p><!--del_lnk--> Sub-Saharan Africa remains by far the worst affected region, with an estimated 21.6 to 27.4 million people currently living with HIV. Two million [1.5–3.0 million] of them are children younger than 15 years of age. More than 64% of all people living with HIV are in sub-Saharan Africa, as are more than three quarters (76%) of all women living with HIV. In 2005, there were 12.0 million [10.6–13.6 million] AIDS orphans living in sub-Saharan Africa 2005. <!--del_lnk--> South & South East Asia are second worst affected with 15%. AIDS accounts for the deaths of 500,000 children in this region. Two-thirds of HIV/AIDS infections in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> occur in India, with an estimated 5.7 million infections (estimated 3.4 - 9.4 million) (0.9% of population), surpassing South Africa's estimated 5.5 million (4.9-6.1 million) (11.9% of population) infections, making it the country with the highest number of HIV infections in the world. In the 35 African nations with the highest prevalence, average <!--del_lnk--> life expectancy is 48.3 years— 6.5 years less than it would be without the disease.<p>The latest evaluation report of the <!--del_lnk--> World Bank's Operations Evaluation Department assesses the effectiveness of the World Bank's country-level HIV/AIDS assistance, defined as policy dialogue, analytic work, and lending, with the explicit objective of reducing the scope or impact of the AIDS epidemic. This is the first comprehensive evaluation of the World Bank's HIV/AIDS support to countries, from the beginning of the epidemic through mid-2004. Because the Bank's assistance is for implementation of government programs by government, it provides important insights on how national AIDS programs can be made more effective.<p>The development of <!--del_lnk--> HAART as effective therapy for HIV infection and AIDS has substantially reduced the death rate from this disease in those areas where it is widely available. This has created the misperception that the disease has gone away. In fact, as the life expectancy of persons with AIDS has increased in countries where HAART is widely used, the number of persons living with AIDS has increased substantially. In the United States, the number of persons with AIDS increased from about 35,000 in 1988 to over 220,000 in 1996.<p>In Africa, the number of MTCT and the prevalence of AIDS is beginning to reverse decades of steady progress in child survival. Countries such as <a href="../../wp/u/Uganda.htm" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> are attempting to curb the MTCT epidemic by offering VCT (voluntary counseling and testing), PMTCT (prevention of mother-to-child transmission) and ANC (ante-natal care) services, which include the distribution of antiretroviral therapy.<p><a id="Economic_impact" name="Economic_impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economic impact</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:297px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/62/6252.gif.htm" title="Changes in life expectancy in some hard-hit African countries.  Botswana Zimbabwe Kenya South Africa Uganda "><img alt="Changes in life expectancy in some hard-hit African countries.  Botswana Zimbabwe Kenya South Africa Uganda " height="226" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Life_expectancy_in_some_Southern_African_countries_1958_to_2003.gif" src="../../images/230/23077.gif" width="295" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/62/6252.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Changes in life expectancy in some hard-hit African countries. <table style="border-collapse:collapse"> <tr> <td style="padding:0"> <div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:red solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div> </td> <td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">Botswana</td> </tr> </table> <table style="border-collapse:collapse"> <tr> <td style="padding:0"> <div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:darkgreen solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div> </td> <td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">Zimbabwe</td> </tr> </table> <table style="border-collapse:collapse"> <tr> <td style="padding:0"> <div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:blue solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div> </td> <td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">Kenya</td> </tr> </table> <table style="border-collapse:collapse"> <tr> <td style="padding:0"> <div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:black solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div> </td> <td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">South Africa</td> </tr> </table> <table style="border-collapse:collapse"> <tr> <td style="padding:0"> <div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:grey solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div> </td> <td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">Uganda</td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </div> <p>HIV and AIDS retard <!--del_lnk--> economic growth by destroying <!--del_lnk--> human capital. UNAIDS has predicted outcomes for sub-Saharan Africa to the year 2025. These range from a plateau and eventual decline in deaths beginning around 2012 to a catastrophic continual growth in the <!--del_lnk--> death rate with potentially 90 million cases of infection.<p>Without proper <a href="../../wp/n/Nutrition.htm" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a>, health care and medicine that is available in developed countries, large numbers of people in these countries are falling victim to AIDS. They will not only be unable to work, but will also require significant medical care. The forecast is that this will likely cause a collapse of economies and societies in the region. In some heavily infected areas, the epidemic has left behind many <!--del_lnk--> orphans cared for by elderly <!--del_lnk--> grandparents.<p>The increased <!--del_lnk--> mortality in this region will result in a <!--del_lnk--> smaller skilled population and <!--del_lnk--> labor force. This smaller <!--del_lnk--> labor force will be predominantly young people, with reduced knowledge and <!--del_lnk--> work experience leading to reduced productivity. An increase in workers’ time off to look after sick family members or for <!--del_lnk--> sick leave will also lower productivity. Increased mortality will also weaken the mechanisms that generate human capital and <!--del_lnk--> investment in people, through loss of <!--del_lnk--> income and the death of parents. By killing off mainly young adults, AIDS seriously weakens the <!--del_lnk--> taxable population, reducing the resources available for <!--del_lnk--> public expenditures such as education and health services not related to AIDS resulting in increasing pressure for the state's finances and slower growth of the economy. This results in a slower growth of the tax base, an effect that will be reinforced if there are growing expenditures on treating the sick, training (to replace sick workers), sick pay and caring for AIDS orphans. This is especially true if the sharp increase in adult mortality shifts the responsibility and blame from the family to the government in caring for these orphans.<p>On the level of the household, AIDS results in both the loss of income and increased spending on healthcare by the household. The income effects of this lead to spending reduction as well as a substitution effect away from education and towards healthcare and funeral spending. A study in <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a> showed that households with an HIV/AIDS patient spent twice as much on medical expenses as other households.<p>UNAIDS, WHO and the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Development Programme have documented a correlation between the decreasing life expectancies and the lowering of <!--del_lnk--> gross national product in many African countries with prevalence rates of 10% or more. Indeed, since 1992 predictions that AIDS would slow <!--del_lnk--> economic growth in these countries have been published. The degree of impact depended on assumptions about the extent to which illness would be funded by savings and who would be infected. Conclusions reached from models of the growth trajectories of 30 sub-Saharan economies over the period 1990–2025 were that the economic growth rates of these countries would be between 0.56 and 1.47% lower. The impact on <!--del_lnk--> gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was less conclusive. However, in 2000, the rate of growth of Africa's per capita GDP was in fact reduced by 0.7% per year from 1990–1997 with a further 0.3% per year lower in countries also affected by <a href="../../wp/m/Malaria.htm" title="Malaria">malaria</a>. The forecast now is that the growth of GDP for these countries will undergo a further reduction of between 0.5 and 2.6% per annum. However, these estimates may be an underestimate, as they do not look at the effects on output <!--del_lnk--> per capita.<p>Many governments in sub-Saharan Africa denied that there was a problem for years, and are only now starting to work towards solutions. Underfunding is a problem in all areas of HIV prevention when compared to even conservative estimates of the problems.<p>The launching of the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit in <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> on <!--del_lnk--> October 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 is a product of collaborative work between the <a href="../../wp/i/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement.htm" title="International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> and the <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">Southern Africa</a> HIV/AIDS Information Dissemination Service. It is for the strengthening of people living with HIV/AIDS and nurses by minimal external support. The package, which is in form of eight modules focusing on basic facts about HIV and AIDS, was pre-tested in Zimbabwe in <!--del_lnk--> March <!--del_lnk--> 2006 to determine its adaptability. It disposes, among other things, categorized guidelines on clinical management, education and counseling of AIDS victims at community level.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Copenhagen Consensus is a project that seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of <!--del_lnk--> welfare economics. The participants are all economists, with the focus of the project being a rational prioritization based on economic analysis. The project is based on the contention that, in spite of the billions of dollars spent on global challenges by the United Nations, the governments of wealthy nations, foundations, charities, and non-governmental organizations, the money spent on problems such as malnutrition and climate change is not sufficient to meet many internationally-agreed targets. The highest priority was assigned to implementing new measures to prevent the spread of HIV and AIDS. The economists estimated that an investment of $27 billion could avert nearly 30 million new infections by 2010.<p><a id="Stigma" name="Stigma"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Stigma</span></h2> <p>AIDS stigma exists around the world in a variety of ways, including <!--del_lnk--> ostracism, <!--del_lnk--> rejection, <!--del_lnk--> discrimination and <!--del_lnk--> avoidance of HIV infected people; compulsory HIV testing without prior <!--del_lnk--> consent or protection of <!--del_lnk--> confidentiality; violence against HIV infected individuals or people who are perceived to be infected with HIV; and the <!--del_lnk--> quarantine of HIV infected individuals.<p>AIDS stigma has been further divided into the following three categories:<ol> <li>Instrumental AIDS stigma—a reflection of the fear and apprehension that are likely to be associated with any deadly and transmissible illness.<li>Symbolic AIDS stigma—the use of HIV/AIDS to express attitudes toward the social groups or lifestyles perceived to be associated with the disease.<li>Courtesy AIDS stigma—stigmatization of people connected to the issue of HIV/AIDS or HIV- positive people.</ol> <p>Often, AIDS stigma is expressed in conjunction with one or more other stigmas, particularly those associated with <!--del_lnk--> homosexuality, <!--del_lnk--> bisexuality, and intravenous drug use.<p>In many <!--del_lnk--> developed countries, there is an association between AIDS and <!--del_lnk--> homosexuality or <!--del_lnk--> bisexuality, and this association is correlated with higher levels of sexual prejudice such as <!--del_lnk--> anti-homosexual attitudes. There is also a perceived association between all male-male sexual behaviour and AIDS, even sex between two uninfected men.<dl> <dd><i>For more details on this topic, see <!--del_lnk--> Stigma and HIV-AIDS, A review of the literature</i> </dl> <p><a id="Origin_of_HIV" name="Origin_of_HIV"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origin of HIV</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>AIDS was first reported <!--del_lnk--> June 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, when the U.S. <!--del_lnk--> Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recorded a cluster of <!--del_lnk--> <i>Pneumocystis carinii</i> pneumonia (now classified as Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia) in five homosexual men in <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles. Originally dubbed GRID, or <!--del_lnk--> Gay-Related Immune Deficiency, health authorities soon realized that nearly half of the people identified with the syndrome were not homosexual men. In 1982, the CDC introduced the term AIDS to describe the newly recognized syndrome.<p>Three of the earliest known instances of HIV infection are as follows:<ol> <li>A plasma sample taken in 1959 from an adult male living in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<li>HIV found in tissue samples from a 15 year old African-American teenager who died in St. Louis in 1969.<li>HIV found in tissue samples from a <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norwegian</a> sailor who died around 1976.</ol> <p>Two species of HIV infect humans: <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV-1">HIV-1</a> and <!--del_lnk--> HIV-2. HIV-1 is more virulent and more easily transmitted. HIV-1 is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world, while HIV-2 is not as easily transmitted and is largely confined to <!--del_lnk--> West Africa. Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are of <!--del_lnk--> primate origin. The origin of HIV-1 is the <!--del_lnk--> Central Common Chimpanzee (<i>Pan troglodytes troglodytes</i>) found in southern <a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>. It is established that HIV-2 originated from the <!--del_lnk--> Sooty Mangabey (<i>Cercocebus atys</i>), an <!--del_lnk--> Old World monkey of <!--del_lnk--> Guinea Bissau, <a href="../../wp/g/Gabon.htm" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, and Cameroon.<p>Most experts believe that HIV probably transferred to humans as a result of direct contact with primates, for instance during hunting or butchery. A more controversial theory known as the <!--del_lnk--> OPV AIDS hypothesis suggests that the AIDS epidemic was inadvertently started in the late 1950s in the <!--del_lnk--> Belgian Congo by <!--del_lnk--> Hilary Koprowski's research into a <!--del_lnk--> polio <!--del_lnk--> vaccine. According to <!--del_lnk--> scientific consensus, this scenario is not supported by the available evidence. <p><a id="Alternative_hypotheses" name="Alternative_hypotheses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Alternative hypotheses</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>A small minority of scientists and activists question the connection between HIV and AIDS, the existence of HIV itself, or the validity of current testing and treatment methods. These claims are considered baseless by the vast majority of the <!--del_lnk--> scientific community. The medical community argues that so-called "AIDS dissidents" selectively ignore evidence in favour of HIV's role in AIDS and irresponsibly pose a threat to <!--del_lnk--> public health by discouraging HIV testing and proven treatments.<p>AIDS dissidents assert that the current mainstream approach to AIDS, based on HIV causation, has resulted in inaccurate diagnoses, psychological terror, toxic treatments, and a squandering of public funds. Dissident views have been widely rejected, and are considered <!--del_lnk--> pseudoscience by the mainstream scientific community.<p><a id="Common_misconceptions" name="Common_misconceptions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Common misconceptions</span></h2> <p>A number of misconceptions have arisen surrounding HIV/AIDS. Three of the most common are that AIDS can spread through casual contact, sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure AIDS, and HIV can infect only homosexual men and drug users.<p>When scientists first recognized the syndrome in 1981 initially they termed it <!--del_lnk--> Gay Related Immune Deficiency Syndrome, a possible source for the misconception holding that AIDS infects only homosexual men; scientists soon renamed the disease in recognition of transmission other than by male-male intercourse.<p>HIV appears to have entered the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> around the late 1960s and seems to have then been unknowingly spread by people throughout the U.S. and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. In a survey on AIDS conducted in 1983 in <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> a majority of those infected with HIV were male homosexuals (58% of all cases).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Aids Africa', 'Human', 'HIV', 'Virus', 'Sub-Saharan Africa', 'Twentieth century', 'World Health Organization', 'Africa', 'Tuberculosis', 'Genetics', 'World Health Organization', 'World Health Organization', 'Brain', 'DNA', 'Bacteria', 'Virus', 'Fungus', 'Tuberculosis', 'Eye', 'India', 'India', 'Cancer', 'HIV', 'Meningitis', 'Cancer', 'Asia', 'Uganda', 'Nutrition', "Côte d'Ivoire", 'Malaria', 'Zimbabwe', 'International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement', 'World Health Organization', 'South Africa', 'Norway', 'HIV-1', 'Cameroon', 'Gabon', 'United States', 'Europe', 'Belgium', 'Denmark', 'Finland', 'France', 'Germany', 'Italy', 'Netherlands', 'Norway', 'Sweden', 'Switzerland', 'United Kingdom']
AK-47	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="AK-47,1947,1949,1995,5.45 x 39 mm M74,7,92 x 57 mm,7.62 x 39 mm,7.62 x 54 mm R,7.92 x 33 mm,AIM (rifle),AK-101" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>AK-47</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "AK-47"; var wgTitle = "AK-47"; var wgArticleId = 1348; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-AK-47"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">AK-47</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Military_History_and_War.htm">Military History and War</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; font-size: 95%; text-align: left;"> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">AK-47</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23078.jpg.htm" title="A "second model" AK-47. This was the first machined receiver variation."><img alt="A "second model" AK-47. This was the first machined receiver variation." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AK-47_type_II_Part_DM-ST-89-01131.jpg" src="../../images/230/23078.jpg" width="300" /></a><br /> A Type 2 AK-47, the first machined receiver variation.</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Type</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Assault rifle</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Place of origin</th> <td><a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Service history</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">In service</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1949—</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Used by</th> <td><a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, many others</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Production history</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Designer</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Kalashnikov</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Designed</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1947</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Number built</th> <td>Over 100 million</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Variants</th> <td>AK-47, AKS, AKM, AKMS, <!--del_lnk--> RPK, <!--del_lnk--> AK-74, <!--del_lnk--> AK-101, AK-102, <!--del_lnk--> AK-103, <!--del_lnk--> AK-107, <!--del_lnk--> AK-108 (See table below for national-production variants)</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Specifications</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Weight</th> <td>3.8 <!--del_lnk--> kg (9.5 <!--del_lnk--> lb) empty, 4.3 kg loaded</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Length</th> <td>870 mm (34¼ <!--del_lnk--> in)</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Barrel length</th> <td>415 mm (16.3 in)</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <hr /> </td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Cartridge</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> 7.62 × 39 mm</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Action</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Gas-operated, <!--del_lnk--> rotating bolt</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Rate of fire</th> <td>600 rounds/min</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Muzzle velocity</th> <td>710 <!--del_lnk--> m/s (~2,330 <!--del_lnk--> ft/s)</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Effective range</th> <td>300 <!--del_lnk--> m (330 <!--del_lnk--> yd)</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Feed system</th> <td>30-round detachable box; compatible w/ <!--del_lnk--> RPK 40-round box, 75-round <!--del_lnk--> drum magazine.</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding-right: 1em;">Sights</th> <td>Adjustable <!--del_lnk--> iron sights, optional mount required for optical sights</td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>AK-47</b> (shortened from <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru" xml:lang="ru"><b>А</b>втомат <b>К</b>алашникова образца 19<b>47</b> года, <i>Avtomat Kalashnikova 1947</i></span>) is a <!--del_lnk--> gas-operated <!--del_lnk--> assault rifle designed by <!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Kalashnikov, and produced by <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> manufacturer <!--del_lnk--> Izhevsk Mechanical Works and used in many <!--del_lnk--> Eastern bloc nations during the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. It was adopted and standardized in 1947. Compared with the auto-loading <!--del_lnk--> rifles used in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the AK-47 was generally more compact, with a shorter range, a smaller <!--del_lnk--> 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge, and was capable of <!--del_lnk--> selective fire. It was one of the first true assault rifles and remains the most widely used and known. The AK-47 and its numerous variants and descendants have been produced in greater numbers than any other assault rifle and are in production to this day.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p><a id="Design_background" name="Design_background"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Design background</span></h3> <p>During the <!--del_lnk--> Second World War, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> had developed the concept of the <!--del_lnk--> assault rifle. This concept was based on the knowledge that most military engagements in modern warfare were happening at fairly close range with the majority happening within 100 <!--del_lnk--> meters (110 <!--del_lnk--> yd). The power and range of contemporary rifle cartridges was simply overly powerful for a vast majority of engagements with small arms. As a result, a cartridge and firearm were sought combining the features of a <!--del_lnk--> submachine gun (high-capacity magazine and fully-automatic fire capability) with an intermediate-power cartridge that would be effective to a range of 300 meters (330 yd). For the sake of reduced manufacturing costs, this was done by shortening the <!--del_lnk--> 7.92 × 57 mm Mauser cartridge case and substituting a lighter bullet to create the <!--del_lnk--> 7.92 x 33 mm Kurz.<p>The resulting <!--del_lnk--> Sturmgewehr 44 (StG44) was not the first rifle to use these features; it was preceded by earlier <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italian</a> <!--del_lnk--> Cei-Rigotti and <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> <!--del_lnk--> Fedorov Avtomat designs. The Germans, however, were the first to produce and field a sufficient number of the type to properly evaluate its utility. They fielded the weapon in large numbers against the Russians towards the end of the war and this experience deeply influenced Russian doctrine in the years following the war.<p><!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Kalashnikov began imagining his weapon while still in the hospital, after being wounded in the <!--del_lnk--> battle of Bryansk. He had been informed that a new weapon was required for the 7.62 × 41 mm cartridge developed by Elisarov and Semin in 1943. Sudayev's <!--del_lnk--> PPS43 submachine gun was preferred to Kalashnikov's design.<p><a id="Design_concept" name="Design_concept"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Design concept</span></h3> <p>Despite <!--del_lnk--> circumstantial evidence, Mikhail Kalashnikov denies that his rifle was <i>based</i> on the German assault rifle. It is best described as a hybrid of several previous innovations. To support his position, the AK-47 owes more to the <!--del_lnk--> M1 Garand Rifle than any German design. The double locking lugs, unlocking raceway, and trigger mechanism are clearly derived from the earlier American design. This is not surprising as millions of Garand rifles had operated reliably in combat around the globe. Though mechanically similar to the Garand, the AK-47 borrows its cartridge concept, weapon layout, gas system, and construction methods from the StG44. Further, the safety is surprisingly similar to the <!--del_lnk--> Browning-designed <!--del_lnk--> Remington Model 8 rifle.<p>The genius in the design of the Kalashnikov rifle is in the simplification of those contributing designs and adaptation to <!--del_lnk--> mass production. The AK-47 can be seen as a fusion of the best that the M1 Garand offered combined with the best aspects of the StG44 made by the best processes available in the Soviet Union at the time. Kalashnikov used clearances between parts that were much larger than clearances used in standard gun smithing practice, contributing to the non-jamming characteristics of the AK-47.<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="AK-47">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="AK-47"><img alt="AK-47" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>The operating mechanism of the Kalashnikov family of weapons is basically very similar to that of the US M1 and M14 rifles and M1/M2 carbines. In fact, as is often the case in a successful weapon design, there is little new about the individual elements of Kalashnikov’s design; the inventor’s accomplishment was in the recombination of known elements into a compact, reliable and durable package. <i>—<!--del_lnk--> Ed Ezell</i></td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="AK-47">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="AK-47"><img alt="AK-47" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Receiver_development_history" name="Receiver_development_history"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Receiver development history</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23079.jpg.htm" title="Type 3 AK-47, with its predecessor, the SKS"><img alt="Type 3 AK-47, with its predecessor, the SKS" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AK-47_and_SKS_DD-ST-85-01268.jpg" src="../../images/230/23079.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23079.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Type 3 AK-47, with its predecessor, the <!--del_lnk--> SKS</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23080.jpg.htm" title="AKS-47 on a Type 4B receiver (top), with a Type 2A"><img alt="AKS-47 on a Type 4B receiver (top), with a Type 2A" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AKMS_and_AK-47_DD-ST-85-01270.jpg" src="../../images/230/23080.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23080.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> AKS-47 on a Type 4B receiver (top), with a Type 2A</div> </div> </div> <p>There were many difficulties during the initial phase of production. The first production models had stamped sheet metal <!--del_lnk--> receivers. Difficulties were encountered welding the guide and ejector rails causing high rejection rates. Instead of halting production, a heavy machined receiver was substituted for the sheet metal receiver. This was a more costly process, but the use of machined receivers accelerated production as tooling and labor for the earlier <!--del_lnk--> Mosin-Nagant rifle's machined receiver were easily adapted. Partly because of these problems, the Soviets were not able to distribute large numbers of the new rifle to soldiers until 1956. During this time, production of the interim <!--del_lnk--> SKS rifle continued.<p>Once manufacturing difficulties had been overcome, a redesigned version designated the AKM (<i>M</i> for <i>modernized</i> or <i>upgraded</i>—in Russian: Автомат Калашникова Модернизированный) was introduced in 1959. This new model used a stamped sheet metal receiver and featured a slanted <!--del_lnk--> muzzle brake on the end of the <!--del_lnk--> barrel to compensate for <!--del_lnk--> muzzle rise under recoil. In addition, a hammer retarder was added in order to prevent the weapon from firing out of battery (without the bolt being fully closed) during rapid or automatic fire. This is also sometimes referred to as a "cyclic rate reducer", or simply "rate reducer", as it also has the effect of reducing the number of rounds fired per minute during automatic fire. It was also lighter than the previous model, roughly two-thirds of the weight. Both licensed and unlicensed production of the Kalashnikov weapons abroad were almost exclusively of the AKM, partially due to the much easier production of the stamped receiver. This model is the most commonly encountered, having been produced in much greater quantities. All rifles based on the Kalashnikov design are frequently referred to as AK-47s in the West, although this is only correct when applied to rifles based on the original 3 receiver types. In most former Eastern Bloc countries, the weapon is known simply as the "Kalashnikov". The photo at right illustrates the differences between the Type 2 milled receiver and the Type 4 stamped, including the use of rivets rather than welds on the stamped receiver, as well as the placement of a small dimple above the magazine well for stabilization of the magazine.<p>In 1978, the Soviet Union began replacing their AK-47 and AKM rifles with a newer design, the AK-74. This new rifle and cartridge had only started being exported to eastern European nations when the Soviet Union collapsed drastically slowing production of this and all other small arms.<table align="center" border="0" class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"> <tr> <th>Receiver type</th> <th>Description</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Type 1A/B</th> <td>Original stamped receiver for AK-47. -1B modified for folding stock. Namely, a large hole is present on each side to accommodate the hardware for the underfolding stock. <p>(this naming convention continues with all types)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Type 2A/B</th> <td>Milled from steel forging.</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Type 3A/B</th> <td>"Final" version of the milled receiver, from steel bar stock. The most ubiquitous example of the milled-receiver AK-47.</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Type 4A/B</th> <td>Stamped AKM receiver. Overall, the most-used design in the construction of the AK-series rifles.</td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Features" name="Features"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Features</span></h2> <p>The AK-47 is simple, inexpensive to manufacture and easy to clean and maintain. Its ruggedness and reliability are legendary. The large gas piston, generous clearances between moving parts, and tapered cartridge case design allow the gun to endure large amounts of foreign matter and fouling without failing to cycle. This reliability comes at the cost of accuracy, as the looser tolerances do not allow the precision and consistency that are required of more accurate firearms. Reflecting Soviet infantry doctrine of its time, the rifle is meant to be part of massed infantry fire, not long range engagements.<p>The notched rear tangent iron sight is adjustable, each setting denoting hundreds of meters. The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation in the field. Windage adjustment is done by the armory prior to issue. The battle setting places the round within a few <!--del_lnk--> centimeters above or below the point of aim out to approximately 250 meters (275 yd). This "<!--del_lnk--> point-blank range" setting allows the shooter to fire the gun at any close target without adjusting the sights. Longer settings are intended for area suppression. These settings mirror the <!--del_lnk--> Mosin-Nagant and <!--del_lnk--> SKS rifles which the AK-47 replaced. This eased transition and simplified training.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> bore and <!--del_lnk--> chamber, as well as the gas piston and the interior of the <!--del_lnk--> gas cylinder, are generally <a href="../../wp/c/Chromium.htm" title="Chromium">chromium</a>-plated. This plating dramatically increases the life of these parts by resisting corrosion and wear. This is particularly important, as most military-production ammunition during the 20th century contained corrosive mercuric salts in the primers, which mandated frequent and thorough cleaning in order to prevent damage. Chrome plating of critical parts is now common on many modern military weapons.<p><a id="Operating_cycle" name="Operating_cycle"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Operating cycle</span></h3> <p>To fire, the operator inserts a loaded <!--del_lnk--> magazine, moves the selector lever to the lowest position, pulls back and releases the charging handle, and then pulls the <!--del_lnk--> trigger. In this setting, the gun fires only once (semi-automatic), requiring the trigger to be released and depressed again for the next shot. With the selector in the middle position (full-automatic), the rifle continues to fire, automatically cycling fresh rounds into the chamber, until the magazine is exhausted or pressure is released from the trigger. As each bullet travels through the barrel, a portion of the gases expanding behind them are diverted into the gas tube above the barrel, where they impact the gas piston. This in turn is driven backward, pushing the bolt carrier, which causes the bolt to move backwards, ejecting the spent round, and chambering a new round when the recoil spring pushes it back.<p><a id="Disassembly" name="Disassembly"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Disassembly</span></h3> <p>Dismantling the rifle involves the operator depressing the magazine catch and removing the magazine. The charging handle is pulled to the rear and the operator inspects the chamber to verify the gun is unloaded. The operator presses forward on the retainer button at the rear of the receiver cover while simultaneously lifting up on the rear of the cover to remove it. He then pushes the spring assembly forward and lifts it from its raceway, withdrawing it out of the bolt carrier and to the rear. The operator must then pull the carrier assembly all the way to the rear, lift it, and then pull it away. He removes the bolt by pushing it to the rear of the bolt carrier; rotating the bolt so the camming lug clears the raceway on the underside of the bolt carrier and then pulls it forward and free. When cleaning, the operator will pay special attention to the barrel, bolt face, and gas piston, then oil lightly and reassemble.<p><a id="Ballistics" name="Ballistics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ballistics</span></h3> <p>The standard AK-47 or AKM fires a <!--del_lnk--> 7.62 × 39 mm <!--del_lnk--> round with a muzzle velocity of 710 <!--del_lnk--> metres per second (2,329 <!--del_lnk--> ft/s). Muzzle energy is 1,990 <!--del_lnk--> joules (1,467 <!--del_lnk--> ft·lbf). Cartridge case length is 38.6 millimetres (1.5 <!--del_lnk--> in), weight is 18.21 <!--del_lnk--> grams (281.0 gr). Projectile weight is normally 8 grams (123 <!--del_lnk--> gr). The AK-47 and AKM, with the 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge, have a maximum effective range of around 300 meters (330 yd). For comparison, the <!--del_lnk--> 7.62 × 54 mm R cartridge has a projectile of 9.6–12 grams (148–185 gr), depending on the weapon, at a velocity of 818 metres per second (2,683 ft/s) for approximately 4,000 joules (2,950 ft·lbf) of energy.<p><a id="Variants" name="Variants"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Variants</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23081.jpg.htm" title="East Germany-made MPiKMS-72, folding stock variant of AKM in the hands of a U.S. Marine"><img alt="East Germany-made MPiKMS-72, folding stock variant of AKM in the hands of a U.S. Marine" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LCpl_Cheema_on_the_AK-47.JPG" src="../../images/230/23081.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23081.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> East Germany-made MPiKMS-72, folding <!--del_lnk--> stock variant of AKM in the hands of a U.S. Marine</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23082.jpg.htm" title="A Romanian soldier aids a U.S. Marine in clearing an RPK, a squad automatic weapon variant of the AK-47"><img alt="A Romanian soldier aids a U.S. Marine in clearing an RPK, a squad automatic weapon variant of the AK-47" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:000715-F-2829R-001.jpg" src="../../images/230/23082.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23082.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Romanian soldier aids a U.S. Marine in clearing an RPK, a <!--del_lnk--> squad automatic weapon variant of the AK-47</div> </div> </div> <p>Kalashnikov variants include:<ul> <li><b>AK-47 1948–51, 7.62 × 39 mm</b> — The very earliest models, with the Type 1 stamped sheet metal receiver, are now very rare.<li><b>AK-47 1952, 7.62 × 39 mm</b> — Has a milled receiver and wooden <!--del_lnk--> buttstock and handguard. Barrel and chamber are chrome plated to resist corrosion. Rifle weight is 4.2 kg.<li><b>AKS-47</b> — Featured a downward-folding metal stock similar to that of the German <!--del_lnk--> MP40, for use in the restricted space in the <!--del_lnk--> BMP infantry combat vehicle.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> RPK, 7.62 × 39 mm</b> — Squad automatic rifle version with longer barrel and <!--del_lnk--> bipod.<li><b>AKM, 7.62 × 39 mm</b> — A simplified, lighter version of the AK-47; Type 4 receiver is made from stamped and riveted sheet metal (see schematic above). A slanted muzzle device was added to counter climb in automatic fire. Rifle weight is 3.61 kg, due to the lighter receiver.<li><b>AKMS, 7.62 × 39 mm</b> — Folding-stock version of the AKM intended for <!--del_lnk--> airborne troops. Stock may be either side- or under-folding<li><b>AKMSU, 7.62 × 39 mm</b> — Folding-stock and shortened version of the AKM intended for <!--del_lnk--> airborne troops. Stock is under-folding and barrel is 35 cm long<li><b><!--del_lnk--> AK-74 series, <!--del_lnk--> 5.45 × 39 mm</b> — See <!--del_lnk--> main article for details.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> AK-101</b> series<li><b><!--del_lnk--> AK-103</b> series<li><b><!--del_lnk--> AK-107/108</b> series</ul> <p>In 1978, the Soviet Union began replacing their AK-47 and AKM rifles with a newer design, the <!--del_lnk--> AK-74. This new rifle and cartridge had only started being exported to eastern European nations when the Soviet Union collapsed, drastically slowing production of this and all other small arms.<p><a id="Production_outside_of_Russia" name="Production_outside_of_Russia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Production outside of Russia</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23083.jpg.htm" title="Polish kbk AK/pmK with Type 3A receiver"><img alt="Polish kbk AK/pmK with Type 3A receiver" height="86" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rifle_AK_MON.jpg" src="../../images/230/23083.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23083.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Polish kbk AK/pmK with Type 3A receiver</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23084.jpg.htm" title="Polish kbk AKS with Type 3B receiver"><img alt="Polish kbk AKS with Type 3B receiver" height="107" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rifle_AKS_MON.jpg" src="../../images/230/23084.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23084.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Polish kbk AKS with Type 3B receiver</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23085.jpg.htm" title="Polish kbk Ak PNG60 variant, with grenade launcher and special-purpose magazine for grenade launching blank cartridges. Type 3A receiver"><img alt="Polish kbk Ak PNG60 variant, with grenade launcher and special-purpose magazine for grenade launching blank cartridges. Type 3A receiver" height="62" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Karabinek-granatnik_wz.1960.jpg" src="../../images/230/23085.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23085.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Polish <!--del_lnk--> kbk Ak PNG60 variant, with grenade launcher and special-purpose magazine for grenade launching blank cartridges. Type 3A receiver</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23086.jpg.htm" title="Hungarian AMD-65 with 14 inch barrel, side-folding stock and muzzle brake"><img alt="Hungarian AMD-65 with 14 inch barrel, side-folding stock and muzzle brake" height="88" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AMD_PE.jpg" src="../../images/230/23086.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23086.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hungarian <!--del_lnk--> AMD-65 with 14 inch barrel, side-folding stock and muzzle brake</div> </div> </div> <p>Military variants only. If no link is provided, the difference is in name only, and all features and functions are identical to the Soviet equivalent model in parentheses. Summary of information presented in Poyer's <i>The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations.</i><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tr> <th>Country</th> <th>Variant(s)</th> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" title="Albania">Albania</a></th> <td>Unknown.</td> </tr> <tr> <th rowspan="9"><a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></th> <td>AKK (Type 3 AK-47), AKKS (Type 3 with side-folding buttstock)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>AKKMS (AKMS) AKKN-47 (fittings for NPSU night sights)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>AK-47M1 (Type 3 with black polymer furniture)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>AK-47MA1/AR-M1 (same as M1, but in 5.56 mm NATO)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>AKS-47M1 (AKMS in 5.56 mm NATO), AKS-47MA1 (same as AKS-47M1, but semi-automatic only)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>AKS-47S (AK-47M1, short version, with East German folding stock, laser aiming device)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>AKS-47UF (short version of -M1, Russian folding stock), AR-SF (same as -47UF, but 5.56 mm NATO)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>AKS-93SM6 (similar to -47M1, cannot use grenade launcher)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> RKKS, AKT-47 (.22 rimfire training rifle)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> East Germany</th> <td>MPi-K (AK-47), MPi-KS (AKS), MPi-KM (AKM), MPi-KMS72 (AKMS);</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></th> <td>AK-47, <!--del_lnk--> MISR 7.62 (AKM), Maadi</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a></th> <td><!--del_lnk--> AKM-63, <!--del_lnk--> AMD-65, AMD-65M, AMMSZ, AMP, NGM 5.56</td> </tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Tabuk (M70B1, and M70AB2)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Tabuk sniper rifle (M70B1 with 23.6-inch barrel, optics, different stock)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></th> <td>Type 58A (Type 3 AK-47), Type 58B (stamped steel folding stock), Type 68A (AKM-47) <!--del_lnk--> Type 68B (AKMS)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a></th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Type 56 Rifle (<i>not</i> <!--del_lnk--> Carbine), <!--del_lnk--> Type 81, Type 87</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a></th> <td>kbk AK/pmK (AK-47), kbk AKS (AKS), <!--del_lnk--> kbk Ak PNG60, kbk AKM (AKM), <!--del_lnk--> kbK AKMS), <!--del_lnk--> kbk wz. 88 Tantal (AK-74 with special side-folding stock), <!--del_lnk--> kbk wz. 96 Beryl</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a></th> <td>AI (AK-47), AIS (AKS), <!--del_lnk--> AIM, AIMS (AKM, AKMS), AIR</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/y/Yugoslavia.htm" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></th> <td>M70, M70A, M70AB2 M64 (AK-47 with longer barrel), M64A (grenade launcher) <p>M64B (M70 w/ folding stock)</td> </tr> </table> <p>Certainly more have been produced elsewhere, but the above list represents major producers and variants. An updated AKM design is still produced in Russia.<p>The basic design of the AK-47 has been used as the basis for other successful rifle designs such as the <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finnish</a> <!--del_lnk--> Valmet 62/76 and <!--del_lnk--> Sako Rk 95 TP, the <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israeli</a> <!--del_lnk--> Galil, the <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indian</a> <!--del_lnk--> INSAS and the Yugoslav <!--del_lnk--> Zastava M76 and M77/82 (not to be confused with the <!--del_lnk--> Barrett M82) rifles. Several <!--del_lnk--> bullpup designs have surfaced, although none have been produced in quantity. Bullpup conversions are also available commercially. For a complete list, see the <!--del_lnk--> List of weapons influenced by the Kalashnikov design.<p><a id="Licensing" name="Licensing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Licensing</span></h3> <p>Russia has repeatedly claimed that the majority of these manufacturers produce AK-47 without a proper <!--del_lnk--> license from <!--del_lnk--> IZH. The <!--del_lnk--> Izhevsk Machine Tool Factory acquired a patent in 1999, preventing (in theory) the unauthorized manufacture of the Kalashnikov rifle system by anyone.<p><a id="Legal_status" name="Legal_status"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legal status</span></h2> <p><a id="In_the_United_States" name="In_the_United_States"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In the United States</span></h3> <p>Private ownership of fully-automatic AK-47 rifles is tightly regulated by the <!--del_lnk--> National Firearms Act (NFA) of 1934. The <!--del_lnk--> Gun Control Act of 1968 ceased importing of foreign-manufactured fully-automatic firearms for civilian sales and possession, effectively halting further importation of civilian accessible AK-47 rifles. In 1986, an amendment to the <!--del_lnk--> Firearm Owners Protection Act stopped all future domestic manufacture of fully-automatic weapons for civilian use.<p>However, machine guns manufactured domestically prior to 1986 and imported prior to 1968 may be transferred between civilians in accordance with federal and state law. Several Soviet and <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">Chinese</a> rifles made it into the U.S. during the mid-1960s, when returning <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam</a> veterans brought them home after capture from enemy troops. Many of these were properly registered during the 1968 NFA amnesty.<p>Nevertheless, several states have laws on their books outlawing private possession of fully-automatic firearms even with NFA approval. Certain <!--del_lnk--> semi-automatic AK-47 models were banned by the now-expired <!--del_lnk--> Assault Weapons Ban of 1994–2004.<p><a id="In_Canada" name="In_Canada"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In Canada</span></h3> <p>In <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> on January 1 <!--del_lnk--> 1995, a new class of prohibited weapons was created (class 12.5) that included the AK-47 and its variants. This classification makes the AK-47 and its variants ordinarily illegal for purchase, acquisition, or import. Exceptions to this are the Valmet Hunter, the Valmet Hunter Auto, and the Valmet M78 rifles which are based on the AK-47 action. Individuals in Canada who possessed firearms in the 12.5 class prior to January 1 1995 were <!--del_lnk--> "grandfathered" into this class and thus can continue to acquire and possess the AK-47 and its variants.<p><a id="In_Europe" name="In_Europe"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In Europe</span></h3> <p>Much of <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe has enacted comprehensive national firearms laws which prevent the lawful ownership of AK-47s or variants thereof. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, for instance, has outlawed, through the Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988, semi-automatic centerfire rifles (See <!--del_lnk--> Gun politics in the United Kingdom for more complete information). It is possible to own AK derivatives in the UK provided they have been produced as "Manual Straight Pull" rifles which need to be manually cocked after each shot. This involves a modification to the weapon to essentially remove the gas system by permanently closing the gas port above the barrel (may also involve the removal of the gas piston).<p>In <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> it is forbidden for civilians to possess any form of fully automatic firearm unless a special permit is issued. Similar laws are in force throughout most of Europe. Fully automatic weapons are either explicitly or effectively outlawed in almost all of North America and Europe, as well as Russia, Japan, and <!--del_lnk--> Australia.<p><a id="In_Australia" name="In_Australia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In Australia</span></h3> <p>In <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the purchase of semi-automatic centerfire rifles has been effectively banned since 1996 (See <!--del_lnk--> Gun politics in Australia for more information), and therefore AK-47 rifles, even in semi-automatic form, are not allowed. However, as the 1996 laws covered only high-capacity magazines, shotguns and rifles, AK-47s in pistol configurations remain legal for purchase in Australia.<p><a id="In_Mexico" name="In_Mexico"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In Mexico</span></h3> <p>In <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, its possession is of the exclusive use of the Mexican National Army. The federal firearms and explosives law prohibits the civilian possession of this category of weapon in its Article 11. However, the AK-47, known as <i>cuerno de chivo</i> (<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> for "goat's horn"), is widely used by criminal organizations.<p><a id="Illicit_trade" name="Illicit_trade"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Illicit trade</span></h3> <p>Throughout the world, the AK-47 and variants are among the plethora of commonly smuggled small arms that are sold to governments, rebels, criminals and civilians alike, with little international oversight. This trade ensures a ready supply of inexpensive weapons to a number of conflicts, including (but certainly not limited to) the <!--del_lnk--> Balkans, <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>. In some countries that are recovering from war or that are at war, prices for AKs are very low. In <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Rwanda.htm" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Congo and <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, among others, prices are between $30–$125.<p><a id="Cultural_influence" name="Cultural_influence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural influence</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/92/9299.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Mozambique, showing an AK-47."><img alt="Coat of arms of Mozambique, showing an AK-47." height="217" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coat_of_arms_of_Mozambique.png" src="../../images/230/23087.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/92/9299.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms of Mozambique, showing an AK-47.</div> </div> </div> <p>During the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the Soviet Union, China and the United States supplied arms and technical knowledge to numerous client-state countries and rebel forces to promote their interests. This period saw the proliferation, sometimes free of charge, of AK-47s by the Soviet Union and China to pro-communist countries and groups such as the <a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaraguan</a> <!--del_lnk--> Sandinistas and <!--del_lnk--> Viet-Cong. The AK-47 design was spread to a total of 55 national armies.<p>The proliferation of this weapon is reflected by more than just numbers. The AK-47 is included in the <!--del_lnk--> flag of Mozambique and its <!--del_lnk--> coat of arms. It is also found in coat of arms of <a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> and the flag of <!--del_lnk--> Hezbollah. "<!--del_lnk--> Kalash", a shortened form of "<!--del_lnk--> Kalashnikov", is used as a name for boys in some African countries.<p>In the U.S., movie makers often arm criminals, gang members and terrorist characters with AK-47s (e.g. films like <i><!--del_lnk--> Boyz N The Hood</i>). Numerous computer games, video games, and rap songs feature AK-47s. Toy makers and the <!--del_lnk--> airsoft industry make millions of replica AK-47s.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AK-47"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Soviet Union', 'Soviet Union', 'Russian language', 'Russia', 'Cold War', 'World War II', 'Germany', 'Italy', 'Russia', 'Chromium', 'Albania', 'Bulgaria', 'Egypt', 'Hungary', 'Iraq', 'North Korea', "People's Republic of China", 'Poland', 'Romania', 'Yugoslavia', 'Finland', 'Israel', 'India', "People's Republic of China", 'Vietnam War', 'Canada', 'United Kingdom', 'Norway', 'Australia', 'Mexico', 'Spanish language', 'Iraq', 'Afghanistan', 'Somalia', 'Somalia', 'Rwanda', 'Mozambique', 'Ethiopia', 'Cold War', 'Nicaragua', 'Burkina Faso']
ALCO_FA	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="ALCO FA,2006,AAR wheel arrangement,ALCO Century 415,ALCO Century 420,ALCO Century 424,ALCO Century 425,ALCO Century 430,ALCO Century 628,ALCO Century 630,ALCO Century 636" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>ALCO FA</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "ALCO_FA"; var wgTitle = "ALCO FA"; var wgArticleId = 4658813; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-ALCO_FA"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">ALCO FA</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table cellpadding="3" class="infobox bordered" style="width: 23em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left;"> <caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>ALCO FA</b></caption> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: smaller;"><a class="image" href="../../images/163/16327.jpg.htm" title="ALCO FA"><img alt="ALCO FA" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:OP-13170.jpg" src="../../images/163/16327.jpg" width="300" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> GM&O #742, an ALCO FA-1, leads an eastbound freight train through <!--del_lnk--> Wikcliffe, KY, in June 1951.</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="color: black; background: #cc9966; text-align: center;">Power type</th> <th style="color: black; background: #cc9966; text-align: center;">Diesel-electric</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Builder</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> American Locomotive Company (ALCO)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Model</th> <td>FA</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Build date</th> <td>January 1946 —<br /> May 1959</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total production</th> <td>1,354</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> AAR wheel arr.</th> <td>B-B</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Gauge</th> <td>4 <!--del_lnk--> ft 8½ <!--del_lnk--> in (1435 <!--del_lnk--> mm)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Length</th> <td>53 ft 1 in (16.2 m)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total weight</th> <td>243,000 <!--del_lnk--> lb (110,000 <!--del_lnk--> kg)<br /> 255,000 lb (116,000 kg)<br /> (FPA-4/FPB-4)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Fuel capacity</th> <td>1,200 <!--del_lnk--> gal (4,542 <!--del_lnk--> L)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Prime mover</th> <td>ALCO 244<br /> ALCO 251B (FPA-4/FPB-4)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Engine type</th> <td>4-stroke diesel</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Aspiration</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Turbocharger</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Displacement</th> <td>8,256 in³ (135.2 L)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Cylinders</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> V12</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Cylinder size</th> <td>9 in × 10.5 in<br /> (229 mm × 267 mm)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Transmission</th> <td>DC generator,<br /> DC traction motors</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Top speed</th> <td>65 <!--del_lnk--> mph (105 <!--del_lnk--> km/h)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Power output</th> <td>1,500 <!--del_lnk--> hp (1,119 kW) —<br /> early FA-1/FB-1<br /> 1,600 hp (1,194 kW) —<br /> later FA-1/FB-1, FA-2/FB-2, FPA-2/FPB-2<br /> 1,800 hp (1,343 kW) —<br /> FPA-4/FPB-4</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Tractive effort</th> <td>60,875 lbf (271 kN)<br /> 63,750 lbf (284 kN)<br /> (FPA-4/FPB-4)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Locomotive brakes</th> <td>Dynamic, straight air</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Train brakes</th> <td>Air</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Locale</th> <td><a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a></td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>ALCO FA</b> was a family of <!--del_lnk--> B-B <!--del_lnk--> diesel locomotives designed to haul <!--del_lnk--> freight trains. The locomotives were built in <!--del_lnk--> Schenectady, New York, by the <!--del_lnk--> American Locomotive Company (ALCO) between January 1946 and May 1959. They were of a <!--del_lnk--> cab unit design, and both cab-equipped lead (<!--del_lnk--> A unit) <b>FA</b> and cabless booster (<!--del_lnk--> B unit) <b>FB</b> models were built. A dual passenger-freight version, the FPA/FPB, was also offered. It was equipped with a <!--del_lnk--> steam generator for heating <!--del_lnk--> passenger cars.<p>Externally, the FA and FB models looked very similar to the <!--del_lnk--> ALCO PA models produced in the same period. They shared many of the same characteristics both aesthetically and mechanically. It was the locomotive's mechanical qualities and newer locomotive models from both <!--del_lnk--> General Motors Electro-Motive Division (EMD) and <!--del_lnk--> General Electric (GE) that ultimately led to the retirement of the locomotive model from revenue service. Several examples of FAs and FBs have been preserved in railroad museums, a few of them in operational states on such lines as the <!--del_lnk--> Napa Valley Wine Train.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Models_overview" name="Models_overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Models overview</span></h2> <p>Three different models were offered. The FA-1/FB-1, which featured a 1,500 hp (1,119 kW) rating, was built from January 1946 to October 1950 with a 1,600 hp version produced between March and August 1950 (many early models were subsequently upgraded to 1,600 hp). The 1,600 hp (1,194 kW) FA-2/FB-2 (along with the FPA-2/FPB-2 variants) was built between October 1950 and June 1956. The FPA-4/FPB-4 was built between October 1958 and May 1959 by ALCO's <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canadian</a> subsidiary, <!--del_lnk--> Montreal Locomotive Works (MLW).<p>Externally, the FA-1/FB-1 could be distinguished from the FA-2/FB-2 (FPA-1/FPB-2) by the position of the radiator shutters. The FPA-4/FPB-4 were visually different due to the additional radiator space that was positioned below the shutters. These Canadian variants were intended and used for high-speed passenger service, and remained in use into the 1990s on <!--del_lnk--> VIA Rail Canada.<p>The FA had the same distinctive styling as its larger cousin, the <!--del_lnk--> ALCO PA, with a long, straight nose tipped by a headlight in a square, slitted grille, raked windshields, and trim pieces behind the cab windows that lengthened and sleekened the lines. As with the PA, the overall design owed much to the <!--del_lnk--> Fairbanks-Morse <!--del_lnk--> Erie-built design, which had been constructed by ALCO's sales partner <!--del_lnk--> General Electric (GE) at their <!--del_lnk--> Erie, Pennsylvania, plant. GE's <!--del_lnk--> industrial designer <!--del_lnk--> Ray Patten styled the FA and FB, and many believe it likely that he took drawings of the Erie-built as a starting point, lengthening and squaring the nose and giving it a more aggressive look. The majority of FA components were compatible with the PA.<p>As with the PA, the model 244 diesel prime mover proved to be the undoing of the PA, and the locomotives failed to capture a marketplace dominated by <!--del_lnk--> General Motors Electro-Motive Division (EMD). The later 251-series engine, a vastly improved prime mover, was not available in time for ALCO to recover the loss of reputation caused by the unreliability of the 244. By the time the ALCO 251 engine was accepted into widespread use, General Electric had launched their entries into the diesel-electric locomotive market. General Electric eventually supplanted ALCO as a manufacturer of locomotives, leading to ALCO's demise in 1969.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16328.jpg.htm" title="An eastbound Union Pacific freight train, pulled by a trio of ALCO model FA locomotives, passes near Cheyenne, Wyoming in September of 1955."><img alt="An eastbound Union Pacific freight train, pulled by a trio of ALCO model FA locomotives, passes near Cheyenne, Wyoming in September of 1955." height="230" longdesc="/wiki/Image:OP-19356.jpg" src="../../images/163/16328.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16328.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An eastbound <!--del_lnk--> Union Pacific freight train, pulled by a trio of ALCO model FA locomotives, passes near <!--del_lnk--> Cheyenne, Wyoming in September of 1955.</div> </div> </div> <p> <br clear="all" /> <p><a id="Original_production" name="Original_production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Original production</span></h2> <p>Almost 800 FA units were built by ALCO and MLW, with just over 15% of them sold to <!--del_lnk--> New York Central Railroad, and another 5% each to <!--del_lnk--> Union Pacific Railroad, <!--del_lnk--> Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad and <!--del_lnk--> Missouri Pacific Railroad. About half as many FB units were produced and sold in similar ratios.<table class="navbox collapsible autocollapse"> <tr> <th>Units produced by ALCO and the Montreal Locomotive Works (1946–1956)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>class="navbox collapsible autocollapse"</td> </tr> <tr> <th>FA-1 units (cabs)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>class="toccolours"</td> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Railroad</th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">  Quantity  </th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Road numbers</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="width:300px"><!--del_lnk--> Canadian National Railway</td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td style="width:350px">9400–9407</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Pacific_Railway.htm" title="Canadian Pacific Railway">Canadian Pacific Railway</a></td> <td> <center>28</center> </td> <td>4000–4027</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Central of Brazil</td> <td> <center>12</center> </td> <td>3201–3212</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>16</center> </td> <td>145–160</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Erie Railroad</td> <td> <center>22</center> </td> <td>725A,D–735A,D</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Great Northern Railway</td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td>276A, B, 319A, c, 449A, D, 442A, D</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Green Bay and Western Railroad</td> <td> <center>6</center> </td> <td>501, 502, 503 (1st), 503 (2nd), 507</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad</td> <td> <center>55</center> </td> <td>700–754</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Lehigh and New England Railroad</td> <td> <center>10</center> </td> <td>701–710</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Lehigh Valley Railroad</td> <td> <center>10</center> </td> <td>530–548 (even numbers only)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railway</td> <td> <center>14</center> </td> <td>205A, B–211A, B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad</td> <td> <center>18</center> </td> <td>326A, C–334A, C</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Missouri Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>30</center> </td> <td>301–330</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> New York Central Railroad</td> <td> <center>44</center> </td> <td>1000–1043</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad</td> <td> <center>30</center> </td> <td>0400–0429</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/p/Pennsylvania_Railroad.htm" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a></td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td>9600–9607</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Reading Railroad</td> <td> <center>6</center> </td> <td>300A–305A</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> St. Louis - San Francisco Railway</td> <td> <center>32</center> </td> <td>5200–5231</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> S.C.O.P. (<a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>)</td> <td> <center>5</center> </td> <td>23031–23034, 23039</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Seaboard Air Line Railroad</td> <td> <center>3</center> </td> <td>4200–4202</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway</td> <td> <center>14</center> </td> <td>850A-1, -2-854A-1, -2, 856A-1, -2-860A-1, -2, 866A-1, -2</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Tennessee Central Railway</td> <td> <center>5</center> </td> <td>801–805</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Union Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>46</center> </td> <td>1500A–1523A, 1542A, 1543A, 1626–1643</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Wabash Railroad</td> <td> <center>10</center> </td> <td>1200, 1200A–1204, 1204A</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin Central Railroad</td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td>2220A, B–2223A, B</td> </tr> </table> <p>\|}<table class="navbox collapsible autocollapse"> <tr> <th>FA-2 units (cabs)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>class="toccolours"</td> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Railroad</th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">  Quantity  </th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Road numbers</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="width:300px"><!--del_lnk--> American Locomotive Company (demonstrator units)</td> <td> <center>4</center> </td> <td style="width:350px">1600A, 1600D, 1602A, 1602D</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ann Arbor Railroad</td> <td> <center>14</center> </td> <td>50, 50A–56, 56A</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Baltimore and Ohio Railroad</td> <td> <center>38</center> </td> <td>801, 801A–837, 837A (odd numbers only)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Canadian National Railway</td> <td> <center>25</center> </td> <td>9408–9456 (even numbers only)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Pacific_Railway.htm" title="Canadian Pacific Railway">Canadian Pacific Railway</a></td> <td> <center>20</center> </td> <td>4042–4051, 4084–4093</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Consolidated Railway of Cuba</td> <td> <center>12</center> </td> <td>1600–1605, 1650–1655</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Erie Railroad</td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td>736A, D–739A, D</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico</td> <td> <center>18</center> </td> <td>6507A–6522A, 6519A (2nd), 6534A</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Great Northern Railway</td> <td> <center>2</center> </td> <td>277A, 277B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Louisville and Nashville Railroad</td> <td> <center>44</center> </td> <td>300–320, 350–369, 383, 384</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Lehigh Valley Railroad</td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td>580–594 (even numbers only)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad</td> <td> <center>1</center> </td> <td>331A (2nd)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Missouri Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>43</center> </td> <td>331–386</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> New York Central Railroad</td> <td> <center>80</center> </td> <td>1044–1123</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/p/Pennsylvania_Railroad.htm" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a></td> <td> <center>24</center> </td> <td>9608A–9631A</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> S.C.O.P. (<a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>)</td> <td> <center>6</center> </td> <td>7121-8–7121-13</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway</td> <td> <center>2</center> </td> <td>868A-1, -2</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Western Maryland Railway</td> <td> <center>2</center> </td> <td>301, 302</td> </tr> </table> <p>\|}<table class="navbox collapsible autocollapse"> <tr> <th>FB-1 units (cabless boosters)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>class="toccolours"</td> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Railroad</th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">  Quantity  </th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Road numbers</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="width:300px"><a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Pacific_Railway.htm" title="Canadian Pacific Railway">Canadian Pacific Railway</a></td> <td> <center>24</center> </td> <td style="width:350px">4400–4423</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td>145B–152B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Erie Railroad</td> <td> <center>22</center> </td> <td>725B, C–735B, C</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Great Northern Railway</td> <td> <center>5</center> </td> <td>310B, 440B, C, 442B, C</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad</td> <td> <center>33</center> </td> <td>B1–B33</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Lehigh and New England Railroad</td> <td> <center>3</center> </td> <td>751–753</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Lehigh Valley Railroad</td> <td> <center>10</center> </td> <td>531–549 (odd numbers only)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Missouri Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>15</center> </td> <td>301B–310B, 321B–325B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> New York Central Railroad</td> <td> <center>23</center> </td> <td>2300–2322</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad</td> <td> <center>15</center> </td> <td>0450–0464</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/p/Pennsylvania_Railroad.htm" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a></td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td>9600B–9607B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Reading Railroad</td> <td> <center>6</center> </td> <td>300B–305B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> St. Louis - San Francisco Railway</td> <td> <center>16</center> </td> <td>5300–5315</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Seaboard Air Line Railroad</td> <td> <center>3</center> </td> <td>4300–4302</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway</td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td>856B-1, -2–860B-1, -2(even numbers only), 866B-1, -2</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Tennessee Central Railway</td> <td> <center>1</center> </td> <td>801B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Union Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>34</center> </td> <td>1524B–1541B, 1618B, C–1642B, C (even numbers only)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Wabash Railroad</td> <td> <center>6</center> </td> <td>1200B–1204B</td> </tr> </table> <p>\|}<table class="navbox collapsible autocollapse"> <tr> <th>FB-2 units (cabless boosters)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>class="toccolours"</td> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Railroad</th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">  Quantity  </th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Road numbers</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="width:300px"><!--del_lnk--> American Locomotive Company (demonstrator units)</td> <td> <center>4</center> </td> <td style="width:350px">1600B, 1600C, 1602B, 1602C</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Baltimore and Ohio Railroad</td> <td> <center>21</center> </td> <td>811x–817x (odd numbers only), 817ax,<br /> 819x–837x (odd numbers only), 837ax</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Canadian National Railway</td> <td> <center>15</center> </td> <td>9409–9437 (odd numbers only)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Pacific_Railway.htm" title="Canadian Pacific Railway">Canadian Pacific Railway</a></td> <td> <center>6</center> </td> <td>4465–4470</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Erie Railroad</td> <td> <center>8</center> </td> <td>736B, C–739B, C</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico</td> <td> <center>23</center> </td> <td>6507B–6527B, 6519B (2nd), 6534B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad</td> <td> <center>4</center> </td> <td>834–837</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Louisville and Nashville Railroad</td> <td> <center>14</center> </td> <td>202–211, 330, 331</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Lehigh Valley Railroad</td> <td> <center>4</center> </td> <td>581–587 (odd numbers only)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Missouri Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>34</center> </td> <td>331B–335B, 345B–356B, 370B–386B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad</td> <td> <center>4</center> </td> <td>465–469</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> New York Central Railroad</td> <td> <center>50</center> </td> <td>3323–3372</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/p/Pennsylvania_Railroad.htm" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a></td> <td> <center>12</center> </td> <td>9608B–9630B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway</td> <td> <center>2</center> </td> <td>868B-1, -2</td> </tr> </table> <p>\|} \|}<p>MLW built 125 of the various FP models with the largest quantity, 46% of the total production, sold to <!--del_lnk--> Canadian National Railway.<table class="navbox collapsible autocollapse"> <tr> <th>Units produced by the Montreal Locomotive Works (1950–1959)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>class="navbox collapsible autocollapse"</td> </tr> <tr> <th>FPA-2 units (cabs)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>class="toccolours"</td> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Railroad</th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">  Quantity  </th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Road numbers</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="width:300px"><!--del_lnk--> Canadian National Railway</td> <td> <center>6</center> </td> <td style="width:350px">6706–6711</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Pacific_Railway.htm" title="Canadian Pacific Railway">Canadian Pacific Railway</a></td> <td> <center>7</center> </td> <td>4082, 4083, 4094–4098</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico</td> <td> <center>18</center> </td> <td>6500, 6501, 6502A–6506A, 6523A–6533A</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ferrocaril del Pacifico</td> <td> <center>4</center> </td> <td>901–904</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Missouri Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>19</center> </td> <td>361–390</td> </tr> </table> <p>\|}<table class="navbox collapsible autocollapse"> <tr> <th>FPB-2 units (cabless boosters)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>class="toccolours"</td> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Railroad</th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">  Quantity  </th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Road numbers</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="width:300px"><!--del_lnk--> Canadian National Railway</td> <td> <center>6</center> </td> <td style="width:350px">6806–6811</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Pacific_Railway.htm" title="Canadian Pacific Railway">Canadian Pacific Railway</a></td> <td> <center>2</center> </td> <td>4463, 4464</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico</td> <td> <center>11</center> </td> <td>6502B–6506B, 6528B–6533B</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Missouri Pacific Railroad</td> <td> <center>6</center> </td> <td>387B–392B</td> </tr> </table> <p>\|}<table class="navbox collapsible autocollapse"> <tr> <th>FPA-4 / FPB-4 units (cab units & cabless boosters)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>class="toccolours"</td> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Railroad</th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">  Quantity  </th> <th bgcolor="#CC9966">Road numbers</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="width:300px"><!--del_lnk--> Canadian National Railway (FPA-4)</td> <td> <center>34</center> </td> <td style="width:350px">6760–6793</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Canadian National Railway (FPB-4)</td> <td> <center>12</center> </td> <td>6860–6871</td> </tr> </table> <p>\|} \|}<p><a id="Surviving_examples" name="Surviving_examples"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Surviving examples</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16329.jpg.htm" title="An ALCO FA-1 operates in MetroRail commuter service during the 1970s."><img alt="An ALCO FA-1 operates in MetroRail commuter service during the 1970s." height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MetroRail_600.jpg" src="../../images/163/16329.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16329.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An ALCO FA-1 operates in <!--del_lnk--> MetroRail commuter service during the 1970s.</div> </div> </div> <p>Some 20 units of various designations exist today in a preserved state, all of which are owned by railway museums or historical societies. Several <!--del_lnk--> excursion railways, including the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Canyon Railway and <!--del_lnk--> Napa Valley Wine Train, own operating examples which are in regular service.<p><a id="ALCO_.22World_Locomotive.22" name="ALCO_.22World_Locomotive.22"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">ALCO "World Locomotive"</span></h2> <p>ALCO's "World Locomotive" (introduced in 1953) is an 1,800 hp "cousin" to MLW's FPA-4 passenger locomotive. As with the FPA-4, these units ride atop six-wheel <!--del_lnk--> trucks and utilize the ALCO model 251B diesel engine as the prime mover. The only locale within the Americas where ALCO-built cab units, such as <!--del_lnk--> America Latina Logistica (ALL) <!--del_lnk--> #8414, still see daily usage in freight duty is <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALCO_FA"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['North America', 'Canada', 'Canadian Pacific Railway', 'Pennsylvania Railroad', 'Mexico', 'Canadian Pacific Railway', 'Pennsylvania Railroad', 'Mexico', 'Canadian Pacific Railway', 'Pennsylvania Railroad', 'Canadian Pacific Railway', 'Pennsylvania Railroad', 'Canadian Pacific Railway', 'Canadian Pacific Railway', 'Argentina']
ASCII	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="ASCII,0,1975,1995,1 (number),2004,2005,2006,2 (number),3568 ASCII,3 (number)" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>ASCII</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "ASCII"; var wgTitle = "ASCII"; var wgArticleId = 586; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-ASCII"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">ASCII</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.IT.Computing_hardware_and_infrastructure.htm">Computing hardware and infrastructure</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:217px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23088.png.htm" title="There are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126."><img alt="There are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126." height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ascii_full.png" src="../../images/230/23088.png" width="215" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">There are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126.</div> </div> </div> <p><b>ASCII</b> (<i><b>A</b>merican <b>S</b>tandard <b>C</b>ode for <b>I</b>nformation <b>I</b>nterchange</i>), generally <!--del_lnk--> pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈæski]</span>, is a <!--del_lnk--> character encoding based on the <!--del_lnk--> English alphabet. ASCII codes represent <!--del_lnk--> text in <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computers</a>, <!--del_lnk--> communications equipment, and other devices that work with text. Most modern <!--del_lnk--> character encodings—which support many more characters—have a historical basis in ASCII.<p>ASCII was first published as a standard in 1967 and was last updated in 1986. It currently defines codes for 128 characters. 33 are non-printing, mostly obsolete <!--del_lnk--> control characters that affect how text is processed, and the other 95 printable characters are as follows (starting with the space character):<pre> !"#$%&'()+,-./0123456789:;<=>? @ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_ `abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{\|}~ </pre><p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2> <p>Like other character representation computer <!--del_lnk--> codes, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the symbols/<!--del_lnk--> glyphs of a written language, thus allowing <!--del_lnk--> digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information. The ASCII character encoding — or a compatible extension (see below) — is used on nearly all common computers, especially <!--del_lnk--> personal computers and <!--del_lnk--> workstations. The preferred <!--del_lnk--> MIME name for this encoding is "US-ASCII".<p>ASCII is, strictly, a seven-<!--del_lnk--> bit code, meaning that it uses the bit patterns representable with seven binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) to represent character information. At the time ASCII was introduced, many computers dealt with eight-bit groups (<!--del_lnk--> bytes or, more specifically, <!--del_lnk--> octets) as the smallest unit of information; the eighth bit was commonly used as a <!--del_lnk--> parity bit for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions. Machines which did not use parity typically set the eighth bit to zero, though some systems such as <!--del_lnk--> Prime machines running <!--del_lnk--> PRIMOS set the eighth bit of ASCII characters to one.<p>ASCII only defines a relationship between specific characters and bit sequences; aside from reserving a few control codes for line-oriented formatting, it does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Such concepts are within the realm of other systems such as the <a href="../../wp/m/Markup_language.htm" title="Markup language">markup languages</a>.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h3> <p>ASCII developed from <!--del_lnk--> telegraphic codes and first entered commercial use as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by <a href="../../wp/a/AT%2526T.htm" title="AT&T">Bell</a> data services in 1963. The <!--del_lnk--> Bell System had previously planned to use a six-bit code, derived from <!--del_lnk--> Fieldata, that added punctuation and lower-case letters to the earlier five-bit <!--del_lnk--> Baudot teleprinter code, but was persuaded instead to join the <!--del_lnk--> ASA subcommittee that had started to develop ASCII. Baudot helped in the automation of sending and receiving telegraphic messages, and took many features from <!--del_lnk--> Morse code; however, unlike Morse code, Baudot used constant-length codes. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII both underwent re-ordering for more convenient sorting (especially alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. <!--del_lnk--> Bob Bemer introduced features such as the '<!--del_lnk--> escape sequence'. His British colleague <!--del_lnk--> Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work, as Bemer said, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the Bemer-Ross Code in Europe".<p>The American Standards Association (ASA, later to become <!--del_lnk--> ANSI) first published ASCII as a standard in 1963. ASCII-1963 lacked the lowercase letters, and had an up-arrow (↑) instead of the caret (^) and a left-arrow (←) instead of the underscore (_). The 1967 version added the lowercase letters, changed the names of a few control characters and moved the two controls ACK and ESC from the lowercase letters area into the control codes area.<p>ASCII was subsequently updated and published as ANSI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986.<p>Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII. These encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, even though ASCII is strictly defined only by the ASA/ANSI standards:<ul> <li>The <!--del_lnk--> European Computer Manufacturers Association published editions of its ASCII clone, ECMA-6, in 1965, 1967, 1970, 1973, 1983, and 1991. The 1991 edition is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> International Organization for Standardization published its version, ISO 646 (later <!--del_lnk--> ISO/IEC 646) in 1967, 1972, 1983, and 1991. ISO 646:1972, in particular, established a set of country-specific versions with punctuation characters replaced with non-English letters. ISO/IEC 646:1991 International Reference Version is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> International Telecommunication Union published its version of ANSI X3.4-1986, <!--del_lnk--> ITU-T Recommendation T.50, in 1992. In the early 1970s, under the name CCITT, the same organization published a version as CCITT Recommendation V.3.<li><!--del_lnk--> DIN published a version of ASCII as DIN 66003 in 1974.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> IETF published a version in 1969 as <!--del_lnk--> RFC 20, and established the Internet's standard version, based on ANSI X3.4-1986, with the publication of <!--del_lnk--> RFC 1345 in 1992.<li><!--del_lnk--> IBM's version of ANSI X3.4-1986 is published in IBM technical literature as <!--del_lnk--> Code page 367.</ul> <p>ASCII has also become embedded in its probable replacement, <!--del_lnk--> Unicode, as the 'lowest' 128 characters. In terms of mere adoption, ASCII is one of the most successful software standards ever.<p><a id="ASCII_control_characters" name="ASCII_control_characters"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">ASCII control characters</span></h2> <p>ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for <!--del_lnk--> control characters: codes originally intended not to carry printable information, but rather to control devices (such as <!--del_lnk--> printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace".<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <th>Binary</th> <th>Oct</th> <th>Dec</th> <th>Hex</th> <th>Abbr</th> <th>PR<sup></sup></th> <th>CS<sup></sup></th> <th>CEC<sup></sup></th> <th>Description</th> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 0000</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">000</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">0</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">00</td> <td>NUL</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␀</span></big></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ^@</td> <td>\0</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Null character</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 0001</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">001</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">1</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">01</td> <td>SOH</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␁</span></big></td> <td>^A</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Start of Header</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 0010</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">002</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">2</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">02</td> <td>STX</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␂</span></big></td> <td>^B</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Start of Text</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 0011</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">003</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">3</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">03</td> <td>ETX</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␃</span></big></td> <td>^C</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">End of Text</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 0100</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">004</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">4</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">04</td> <td>EOT</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␄</span></big></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ^D</td> <td> </td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> End of Transmission</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 0101</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">005</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">5</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">05</td> <td>ENQ</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␅</span></big></td> <td>^E</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Enquiry</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 0110</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">006</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">6</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">06</td> <td>ACK</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␆</span></big></td> <td>^F</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Acknowledgment</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 0111</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">007</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">7</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">07</td> <td>BEL</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␇</span></big></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ^G</td> <td>\a</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Bell</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 1000</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">010</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">8</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">08</td> <td>BS</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␈</span></big></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ^H</td> <td>\b</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Backspace<sup></sup><sup></sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 1001</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">011</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">9</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">09</td> <td>HT</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␉</span></big></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ^I</td> <td>\t</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Horizontal Tab</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 1010</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">012</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">10</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">0A</td> <td>LF</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␊</span></big></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ^J</td> <td>\n</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Line feed</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 1011</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">013</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">11</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">0B</td> <td>VT</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␋</span></big></td> <td>^K</td> <td>\v</td> <td align="left">Vertical Tab</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 1100</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">014</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">12</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">0C</td> <td>FF</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␌</span></big></td> <td>^L</td> <td>\f</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Form feed</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 1101</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">015</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">13</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">0D</td> <td>CR</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␍</span></big></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ^M</td> <td>\r</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Carriage return<sup></sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 1110</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">016</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">14</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">0E</td> <td>SO</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␎</span></big></td> <td>^N</td> <td> </td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Shift Out</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0000 1111</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">017</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">15</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">0F</td> <td>SI</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␏</span></big></td> <td>^O</td> <td> </td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Shift In</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 0000</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">020</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">16</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">10</td> <td>DLE</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␐</span></big></td> <td>^P</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Data Link Escape</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 0001</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">021</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">17</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">11</td> <td>DC1</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␑</span></big></td> <td>^Q</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Device Control 1 (oft. XON)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 0010</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">022</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">18</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">12</td> <td>DC2</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␒</span></big></td> <td>^R</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Device Control 2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 0011</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">023</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">19</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">13</td> <td>DC3</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␓</span></big></td> <td>^S</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Device Control 3 (oft. XOFF)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 0100</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">024</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">20</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">14</td> <td>DC4</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␔</span></big></td> <td>^T</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Device Control 4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 0101</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">025</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">21</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">15</td> <td>NAK</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␕</span></big></td> <td>^U</td> <td> </td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Negative Acknowledgement</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 0110</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">026</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">22</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">16</td> <td>SYN</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␖</span></big></td> <td>^V</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Synchronous Idle</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 0111</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">027</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">23</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">17</td> <td>ETB</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␗</span></big></td> <td>^W</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">End of Trans. Block</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 1000</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">030</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">24</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">18</td> <td>CAN</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␘</span></big></td> <td>^X</td> <td> </td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Cancel</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 1001</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">031</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">25</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">19</td> <td>EM</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␙</span></big></td> <td>^Y</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">End of Medium</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 1010</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">032</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">26</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">1A</td> <td>SUB</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␚</span></big></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ^Z</td> <td> </td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Substitute</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 1011</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">033</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">27</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">1B</td> <td>ESC</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␛</span></big></td> <td>^[</td> <td>\e</td> <td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Escape<sup></sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 1100</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">034</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">28</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">1C</td> <td>FS</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␜</span></big></td> <td>^\</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">File Separator</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 1101</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">035</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">29</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">1D</td> <td>GS</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␝</span></big></td> <td>^]</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Group Separator</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 1110</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">036</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">30</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">1E</td> <td>RS</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␞</span></big></td> <td>^^</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Record Separator</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0001 1111</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">037</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">31</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">1F</td> <td>US</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␟</span></big></td> <td>^_</td> <td> </td> <td align="left">Unit Separator</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="9"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 1111</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">177</td> <td style="background:#CFF;">127</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">7F</td> <td>DEL</td> <td><big><span class="Unicode">␡</span></big></td> <td>^?</td> <td>\?</td> <td align="left">Delete<sup></sup><sup></sup></td> </tr> </table> <ol> <li>Printable Representation, the <!--del_lnk--> Unicode characters reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function. Some browsers may not display these properly.<li>Control key Sequence, the traditional key sequences for inputting control characters. The caret (^) represents the "Control" or "Ctrl" key that must be held down while pressing the second key in the sequence. The caret-key representation is also used by some software to represent control characters.<li>Character Escape Codes in <!--del_lnk--> C programming language and many other languages influenced by it, such as <!--del_lnk--> Java and <a href="../../wp/p/Perl.htm" title="Perl">Perl</a>.<li>The Backspace character can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems.<li>The Delete character can also be entered by pressing the "Delete" or "Del" key. It can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems.<li>The Escape character can also be entered by pressing the "Escape" or "Esc" key on some systems.<li>The Carriage Return character can also be entered by pressing the "Return", "Ret", "Enter", or &crarr; key on most systems.<li>The ambiguity surrounding Backspace comes from mismatches between the intent of the human or software transmitting the Backspace and the interpretation by the software receiving it. If the transmitter expects Backspace to erase the previous character and the receiver expects Delete to be used to erase the previous character, many receivers will echo the Backspace as "^H", just as they would echo any other uninterpreted control character. (A similar mismatch in the other direction may yield Delete displayed as "^?".) "^H" persists in messages today as a deliberate humorous device — for example, <!--del_lnk--> "there's a sucker^H^H^H^H^H^Hpotential customer born every minute". A less common variant of this involves the use of "^W", which in some <!--del_lnk--> user interfaces means "delete previous word". The example sentence would therefore also work as "there's a sucker^W potential customer born every minute".</ol> <p>The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this left was sometimes intentional (where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream) and sometimes more accidental (such as what "delete" means).<p>Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype corporation model 33 series, which was a printing terminal with an available <!--del_lnk--> paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage up through the 1980s, lower cost and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (DELete) became de-facto standards. Its noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) as "left arrow", usually interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually faded out.<p>The use of Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for "transmit off") as a handshaking signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow, and Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") to resume sending, persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output.<p>Code 127 is officially named "delete" but the Teletype label was "rubout". Since the original standard gave no detailed interpretation for most control codes, interpretations of this code varied. The original Teletype meaning was to make it an ignored character, the same as NUL (all zeroes). This was specifically useful for <!--del_lnk--> paper tape, because punching the all-ones bit pattern on top of an existing mark would obliterate it. Tapes designed to be "hand edited" could even be produced with spaces of extra NULs (blank tape) so that a block of characters could be "rubbed out" and then replacements put into the empty space.<p>As video terminals began to replace printing ones, the value of the "rubout" character was lost. Unix systems, for example, interpreted "Delete" to mean "remove the character before the cursor". Most other systems used "Backspace" for that meaning and used "Delete" to mean "remove the character after the cursor". That latter interpretation is the most common today.<p>Many more of the control codes have taken on meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (code 27), for example, was originally intended to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been coopted and has eventually drifted. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence, usually in the form of an <!--del_lnk--> ANSI escape code. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an "out of band" character used to terminate an operation, as in the <!--del_lnk--> TECO and <!--del_lnk--> vi text editors.<p>The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, has also created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The clearest example of this is the <!--del_lnk--> newline problem on various <!--del_lnk--> operating systems. On printing terminals there is no question that you terminate a line of text with both "Carriage Return" and "Linefeed". The first returns the printing carriage to the beginning of the line and the second advances to the next line without moving the carriage. However, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduced unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters, plain text files on Unix systems use line feeds alone to separate lines. Similarly, older Macintosh systems, among others, use only carriage returns in plain text files. Various <!--del_lnk--> DEC operating systems used both characters to mark the end of a line, perhaps for compatibility with <!--del_lnk--> teletypes, and this de facto standard was copied in the <!--del_lnk--> CP/M operating system and then in <!--del_lnk--> MS-DOS and eventually <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>. The DEC operating systems, along with CP/M, tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z (SUB) to mark the end of the actual text in the file (also done for CP/M compatibility in some cases in MS-DOS, though MS-DOS has always recorded exact file-lengths). Control-C (ETX, End of TeXt) might have made more sense, but was already in wide use as a program abort signal. UNIX's use of Control-D (EOT, End of Transmission) appears on its face similar, but is used only from the terminal and never stored in a file.<p>While the codes mentioned above have retained some semblance of their original meanings, many of the codes originally intended for stream delimiters or for link control on a terminal have lost all meaning except their relation to a letter. Control-A is almost never used to mean "start of header" except on an ANSI magnetic tape. When connecting a terminal to a system, or asking the system to recognize that a logged-out terminal wants to log in, modern systems are much more likely to want a carriage return or an ESCape than Control-E (ENQuire, meaning "is there anybody out there?").<p><a id="ASCII_printable_characters" name="ASCII_printable_characters"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">ASCII printable characters</span></h2> <p>Code 32, the <!--del_lnk--> "space" character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the large space-bar of a keyboard. Codes 33 to 126, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols.<p>Seven-bit ASCII provided seven "national" characters and, if the combined hardware and software permit, can use overstrikes to simulate some additional international characters: in such a scenario a backspace can precede a <!--del_lnk--> grave accent (which the American and British standards, but only those standards, also call "opening single quotation mark"), a <!--del_lnk--> backtick, or a breath mark (inverted <!--del_lnk--> vel).<table> <tr valign="top"> <td> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tr> <th>Binary</th> <th><!--del_lnk--> Dec</th> <th><!--del_lnk--> Hex</th> <th>Glyph</th> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 0000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">32</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">20</td> <td style="border:1px dashed blue; background-color: white; font-size:xx-small; color: silver"><!--del_lnk--> SP</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 0001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">33</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">21</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> !</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 0010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">34</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">22</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> "</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 0011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">35</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">23</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> #</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 0100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">36</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">24</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> $</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 0101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">37</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">25</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> %</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 0110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">38</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">26</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> &</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 0111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">39</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">27</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> '</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 1000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">40</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">28</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> (</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 1001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">41</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">29</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> )</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 1010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">42</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">2A</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> </td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 1011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">43</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">2B</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> +</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 1100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">44</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">2C</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ,</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 1101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">45</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">2D</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> -</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 1110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">46</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">2E</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> .</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0010 1111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">47</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">2F</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> /</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 0000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">48</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">30</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 0</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 0001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">49</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">31</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 0010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">50</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">32</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 0011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">51</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">33</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 0100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">52</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">34</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 0101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">53</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">35</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 0110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">54</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">36</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 0111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">55</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">37</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 1000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">56</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">38</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 8</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 1001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">57</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">39</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 1010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">58</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">3A</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> :</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 1011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">59</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">3B</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ;</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 1100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">60</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">3C</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> <</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 1101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">61</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">3D</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> =</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 1110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">62</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">3E</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ></td> </tr> <tr> <td>0011 1111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">63</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">3F</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ?</td> </tr> </table> </td> <td> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tr valign="bottom"> <th>Binary</th> <th><!--del_lnk--> Dec</th> <th><!--del_lnk--> Hex</th> <th>Glyph</th> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 0000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">64</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">40</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> @</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 0001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">65</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">41</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> A</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 0010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">66</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">42</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> B</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 0011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">67</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">43</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> C</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 0100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">68</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">44</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 0101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">69</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">45</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 0110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">70</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">46</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> F</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 0111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">71</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">47</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> G</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 1000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">72</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">48</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 1001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">73</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">49</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> I</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 1010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">74</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">4A</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> J</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 1011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">75</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">4B</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> K</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 1100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">76</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">4C</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> L</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 1101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">77</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">4D</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 1110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">78</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">4E</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> N</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0100 1111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">79</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">4F</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> O</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 0000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">80</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">50</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> P</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 0001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">81</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">51</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Q</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 0010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">82</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">52</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> R</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 0011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">83</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">53</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> S</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 0100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">84</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">54</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> T</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 0101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">85</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">55</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> U</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 0110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">86</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">56</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> V</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 0111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">87</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">57</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> W</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 1000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">88</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">58</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> X</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 1001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">89</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">59</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Y</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 1010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">90</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">5A</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Z</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 1011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">91</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">5B</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> [</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 1100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">92</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">5C</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> \</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 1101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">93</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">5D</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ]</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 1110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">94</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">5E</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ^</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0101 1111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">95</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">5F</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> _</td> </tr> </table> </td> <td> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tr valign="bottom"> <th>Binary</th> <th><!--del_lnk--> Dec</th> <th><!--del_lnk--> Hex</th> <th>Glyph</th> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 0000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">96</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">60</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> `</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 0001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">97</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">61</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> a</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 0010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">98</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">62</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> b</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 0011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">99</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">63</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> c</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 0100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">100</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">64</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> d</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 0101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">101</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">65</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> e</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 0110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">102</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">66</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> f</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 0111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">103</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">67</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> g</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 1000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">104</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">68</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> h</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 1001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">105</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">69</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> i</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 1010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">106</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">6A</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> j</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 1011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">107</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">6B</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> k</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 1100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">108</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">6C</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> l</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 1101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">109</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">6D</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> m</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 1110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">110</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">6E</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> n</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0110 1111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">111</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">6F</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> o</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 0000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">112</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">70</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> p</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 0001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">113</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">71</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> q</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 0010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">114</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">72</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> r</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 0011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">115</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">73</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> s</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 0100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">116</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">74</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> t</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 0101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">117</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">75</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> u</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 0110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">118</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">76</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> v</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 0111</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">119</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">77</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> w</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 1000</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">120</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">78</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> x</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 1001</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">121</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">79</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> y</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 1010</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">122</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">7A</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> z</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 1011</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">123</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">7B</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> {</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 1100</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">124</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">7C</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> \|</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 1101</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">125</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">7D</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> }</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0111 1110</td> <td style="background:#CCFFFF;">126</td> <td style="background:lightblue;">7E</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> ~</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Structural_features" name="Structural_features"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Structural features</span></h2> <ul> <li>The digits 0-9 are represented with their values in binary prefixed with 0011 (this means that converting <!--del_lnk--> BCD to ASCII is simply a matter of taking each BCD nibble separately and prefixing 0011 to it).<li>Lowercase and uppercase letters only differ in bit pattern by a single bit simplifying case conversion to a range test (to avoid converting characters that are not letters) and a single <!--del_lnk--> bitwise operation. Fast case conversion is important because it is often used in case-ignoring search algorithms.</ul> <p><a id="Aliases_for_ASCII" name="Aliases_for_ASCII"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aliases for ASCII</span></h2> <p><!--del_lnk--> RFC 1345 (published in June 1992) and the <!--del_lnk--> IANA registry of character sets (ongoing), both recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet:<ul> <li>ANSI_X3.4-1968 (canonical name)<li>ANSI_X3.4-1986<li>ASCII (with ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 variants)<li>US-ASCII (preferred MIME name)<li>us<li>ISO646-US<li>ISO_646.irv:1991<li>iso-ir-6<li>IBM367<li>cp367<li>csASCII</ul> <p>Of these, only the aliases "US-ASCII" and "ASCII" have achieved widespread use. One often finds them in the optional "charset" parameter in the Content-Type header of some <!--del_lnk--> MIME messages, in the equivalent "meta" element of some <!--del_lnk--> HTML documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prolog of some <!--del_lnk--> XML documents.<p><a id="Variants_of_ASCII" name="Variants_of_ASCII"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Variants of ASCII</span></h2> <p>As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII in order to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII <!--del_lnk--> extensions", although some mis-apply that term to cover all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> PETSCII Code used by <!--del_lnk--> Commodore International for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963 instead of the far more common ASCII-1967.<p><a id="Incompatability_vs_Interoperability" name="Incompatability_vs_Interoperability"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Incompatability vs Interoperability</span></h3> <p><!--del_lnk--> ISO 646 (1972), the first attempt to remedy the pro-English-language bias, created compatibility problems, since it remained a 7-bit character-set. It made no additional codes available, so it reassigned some in language-specific variants. It thus became impossible to know what character a code represented without knowing which variant to work with, and text-processing systems could generally cope with only one variant anyway.<p>Eventually, improved technology brought out-of-band means to represent the information formerly encoded in the eighth bit of each byte, freeing this bit to add another 128 additional character-codes for new assignments.<p>For example, <!--del_lnk--> IBM developed 8-bit <!--del_lnk--> code pages, such as <!--del_lnk--> code page 437, which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as <!--del_lnk--> smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as <!--del_lnk--> DOS supported these code-pages, and manufacturers of <!--del_lnk--> IBM PCs supported them in hardware. <!--del_lnk--> Digital Equipment Corporation developed the <!--del_lnk--> Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular <!--del_lnk--> VT220 <!--del_lnk--> terminal.<p>Eight-bit standards such as <!--del_lnk--> ISO/IEC 8859 (derived from the DEC-MCS) and <!--del_lnk--> Mac OS Roman developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact and just adding additional values above the 7-bit range.<p>This enabled the representation of a broader range of languages, but these standards continued to suffer from incompatibilities and limitations. Still, <!--del_lnk--> ISO-8859-1, its variant <!--del_lnk--> Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1 even by Microsoft software) and original 7-bit ASCII remain the most common character encodings in use today.<p><a id="The_Unicode_fix" name="The_Unicode_fix"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Unicode fix</span></h3> <p><!--del_lnk--> Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 <!--del_lnk--> Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of characters, and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII basically uses 7-bit codes, Unicode and the UCS use relatively abstract "code points": non-negative integer numbers that map, using different encoding forms and schemes, to sequences of one or more 8-bit bytes. To permit backward compatibility, Unicode and the UCS assign the first 128 code points to the same characters as ASCII. One can therefore think of ASCII as a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode and of the UCS.<p>The popular <!--del_lnk--> UTF-8 (and <!--del_lnk--> UTF-7) encoding-form prescribes the use of one to four 8-bit code values for each code point character, and equates exactly to ASCII for the code values below 128. Other encoding forms such as <!--del_lnk--> UTF-16 resemble ASCII in how they represent the first 128 characters of Unicode, but tend to use 16 or 32 bits per character, so they require conversion for compatibility.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> blend word <i>ASCIIbetical</i> has evolved to describe the <!--del_lnk--> collation of data in ASCII-code order rather than "standard" alphabetical order.<p>The abbreviation ASCIIZ or ASCIZ refers to a <!--del_lnk--> null-terminated ASCII string.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2> <p>Asteroid <!--del_lnk--> 3568 ASCII is named after the character encoding.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Computer', 'Markup language', 'AT&T', 'Perl', 'Microsoft Windows']
AT&T	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="AT&T,AT&T CallVantage,Voice over IP,Prodigy (ISP),AT&T Communications,AT&T Alascom,AT&T Yellow Pages,SNET America,SBC Long Distance,AT&T Yahoo!,AT&T WorldNet" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>AT&T</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "AT\x26T"; var wgTitle = "AT\x26T"; var wgArticleId = 3203276; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-AT_T"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">AT&T</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Business_Studies.Companies.htm">Companies</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width:23em; font-size:90%;"> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:larger;"><b>AT&T Inc.</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:16px 0 16px 0;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="The logo used by AT&T." height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Att-logo.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="121" /></td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Type</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Public (<!--del_lnk--> NYSE: <!--del_lnk--> T)</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;">Founded</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1885</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;">Headquarters</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> San Antonio, Texas, <!--del_lnk--> USA</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;">Key people</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Edward Whitacre, Jr., <!--del_lnk--> Chairman/<!--del_lnk--> CEO<br /><!--del_lnk--> Richard Lindner, <!--del_lnk--> CFO</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">Industry</a></th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Telecommunications</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Products</th> <td><a href="../../wp/t/Telephone.htm" title="Telephone">Telephone</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">Television</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Revenue</th> <td><a class="image" href="../../images/8/808.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up.svg" src="../../images/8/808.png" width="10" /></a> $43.862 billion <!--del_lnk--> USD (<!--del_lnk--> 2005)</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Net income</th> <td><a class="image" href="../../images/8/808.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up.svg" src="../../images/8/808.png" width="10" /></a> $4.786 billion <!--del_lnk--> USD (<!--del_lnk--> 2005)</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><a href="../../wp/e/Employment.htm" title="Employment">Employees</a></th> <td>189,950</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Slogan</th> <td>The World's Networking Company.</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Website</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> www.att.com</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>AT&T Inc.</b> (<!--del_lnk--> NYSE: <!--del_lnk--> T) is the largest provider of both local and long distance telephone services, wireless service (<!--del_lnk--> Cingular), and <!--del_lnk--> DSL internet access in the United States. The current company, which is based in <!--del_lnk--> San Antonio, <!--del_lnk--> Texas, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, was formed in 2005 by <!--del_lnk--> SBC Communications' purchase of its former parent company, AT&T Corp. As a part of the merger, SBC shed its name and took on the iconic AT&T moniker and the <b>T</b> stock-trading symbol (for "telephone").<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p><a id="AT.26T_Corporation" name="AT.26T_Corporation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">AT&T Corporation</span></h3> <p><a id="SBC_Communications" name="SBC_Communications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">SBC Communications</span></h3> <p><a id="Creation_of_AT.26T.2C_Inc." name="Creation_of_AT.26T.2C_Inc."></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Creation of AT&T, Inc.</span></h2> <p><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Image:newatt.gif" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Newatt.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="518" /><p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, SBC announced that it would purchase AT&T for more than $16 billion. The announcement came almost 8 years after SBC and AT&T called off their first merger talks and nearly a year after initial merger talks between AT&T and <!--del_lnk--> BellSouth fell apart. AT&T stockholders, meeting in Denver, approved the merger on <!--del_lnk--> June 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. The <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Department of Justice cleared the merger on <!--del_lnk--> October 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, and the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Communications Commission approved it on <!--del_lnk--> October 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. The merger was finalized on <!--del_lnk--> November 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. SBC announced that the name of the merged company will be AT&T, Inc., and it adopted an updated logo. The merger is ironic in the fact that one of the "Baby Bells" grew to the strength to buy out "Ma Bell" AT&T. A further irony is that the government, which mandated the breakup of the original monopoly AT&T in the first place, gave the go-ahead to allow AT&T to reconstitute much of itself in this merger. There are talks now to merge with <!--del_lnk--> BellSouth.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 the combined company began trading under the historic "T" stock ticker symbol on the <!--del_lnk--> NYSE. To differentiate from the preceding company, AT&T is formally known as "AT&T Inc.", while the preceding company was "AT&T Corp.".<p><a id="Expansion" name="Expansion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Expansion</span></h2> <p><a id="Announced_acquisition_of_BellSouth" name="Announced_acquisition_of_BellSouth"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Announced acquisition of BellSouth</span></h3> <p>On Sunday <!--del_lnk--> March 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 <!--del_lnk--> , AT&T announced it would be purchasing BellSouth for $67 billion (or 1.325 shares of AT&T for each share of BellSouth). The new combined company would retain the name AT&T. <!--del_lnk--> When completed, this deal will consolidate ownership of <!--del_lnk--> Cingular Wireless, currently a joint venture between BellSouth and AT&T. Subsequent to completion of the merger, wireless services would be offered under the AT&T name. Usage of the Bell logo after the merger is highly doubtful. As of October 13, 2006, AT&T and BellSouth received approval of the merger from 18 state agencies, three foreign countries, and the U.S. Department of Justice. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is split down party lines with one of the Republican members abstaining due to a potential conflict of interest. FCC Chairman Martin has agreed to let some of the conditions favorable to Democrats to be aired publicly for 10 days. He has then scheduled a vote on this matter for November 3, 2006. AT&T is open to discussing reasonable conditions as long as they will not affect AT&T's ability to deliver merger benefits to customers and shareowners. AT&T hopes for a unanimous 4-0 vote in favour of the merger.<p><a id="Bell_Operating_Companies" name="Bell_Operating_Companies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bell Operating Companies</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16332.jpg.htm" title="New AT&T payphone signage."><img alt="New AT&T payphone signage." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:At%26tPhone.JPG" src="../../images/163/16332.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16332.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> New AT&T payphone signage.</div> </div> </div> <p>Of the 24 <!--del_lnk--> Bell Operating Companies which AT&T owned or in which it held a minority interest prior to the 1984 federally mandated split of the company, 12 will be a part of the new AT&T Inc. upon the completion of their proposed acquisition of BellSouth announced on <!--del_lnk--> March 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2006:<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Illinois Bell<li><!--del_lnk--> Indiana Bell<li><!--del_lnk--> Michigan Bell<li><!--del_lnk--> Nevada Bell (<!--del_lnk--> f/k/a Bell Telephone Company of Nevada)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ohio Bell<li><!--del_lnk--> Pacific Bell (<!--del_lnk--> f/k/a Pacific Telephone & Telegraph)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin Bell (<!--del_lnk--> f/k/a Wisconsin Telephone)<li><!--del_lnk--> South Central Bell (pending <!--del_lnk--> BellSouth merger; merged with Southern Bell in 1992)<li><!--del_lnk--> Southern Bell (pending <!--del_lnk--> BellSouth merger; merged with South Central Bell in 1992)<li><!--del_lnk--> Southern New England Telephone—Now wholly owned, AT&T held only 16.8% interest before 1984.<li><!--del_lnk--> Southwestern Bell</ul> <p><a id="D.2FB.2FA_Names" name="D.2FB.2FA_Names"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">D/B/A Names</span></h4> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, AT&T changed all of its <!--del_lnk--> d/b/a names adopted in <!--del_lnk--> 2003 to reflect the new holding company name, AT&T. The names in parentheses are the complete real names of each company.<ul> <li><i><b>AT&T Inc.</b></i><ul> <li><b>AT&T Southwest</b> - (Southwestern Bell Telephone, L.P.) <ul> <li>AT&T Arkansas - (note: d/b/a names for AT&T Southwest are based on its operations in each state)<li>AT&T Kansas<li>AT&T Missouri<li>AT&T Oklahoma<li>AT&T Texas</ul> <li><b>AT&T West</b> (Pacific Telesis) <ul> <li>AT&T California (Pacific Bell Telephone Co.)<li>AT&T Nevada (Nevada Bell Telephone Co.)</ul> <li><b>AT&T East</b> (Southern New England Telecommunications Corp.) <ul> <li>AT&T Connecticut (The Southern New England Telephone Co.)</ul> <li><b>AT&T Midwest</b> - (<!--del_lnk--> AT&T Teleholding, Inc.) <ul> <li>AT&T Illinois (Illinois Bell Telephone Co.)<li>AT&T Indiana (Indiana Bell Telephone Co., Inc.)<li>AT&T Michigan (Michigan Bell Telephone Co.)<li>AT&T Ohio (The Ohio Bell Telephone Co.)</ul> </ul> </ul> <p><a id="Corporate_governance" name="Corporate_governance"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Corporate governance</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16333.jpg.htm" title=""AT&T Tower" in Atlanta, GA."><img alt=""AT&T Tower" in Atlanta, GA." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AT%26T_Tower.jpg" src="../../images/163/16333.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16333.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "AT&T Tower" in <!--del_lnk--> Atlanta, GA.</div> </div> </div> <p>AT&T's current board mainly consists of members of SBC's board of directors.<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Edward E. Whitacre Jr. - Chairman and Chief Executive Officer<li><!--del_lnk--> James A. Henderson<li><!--del_lnk--> Gilbert F. Amelio<li><!--del_lnk--> William F. Aldinger III<li><!--del_lnk--> August A. Busch III<li><!--del_lnk--> Martin K. Eby, Jr.<li><!--del_lnk--> Charles F. Knight<li><!--del_lnk--> Jon C. Madonna<li><!--del_lnk--> Lynn M. Martin<li><!--del_lnk--> John B. McCoy<li><!--del_lnk--> Mary S. Metz<li><!--del_lnk--> Toni Rembe<li><!--del_lnk--> S. Donley Ritchey<li><!--del_lnk--> Joyce M. Roche<li><!--del_lnk--> Randall L. Stephenson<li><!--del_lnk--> Laura D'Andrea Tyson<li><!--del_lnk--> Patricia P. Upton</ul> <p><a id="Services" name="Services"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Services</span></h2> <p>AT&T offers a broad spectrum of telecommunication services. <!--del_lnk--> Voice line, <!--del_lnk--> Frame Relay, <!--del_lnk--> DSL Internet, <!--del_lnk--> Dial Up Internet, <!--del_lnk--> VoIP, as well as local and long distance calling. Recently they have moved into bundled services as well as working with cell phone plans.<p><a id="Privacy_controversy" name="Privacy_controversy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Privacy controversy</span></h2> <p>In 2006, the <!--del_lnk--> Electronic Frontier Foundation lodged a <!--del_lnk--> class action lawsuit (<!--del_lnk--> Hepting vs. AT&T) which alleged that AT&T had allowed agents of the <!--del_lnk--> National Security Agency (NSA) to monitor phone and internet communications of AT&T customers without warrants. If true, this would violate the <!--del_lnk--> Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 and the <!--del_lnk--> First and <!--del_lnk--> Fourth Amendments of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" title="United States Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a>. AT&T has yet to confirm or deny that monitoring by the NSA is occurring. In April 2006 a retired former AT&T technician, <!--del_lnk--> Mark Klein, lodged an <!--del_lnk--> affidavit supporting this allegation <!--del_lnk--> . The <!--del_lnk--> Department of Justice has stated they will intervene in this lawsuit by means of <!--del_lnk--> State Secrets Privilege <!--del_lnk--> .<p>In May <!--del_lnk--> 2006, <i><!--del_lnk--> USA Today</i> reported that all international and domestic calling records had been handed over to the <!--del_lnk--> National Security Agency by AT&T, <!--del_lnk--> Verizon, SBC, and <!--del_lnk--> BellSouth for the purpose of creating a massive <!--del_lnk--> calling database.<!--del_lnk--> The portions of the <i>new</i> AT&T that had been part of SBC Communications before <!--del_lnk--> November 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 were not mentioned.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the <i><!--del_lnk--> San Francisco Chronicle</i> reported that AT&T had rewritten rules on their privacy policy. The policy, to take effect June 23, 2006, says that "<i>AT&T -- not customers -- owns customers' confidential info and can use it "to protect its legitimate business interests, safeguard others, or respond to legal process."</i><!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Places.2Fevents.2Fpartners_named_after_AT.26T" name="Places.2Fevents.2Fpartners_named_after_AT.26T"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Places/events/partners named after AT&T</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> AT&T Red River Rivalry - <a href="../../wp/d/Dallas%252C_Texas.htm" title="Dallas, Texas">Dallas, Texas</a> (formerly <i>Red River Shootout</i>, <i>SBC Red River Rivalry</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> AT&T Park — <a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco, California</a> (formerly <i>Pacific Bell Park</i>, <i>SBC Park</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> AT&T Bricktown Ballpark — <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (formerly <i>Southwestern Bell Bricktown Ballpark, SBC Bricktown Ballpark)</i><li><!--del_lnk--> AT&T Centre — <!--del_lnk--> San Antonio, Texas (formerly <i>SBC Centre</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> AT&T Cotton Bowl Classic (formerly <i>Mobil Cotton Bowl Classic</i>, <i>Southwestern Bell Cotton Bowl Classic</i>, <i>SBC Cotton Bowl Classic</i>) — played in <a href="../../wp/d/Dallas%252C_Texas.htm" title="Dallas, Texas">Dallas, Texas</a>, at the <!--del_lnk--> Cotton Bowl stadium.<li><!--del_lnk--> Jones AT&T Stadium — <!--del_lnk--> Lubbock, Texas (formerly <i>Clifford B. and Audrey Jones Stadium</i>, <i>Jones SBC Stadium</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> AT&T WilliamsF1 Team - based in <!--del_lnk--> Grove, Oxfordshire, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></ul> <p><a id="AT.26T.27s_competitors" name="AT.26T.27s_competitors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">AT&T's competitors</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> BellSouth (pending merger)<li><!--del_lnk--> Citizens Communications<li><!--del_lnk--> Qwest<li><!--del_lnk--> Sprint Nextel<li><!--del_lnk--> Verizon<li><!--del_lnk--> Embarq<li><!--del_lnk--> LTT<li><!--del_lnk--> Equant (France Télécom)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sage telecom<li><!--del_lnk--> Windstream Communications<li><!--del_lnk--> XO</ul> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Industry', 'Telephone', 'Internet', 'Television', 'Employment', 'United States', 'United States Constitution', 'Dallas, Texas', 'San Francisco, California', 'Dallas, Texas', 'United Kingdom']
ATLAS_experiment	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="ATLAS experiment,A Large Ion Collider Experiment,A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS,Antimatter,Argon,B-tagging,BaBar,Beam crossing,Belle experiment,Black holes,Bottom quark" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>ATLAS experiment</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "ATLAS_experiment"; var wgTitle = "ATLAS experiment"; var wgArticleId = 512256; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-ATLAS_experiment"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">ATLAS experiment</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.General_Physics.htm">General Physics</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p><b>ATLAS</b> (<i><b>A</b> <b>T</b>oroidal <b>L</b>HC <b>A</b>pparatu<b>S</b></i>) is one of the five <!--del_lnk--> particle detector experiments (<!--del_lnk--> ALICE, ATLAS, <!--del_lnk--> CMS, <!--del_lnk--> TOTEM, and <!--del_lnk--> LHCb) being constructed at the <!--del_lnk--> Large Hadron Collider, a new <!--del_lnk--> particle accelerator at <!--del_lnk--> CERN in <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. It will be 45 metres long and 25 metres in diameter, and will weigh about 7,000 tonnes. The project involves roughly 2,000 <!--del_lnk--> scientists and <!--del_lnk--> engineers at 151 institutions in 34 countries. The construction is scheduled to be completed in 2007. The experiment is expected to measure phenomena that involve highly massive <!--del_lnk--> particles which were not measurable using earlier lower-<a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> accelerators and might shed light on new <!--del_lnk--> theories of <!--del_lnk--> particle physics beyond the <!--del_lnk--> Standard Model.<p>The <i>ATLAS collaboration</i>, the group of <!--del_lnk--> physicists building the detector, was formed in 1992 when the proposed EAGLE (<i><b>E</b>xperiment for <b>A</b>ccurate <b>G</b>amma, <b>L</b>epton and <b>E</b>nergy Measurements</i>) and ASCOT (<i><b>A</b>pparatus with <b>S</b>uper <b>CO</b>nducting <b>T</b>oroids</i>) collaborations merged their efforts into building a single, general-purpose particle detector for the Large Hadron Collider. The design was a combination of those two previous designs, as well as the detector research and development that had been done for the <!--del_lnk--> Superconducting Supercollider. The ATLAS experiment was proposed in its current form in 1994, and officially funded by the CERN member countries beginning in 1995. Additional countries, <!--del_lnk--> universities, and <!--del_lnk--> laboratories joined in subsequent years, and further institutions and physicists continue to join the collaboration even today. The work of construction began at individual institutions, with detector components shipped to CERN and assembled in the ATLAS experimental pit beginning in 2003.<p>ATLAS is designed as a general-purpose detector. When the <a href="../../wp/p/Proton.htm" title="Proton">proton</a> <!--del_lnk--> beams produced by the Large Hadron Collider interact in the centre of the detector, a variety of different particles with a broad range of energies may be produced. Rather than focusing on a particular physical process, ATLAS is designed to measure the broadest possible range of signals. This is intended to ensure that, whatever form any new physical processes or particles might take, ATLAS will be able to detect them and measure their properties. Experiments at earlier colliders, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Tevatron and <!--del_lnk--> Large Electron-Positron Collider, were designed based on a similar philosophy. However, the unique challenges of the Large Hadron Collider—its unprecedented energy and extremely high rate of collisions—require ATLAS to be larger and more complex than any detector ever built.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23090.jpg.htm" title="ATLAS experiment detector under construction in October 2004 in its experimental pit; the current status of construction can be seen here. Note the people in the background, for comparison."><img alt="ATLAS experiment detector under construction in October 2004 in its experimental pit; the current status of construction can be seen here. Note the people in the background, for comparison." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CERN_Atlas_Caverne.jpg" src="../../images/230/23090.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23090.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ATLAS experiment detector under construction in October 2004 in its experimental pit; the current status of construction can be seen <!--del_lnk--> here. Note the people in the background, for comparison.</div> </div> </div> <p>The first <!--del_lnk--> cyclotron, an early type of particle accelerator, was built by <!--del_lnk--> Ernest O. Lawrence in 1931, with a radius of just a few centimetres and a particle <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> of 1 <!--del_lnk--> MeV. Since then, accelerators have grown enormously in the quest to produce new particles of greater and greater <!--del_lnk--> mass. As accelerators have grown, so too has the <a href="../../wp/l/List_of_particles.htm" title="List of particles">list of known particles</a> that they might be used to investigate. The most comprehensive model of particle interactions available today is known as the <!--del_lnk--> Standard Model; except for the <!--del_lnk--> Higgs boson, all of the particles in this model have been discovered, but the Standard Model will break down at energies beyond the current <i>energy frontier</i> of about one <!--del_lnk--> TeV (set at the <!--del_lnk--> Tevatron). A theory of <i>beyond-the-Standard-Model physics</i>, which is identical to the Standard Model at energies thus far probed, is expected to describe particle physics at higher energies. Most of these theories feature new higher-mass particles. The <!--del_lnk--> Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 27 kilometres in <!--del_lnk--> circumference, will <!--del_lnk--> collide two beams of protons with an energy seven million times that of the first accelerator. It will be able to frequently produce particles with energies up to about ten times more massive than any particles known today, if such particles exist.<p>Particles that are produced in accelerators must also be observed, and this is the task of particle detectors. Beginning in the 1970s, detectors have been designed similarly to onions, completely surrounding the <!--del_lnk--> interaction point—where the particle beams from the accelerator collide—with layers of detectors of different types. The different features that particles leave in each layer of the detector allow for effective <!--del_lnk--> particle identification and accurate measurements of energy and <a href="../../wp/m/Momentum.htm" title="Momentum">momentum</a>. (The role of each layer in the detector is discussed <!--del_lnk--> below.) As the energy of the particles produced by the accelerator increases, the detectors attached to it must grow to effectively measure and stop higher-energy particles. Thus ATLAS is the largest detector ever built at a particle collider, with the capability to measure the properties of the highly massive particles produced at the LHC.<p><a id="Physics_programme" name="Physics_programme"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physics programme</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23091.jpg.htm" title="A schematic, called a Feynman diagram, of two virtual gluons from colliding LHC protons interacting to produce a hypothetical Higgs boson, a top quark, and an antitop quark. These in turn decay into a specific combination of quarks and leptons that is very difficult to fake in other processes. Collecting sufficient evidence of signals like this one may eventually allow ATLAS collaboration members to discover the Higgs boson."><img alt="A schematic, called a Feynman diagram, of two virtual gluons from colliding LHC protons interacting to produce a hypothetical Higgs boson, a top quark, and an antitop quark. These in turn decay into a specific combination of quarks and leptons that is very difficult to fake in other processes. Collecting sufficient evidence of signals like this one may eventually allow ATLAS collaboration members to discover the Higgs boson." height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gg_to_ttH.jpg" src="../../images/230/23091.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23091.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A schematic, called a <!--del_lnk--> Feynman diagram, of two <!--del_lnk--> virtual <!--del_lnk--> gluons from colliding LHC protons interacting to produce a hypothetical Higgs boson, a top quark, and an antitop quark. These in turn decay into a specific combination of quarks and leptons that is very difficult to fake in other processes. Collecting sufficient evidence of signals like this one may eventually allow ATLAS collaboration members to discover the Higgs boson.</div> </div> </div> <p>ATLAS is intended to investigate many different types of physics that might become detectable in the energetic collisions of the LHC. Some of these are confirmations or improved measurements of the <!--del_lnk--> Standard Model, while many others are searches for new physical theories.<p>One of the most important goals of ATLAS is to investigate the final missing piece of the Standard Model, the <!--del_lnk--> Higgs boson. The <!--del_lnk--> Higgs mechanism, which includes the Higgs boson, is invoked to give masses to elementary particles, giving rise to the differences between the <!--del_lnk--> weak force and <!--del_lnk--> electromagnetism by giving the <!--del_lnk--> W and Z bosons masses while leaving the <a href="../../wp/p/Photon.htm" title="Photon">photon</a> massless. If the Higgs boson is not discovered by ATLAS, it is expected that another mechanism of <!--del_lnk--> electroweak symmetry breaking that explains the same phenomena, such as <!--del_lnk--> Technicolour, will be discovered. The Standard Model is simply not mathematically consistent at the energies of the LHC without such a mechanism. The Higgs boson would be detected by the particles it decays into; the easiest to observe are two <a href="../../wp/p/Photon.htm" title="Photon">photons</a>, two <!--del_lnk--> bottom quarks, or four <!--del_lnk--> leptons. Sometimes these decays can only be definitively identified as originating with the Higgs boson when they are associated with additional particles; for an example of this, see the diagram at right.<p>The asymmetry between the behaviour of matter and <!--del_lnk--> antimatter, known as <!--del_lnk--> CP violation, will also be investigated. Current CP-violation experiments, such as <!--del_lnk--> BaBar and <!--del_lnk--> Belle, have not yet detected sufficient CP violation in the Standard Model to explain the lack of detectable antimatter in the universe. It is possible that new models of physics will introduce additional CP violation, shedding light on this problem; these models might either be detected directly by the production of new particles, or indirectly by measurements made of the properties of B-<!--del_lnk--> mesons. (<!--del_lnk--> LHCb, an LHC experiment dedicated to B-mesons, is likely to be better suited to the latter.)<p>The <!--del_lnk--> top quark, discovered at <!--del_lnk--> Fermilab in 1995, has thus far had its properties measured only approximately. With much greater energy and greater collision rates, LHC will produce a tremendous number of top quarks, allowing ATLAS to make much more precise measurements of its mass and interactions with other particles. These measurements will provide indirect information on the details of the Standard Model, perhaps revealing inconsistencies that point to new physics. Similar precision measurements will be made of other known particles; for example, ATLAS may eventually measure the mass of the <!--del_lnk--> W boson twice as accurately as has previously been achieved.<p>Perhaps the most exciting lines of investigation are those searching directly for new models of physics. One theory that is the subject of much current research is <!--del_lnk--> broken supersymmetry. The theory is popular because it could potentially solve a number of problems in <!--del_lnk--> theoretical physics and is present in almost all models of <a href="../../wp/s/String_theory.htm" title="String theory">string theory</a>. Models of supersymmetry involve new, highly massive particles; in many cases these decay into high-energy quarks and stable heavy particles that are very unlikely to interact with ordinary matter. The stable particles would escape the detector, leaving as a signal one or more high-energy <!--del_lnk--> quark jets and a large amount of <!--del_lnk--> "missing" <a href="../../wp/m/Momentum.htm" title="Momentum">momentum</a>. Other hypothetical massive particles, like those in <!--del_lnk--> Kaluza-Klein theory, might leave a similar signature, but its discovery would certainly indicate that there was some kind of physics beyond the Standard Model.<p>One remote possibility (if the universe contains large <!--del_lnk--> extra dimensions) is that microscopic <!--del_lnk--> black holes might be produced by the LHC. These would decay immediately by means of <a href="../../wp/h/Hawking_radiation.htm" title="Hawking radiation">Hawking radiation</a>, producing all particles in the Standard Model in equal numbers and leaving an unequivocal signature in the ATLAS detector. In fact, if this occurs, the primary studies of Higgs bosons and top quarks would be conducted on those produced by the black holes.<p><a id="Components" name="Components"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Components</span></h2> <p>The ATLAS detector consists of a series of ever-larger concentric cylinders around the <!--del_lnk--> interaction point where the proton beams from the LHC collide. It can be divided into four major parts: the Inner Detector, the calorimeters, the <!--del_lnk--> muon spectrometer and the magnet systems. Each of these is in turn made of multiple layers. The detectors are complementary: the Inner Detector tracks particles precisely, the calorimeters measure the energy of easily stopped particles, and the muon system makes additional measurements of highly penetrating muons. The two magnet systems bend <a href="../../wp/e/Electric_charge.htm" title="Electric charge">charged</a> particles in the Inner Detector and the muon spectrometer, allowing their <a href="../../wp/m/Momentum.htm" title="Momentum">momenta</a> to be measured.<p>The only stable particles that cannot be detected directly are <!--del_lnk--> neutrinos; their presence is inferred by noticing a momentum imbalance among detected particles. For this to work, the detector must be "<!--del_lnk--> hermetic", and detect all non-neutrinos produced, with no blind spots. Maintaining detector performance in the high radiation areas immediately surrounding the proton beams is a significant engineering challenge.<p><a id="Inner_Detector" name="Inner_Detector"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Inner Detector</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23092.jpg.htm" title="The ATLAS TRT central section, the outermost part of the Inner Detector, as of September 2005, assembled on the surface and taking data from cosmic rays."><img alt="The ATLAS TRT central section, the outermost part of the Inner Detector, as of September 2005, assembled on the surface and taking data from cosmic rays." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ATLAS_TRT.jpg" src="../../images/230/23092.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23092.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <b>ATLAS TRT</b> central section, the outermost part of the Inner Detector, as of September 2005, assembled on the surface and taking data from <!--del_lnk--> cosmic rays.</div> </div> </div> <p>The Inner Detector begins a few centimetres from the proton beam axis, extends to a radius of 1.2 metres, and is seven metres in length along the beam pipe. Its basic function is to track charged particles by detecting their interaction with material at discrete points, revealing detailed information about the type of particle and its momentum. The <!--del_lnk--> magnetic field surrounding the entire inner detector causes charged particles to curve; the direction of the curve reveals a particle's charge and the degree of curvature reveals its momentum. The starting points of the tracks yield useful information for <!--del_lnk--> identifying particles; for example, if a group of tracks seem to originate from a point other than the original proton–proton collision, this may be a sign that the particles came from the decay of a <!--del_lnk--> bottom quark (see <!--del_lnk--> B-tagging). The Inner Detector has three parts, which are explained below.<p>The Pixel Detector, the innermost part of the detector, contains three layers and three disks on each end-cap, with a total of 1744 <i>modules</i>, each measuring two centimetres by six centimetres. The detecting material is 250 µm thick <a href="../../wp/s/Silicon.htm" title="Silicon">silicon</a>. Each module contains 16 readout <!--del_lnk--> chips and other electronic components. The smallest unit that can be read out is a pixel (each 50 by 400 micrometres); there are roughly 47,000 pixels per module. The minute pixel size is designed for extremely precise tracking very close to the interaction point. In total, the Pixel Detector will have over 80 million readout channels, which is about 50% of the total readout channels; such a large count created a design and engineering challenge. Another challenge was the <!--del_lnk--> radiation the Pixel Detector will be exposed to because of its proximity to the interaction point, requiring that all components be <!--del_lnk--> radiation hardened in order to continue operating after significant exposures.<p>The Semi-Conductor Tracker (SCT) is the middle component of the inner detector. It is similar in concept and function to the Pixel Detector but with long, narrow strips rather than small pixels, making coverage of a larger area practical. Each strip measures 80 micrometres by 12.6 centimetres. The SCT is the most critical part of the inner detector for basic tracking in the plane perpendicular to the beam, since it measures particles over a much larger area than the Pixel Detector, with more sampled points and roughly equal (albeit one dimensional) accuracy. It is composed of four double layers of silicon strips, and has 6.2 million readout channels and a total area of 61 square meters.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Transition radiation tracker (TRT), the outermost component of the inner detector, is a combination of a <!--del_lnk--> straw tracker and a <!--del_lnk--> transition radiation detector. It contains many small <i>straws</i>, each four millimetres in diameter and up to 144 centimetres long. This gives it a much coarser resolution than the other two detectors, a necessary sacrifice for covering a larger volume and having a different, complementary design. Each straw is filled with gas that becomes <!--del_lnk--> ionized when a charged particle passes through. The ions produce a current in a <!--del_lnk--> high-voltage wire running through the straw, creating a pattern of signals in many straws that allow the path of the particle to be determined. It also contains alternating materials with very different <!--del_lnk--> indices of refraction, causing charged particles to produce <!--del_lnk--> transition radiation and leave much stronger signals in each straw. Since the amount of transition radiation produced is greatest in highly <!--del_lnk--> relativistic particles (those with a speed near the <a href="../../wp/s/Speed_of_light.htm" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>), and particles of a particular energy have a higher speed the lighter they are, particle paths with many very strong signals can be identified as the lightest charged particles, <a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">electrons</a>. The TRT has about 351,000 straws in total.<p><a id="Calorimeters" name="Calorimeters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Calorimeters</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23093.jpg.htm" title="September 2005: the main barrel section of the ATLAS hadronic calorimeter, waiting to be moved inside the toroid magnets."><img alt="September 2005: the main barrel section of the ATLAS hadronic calorimeter, waiting to be moved inside the toroid magnets." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ATLAS_HCal.jpg" src="../../images/230/23093.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23093.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> September 2005: the main barrel section of the ATLAS hadronic calorimeter, waiting to be moved inside the toroid magnets.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23094.jpg.htm" title="One of the sections of the extensions of the hadronic calorimeter, waiting to be inserted in late February 2006"><img alt="One of the sections of the extensions of the hadronic calorimeter, waiting to be inserted in late February 2006" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CERN-Rama-33.jpg" src="../../images/230/23094.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23094.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> One of the sections of the extensions of the hadronic calorimeter, waiting to be inserted in late February 2006</div> </div> </div> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> calorimeters are situated outside the solenoidal <a href="../../wp/m/Magnet.htm" title="Magnet">magnet</a> that surrounds the inner detector. Their purpose is to measure the energy from particles by absorbing it. There are two basic calorimeter systems: an inner electromagnetic calorimeter and an outer hadronic calorimeter. Both are <i>sampling calorimeters</i>; that is, they absorb energy in high-density steel and periodically sample the shape of the resulting <!--del_lnk--> particle shower, inferring the energy of the original particle from this measurement.<p>The electromagnetic (EM) calorimeter absorbs energy from particles that interact <!--del_lnk--> electromagnetically, which include charged particles and photons. It has high precision, both in the amount of energy absorbed and in the precise location of the energy deposited. The angle between the particle's trajectory and the detector's beam axis (or more precisely the <!--del_lnk--> pseudorapidity) and its angle within the perpendicular plane are both measured to within roughly 0.025 <!--del_lnk--> radians. The energy-absorbing materials are <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a> and <!--del_lnk--> stainless steel, with <!--del_lnk--> liquid <a href="../../wp/a/Argon.htm" title="Argon">argon</a> as the sampling material, and a <!--del_lnk--> cryostat is required around the EM calorimeter to keep it sufficiently cool.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> hadron calorimeter absorbs energy from particles that pass through the EM calorimeter, but do interact via the <!--del_lnk--> strong force; these particles are primarily hadrons. It is less precise, both in energy magnitude and in the localization (within about 0.1 radians only). The energy-absorbing material is steel, with scintillating tiles that sample the energy deposited. Many of the features of the calorimeter are chosen for their cost-effectiveness; the instrument is large and comprises a huge amount of construction material: the main part of the calorimeter—the tile calorimeter—is eight metres in diameter and covers 12 metres along the beam axis. The far-forward sections of the hadronic calorimeter are contained within the EM calorimeter's cryostat, and use liquid argon as it does.<p><a id="Muon_spectrometer" name="Muon_spectrometer"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Muon spectrometer</span></h3> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> muon <!--del_lnk--> spectrometer is an extremely large <!--del_lnk--> straw tracker, extending from the calorimeters out to the full diameter of the detector. Its tremendous size is required to accurately measure the momentum of muons, which penetrate other elements of the detector; the effort is vital because one or more muons are a key element of a number of interesting physical processes, and because the total energy of particles in an event could not be measured accurately if they were ignored. It functions similarly to the inner detector, with muons curving so that their momentum can be measured, albeit with a different <!--del_lnk--> magnetic field configuration, lower spatial precision, and a much larger volume. It also serves the function of simply identifying muons—very few particles of other types are expected to pass through the calorimeters and subsequently leave signals in the muon spectrometer. It has roughly one million readout channels, and its layers of detectors have a total area of 12,000 square meters.<p><a id="Magnet_system" name="Magnet_system"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Magnet system</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23095.jpg.htm" title="The ends of four of eight ATLAS toroid magnets, seen from the surface, about 90 metres above, in September 2005."><img alt="The ends of four of eight ATLAS toroid magnets, seen from the surface, about 90 metres above, in September 2005." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ATLAS_Above.jpg" src="../../images/230/23095.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23095.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The ends of four of eight ATLAS toroid magnets, seen from the surface, about 90 metres above, in September 2005.</div> </div> </div> <p>The ATLAS detector uses two large magnet systems to bend charged particles so that their momenta can be measured. This bending is due to the <!--del_lnk--> Lorentz force, which is proportional to velocity. Since all particles produced in the LHC's proton collisions will be traveling at very close to the speed of light, the force on particles of different momenta is equal. (In the <!--del_lnk--> theory of relativity, momentum is <i>not</i> proportional to velocity at such speeds.) Thus high-momentum particles will curve very little, while low-momentum particles will curve significantly; the amount of <!--del_lnk--> curvature can be quantified and the particle momentum can be determined from this value.<p>The inner <!--del_lnk--> solenoid produces a two <!--del_lnk--> tesla magnetic field surrounding the Inner Detector. This strong field allows even very energetic particles to curve enough for their momentum to be determined, and its nearly uniform direction and strength allow measurements to be made very precisely. Particles with momenta below roughly 400 <!--del_lnk--> MeV will be curved so strongly that they will loop repeatedly in the field and most likely not be measured; however, this energy is very small compared to the several <!--del_lnk--> TeV of energy released in each proton collision.<p>The outer <!--del_lnk--> toroidal magnetic field is produced by eight very large air-core <!--del_lnk--> superconducting barrel loops and two end-caps, all situated outside the calorimeters and within the muon system. This magnetic field is 26 metres long and 20 metres in diameter, and it stores 1.2 <!--del_lnk--> gigajoules of energy. Its magnetic field is not uniform, because a solenoid magnet of sufficient size would be prohibitively expensive to build. Fortunately, measurements need to be much less precise to measure momentum accurately in the large volume of the muon system.<p><a id="Data_systems_and_analysis" name="Data_systems_and_analysis"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Data systems and analysis</span></h2> <p>The trigger system uses simple information to identify, in real time, the most interesting <!--del_lnk--> events out of the 40 million <!--del_lnk--> beam crossings that occur every second in the centre of the detector. There are three trigger levels, the first based in electronics on the detector and the other two primarily run on a large <!--del_lnk--> computer cluster near the detector. After the first-level trigger, about 100,000 events per second have been selected. After the third-level trigger, a few hundred events remain to be stored for further analysis. This amount of data will require over 100 megabytes of disk space per second—at least a <!--del_lnk--> petabyte each year.<p>Offline <!--del_lnk--> event reconstruction will be performed on all permanently stored events, turning the pattern of signals from the detector into physics objects, such as <!--del_lnk--> jets, <a href="../../wp/p/Photon.htm" title="Photon">photons</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> leptons. <!--del_lnk--> Grid computing will be extensively used for event reconstruction, allowing the parallel use of university and laboratory computer networks throughout the world for the <a href="../../wp/c/Central_processing_unit.htm" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a>-intensive task of reducing large quantities of raw data into a form suitable for physics analysis. The <!--del_lnk--> software for these tasks has been under development for many years, and will continue to be refined once the experiment is running.<p>Individuals and groups within the collaboration will write their own <!--del_lnk--> code to perform further analysis of these objects, searching in the pattern of detected particles for particular physical models or hypothetical particles. These studies are already being developed and tested on detailed simulations of particles and their interactions with the detector. Such simulations give physicists a good sense of which new particles can be detected and how long it will take to confirm them with sufficient <a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" title="Statistics">statistical</a> certainty.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATLAS_experiment"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Switzerland', 'Energy', 'Proton', 'Energy', 'List of particles', 'Momentum', 'Photon', 'Photon', 'String theory', 'Momentum', 'Hawking radiation', 'Electric charge', 'Momentum', 'Silicon', 'Speed of light', 'Electron', 'Magnet', 'Lead', 'Argon', 'Photon', 'Central processing unit', 'Statistics']
A_Christmas_Carol	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="A Christmas Carol,1843,2007,A Christmas Carol (1938 film),A Christmas Carol (1971 film),A Christmas Carol (1984 film),A Christmas Carol (1997 film),A Christmas Carol (1999 film),A Christmas Carol (2000 film),A Christmas Carol (2004 film),A Christmas Carol (2006 film)" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>A Christmas Carol</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "A_Christmas_Carol"; var wgTitle = "A Christmas Carol"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "73670"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130579721"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-A_Christmas_Carol"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">A Christmas Carol</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Novels.htm">Novels</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width: 20em; text-align: left"> <caption style="font-size: larger;"><span style="display:none;"><b>Title</b></span> <i><b>A Christmas Carol</b></i></caption> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/550.jpg.htm" title="A Christmas Carol frontpiece, first edition 1843."><img alt="A Christmas Carol frontpiece, first edition 1843." height="231" longdesc="/wiki/Image:A_Christmas_Carol_frontpiece.jpg" src="../../images/5/550.jpg" width="300" /></a><br /> Frontpiece, first edition 1843</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Author</th> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Dickens.htm" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/c/Country.htm" title="Country">Country</a></th> <td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">Language</a></th> <td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th><span style="white-space:nowrap">Genre(s)</span></th> <td><a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">Novel</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Publisher</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Chapman and Hall</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Released</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> 19 December 1843</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Media type</th> <td>Print (<!--del_lnk--> Hardback, <!--del_lnk--> Paperback)</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> ISBN</th> <td>NA</td> </tr> </table> <p><i><b>A Christmas Carol in Prose, Being a Ghost Story of Christmas</b></i> (commonly known as <i><b>A Christmas Carol</b></i> ) is what <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Dickens.htm" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a> described as his "little Christmas Book" and was first published on <!--del_lnk--> December 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1843 with illustrations by <!--del_lnk--> John Leech. The story was instantly successful, selling over six thousand copies in one week and, although originally written as a <!--del_lnk--> potboiler to enable Dickens to pay off a debt, the tale has become one of the most popular and enduring <!--del_lnk--> Christmas stories of all time.<p>Contemporaries noted that the story's popularity played a critical role in redefining the importance of Christmas and the major sentiments associated with the holiday. <i>A Christmas Carol</i> was written during a time of decline in the old Christmas traditions. "If Christmas, with its ancient and hospitable customs, its social and charitable observances, were in danger of decay, this is the book that would give them a new lease," said English poet <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Hood.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Plot_summary" name="Plot_summary"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Plot summary</span></h2> <div class="notice spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div> <p><i>A Christmas Carol</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> Victorian <!--del_lnk--> morality tale of an old and bitter <!--del_lnk--> miser, <!--del_lnk--> Ebenezer Scrooge, who undergoes a profound experience of redemption over the course of one evening. Mr Scrooge is a financier/money-changer who has devoted his life to the accumulation of wealth. He holds anything other than money in contempt, including friendship, love and the Christmas season.<div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/5/552.jpg.htm" title="Ebenezer Scrooge encounters "Ignorance" and "Want" in A Christmas Carol"><img alt="Ebenezer Scrooge encounters "Ignorance" and "Want" in A Christmas Carol" class="thumbimage" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:A_Christmas_Carol_-_Ignorance_and_Want.jpg" src="../../images/5/552.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/5/552.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ebenezer Scrooge encounters "Ignorance" and "Want" in <i>A Christmas Carol</i></div> </div> </div> <p>In keeping with the musical analogy of the title, "A Christmas Carol", Dickens divides his literary work into five "staves" instead of chapters. The story begins by establishing that <!--del_lnk--> Jacob Marley, Scrooge's business partner in the firm of Scrooge & Marley, was dead—the narrative begins seven years after his death to the very day, <!--del_lnk--> Christmas Eve. Scrooge and his clerk, <!--del_lnk--> Bob Cratchit, are at work in the <!--del_lnk--> counting-house, with Cratchit stationed in the poorly heated "tank", a victim of his employer's stinginess. Scrooge's nephew, <!--del_lnk--> Fred, enters to wish his uncle a "Merry Christmas" and invite him to Christmas dinner the next day. He is dismissed by his relative with "Bah! Humbug!" among other unpleasantries. Two "portly gentlemen", collecting charitable donations for the poor, come in afterwards, but they too are rebuffed by Scrooge, who points out that the <!--del_lnk--> Poor Laws and <!--del_lnk--> workhouses are sufficient to care for the poor. When Scrooge is told that many would rather die than go there, he mercilessly responds, "If they would rather die ... they had better do it, and decrease the surplus population." At the end of the workday, Scrooge grudgingly allows Cratchit to take Christmas Day off, but to arrive to work all the earlier on the day after.<p>Scrooge leaves the counting-house and eventually returns to his home, an isolated townhouse formerly owned by his late business partner, Jacob Marley. In keeping with his miserly character, Scrooge lives in a small suite of largely unfurnished rooms within the house which he keeps dark and cold (the rest of the rooms in the building having been let as offices). While he unlocks his door Scrooge is startled to see the ghostly face of Marley instead of the familiar appearance of his <!--del_lnk--> door knocker. This is just the beginning of Scrooge's harrowing night. A spectral hearse charging up the broad staircase in the dark, the sliding of bolts and slamming of doors elsewhere in the house, and the inexplicable ringing of the ancient and neglected <!--del_lnk--> bell pull system precedes a visit from Marley as Scrooge eats his gruel by the fireplace. Marley has come to warn Scrooge that his miserliness and contempt for others will subject him to the same fate Marley himself suffers in death: condemned to walk the earth in penitence since he had not done it in life in concern for mankind. A prominent symbol of Marley's torture is a heavy chain wound around his form that has attached to it symbolic objects from Marley's life fashioned out of heavy metal: ledgers, money boxes, keys, and the like. Marley explains that Scrooge's fate might be worse than his because Scrooge's chain was as long and as heavy as Marley's seven Christmases ago when Marley died, and Scrooge has been adding to his with his selfish life. Marley tells Scrooge that he has a chance to escape this fate through the visitation of three more <!--del_lnk--> spirits that will appear one by one. Scrooge is shaken but not entirely convinced that the foregoing was no hallucination, and goes to bed thinking that a good night's sleep will make him feel better.<p>Scrooge wakes in the night and the bells of the neighboring church strike twelve. The first spirit appears and introduces himself as the <!--del_lnk--> Ghost of Christmas Past. This spirit leads Scrooge on a journey into some of the happiest and saddest moments of Scrooge's past, events that would largely shape the current Scrooge. These include the mistreatment of Scrooge by his uncaring father (who did not allow his son to return home from <!--del_lnk--> boarding school, not even at Christmas), the loss of a great love sacrificed for his devotion to business, and the death of his sister, the only other person who ever showed love and compassion for him. Unable to stand these painful memories and his growing regret of them, Scrooge covers the spirit with the large <!--del_lnk--> candle snuffer it carries and he is returned to his room, where he falls asleep.<p>Scrooge wakes at the stroke of one. After more than fifteen minutes, he rises and finds the second spirit, the <!--del_lnk--> Ghost of Christmas Present, in an adjoining room. The spirit shows him the meagre Christmas celebrations of the Cratchit family, the sweet nature of their crippled son, <!--del_lnk--> Tiny Tim, and a possible early death for the child; this prospect is the immediate catalyst for his change of heart. They also show the faith of Scrooge's nephew in his uncle's potential for change, a concept that slowly warms Scrooge to the idea that he can reinvent himself. To further drive the point, the Ghost reveals two pitiful children who huddle under his robes which personify the major causes of suffering in the world, "Ignorance" and "Want", with a grim warning that the former is especially harmful. At the end of the visitation, the bell strikes twelve. The Ghost of Christmas Present vanishes and the third spirit appears to Scrooge.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come takes the form of a grim spectre, completely robed in black, who does not speak and whose body is entirely hidden except for one pointing hand. This spirit frightens Scrooge more than the others, and harrows him with visions of the Cratchit family bereft of Tiny Tim, of Scrooge's own lonely death and final torment, and the cold, avaricious reactions of the people around him after his passing. Without explicitly being said, Scrooge learns that he can avoid the future he has been shown, and alter the fate of Tiny Tim—but only if he changes.<p>In the end, Scrooge changes his life and reverts to the generous, kind-hearted soul he was in his youth before the death of his sister.<p>The story deals extensively with two of Dickens' recurrent themes, <!--del_lnk--> social injustice and <a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, the relationship between the two, and their causes and effects. It was written to be abrupt and forceful with its message, with a working title of "The Sledgehammer". The first edition of <i>A Christmas Carol</i> was illustrated by John Leech, a politically radical artist who in the cartoon "Substance and Shadow" printed earlier in 1843 had explicitly criticised artists who failed to address social issues.<p><a id="Characters" name="Characters"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Characters</span></h2> <p><a id="Principal" name="Principal"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Principal</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Ebenezer Scrooge<li><!--del_lnk--> Jacob Marley (who appears in the story only as a ghost)<li><!--del_lnk--> Bob Cratchit<li><!--del_lnk--> Tiny Tim<li><!--del_lnk--> The Ghost of Christmas Past<li><!--del_lnk--> The Ghost of Christmas Present<li><!--del_lnk--> The Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come<li><!--del_lnk--> Fred (Scrooge's nephew)</ul> <p><a id="Supporting" name="Supporting"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Supporting</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Fezziwig (to whom Scrooge had been apprenticed as a youth)<li>Fan (Scrooge's late sister)<li>Belle (a young woman to whom Scrooge was once engaged)<li>Mrs. Cratchit (Bob Cratchit's wife)<li>Peter Cratchit (Bob's eldest son)<li>Martha Cratchit (Bob's eldest daughter)<li>Mrs. Dilber (Scrooge's charwoman)<li>The Laundress<li>Old Joe (a receiver of stolen goods; in the "future" segment of the story, he is given the dead Scrooge's belongings, after his room and his body have been plundered by Mrs. Dilber and the Laundress)<li>The Two Portly Gentlemen</ul> <p><a id="Dramatic_adaptations" name="Dramatic_adaptations"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Dramatic adaptations</span></h2> <p>'A Christmas Carol' was the subject of Dickens' first public reading, given in Birmingham Town Hall to the Industrial and Literary Institute on 27 December 1852. This was repeated three days later to an audience of 'working people', and was a great success by his own account and that of newspapers of the time. Over the years Dickens edited the piece down and adapted it for a listening, rather than reading, audience. Excerpts from 'A Christmas Carol' remained part of Dickens' public readings until his death.<p><i>A Christmas Carol</i> has been adapted to <a href="../../wp/t/Theatre.htm" title="Theatre">theatre</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" title="Radio">radio</a>, and <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> countless times. According to the <!--del_lnk--> Internet Movie Database, various movie adaptations of the story were filmed as early as 1910.<p>Perhaps the most popular and critically acclaimed film adaptation of the story was made in <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> in 1951. Originally titled <i><!--del_lnk--> Scrooge</i> (and renamed <i>A Christmas Carol</i> for its <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States of America">American</a> release), it starred <!--del_lnk--> Alastair Sim as Scrooge, and was directed by <!--del_lnk--> Brian Desmond-Hurst with a screenplay by <!--del_lnk--> Noel Langley.<p>Most modern adaptations refer to the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come as the "Ghost of Christmas Future" instead.<p><b>Adaptations of the story include:</b><ul> <li><i>Scrooge</i> (1935), an English movie starring <!--del_lnk--> Sir Seymour Hicks as Scrooge.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Christmas Carol</i> (1938) starring <!--del_lnk--> Reginald Owen as Scrooge and <!--del_lnk--> Gene Lockhart and <!--del_lnk--> Kathleen Lockhart as the Cratchits.<li><i>A Christmas Carol</i> (1938), a radio dramatization featured on <i><!--del_lnk--> The Campbell Playhouse</i> and starring <!--del_lnk--> Orson Welles as Scrooge; the following year the story was adapted again on the same program, this time with <!--del_lnk--> Lionel Barrymore starring.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Scrooge</i> (1951) starring <!--del_lnk--> Alastair Sim as Scrooge and <!--del_lnk--> Mervyn Johns and <!--del_lnk--> Hermione Baddeley as the Cratchits, this adaptation is recognized as one of the most popular Christmas adaptations in film history.<li><i>A Christmas Carol</i> (1954), a musical television adaptation starring <!--del_lnk--> Fredric March as Scrooge and <!--del_lnk--> Basil Rathbone as Marley. A filmed episode of the series <i>Shower of Stars</i>, and the first version in colour.<li><i>The Stingiest Man in Town</i> (1956), the second musical adaptation, starring <!--del_lnk--> Basil Rathbone and <!--del_lnk--> Vic Damone as the old and young Scrooge. A live episode of the television series <i>The Alcoa Hour</i>.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mister Magoo's Christmas Carol</i> (1962), an <a href="../../wp/a/Animation.htm" title="Animation">animated</a> musical <!--del_lnk--> television special featuring the <!--del_lnk--> UPA character voiced by <!--del_lnk--> Jim Backus, with songs by <!--del_lnk--> Jule Styne and <!--del_lnk--> Bob Merrill.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Scrooge</i> (1970), a <!--del_lnk--> musical film adaptation starring <!--del_lnk--> Albert Finney as Scrooge and <!--del_lnk--> Alec Guinness as Marley's Ghost.<li><i>A Christmas Carol</i> (1970 original stage adaptation written by Ira David Wood III), performed for the last 31 years on stage at Raleigh's Memorial Auditorium. Theatre In The Park, in Raleigh NC, has produced the show since its premiere. Wood's "A Christmas Carol" is the longest running indoor show in NC theatre history.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Christmas Carol</i> (1971), an <!--del_lnk--> Oscar-winning animated short film by <!--del_lnk--> Richard Williams, with Alastair Sim reprising the role of Scrooge.<li><i>Rich Little's Christmas Carol</i> (1978), a television special in which impressionist <!--del_lnk--> Rich Little plays several celebrities and characters in the main roles.<li><i>The Stingiest Man in Town</i> (1979), an animated made-for-TV musical produced by <!--del_lnk--> Rankin-Bass. Stars <!--del_lnk--> Walter Matthau as the voice of Scrooge and <!--del_lnk--> Tom Bosley as the narrator. This had originally been done as a live-action musical on television in 1956.<li><i>An American Christmas Carol</i> (1979), an adaptation starring <!--del_lnk--> Henry Winkler at the height of his fame from the television series <!--del_lnk--> Happy Days, where the story is set in Depression era New England, and the Scrooge character is named Benedict Slade.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bugs Bunny's Christmas Carol</i> (1979), an animated television special featuring the various <a href="../../wp/l/Looney_Tunes.htm" title="Looney Tunes">Looney Tunes</a> characters.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mickey's Christmas Carol</i> (1983), an animated short film featuring the various <!--del_lnk--> Walt Disney characters, with <a href="../../wp/s/Scrooge_McDuck.htm" title="Scrooge McDuck">Scrooge McDuck</a> fittingly playing the role of Ebenezer Scrooge. This version was based on a 1972 audio musical entitled <i>Disney's 'A Christmas Carol'.</i> Most of the cast remained unchanged, however, in the audio version, the Blue Fairy (from <i><!--del_lnk--> Pinocchio</i>) and the <!--del_lnk--> Queen (from <i><!--del_lnk--> Snow White</i>, in her hag guise) portrayed the Ghosts of Christmas Past and Future, respectively (the Present Ghost, like in the film version, was portrayed by Willie the Giant).<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Christmas Carol</i> (1984), a <!--del_lnk--> television movie version starring <!--del_lnk--> George C. Scott.<li><i>The Gospel According to Scrooge</i> (1986), a stage <!--del_lnk--> musical that emphasizes the religious elements of the story, often performed by <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> Christian churches.<li><i>X-mas Marks The Spot</i> (1987) was an episode of the animated series, "<!--del_lnk--> The Real Ghostbusters" that spoofed the Dickens classic, depicting the heroes accidentally capturing the three spirits and ruining Christmas for the future.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Scrooged</i> (1988): a remake in a contemporary setting with <!--del_lnk--> Bill Murray being a misanthropic TV producer who is haunted by the ghosts of <!--del_lnk--> Christmas. Directed by <!--del_lnk--> Richard Donner.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Blackadder's Christmas Carol</i> (1988): a <!--del_lnk--> parody where philanthropist Ebenezer Blackadder becomes a bad guy after a visit by the Spirit of Christmas.<li>In 1991, the Focus On The Family children's radio program Adventures In Odyssey produced an episode entitled "A Thanksgiving Carol", in which the gang at <!--del_lnk--> Whit's End produces the show for Kid's Radio. Bernard Walton (<!--del_lnk--> Dave Madden) becomes Ebenezer Stooge, Eugene Meltsner (<!--del_lnk--> Will Ryan) becomes Bob Wretched, Connie Kendall (Katie Leigh Pavalovich) takes on the roles of Cheerful Lady (the portly gentlemen rolled into one), Mrs. Wretched, and Teeny Tom. Officer David Harley (also voiced by Will Ryan) becomes Jacob Arley, and Whit (the late <!--del_lnk--> Hal Smith) becomes Terence Clodbody, all three Spirits of Christmas rolled into one.<li><!--del_lnk--> Alvin and the Chipmunks adapted the basic storyline in a 1992 TV Special, Alvin's Christmas Carol. Alvin becomes a Scrooge-like chipmunk who only views Christmas as a time of getting. But Dave, Theodore and Simon show him that Christmas is a time of giving. Incidentally, Alvin's elderly neighbour on his paper route has a cat named Ebenezer.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Muppet Christmas Carol</i> (1992) featuring the various <!--del_lnk--> Muppet characters, with <!--del_lnk--> Michael Caine as Scrooge.<li><i>Scrooge: The Musical</i> (1992), a <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> <!--del_lnk--> stage musical adapted from the 1970 film and starring <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Newley.<li><i>The Flintstones Christmas Carol</i> (1994), animated adaptation featuring <!--del_lnk--> Fred Flintstone as 'Ebonyzer Scrooge', Barney as 'Bob Cragit' and Mr. Slate as 'Jacob Marbley'<li><i>Ebbie</i> (1995), a television movie in which the role of Scrooge is played by a female with <!--del_lnk--> Susan Lucci as Elizabeth "Ebbie" Scrooge, the cold-hearted owner of a department store.<li><i>A Solstice Carol</i> (1996), a holiday episode of <!--del_lnk--> Xena: Warrior Princess that replaced Scrooge with a miserly king and replaced the three spirits with the three <!--del_lnk--> fates of <a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" title="Greek mythology">Greek Mythology</a>.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Beavis and Butt-head</i> has a parody adaptation of the story where Beavis played as a cruel manager at Burger World, and went through the revelations of the three ghosts, that came out of the TV while he was trying to watch a porno. Although the story ended up being a dream and Beavis is still the same as ever.<li><i>Focus On The Family Radio Theatre</i> adapted the story in a 1996 production hosted by <!--del_lnk--> David Suchet, narrated by <!--del_lnk--> Timothy Bateson, and with <!--del_lnk--> Tenniel Evans as Scrooge. This production expands on the events of Scrooge's past and takes a few other liberties with the storyline, especially after Scrooge's awakening from his encounter with the Ghost of Christmas Yet To Come. It emphasizes the underlying Christian themes of the story.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Ebenezer</i> (1997), a Canadian TV production Western-themed version starring <!--del_lnk--> Jack Palance and <!--del_lnk--> Rick Schroder.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Christmas Carol</i> (1997), an animated production featuring the voice of <!--del_lnk--> Tim Curry as Scrooge as well as the voices of <!--del_lnk--> Whoopi Goldberg, <!--del_lnk--> Michael York and <!--del_lnk--> Ed Asner.<li><i>Ms. Scrooge</i> (1997), a televison movie starring <!--del_lnk--> Cicely Tyson that aired on <!--del_lnk--> USA Network.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Christmas Carol</i> (1999), a <!--del_lnk--> television movie starring <!--del_lnk--> Patrick Stewart, inspired by his one-man show, but featuring a full supporting cast. This was the first version of the story to make use of digital special effects.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Family Man</i> (2000) Though not a direct adaptation, this film's story, involving a wealthy, but cold-hearted businessman (<!--del_lnk--> Nicolas Cage) who learns the true meaning of Christmas through a supernatural misadventure, recalls Dickens' novel.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Christmas Carol</i> (2000) A modern-day version starring <!--del_lnk--> Ross Kemp as Eddie Scrooge, an unscrupulous loan shark.<li><i>A Diva's Christmas Carol</i> (2000), a humorous adaptation starring <!--del_lnk--> Vanessa Williams as bitchy <!--del_lnk--> diva Ebony Scrooge who is transformed into a kind-hearted soul.<li><i>A Carol Christmas</i> (2003) Made-for-TV adaption on the Halmark Channel. Stars <!--del_lnk--> Tori Spelling as "Scroogette." <!--del_lnk--> William Shatner makes a special appearance as the ghost of Christmas Present.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Christmas Carol: The Movie</i> (2003) an animated version produced by Illuminated Films (Christmas Carol), Ltd/The Film Consortium/MBP; screenplay by Robert Llewellyn & Piet Kroon; with the voices of <!--del_lnk--> Simon Callow, <!--del_lnk--> Kate Winslet, <!--del_lnk--> Nicolas Cage, Jane Horrocks, Rhys Ifans, Michael Gambon, and Juliet Stevenson.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Steve Nallon's Christmas Carol</i> (2003) theatrical adaptation starring the noted impressionist, as a number of famous people.<li><i>I'm Sorry I Haven't A Christmas Carol</i> (2003) a <!--del_lnk--> BBC Radio 4 <!--del_lnk--> parody in which the curmugeonly Ebeneezer Scrumph (played by the curmugeonly chairman of <i><!--del_lnk--> I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Humphrey Lyttelton) is visited by three ghosts played by the regular panelists.<li><i>A Christmas Carol</i> (2003 film), an <!--del_lnk--> Animé animated version of the Dickens's classic, distributed in the United States by Goodtimes Entertainment, written by Jack Olesker, directed by Toshiyuki Hiruma Takashi, animation by Amisong Productions among others, with the voices of Tony Ail, Nathan As well, and Cheralynn Bailey<li><!--del_lnk--> VeggieTales released a parody entitled "<!--del_lnk--> An Easter Carol" in 2004, with the zucchini Nebby K. Nezzar in the Scrooge role.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Christmas Carol: The Musical</i> (2004), starring <!--del_lnk--> Kelsey Grammer.<li><i>Caroll's Christmas</i> (2004), in which modern versions of the three spirits visit the wrong man's house on Christmas Eve.<li><!--del_lnk--> <i>An IESE Christmas Carol</i> (2005) at Google Video, a short business school version by the <!--del_lnk--> IESE theatre club in which Scrooge is played by women.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Learning Carol</i> (2004), a three episode <!--del_lnk--> podcast by <!--del_lnk--> The Radio Adventures of Dr. Floyd (ep. 205-207)<li><i>A Sesame Street Christmas Carol</i> (2006), a direct to DVD special featuring <!--del_lnk--> Oscar the Grouch in the Scrooge role.<li><i>Bah Humduck!</i> (2006), a Looney Tunes spoof of the classic with Daffy as Scrooge.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Camden Christmas Carol</i> (2006), a multimedia stage adaptation by <i><!--del_lnk--> Rutgers-Camden Centre for the Arts</i> in Camden, NJ supported by a grant from the Knight Foundation.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Christmas Carol</i> (2006)<li><i>A Christmas Mikey</i> (2006 television episode) Final episode of Season 1 of <!--del_lnk--> Kappa Mikey, pitting Ozu in the role of Scrooge, and three Ghosts who resemble Japanese samurai.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Weebl and Bob</i> (2006) A Bob cartoon parodies <i>A Christmas Carol</i>.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends</i> - In part of the epsode "A Lost Claus", <!--del_lnk--> Bloo parodies this in order to squeeze more presents out of <!--del_lnk--> Mr. Herriman. Bloo, essentially, gets the ghosts wrong: <a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Marley.htm" title="Bob Marley">Bob Marley</a> instead of Jacob Marley; the Ghost of a Christmas present instead of the Ghost of Christmas Present; and as the Ghost of Christmas Future, he dresses up as a deadly robot. Bloo completely skips over the Ghost of Christmas Past.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> I'm Sorry I Haven't a Christmas Carol</i> - An edition of <!--del_lnk--> I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue, where the usual games are woven into the story of <i>A Christmas Carol</i>.</ul> <p>In addition, others have noted that the classic film <i><!--del_lnk--> It's a Wonderful Life</i> is essentially <i>A Christmas Carol</i> in reverse. That is, instead of a miserly and selfish man changing his ways with a supernatural experience on Christmas Eve, the film depicts the story of a compassionate businessman who sacrificed his dreams to help his community and feels he is a failure. In the depths of despair, there is a supernatural occurrence to show him that his choices were more than worthwhile.<p><a id="Sequels" name="Sequels"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Sequels</span></h2> <p>Dickens wraps up the story with two short paragraphs telling us that sickly Tiny Tim survives and stingy Ebenezer Scrooge becomes renowned for his newfound goodness—basically a "happily ever after" ending—but he provides no detail on what happens to any of the characters. Following the every-good-story-deserves-a-sequel idea, a number of authors have crafted their own versions of what befell Scrooge and company. Ranging from Internet stories to best-selling novels (and even a television screenplay), several different works have picked up the characters and events of Dickens' classic to spin new tales for the story's aftermath.<p>Here are but a few:<ul> <li><i>A Christmas Carol II</i>, (1985), an episode of the TV series <i><!--del_lnk--> George Burns Comedy Week</i> in which it's revealed that Scrooge is good-natured to a fault, and all of Camden Town takes advantage of his generosity, prompting the spirits to return and make sure Scrooge reaches a median between his past and current behaviour.</ul> <ul> <li><i>Marley's Ghost</i>, (2000), by Mark Hazard Osmun: The prequel to <i>A Christmas Carol</i>. A novel imagining the life and afterlife of Scrooge's partner, Jacob Marley and how Marley came to arrange Scrooge's chance at redemption.</ul> <ul> <li><i>Timothy Cratchit's Christmas Carol, 1917: A Sequel to the Charles Dickens Classic</i> (Dickens World, 1998) by Dale Powell. In this version, an elderly Tiny Tim is a wealthy immigrant living in America who experiences his own spiritual visitations on Christmas Eve.</ul> <ul> <li><i>The Trial of Ebenezer Scrooge</i> (Ohio State University Press, 2001) by Bruce Bueno De Mesquita. A uniquely philosophical take on the Scrooge mythology set in the afterlife with Scrooge on trial to determine if he merits entry into Paradise.</ul> <ul> <li><i>"Scrooge & Cratchit"</i> (scrooge-and-cratchit.com, 2002) by Matt McHugh. Beginning seven years after the events of the original, Bob Cratchit is now Scrooge's partner in business as they both face the wrath of bankers every bit as ruthless as Scrooge in his prime.</ul> <ul> <li><i>The Last Christmas of Ebenezer Scrooge: The Sequel to A Christmas Carol</i> (Wildside Press, 2003) by Marvin Kaye. This sequel picks up right where the original left off, with Scrooge trying to right an unresolved wrong. This version was also adapted for the stage.</ul> <ul> <li><i>Mr. Timothy</i> (HarperCollins, 2003) by Louis Bayard. Here again is an adult Tiny Tim, only this time as a 23-year-old resident of a London brothel who becomes embroiled in a murder mystery. <i>Mr. Timothy</i> was included in the <!--del_lnk--> New York Times's list of Notable Fiction for 2003.</ul> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Charles Dickens', 'Country', 'United Kingdom', 'Language', 'English language', 'Novel', 'Charles Dickens', 'Poverty', 'Theatre', 'Film', 'Radio', 'Television', 'United Kingdom', 'United States of America', 'Animation', 'Looney Tunes', 'Scrooge McDuck', 'United States', 'United Kingdom', 'Greek mythology', 'Bob Marley']
A_South_African_Journey	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>Autumn 2006 Charity Newsletter: A South African journey</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" /> <meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." /> <meta name="robots" content="all" /> <meta name="keywords" content="children charity" /> <meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" /> </head> <body> <div id="container"> <div id="header"> <div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div> <div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div> <div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">SOS News</a> > <strong>Autumn 2006 Newsletter: A South African journey</strong></div> <div id="col"> <div id="nav"> <span class="boxtop"></span> <ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm" id="selected">Charity News</a> <ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/b/By_Topic.htm">News by Topic</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Archive.htm">News Archive</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul> <span class="boxbot"></span> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <h2>SOS Children's Charity: Autumn 2006 Newsletter</h2><p><strong>22/08/2006</strong></p> <img src="../../wp/p/P1010152.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="Children in a South African township" class="right" /><p><strong>A South African journey</strong></p><p>SOS Children’s Villages started working in South Africa in the early 1980s, supporting children living in the townships. The first SOS Children’s Village at Ennerdale, 20 miles south of Johannesburg, opened in 1982. Children across black, Indian and white communities have a family with SOS Children in our seven South African villages. These are supported by seven SOS Nursery Schools, one SOS Primary School, eight SOS Social Centres and one SOS Medical Centre.</p><p>All SOS Children’s Villages in South Africa help to support families in the local communities who are affected by HIV/AIDS.</p><p>Poverty and illness mean that many parents and guardian struggle to care for their children. SOS Children supports these families by providing training so the parents can find employment, and by paying school fees so the children can go to school.</p><p>Rustenburg is one of the children's villages funded by the ‘6 Villages for 2006’ campaign. It will consist of 10 family houses and will be home to 100 orphaned and abandoned children. SOS Children will run a family programme within the Rustenburg area to strengthen the capacity of families to protect and care for their own children. Rustenburg, located in South Africa’s North West Province, is soon to see its Royal Bafokeng Stadium play host to the one of the world’s greatest sporting children events, the next FIFA World Cup in 2010 - the first to be held in Africa.</p><img src="../../wp/p/Portrait_Of_Three_Girls_At_Cape_Town.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="Three girls at SOS Children's Village Cape Town" class="left" /><p><strong>South African Shopping List</strong></p><ul><li><p>£1.25 pays school fees for a month at an SOS Nursery School</p></li><li><p>£9.30 pays for a child’s medicines, food, school fees and clothes for a month as part of an SOS AIDS outreach programme</p></li><li><p>£100 will fund an SOS computer training programme at an SOS Social Centre</p></li><li><p>£1,200 will pay a year’s medical costs at an SOS Children’s Village</p></li></ul><p><a href="../../wp/a/Autumn_2006_Newsletter_Contents.htm">Back to Autumn 2006 Newsletter Contents</a>.</p><p><strong>Relevant Countries:</strong> <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa_A.htm">South Africa</a>.</p> </div> <table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;"> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="clearboth"></div> </div> <div id="footer"> <span id="botright"></span> <p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> \| <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> \| 01223 365589 \| <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p> <p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p> <p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p> </div> </div> </body> </html>	["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.']
A_Tale_of_a_Tub	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="A Tale of a Tub,Aeneid,Alexander Pope,Allegory,Anne of Great Britain,Anti-Christ,Baptists,Bawdy,Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle,Bible,Biblical exegesis" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>A Tale of a Tub</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "A_Tale_of_a_Tub"; var wgTitle = "A Tale of a Tub"; var wgArticleId = 294082; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-A_Tale_of_a_Tub"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">A Tale of a Tub</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Novels.htm">Novels</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <dl> <dd><i>This article is about the satire by Jonathan Swift. For the 1633 play by Ben Jonson, see</i> <!--del_lnk--> A Tale of a Tub (play).</dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23065.gif.htm" title="Title page of the first edition"><img alt="Title page of the first edition" height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tale-Title.gif" src="../../images/230/23065.gif" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23065.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Title page of the first edition</div> </div> </div> <p><i><b>A Tale of a Tub</b></i> was the first major work written by <!--del_lnk--> Jonathan Swift, composed between 1694 and 1697 and published in 1704. It is probably his most difficult <!--del_lnk--> satire, and possibly his most masterful. The <i>Tale</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> prose <!--del_lnk--> parody which is divided up into sections of "<!--del_lnk--> digression" and "tale." The "tale" presents a consistent satire of <!--del_lnk--> religious excess, while the digressions are a series of parodies of <!--del_lnk--> contemporary writing in <a href="../../wp/l/Literature.htm" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">politics</a>, <!--del_lnk--> theology, <!--del_lnk--> Biblical exegesis, and <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. The overarching parody is of <!--del_lnk--> enthusiasm, <!--del_lnk--> pride, and <!--del_lnk--> credulity.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Summary" name="Summary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Summary</span></h2> <p><i>A Tale of a Tub</i> is divided between various forms of <!--del_lnk--> digression and sections of a "tale." The "tale," or narrative, is an <!--del_lnk--> allegory that concerns the adventures of three brothers, Peter, Martin, and Jack, as they attempt to make their way in the world. Each of the brothers represents one of the primary branches of <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in the west. This part of the book is a pun on "tub," which <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Pope says was a common term for a pulpit, and a reference to Swift's own position as a clergyman. Peter (named for <!--del_lnk--> Saint Peter) stands in for the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Church. Jack (named for <a href="../../wp/j/John_Calvin.htm" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, but whom Swift also connects to "<!--del_lnk--> Jack of Leyden") represents the various dissenting <!--del_lnk--> Protestant churches whose modern descendants would include the <!--del_lnk--> Baptists, <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterians, <a href="../../wp/r/Religious_Society_of_Friends.htm" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quakers</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Mennonites, and the assorted <!--del_lnk--> Charismatic churches. The third brother, middle born and middle standing, is Martin (named for <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Luther.htm" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>), whom Swift uses to represent the 'via media' of the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. The brothers have inherited three wonderfully satisfactory coats (representing religious practice) by their father (representing God), and they have his will (representing the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>) to guide them. Although the will says that the brothers are forbidden from making any changes to their coats, they do nearly nothing but alter their coats from the start. Inasmuch as the will represents the Bible and the coat represents the practice of Christianity, the <!--del_lnk--> allegory of the narrative is supposed to be an apology for the British church's refusal to alter its practice in accordance with Puritan demands and its continued resistance to alliance with the Roman church.<p>From its opening (once past the prolegomena, which comprises the first three sections), the book is constructed like a layer cake, with Digression and Tale alternating. However, the digressions overwhelm the narrative, both in terms of the forcefulness and imaginativeness of writing and in terms of volume. Furthermore, after Chapter X (the commonly anthologized "Digression on Madness"), the labels for the sections are incorrect. Sections then called "Tale" are Digressions, and those called "Digression" are also Digressions.<p><i>A Tale of a Tub</i> is an enormous <!--del_lnk--> parody with a number of smaller parodies within it. Many critics have followed Swift's biographer Irvin Ehrenpreis in arguing that there is no single, consistent narrator in the work. One difficulty with this position, however, is that if there is no single character posing as the author, then it is at least clear that nearly all of the "personae" employed by Swift for the parodies are so much alike that they function as a single identity. In general, whether we view the book as comprised of dozens of impersonations or a single one, Swift writes the <i>Tale</i> through the pose of a Modern or New Man. See the abridged discussion of the "Ancients and Moderns," below, for more on the nature of the "modern man" in Swift's day.<p>Swift's explanation for the title of the book is that the Ship of State was threatened by a whale (specifically, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Leviathan</i> of <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Hobbes.htm" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>) and the new political societies (the <!--del_lnk--> Rota Club is mentioned), and his book is intended to be a tub that the sailors of state (the nobles and ministers of state) might toss over the side to divert the attention of the beast (those who questioned the government and its right to rule). Hobbes was highly controversial in the Restoration, but Swift's invocation of Hobbes might well be ironic. The narrative of the brothers is a faulty allegory, and Swift's narrator is either a madman or a fool. The book is not one that could occupy the <i>Leviathan,</i> or preserve the Ship of State, so Swift may be intensifying the dangers of Hobbes's critique rather than allaying them to provoke a more rational response.<p>The digressions individually frustrate readers who expect a clear purpose. Each <!--del_lnk--> digression has its own topic, and each is an essay on its particular sidelight. In his biography of Swift, Ehrenpreis argued that each digression is an impersonation of a different contemporary author. This is the "persona theory," which holds that the <i>Tale</i> is not one parody, but rather a series of parodies, arising out of chamber performance in the <!--del_lnk--> Temple household. Prior to Ehrenpreis, some critics had argued that the narrator of the <i>Tale</i> is a character, just as the narrator of a novel would be. Given the evidence of A. C. Elias about the acrimony of Swift's departure from the Temple household, evidence from Swift's <i>Journal to Stella</i> about how uninvolved in the Temple household Swift had been, and the number of repeated observations about himself by the <i>Tale's</i> author, it seems reasonable to propose that the digressions reflect a single <i>type</i> of man, if not a particular character.<p>In any case, the digressions are each readerly tests; each tests whether or not the reader is intelligent and skeptical enough to detect nonsense. Some, such as the discussion of ears or of wisdom being like a nut, a cream sherry, a cackling hen, etc., are outlandish and require a militantly aware and thoughtful reader. Each is a trick, and together they train the reader to sniff out bunk and to reject the unacceptable.<p><a id="Cultural_setting" name="Cultural_setting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural setting</span></h2> <p>During the <!--del_lnk--> Restoration period in England, the print revolution began to change every aspect of society. It became possible for anyone to spend a small amount of money and have his or her opinions published as a broadsheet. It also became possible for nearly anyone to gain access to the latest discoveries in science, literature, and political theory, as books became less expensive and digests and "indexes" of the sciences grew more numerous. The change in British society brought about by the print revolution was roughly analogous to our own experiences with the Internet. Just as now a silly person may spend a small amount of money and publish silly opinions, so it was then. Just as now we are confronted with a staggering array of conspiracy theories, "secret" histories, signs of the apocalypse, "secrets" of politicians, "revelations" of prophets, alarms about household products, hoaxes, and outright fraud, so it was then. The problem for them, as for us, was telling true from false, credible from impossible. Swift writes <i>A Tale of a Tub</i> in the guise of someone who is excited and gullible about all the things the new world has to offer. This narrator is in love with the modern age and feels that he is quite the equal (or superior) of any author who ever lived because he, unlike them, possesses 'technology' and opinions that are just plain newer. Swift seemingly asks the question of what a person with no discernment but with a thirst for knowledge would be like, and the answer is the narrator of <i>Tale of a Tub.</i><p>Swift was annoyed by people who were so eager to possess the newest knowledge that they failed to pose skeptical questions. If he was not a particular fan of the aristocracy, he was a sincere opponent of democracy (which was often viewed then as the sort of "<!--del_lnk--> mob rule" that led to the worst abuses of the <!--del_lnk--> English Interregnum.) The cultural stakes were high, and Swift's satire was intended to provide a genuine service by painting the portrait of conspiracy minded and injudicious writers.<p>At that time in England, politics, religion and education were unified in a way that they are not now. The monarch was the head of the state church. Each school (secondary and university) had a political tradition. (Officially, there was no such thing as "<!--del_lnk--> Whig and <!--del_lnk--> Tory" at the time, but the labels are useful and were certainly employed by writers themselves.) The two major parties were associated with religious and economic groups. The implications of this unification of politics, class, and religion are important. Although it is somewhat extreme and simplistic to put it this way, failing to be for the Church was failing to be for the monarch; having an interest in physics and trade was to be associated with dissenting religion and the Whig Party. When Swift attacks the lovers of all things modern, he is thereby attacking the new world of trade, of dissenting religious believers, and, to some degree, an emergent portion of the Whig Party.<p><a id="Authorial_background" name="Authorial_background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Authorial background</span></h2> <p>Born of English parents in Ireland, Jonathan Swift was working as Sir <!--del_lnk--> William Temple's secretary at the time he composed <i>A Tale of a Tub</i> (1694-1697). The publication of the work coincided with Swift's striking out on his own, having despaired of getting a good "living" from Temple or Temple's influence. There is speculation about what caused the rift between Swift and his employer, but, as A. C. Elias persuasively argues, it seems that the final straw came with Swift's work on Temple's <i>Letters.</i> Swift had been engaged to translate Temple's French correspondence, but Temple, or someone close to Temple, edited the French text to make Temple seem both prescient and more fluent. Consequently, the letters and the translations Swift provided did not gibe, and, since Swift could not accuse Temple of falsifying his letters, and because the public would never believe that the retired state minister had lied, Swift came across as incompetent.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:154px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/257/25752.jpg.htm" title="Jonathan Swift"><img alt="Jonathan Swift" height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jonathan_swift.JPG" src="../../images/230/23066.jpg" width="152" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Jonathan Swift</div> </div> </div> <p>Even though Swift published the "Tale" as he left Temple's service, it was conceived earlier, and the book is a salvo in one of Temple's battles. Swift's general polemic concerns an argument (the "<!--del_lnk--> Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns") that had been over for nearly ten years by the time the book was published. The "Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns" was generally a French academic brouhaha of the early 1690's, occasioned by <!--del_lnk--> Fontenelle arguing that modern scholarship had allowed modern man to surpass the ancients in knowledge. Temple argued against this position in his "On Ancient and Modern Learning" (where he provided the first English formulation of the commonplace that we see more only because we are dwarves standing on the shoulders of giants), and Temple's somewhat naive essay prompted a small flurry of responses. Among others, two men who took the side opposing Temple were <!--del_lnk--> Richard Bently (classicist and editor) and <!--del_lnk--> William Wotton (critic).<p>The entire discussion in England was over by 1696, and yet it seems to have fired Swift's imagination. Swift saw in the opposing camps of Ancients and Moderns a shorthand of two general ways of looking at the world (see the historical background, below, for some of the senses in which "new men" and "ancients" might be understood). The <i>Tale of a Tub</i> attacks all who praise modernity over classical learning. Temple had done as much, but Swift, unlike Temple, has no praise for the classical world, either. There is no normative value in Rome, no lost English glen, no hearth ember to be invoked against the hubris of modern scientism. Some critics have seen in Swift's reluctance to praise mankind in any age proof of his misanthropy, and others have detected in it an overarching hatred of pride. At the same time, the <i>Tale</i> revived the Quarrel of Ancients and Moderns at least enough to prompt Wotton to come out with a new edition of his pamphlet attacking Temple, and he appended to it an essay against the author of <i>A Tale of a Tub</i>. Swift was able to cut pieces from Wotton's "Answer" to include in the fifth edition of the <i>Tale</i> as "Notes" at the bottom of the page. Swift's satire also gave something of a framework for other satirists in the <!--del_lnk--> Scribblerian circle, and Modern vs. Ancient is picked up as one distinction between political and cultural forces.<p>If Swift hoped that the <i>Tale of a Tub</i> would win him a living, he was disappointed. Swift himself believed that the book cost him any chance of high position within the church. It is most likely, though, that Swift was not seeking a clerical position with the <i>Tale.</i> Instead, it was probably meant to establish him as a literary and political figure and to strike out a set of positions that would win the notice of influential men. This it did. As a consequence of this work, and Swift's activity in Church causes, Swift became a familiar of <!--del_lnk--> Robert Harley (future <!--del_lnk--> Earl of Oxford) and <!--del_lnk--> Henry St. John (the future <!--del_lnk--> Viscount Bolingbroke). When the Tories gained the government in 1710, Swift was rewarded for his work. By 1713-14, however, the Tory government had fallen, and Swift was "rewarded" with the Deanery of <!--del_lnk--> St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin — a reward he considered an exile.<p><a id="Nature_of_the_satire" name="Nature_of_the_satire"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nature of the satire</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23067.jpg.htm" title="Title page of the fifth edition, 1705, with the added Notes and Apology for the &c."><img alt="Title page of the fifth edition, 1705, with the added Notes and Apology for the &c." height="370" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tale-5th.jpg" src="../../images/230/23067.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23067.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Title page of the fifth edition, 1705, with the added Notes and <i>Apology for the &c.</i></div> </div> </div> <p>Upon its publication, the public realized both that there was an allegory in the story of the brothers and that there were particular political references in the Digressions. A number of "Keys" appeared soon thereafter, analogous to contemporary services like <!--del_lnk--> Cliffs Notes or Spark Notes. "Keys" offered the reader a commentary on the <i>Tale</i> and explanations of its references. <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Curll rushed out a <i>Key</i> to the work, and William Wotton offered up an "Answer" to the author of the work.<p>Swift's targets in the <i>Tale</i> included indexers, note-makers, and, above all, people who saw "dark matter" in books. He attacks criticism generally, and he appeared to be delighted by the fact that one of his enemies, <!--del_lnk--> William Wotton, had offered to explain the <i>Tale</i> in an "answer" to the book and that one of the men he had explicitly attacked, Curll, had offered to explain the book to the public. In the fifth edition of the book in 1705, Swift provided an apparatus to the work that incorporated Wotton's explanations and Swift's narrator's own notes as well. The notes appear to occasionally provide genuine information and just as often to mislead, and William Wotton's name, a defender of the Moderns, was appended to a number of notes. This allows Swift to make the commentary part of the satire itself, as well as to elevate his narrator to the level of self-critic.<p>It is hard to say what the <i>Tale's</i> satire is about, since it is about any number of things. It is most consistent in attacking misreading of all sorts. Both in the narrative sections and the digressions, the single human flaw that underlies all the follies Swift attacks is over-figurative and over-literal reading, both of the Bible and of poetry and political prose. The narrator is seeking hidden knowledge, mechanical operations of things spiritual, spiritual qualities to things physical, and alternate readings of everything.<p>Within the "tale" sections of the book, Peter, Martin, and Jack fall into bad company (becoming the official religion of the Roman empire) and begin altering their coats (faith) by adding ornaments. They then begin relying on Peter to be the arbitrator of the will, and he begins to rule by authority (he remembered the handyman saying that he once heard the father say that it was alright to put on more ornaments), until such a time that Jack rebels against the rule of Peter. Jack begins to read the will (the Bible) overly literally. He rips the coat to shreds to try to restore the original state of the garment (equivalent of the "primitive Christianity" sought by dissenters). He begins to rely only upon "inner illumination" for guidance and thus walks around with his eyes closed, after swallowing candle snuffs. Eventually, Peter and Jack begin to resemble one another, and only Martin is left with a coat that is at all like the original.<p>An important factor in the reception of Swift's work is that the narrator of the work is an extremist in every direction. Consequently, he can no more construct a sound allegory than he can finish his digressions without losing control (eventually confessing that he is insane). For a Church of England reader, the allegory of the brothers provides small comfort. Martin has a corrupted faith, one full of holes and still with ornaments on it. His only virtue is that he avoids the excesses of his brothers, but the original faith is lost to him. Readers of the <i>Tale</i> have picked up on this unsatisfactory resolution to both "parts" of the book, and <i>A Tale of a Tub</i> has often been offered up as evidence of Swift's <!--del_lnk--> misanthropy.<p>As has recently been argued by Michael McKeon, Swift might best be described as a severe skeptic, rather than a Whig, Tory, empiricist, or religious writer. He supported the Classics in the Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns, and he supported the established church and the aristocracy, because he felt the alternatives were worse. He argued elsewhere that there is nothing inherently virtuous about a noble birth, but its advantages of wealth and education made the aristocrat a better ruler than the equally virtuous but unprivileged commoner. <i>A Tale of a Tub</i> is a perfect example of Swift's devastating intellect at work. By its end, little seems worth believing in.<p>Formally, the satire in the <i>Tale</i> is historically novel for several reasons. First, Swift more or less invented prose parody. In the "Apology for the &c." (which was added in 1705), Swift explains that his work is, in several places, a "parody," which is where he imitates the style of persons he wishes to expose. What is interesting is that the word "parody" had not been used for prose before, and the definition he offers is arguably a parody of <!--del_lnk--> John Dryden defining "parody" in the "Preface to the Satires." Prior to Swift, parodies were imitations designed to bring mirth, but not primarily in the form of mockery. (For example, Dryden himself imitated the <!--del_lnk--> Aeneid in "MacFlecknoe" to describe the apotheosis of a dull poet, but the imitation made fun of the poet, and not of Virgil.)<p>Additionally, Swift's satire is relatively unique in that he offers no resolutions. While he ridicules any number of foolish habits, he never offers the reader a positive set of values to embrace. While this type of satire became more common as people imitated Swift, later, Swift is quite unusual in offering the readers no way out. He does not persuade <i>to</i> any position, but he does persuade readers <i>from</i> an assortment of positions. This is one of the qualities that has made the <i>Tale</i> Swift's least-read major work.<p><a id="Historical_background" name="Historical_background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historical background</span></h2> <p>In the historical background to the period of 1696-1705, the most important political events might be the Restoration of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> in 1660, the <!--del_lnk--> Test Act, and the <!--del_lnk--> English Settlement or <a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688-1689. Politically, the English had suffered a <!--del_lnk--> Civil War that had culminated with the beheading of the king, years of <!--del_lnk--> Interregnum under the Puritan <a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, and then Parliament inviting the king back to rule in 1660. Upon Charles II's death, his brother, <!--del_lnk--> James II of England took the throne. However, when it was alleged that James was Roman Catholic and married to a Roman Catholic, James fled the country, and Parliament decided on the way in which all future English monarchs would be chosen. This method would always favour Protestantism over sanguinity.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23068.jpg.htm" title="Woodcut from the Tale demonstrating the three stages of human endeavor: the gallows, the theater, and the pulpit."><img alt="Woodcut from the Tale demonstrating the three stages of human endeavor: the gallows, the theater, and the pulpit." height="338" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tale-stages.jpg" src="../../images/230/23068.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23068.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Woodcut from the <i>Tale</i> demonstrating the three stages of human endeavor: the gallows, the theatre, and the pulpit.</div> </div> </div> <p>From the point of view of the politically aware Englishman, Parliament had essentially elected a king. Although officially the king was supreme, there could be no doubt that the Commons had picked the king and could pick another instead. Also, although there was now a law demanding that all swear allegiance to the monarch as head of the church, it became less and less clear why the nation was to be so intolerant.<p>Religious struggles at the time were primarily between the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> and the dissenting churches. The threat posed by these dissenters was keenly felt by Establishment clerics like Jonathan Swift. While contemporary <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> praises and practices tolerance and contemporary Britons may find tolerance inherently virtuous, the dissenters of the late 17th and early 18th centuries were themselves quite intolerant. It was common enough for Puritans and other dissenters to disrupt church services, to accuse political leaders of being the <!--del_lnk--> anti-Christ, and to move the people toward violent schism, riots, and peculiar behaviors (including attempts to set up miniature theocracies). Protestant dissenters had led the <!--del_lnk--> English Civil War. The pressure of dissenters was felt on all levels of British politics and could be seen in the change of the British economy.<p>The <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> was beginning in the period between the writing and publication of <i>A Tale of a Tub,</i> though no one at the time would have known this. What Englishmen did know, however, was that what they called "trade" was on the rise. Merchants, importers/exporters, and "stock jobbers" were growing very wealthy. It was becoming more common to find members of the aristocracy with less money than members of the trading class. Those on the rise in the middle class professions were perceived as being more likely to be dissenters than members of the other classes were, and such institutions as the stock exchange and <!--del_lnk--> Lloyd's of London were founded by Puritan traders. Members of these classes were also widely ridiculed as attempting to pretend to learning and manners that they had no right to. Further, these "new men" were not, by and large, the product of the universities nor the traditional secondary schools. Consequently, these now wealthy individuals were not conversant in Latin, were not enamored of the classics, and were not inclined to put much value on these things.<p>Between 1688 and 1705, England was politically quite unstable. With the ascension of <a href="../../wp/a/Anne_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="Anne of Great Britain">Queen Anne</a>, political Establishment figures felt themselves particularly vulnerable. Anne was rumored to be immoderately stupid, and she was supposedly governed by her friend, <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Churchill, wife of the Duke of Marlborough. Although Swift was a Whig for much of this period, he was allied most nearly with the Ancients camp (which is to say Establishment, Church of England, aristocracy, traditional education), and he was politically active in the service of the Church. He claims, both in "The Apology for the &c." and in a reference in Book I of <i>Gulliver's Travels,</i> to have written the <i>Tale</i> to defend the crown from the troubles of the monsters besetting it. These monsters were numerous. At this time, political clubs and societies were proliferating. The print revolution had meant that people were gathering under dozens of banners, and political and religious sentiments previously unspoken were now rallying supporters. As the general dissenting position became the monied position, and as Parliament increasingly held power, historically novel degrees of freedom had brought an historically tenuous equipoise of change and stability.<p><a id="Publication_history" name="Publication_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Publication history</span></h2> <p>The <i>Tale</i> was originally published in 1704, by John Nutt. Swift had used Benjamin Tooke previously when publishing for Sir William Temple, he would use Tooke for both the fifth edition of the <i>Tale</i> (1705) and later works, and it was Tooke's successor, Benjamin Motte, who published Swift's <i>Gulliver's Travels</i>. This difference in printer is only one of the things that led to debate over authorship of the work.<p>The first, second, and third editions of the <i>Tale</i> appeared in 1704, and the fifth edition came out the next year. In "The Apology for the &c.," Swift indicates that he originally gave his publisher a preliminary copy of the work, while he kept a blotted copy at his own hand and lent other copies (including one to Thomas Swift, Jonathan's "parson cousin"). As a consequence, the first edition appeared with many errors. The second edition was a resetting of the type. The third edition was a reprint of the second, with corrections, and the fourth edition contained corrections of the third.<p>The first substantially new edition of the work is the fifth edition of 1705. This is largely the text modern editors will use. It was in this edition that the Notes and the "Apology for the &c." ("&c." was Swift's shorthand for <i>Tale of a Tub</i>: Nutt was supposed to expand the abbreviation out to the book's title but did not do so; the mistake was left) were added, which many contemporary readers (and authors) found a heating up of an already savage satire. In 1710, Swift had the 5th edition reprinted by Benjamin Tooke, but it is substantively the same as the 1705 printing, only with a new setting of the type.<p><a id="Authorship_debate" name="Authorship_debate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Authorship debate</span></h2> <p>Although today very little of this debate remains, questions of the authorship of the <i>Tale</i> occupied many notable critics both in the 18th and 19th centuries. Famously, <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Johnson claimed that <i>A Tale of a Tub</i> was a work of true genius (in contrast to <i><!--del_lnk--> Gulliver's Travels</i> where once one imagines "big people and little people" the rest is easy) and too good to be Jonathan Swift's. In the 19th century, many critics who saw in Jonathan Swift's later work <!--del_lnk--> misanthropy and madness wished to reject the <i>Tale</i> as his. In a way, a critic's view on who wrote the <i>Tale</i> reflected that critic's politics. Swift was such a powerful champion of Tory, or anti-Whig, causes that fans of the <i>Tale</i> were eager to attribute the book to another author from nearly the day of its publication.<p>The work appeared anonymously in 1704. It was Swift's habit to publish anonymously throughout his career. This anonymity was partially a way of protecting his career, and partially his person. (Swift's publisher for the "Drapier Letters" was thrown in jail, and other authors had found themselves beaten by thugs hired by their satirical targets.) As a struggling churchman, Swift needed the support of nobles to gain a living. Additionally, nobles were still responsible for Church affairs in the House of Lords, so his political effectiveness in church affairs depended upon the lords. Swift needed to be at some distance from the sometimes <!--del_lnk--> bawdy and <!--del_lnk--> scatological work that he wrote.<p>The <i>Tale</i> was immediately popular and controversial. Consequently, there were rumors of various people as the author of the work — Jonathan Swift then being not largely known except for his work in the House of Lords for the passage of the <i>First Fruits and Fifths</i> bill for tithing. Some people thought that William Temple wrote it. <!--del_lnk--> Francis Atterbury said people at Oxford thought it had been written by Edmund Smith and John Philips, though he thought it was by Jonathan Swift. Some people thought it belonged to Lord Somers.<p>However, Jonathan Swift had a cousin, also in the church, named Thomas Swift. Thomas and Jonathan were in correspondence during the time of the composition of the <i>Tale,</i> and Thomas Swift later claimed to have written the work. Jonathan responded to this allegation by saying that Thomas had no hand in anything but the smallest of passages, and he would welcome hearing Thomas 'explain' the work, if he had written it.<p>The controversy over authorship is aggravated by the choice of publisher. Not only did Swift use Tooke after the publication of the <i>Tale,</i> he had used Tooke before its publication as well, so the appearance of the work in John Nutt's shop was atypical.<p>Stylistically and in sentiment, the <i>Tale</i> is undeniably Jonathan's. Most important in this regard is the narrative pose and the creation of narrative parody. (Previously, <!--del_lnk--> parody had referred only to poetic compositions.) The dramatic (and we would now say novelistic) pretense of writing as a character is in keeping with Jonathan Swift's lifelong practice. Furthermore, Thomas Swift has left few literary remains.<p>Those wishing to pursue the evidence for Thomas Swift may see the summary in A. C. Guthkelch and D. Nichol Smith's authoritative edition of <i>A Tale of a Tub</i> (1920 and 1958) for <!--del_lnk--> Oxford University Press, where they say, "all the evidence for Thomas Swift's participation in the <i>Tale</i> (is) nothing but rumour and (Edmund) Curll's <i>Key</i>." Indeed, in 1710 Swift had the fifth edition republished by Tooke, and he explained in a letter how the rumor had been started. He said that, when the publication initially took place, Swift was abroad in Ireland and "that little Parson-cousin of mine" "affected to talk suspiciously, as if he had some share in it." In other words, anonymity conspired with Thomas Swift's desire for fame to create the confusion. Afterward, only critical preference seems to account for anyone holding Thomas Swift the author.<p>Robert Hendrickson notes in his book <i>British Literary Anecdotes</i> that "Swift was always partial to his strikingly original <i>The Tale of a Tub</i> (1704). On reading the work again in later years, he exclaimed 'Good God! What a genius I had when I wrote that book!'"<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Tale_of_a_Tub"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Literature', 'Politics', 'Medicine', 'Christianity', 'John Calvin', 'Religious Society of Friends', 'Martin Luther', 'Church of England', 'Bible', 'Thomas Hobbes', 'Charles II of England', 'Glorious Revolution', 'Oliver Cromwell', 'Church of England', 'Great Britain', 'Industrial Revolution', 'Anne of Great Britain']
A_To_Z_Fundraising	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>A to Z of Fundraising</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" /> <meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." /> <meta name="robots" content="all" /> <meta name="keywords" content="children charity" /> <meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" /> </head> <body> <div id="container"> <div id="header"> <div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div> <div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div> <div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a> > <strong>A to Z of Fundraising</strong></div> <div id="col"> <div id="nav"> <span class="boxtop"></span> <ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm" id="selected">Donate & Help</a> <ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child_A.htm">Sponsor a child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/r/Regular_Donations.htm">Regular donations</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/One_Off_Donation.htm">One off donation</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Main.htm">World Orphan Week</a></li> </ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul> <span class="boxbot"></span> </div> <!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS --> </div> <div id="content"> <h2>A to Z of Fundraising</h2> <table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;"> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle"> <a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="clearboth"></div> </div> <div id="footer"> <span id="botright"></span> <p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> \| <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> \| 01223 365589 \| <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p> <p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p> <p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p> </div> </div> </body> </html>	["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.']
A_Wrinkle_in_Time	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="A Wrinkle in Time,1959,1960,1962,1963 in literature,1973,1978,1986,2-D,2003,A Swiftly Tilting Planet" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>A Wrinkle in Time</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "A_Wrinkle_in_Time"; var wgTitle = "A Wrinkle in Time"; var wgArticleId = 562222; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-A_Wrinkle_in_Time"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">A Wrinkle in Time</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Novels.htm">Novels</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left;"> <caption style="font-size: larger;"><i><b>A Wrinkle in Time</b></i></caption> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="295" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Awrinkleintime65.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><i></i></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Author</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Madeleine L'Engle</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Cover Artist</th> <td>Ellen Raskin (1960s editions),<br /><!--del_lnk--> Leo and Diane Dillon (current hardcover)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Country</th> <td><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Language</th> <td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Series</th> <td>Time Quartet</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Genre(s)</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Young Adult, <!--del_lnk--> Science fiction novel</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Publisher</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Farrar, Straus & Giroux</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Released</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> 1962</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Media Type</th> <td>Print (<!--del_lnk--> Hardback & <!--del_lnk--> Paperback)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Pages</th> <td>211 pp</td> </tr> <tr> <th>ISBN</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-374-38613-7</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Followed by</th> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> A Wind in the Door</i></td> </tr> </table> <p><i><b>A Wrinkle in Time</b></i> is a children's fantasy novel by <!--del_lnk--> Madeleine L'Engle, written from <!--del_lnk--> 1959 to <!--del_lnk--> 1960 and published in <!--del_lnk--> 1962 after many rejections by publishers because it was, in L'Engle's words, "too different." The book went on to win a <!--del_lnk--> Newbery Medal, <!--del_lnk--> Sequoyah Book Award, and <!--del_lnk--> Lewis Carroll Shelf Award, and was runner-up for the <!--del_lnk--> Hans Christian Andersen Award. It is the first in L'Engle's series of books about the Murry and O'Keefe families.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Plot_summary" name="Plot_summary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plot summary</span></h2> <div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div> <p>The main character is thirteen-year-old <!--del_lnk--> Meg Murry, who is regarded by her peers and teachers as a bad-tempered underachiever. Her family recognizes her problem as a lack of emotional maturity but also regards her as being capable of great things. The family includes her beautiful scientist mother, her mysteriously missing scientist father, her five-year-old brother <!--del_lnk--> Charles Wallace Murry —a nascent super-genius— and ten-year-old twin athlete brothers <!--del_lnk--> Sandy and Dennys Murry.<p>The book begins with the line, "<!--del_lnk--> It was a dark and stormy night," an allusion to the opening words in <!--del_lnk--> Edward George Bulwer-Lytton's 1830 novel <i><!--del_lnk--> Paul Clifford</i> (though probably more familiar to juvenile readers through <!--del_lnk--> Snoopy's writings in the comic strip <!--del_lnk--> Peanuts). The Murrys are visited by an eccentric old woman named Mrs Whatsit, who has previously made the acquaintance of Charles Wallace. After drying her feet and having a midnight snack with Charles, Meg and their mother, Mrs Whatsit tells an already perplexed Dr. Murry that <i>"there is such a thing as a <!--del_lnk--> tesseract."</i><p>Shortly thereafter, Meg and Charles meet up with Meg's upperclassman schoolmate <!--del_lnk--> Calvin O'Keefe, who, although he is a stereotypical "big man on campus", turns out to be keen to join the children for further encounters with Mrs Whatsit and her rather more eccentric friends Mrs Who and Mrs Which.<p>Whatsit, Who, and Which turn out to be transcendental beings who transport Meg, Charles Wallace, and Calvin through the galaxy by means of tesseracts, which are explained as being similar to "folding" the fabric of space and time. The "Mrs W's" reveal to the children that the galaxy is being conquered by a dark cloud, which is the visible manifestation of evil. Meg's missing father was working on a secret government project to achieve faster-than-light travel through a tesseract, and accidentally wound up on Camazotz, an alien planet inside the cloud of evil. The children also discover that Earth is partially covered by the darkness, although great religious figures, philosophers, and artists are fighting against it.<p>The children travel to Camazotz and rescue Meg's father, who is being imprisoned by an evil disembodied brain with powerful telepathic powers, which the inhabitants of Camazotz call "IT". However, Charles Wallace is mentally dominated by IT, and is left behind when the others flee, tessering through the Black Thing to a planet inhabited by sightless but wise beasts. After a brief period of recuperation, Meg is sent back to Camazotz alone, having been told that only she has the power to rescue Charles Wallace. Confronting IT, Meg realizes that she can free her brother by loving him intensely, because love is an emotion that IT, in its evil, cannot stand. Charles Wallace is freed, and everyone returns home to Earth.<p><a id="Characters" name="Characters"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characters</span></h2> <p><a id="Primary_human_characters" name="Primary_human_characters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Primary human characters</span></h3> <p><a id="Meg_Murry" name="Meg_Murry"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Meg Murry</span></h4> <p><b><!--del_lnk--> Margaret "Meg" Murry</b> is the eldest child of scientists Alex and Kate Murry. Mathematically brilliant but less than adept at other subjects in school, Meg is awkward, unpopular, and defensive around authority figures as well as her peers. She loves her family, especially her brother, Charles Wallace, and longs desperately for her missing father. Meg is unhappy with her physical appearance, particularly her mouse-brown, unruly hair, braces and glasses; and considers herself a "monster" in comparison with her mother. Introduced on the first page of the book, she is the story's <!--del_lnk--> protagonist.<p><a id="Charles_Wallace_Murry" name="Charles_Wallace_Murry"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Charles Wallace Murry</span></h4> <p><b><!--del_lnk--> Charles Wallace Murry</b> is the youngest Murry child, the most extraordinary and the most vulnerable of the novel's human characters. Charles Wallace did not talk at all until he was nearly four years old, at which time he began to speak in complete sentences. Now five years old, Charles can empathically or <!--del_lnk--> telepathically "read" certain people's thoughts and feelings, and has an extraordinary vocabulary. He first appears in chapter one.<p><a id="Calvin_O.27Keefe" name="Calvin_O.27Keefe"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Calvin O'Keefe</span></h4> <p><b><!--del_lnk--> Calvin O'Keefe</b> is the third eldest of Paddy and Branwen O'Keefe's eleven children, a tall, thin, red-haired 14-year-old high school junior who plays on the school basketball team. Neglected by his own family, Calvin joyfully enters the lives of the Murry family, starting in chapter two.<p><a id="Primary_immortal_characters" name="Primary_immortal_characters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Primary immortal characters</span></h3> <p><a id="Mrs_Whatsit" name="Mrs_Whatsit"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Mrs Whatsit</span></h4> <p><b>Mrs Whatsit</b> is described as being an elderly woman wrapped in layers of <!--del_lnk--> clothes. She first appears in chapter one. Charles Wallace, a five year old boy in the book, found her in a <!--del_lnk--> haunted house in the woods, where she has been living with her two friends, <a href="#Mrs_Who" title="">Mrs Who</a> and <a href="#Mrs_Which" title="">Mrs Which</a>. Mrs Whatsit is the youngest of the Mrs W's, and the best of the three at interacting with the children.<p>In chapter 4, the group (Charles Wallace, Calvin, and Meg) witnesses the physical transformation of Mrs Whatsit into a <!--del_lnk--> centaur-like winged being on the planet Uriel. Mrs Whatsit is also revealed to have been a star that sacrificed itself by going nova to destroy a section of the Black Thing.<p><a id="Mrs_Who" name="Mrs_Who"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Mrs Who</span></h4> <p><b>Mrs Who</b> is described as being a plump woman with giant <!--del_lnk--> spectacles. She is seen quoting in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>, <!--del_lnk--> French, <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Greek. She also quotes <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> repeatedly. Mrs Whatsit explains that Mrs Who finds it "difficult to verbalize" in her own words. She is first introduced in Chapter 2.<p><a id="Mrs_Which" name="Mrs_Which"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Mrs Which</span></h4> <p><b>Mrs Which</b> is the oldest of the Mrs W's. She is normally seen as little more than a shimmer of light. She seldom (if ever) fully materializes, but in human form she resembles a stereotyped witch in black robe and peaked hat. She finds it hard to think as a corporeal being. In Chapter 5, she accidentally brings Charles, Meg, and Calvin to a <!--del_lnk--> 2-D world.<p><a id="Proper_way_to_refer_to_the_immortal_characters" name="Proper_way_to_refer_to_the_immortal_characters"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Proper way to refer to the immortal characters</span></h4> <p>Madeleine L'Engle specifically requested her American publisher to use the British punctuation of "Mrs" (with no period following) to designate the characters Mrs Who, Mrs Which and Mrs Whatsit. However, there were several mix-ups regarding punctuation in general, and the books were printed with a period following Mrs. regardless of her wishes.<p><a id="Supporting_human_characters" name="Supporting_human_characters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Supporting human characters</span></h3> <p><a id="Dr._Alexander_.28Alex.29_Murry" name="Dr._Alexander_.28Alex.29_Murry"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Dr. Alexander (Alex) Murry</span></h4> <p><b>Dr. Alex Murry</b> is an astrophysicist, researching the mysteries of the space/time continuum, specifically five-dimensional means of travel between planets. He is also the father of Meg, Sandy, Dennys and Charles Wallace. He has been missing for some time as the novel opens. Not even his government colleagues know where he is. (Note: Dr. Murry's first name is given in a later novel in the series, a fact that was ignored by the writers of the book's television adaptation.) He first appears in a flashback in chapter one.<p><a id="Dr._Katherine_.28Kate.29_Murry" name="Dr._Katherine_.28Kate.29_Murry"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Dr. Katherine (Kate) Murry</span></h4> <p><b>Dr. Kate Murry</b> is a microbiologist, wife of Dr. Alexander Murry, and mother of the four Murry children. She is considered beautiful by the Murry children and others, having "flaming red hair" and violet eyes. Her physical attractiveness, academic and scientific accomplishments give Meg a bit of an inferiority complex. She is introduced in chapter one, and usually referred to as Mrs. Murry. As in her husband's case, her first name is revealed in a later book, and does not match the one given in the television version of the story.<p><a id="Alexander_.28Sandy.29_Murry" name="Alexander_.28Sandy.29_Murry"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Alexander (Sandy) Murry</span></h4> <p><b><!--del_lnk--> Sandy Murry</b> and his twin brother Dennys are the middle children in the Murry family, older than Charles Wallace but younger than Meg. They are 10 years old at the time of this book. Sandy is named after his father, Dr. Alex Murry. Although they are certainly intelligent, Sandy and his twin are considered the "normal" children in the family: B students, good at sports, and well able to fit in with their peers. Of the twins, Sandy is generally the leader, and the more pragmatic of the two. He and Dennys first appear in chapter one.<p><a id="Dennys_Murry" name="Dennys_Murry"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Dennys Murry</span></h4> <p><b><!--del_lnk--> Dennys Murry</b> is the twin of Sandy Murry. Dennys and his twin are usually inseparable, with Dennys generally following Sandy's lead. However, Dennys is slightly less skeptical than his brother with about the strange theories and even stranger adventures of Meg and Charles Wallace. (Note: The name Dennys is a shortened version of Dionysus, but is pronounced the same way as the more common spelling Dennis.)<div class="notice metadata spoiler" style="border-top: 2px solid #dddddd; border-bottom:2px solid #dddddd; text-align: justify; margin: 1em; padding: 0.2em;"><i><b>Spoilers end here.</b></i></div> <p><a id="Locations" name="Locations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Locations</span></h2> <ul> <li><b>Camazotz</b> – A planet of extreme, enforced conformity, ruled by a disembodied brain called IT.<li><b>Ixchel</b> – A planet of muted colors inhabited by sightless creatures.<li><b>Uriel</b> – A planet with extremely tall <!--del_lnk--> mountains, named after the <!--del_lnk--> Archangel <!--del_lnk--> Uriel. It is inhabited by creatures that resemble winged <!--del_lnk--> centaurs.</ul> <p><a id="Major_themes" name="Major_themes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Major themes</span></h2> <p><a id="Religious_content" name="Religious_content"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religious content</span></h3> <p>On the planet Uriel, the <!--del_lnk--> centaur-like beings sing a song which translates (brackets indicates text that is in the book but not in the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>): "Sing unto the Lord a new song, and his praise from the end of the earth, ye that go down to the sea, and all that is therein; the isles, and the inhabitants thereof. Let the wilderness and the cities thereof lift up their voice[,] ... let the inhabitants of the rock sing, let them shout from the top of the mountains. Let them give glory unto the Lord[!]" —<!--del_lnk--> Isaiah 42:10-12a (<!--del_lnk--> KJV)<p>When the Mrs W's reveal their secret roles in the cosmic fight against "the darkness" they ask the children to name some on Earth (a partially dark planet) who fight the darkness. First named is <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> followed by several scientists and artists including <a href="../../wp/g/Gautama_Buddha.htm" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.htm" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Bach</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Euclid.htm" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>. The three women act as guardian <!--del_lnk--> angels but are actually ancient star-beings. They think nothing of living in an abandoned house and pretending to be witches as they have nothing to prove.<p>After the escape from Camazotz, while they are on Ixchel, Alexander Murry tells Meg: "And we know that all things work together for good to them that love God, to them who are the called according to his purpose." —<!--del_lnk--> Romans 8:28 (<!--del_lnk--> KJV)<p>L'Engle's liberal Christianity is unsettling to some. This novel is on the <!--del_lnk--> American Library Association list of the 100 Most <!--del_lnk--> Frequently Challenged Books of 1990-2000 at number 22. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Notable_quote" name="Notable_quote"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable quote</span></h2> <p>"<i>Like</i> and <i>equal</i> are not the same thing at all!" Meg's thoughts on seeing the anti-individualism on the planet Camazotz.<p><a id="Other_books_in_the_series" name="Other_books_in_the_series"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other books in the series</span></h2> <p>L'Engle has written three other books featuring this generation of the Murry family. Listed in order of the internal chronology of the series:<ul> <li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Wind in the Door</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1973) <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-374-38443-6<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Many Waters</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1986) <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-374-34796-4<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A Swiftly Tilting Planet</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1978) <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-374-37362-0</ul> <p><i>See also: <!--del_lnk--> List of L'Engle's works</i> for other related books.<p><a id="Concerning_A_Wrinkle_in_Time" name="Concerning_A_Wrinkle_in_Time"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Concerning <i>A Wrinkle in Time</i></span></h2> <ul> <li><i>Scholastic BookFiles: A Reading Guide to A Wrinkle in Time</i> <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-439-46364-5<li>Chase, Carole F. <i>Suncatcher: A Study of Madeleine L'Engle and Her Writing</i>, pg. 170. Innisfree Press, 1998, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 1-880913-31-3</ul> <p><a id="Audio_book" name="Audio_book"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Audio book</span></h2> <p>An unabridged four cassette audio edition, read by the author, was released in 1994 by Listening Library, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-8072-7587-5.<p><a id="Television_movie" name="Television_movie"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Television movie</span></h2> <p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2003, a television adaptation of the novel was made by <!--del_lnk--> Disney. The movie was directed by John Kent Harrison, and the <!--del_lnk--> teleplay was written by Susan Shilliday. Among the many differences between the book and the movie are different first names for Meg's parents, and implied identification of Dr. Murry's co-worker Hank (a character barely mentioned in the book) as The Man with the Red Eyes. More significantly, religious elements of the novel are largely omitted. For example, the name of Jesus is not mentioned as one who fought against evil; and when Mrs. Whatsit asks Charles Wallace to translate the song of the centaur-like creatures on Uriel, he simply says "it's about joy".<p>The film was subsequently released on DVD. The special features included deleted scenes, a "behind the scenes" segment, and a "very rare" interview with Madeleine L'Engle who discusses the novel.<p><a id="Cast" name="Cast"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cast</span></h3> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Katie Stuart as Meg Murry<li><!--del_lnk--> Gregory Smith as Calvin O'Keefe<li><!--del_lnk--> David Dorfman as Charles Wallace Murry<li><!--del_lnk--> Chris Potter as Dr. Jack Murray<li><!--del_lnk--> Kyle Secor as the Man With Red Eyes<li><!--del_lnk--> Sean Cullen as the Happy Medium<li>Sarah-Jane Redmond as Dr. Dana Murray<li><!--del_lnk--> Kate Nelligan as Mrs Which<li><!--del_lnk--> Alison Elliott as Mrs Who<li><!--del_lnk--> Alfre Woodard as Mrs Whatsit</ul> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Wrinkle_in_Time"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['United States', 'English language', 'Latin', 'Spanish language', 'German language', 'Portuguese language', 'William Shakespeare', 'Bible', 'Jesus', 'Gautama Buddha', 'Mahatma Gandhi', 'Johann Sebastian Bach', 'Albert Einstein', 'Euclid']
A_cappella	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="A cappella,1909,1980s,2007,2 Unlimited,ABC Family,A Cappella (album),Acappella (group),Accompaniment,All 4 One,Amish" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>A cappella</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "A_cappella"; var wgTitle = "A cappella"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "2411"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130243444"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-A_cappella"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">A cappella</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Music.Musical_genres_styles_eras_and_events.htm">Musical genres, styles, eras and events</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p><b>A cappella</b> <a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" title="Music">music</a> is <!--del_lnk--> vocal music or <!--del_lnk--> singing without <a href="../../wp/m/Musical_instrument.htm" title="Musical instrument">instrumental</a> <!--del_lnk--> accompaniment, or a piece intended to be performed in this way. <i>A cappella</i> is <!--del_lnk--> Italian for "in the style of the chapel", and was originally intended to differentiate between <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance_music.htm" title="Renaissance music">Renaissance</a> <!--del_lnk--> polyphony and <!--del_lnk--> Baroque <!--del_lnk--> concertato style. In the 19th century a renewed interest in Renaissance polyphony coupled with an ignorance of the fact that vocal parts were often doubled by instrumentalists led to the term coming to mean unaccompanied vocal music.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Religious_traditions" name="Religious_traditions"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Religious traditions</span></h2> <p>A cappella music originally was, and still often is, used in <!--del_lnk--> church music. <a href="../../wp/g/Gregorian_chant.htm" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a> is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of sacred vocal music from the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance_music.htm" title="Renaissance music">Renaissance</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Madrigal, up until its development in the early <!--del_lnk--> Baroque into an instrumentally-accompanied form, is also usually an a cappella form.<p><a id="Christian" name="Christian"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Christian</span></h3> <p>Present-day Christian religious bodies known for conducting their worship services without musical accompaniment include the <a href="../../wp/a/Amish.htm" title="Amish">Amish</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Old Regular Baptists, <!--del_lnk--> Primitive Baptists, <!--del_lnk--> Plymouth Brethren, most congregations among the <!--del_lnk--> churches of Christ, the <!--del_lnk--> Old German Baptist Brethren, some <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterian churches devoted to the <!--del_lnk--> regulative principle of worship, and the <a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> Christian Church. Many <!--del_lnk--> Mennonites also conduct some or all of their services without instruments. <!--del_lnk--> Sacred Harp, a type of religious "folk" music, is an a cappella style of religious singing, but is more often sung at singing conventions than at church services.<p>Christian a cappella <!--del_lnk--> polyphony began to be developed in Europe around the late 1400s; early works are often identified with <!--del_lnk--> Josquin des Prez. The early a cappellas seem to have had an accompanying instrument, although this instrument doubled the singers and were not independent. By the 1500s, a cappella <!--del_lnk--> polyphony had been fully developed; <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina's works are considered excellent examples. After Palestrina, the <!--del_lnk--> cantata began to take the a cappella's place.<p><a id="Jewish" name="Jewish"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Jewish</span></h3> <p>Traditional <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> religious services do not include musical instruments. The use of instruments is traditionally forbidden on the Sabbath out of concern that players would be tempted to repair their instruments, which is forbidden on those days. (This prohibition has been relaxed in many Reform and some Conservative congregations.) Similarly, when Jewish families and larger groups sing traditional Sabbath songs known as <!--del_lnk--> zemirot outside the context of formal religious services, they usually do so a cappella, and Bar and Bat Mitzvah celebrations on the Sabbath sometimes feature entertainment by a cappella ensembles. Moreover, many Jews consider the 49-day period of the counting of the <!--del_lnk--> omer between Passover and Shavuot to be a time of semi-mourning when instrumental music is not allowed. This has led to a tradition of a cappella singing sometimes known as sefirah music.<p><a id="Muslim" name="Muslim"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Muslim</span></h3> <p>Some <!--del_lnk--> Muslims have also adopted the idiom of a cappella music since traditional Islam prohibits the use of instruments except for some basic percussion. Muslim a cappella songs are called <!--del_lnk--> anasheed.<p><a id="Contemporary_a_cappella" name="Contemporary_a_cappella"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Contemporary a cappella</span></h2> <p>In the modern parlance, the term applies to vocal performers who refrain from performing with any instrumental accompaniment, though some emulate the sonority of instruments with their voices, microphones, and signal processing effects.<p>A strong and prominent a cappella tradition was begun in the Midwest of the United States in 1911 by F. Melius Christiansen, a music faculty member at St. Olaf college in Northfield, Minnesota. The St. Olaf College Choir was established as an outgrowth of the local St. John's Lutheran Church, where Christiansen was organist and the choir was comprised at least partially of students from the nearby St. Olaf campus. The success of the ensemble was emulated by other regional conductors, and a rich tradition of a cappella choral music was born in the region at colleges like Concordia College (Moorhead, MN), Luther College (Decorah, IA), Gustavus Adolphus College (St. Peter, MN), Augustana College (Sioux Falls, South Dakota), and Augsburg College (Minneapolis, MN). The choirs typically range from 40 singers to 80 and are recognized for their efforts to perfect blend, intonation, phrasing, and pitch in a large choral setting.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> King's Singers are credited with promoting interest in small-group a cappella performance in the 1960s. In 1983 an a Cappella group known as <!--del_lnk--> The Flying Pickets had a Christmas number 1 in the UK with a cover of <!--del_lnk--> Yazoo's (known in the US as <!--del_lnk--> Yaz) <!--del_lnk--> Only You. A cappella music attained renewed prominence from the late <!--del_lnk--> 1980s onward, spurred by the success of Top 40 recordings by artists such as <!--del_lnk--> The Manhattan Transfer, <!--del_lnk--> Bobby McFerrin, <!--del_lnk--> Huey Lewis and the News, <!--del_lnk--> All 4 One, <!--del_lnk--> The Nylons and <!--del_lnk--> Boyz II Men.<p>This prominence, as well as a change in the style (voices used as modern rock instruments, including <!--del_lnk--> vocal percussion/"<!--del_lnk--> beatboxing") helped fuel an explosion in <!--del_lnk--> collegiate a cappella—some larger universities now have a dozen groups or more, and the total number of college groups grew from 250 circa 1990 to over 1,000 now. The oldest collegiate a cappella group is <!--del_lnk--> The Whiffenpoofs of <!--del_lnk--> Yale University, formed in <!--del_lnk--> 1909, whose members have included <!--del_lnk--> Cole Porter, <!--del_lnk--> Nicolas Rojas and relatives of <!--del_lnk--> George Bush. Other noted collegiate a cappella groups include Tufts University Beelzebubs, Smith College Smiffenpoofs, the Harvard Din & Tonics, Redhot and Blue of Yale University, University of California at Berkeley's Men's Octet, Straight No Chaser of Indiana University, Off the Beat of University of Pennsylvania, and The Other Guys from University of Illinois.<p>Major movements in modern a cappella over the past century include <!--del_lnk--> Barbershop and <!--del_lnk--> doo wop. Contemporary a cappella includes many vocal bands who add <!--del_lnk--> vocal percussion or <!--del_lnk--> beatboxing to create a pop/rock sound, in some cases very similar to bands with instruments. One such group is <!--del_lnk--> Rockapella, a preeminent example of contemporary A Cappella. There also remains a strong a cappella presence within Christian music, as some denominations do not allow instruments to be used during services.<p>Arrangements of popular music for small a cappella ensembles typically include one voice singing the lead melody, one singing a rhythmic bass line, and the remaining voices contributing chordal or <!--del_lnk--> polyphonic accompaniment.<p>A cappella can also describe the practice of using just the vocal track(s) from a <!--del_lnk--> multitrack, instrumental recording to be <!--del_lnk--> remixed or put onto vinyl records for DJs. Artists sometimes release the vocal tracks of their popular songs so that fans can remix them. One such example is the a cappella release of <!--del_lnk--> Jay-Z's <!--del_lnk--> Black Album, which <!--del_lnk--> Danger Mouse mixed with the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" title="Beatles">Beatles</a>' <!--del_lnk--> White Album to create <!--del_lnk--> The Grey Album.<p>Increased interest in modern a cappella (particularly collegiate a cappella) can be seen in the growth of awards such as the Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (overseen by the <!--del_lnk--> Contemporary A Cappella Society) and competitions such as the <!--del_lnk--> International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella for college groups and the <!--del_lnk--> Harmony Sweepstakes for all groups.<p>A Cappella's growth is not limited to live performance, with hundreds of recorded a cappella albums produced over the past decade. As of December 2006, the Recorded A Cappella Review Board (RARB) had reviewed over 660 a cappella albums since 1994, and its popular discussion forum had over 900 users and 19,000 articles.<p>A cappella is gaining popularity among <!--del_lnk--> South Asian youth with the emergence of primarily Hindi-English College groups. Examples of all-male groups include <!--del_lnk--> Penn Masala in the University of Pennsylvania and Raagapella in Stanford. The first all-female group is New York Masti, most of whose members have been from <!--del_lnk--> New York University. Several similar groups exist in other colleges. These groups have attained significant critical acclaim with their distinct style of mixing songs and applying a cappella to styles of different cultures. <!--del_lnk--> Penn Masala has songs in <a href="../../wp/h/Hindi.htm" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Arabic, <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Punjabi and <!--del_lnk--> Gujarati, with lyrics from different languages in the same song.<p><a id="Emulating_instruments" name="Emulating_instruments"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Emulating instruments</span></h2> <p>People do not just always sing the words when singing a cappella; some also emulate instrumentation by reproducing the melody with their <!--del_lnk--> vocal chords. For instance, "<!--del_lnk--> Twilight Zone" by <!--del_lnk--> 2 Unlimited was sung a cappella to the instrumentation on the comedy <!--del_lnk--> television series <i><!--del_lnk--> Tompkins Square</i>. Another famous example of emulating instrumentation instead of singing the words is the theme song for <i><!--del_lnk--> The New Addams Family</i> series on <!--del_lnk--> Fox Family Channel (now <!--del_lnk--> ABC Family). Groups such as <!--del_lnk--> Vocal Sampling and Undivided emulate Latin rhythms a cappella. Vocal artist <!--del_lnk--> Bobby McFerrin is famous for his instrumental emulation, and <!--del_lnk--> Deke Sharon has taught seminars on how to sing a variety of instrumental sounds.<p><!--del_lnk--> Beatboxing is a form of a cappella music popular in the <!--del_lnk--> hip-hop community, where <a href="../../wp/r/Rapping.htm" title="Rapping">rap</a> is often performed a cappella also.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_cappella"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Music', 'Musical instrument', 'Renaissance music', 'Gregorian chant', 'Renaissance music', 'Amish', 'Eastern Orthodox Church', 'Judaism', 'Beatles', 'Hindi', 'English language', 'Rapping']
Aachen	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Aachen,Circlelrwf,Circlelrwf,1500,1806,1944,1967,1979,1985,1986,1988" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Aachen</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Aachen"; var wgTitle = "Aachen"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "1520"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "129043647"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aachen"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aachen</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="dablink"><i></i></div> <p><span class="plainlinksneverexpand" id="coordinates"><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 50°46′N 6°6′E">50°46′N, 6°6′E</span></span></span><table class="infobox" style="width: 23em;"> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger; background-color: lightsteelblue;">Aachen</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/6/689.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Aachen"><img alt="Coat of arms of Aachen" height="114" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stadtwappen_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Aachen.png" src="../../images/6/689.png" width="100" /></a></td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/6/693.png.htm" title="Location of Aachen in Germany"><img alt="Location of Aachen in Germany" height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Karte_Aachen_in_Deutschland.png" src="../../images/6/693.png" width="130" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <hr /> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries.htm" title="List of countries">Country</a></td> <td><a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> State</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> North Rhine-Westphalia</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Administrative region</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Cologne</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> District</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> urban district</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Population</td> <td>257,089 <small><!--del_lnk--> source</small> <small>(2005)</small></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Area</td> <td>160.83 <!--del_lnk--> km²</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Population density</td> <td>1,599 /<!--del_lnk--> km²</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</td> <td>125-410 <!--del_lnk--> m</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 50°46′ N 6°6′ E</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Postal code</td> <td>52062-52080</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Area code</td> <td>0241</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Licence plate code</td> <td>AC</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Mayor</td> <td>Jürgen Linden (<!--del_lnk--> SPD)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Website</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> aachen.de</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Aachen</b>, <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> <i>Aken</i>, <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> <i>Aix-la-Chapelle</i>, <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>Aquisgranum</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Ripuarian <i>Oche</i>) is a <!--del_lnk--> spa city in <!--del_lnk--> North Rhine-Westphalia, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, on the border with <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> and the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, 65 km to the west of <a href="../../wp/c/Cologne.htm" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>, and the westernmost city in Germany.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/39/3932.jpg.htm" title="Construction of Aix-la-Chapelle, by Jean Fouquet"><img alt="Construction of Aix-la-Chapelle, by Jean Fouquet" class="thumbimage" height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Construction_d_Aix-la-Chapelle.jpg" src="../../images/39/3932.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/39/3932.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Construction of Aix-la-Chapelle, by <!--del_lnk--> Jean Fouquet</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16106.jpg.htm" title="The Roman Architecture style is still kept in Aachen"><img alt="The Roman Architecture style is still kept in Aachen" class="thumbimage" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aachen1566.jpg" src="../../images/161/16106.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16106.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Roman Architecture style is still kept in Aachen</div> </div> </div> <p>A quarry on the Lousberg which was first used in Neolithic times attests to the long occupation of the site of Aachen. No larger settlements, however, have been found to exist in this remote rural area, distant at least 15 km from the nearest road even in Roman times, up to the early medieval period when the place is mentioned as a king's mansion for the first time, not long before Karl der Große, Charlemagne became ruler of the Franks.<p>Since <!--del_lnk--> Roman times, the hot springs at Aachen have been channeled into baths (none of which are still in use). There is no documentary proof that the Romans named the <!--del_lnk--> hot sulphur springs of Aachen <i>Aquis-Granum</i>. The name <i>Granus</i> has lately been identified as that of a Celtic deity, but there is no proof of this since a deity of this name is not attested anywhere. In French-speaking areas of the former <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Empire</a>, the word <i>aquas</i> was turned into <i>aix</i>, hence Aix-la-Chapelle.<p>After Roman times, <!--del_lnk--> Einhard mentions that in <!--del_lnk--> 765–<!--del_lnk--> 6 <!--del_lnk--> Pippin the Younger spent both Christmas and Easter at <i>Aquis villa</i> ("<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Et celebravit natalem Domini in Aquis villa et pascha similiter.</span>") <!--del_lnk--> , which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation, <!--del_lnk--> 768, <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time. He liked the place and stayed there in a mansion which he may have extended, although there is no source attesting any wider building activity at Aachen in his time apart from the building of the collegiate church wrongly described as "the palace chapel" (since 1929, cathedral). Charlemagne spent most winters between <!--del_lnk--> 800 and his death in <!--del_lnk--> 814 in Aachen in order to enjoy the hot springs. Afterwards, the king was buried in the church which he had built; his original tomb has been lost, while his alleged remains are preserved in the shrine where he was reburied after being declared a saint; his saintliness, however, was never very widely acknowledged outside the <!--del_lnk--> bishopric of Liège where he may still be venerated "by tradition".<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 936, <!--del_lnk--> Otto I was crowned king in the collegiate church built by Charlemagne. From then on, most kings of Germany destined to be emperors of the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> were crowned "<!--del_lnk--> King of the Germans" in Aachen over the next 500 years. The last king to be crowned here was <!--del_lnk--> Ferdinand I in 1531.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Aachen remained a city of regional importance, depending on its proximity to <a href="../../wp/f/Flanders.htm" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> to achieve a modest position in the trade in <!--del_lnk--> woollen cloths, favoured by imperial privilege. The city remained <!--del_lnk--> subject to the Emperor only but was politically far too weak to influence the policies of any of its neighbors. The only dominion it held was that over the neighboring, tiny territory of <!--del_lnk--> Burtscheid, ruled by a <!--del_lnk--> Benedictine <!--del_lnk--> abbess and forced to accept all of its traffic to pass through the "Aachener Reich". Even in the late 18th century, the Abbess of Burtscheid was prevented from building a road linking her territory to the neighbouring estates of the <!--del_lnk--> duke of Jülich; the city of Aachen even deployed its handful of soldiers to chase away the road-diggers.<p>From the early 16th century and the advent of the reformation, Aachen preserved not much more than some extended local importance. In 1656, a great fire devastated Aachen. It still remained a place of historical myth and became newly attractive as a spa by the middle of the 17th century, not so much because of the effects of its hot springs on the health of its visitors but since Aachen was then — and remained well into the 19th century — one of the centres of high-level <!--del_lnk--> prostitution in Europe. Traces of this hidden agenda of the city's history can be found in the 18th century guidebooks to Aachen as well as to other spas; the main indication for visiting patients, ironically, was <!--del_lnk--> syphilis; only by the end of the 19th century, rheuma had become the most important object of cures at Aachen and Burtscheid. This explains why Aachen was chosen as site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the <!--del_lnk--> first congress of Aachen (often referred to as <i>Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle</i> in <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>) in 1668, leading to the <!--del_lnk--> First Treaty of Aachen in the same year which ended the <!--del_lnk--> War of Devolution. The <!--del_lnk--> second congress ended with the <!--del_lnk--> second treaty in 1748, finishing the <!--del_lnk--> War of the Austrian Succession. The <!--del_lnk--> third congress took place in 1818 to decide the fate of occupied <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleonic</a> France.<p><a name="18th_century"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">18th century</span></h3> <p>By the middle of the 18th century, industrialization had swept away most of the city's mediæval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution were kept in place (compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his <i>Ansichten vom Niedrrhein</i>) until 1801, when Aachen became the "<!--del_lnk--> chef-lieu du <!--del_lnk--> département de la Roer" in Napoléon's <!--del_lnk--> First French Empire. In 1814, the <!--del_lnk--> kingdom of Prussia took over and the city became one of its most socially and politically backward centres until the end of the 19th century. By 1880, the population was 80,000. The <!--del_lnk--> railway from <a href="../../wp/c/Cologne.htm" title="Cologne">Cologne</a> to <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> passed through Aachen from 1840. The city suffered total overcrowding and deplorable sanitary conditions through to 1875 when the mediæval fortifications were finally abandoned as a limit to building operations and new, less miserable quarters were built towards the eastern part of the city where drainage of waste liquids was easiest. In the 19th century and up to the 1930s, the city was important for the production of railway locomotives and carriages, <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a>, <!--del_lnk--> pins, <!--del_lnk--> needles, <a href="../../wp/b/Button.htm" title="Button">buttons</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, woollen goods, and <!--del_lnk--> silk goods.<p><a name="20th_century"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">20th century</span></h3> <p>Before WWII, Anne Frank, with her mother and sister, stayed at Aachen for a short time. Her grandmother, Auguste Holländer, is buried at the Jewish graveyard here.<p>Aachen was destroyed haphazardly — and in some parts completely — during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, mostly by bombing, in the latest phase of non-surrender by <!--del_lnk--> American <!--del_lnk--> artillery fire and through deliberate destruction wrought by the <!--del_lnk--> SS division employed to keep Aachen out of allied hands as long as possible. Damaged buildings include the mediæval churches of <!--del_lnk--> St. Foillan, <a href="../../wp/p/Paul_of_Tarsus.htm" title="Paul of Tarsus">St. Paul</a> and <!--del_lnk--> St. Nicholas, as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Rathaus (city hall), although the <!--del_lnk--> Aachen Cathedral was largely unscathed. The city was liberated, with only 4000 inhabitants who had disobeyed <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> evacuation orders, on <!--del_lnk--> October 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1944, the first German city to be free from Nazi rule. Its first Allied-appointed mayor, <!--del_lnk--> Franz Oppenhoff, was murdered by a <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> <!--del_lnk--> Werwolf commando.<p>While the <!--del_lnk--> kings' palace does not exist any more, the church built by Charlemagne is still the main attraction of the city <!--del_lnk--> . Apart from the remains of its founder, it became the burial place of his successor <!--del_lnk--> Otto III. The cathedral of Aachen has been designated as a <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO <!--del_lnk--> World Heritage Site.<div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16140.jpg.htm" title="Aachen city hall."><img alt="Aachen city hall." class="thumbimage" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aachen_rathaus_front.jpg" src="../../images/161/16140.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16140.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aachen city hall.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16144.jpg.htm" title="Tree-lined boulevard in Aachen."><img alt="Tree-lined boulevard in Aachen." class="thumbimage" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aachen-SomeBoulevard.JPG" src="../../images/161/16144.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/161/16144.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Tree-lined boulevard in Aachen.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/167/16708.jpg.htm" title="German–Dutch–Belgian border as seen from the town area."><img alt="German–Dutch–Belgian border as seen from the town area." class="thumbimage" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GermanyNetherlansBelgiumBORDER.jpg" src="../../images/167/16708.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/167/16708.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a>–<a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a>–<a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> border as seen from the town area.</div> </div> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17013.jpg.htm" title="The main building of the Aachen Technical University."><img alt="The main building of the Aachen Technical University." class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AachenRWTHmain.JPG" src="../../images/170/17013.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17013.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The main building of the Aachen Technical University.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17084.jpg.htm" title="Typical Aachen street with early 20th century Gründerzeit houses."><img alt="Typical Aachen street with early 20th century Gründerzeit houses." class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aachen-ElegantStreet.JPG" src="../../images/170/17084.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17084.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Typical Aachen street with early <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> <!--del_lnk--> Gründerzeit houses.</div> </div> </div> <p><!--del_lnk--> RWTH Aachen, Aachen University of Technology, established as Polytechnicum in 1870, is a centre of technological research of worldwide importance, especially for electrical and mechanical engineering, computer sciences and physics. The university clinics attached to the RWTH, the <!--del_lnk--> Klinikum Aachen, is the biggest single-building hospital in Europe. Over time, a host of software and computer industries have developed around the university.<p><!--del_lnk--> FH Aachen, <!--del_lnk--> Aachen University of Applied Sciences (AcUAS) founded in 1971,The AcUAS does not only offer the classical engineering education in professions like Mechatronics,Construction Engineering, Mechanical Engineering or Electrical Engineering – in an intensive dialogue with commerce, politics and professional practice new and application-oriented programs have been and are continually developed, which exceed today’s requirements by far.<p>Internationality is also underlined by the range of academic courses on offer: German and international students are educated in more than 20 international or foreign-oriented programs and can acquire German as well as international degrees (Bachelor/Master) or Doppeldiplome (double degrees). The fraction of foreign students meanwhile amounts to more than 21 %.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> German Army's Technical School (<i>Technische Schule des Heeres und Fachschule des Heeres für Technik</i>) is also situated in Aachen.<p><a id="Sister_cities" name="Sister_cities"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Sister cities</span></h2> <ul> <li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Reims, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> January 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1967<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/525.png.htm" title="Flag of England"><img alt="Flag of England" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_England_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/525.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Halifax/<!--del_lnk--> Calderdale, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1979<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/539.png.htm" title="Flag of Spain"><img alt="Flag of Spain" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg" src="../../images/5/539.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Toledo, Spain, since <!--del_lnk--> January 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1985<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="Flag of People's Republic of China"><img alt="Flag of People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Ningbo (宁波), <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> October 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1986<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Naumburg, <!--del_lnk--> Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, since <!--del_lnk--> May 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1988<li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Arlington County, Virginia, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> September 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1993<li><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1448.png.htm" title="Flag of South Africa"><img alt="Flag of South Africa" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg" src="../../images/14/1448.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Town.htm" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, since 1999<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/592.png.htm" title="Flag of Russia"><img alt="Flag of Russia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Russia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/592.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Kostroma, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> June 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</ul> <p><a id="Name_in_different_languages" name="Name_in_different_languages"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Name in different languages</span></h2> <p>Aachen is known in different languages by different names (see also <!--del_lnk--> Names of European cities in different languages).<table class="wikitable"> <tr> <th>Language</th> <th>Name</th> <th>Pronunciation in <!--del_lnk--> IPA</th> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a></td> <td>Aachen</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈaːxən]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Local dialect</td> <td><i>Oche</i></td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈoːxə]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></td> <td>Aken</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈaːkən]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Serbian</td> <td>Ahen/Ахен</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[,ahen]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a></td> <td>Aix-la-Chapelle</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛkslaʃapɛl]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Polish</td> <td>Akwizgran</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[akvizgɾan]</span></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a></td> <td>Аахен/Ахен</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[aːxen]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Catalan</td> <td>Aquisgrà</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[əkizˈɣɾa]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></td> <td>Aquisgrán</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[akisˈɣɾan]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></td> <td>Aquisgrão, Aquisgrana</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˌakwiz'grɐ̃ũ]</span>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˌakwizˈgrɐ̃ːna]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Italian</td> <td>Aquisgrana</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[akwizˈgɾaːna]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a></td> <td>Aquīsgrānum</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˌakwiːsˈgɾaːnum]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Czech</td> <td>Cáchy</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈtsaːxi]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese (Simplified)</a></td> <td>亚琛</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[iɑ tʂʰən]</span> (<!--del_lnk--> PY: yà chēn)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese (Traditional, Taiwan form)</a></td> <td>亞亨</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[iɑ xɤŋ]</span> (<!--del_lnk--> PY: yà hēng)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese (Traditional, HK form)</a></td> <td>亞琛</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑː sɐm]</span> (<!--del_lnk--> JP: aa3 sam1)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Thai</td> <td>อาเค่น</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈtsaːxɪ]</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Arabic</td> <td>آخن</td> <td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈʔɑːχɪn]</span></td> </tr> </table> <p>\|- \| <!--del_lnk--> Bulgarian \| Ahen/Ахен \|<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[,ahen]</span> \|}<p>See also: <!--del_lnk--> Aachen dialect<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachen"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['List of countries', 'Germany', 'Dutch language', 'French language', 'Latin', 'Germany', 'Belgium', 'Netherlands', 'Cologne', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'Charlemagne', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'Middle Ages', 'Flanders', 'English language', 'Napoleon I of France', 'Cologne', 'Belgium', 'Iron', 'Button', 'Tobacco', 'World War II', 'Paul of Tarsus', 'Nazi', 'Nazi', 'Germany', 'Netherlands', 'Belgium', '20th century', 'France', 'England', "People's Republic of China", 'United States', 'Cape Town', 'South Africa', 'Russia', 'German language', 'Dutch language', 'French language', 'Russian language', 'Spanish language', 'Portuguese language', 'Latin', 'Chinese language', 'Chinese language', 'Chinese language']
Aardvark	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Aardvark,1766,1798,1821,1872,Aardvark (disambiguation),Aardvark cucumber,Africa,Afrikaans,Animal,Ant" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Aardvark</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Aardvark"; var wgTitle = "Aardvark"; var wgArticleId = 680; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aardvark"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aardvark</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;"> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Aardvark</b></th> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a class="image" href="../../images/150/15045.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Erdferkel-drawing.jpg" src="../../images/150/15045.jpg" width="200" /></a><br /> <div style="text-align:center"> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center; background:pink;"> <th> <center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center> </th> </tr> <tr> <td style=""> <div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div> </td> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td> <table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;"> <tr valign="top"> <td>Kingdom:</td> <td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br /> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Phylum:</td> <td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br /> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Class:</td> <td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br /> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Order:</td> <td><b>Tubulidentata</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Huxley, <!--del_lnk--> 1872</small></td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Family:</td> <td><b>Orycteropodidae</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Gray, <!--del_lnk--> 1821</small></td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Genus:</td> <td><i><b>Orycteropus</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> G. Cuvier, <!--del_lnk--> 1798</small></td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Species:</td> <td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>O. afer</b></i></span><br /> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr bgcolor="pink"> <th> <center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center> </th> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><i><b>Orycteropus afer</b></i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Pallas, <!--del_lnk--> 1766)</small></td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>Aardvark</b> (<i>Orycteropus afer</i>) is a medium-sized <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammal</a> native to <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>. The name comes from the <a href="../../wp/a/Afrikaans.htm" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a>/<a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> for "earth pig" (<i>aarde</i> earth, <i>varken</i> pig), because early settlers from <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> thought it resembled a <a href="../../wp/p/Pig.htm" title="Pig">pig</a>. However, the Aardvark is not closely related to pigs.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Classification" name="Classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></h2> <p>The <b>Aardvark</b> is the only surviving member of the <!--del_lnk--> family <b>Orycteropodidae</b> and of the <!--del_lnk--> order <b>Tubulidentata</b>. The Aardvark was originally placed in the same order as the <a href="../../wp/a/Anteater.htm" title="Anteater">South American anteaters</a> because of superficial similarities which, it is now known, are the result of <!--del_lnk--> convergent evolution, not common ancestry. For the same reason, Aardvarks bear a striking first-glance resemblance to the <!--del_lnk--> marsupial <a href="../../wp/b/Bandicoot.htm" title="Bandicoot">bandicoots</a>, <!--del_lnk--> bilbies, and <!--del_lnk--> numbats of <!--del_lnk--> Australasia, which are not <!--del_lnk--> placental mammals at all. The Aardvark is now in its own genus, <i><b>Orycteropus</b></i>.<p>The oldest known Tubulidentata <!--del_lnk--> fossils have been found in <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and date to the early <a href="../../wp/m/Miocene.htm" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>. Although the relationships of Tubulidentata are unknown, they are probably <!--del_lnk--> ungulates. They spread to <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <!--del_lnk--> southern Asia during the later Miocene and early <a href="../../wp/p/Pliocene.htm" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> periods. Two other genera of the family Orycteropodidae are known besides the extant one: <i><!--del_lnk--> Leptorycteropus</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Myorycteropus</i>. A <!--del_lnk--> genus from <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> called <i><!--del_lnk--> Plesiorycteropus</i> may be related to the Aardvark.<p>In the past, several individual <!--del_lnk--> species of Aardvark were named; however, current knowledge indicates that there is only one species, <i>Orycteropus afer</i>, with several subspecies; 18 have been identified but most are regarded as invalid.<p><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2> <p>The most distinctive charactristic of the Tubulidentata is (as the name implies) their teeth, which, instead of having a <!--del_lnk--> pulp cavity, have a number of thin tubes of <!--del_lnk--> dentine, each containing pulp and held together by <!--del_lnk--> cementum. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The Aardvark is born with conventional incisors and <!--del_lnk--> canines at the front of the jaw, but these fall out and are not replaced. Adult Aardvarks have only molars at the back of the jaw.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/150/15046.jpg.htm" title="Aardvark"><img alt="Aardvark" height="234" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Orycteropus_afer01.jpg" src="../../images/150/15046.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/150/15046.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aardvark</div> </div> </div> <p>The Aardvark is only vaguely pig-like; the body is stout with an arched back; the limbs are of moderate length. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb')—resulting in four toes—but the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. The ears are disproportionately long, and the tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers. The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which house the nostrils. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on termites. The Aardvark has a long, thin, protrusible tongue and elaborate structures supporting a keen <!--del_lnk--> sense of smell.<p><!--del_lnk--> Weight is typically between 40 and 65 kg; length is usually between 1 and 1.3 m. The Aardvark is a pale yellowish gray in colour, often stained reddish-brown by soil. The coat is thin and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin; the Aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest, so well does it protect them.<p><a id="Behavior" name="Behavior"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour</span></h2> <p>The Aardvark is <!--del_lnk--> nocturnal and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on <a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" title="Ant">ants</a> and <!--del_lnk--> termites (formicivore); the only <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a> eaten by aardvarks is the <!--del_lnk--> aardvark cucumber. An Aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range, swinging its long nose from side to side to pick up the scent of food. When a concentration of <a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" title="Ants">ants</a> or <!--del_lnk--> termites is detected, the Aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of <!--del_lnk--> insects with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. It is an exceptionally fast digger, but otherwise moves fairly slowly.<p>Aside from digging out ants and termites, the Aardvark also excavates burrows in which to live: temporary sites are scattered around the home range as refuges, and a main burrow is used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as 13 meters. The Aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and from time to time moves on and makes a new one. Only mothers and young share burrows.<p>After a <!--del_lnk--> gestation period of 7 months, a single cub weighing around 2 kg is born, and is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks. At six months of age it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next <!--del_lnk--> mating season.<p>Aardvarks can live to be more than 20 years in <!--del_lnk--> captivity.<p>The aardvark's main predators are lions, leopards, hunting dogs and pythons. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs to lash with all fours. Its thick skin also protects it to some extent.<p><a id="Habitat" name="Habitat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Habitat</span></h2> <p>The Aardvark is distributed across most of <a href="../../wp/s/Sub-Saharan_Africa.htm" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>, and although hunted by <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Humans">humans</a> both for its flesh and for its teeth (which are used as decorations), does not appear to be threatened. The Aardvark has become a staple in the diets of some tribes native to eastern Africa.<!-- Pre-expand include size: 18219 bytes Post-expand include size: 4056 bytes Template argument size: 1882 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:680-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061125142129 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardvark"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Mammal', 'Africa', 'Afrikaans', 'Dutch language', 'Europe', 'Pig', 'Anteater', 'Bandicoot', 'Kenya', 'Miocene', 'Europe', 'Pliocene', 'Madagascar', 'Ant', 'Fruit', 'Ants', 'Sub-Saharan Africa', 'Humans']
Aarhus	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Aarhus,Århus.ogg,Suburbs of Aarhus,2002 European Women's Handball Championship,2003,2005,2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships,ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum,Aalborg,Aarhus City Hall,Aarhus Convention" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Aarhus</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Aarhus"; var wgTitle = "Aarhus"; var wgArticleId = 1038; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aarhus"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aarhus</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p> <br clear="all" /> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right; width:300px; border-collapse:collapse;"> <caption style="font-size: larger; margin-left:inherit;"><b>Aarhus, Denmark</b></caption> <tr style="text-align:center; background: #FFF;"> <td colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23096.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="146" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aarhus_coa.png" src="../../images/230/23096.png" width="125" /></a></td> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center; background: #FFF;"> <td colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23097.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DenmarkCityOfAarhus.png" src="../../images/230/23097.png" width="200" /></a><p> <br /> Location in <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><!--del_lnk--> Population<br /> (2006-01-03)<br />  - City<br />  - Metropolitan<br />  - <!--del_lnk--> Density (city/met)</td> <td> <br /> <br /> 296,368 Århus municipality: 468 km²<br /> urban area 739,013. 5060 km² eastern part of region midtjylland 1 jan 2007</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></td> <td>Central European: <!--del_lnk--> UTC+1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Latitude<br /> Longitude</td> <td>56°09' N<br /> 10°13' E</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Aarhus</b> (<span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> Danish pronunciation</span> ) also commonly known by its contemporary <!--del_lnk--> Danish spelling <b>Århus</b>, is the second largest city and the principal <!--del_lnk--> port of <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> situated on the peninsula of <!--del_lnk--> Jutland. Aarhus is the seat of the council of both <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus municipality and <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus County and claims the unofficial title "Capital of Jutland".<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2> <p>Aarhus city holds almost 300.000 citizens, but within a 30 minute drive, there are around 700.000 inhabitants making it the second most populated area in Denmark after the <a href="../../wp/c/Copenhagen.htm" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> area. Aarhus will be a part of the new <!--del_lnk--> Region Midtjylland beginning 01 Jan 2007. Aarhus is the largest city in the region and will be the natural economic and cultural focal point of the area. The new region will hold 1,219,741 inhabitants and Aarhus is expected to change a lot in the coming years because of the influx of people moving to the city from surrounding areas. Aarhus has issued a highrise policy for the city to accommodate new apartments being built for the many new inhabitants. Already about 70 highrises, 10 stories and higher are being planned, and plans for many more are under way. Aarhus is the fastest growing city in Denmark, with approximately 2,500 new inhabitants every year. In 1980, the city had 245,000 inhabitants. Today that number nearly surpasses 300,000. The built up area around Aarhus is more or less from <!--del_lnk--> Skanderborg in the south to <!--del_lnk--> Studstrup in the north - about 40 km from north to south.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23098.jpg.htm" title="Aerial photo of Aarhus from the south. In the centre Aarhus Domkirke is visible."><img alt="Aerial photo of Aarhus from the south. In the centre Aarhus Domkirke is visible." height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:%C3%85rhus-1998.jpg" src="../../images/230/23098.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23098.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aerial photo of Aarhus from the south. In the centre <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus Domkirke is visible.</div> </div> </div> <p>The city lies roughly in the geographical centre of the kingdom on the relatively sparsely populated peninsula of <!--del_lnk--> Jutland with large natural areas and preserves nearby. Forests expand from the south into the city within just a kilometre of the city centre. The city is practically built around the harbour which is predominantly industrial, although a large recreational marina is situated south of it as an extension.<p>While some of the highest points of <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> are close to the city, the general landscape is typically flat with large swathes of farmland interspersed with forests and meadows. The coastline consists mostly of sandy beaches, but stony areas are not uncommon. The immediate coastal regions are not heavily populated due to a national policy of keeping residences inland rather than crowding the coast.<p>The city lies at the junction of <!--del_lnk--> railway lines from all parts of the country in a low-lying, fertile, and well-wooded district. To the southwest (about 21 km by rail), sits a picturesque region that contains the <!--del_lnk--> Gudenå. Several larger lakes extend west from the railway junction of <!--del_lnk--> Skanderborg and rise to heights exceeding 152 metres in the <!--del_lnk--> Himmelbjerget. The railway traverses this pleasant district of moorland and woodland to <!--del_lnk--> Silkeborg, a modern town in one of the most attractive areas in the kingdom.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23099.jpg.htm" title="The "Spanish Stairs" in the city centre by the Århus å."><img alt="The "Spanish Stairs" in the city centre by the Århus å." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aarhus_DK_Gastronimie_am_Kanal_Feb_04.jpg" src="../../images/230/23099.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/230/23099.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The "Spanish Stairs" in the city centre by the <!--del_lnk--> Århus å.</div> </div> </div> <p>Aarhus is a centre for education on the peninsula of <!--del_lnk--> Jutland drawing students from a large area, especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula. The relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities and there are many cafes - around 500 in the city - as well as discoteques, cinemas, museums, amusement parks and various other venues of entertainment. Each year the town hosts several festivals and concerts including <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus International Jazz Festival and <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus Festuge the biggest festival in Scandinavia.<p>One major tourist attraction in Aarhus is <!--del_lnk--> The Old Town (<!--del_lnk--> Danish: <i>Den Gamle By</i>), which is not actually an old part of the city itself, but a collection of historic Danish buildings gathered from all around the country. The old town was recently ranked one of the 3 best tourist attractions in <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> in the same category as <!--del_lnk--> Tivoli and <!--del_lnk--> Legoland. The city also hosts the <!--del_lnk--> Tivoli Friheden amusement park as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Deer Park situated in the large nearby public forest.<p>Architecturally impressive sights include the 13th century <!--del_lnk--> cathedral in the centre of the city; <!--del_lnk--> Århus Domkirke is the tallest cathedral in Denmark, as well as the second tallest in <!--del_lnk--> Northern Europe, being only 1.5 ft shorter than its counterpart in <!--del_lnk--> Trondheim. The <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus City Hall is a uniquely designed building drawn by renowned architect <!--del_lnk--> Arne Jacobsen, located in the city centre. The city hall is included in the national educational canon for culture as an example of important architectural work.<p>There are many museums scattered around the city with <!--del_lnk--> ARoS being the newest and largest featuring daily exhibits of contemporary art. Other museums include <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus kunstbygning also featuring mostly contemporary art, <!--del_lnk--> Frihedsmuseet focusing on the occupation and resistance movement during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Kvindemuseet mainly showcasing feminist history and culture.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23100.jpg.htm" title="The Old Town of Aarhus."><img alt="The Old Town of Aarhus." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Den_gamle_by_2.jpg" src="../../images/231/23100.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23100.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Old Town of Aarhus.</div> </div> </div> <p>Being a comparably large Danish city, Aarhus has received a fair share of immigrants from various other cultures and is as such also home to one of the few <!--del_lnk--> ghettos in Denmark, <!--del_lnk--> Gellerup. The international cultures present in the community are an obvious and visible part of the city's daily life and contribute to many cultural flavours uncommon for the North, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Arabic themed <!--del_lnk--> Bazar West, a market with shopkeepers predominantly of foreign descent.<p>The city has an active and visible gay and lesbian community which the city officially attempts to promote and nurture. The <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus Festuge festival usually includes several exhibits, concerts or events specifically designed for these communities. There are several clubs, discos and cafes aimed at gays and lesbians: Danish D-lite (sports), Diskotek Blender (disco) or Gaia Vandreklub (hiking club) are a few examples. The mood in the city is generally relaxed towards group minorities of varying persuasions and safety and security is generally very good.<p>It is common for tourist brochures and local politicians to refer to the town with the tongue-in-cheek slogan "The worlds smallest big city" reflecting the fact that the city has everything a city needs while unquestionably not a metropolis. Another popular, and perhaps better known phrase to describe the city, is "City of Smiles" - a slogan first coined by the city council in the 1930s as an advertising slogan, and which subsequently is used widely in popular culture today.<p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h2> <p>In the southern-Aarhus Marselisborg Park, the sports centre named <!--del_lnk--> Atletion is located, comprising of <!--del_lnk--> athletics and <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> NRGi Park and indoor sports NRGi Arena. Several sport clubs have their home ground in Atletion, including <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus Gymnastik Forening, the top league football team, and Aarhus GF handball team, the 1960 European Cup runner-up.<p>Aarhus (and especially Atletion) has served or will serve as the host of many sport events in recents years including:<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> 2002 European Women's Handball Championship<li>2005 European <!--del_lnk--> Table Tennis Championships<li>Denmark Open in <a href="../../wp/b/Badminton.htm" title="Badminton">badminton</a><li><!--del_lnk--> UCI Women's <!--del_lnk--> Road Cycling World Cup<li>2006 World <!--del_lnk--> Orienteering Championships<li><!--del_lnk--> 2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships<li>GF World Cup; the world's largest handball tournament for women<li><!--del_lnk--> dancesport <!--del_lnk--> IDSF World Standard 2006</ul> <p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23101.jpg.htm" title="University of Aarhus."><img alt="University of Aarhus." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:%C3%85rhus_universitet.jpg" src="../../images/231/23101.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23101.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> University of Aarhus.</div> </div> </div> <p>The town is home to the <!--del_lnk--> University of Aarhus, <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus School of Business, <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus Technical College and the <!--del_lnk--> University College of Aarhus and several other high-end educational centres. It is possible to receive higher educational levels within many areas, from <a href="../../wp/e/Engineering.htm" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and <!--del_lnk--> dentistry to <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a> and <!--del_lnk--> theology. The educational institutions are key elements of the social life of the city and play a large role in many cultural events throughout the year.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Aarhus is divided into 5 faculties: <a href="../../wp/h/Humanities.htm" title="Humanities">Humanities</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Health Sciences, <!--del_lnk--> Social Sciences, <!--del_lnk--> Theology and <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">Science</a>. There are at any given time approximately 40.000 students in city and 21,000 students at the university with approx. 5,000 new students per year. Every year the university educates some 2,000 masters and another 2,000 bachelors.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23102.jpg.htm" title="The Århus City Hall."><img alt="The Århus City Hall." height="212" longdesc="/wiki/Image:%C3%85rhus_R%C3%A5dhus.jpg" src="../../images/231/23102.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23102.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Århus City Hall.</div> </div> </div> <p>The city council consists of 31 members elected for 4-year terms. Anybody eligible to vote and residing in <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus municipality can run for a seat on the city council. After elections have determined the members of the city council, the council elects a mayor, 2 deputy mayors and 5 councilmen. The current <!--del_lnk--> Mayor of Aarhus is <!--del_lnk--> Nicolai Wammen of the <!--del_lnk--> Social Democrats elected by the city council after the 2005 municipal elections.<p>The city is divided into 6 minor administrative bodies which together constitute the <!--del_lnk--> magistrate led by the mayor and the 5 elected councilmen as political and administrative directors. The 6 magistrate departments of the city are the “Mayor’s Magistrate”, “Social and Employment Magistrate”, “Technology and Environment Magistrate”, “Health and Social Magistrate”, “Culture and Service Magistrate” and “Children and Youth Magistrate” and handle all the day-to-day operations of the city.<p>City council meetings are held every second week and the first part of the meetings are usually open for interested observers, be it tourists or locals. The second part is usually closed for spectators. Aarhus is also the seat of <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus Municipality and <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus County which arguably gives the city some control over a sizable area of its surroundings.<p><a id="Industry_and_business" name="Industry_and_business"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Industry and business</span></h2> <p>The harbour is one of the largest industrial harbours in northern <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the largest in Denmark. The facilities are very modern and handle some 10.000.000 tons of cargo per year. Much agricultural produce is exported, while <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> are among the chief imports. The harbour itself is maintained by <!--del_lnk--> Århus Stevedore Kompagni A/S originally based in Aarhus but currently operating several harbours around the world.<p>The region is a major producer of <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural products</a> with many large farms in the outlying districts. Cattle, pork and grain are the main products with a sizable related refinement industry present. Computer and technology heavy industries are mainly focused in the urban areas with an abundance of small and medium sized IT and service companies dotting the city centre.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ceres Brewery, part of <!--del_lnk--> Royal Unibrew, is based in Aarhus and was originally founded here as well. It is a well-known Danish beer brand exported mainly to <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:502px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23103.jpg.htm" title="Picture from Viking rally at the Moesgaard Museum, Aarhus."><img alt="Picture from Viking rally at the Moesgaard Museum, Aarhus." height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vikings960c.jpg" src="../../images/231/23103.jpg" width="500" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23103.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Picture from Viking rally at the <!--del_lnk--> Moesgaard Museum, Aarhus.</div> </div> </div> <p>The town is relatively old. The bishopric dates back at least from 951, and archaeological findings date back some 1300 years to viking times. The city itself is presumably older than 770 AD, making Aarhus the oldest big city in Scandinavia. The favorable central position of the city within Denmark afforded it trade from <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Baltic countries, the greater peninsula of <!--del_lnk--> Jutland and the communities on the many smaller islands in its vicinity, which meant that trade always had a great significance to the town - a significance which is still true today.<p>The city didn't outgrow <!--del_lnk--> Randers until the late 1800s and <!--del_lnk--> Aalborg remained the largest city on the peninsula until the 1920s. The relatively fast, albeit late, growth of the city can be ascribed to the general tendencies of moving from rural to urban areas during the <!--del_lnk--> industrial revolution. Industrialisation meant that proximity to trade routes became more important giving the harbour city some advantages over other nearby cities as new industries came into existence.<p><a id="The_name" name="The_name"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The name</span></h3> <p>In <!--del_lnk--> medieval times, the city was called <i>Arus</i>, and in Icelandic chronicles, it was known as <i>Áróss</i>. It is a compound of the two words <i>ār</i>, genitive of <i>ā</i> "river" (Modern Danish <i>å</i>) and <i>ōss</i> "mouth" (obsolete in Modern Danish; in Modern Icelandic this word is still used for "river delta"). The city is located on the mouth of the small river, Århus Å.<p>Through regular sound development, Medieval Danish <i>Arus</i> became <i>Aars</i> or <i>Oes</i>, a form which persisted in the dialects of the surrounding parishes until the 20th century. In 1406 <i>Aarhus</i> became prevalent in the written sources, and gradually became the norm in the 17th century. <i>Aarhus</i> is probably a remodelling after the numerous Low German place names in <i>-husen</i>, possibly as a result of the influence of German merchants.<p>The city is mentioned the first time by <!--del_lnk--> Adam of Bremen who mentions that "Reginbrand, bishop of the church of Aarhus (Harusam)" participates in a church meeting in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Ingelham in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>. <p><a id="Viking_times" name="Viking_times"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Viking times</span></h3> <p>The oldest <a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> findings in Aarhus are glass pearls which date to the end of the 7th century. Half buried <!--del_lnk--> Long houses, used both as homes and workshops for the Vikings have also been found.In the houses and the adjoining archaeological layers, combs, jewelry and basic multi-purpose tools have been found that indicate the settlement is from approximately year 900. Digs in the spring of 2005 revealed a so-called city-ditch from the year 850 which might have marked the trade centre upon which the city is built. <p>The finding of six <!--del_lnk--> rune stones in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around year 1000 as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them. <p><a name="1600-1700"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1600-1700</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23104.jpg.htm" title="The city seal from 1421 and 1608"><img alt="The city seal from 1421 and 1608" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:%C3%85rhus_segl_1421_1608_jth.jpg" src="../../images/231/23104.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23104.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The city seal from 1421 and 1608</div> </div> </div> <p>During the wars of the 17th century, it is probable that the city suffered a great deal. Fortifications still exist south of the city as a reminder of the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> imperial campaigns between 1627 and 1629. In 1644, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> taxed the city harshly and between 1657 and 1659, it was occupied by Swedish troops on several occasions. <p>In spite of these and other misfortunes, such as plague and city-wide fires, Aarhus was still quite a significant city in <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> due to its favourable geographical position which was of significant importance for trading. Trade came mainly from the inland of <!--del_lnk--> Jutland but also from <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lübeck, <a href="../../wp/a/Amsterdam.htm" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>. In the middle of the 18th century the trade fleet consisted of approximately 100 ships.<p><a name="1800"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1800</span></h3> <p>In the 19th century, the city gained more independence from the dominance of <a href="../../wp/c/Copenhagen.htm" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>. While it had been the third largest city in Jutland during the early 19th century, its population surpassed <!--del_lnk--> Randers in 1840 and in 1850, <!--del_lnk--> Ålborg, thus becoming the largest city in Jutland and the second largest in Denmark.<p>The city's material prosperity continued to increase as the harbour expanded and the railway network grew. Culturally, it marketed itself as the "Capital of Jutland" and expanded many of its cultural institutions like the national library, universities, the <!--del_lnk--> Aarhus Theatre and hospitals.<p><a id="Sights_and_landmarks" name="Sights_and_landmarks"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sights and landmarks</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Århus Domkirke <i>Tallest cathedral in Denmark'</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Church of Our Lady <i>Large church in Århus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Århus City Hall <i>City Hall of Århus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Aarhus Universitet <i>University of Århus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Statsbiblioteket <i>State library</i><li><!--del_lnk--> The Old Town <i>Open air museum</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium <i>The <!--del_lnk--> Jut music conservatory</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Botanisk Have <i>Botanical garden</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Tivoli Friheden <i>Amusement park</i><li><!--del_lnk--> ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum <i>The main Århus arts museum</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Aarhus kunstbygning <i>Århus arts museum</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Marselisborg Slot <i>The royal castle of Århus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Århus Teater <i>Official theatre of Århus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Musikhuset <i>Music and theatre scene</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Dyrehaven <i>Open air park with deers and wild boar enclosures</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Telecommunication Tower Arhus <i>Concrete tower with guyed mast on its top</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Skejby Sygehus 'The second largest hospital in Denmark<li><!--del_lnk--> Atletion Combinated sport venue</ul> <p><a id="Famous_Aarhusians" name="Famous_Aarhusians"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Famous Aarhusians</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Ole Rømer<li><!--del_lnk--> Jens Christian Skou<li><!--del_lnk--> Bjarne Stroustrup<li><!--del_lnk--> Ole Worm<li><!--del_lnk--> Lene Hau<li><!--del_lnk--> Steffen Brandt<li><!--del_lnk--> Flemming Povlsen<li><!--del_lnk--> Marc Rieper<li><!--del_lnk--> Camilla Martin<li><!--del_lnk--> Kaare Norge<li><!--del_lnk--> Tina Dico<li><!--del_lnk--> Nicklas Clausen</ul> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarhus"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Denmark', 'Time zone', 'Denmark', 'Copenhagen', 'Denmark', 'Denmark', 'World War II', 'Football (soccer)', 'Badminton', 'Engineering', 'Language', 'Humanities', 'Science', 'Europe', 'Coal', 'Iron', 'Agriculture', 'Germany', 'Poland', 'United Kingdom', 'Germany', 'Germany', 'Archaeology', 'Germany', 'Sweden', 'Denmark', 'Norway', 'Amsterdam', 'England', 'France', 'Spain', 'Copenhagen', 'Hamburg']
Abacus	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abacus,ABAQUS,Abacus (architecture),Abacus logic,Abacus system,Addition,Africa,Arithmetic,Bi-quinary coded decimal,Blindness,China" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abacus</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abacus"; var wgTitle = "Abacus"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "655"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130242358"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abacus"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abacus</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Everyday_life.htm">Everyday life</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Mathematics.htm">Mathematics</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p>An <b>abacus</b> (plurals <b>abacuses</b> or <b>abaci</b>) is a calculating tool, often constructed as a wooden frame with beads sliding on wires. It was in use centuries before the adoption of the written <!--del_lnk--> Hindu-Arabic numeral system and is still widely used by merchants and clerks in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> and elsewhere.<div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17702.jpg.htm" title="A Chinese abacus"><img alt="A Chinese abacus" class="thumbimage" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boulier1.JPG" src="../../images/177/17702.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17702.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Chinese abacus</div> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2> <p>The origins of the abacus are disputed; many cultures are known to have used similar tools. It is known to have first existed in <a href="../../wp/m/Mesopotamia.htm" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, and was invented sometime between 1000 BC and 500 BC. The first abacus was almost certainly based on a flat stone covered with sand or dust. Words and letters were drawn in the sand; eventually numbers were added and pebbles used to aid calculations. From this, a variety of abaci were developed; the most popular were based on the bi-quinary system, using a combination of two bases (base-2 and base-5) to represent decimal numbers.<p>The use of the word <i>abacus</i> dates from before 1387, when a <!--del_lnk--> Middle English work borrowed the word from <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from <i>abakos</i>, the <!--del_lnk--> Greek <!--del_lnk--> genitive form of <i>abax</i> ("calculating-table"). Because <i>abax</i> also had the sense of "table sprinkled with sand or dust, used for drawing geometric figures", some linguists speculate that the Greek word may be derived from a <!--del_lnk--> Semitic <!--del_lnk--> root, <i>ābāq</i>, the <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> word for "dust". Though details of the transmission are obscure, it may also be derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Phoenician word <i>abak</i>, meaning "sand". The plural of abacus is often subject to heated debate. The equivocal American dictionary cites the plural as <i>abaci</i> with reference to similar usage with the words Cactus and Fungus. However the equivocal British dictionary cites the plural as <i>abacuses</i> due to the word's Arabic origin. <p><a id="Greek_abacus" name="Greek_abacus"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Greek abacus</span></h2> <p>A tablet found on the Greek island <!--del_lnk--> Salamis in 1846 dates back to 300 BC making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It was originally thought to be a gaming board. Its construction is a slab of white marble measuring 149 cm in length, 75 cm in width and 4.5 cm thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the centre of the tablet are a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semi-circle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them but with the semi-circle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line.<p><a id="Roman_abacus" name="Roman_abacus"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Roman abacus</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17704.jpg.htm" title="Reconstructed Roman Abacus"><img alt="Reconstructed Roman Abacus" class="thumbimage" height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:RomanAbacusRecon.jpg" src="../../images/177/17704.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17704.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Reconstructed Roman Abacus</div> </div> </div> <p>The <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Late Empire</a> <!--del_lnk--> Roman abacus shown here in reconstruction contains eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each.<p>The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives—five units, five tens, <i>etc.</i>, essentially in a <!--del_lnk--> bi-quinary coded decimal system, obviously related to the <!--del_lnk--> Roman numerals. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman ounces.<p><a id="Chinese_abacus" name="Chinese_abacus"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Chinese abacus</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Before the invention of the Chinese abacus, <!--del_lnk--> counting rods, other symbolic methods such as <!--del_lnk--> tally sticks, notches on bones, and the like, were undoubtedly used as a tool for counting and calculation.<p>The <b>suanpan</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Simplified Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans" xml:lang="zh-Hans">算盘</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant" xml:lang="zh-Hant">算盤</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Hanyu Pinyin: <i><span lang="pny" xml:lang="pny">suànpán</span></i>, <i>lit.</i> "Counting tray") of the <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a> is similar to the Roman abacus in principle, though has a different construction, and it was designed to do both decimal and <!--del_lnk--> hexadecimal arithmetics.<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/254/25438.png.htm" title="Chinese abacus, the suanpan"><img alt="Chinese abacus, the suanpan" height="145" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abacus_6.png" src="../../images/254/25438.png" width="247" /></a></span></div> <p>The Chinese abacus is typically around 20 cm (8 inches) tall and it comes in various widths, depending on the application and hand size of the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom for both decimal and hexadecimal computation. The beads are usually rounded and made of a hard wood. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam. The abacus can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick jerk along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the centre.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17705.gif.htm" title="A Chinese bookkeeper using an abacus to calculate his accounts"><img alt="A Chinese bookkeeper using an abacus to calculate his accounts" class="thumbimage" height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abacus_01.gif" src="../../images/177/17705.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17705.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Chinese bookkeeper using an abacus to calculate his accounts</div> </div> </div> <p>Chinese abaci can be used for functions other than counting. Unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient <b>suanpan</b> techniques have been developed to do <!--del_lnk--> multiplication, <!--del_lnk--> division, <!--del_lnk--> addition, <!--del_lnk--> subtraction, <!--del_lnk--> square root and <!--del_lnk--> cube root operations at high speed.<p><b>Bead arithmetic</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Simplified Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans" xml:lang="zh-Hans">珠算</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant" xml:lang="zh-Hant">珠算</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Hanyu Pinyin: <i><span lang="pny" xml:lang="pny">chùsuàn</span></i>) is the calculating technique used with various types of abaci, in particular the Chinese abacus. The similarity of the Roman abacus to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other, as there is some evidence of a trade relationship between the Roman Empire and China. However, no direct connection can be demonstrated, and the similarity of the abaci may be coincidental, both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. The standard Chinese abacus has 5 beads plus 2 for decimals, allows for more challenging arithmetic algorithms than the Roman model, and also allows for use with a hexadecimal numeral system.<p><a id="Japanese_abacus" name="Japanese_abacus"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Japanese abacus</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17708.jpg.htm" title="Japanese soroban"><img alt="Japanese soroban" class="thumbimage" height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Soroban.JPG" src="../../images/177/17708.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17708.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Japanese soroban</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Soroban</b> (<span lang="ja" xml:lang="ja">算盤</span>, lit. "Counting tray") is a Japanese-modified version of the Chinese abacus (<span lang="zh" xml:lang="zh">算盤</span>). The Japanese first eliminated one bead from the upper deck and later another bead from the lower deck in each column of the Chinese abacus, making the Japanese abacus purely for the decimal system. The Japanese also eliminated the use of the Qiuchu (Chinese division table). However, the Chinese division table was still used when there were 5 lower beads. There came the debate of the multiplication table versus the division table, with the school of multiplication table prevailing in the 1920s. The rods (number of digits) usually increase to 21, 23, 27 or even 31, thus allowing calculation for more digits or representations of several different numbers at the same time. On November 12, 1946 a contest between the Japanese soroban and an electric calculator was held in Tokyo. The soroban won 4 to 1.<p>Soroban is taught in primary schools as a part of lessons in mathematics because the decimal numerical system can be demonstrated visually. When teaching the soroban, a song-like instruction is given by the teacher. The soroban is about 8 cm (3 inches) tall. The beads on a soroban are usually shaped as a double cone (bi-cone) to facilitate ease of movement. Often, primary school students may bring along with them two sorobans, one with 1 upper bead and 5 lower beads, the other with 1 upper bead with 4 lower beads. Despite the advent of handheld calculators, some parents send their children to private tutors to learn soroban because proficiency in soroban calculation can be easily converted to <!--del_lnk--> mental arithmetic at a highly advanced level.<p><a id="Russian_abacus" name="Russian_abacus"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Russian abacus</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17710.jpg.htm" title="Russian abacus"><img alt="Russian abacus" class="thumbimage" height="208" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Schoty_abacus.jpg" src="../../images/177/17710.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17710.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Russian abacus</div> </div> </div> <p>The Russian abacus, the <i>schoty</i> (счёты), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire which has four beads, for quarter-ruble fractions). This wire is usually near the user. (Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916.) The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, in order to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually have a colour different from the other 8 beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different colour.<p>The Russian abacus is still in use today in shops and markets throughout the <!--del_lnk--> former Soviet Union, although it is no longer taught in most schools.<p><a id="School_abacus" name="School_abacus"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">School abacus</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17712.jpg.htm" title="School abacus used in Danish elementary school. Early 20th century."><img alt="School abacus used in Danish elementary school. Early 20th century." class="thumbimage" height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kugleramme.jpg" src="../../images/177/17712.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17712.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> School abacus used in Danish elementary school. Early 20th century.</div> </div> </div> <p>Around the world, abaci have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the <!--del_lnk--> numeral system and <a href="../../wp/a/Arithmetic.htm" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a>. In Western countries, a <b>bead frame</b> similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy.<p>The type of abacus shown here is often used to represent numbers without the use of place value. Each bead and each wire has the same value and used in this way it can represent numbers up to 100.<p>The most significant educational advantage of using an abacus, rather than loose beads or counters, when practicing counting and simple addition is that it gives the student an awareness of the groupings of 10 which are the foundation of our number system. Although adults take this base 10 structure for granted, it is actually difficult to learn. Many 6-year-olds can count to 100 by rote with only a slight awareness of the patterns involved.<p><a id="Uses_by_the_blind" name="Uses_by_the_blind"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses by the blind</span></h2> <p>An adapted abacus, called a Cranmer abacus is still commonly used by individuals who are <!--del_lnk--> blind. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they do not move inadvertently. This keeps the beads in place while the user feels or manipulates them. They use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions <!--del_lnk--> multiplication, <!--del_lnk--> division, <!--del_lnk--> addition, <!--del_lnk--> subtraction, <!--del_lnk--> square root and <!--del_lnk--> cubic root.<p>Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is still very often taught to these students in early grades, both in public schools and state schools for the blind. The abacus teaches math skills that can never be replaced with talking calculators and is an important learning tool for blind students. Blind students also complete math assignments using a braille-writer and nemeth code (a type of braille code for math) but large multiplication and long division problems can be long and difficult. The abacus gives blind and visually impaired students a tool to compute math problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a very useful tool throughout life.<p><a id="Native_American_abaci" name="Native_American_abaci"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Native American abaci</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17713.png.htm" title="Representation of an Inca quipu"><img alt="Representation of an Inca quipu" class="thumbimage" height="375" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Quipu.png" src="../../images/177/17713.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17713.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Representation of an <a href="../../wp/i/Inca_Empire.htm" title="Inca">Inca</a> <!--del_lnk--> quipu</div> </div> </div> <p>Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a <i><b>nepohualtzintzin</b></i> in ancient Aztec culture. This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> quipu of the <a href="../../wp/i/Inca_Empire.htm" title="Inca">Incas</a> was a system of knotted cords used to record numerical data, like advanced <!--del_lnk--> tally sticks—but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a <!--del_lnk--> yupana (<!--del_lnk--> quechua for "counting tool"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 an explanation of the mathematical basis of these instruments has been proposed: comparing the form of several yupanas, it appears that calculations were based using the <!--del_lnk--> Fibonacci sequence 1,1,2,3,5 and powers of 10, 20 and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at minimum.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['China', 'Japan', 'Africa', 'Mesopotamia', 'China', 'Latin', 'Hebrew language', 'Roman Empire', 'China', 'Arithmetic', 'Inca', 'Inca']
Abacá	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abacá,How to read a taxobox,Abacá (disambiguation),Banana,Binomial nomenclature,Borneo,British North Borneo,Cellulose,Central America,Conservation status,Cordage" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abacá</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abacá"; var wgTitle = "Abacá"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "2473"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "129003243"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abacá"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abacá</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Plants.htm">Plants</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;"> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th style="background: lightgreen;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><map id="ImageMap_1" name="ImageMap_1"> <!--del_lnk--> </map></span><div style="position: relative;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><img alt="How to read a taxobox" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Information-silk.png" src="../../images/353/35309.png" usemap="#ImageMap_1" width="16" /></span></div><b>Abaca</b></th> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a class="image" href="../../images/176/17698.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Musa_textilis_-_Manila_Hemp_-_desc-flower.jpg" src="../../images/176/17698.jpg" width="240" /></a><br /> <div style="text-align:center"> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center; background:lightgreen;"> <th> <center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center> </th> </tr> <tr> <td style=""> <div style="text-align:center">Secure</div> </td> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td> <table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;"> <tr valign="top"> <td>Kingdom:</td> <td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br /> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Division:</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br /> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Class:</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Liliopsida<br /> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Order:</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Zingiberales<br /> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Family:</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Musaceae<br /> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Genus:</td> <td><i><!--del_lnk--> Musa</i><br /> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Species:</td> <td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>M. textilis</b></i></span><br /> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr bgcolor="lightgreen"> <th> <center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center> </th> </tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><i><b>Musa textilis</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Née</small></td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Abacá</b>, from Spanish "abacá", pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑ.bə.ˈkɑ]</span> (<i>"ah buh KAH"</i>), (<i>Musa textilis</i>) is a species of <a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" title="Banana">banana</a> native to the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, grown widely as well in <!--del_lnk--> Borneo and <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>. The plant is of great economic importance, being harvested for its fibre, called <!--del_lnk--> Manila hemp, extracted from the large, oblong <!--del_lnk--> leaves and stems. On average, the plant grows about 20 feet (6 meters) tall. The fibre is used for making twines and ropes. The plant's name is sometimes spelt <b>Abaká</b>. It was first cultivated on a large scale in <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> in 1925 under the <!--del_lnk--> Dutch, who had observed its cultivation in the Philippines for <!--del_lnk--> cordage since the 1800s, followed up by plantings in <!--del_lnk--> Central America sponsored by the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Department of Agriculture. Before <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, a commercial was begun in 1930 in <!--del_lnk--> British North Borneo; with the commencement of WWII, the supply from the Philippines was eliminated by the <!--del_lnk--> Japanese.<p>Other common names for Manila hemp include "Cebu hemp" and "Davao hemp".<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Composition" name="Composition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Composition</span></h2> <p>The leaves grow from the trunk of the plant, and the bases of the leaves form a <!--del_lnk--> <i>sheath</i> (covering) around the trunk; there are approximately 25 of these, with 5 cm in diameter and from 12 to 25 leaves with overlapping <!--del_lnk--> petioles, covering the stalk to form a <!--del_lnk--> shrub or "false trunk" about 30 to 40 cm in diameter. They grow in succession, with the oldest growing from the bottom of the trunk and successively younger ones from the top. The sheaths contain the valuable fibre. The coarse fibres range from 5 to 11½ feet (1.5 to 3.5 metres) in length. They are composed primarily of the plant materials such as <!--del_lnk--> cellulose, <!--del_lnk--> lignin, and <!--del_lnk--> pectin. After the fibre has been separated, it is sold under the name <!--del_lnk--> Manila, the capital of the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.<p><a id="Harvesting" name="Harvesting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Harvesting</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17700.jpg.htm" title="Bananera, Guatemalan worker trims leaves from abacá plant."><img alt="Bananera, Guatemalan worker trims leaves from abacá plant." class="thumbimage" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abaca_plant.jpg" src="../../images/177/17700.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17700.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bananera, Guatemalan worker trims leaves from abacá plant.</div> </div> </div> <p>The plant is normally grown in well-drained loamy soil, using pieces of mature root planted at the start of the rainy season. Growers harvest abacá fields every three to eight months after an initial growth period of 18-25 months and a total lifespan of about 10 years. Harvest generally includes having several operations concerning the leaf sheaths:<ul> <li>tuxying (separation of primary and secondary sheath)<li>stripping (getting the fibers)<li>drying (usually following tradition of sun-drying).</ul> <p>The fibers can then be spun into twines or cordage.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2> <p>Abacá rope is very durable, flexible and resistant to <!--del_lnk--> salt water damage (for this reason it is often used in ropes, hawsers, lines on ships and for things like <!--del_lnk--> fishing nets . It can also be used to make handcrafted products like bags, carpets, clothing, and furniture. The fibers can also be pulped and then processed into specialty paper such as tea bags, vacuum bags, currency paper, special paper, and more.<p><a id="Scientific_classification" name="Scientific_classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Scientific classification</span></h2> <p>The abacá plant belongs to the <a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" title="Banana">banana</a> family, Musaceae; it resembles its closely related cousin plant, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Musa sapientum</i>. Its scientific name is <i>Musa textilis</i>.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abac%C3%A1"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Scientific classification', 'Plant', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Banana', 'Philippines', 'Sumatra', 'Sumatra', 'World War II', 'Philippines', 'Banana']
Abadan	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abadan,1924,1935,1978,20th century,892,Abadan, Turkmenistan,Abadan County,Abadan Crisis,Abbasid,Airport" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abadan</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abadan"; var wgTitle = "Abadan"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "1934"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "129283251"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abadan"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abadan</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_the_Middle_East.htm">Geography of the Middle East</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <dl> <dd><i><!--del_lnk--> Abadan (film) is also the name of a 2003 Iranian movie from director <!--del_lnk--> Mani Haghighi, as well as the name of a <!--del_lnk--> town in Turkmenistan</i></dl> <div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/177/17715.png.htm" title="Map of Iran (Persia) and surrounding lands, showing location of Abadan"><img alt="Map of Iran (Persia) and surrounding lands, showing location of Abadan" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abadan.png" src="../../images/177/17715.png" width="157" /></a></span></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17716.jpg.htm" title="Arvand river between Abadan (left) and khorramshahr (right)."><img alt="Arvand river between Abadan (left) and khorramshahr (right)." class="thumbimage" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arvand-Iran.JPG" src="../../images/177/17716.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17716.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Arvand river between Abadan (left) and khorramshahr (right).</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Abadan</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Persian: <b><span lang="fa" xml:lang="fa">آبادان</span></b>) is a city in the <!--del_lnk--> Khuzestan province in southwestern <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Persia). It lies on Abadan Island (68 km long, 3-19 km wide, the island is bounded in the west by the <!--del_lnk--> Arvand River and to the east by the <!--del_lnk--> Bahmanshir outlet of the <!--del_lnk--> Karun River), on the <!--del_lnk--> Arvand river 53 kilometers from the <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, near the Iraqi-Iran border. It is the capital of <!--del_lnk--> Abadan County. In 2005, the population was estimated to be at 415,139. The civilian population of the city dropped to near zero during the eight-years Iran-Iraq war. In 1992, only 84,774 had returned to live in the city. By 2001, the population had jumped to 206,073, only to double in the past five years.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2> <p><!--del_lnk--> Beladori (d.<!--del_lnk--> 892) quotes the story that the town was founded by <i>'Abbad bin Hosayn Khabethi</i>, who established a garrison there during the governorship of <i>Hajjaj</i> in the <!--del_lnk--> Ummayad period. An Iranian etymology of the name (from the Persian word "ab" (water) and the root "pā" (guard, watch) thus "coastguard station"), was suggested by <i>B. Farahvashi</i>. Supporting evidence is the name "Apphana" which <a href="../../wp/p/Ptolemy.htm" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> applies to an island off the mouth of the Tigris. The Persian version of the name had begun to come into general use before it was adopted by official decree in <!--del_lnk--> 1935. The geographer Marcian also renders the name "Apphadana" in his writings.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17718.jpg.htm" title="Darkhuien oil field behind Abadan."><img alt="Darkhuien oil field behind Abadan." class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Naturalconvectionplume.JPG" src="../../images/177/17718.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17718.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Darkhuien oil field behind Abadan.</div> </div> </div> <p>Abadan is thought to have originally developed as a port city under the <a href="../../wp/a/Abbasid.htm" title="Abbasid">Abbasids</a>' rule. Legendarily, it was founded by a holy man, 'Abbad. In this time period, it was a commercial source of <a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" title="Salt">salt</a> and woven <!--del_lnk--> mats. The <!--del_lnk--> siltation of the river delta forced the town further away from water; <!--del_lnk--> Ibn Battutah described Abadan as a small city in a flat salty plain. Politically, Abadan was often the subject of dispute between the nearby states; in 1847, Persia acquired it, in which state Abadan has remained since. From the 17th century onward, the island of Abadan was part of the lands of the <!--del_lnk--> Arab <i>Ka'ab</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Bani Kaab) tribe. One section of this tribe, <i>Mohaysen</i>, had its headquarters at <i>Mohammara</i>(present-day <!--del_lnk--> Khorramshahr), until the removal of Shaikh <!--del_lnk--> Khaz'al Khan in <!--del_lnk--> 1924.<div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17720.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="305" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Iran_eraq_war.jpg" src="../../images/177/17720.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17720.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17722.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="304" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abadan_ruin.jpg" src="../../images/177/17722.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17722.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <p>It was not until the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> that rich oil fields were discovered in the area. In 1910, the population had been around 400. The <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Persian Oil Company built their first pipeline terminus <a href="../../wp/o/Oil_refinery.htm" title="Oil refinery">oil refinery</a> in Abadan, starting in 1909 and completing it in 1913. By 1938, it was the largest in the world. To this day it remains a vast facility for refining <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>. The facilities necessitated an equally vast population: more than 220,000 people in 1956.<p>Only a low 9% of managers (of the oil company) were from Khuzestan. The proportion of natives of <a href="../../wp/t/Tehran.htm" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Caspian, <!--del_lnk--> Azarbaijan and <!--del_lnk--> Kurdistan rose from 4% of <!--del_lnk--> blue collar workers to 22% of <!--del_lnk--> white collar workers to 45% of managers. Thus while <!--del_lnk--> Arabic speakers were concentrated on the lower rungs of the work force, managers tended to be brought in from some distance.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1978-the anniversary of the US backed pro-Shah coup d'etat which overthrew the nationalists and popular Iranian prime minister, Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh — the Cinema Rex, a movie theatre in Abadan, Iran, was set ablaze by four Islamic Revolution sympathizers in an attempt to help the cause of Iran's Islamic Revolution. The local Abadan police had taken notice, and became suspicious of Hossein Takbali-zadeh and his accomplices, and had started following the arsonists as they were entering Cinema Rex. The police decided to continue their surveillance and track the group after they left the movie theatre. This incident ended up causing the <!--del_lnk--> Cinema Rex Fire, where over 350 people perished. At the trial, Hossein Takbali-zadeh stated that his three accomplices by the names of Faraj, Falah, and Yadollah had all burned in the fire.<p>In September 1980, Abadan was almost overrun during a surprise attack on Khuzestan by Iraq, marking the beginning of the <!--del_lnk--> Iran-Iraq War. For 18 months Abadan was besieged, but never captured, by Iraqi forces. Much of the city, including the oil refinery which was the world's largest refinery with capacity of 680,000 barrels per day, was badly damaged or destroyed by the siege and by bombing. Previous to the war, the city's civilian <!--del_lnk--> population was about 300,000, but before it was over, most of the populous had sought refuge elsewhere in Iran.<p>After the war, the biggest concern was the rebuilding of Abadan's oil refinery. In 1993, the refinery began limited operation & and the port reopened. By 1997, the refinery reached the same rate of production it was at before the war.<p><a id="Recent_events" name="Recent_events"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Recent events</span></h3> <p>To honour the 100th anniversary of the refining of oil in Abadan, city officials are planning an "oil <!--del_lnk--> museum"<p><a id="Places_of_interest" name="Places_of_interest"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Places of interest</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:452px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17815.jpg.htm" title="Taj cinema in Abadan"><img alt="Taj cinema in Abadan" class="thumbimage" height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tajcinema.jpg" src="../../images/178/17815.jpg" width="450" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17815.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Taj cinema in Abadan</div> </div> </div> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Abadan Institute of Technology was established in Abadan in 1939. The school specialized in <a href="../../wp/e/Engineering.htm" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and petroleum <a href="../../wp/c/Chemistry.htm" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and was designed to train staff for the refinery in town. The school's name has since changed several times, but since 1989 has been considered a branch campus of the <!--del_lnk--> Petroleum University of Technology, centered in <a href="../../wp/t/Tehran.htm" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>.<p>There is an international <!--del_lnk--> airport in Abadan. It is represented by the <!--del_lnk--> IATA airport code ABD.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2> <ul> <li>The Abadan oil refinery was featured on the reverse side of Iran's 100-rial banknotes printed in 1965 and from 1971 to 1973.</ul> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abadan"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Iran', 'Persian Gulf', 'Ptolemy', 'Abbasid', 'Salt', '20th century', 'Oil refinery', 'Petroleum', 'Tehran', 'Engineering', 'Chemistry', 'Tehran']
Abbadid	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abbadid,1023,1042,1069,1091,Abbad I,Abbad II al-Mu'tadid,Abbasid,Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abbad,Africa,Al-Andalus" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abbadid</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abbadid"; var wgTitle = "Abbadid"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "49865"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "126252222"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abbadid"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abbadid</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Ancient_History_Classical_History_and_Mythology.htm">Ancient History, Classical History and Mythology</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p>The <b>Abbadids</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Arabic,<b>بنو عباد</b>)comprised an <!--del_lnk--> Arab <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Muslim</a> <!--del_lnk--> dynasty which arose in <!--del_lnk--> Al-Andalus on the downfall of the <!--del_lnk--> Caliphate of Cordoba (756–1031). Abbadid rule lasted from about 1023 until 1091, but during the short period of its existence it exhibited singular energy and typified its time. The name of the dynasty should not be confused with that of the <a href="../../wp/a/Abbasid.htm" title="Abbasid">Abbasids</a> of <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p><!--del_lnk--> Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abbad (ruled 1023–1042), the <i><!--del_lnk--> cadi</i> of <!--del_lnk--> Seville, founded the house in 1023. He functioned as the chief of an <!--del_lnk--> Arab family settled in the city from the first days of the conquest. The <!--del_lnk--> Beni-abbad had not previously played a major role in history, though they were of noble pedigree, hailing from <!--del_lnk--> Bani Lakhm, the historical kings of Al-Hira. The family also did have considerable wealth.<p>Al-Qasim gained the confidence of the townsmen by organizing a successful resistance to the <!--del_lnk--> Berber soldiers of fortune who had grasped at the fragments of the <!--del_lnk--> caliphate. At first, he professed to rule only with the advice of a council formed of the nobles, but when his power became established, he dispensed with this show of <!--del_lnk--> republican government, and then gave himself the appearance of a legitimate title by protecting an impostor who professed to be the caliph <!--del_lnk--> Hisham II. When al-Qasim died in 1042 he had created a state, which, though weak in itself, appeared strong as compared to the little powers about it. He had made his family the recognized leaders of the <!--del_lnk--> Muslims of <!--del_lnk--> Arab and native Spanish descent against the Berber element arrayed under the king of <!--del_lnk--> Granada.<p><!--del_lnk--> Abbad II al-Mu'tadid (1042–1069), the son and successor of al-Qasim, became one of the most remarkable figures in <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Muslim history. He had a striking resemblance to the Italian princes of the later <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and the early <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, of the stamp of <!--del_lnk--> Filippo Maria Visconti.<p>Abbad wrote <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poetry">poetry</a> and loved literature; he also appears as a poisoner, a drinker of wine, a sceptic, and a man treacherous to the utmost degree. Though he waged war all through his reign, he himself very rarely appeared in the field, but directed the generals, whom he never trusted, from his "lair" in the fortified palace, the <!--del_lnk--> Alcázar of <!--del_lnk--> Seville. He killed with his own hand one of his sons who had rebelled against him. On one occasion, he trapped a number of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the <!--del_lnk--> Ronda, into visiting him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot room of a bath. He habitually preserved the skulls of the enemies he had killed—those of the meaner men to use as flower-pots, while those of the princes he kept in special chests. He devoted his reign mainly to extending his power at the expense of his smaller neighbours, and in conflicts with his chief rival the king of Granada. These incessant wars weakened the Muslims, to the great advantage of the rising power of the <!--del_lnk--> Christian kings of <!--del_lnk--> León and <!--del_lnk--> Castile, but they gave the kingdom of Seville a certain superiority over the other little states. After 1063 <!--del_lnk--> Fernando El Magno of <!--del_lnk--> Castile and Leon assailed him, marched to the gates of Seville, and forced him to pay tribute.<p>The son of Abbad II, <!--del_lnk--> Muhammad al-Mu'tamid (1069-1091)—who reigned by the title of <i>Al-Mu'tamid</i>—was the third and last of the Abbadids. A no less remarkable person than his father, and much more amiable, he also wrote poetry and favoured poets. Al-mu'tamid went, however, considerably further in patronage of literature than his father, for he chose as his favourite and <!--del_lnk--> prime minister the poet <!--del_lnk--> Ibn Ammar. In the end, the vanity and feather-headedness of Ibn Ammar drove his master to kill him.<p>Al-Mu'tamid came even more under the influence of his favourite wife, <!--del_lnk--> Romaica, even more than that of his <!--del_lnk--> vizier. He had met her paddling in the <!--del_lnk--> Guadalquivir, purchased her from her master, and made her his wife. The caprices of Romaica, and the lavish extravagance of Abbad III in his efforts to please her, form the subject of many stories.<p>In politics, Al-Mu'tamid carried on the feuds of his family with the Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions proved himself capable of as much faithlessness as his father. His wars and extravagance exhausted his treasury, and he oppressed his subjects with taxes.<p>In 1080, Al-Mu'tamid brought down upon himself the vengeance of <!--del_lnk--> Alfonso VI of Castile. He had endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the Christian king with false money, but a <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jew</a>, one of the envoys of Alfonso, detected the fraud. Abbad, in a moment of folly and rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned the Christian members of the mission. Alfonso retaliated with a destructive raid.<p>When Alfonso took <!--del_lnk--> Toledo in 1085, Abbad called in <!--del_lnk--> Yusuf ibn Tashfin, the <!--del_lnk--> Almoravid ruler. During the six years which preceded his deposition in 1091, Abbad behaved with valour on the field, but with much meanness and political folly. He endeavoured to curry favour with Yusuf by betraying the other Muslim princes to him, and intrigued to secure the alliance of Alfonso against the Almoravids. Probably during this period he surrendered his beautiful daughter-in-law <!--del_lnk--> Zaida to the Christian king, who made her his <!--del_lnk--> concubine—some authorities suggest he married her after she bore him a son, Sancho. The vacillations and submissions of Abbad did not save him from the fate which overtook his fellow-princes. Their scepticism and extortion had tired their subjects, and the <i><!--del_lnk--> mullahs</i> gave Yusuf a <i><!--del_lnk--> fatwa</i> authorizing him to remove them in the interest of religion.<p>In 1091, the Almoravids stormed <!--del_lnk--> Seville. Muhammad, who had fought bravely, weakly ordered his sons to surrender the fortresses they still held, in order to save his own life. He died in prison in <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> in 1095.<p><a id="Abbadid_Rulers_of_Seville" name="Abbadid_Rulers_of_Seville"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Abbadid Rulers of Seville</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Abbad I, born <i>Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abbad</i>, (<!--del_lnk--> 1023-<!--del_lnk--> 1042)<li><!--del_lnk--> Abbad II al-Mu'tadid (<!--del_lnk--> 1042-<!--del_lnk--> 1069)<li><!--del_lnk--> Muhammad al-Mu'tamid (<!--del_lnk--> 1069-<!--del_lnk--> 1091)</ul> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbadid"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Islam', 'Abbasid', 'Baghdad', 'Middle Ages', 'Renaissance', 'Poetry', 'Jew', 'Africa']
Abbas_I_of_Persia	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abbas I of Persia,1571,1587,1629,Absalom,Afghanistan,Ali Qapu,Allahverdi Khan,Armenia,Artillery,Atelier" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abbas I of Persia</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abbas_I_of_Persia"; var wgTitle = "Abbas I of Persia"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "299824"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130574262"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abbas_I_of_Persia"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abbas I of Persia</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17832.jpg.htm" title="Shah ‘Abbās I at a banquet. Detail from a celing fresco; Chehel Sotoun palace; Isfahan"><img alt="Shah ‘Abbās I at a banquet. Detail from a celing fresco; Chehel Sotoun palace; Isfahan" class="thumbimage" height="145" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Shah_Abbas_I.jpg" src="../../images/178/17832.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17832.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Shah ‘Abbās I at a banquet</i>.<br /> Detail from a celing fresco; Chehel Sotoun palace; Isfahan</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17851.jpg.htm" title="Shah ‘Abbās King of the Persians.Copper engraving by Dominicus Custos, from his Atrium heroicum Caesarum pub. 1600-1602."><img alt="Shah ‘Abbās King of the Persians.Copper engraving by Dominicus Custos, from his Atrium heroicum Caesarum pub. 1600-1602." class="thumbimage" height="356" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg" src="../../images/178/17851.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17851.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Shah ‘Abbās King of the Persians</i>.<br /> Copper engraving by <!--del_lnk--> Dominicus Custos, from his <i>Atrium heroicum Caesarum</i> pub. 1600-1602.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17889.jpg.htm" title="Shah ‘Abbās I and a page.The dedication reads: "May life grant all that you desire from three lips, those of your lover, the river, and the cup". Tempera and gilt; Muhammad Qasim, 1627; Louvre, Paris."><img alt="Shah ‘Abbās I and a page.The dedication reads: "May life grant all that you desire from three lips, those of your lover, the river, and the cup". Tempera and gilt; Muhammad Qasim, 1627; Louvre, Paris." class="thumbimage" height="360" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Shah_Abbas_and_Wine_Boy.jpg" src="../../images/178/17889.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17889.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Shah ‘Abbās I and a page</i>.<br /> The dedication reads: "May life grant all that you desire from three lips, those of your lover, the river, and the cup". Tempera and gilt; Muhammad Qasim, 1627; Louvre, Paris.</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Shāh ‘Abbās I</b> or <b>Shāh ‘Abbās, The Great</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Persian: <b><span lang="fa" xml:lang="fa">شاه عباس بزرگ</span></b>) born on (<!--del_lnk--> January 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1571 - <!--del_lnk--> January 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1629) was Shah of Iran, and the most eminent ruler of the <!--del_lnk--> Safavid Dynasty. He was the third son of <!--del_lnk--> Shah Mohammad.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2> <p><a id="Accession_to_throne_and_war_against_the_Uzbeks" name="Accession_to_throne_and_war_against_the_Uzbeks"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Accession to throne and war against the Uzbeks</span></h3> <p>‘Abbās was born in <!--del_lnk--> Herat (now in <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>). The Savafid empire had substantially weakened during the reign of his semiblind father, allowing usurpations and the inner feuds of the <!--del_lnk--> Kizilbash amīrs, leaders of the Turcoman tribes constituting the backbone of the Safavid army. Furthermore, Ottoman and <!--del_lnk--> Uzbek inroads were harassing the West and Eastern provinces, respectively. In the midst of such a general anarchy, he was proclaimed ruler of <!--del_lnk--> Khorāsān in 1581.<p>In October 1588 he obtained possession of the Persian throne, by revolting against his father, Mohammad, and imprisoning him. He accomplished it with the help of <!--del_lnk--> Morshed Gholi Ostajlou, whom he later killed in July, 1589. Determined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country, he signed a separate peace with Ottomans (1589-90, including the cession of large areas of west and northwest Persia) and then directed his efforts against the predatory <!--del_lnk--> Uzbeks, who occupied and harassed Khorāsān. However, 'Abbās needed some ten years before launch of a decisive offensive: this was caused by his decision to form a standing army. Cavalry was formed mainly by Christian <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgians</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenians</a> and the descendant of <!--del_lnk--> Circassian prisoners (<i>ghulāms</i>, "slaves"), instead of the mistrustful Kizilbash tribal cavalry levies of former times; Persian peasantry formed the infantry. Budgetary problems were solved by bringing back under Shah's control the provinces which had been governed by the Kilibash chiefs, sending the revenues directly to the royal treasure. As governors of the new provinces were appointed mainly the new <i>Ghulāms</i>.<p>After a long and severe struggle, 'Abbās regained <!--del_lnk--> Mashhad, and defeated the Uzbeks in a great battle near Herat in 1597, driving them beyond the <!--del_lnk--> Oxus River. In the meantime, taking advantage of tsar <!--del_lnk--> Ivan the Terrible's death (1584), he had gained the homage of the provinces on the southern <a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, which had depended on Russia till then.<p>He moved his capital from <!--del_lnk--> Qazvin to the more central and more Persian <!--del_lnk--> Isfahan in 1592. Embellished by a magnificent series of new mosques, baths, colleges, caravansaries, Isfahan became one of the most beaufitul cities in the world.<p><a id="War_against_the_Ottomans_and_conquest_of_the_Persian_Gulf" name="War_against_the_Ottomans_and_conquest_of_the_Persian_Gulf"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">War against the Ottomans and conquest of the Persian Gulf</span></h3> <p>A few years later, in 1599, the <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> gentleman of fortune <!--del_lnk--> Robert Shirley and the shah's favorite ghulam <!--del_lnk--> Allahverdi Khan directed a major army reform. The massive introduction of <!--del_lnk--> muskets and <!--del_lnk--> artillery marked a great improvement from former times. With his new army, 'Abbās launched a campaign against the Ottomans in 1602. In the following year he obtained a first pitch victory, which forced them to give back the territory they had seized, including <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. In 1605, following a victory at <!--del_lnk--> Basra, he extended his empire beyond the <a href="../../wp/e/Euphrates.htm" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>; <!--del_lnk--> Sultan Ahmed I was compelled to cede <!--del_lnk--> Shirvan and <!--del_lnk--> Kurdistan in 1611. Hostilities ceased momentarily in 1614 with the Persian Army at its acme.<p>In 1615 he killed more than 60,000 <!--del_lnk--> Georgians and deported a further 100,000 in <!--del_lnk--> Tblisi after a rebellion, the united armies of the Turks and <!--del_lnk--> Tatars were completely defeated near <!--del_lnk--> Sultanieh in 1618, and Abbas made peace on very favourable terms; and on the Turks renewing the war, <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> fell into his hands after a year's siege in 1623. With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island of <!--del_lnk--> Hormuz from the <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a>: much of the trade was diverted to the town of <!--del_lnk--> Bandar 'Abbās which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened to a flourishing commerce with Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and British merchants, which were granted particular privileges. Agents treating with the Westerners were mostly of Armenian nationality. Trades and travel were boosted in all the Empire.<p><a id="Reforms_and_assessment" name="Reforms_and_assessment"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Reforms and assessment</span></h3> <p>'Abbās reign, with its military successes and efficient administrative system, raised <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> to the status of a <!--del_lnk--> great power. Abbas was a skilled <!--del_lnk--> diplomat, tolerant of his <!--del_lnk--> Christian subjects in <a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>. He sent Shirley to <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> in order to create a pact against the Ottomans. According to the <i>Encyclopedia of World Biography</i>,<table align="center" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; background-color:transparent;"> <tr> <td style="color:#B2B7F2;font-size:35px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;padding:10px 10px;" valign="top" width="20">“</td> <td style="padding:4px 10px;" valign="top">His power was more absolute than that of the sultan of Turkey. While the sultan was limited by the dictates of the Moslem religious laws as interpreted by the chief religious leader of the realm, the <!--del_lnk--> Shii Safavids were not so limited. Theirs was a theocracy in which the shah, as representative of the hidden imam, had absolute temporal and spiritual powers. He was called the Morshed-e Kamel ("most perfect leader") and as such could not do wrong. He was the arbiter of religious law. Later, when Persian kings became weak, the interpreters of religious law, Mujtaheds, dominated the religious as well as the temporal scene.</td> <td style="color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:right;padding:10px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="20">”</td> </tr> </table> <p>Mistrusting the once ruling class of the Kizilibash, 'Abbās gained a strong support from common people. Sources report him spending much of his time among them, personally visiting bazaars and other public places in Isfahan.<p>Isfahan became the centre of Safavid architectural achievement, with the <a href="../../wp/m/Mosque.htm" title="Mosque">mosques</a> <!--del_lnk--> Masjed-e Shah and the <!--del_lnk--> Masjed-e Sheykh Lotfollah and other monuments like the <!--del_lnk--> Ali Qapu, the <!--del_lnk--> Chehel Sotoun palace, and the <!--del_lnk--> Naghsh-i Jahan Square. His painting <i><!--del_lnk--> ateliers</i> (of the <i>Isfahan school</i> established under his patronage) created some of the finest art in modern Persian history, by such illustrious painters as <!--del_lnk--> Reza Abbasi, <!--del_lnk--> Mohammed Qasim and others. Despite the ascetic roots of the Ṣafavid dynasty and the religious injunctions restricting the pleasures lawful to the faithful, the art of Abbas' time denotes a certain relaxation of the strictures. Historian James Saslow interprets the portrait by Muhammad Qasim as showing that the Muslim <!--del_lnk--> taboo against wine, as well as that against male intimacy, "were more honored in the breach than in the observance". Contemporary European observers at the Shah's court reflected similarly on prevalent customs. Among them was <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Herbert, the nineteen-year-old secretary to the British amabassador, who later related that he saw "<!--del_lnk--> Ganymede boys in vests of gold, rich bespangled <!--del_lnk--> turbans, and choice sandals, their curled hair dangling about their shoulders, with rolling eyes and vermilion cheeks."<p>'Abbās died in <!--del_lnk--> Mazandaran in 1629. His dominions extended from the <a href="../../wp/t/Tigris.htm" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> to the <a href="../../wp/i/Indus_River.htm" title="Indus River">Indus</a>, even overcoming the Persian borders of pre-Islam times. He is still today a popular figure in Iran, featuring in numerous traditional tales. His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds of tyranny and cruelty, particularly against his own family. Afraid of a coup by his family (as he had done to his father), he locked them up in palaces in order to keep them without knowledge of the outside world. This resulted in weak successors. He killed his eldest son, <!--del_lnk--> Safi Mirza, leaving his throne to his grandson <!--del_lnk--> Safi. It is believed that <!--del_lnk--> Safi Mirza was killed because the Shah had learned the story of king <!--del_lnk--> Absalom who rebelled against his own father as depicted in the illustrations of the Morgan Crusader's Bible which was sent to him as a gift by Cardinal Maciejowski in 1604.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Afghanistan', 'Georgia (country)', 'Armenia', 'Caspian Sea', 'England', 'Baghdad', 'Euphrates', 'Baghdad', 'Portugal', 'Iran', 'Armenia', 'Italy', 'Spain', 'England', 'Mosque', 'Tigris', 'Indus River']
Abbasid	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abbasid,1031,1075,1094,1118,1135,1136,1160,1170,1180,1225" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abbasid</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abbasid"; var wgTitle = "Abbasid"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "49856"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "129582888"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abbasid"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abbasid</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Ancient_History_Classical_History_and_Mythology.htm">Ancient History, Classical History and Mythology</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:502px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17891.png.htm" title="Abbasid Caliphate (Abbasid Khalifat) and contemporary states and empires in 820."><img alt="Abbasid Caliphate (Abbasid Khalifat) and contemporary states and empires in 820." class="thumbimage" height="231" longdesc="/wiki/Image:World_820%281%29.png" src="../../images/178/17891.png" width="500" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17891.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Abbasid <!--del_lnk--> Caliphate (Abbasid Khalifat) and contemporary states and empires in <!--del_lnk--> 820.</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Abbasid</b> (<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: العبّاسيّون, <i>Abbāsīyūn</i>) is the dynastic name generally given to the <!--del_lnk--> caliph of <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, the second of the two great <!--del_lnk--> Sunni dynasties of the <!--del_lnk--> Arab Empire, that overthrew the <!--del_lnk--> Umayyad caliphs from all but <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>. It descended from <a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>'s youngest uncles, <!--del_lnk--> Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. It seized power in <!--del_lnk--> 750 and shifted the capital from <a href="../../wp/d/Damascus.htm" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> to <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. It flourished for two centuries, but slowly went into decline with the rise to power of the <!--del_lnk--> Turkish army it had created, the <!--del_lnk--> Mamluks. Within 150 years of gaining power across <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>, they were forced to cede power to local dynastic <!--del_lnk--> amirs who only nominally acknowledged their power, and had to cede <!--del_lnk--> Al Andalus to an escaped Umayyad royal and the <a href="../../wp/m/Maghreb.htm" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Ifriqiya to independent <!--del_lnk--> Berber entities such as the <!--del_lnk--> Aghlabids and the <!--del_lnk--> Fatimids. Their rule was ended in 1258, when <!--del_lnk--> Hulagu Khan, the <!--del_lnk--> Mongol conqueror, <!--del_lnk--> sacked Baghdad. While they continued to claim authority in religious matters from their base in <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the dynasty's secular authority had ended. Descendants of the Abbasids include the al-Abbasi tribe who live northeast of <!--del_lnk--> Tikrit in modern-day <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Revolt_against_the_Umayyads" name="Revolt_against_the_Umayyads"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Revolt against the Umayyads</span></h2> <p>The Abbasid caliphs officially based their claim to the caliphate on their descent from <!--del_lnk--> Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (AD <!--del_lnk--> 566–<!--del_lnk--> 652), one of the youngest uncles of <a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, by virtue of which descent they regarded themselves as the rightful heirs of Muhammad as opposed to the <!--del_lnk--> Umayyads. The Umayyads were descended from <!--del_lnk--> Umayya, and were a clan separate from Muhammad's in the <!--del_lnk--> Quraish tribe.<br /> The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their secularism, moral character, and administration in general. The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as <!--del_lnk--> mawali, who remained outside the kinship-based society of Arab culture and were perceived of as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Muhammad ibn 'Ali, a great-grandson of Abbas, began to campaign for the return of power to the family of Muhammad, the Hashimites, in <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persia</a> during the reign of <!--del_lnk--> Umar II, Muhammad ibn Ali.<br /> During the reign of <!--del_lnk--> Marwan II, this opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the fourth in descent from Abbas. Supported by the province of <!--del_lnk--> Khorasan, he achieved considerable successes, but was captured (AD <!--del_lnk--> 747) and died in prison—as some hold, assassinated. The quarrel was taken up by his brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu al-'Abbas <!--del_lnk--> as-Saffah, who, with victory on the <!--del_lnk--> Greater Zab River (<!--del_lnk--> 750), defeated the Umayyads and was proclaimed Caliph.<p><a id="Consolidation_and_schisms" name="Consolidation_and_schisms"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Consolidation and schisms</span></h2> <p>The first change the Abbasids made was to move the empire's capital from Damascus, in Syria, to Baghdad in Iraq. This was to both appease as well to be closer to the Persian <i>mawali</i> support base that existed in this region more influenced by Persian history and culture, and part of the Persian mawali demand for less Arab dominance in the empire. <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> was established on the <!--del_lnk--> Tigris River in 762. A new position, that of the <!--del_lnk--> vizier, was also established to delegate central authority, and even greater authority was delegated to local emirs. Eventually, this meant that many Abbasid caliphs were eventually relegated to a more ceremonial role than under the Umayyads, as the <!--del_lnk--> viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role of the old Arab aristocracy was slowly replaced by a Persian bureaucracy.<p><a id="Rift_with_the_Arabs" name="Rift_with_the_Arabs"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Rift with the Arabs</span></h3> <p>The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads. Abu al-'Abbas' successor, al-<!--del_lnk--> Mansur, moved their capital from <a href="../../wp/d/Damascus.htm" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> to the new city of <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and welcomed non-Arab Muslims to their court. While this helped integrate Arab and Persian cultures, it alienated many of their Arab supporters, particularly the <!--del_lnk--> Khorasanian Arabs who had supported them in their battles against the Umayyads.<br /> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:137px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17892.jpg.htm" title="Abbasid coins during Harun al-Rashid's reign"><img alt="Abbasid coins during Harun al-Rashid's reign" class="thumbimage" height="264" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coins_During_Harun_Rashid.JPG" src="../../images/178/17892.jpg" width="135" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Abbasid coins during <!--del_lnk--> Harun al-Rashid's reign</div> </div> </div> <p> <br /> These fissures in their support led to immediate problems. The Umayyads, while out of power, were not destroyed. The only surviving member of the Umayyad royal family, which had been all but annihilated, ultimately made his way to Spain where he established himself as an independent <!--del_lnk--> Emir (<!--del_lnk--> Abd ar-Rahman I, 756). In 929, <!--del_lnk--> Abd ar-Rahman III assumed the title of Caliph, establishing <!--del_lnk--> Al Andalus from <!--del_lnk--> Córdoba as a rival to Baghdad as the legitimate capital of the Islamic Empire.<p><a id="Rift_with_the_Shia" name="Rift_with_the_Shia"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Rift with the Shia</span></h3> <p>The Abbasids also found themselves at odds with the <!--del_lnk--> Shias, since the Abbasids claimed legitimacy by their familial connection to Muhammed. Once in power, the Abbasids embraced <!--del_lnk--> Sunni Islam and disavowed any support for Shi'a beliefs. That led to numerous conflicts, culminating in an uprising in <a href="../../wp/m/Mecca.htm" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 786, followed by widespread bloodshed and the flight of many Shi'a to the <a href="../../wp/m/Maghreb.htm" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, where the survivors established the <!--del_lnk--> Idrisid kingdom. Shortly thereafter, Berber <!--del_lnk--> Kharijites set up an independent state in North Africa in <!--del_lnk--> 801.<p><a id="Loss_of_North_Africa" name="Loss_of_North_Africa"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Loss of North Africa</span></h3> <p>Within 50 years the <!--del_lnk--> Idrisids in the <a href="../../wp/m/Maghreb.htm" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Aghlabids of <!--del_lnk--> Ifriqiya and a little later the <!--del_lnk--> Tulunids and <!--del_lnk--> Ikshidids of <!--del_lnk--> Misr were effectively independent in Africa.<p><a id="Communication_with_Provinces" name="Communication_with_Provinces"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Communication with Provinces</span></h3> <p>The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the eighth century (750-800), under several competent caliphs and their viziers to overcome the political challenges created by the far flung nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it and usher in the administrative changes to keep order. While the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> was fighting Abbasid rule in <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Anatolia, military operations during this period were minimal, as the caliphate focused on internal matters as local governors, who, as a matter of prodecure, operated mostly independently of central authority. The problem that the caliphs faced was that these governors had begun to exert greater autonomy, using their increasing power to make their positions hereditary.<p><a id="Golden_Age" name="Golden_Age"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Golden Age</span></h3> <p>At the same time, the Abbasids faced challenges closer to home. Former supporters of the Abbasids had broken away to create a separate kingdom around Khorosan in northern Persia. <!--del_lnk--> Harun al-Rashid (<!--del_lnk--> 786–<!--del_lnk--> 809) turned on the <!--del_lnk--> Barmakids, a Persian family that had grown significantly in power within the administration of the state.<p>The time of <!--del_lnk--> Harun al-Rashid is reckoned the "<!--del_lnk--> Golden Age" of the Abbasids. He was succeeded by his son, <!--del_lnk--> al-Mamun, during whose reign increased discontent brewed in the provinces, leading up to the fracturing of the caliphate. In Persia, the cultural battle with the Arabs that had been ever pervasive renewed, and Abbasid control began to give way to local leaders challenging the authority of the caliphate.<p><a id="The_Mameluks" name="The_Mameluks"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">The Mameluks</span></h3> <p>In the 9th century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, drawn mostly from Turkish slaves, known as <!--del_lnk--> Mamluks, with some <!--del_lnk--> Slavs and Berbers participating as well. This force, created in the reign of <!--del_lnk--> al-Ma'mun (<!--del_lnk--> 813–<!--del_lnk--> 833), and his brother and successor <!--del_lnk--> al-Mu'tasim (<!--del_lnk--> 833–<!--del_lnk--> 842), prevented the further distintegration of the empire.<br /> The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to deal with domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to <!--del_lnk--> Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until <!--del_lnk--> al-Radi (<!--del_lnk--> 934–<!--del_lnk--> 941) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Mahommed bin Raik. In the following years, the <!--del_lnk--> Buwayhids, who were <!--del_lnk--> Shi'ites, seized power over Baghdad, ruling central Iraq for more than a century.<p><a id="Fracture_of_Central_Authority" name="Fracture_of_Central_Authority"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Fracture of Central Authority</span></h3> <p>Even by 820 CE, the <!--del_lnk--> Samanids had begun the process of exercising independent authority in <!--del_lnk--> Transoxiana and <!--del_lnk--> Greater Khorasan, the Shia <!--del_lnk--> Hamdanids in Northern Syria, and the successive <!--del_lnk--> Tahirid, <!--del_lnk--> Alid and <!--del_lnk--> Saffarid dynasties of Iran. By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control to the growing Persian faction known as the Buwayhids that replaced the Samanids as the Buwayhids were quietly able to assume real power in the bureaucracy at Baghdad.<br /> All these autonomous provinces slowly took on the charecteristic of <!--del_lnk--> de facto states with hereditary rulers, armies, and revenues and operated under only nominal caliphal suzeranity, which may not necessarily be reflected by any contribution to the treasury. The eventual rise of the <!--del_lnk--> Ghaznavid Empire and the <!--del_lnk--> Seljuks to displace all these factions marked the end of Abbasid political dominion over the area.<p><a id="Loss_of_Power" name="Loss_of_Power"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Loss of Power</span></h3> <p><!--del_lnk--> Mahmud of Ghazni proclaimed the title of <a href="../../wp/s/Sultan.htm" title="Sultan">Sultan</a> vs. the Emir that had been in more common usage prior, signifying the <!--del_lnk--> Ghaznavid Empire's independence from Caliphial authority even as a matter of form. By the 11th century, this was demonstrated by no longer mentioning the caliphs name in the Friday <!--del_lnk--> Khutba, or by striking it off from their coinage by the <!--del_lnk--> Seljuks, <!--del_lnk--> Sultanate of Rum, <!--del_lnk--> Khwarezmshahs, <!--del_lnk--> Almoravids etc. The <!--del_lnk--> Fatimids contested the Abbassids for even the titluar authority. The Buwayhids were then defeated in the mid-11th century by enlisting the aid of the Seljuks under <!--del_lnk--> Toghril Beg. The Seljuks however then themselves took over defacto lordship of the empire, and their leader bestowed the title by the caliph of the Sultan of the East and the West, reflecting his power, and exerted influence power over the Abbasids as a matter of form by publicly pledging allegiance to them leaving the Caliph in control of little actual territory beyond Baghdad.<p><a id="Learning_under_the_Abbasid_dynasty" name="Learning_under_the_Abbasid_dynasty"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Learning under the Abbasid dynasty</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17894.jpg.htm" title="Julius Köckert's painting of Harun al-Rashid receiving the delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates diplomatic contacts between their respective domains."><img alt="Julius Köckert's painting of Harun al-Rashid receiving the delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates diplomatic contacts between their respective domains." class="thumbimage" height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg" src="../../images/178/17894.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17894.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Julius Köckert's painting of Harun al-Rashid receiving the delegation of <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> demonstrates diplomatic contacts between their respective domains.</div> </div> </div> <p>The reigns of <!--del_lnk--> Harun al-Rashid (<!--del_lnk--> 786–<!--del_lnk--> 809) and his successors fostered an age of great intellectual achievement. In large part, this was the result of the schismatic forces that had undermined the <!--del_lnk--> Umayyad regime, which relied on the assertion of the superiority of Arab culture as part of its claim to legitimacy, and the Abbasids' welcoming of support from non-Arab Muslims. It is well established that the Abbasid caliphs modeled their administration on that of the <!--del_lnk--> Sassanids. One Abbasid caliph is even quoted as saying:<p> <br /> <dl> <dd><i>"The Persians ruled for a thousand years and did not need us Arabs even for a day. We have been ruling them for one or two centuries and cannot do without them for an hour."</i></dl> <p> <br /> A number of medieval thinkers and scientists living under Islamic rule played a role in transmitting <!--del_lnk--> Greek, <!--del_lnk--> Hindu, and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the Christian West. They contributed to making <a href="../../wp/a/Aristotle.htm" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> known in Christian Europe. In addition, the period saw the recovery of much of the Alexandrian mathematical, geometric, and astronomical knowledge, such as that of <a href="../../wp/e/Euclid.htm" title="Euclid">Euclides</a> and Claudius <a href="../../wp/p/Ptolemy.htm" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>. These recovered mathematical methods were later enhanced and developed by other Islamic scholars, notably by <!--del_lnk--> Al-Biruni, and <!--del_lnk--> Abu Nasr Mansur.<br /> Medicine was an area of science that advanced particularly during the Abbasids' reign. During the ninth century, Baghdad contained over 800 doctors, and great discoveries in the understanding of anatomy and diseases were made. The clinical distinction between measles and smallpox was discovered during this time. Famous scientist <!--del_lnk--> Ibn Sina (known to the West as <!--del_lnk--> Avicenna) produced treatises and works that summarized the vast amount of knowledge that scientists had accumulated, and is often known as the father of modern medicine. The work of him and many others directly influenced the research of European scientists during the Renaissance and even later.<br /> Three speculative thinkers, <!--del_lnk--> al-Kindi, <!--del_lnk--> al-Farabi, and <!--del_lnk--> Avicenna, combined <!--del_lnk--> Aristotelianism and <!--del_lnk--> Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam.<p><a id="The_end_of_the_dynasty" name="The_end_of_the_dynasty"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">The end of the dynasty</span></h2> <p><!--del_lnk--> Hulagu Khan <!--del_lnk--> sacked Baghdad on (<!--del_lnk--> February 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1258), causing great loss of life. Hulagu, and many others feared the ensuing a shock of nature, if the blood of <!--del_lnk--> Al-Musta'sim, the last reigning Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad, a direct descendent of Muhammads's uncle, was spilled. Despite having taken advice from Learned Shiites of Persia that no such calamity had happened after the deaths of John the Baptist, Jesus Christ, or the Shiite saint Hosein, as a precaution, Hulagu had Al-Musta'sim wrapped in a carpet and then trodden to death by horses on <!--del_lnk--> February 20, 1258. Al-Musta'sim family was also executed, with the lone exceptions of his youngest son and a daughter who were sent to Mongolia to be slaves in the harem of Hulagu.<br /> The Abbasids still maintained a feeble show of authority, confined to religious matters, in <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> under the <!--del_lnk--> Mamluks, but the dynasty finally disappeared with <!--del_lnk--> Al-Mutawakkil III, who was carried away as a prisoner of the palace to <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople by <!--del_lnk--> Selim I where he only had ceremonial role, until his death when the Caliphate title was transferred to <!--del_lnk--> Selim I.<p><a id="Abbasid_Monarchs_of_Baghdad" name="Abbasid_Monarchs_of_Baghdad"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Abbasid Monarchs of Baghdad</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17901.gif.htm" title="An overview of the geneological history of the Abbasids. The names in bold are those of caliphs."><img alt="An overview of the geneological history of the Abbasids. The names in bold are those of caliphs." class="thumbimage" height="212" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abbasid_gen.gif" src="../../images/179/17901.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17901.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An overview of the geneological history of the Abbasids. The names in bold are those of <!--del_lnk--> caliphs.</div> </div> </div> <ul> <li>Abu'l Abbas <!--del_lnk--> As-Saffah <!--del_lnk--> 750 - <!--del_lnk--> 754<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mansur <!--del_lnk--> 754 - <!--del_lnk--> 775<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mahdi <!--del_lnk--> 775 - <!--del_lnk--> 785<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Hadi <!--del_lnk--> 785 - <!--del_lnk--> 786<li><!--del_lnk--> Harun al-Rashid <!--del_lnk--> 786 - <!--del_lnk--> 809<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Amin <!--del_lnk--> 809 - <!--del_lnk--> 813<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Ma'mun <!--del_lnk--> 813 - <!--del_lnk--> 833<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mu'tasim <!--del_lnk--> 833 - <!--del_lnk--> 842<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Wathiq <!--del_lnk--> 842 - <!--del_lnk--> 847<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mutawakkil <!--del_lnk--> 847 - <!--del_lnk--> 861<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Muntasir <!--del_lnk--> 861 - <!--del_lnk--> 862<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Musta'in <!--del_lnk--> 862 - <!--del_lnk--> 866<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mu'tazz <!--del_lnk--> 866 - <!--del_lnk--> 869<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Muhtadi <!--del_lnk--> 869 - <!--del_lnk--> 870<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mu'tamid <!--del_lnk--> 870 - <!--del_lnk--> 892<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mu'tadid <!--del_lnk--> 892 - <!--del_lnk--> 902<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Muktafi <!--del_lnk--> 902 - <!--del_lnk--> 908<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Muqtadir <!--del_lnk--> 908 - <!--del_lnk--> 932<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Qahir <!--del_lnk--> 932 - <!--del_lnk--> 934<li><!--del_lnk--> Ar-Radi <!--del_lnk--> 934 - <!--del_lnk--> 940<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Muttaqi <!--del_lnk--> 940 - <!--del_lnk--> 944<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustakfi <!--del_lnk--> 944 - <!--del_lnk--> 946<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Muti <!--del_lnk--> 946 - <!--del_lnk--> 974<li><!--del_lnk--> At-Ta'i <!--del_lnk--> 974 - <!--del_lnk--> 991<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Qadir <!--del_lnk--> 991 - <!--del_lnk--> 1031<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Qa'im <!--del_lnk--> 1031 - <!--del_lnk--> 1075<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Muqtadi <!--del_lnk--> 1075 - <!--del_lnk--> 1094<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustazhir <!--del_lnk--> 1094 - <!--del_lnk--> 1118<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustarshid <!--del_lnk--> 1118 - <!--del_lnk--> 1135<li><!--del_lnk--> Ar-Rashid <!--del_lnk--> 1135 - <!--del_lnk--> 1136<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Muqtafi <!--del_lnk--> 1136 - <!--del_lnk--> 1160<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustanjid <!--del_lnk--> 1160 - <!--del_lnk--> 1170<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustadi <!--del_lnk--> 1170 - <!--del_lnk--> 1180<li><!--del_lnk--> An-Nasir <!--del_lnk--> 1180 - <!--del_lnk--> 1225<li><!--del_lnk--> Az-Zahir <!--del_lnk--> 1225 - <!--del_lnk--> 1226<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustansir <!--del_lnk--> 1226 - <!--del_lnk--> 1242<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Musta'sim <!--del_lnk--> 1242 - <!--del_lnk--> 1258</ul> <p><a id="Abbasid_Monarchs_on_behalf_of_Mamluk_Sultans_of_Cairo" name="Abbasid_Monarchs_on_behalf_of_Mamluk_Sultans_of_Cairo"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Abbasid Monarchs on behalf of Mamluk Sultans of Cairo</span></h2> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustansir <!--del_lnk--> 1261<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Hakim I (Cairo) <!--del_lnk--> 1262-<!--del_lnk--> 1302<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustakfi I of Cairo <!--del_lnk--> 1303-<!--del_lnk--> 1340<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Wathiq I <!--del_lnk--> 1340-<!--del_lnk--> 1341<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Hakim II <!--del_lnk--> 1341-<!--del_lnk--> 1352<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mu'tadid I <!--del_lnk--> 1352-<!--del_lnk--> 1362<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mutawakkil I <!--del_lnk--> 1362-<!--del_lnk--> 1383<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Wathiq II <!--del_lnk--> 1383-<!--del_lnk--> 1386<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mu'tasim <!--del_lnk--> 1386-<!--del_lnk--> 1389<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mutawakkil I (restored) 1389-<!--del_lnk--> 1406<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Musta'in <!--del_lnk--> 1406-<!--del_lnk--> 1414<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mu'tadid II <!--del_lnk--> 1414-<!--del_lnk--> 1441<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustakfi II <!--del_lnk--> 1441-<!--del_lnk--> 1451<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Qa'im <!--del_lnk--> 1451-<!--del_lnk--> 1455<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustanjid <!--del_lnk--> 1455-<!--del_lnk--> 1479<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mutawakkil II <!--del_lnk--> 1479-<!--del_lnk--> 1497<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mustamsik <!--del_lnk--> 1497-<!--del_lnk--> 1508<li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Mutawakkil III <!--del_lnk--> 1508-<!--del_lnk--> 1517</ul> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Arabic language', 'Baghdad', 'Spain', 'Muhammad', 'Damascus', 'Baghdad', 'Iran', 'Maghreb', 'Egypt', 'Iraq', 'Muhammad', 'Iran', 'Baghdad', 'Damascus', 'Baghdad', 'Mecca', 'Maghreb', 'Maghreb', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Syria', 'Sultan', 'Charlemagne', 'Aristotle', 'Euclid', 'Ptolemy', 'Egypt']
Abbey	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abbey,Christianity,Christianity,1080,1098,10th century,1105,1116,1119,1140,1245" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abbey</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abbey"; var wgTitle = "Abbey"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "1315"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130089605"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abbey"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abbey</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_15001750.htm">British History 1500-1750</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Religious_movements_traditions_and_organizations.htm">Religious movements, traditions and organizations</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p>An <b>abbey</b> (from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>abbatia,</i> which is derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Syriac <i>abba,</i> "father"), is a <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <b><!--del_lnk--> monastery</b> or <b>convent</b>, under the government of an <a href="../../wp/a/Abbot.htm" title="Abbot">Abbot</a> or an <!--del_lnk--> Abbess, who serves as the spiritual father or mother of the community.<p>Some cities were ruled by heads of a certain abbey. For more information, see <!--del_lnk--> abbey-principality.<p>A <b>nunnery</b> is a convent of nuns. The first nunnery in England was built at <!--del_lnk--> Folkestone in about 635 by Osyth, daughter of Redwald.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2> <p>The earliest known Christian monastic communities (see <!--del_lnk--> Monasticism) consisted of groups of cells or huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the house of some hermit or anchorite famous for holiness or singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement. Such communities were not an invention of Christianity. The example had been already set in part by the <!--del_lnk--> Essenes in <!--del_lnk--> Judea and perhaps by the <!--del_lnk--> Therapeutae in <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<p>In the earliest age of Christian <!--del_lnk--> monasticism the <!--del_lnk--> ascetics were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, not far from some village church, supporting themselves by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution, drove them farther and farther away from the civilization into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the "cells" or huts of these anchorites. <!--del_lnk--> Anthony the Great, who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid during the persecution of <!--del_lnk--> Maximian, A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 312, was the most celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of followers imitating his asceticism in an attempt to imitate his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They refused to be separated from him, and built their cells round that of their spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little dwelling, united together under one superior. Anthony, as <!--del_lnk--> Johann August Wilhelm Neander remarks, "without any conscious design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode of living in common, Coenobitism." By degrees order was introduced in the groups of huts. They were arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, "streets" or "lanes."<p>The real founder of cenobitic (<i>koinos,</i> common, and <i>bios,</i> life) monasteries in the modern sense was <!--del_lnk--> Pachomius, an Egyptian of the beginning of the <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th century</a>. The first community established by him was at <!--del_lnk--> Tabennae, an island of the <a href="../../wp/n/Nile.htm" title="Nile">Nile</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Upper Egypt. Eight others were founded in the region during his lifetime, numbering 3,000 monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies could claim 50,000 members. These coenobia resembled villages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one sex.<p>The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest character. Each cell or hut, according to <!--del_lnk--> Sozomen (H.R. iii. 14), contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common <!--del_lnk--> refectory or dining hall at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually fasted. They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The monks spent the time not devoted to religious services or study in manual labour.<p><!--del_lnk--> Palladius, who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th century</a>, found among the 300 members of the coenobium of <!--del_lnk--> Panopolis, under the <!--del_lnk--> Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners. Each separate community had its own <!--del_lnk--> oeconomus or steward, who was subject to a chief steward stationed at the head establishment. All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and by him shipped to <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria. The money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the communities, and what was over was devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the several <!--del_lnk--> coenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite ("the chief of the fold," from <i>miandra</i>, a sheepfold), and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian institution. We learn many details concerning those in the vicinity of <!--del_lnk--> Antioch from <!--del_lnk--> Chrysostom's writings. The monks lived in separate huts, <i>kalbbia,</i> forming a religious hamlet on the mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in the day they joined in <!--del_lnk--> prayers and <!--del_lnk--> psalms.<p><a id="Santa_Laura.2C_Mount_Athos" name="Santa_Laura.2C_Mount_Athos"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Santa Laura, Mount Athos</span></h3> <p>The necessity for defence from hostile attacks (for monastic houses tended to accumulate rich gifts), economy of space and convenience of access from one part of the community to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more open courts, usually surrounded with <!--del_lnk--> cloisters. The usual Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent of the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Laura, <!--del_lnk--> Mount Athos.<br /> <table align="right"> <caption><b>Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir)</b></caption> <tr> <td><a class="image" href="../../images/179/17905.png.htm" title="image:abbey_01.png"><img alt="image:abbey_01.png" height="398" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abbey_01.png" src="../../images/179/17905.png" width="268" /></a></td> <td> <dl> <dd>A. Gateway<dd>B. Chapels<dd>C. Guest-house<dd>D. Church<dd>E. Cloister<dd>F. Fountain<dd>G. Refectory<dd>H. Kitchen<dd>I. Cells<dd>K. Storehouses<dd>L. Postern Gate<dd>M. Tower</dl> </td> </tr> </table> <p>This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an area of between 3 and 4 acres (12,000 and 16,000 m²). The longer side extends to a length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance, on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the monasteries of the Levant. There is a small <!--del_lnk--> postern gate at L. The <!--del_lnk--> enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the <!--del_lnk--> catholicon or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed <!--del_lnk--> narthex. In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a dome supported on columns. Opening from the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform building, about 100 feet (30 m) each way, decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semicircular recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells.<p>The annexed plan of a <!--del_lnk--> Coptic monastery, from Lenoir, shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery.<table align="none"> <caption><b>Plan of Coptic Monastery</b></caption> <tr> <td><a class="image" href="../../images/179/17908.png.htm" title="image:abbey_02.png"><img alt="image:abbey_02.png" height="266" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abbey_02.png" src="../../images/179/17908.png" width="237" /></a></td> <td> <dl> <dd>A. Narthex<dd>B. Church<dd>C. Corridor, with cells on each side<dd>D. Staircase</dl> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Benedictine_monasteries" name="Benedictine_monasteries"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Benedictine monasteries</span></h2> <p>Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development to <!--del_lnk--> Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 480). His rule was diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation on <!--del_lnk--> Monte Cassino through the whole of <!--del_lnk--> western Europe, and every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres of population in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>. The number of these monasteries founded between A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 520 and <!--del_lnk--> 700 is amazing. Before the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Constance, A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 1415, no fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this <!--del_lnk--> order alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where necessary (as at Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances.<p>We have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time and the violence of man. But we have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 820, which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th century. This curious and interesting plan has been made the subject of a memoir both by <!--del_lnk--> Keller (<a href="../../wp/z/Z%25C3%25BCrich.htm" title="Zürich">Zürich</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1844) and by Professor <!--del_lnk--> Robert Willis (<i>Arch. Journal,</i> 1848, vol. v. pp. 86-117). To the latter we are indebted for the substance of the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved in the archives of the convent. The general appearance of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with streets running between them. It is evidently planned in compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible, the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the religious and social life of its inmates. It should comprise a <!--del_lnk--> mill, a <!--del_lnk--> bakehouse, <!--del_lnk--> stables, and <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cow</a>-houses, together with accommodation for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits.<div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17909.jpg.htm" title="Abbey of Jumièges, Normandy"><img alt="Abbey of Jumièges, Normandy" class="thumbimage" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jumi%C3%A8ges.jpg" src="../../images/179/17909.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17909.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Abbey of Jumièges, <!--del_lnk--> Normandy</div> </div> </div> <p>The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community. In closest connection with the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary conference. These essential elements of monastic life are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording communication sheltered from the elements between the various buildings. The infirmary for sick monks, with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the infirmary is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its headmaster's house against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, that he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor on the south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the church. The group of buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to workshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but the church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty-three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open "paradise" (E) between it and the wall of the church. The whole area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar (A) stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar of <a href="../../wp/p/Paul_of_Tarsus.htm" title="Paul of Tarsus">Saint Paul</a> (B) in the eastern, and that of <!--del_lnk--> St Peter (C) in the western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the church on either side of the western apse (FF).<p>The `cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <caption><b>Ground plan of St. Gall</b></caption> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/179/17920.jpg.htm" title="image:st_gall_plan.jpg"><img alt="image:st_gall_plan.jpg" height="720" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_gall_plan.jpg" src="../../images/179/17920.jpg" width="500" /></a></td> <td valign="top"><pre> CHURCH. A. High altar. B. Altar of St Paul. C. Altar of St Peter. D. Nave. E. Paradise. FF. Towers. MONASTIC BUILDINGS G. Cloister. H. Calefactory, with dormitory over. I. Necessary. J. Abbot's house. K. Refectory. L. Kitchen. M. Bakehouse and brewhouse. N. Cellar. O. Parlour. (over. P1. Scriptorium with library k, P2. Sacristy and vestry. Q. House of Novices--1.chapel; 2. refectory; 3. calefactory; 4. dormitory; 5. master's room 6. chambers. R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in the house of novices. S. Doctor's house. T. Physic garden. U. House for blood-letting. V. School. W. Schoolmaster's lodgings. X1X1. Guest-house for those of superior rank X2X2. Guest-house for the poor. Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks. MENIAL DEPARTMENT. Z. Factory. a. Threshing-floor b. Workshops. c, c. Mills. d. Kiln. e. Stables. f Cow-sheds. g. Goat-sheds. h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds. k, k. Servants' and workmen's sleeping-chambers. l. Gardener's house m,m. Hen and duck house. n. Poultry-keeper's house. o. Garden. q. Bakehouse for sacramental s, s, s. Kitchens. t, t, t. Baths. </pre></td> </tr> </table> <p>church has on its east side the "<!--del_lnk--> pisalis" or "<!--del_lnk--> calefactory", (H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the <!--del_lnk--> chapter house, the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It appears, however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefactory is the "<!--del_lnk--> dormitory" opening into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with readiness. A passage at the other end leads to the "<!--del_lnk--> necessarium" (I), a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme care. The southern side is occupied by the "refectory" (K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with a building containing the bake house and brew house (M), and the sleeping-rooms of the servants. The upper story of the refectory is the "vestiarium," where the ordinary clothes of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is another two story building (N). The cellar is below, and the <!--del_lnk--> larder and store-room above. Between this building and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the "parlour" for interviews with visitors from the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the "<!--del_lnk--> scriptorium" or writing-room (P1), with the library above.<p>To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself. Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, etc., and a church or chapel on one side, placed back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to the "<!--del_lnk--> oblati" or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks as an "<!--del_lnk--> infirmary" (R).<div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17922.jpg.htm" title="Shrewsbury Abbey"><img alt="Shrewsbury Abbey" class="thumbimage" height="193" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ShrewsburyAbbeyCB.jpg" src="../../images/179/17922.jpg" width="170" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17922.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Shrewsbury <!--del_lnk--> Abbey</div> </div> </div> <p>The "residence of the physicians" (S) stands contiguous to the infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill. The "house for bloodletting and purging" adjoins it on the west (U).<p>The "outer school," to the north of the convent area, contains a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the scholars. The head-master's house (W) is opposite, built against the side wall of the church. The two "<!--del_lnk--> hospitia" or guest-houses for the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X1 X2) comprise a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and bakehouse, and that for travelers of a superior order has a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their horses. There is also an "hospitium" for strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y).<p>Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent area to the south, stands the "factory" (Z), containing workshops for <!--del_lnk--> shoemakers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders, <!--del_lnk--> trencher-makers, <!--del_lnk--> tanners, curriers, fullers, <!--del_lnk--> smiths and <!--del_lnk--> goldsmiths, with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm buildings, the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malthouse (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds (f), goatstables (gl, piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i), together with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k). At the south-east corner we find the hen and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, etc., eighteen in all. In the same way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, etc., planted there.<p><a id="Cells" name="Cells"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Cells</span></h3> <p>Every large monastery had depending upon it smaller foundations known as cells or priories. Sometimes these foundations were no more than a single building serving as residence and farm offices, while other examples were miniature monasteries for 5 or 10 monks. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They were usually staffed by <!--del_lnk--> lay-brothers, sometimes under the supervision of a single monk.<p><a id="Westminster_Abbey" name="Westminster_Abbey"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Westminster Abbey</span></h3> <p><a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_Abbey.htm" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> is another example of a great Benedictine abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be traced, with those described above. The cloister and monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church. Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept. The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The small cloister lay to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary with the table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers. The abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance, close to the inner gateway.<p>Considerable portions of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, celebrated as "the Jerusalem Chamber," his hall, now used for the Westminster King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond.<p><a id="York" name="York"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">York</span></h3> <p><!--del_lnk--> St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed, exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides, the river <!--del_lnk--> Ouse being sufficient protection on the fourth side. The entrance was by a strong gateway to the north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the church of St Olaf, in which the new-comers paid their devotions immediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south was the guest-hall or hospitium. The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to enable us to identify the grand cruciform church, the cloister-court with the chapterhouse, the refecrefectory, the kitchen-court with its offices and the other principal apartments. The infirmary has perished completely.<p><a id="Cluny" name="Cluny"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Cluny</span></h2> <p>The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed, until by the <a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th century</a> the decay of discipline was so complete in France that the monks are said to have been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at all.<p>The reformation of abuses generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of these reformed orders was the <!--del_lnk--> Cluniac. This order took its name from,the little village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon, near which, about A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 909, a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William, duke of <!--del_lnk--> Aquitaine and count of <!--del_lnk--> Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the order. The fame of Cluny spread far and wide. Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance to the "archabbot," established at Cluny.<p>By the end of the 12th century the number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in the various countries of western Europe amounted to 2000. The monastic establishment of Cluny was one of the most extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, in A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 1245, <!--del_lnk--> Pope Innocent IV, accompanied by twelve cardinals, a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the <!--del_lnk--> Carthusians and <!--del_lnk--> Cistercians, the king (<!--del_lnk--> St Louis), and three of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, count of <a href="../../wp/f/Flanders.htm" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> and emperor of <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople, the duke of <!--del_lnk--> Burgundy, and six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number. Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away at the close of the 18th century. When the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt.<p>The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was 656 ft. high. The nave had double vaulted aisles on either side. Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept was 213 ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft. The choir terminated in a semicircular apse, surrounded by five chapels, also semicircular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church, or narthex, itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court, of immense size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory, an immense building, 100 ft (30 m) long and 60 ft (18 m) wide, accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings. The abbot's residence, still partly standing, adjoined the entrance-gate. The guest-house was close by. The bakehouse, also remaining, is a detached building of immense size.<p><a id="English_Cluniac_houses" name="English_Cluniac_houses"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">English Cluniac houses</span></h3> <p>The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of <!--del_lnk--> Lewes, founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077. Of this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist. The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement. In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor become "abbeys" till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived. The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed.<p><a id="Cistercian_abbeys" name="Cistercian_abbeys"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Cistercian abbeys</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17924.jpg.htm" title="Cistercian Abbey of Senanque"><img alt="Cistercian Abbey of Senanque" class="thumbimage" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg" src="../../images/179/17924.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17924.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cistercian Abbey of Senanque</div> </div> </div> <p>The next great monastic revival, the <!--del_lnk--> Cistercian, arising in the last years of the 11th century, had a wider diffusion, and a longer and more honourable existence. Owing its real origin as a distinct foundation of reformed <!--del_lnk--> Benedictines to <!--del_lnk--> Stephen Harding (a native of <a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" title="Dorset">Dorset</a>, educated in the monastery of Sherborne), in the year <!--del_lnk--> 1098, it derives its name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of <!--del_lnk--> Champagne and <!--del_lnk--> Burgundy. The rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of <!--del_lnk--> St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses, the far-famed abbey of <!--del_lnk--> Clairvaux (de Clara Valle), A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 1116.<p>The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and other buildings erected by them. The characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied plainness. Only one tower--a central one --was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The <!--del_lnk--> triforium was omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced in all that met the eye.<p>The same spirit manifested itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered valleys. They always stand on the border of a stream; not rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a very different aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement. Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable forests, were their prevailing features. The "bright valley," Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known as the "valley of Wormwood," infamous as a den of robbers. "It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on beech leaves."-(Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.)<p><a id="Clairvaux_Abbey" name="Clairvaux_Abbey"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Clairvaux Abbey</span></h3> <p><i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Clairvaux Abbey.<p><a id="Citeaux_Abbey" name="Citeaux_Abbey"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Citeaux Abbey</span></h3> <p><i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Citeaux Abbey.<p><a id="Kirkstall_Abbey" name="Kirkstall_Abbey"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Kirkstall Abbey</span></h3> <p><i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Kirkstall Abbey.<p><a id="Fountains_Abbey" name="Fountains_Abbey"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Fountains Abbey</span></h3> <p><i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Fountains Abbey.<p><a id="Loc-Dieu_Abbey" name="Loc-Dieu_Abbey"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Loc-Dieu Abbey</span></h3> <p><i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Loc-Dieu.<p><a id="Rievaulx_Abbey" name="Rievaulx_Abbey"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Rievaulx Abbey</span></h3> <p><i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Rievaulx Abbey.<p><a id="Austin_Canons" name="Austin_Canons"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Austin Canons</span></h2> <p>The buildings of the Austin <!--del_lnk--> canons or Black canons (so called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiarities. This order had its first seat in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> at <!--del_lnk--> Colchester, where a house for Austin canons was founded about A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 1105, and it very soon spread widely. As an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christchurch (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, etc., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton, Brinkburn and <!--del_lnk--> Lanercost. The arrangement of the monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave.<h3><span class="mw-headline">Bristol Cathedral</span></h3> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <caption><a id="Bristol_Cathedral" name="Bristol_Cathedral"></a></caption> <tr> <td align="center"> <p><a class="image" href="../../images/179/17933.png.htm" title="image:bristol_abbey.png"><img alt="image:bristol_abbey.png" height="239" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bristol_abbey.png" src="../../images/179/17933.png" width="400" /></a></td> <td align="left"><pre> FIG. 11.--St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol A. Church. B. Great cloister. C. Little cloister. D. Chapter-house. E. Calefactory. F. Refectory. G. Parlour. H. Kitchen. I. Kitchen court. K. Cellars. L. Abbot's hall. P. Abbot's gateway. R. Infirmary. S. Friars' lodging. T. King's hall. V. Guest-house. W. Abbey gateway. X. Barns, stables, etc Y. Lavatory. </pre></td> </tr> </table> <p>The above plan of the <!--del_lnk--> Abbey of St Augustine's at <a href="../../wp/b/Bristol.htm" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>, now the <!--del_lnk--> cathedral church of that city, shows the arrangement of the buildings, which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type. The Austin canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date.<p><a id="Premonstratensians" name="Premonstratensians"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Premonstratensians</span></h2> <p>The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect remaining are those of <!--del_lnk--> Easby, Yorkshire, and <!--del_lnk--> Bayham, Kent. The head house of the order in England was <!--del_lnk--> Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the <!--del_lnk--> Augustinian canons, founded, A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 1119, by <!--del_lnk--> Norbert of Xanten, on the <!--del_lnk--> Lower Rhine, c. <!--del_lnk--> 1080) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest of <!--del_lnk--> Coucy in the diocese of <!--del_lnk--> Laon. The order spread widely. Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Palestine. It long maintained its rigid austerity, until in the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England shortly after A.D. <!--del_lnk--> 1140, and were first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the <!--del_lnk--> Humber. The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave--that to the north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels.<p>The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is not more than 25 ft. broad. Stern Premonstratensian canons wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; therefore they built their church like a long room.<p>The Premonstratension order still exists and a small group of these <i>Chanones de Premontre</i> now run the former Benedictine Abbey at <!--del_lnk--> Conques in southwest France, which has become well known as a refuge for pilgrims travelling the <!--del_lnk--> Way of Saint James, from <!--del_lnk--> Le Puy en Velay in Auvergne, to <!--del_lnk--> Santiago de Compostela in Galicia, Spain.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Latin', 'Christianity', 'Abbot', 'Egypt', '4th century', 'Nile', '4th century', 'England', 'France', 'Spain', 'Zürich', 'Cattle', 'Paul of Tarsus', 'Westminster Abbey', '10th century', 'Flanders', 'Dorset', 'England', 'Bristol', 'Syria']
Abbey_Theatre	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Abbey Theatre,Austin Clarke (poet),George Shiels,F. J. McCormick,Frank O'Connor,Lyric Theatre, Dublin,July 18,Samuel Beckett,Brendan Behan,Queen's Theatre, Dublin,1951" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abbey Theatre</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abbey_Theatre"; var wgTitle = "Abbey Theatre"; var wgArticleId = 207971; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abbey_Theatre"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abbey Theatre</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Theatre.htm">Theatre</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23105.jpg.htm" title="A poster for the opening run at the Abbey Theatre from 27 December, 1904 to 3 January, 1905."><img alt="A poster for the opening run at the Abbey Theatre from 27 December, 1904 to 3 January, 1905." height="288" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abbey1.jpg" src="../../images/231/23105.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">A poster for the opening run at the Abbey Theatre from 27 December, 1904 to 3 January, 1905.</div> </div> </div> <p>The <b>Abbey Theatre</b>, also known as the <b>National Theatre of Ireland</b>, is located in <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. The Abbey first opened its doors to the public on <!--del_lnk--> 27 December <!--del_lnk--> 1904 and, despite losing its original building to a fire in 1951, it has continued to stage performances more or less continuously to the present day. The Abbey was the first state-subsidised <a href="../../wp/t/Theatre.htm" title="Theatre">theatre</a> in the English-speaking world; from 1925 onwards it received an annual subsidy from the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Free State.<p>In its early years, the theatre was closely associated with the writers of the <!--del_lnk--> Celtic revival, many of whom were involved in its foundation and most of whom had plays staged there. The Abbey served as a nursery for many of the leading <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_theatre.htm" title="Irish theatre">Irish playwrights</a> and actors of the 20th century. In addition, through its extensive programme of touring abroad and its high visibility to foreign, particularly <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North American</a>, audiences, it has become an important part of the <!--del_lnk--> Irish tourist industry.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Before_the_Abbey" name="Before_the_Abbey"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Before the Abbey</span></h2> <p>The founding of the Abbey was the result of the coming together of three distinct forces. The first of these was the seminal <!--del_lnk--> Irish Literary Theatre. Founded by <!--del_lnk--> Lady Gregory, <!--del_lnk--> Edward Martyn and <a href="../../wp/w/William_Butler_Yeats.htm" title="William Butler Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a> in 1899 - with assistance by <!--del_lnk--> George Moore - this theatre had presented a number of plays in the Ancient Concert Rooms and the <!--del_lnk--> Gaiety Theatre, with some critical approval but limited public interest.<p>The second thread was the work of two Irish brothers, <!--del_lnk--> William and <!--del_lnk--> Frank Fay. William worked for a time in the 1890s with a touring company in Ireland, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> while Frank was heavily involved in amateur dramatics in Dublin. After William returned, the brothers began to stage productions in halls around the city. Finally, they formed <!--del_lnk--> W. G. Fay's Irish National Dramatic Company, focused on the development of Irish acting talent. In April, 1902, the Fays gave three performances of <!--del_lnk--> Æ's play <i>Deirdre</i> and Yeats' <i>Cathleen Ní Houlihan</i> in a hall in St Theresa's Hall, Clarendon Street in Dublin. The performances played to a mainly working-class audience, rather than the usual middle-class Dublin theatre-goers. The run was a great success, thanks in part to the fact that Maud Gonne played the lead in Yeats' play.<p>The third and final element was the presence in Dublin of <!--del_lnk--> Annie Elizabeth Fredericka Horniman. Horniman was a middle-class <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">Englishwoman</a> with some previous experience of theatre production, having been involved in the presentation of <!--del_lnk--> George Bernard Shaw's <i>Arms and the Man</i> in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> in 1894. She came to Dublin in 1903 as Yeats' unpaid secretary and to make costumes for a production of his play <i>The King's Threshold</i>. It was her money that was to make the Abbey Theatre a viable reality.<p><a id="Foundation_of_the_Abbey" name="Foundation_of_the_Abbey"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Foundation of the Abbey</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23106.jpg.htm" title="A 1907 engraving of W. B. Yeats, one of the founders of the Abbey Theatre."><img alt="A 1907 engraving of W. B. Yeats, one of the founders of the Abbey Theatre." height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yeats.jpg" src="../../images/231/23106.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23106.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A 1907 engraving of W. B. Yeats, one of the founders of the Abbey Theatre.</div> </div> </div> <p>In the light of the success of the St Theresa's Hall venture, the Irish National Theatre Society was formed in 1903 by Yeats as president, Lady Gregory, Æ, Martyn, and <a href="../../wp/j/John_Millington_Synge.htm" title="John Millington Synge">John Millington Synge</a>. Funding was provided by Annie Horniman. At first, performances were staged in the Molesworth Hall. When the <!--del_lnk--> Hibernian Theatre of Varieties in Lower Abbey Street and an adjacent building in Marlborough Street became available after the local fire safety authorities closed the Hibernia on fire safety grounds, Horniman and William Fay agreed their purchase and refitting to meet the needs of the society. On <!--del_lnk--> 11 May <!--del_lnk--> 1904 the society formally accepted Horniman's offer of the use of the building. As Horniman was not normally resident in Ireland, the Royal Letters Patent required were paid for by her but granted in the name of Lady Gregory. William Fay was appointed theatre manager and took on responsibility for training the actors in the newly established repertory company. Yeats' brother <!--del_lnk--> Jack Yeats was commissioned to paint portraits of all the leading figures in the society for the foyer and <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Purser designed some stained glass for the same space.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 27 December, the curtains went up on the opening night. The bill consisted of three one-act plays, <i>On Baile's Strand</i> and <i>Cathleen Ní Houlihan</i> by Yeats, and <i>Spreading the News</i> by Lady Gregory. On the second night, <i>In the Shadow of the Glen</i> by Synge replaced the second Yeats play and these two bills alternated over a five-night run. Frank Fay, playing <!--del_lnk--> Cúchulainn in <i>On Baile's Strand</i>, was the first actor on the Abbey stage. Although Horniman had designed costumes, neither she nor Lady Gregory was present. Horniman had, in fact, returned to England and her main role with the Abbey over the coming years, in addition to providing funding, was to organise publicity and bookings for touring Abbey productions in London and provincial English venues. In 1905, Yeats, Lady Gregory and Synge decided to turn the theatre into a <!--del_lnk--> Limited Liability Company without properly consulting Horniman. Annoyed by this treatment, she hired <!--del_lnk--> Ben Iden Payne, a former Abbey employee, to help run her new repertory company in <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester.htm" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>.<p><a id="The_early_years" name="The_early_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The early years</span></h2> <p>The new theatre found itself a great popular success, with large crowds turning out for most productions. It was also fortunate in having, in Synge, one of the foremost English-language dramatists of the day as a key member. The theatre also staged plays by eminent or soon to be eminent authors including Yeats, Lady Gregory, Moore, Martyn, <!--del_lnk--> Padraic Colum, <!--del_lnk--> Oliver St John Gogarty, <!--del_lnk--> F. R. Higgins, <!--del_lnk--> Thomas MacDonagh, (one of the leaders of the <!--del_lnk--> Easter Rising in 1916), <!--del_lnk--> T. C. Murray and <!--del_lnk--> Lennox Robinson. Many of these authors also served on the board, with the result that the Abbey gained an enduring reputation as a writers' theatre.<p>However, things were to take a turn for the worst in January 1907 with the opening of Synge's <i>The Playboy of the Western World</i>. Egged on by <!--del_lnk--> nationalists who believed that the theatre was not sufficiently political and with the pretext of a perceived slight on the virtue of Irish womanhood in the use of the word 'shift', a significant portion of the crowd rioted, causing the remainder of the play to be acted out in dumbshow. Nationalist ire was further provoked by the decision to call in the police. Although press opinion soon turned against the rioters and the protests (now known as <i>the <!--del_lnk--> Playboy Riots</i>) petered out, the Abbey was shaken and Synge's next (and last completed) play <i>The Tinker's Wedding</i> (1908) was not staged for fear of further disturbances.<p>That same year, the Fay brothers' association with the theatre ended when they emigrated to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the day-to-day management of the theatre became the responsibility of Lennox Robinson. On <!--del_lnk--> 7 May <!--del_lnk--> 1910, when all the other theatres in the city closed as a mark of respect on the death of <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VII of the United Kingdom">King Edward VII</a>, Robinson kept the Abbey open. The relationship with Annie Horniman was already strained, and when she found out about Robinson's decision, she decided to finally sever her connection with the Abbey. By her own estimate, she had spent £10,350 (worth roughly $1 million in 2004 US currency) of her own money on the project, a considerable sum for the time.<p>With the loss of Horniman, Synge and the Fays, the Abbey under Robinson tended somewhat to drift along and suffered from falling public interest and box office returns. This trend was halted for a time by the emergence of <!--del_lnk--> Sean O'Casey as an heir to Synge. O'Casey's career as a dramatist began with <i>The Shadow of a Gunman</i>, staged by the Abbey in 1923. This was followed by <i>Juno and the Paycock</i> (1924) and <i>The Plough and the Stars</i> (1926). This last play resulted in riots reminiscent of those that had greeted the <i>Playboy</i> nineteen years earlier. Once again, scared off by the public reaction, the Abbey rejected O'Casey's next play and he emigrated shortly thereafter.<p><a id="The_Abbey_after_Yeats" name="The_Abbey_after_Yeats"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Abbey after Yeats</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23107.jpg.htm" title="Ninette de Valois at age 16. She ran the Abbey School of Dance and provided choreography for a number of Yeats' plays."><img alt="Ninette de Valois at age 16. She ran the Abbey School of Dance and provided choreography for a number of Yeats' plays." height="205" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ninette-young.jpg" src="../../images/231/23107.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23107.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ninette de Valois at age 16. She ran the Abbey School of Dance and provided choreography for a number of Yeats' plays.</div> </div> </div> <p>In 1924, Yeats and Lady Gregory offered the Abbey to the government of the Free State as a gift to the Irish people. Despite some reluctance on the part of the <!--del_lnk--> Department of Finance, the offer was accepted, partly at least because of the theatre's commitment to producing works in <!--del_lnk--> Irish. As a consequence, in 1925 the Abbey became the first theatre company in the English-speaking world to be state-maintained. The following year, the Abbey School of Acting and the Abbey School of Ballet were set up. The latter, which closed in 1933, was run by <!--del_lnk--> Ninette de Valois, who also provided choreography for a number of Yeats' plays.<p>Around this time, some additional space was acquired and a small experimental theatre, the Peacock, was started downstairs from the main theatre. In 1928 <!--del_lnk--> Hilton Edwards and <!--del_lnk--> Micheál MacLiammoir set up the <!--del_lnk--> Gate Theatre, initially using the Peacock to stage important works by <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> and American dramatists. The Gate sought work by new Irish playwrights and the story of how one such play came into their hands illustrated the fact that the Abbey had now entered a period of artistic decline. When <!--del_lnk--> Denis Johnston submitted his first play <i>Shadowdance</i> to the Abbey, it was rejected by Lady Gregory and returned to the author with “The Old Lady says No” written on the title page. Johnson decided to rename the play, and <i>The Old Lady Says 'No'</i> was staged by the Gate in the Peacock in 1928.<p>The tradition of the Abbey as a writer's theatre survived Yeats' withdrawal from day-to-day involvement. For example, <!--del_lnk--> Frank O'Connor sat on the board from 1935 to 1939, serving as Managing Director from 1937, and had two plays staged during this period. Unfortunately, he was forced to resign after Yeats died. During the 1940s and 1950s, the staple fare of the Abbey stage was comic farce set in an idealised peasant world, which, if it ever had existed, no longer had much relevance for the lives of the majority of Irish citizens. As a result, the decline in audience numbers continued. This decline might well have been more dramatic but for a number of popular actors, including <!--del_lnk--> F. J. McCormick, and dramatists, including <!--del_lnk--> George Shiels, who could still draw a crowd. Another Abbey tenant was <!--del_lnk--> Austin Clarke's Dublin Verse Speaking Society, later the <!--del_lnk--> Lyric Theatre, which operated out of the Peacock from 1941 to 1944 and the Abbey from 1944 to 1951.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 18 July <!--del_lnk--> 1951, the building was destroyed by fire, with only the Peacock surviving. The company took a lease on the old <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Theatre in September and continued in residence in this temporary home until 1966. The Queen's had been home to the Happy Gang, a team of comedians who staged skits, farces and pantomimes to huge audiences. In some respect, with its continued diet of peasant comedies, the new tenants were not far removed from the old. It is indicative of the state of the Abbey's ambitions at the time that neither of the two most interesting Irish dramatists to emerge in the 1950s, <!--del_lnk--> Brendan Behan and <a href="../../wp/s/Samuel_Beckett.htm" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>, featured there. In February 1961 the ruins of the Abbey were finally demolished and plans for rebuilding, with a design by Irish architect <!--del_lnk--> Michael Scott, began. On <!--del_lnk--> 3 September <!--del_lnk--> 1963, the <!--del_lnk--> President of Ireland, <!--del_lnk--> Eamon de Valera, laid the foundation stone for the new theatre. The Abbey reopened on <!--del_lnk--> 18 July <!--del_lnk--> 1966.<p><a id="The_Abbey_since_1966" name="The_Abbey_since_1966"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Abbey since 1966</span></h2> <p>The conjunction of a new building, a new generation of dramatists that included such figures as <!--del_lnk--> Hugh Leonard, <!--del_lnk--> Brian Friel and <!--del_lnk--> Tom Murphy, and the growth in Irish tourism with the National Theatre as a key cultural attraction helped to bring about a revival in the theatre's fortunes. This was further assisted by the theatre's continuing involvement in the <!--del_lnk--> Dublin Theatre Festival, which began in 1957.<p>Plays such as Friel's <i>Philadelphia Here I Come</i> (1964), <i>The Faith Healer</i> (1979) and <i>Dancing at Lughnasa</i> (1990), Murphy's <i>Whistle in the Dark</i> (1961) and <i>The Gigli Concert</i> (1983) and Leonard's <i>Da</i> (1973) and <i>A Life</i> (1980) helped raise the Abbey's international profile through their successful runs in <!--del_lnk--> London and on <!--del_lnk--> Broadway. However, despite these and other successes, the Abbey has continued to play to less-than-full houses, averaging less than half capacity in the centenary year, 2004.<p>The conjunction of projected debts at the end of 2004 of €2.5 million together with reduced state funding, a recovery plan involving the loss of one third of the jobs at the theatre, and some bad feeling from the earlier winding down of the repertory company led to calls for the dismissal of artistic director <!--del_lnk--> Ben Barnes. On <!--del_lnk--> 6 September, Mr Barnes survived a vote of the board but his survival plan was shelved. The controversy rumbled on with the publication a few days later of the text of an e-mail he sent to some international colleagues in which he was highly critical of his employers. He later apologised to the board. On <!--del_lnk--> 14 September, the <!--del_lnk--> Arts Council of Ireland announced the setting up of an independent review into ways in which it could support the theatre through this crisis. A further complication facing the Abbey in its centenary year is the fact that, with the current theatre flagged as a potential safety hazard, a long-running search for a site for a new building continues with no immediate end in sight. In December 2004, the theatre celebrated its centenary with a range of events, including performances of the original programme by amateur dramatic groups from around the country.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 12, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 Barnes and Managing Director Brian Jackson resigned after it was discovered that a serious error in the company's financial reporting had resulted in a serious underestimation of the theatre's deficit of €1.85 million.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 20 August <!--del_lnk--> 2005, the Abbey Theatre Advisory Council approved a plan which will see the Abbey's owners, the National Theatre Society, being dissolved and replaced by a <!--del_lnk--> company limited by guarantee, the Abbey Theatre Limited. This was done after the <!--del_lnk--> Arts Council of Ireland decided to withhold any further funding from the theatre pending the resolution of its financial crisis. The new company was expected to be established in September 2005.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Theatre"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Dublin', 'Ireland', 'Theatre', 'Irish theatre', 'North America', 'William Butler Yeats', 'Scotland', 'Wales', 'England', 'London', 'John Millington Synge', 'Manchester', 'United States', 'Edward VII of the United Kingdom', 'Europe', 'Samuel Beckett']
Abbot	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abbot,1063,10th century,1123,1154,1360,1489,448,456,5th century,787" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abbot</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abbot"; var wgTitle = "Abbot"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "1143"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130341742"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abbot"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abbot</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_15001750.htm">British History 1500-1750</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Religious_movements_traditions_and_organizations.htm">Religious movements, traditions and organizations</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18010.png.htm" title="Arms of a Roman Catholic abbot"><img alt="Arms of a Roman Catholic abbot" class="thumbimage" height="293" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Prepozyt.png" src="../../images/180/18010.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18010.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Arms of a Roman Catholic abbot</div> </div> </div> <p>The word <b>abbot</b>, meaning <!--del_lnk--> father, has been used as a <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <!--del_lnk--> clerical title in various, mainly monastic, meanings.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2> <p>The title had its origin in the <!--del_lnk--> monasteries of <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>, spread through the eastern <!--del_lnk--> Mediterranean, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors. At times it was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the <i>Abbas palatinus</i> ('of the palace') and <i>Abbas castrensis</i> ('of the camp') were chaplains to the Merovingian/ Carolingian sovereign's court viz. to his army. The name "abbot" came in fairly general use in western <a href="../../wp/c/Christian_monasticism.htm" title="Christian monasticism">monastic</a> <!--del_lnk--> orders whose members include priests.<p><a id="Monastic_history" name="Monastic_history"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Monastic history</span></h2> <p>An <b>abbot</b>, is a man who has suffered so much to become, "a father", through the Coptic <i>ava</i> Syriac <i>abba,</i> Latin <i>abbas</i> (genitive form, <i>abbatis</i>), Old English <i>abbad,</i> ; Italian <i>Abbate</i>; German <i>Abt;</i> French <i>abbé</i>. He is the head and chief governor of a community of <!--del_lnk--> monks, called also in the East <i>hegumenos</i> or <i>archimandrite.</i> The <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> version for a female monastic head is <b><!--del_lnk--> abbess</b>.<p>In <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. <!--del_lnk--> Cassian speaks of an abbot of the <!--del_lnk--> Thebaid who had 500 monks under him. By the <a href="../../wp/r/Rule_of_St_Benedict.htm" title="Rule of St Benedict">Rule of St Benedict</a>, which, until the reform of <!--del_lnk--> Cluny, was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the <!--del_lnk--> Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognized.<p>Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. For the reception of the <!--del_lnk--> sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the <!--del_lnk--> ordination of some monks. This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, <!--del_lnk--> ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher <!--del_lnk--> spiritual life, but, before the close of the <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th century</a>, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become <!--del_lnk--> deacons, if not priests. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th century</a>. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils. Thus at the <!--del_lnk--> first Council of Constantinople, AD <!--del_lnk--> 448, 23 <!--del_lnk--> archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 <!--del_lnk--> bishops.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> second Council of Nicaea, AD <!--del_lnk--> 787, recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the <!--del_lnk--> diaconate, a power usually reserved to bishops.<p>Abbots were originally subject to <!--del_lnk--> episcopal jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century. The <!--del_lnk--> Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD <!--del_lnk--> 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from <!--del_lnk--> Pope Gregory the Great. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an <i>imperium in imperio,</i> and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his <!--del_lnk--> diocese. In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the <!--del_lnk--> archbishop of Cologne. Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of <!--del_lnk--> mitre, ring, gloves and sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, <i>Liturgische Gewandung</i>, p. 453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which <!--del_lnk--> Alexander II in <!--del_lnk--> 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The <b>mitred abbots</b> in England were those of <!--del_lnk--> Abingdon, <!--del_lnk--> St Alban's, Bardney, Battle, <!--del_lnk--> Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, Colchester, <!--del_lnk--> Croyland, <!--del_lnk--> Evesham, <!--del_lnk--> Glastonbury, <!--del_lnk--> Gloucester, St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, <!--del_lnk--> Malmesbury, <!--del_lnk--> Peterborough, <!--del_lnk--> Ramsey, <!--del_lnk--> Reading, <!--del_lnk--> Selby, <!--del_lnk--> Shrewsbury, <!--del_lnk--> Tavistock, <!--del_lnk--> Thorney, <!--del_lnk--> Westminster, <!--del_lnk--> Winchcombe, St Mary's <a href="../../wp/y/York.htm" title="York">York</a>. Of these the precedence was originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD <!--del_lnk--> 1154 <!--del_lnk--> Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their <!--del_lnk--> pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house.<p>The adoption of certain episcopal insignia (<!--del_lnk--> pontificalia) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the <!--del_lnk--> Lateran council, AD <!--del_lnk--> 1123. In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the <!--del_lnk--> second Nicene council, AD <!--del_lnk--> 787, to confer the <!--del_lnk--> tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD <!--del_lnk--> 1489 permitted by <!--del_lnk--> Innocent IV to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit.<p>When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the <a href="../../wp/a/Abbey.htm" title="Abbey">convent</a>, but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In <a href="../../wp/a/Abbey.htm" title="Abbey">abbeys</a> exempt from the (arch)bishop's diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and <!--del_lnk--> benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a>. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop.<p>The ceremony of the formal admission of a <!--del_lnk--> Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the <!--del_lnk--> consuetudinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the <!--del_lnk--> nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his <!--del_lnk--> commissary, and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his <!--del_lnk--> staff of office. He then put on his shoes in the <!--del_lnk--> vestry, and a <!--del_lnk--> chapter was held, and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon.<p>The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the <!--del_lnk--> canon law. One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection. It was sacred duty to execute the abbot's orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers.<p><a id="General_information" name="General_information"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">General information</span></h2> <p>Before the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission, reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society. The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West the <a href="../../wp/r/Rule_of_St_Benedict.htm" title="Rule of St Benedict">Rule of St Benedict</a> appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the council of Aachen, AD <!--del_lnk--> 817, decreed that the abbot should dine in the <!--del_lnk--> refectory, and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his <!--del_lnk--> chaplains waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.<p>The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by <!--del_lnk--> celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of <a href="../../wp/l/Leicester.htm" title="Leicester">Leicester</a>, c. <!--del_lnk--> 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting. In magnificence of equipage and <!--del_lnk--> retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Whiting, the last abbot of <!--del_lnk--> Glastonbury, judicially murdered by <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of <!--del_lnk--> Cluny and <!--del_lnk--> Vendôme were, by virtue of their office, <!--del_lnk--> cardinals of the Roman church.<p>In process of time the title abbot was extended to <!--del_lnk--> clerics who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Carolingians</a> to the chief chaplain of the king, <i>Abbas Curiae,</i> or military chaplain of the emperor, <i>Abbas Castrensis.</i> It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at <a href="../../wp/g/Genoa.htm" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> was called <i>Abbas Populi</i>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Lay abbots (M. Lat. <i>defensores</i>, <i>abbacomites</i>, <i>abbates laici</i>, <i>abbates milites</i>, <i>abbates saeculares</i> or <i>irreligiosi</i>, <i>abbatiarii</i>, or sometimes simply <i>abbates</i>) were the outcome of the growth of the <!--del_lnk--> feudal system from the <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th century</a> onwards. The practice of <!--del_lnk--> commendation, by which--to meet a contemporary emergency--the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held <i>in <!--del_lnk--> commendam.</i><p>During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable <!--del_lnk--> fiefs or <!--del_lnk--> benefices, and by the <a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th century</a>, before the great <!--del_lnk--> Cluniac reform, the system was firmly established. Even the <!--del_lnk--> abbey of St Denis was held in commendam by <!--del_lnk--> Hugh Capet. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as <!--del_lnk--> dean (decanus), but also as abbot (<i>abbas legitimas</i>, <i>monasticus</i>, <i>regularis</i>). When the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal famines, as late as the 13th century and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of dean. The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West. John, <!--del_lnk--> patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, <i>bencficiarii,</i> for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors.<p><!--del_lnk--> Giraldus Cambrensis reported (<i>Itinerary</i>, ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales:<dl> <dd>"for a bad custom has prevailed amongst the clergy, of appointing the most powerful people of a parish stewards, or, rather, patrons, of their churches; who, in process of time, from a desire of gain, have usurped the whole right, appropriating to their own use the possession of all the lands, leaving only to the clergy the altars, with their tenths and oblations, and assigning even these to their sons and relations in the church. Such defenders, or rather destroyers, of the church, have caused themselves to be called abbots, and presumed to attribute to themselves a title, as well as estates, to which they have no just claim."</dl> <p>In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior.<p><a id="Modern_practices" name="Modern_practices"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Modern practices</span></h2> <p>In the Roman Catholic Church, abbots continue to be elected by the monks of an abbey to lead them as their religious superior. A monastery must have been granted the status of an abbey by the Pope, and such monasteries are normally raised to this level after showing a degree of stability -- a certain number of monks in vows, a certain number of years of establishment, a certain firmness to the foundation in economic, vocational and legal aspects. Prior to this, the monastery would be a mere priory, headed by a prior who acts as superior but without the same degree of legal authority that an abbot has.<p>The abbot is a priest, chosen by the monks from among the fully professed monks. Once chosen, he must request blessing: the blessing of an abbot is celebrated by the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is or, with his permission, another abbot or bishop. The ceremony of such a blessing is similar in some aspects to the ordination of a bishop, with the new abbot being presented with the mitre, the ring, and the crosier as symbols of office and receiving the laying on of hands and blessing from the celebrant. Though the ceremony installs the new abbot into a position of legal authority, it does not confer further sacramental authority.<p>Once he has received this blessing, the abbot not only becomes father of his monks in a spiritual sense, but their major superior under canon law, and has the additional authority to confer the ministries of acolyte and lector (formerly, he could confer the minor orders, which are not sacraments, that these ministries have replaced). The abbey is a species of "exempt religious" in that it is, for the most part, answerable to the Pope, or to the abbot primate, rather than to the local bishop.<p>The abbot wears the same habit as his fellow monks, though by tradition he adds to it a pectoral cross.<p><!--del_lnk--> Territorial abbots follow all of the above, but in addition must receive a mandate of authority from the Pope over the territory around the monastery for which they are responsible.<p><a id="Abbatial_hierarchy" name="Abbatial_hierarchy"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Abbatial hierarchy</span></h2> <p>In some monastic families there is a hierarchy of precedence or authority among abbots. In some cases, this is the result of an abbey being considered the "mother" of several "daughter" abbeys founded originally as depedent priories of the "mother." In other cases, abbeys have affiliated in networks known as "congregations." Some monastic families recognize one abbey as the motherhouse of the entire order.<ul> <li>The abbot of San Anselmo di Aventino, in Rome, is styled the "abbot primate," and is acknowledged the senior abbot for the Order of St. Benedict (O.S.B.)<li>An abbot president is the head of a congregation (federation) of abbeys within the Order of St. Benedict (for instance, the English Congregation, The American Cassinese Congregation, etc.), or of the Cistercians (O. Cist.)<li>An archabbot is the head of some monasteries which are the motherhouses of other monasteries (for instance, St. Vincent's Archabbey, Latrobe, Pennsylvania)</ul> <p><a id="Modern_abbots_not_as_superior" name="Modern_abbots_not_as_superior"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Modern abbots not as superior</span></h2> <p>The title <!--del_lnk--> abbé (French; Ital. <i>abate</i>), as commonly used in the Catholic church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English "Father" (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the <!--del_lnk--> tonsure. This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the <!--del_lnk--> concordat between <!--del_lnk--> Pope Leo X and <!--del_lnk--> Francis I (1516), to appoint <i>abbés commendataires</i> to most of the abbeys in France. The expectation of obtaining these <!--del_lnk--> sinecures drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed—<i>abbés de cour</i> they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) <i>abbés de sainte espérance</i>, (abbés of holy hope; or the pun, of St. Hope)—came to hold a recognized position. The connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the title of abbé, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising <!--del_lnk--> celibacy and wearing a distinctive dress—a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. The class did not survive the <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">Revolution</a>; but the <!--del_lnk--> courtesy title of abbé, having long lost all connection in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman.<p><a id="Eastern_Christian" name="Eastern_Christian"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Eastern Christian</span></h2> <p>In the <a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Catholic Churches, the Abbot is referred to as the <b><!--del_lnk--> Hegumen</b>. The Superior of a Convent of Nuns is called the <b>Hegumenia</b>. The nearest equivalent of an Archabbot is an <b><!--del_lnk--> Archimandrite</b>. Though the title "abbot" is not given in the Western Church to any but actual abbots of monasteries today, the title archimandrite is given to "monastics" (i.e., celibate) priests in the East, even when not attached to a monastery, as an honour for service, similar to the title of <!--del_lnk--> monsignor in the Western/Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church.<p><a id="Protestant_abbots" name="Protestant_abbots"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Protestant abbots</span></h2> <p>In the <!--del_lnk--> German Evangelical Church the German title of <i>Abt</i> (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French <i>abbé</i>, as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of these the most noteworthy is <!--del_lnk--> Loccum Abbey in <!--del_lnk--> Hanover, founded as a <!--del_lnk--> Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Loccum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence over all the clergy of Hanover, and was <i>ex officio</i> a member of the <!--del_lnk--> consistory of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the "convent" of <i><!--del_lnk--> Stiftsherren</i> (canons).<p>In the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Norwich, by royal decree given by <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, also holds the honorary title of "Abbot of St. Benet." This title hails back to England's separation from the See of Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of the monasteries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benet, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possessed no wealth, and lived like simple beggars, disposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day.<p>Additionally, at the enthronement of the Archbishop of Canterbury, there is a three-fold enthronement, once in the throne the chancel as the diocesan bishop of Canterbury, once in the Chair of St. Augustine as the Primate of England, and then once in the chapter-house as Titular Abbot.<p>There are several Benedictine Abbeys throughout the <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a>. Most of them have mitred abbots.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Christianity', 'Egypt', 'Syria', 'Christian monasticism', 'English language', 'Egypt', 'Rule of St Benedict', '5th century', '7th century', 'York', 'Abbey', 'Abbey', 'Rome', 'Rule of St Benedict', 'Leicester', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Charlemagne', 'Genoa', '8th century', '10th century', 'French Revolution', 'Eastern Orthodox Church', 'Church of England', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Anglican Communion']
Abel_Tasman	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Abel Tasman,1643,June 15,New Guinea,Dutch East India Company,Torres Strait,1644,Fiji Islands,Cook Strait,Golden Bay,1642" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abel Tasman</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abel_Tasman"; var wgTitle = "Abel Tasman"; var wgArticleId = 1988; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abel_Tasman"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abel Tasman</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Geographers_and_explorers.htm">Geographers and explorers</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15129.jpg.htm" title="Portrait of Tasman, detail from the family portrait. (The only evidence to support this claim is a library catalogue entry)"><img alt="Portrait of Tasman, detail from the family portrait. (The only evidence to support this claim is a library catalogue entry)" height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AbelTasman.jpeg" src="../../images/151/15129.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15129.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Portrait of Tasman, detail from the family portrait. (The only evidence to support this claim is a library catalogue entry)</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Abel Janszoon Tasman</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 1603 - <!--del_lnk--> October 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1659), was a <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> <!--del_lnk--> seafarer, <!--del_lnk--> explorer, and <!--del_lnk--> merchant.<p>He is best known for his voyages of <!--del_lnk--> 1642 and <!--del_lnk--> 1644 in the service of the VOC (<!--del_lnk--> Dutch East India Company). His was the first known European <!--del_lnk--> expedition to reach the islands of <!--del_lnk--> Van Diemen's Land (now <!--del_lnk--> Tasmania) and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and to sight the <a href="../../wp/f/Fiji.htm" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> islands, which he did in <!--del_lnk--> 1643. Tasman, his navigator Visscher, and his Merchant Gilsemans also mapped substantial portions of <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Islands.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15130.jpg.htm" title="Murderers' Bay, 1642"><img alt="Murderers' Bay, 1642" height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Murderers%27_Bay.jpg" src="../../images/151/15130.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15130.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Murderers' Bay, 1642</div> </div> </div> <p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2> <p>Tasman was born in 1603 in <!--del_lnk--> Lutjegast, <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">the Netherlands</a>, a village in the province of <!--del_lnk--> Groningen. He was first heard of at the end of 1631 when, as a widower living at Amsterdam, he married Jannetjie Tjaers. He was shortly afterwards in the service of the <!--del_lnk--> Dutch East India Company and by 1634 was mate of a ship trading from Batavia (now <a href="../../wp/j/Jakarta.htm" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>) to the <!--del_lnk--> Moluccas. In July of that year he was appointed master of a small ship, the <i>Mocha</i>. He visited Holland in 1637 and returned to Batavia in October 1638, taking his wife with him.<p><a id="First_Pacific_voyage" name="First_Pacific_voyage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">First Pacific voyage</span></h2> <p>In 1639 Tasman was sent as second in command of an exploring expedition in the north Pacific. His fleet included the ships <i>Heemskerck</i> and <i>Zeehaen</i>. After many hardships Formosa (now <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>) was reached in November, 40 out of the crew of 90 having died. Other voyages followed, to <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> in 1640 and 1641 and to <!--del_lnk--> Palembang in the south of <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> in 1642, where he made a friendly trading treaty with the Sultan. In August 1642 Tasman was sent in command of an expedition for the discovery of the "Unknown Southland", which was believed to be in the south Pacific but which had not been seen by Europeans. Strange as it may seem to us today, Tasman sailed first to <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>. The reason for this was that his ships were sailing ships and the best route from one place to another was not always the direct route; of more importance was the direction of the wind. Tasman had some knowledge of the prevailing winds and so he chose Mauritius as a turning point and from there a course was set towards what was presumed to be the southern coast of Australia. (At least part of the western shore of the continent was already known to the Dutch, but the shape of the southern coast was unknown).<p><a id="Tasmania" name="Tasmania"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tasmania</span></h3> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> 24 November <!--del_lnk--> 1642 he sighted the <!--del_lnk--> west coast of <!--del_lnk--> Tasmania near <!--del_lnk--> Macquarie Harbour. He named the land <!--del_lnk--> Van Diemen's Land after <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Van Diemen the <!--del_lnk--> Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. Proceeding south he skirted the southern end of Tasmania and turned north-east until he was off <!--del_lnk--> Cape Frederick Hendrick on the <!--del_lnk--> Forestier Peninsula. An attempt at landing was made but the sea was too rough; however, the carpenter swam through the surf, and, planting a flag, Tasman took formal possession of the land on <!--del_lnk--> 3 December <!--del_lnk--> 1642.<p><a id="New_Zealand" name="New_Zealand"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">New Zealand</span></h3> <p>Tasman had intended to proceed in a northerly direction but as the wind was unfavourable he steered east. On <!--del_lnk--> 13 December they sighted land on the north-west coast of the <!--del_lnk--> South Island, <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. After some exploration he sailed further east, and nine days later was the first European known to sight New Zealand, which he named <i>Staten Landt</i> on the assumption that it was connected to an island (<!--del_lnk--> Staten Island, Argentina) at the south of the tip of <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>. Proceeding north and then east one of his boats was attacked by some <!--del_lnk--> Māori in war canoes, and four of his men were killed. It has recently been suggested that some of Tasman's sailors briefly landed here on <!--del_lnk--> 18 December <!--del_lnk--> 1642. Tasman named it <i>Murderers' Bay</i> (now known as <!--del_lnk--> Golden Bay) and sailed north, but mistook <!--del_lnk--> Cook Strait for a bight (naming it <i><!--del_lnk--> Zeehaen's Bight</i>). Two names that he bestowed on New Zealand landmarks still endure: <!--del_lnk--> Cape Maria van Diemen and <!--del_lnk--> Three Kings Islands (<i>Cabo Pieter Boreels</i> is now known as <!--del_lnk--> Cape Egmont).<p><a id="The_return_voyage" name="The_return_voyage"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The return voyage</span></h3> <p>En route back to Batavia, he came across the <a href="../../wp/t/Tonga.htm" title="Tonga">Tongan</a> archipelago on <!--del_lnk--> January 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1643. While passing the <!--del_lnk--> Fiji Islands Tasman's ships came close to being wrecked in one of its reef-lined bays. Eventually turned north-west to <!--del_lnk--> New Guinea, and arrived at Batavia on <!--del_lnk--> 15 June <!--del_lnk--> 1643.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15131.png.htm" title="Tasman's routes"><img alt="Tasman's routes" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tasmanroutes.PNG" src="../../images/151/15131.png" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15131.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Tasman's routes</div> </div> </div> <p><a id="Second_Pacific_voyage" name="Second_Pacific_voyage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Second Pacific voyage</span></h2> <p>With three ships on his second voyage (<!--del_lnk--> <i>Limmen</i>, <!--del_lnk--> <i>Zeemeeuw</i> and the tender <!--del_lnk--> <i>Braek</i>) in <!--del_lnk--> 1644, he followed the south coast of <!--del_lnk--> New Guinea eastward. He missed the <!--del_lnk--> Torres Strait between New Guinea and Australia, and continued his voyage along the Australian coast. He mapped the north coast of Australia making observations on the land and its people.<p>From the point of view of the <!--del_lnk--> VOC Tasman's explorations were a disappointment: he had neither found a promising area for trade nor a useful new shipping route. For over a century, until the era of <a href="../../wp/j/James_Cook.htm" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>, Tasmania and New Zealand were not visited by Europeans - mainland <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> was visited, but usually only by accident.<p><a id="Later_life" name="Later_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Later life</span></h2> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> 2 November <!--del_lnk--> 1644 he was appointed a member of the council of justice at Batavia. He went to Sumatra in 1646, and in August 1647 to Siam (now <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>) with letters from the company to the King. In May 1648 he was in charge of an expedition sent to <a href="../../wp/m/Manila.htm" title="Manila">Manila</a> to try to intercept and loot the Spanish silver ships coming from America, but he had no success and returned to Batavia in January 1649. In November 1649 he was charged and found guilty of having in the previous year hanged one of his men without trial, was suspended from his office of commander, fined, and made to pay compensation to the relatives of the sailor. On <!--del_lnk--> 5 January <!--del_lnk--> 1651 he was formally reinstated in his rank and spent his remaining years at Batavia. He was in good circumstances, being one of the larger landowners in the town. He died at Batavia in October 1659 and was survived by his second wife and a daughter by his first wife. His discoveries were most important but led to nothing for more than 100 years.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15132.jpg.htm" title="The Abel Tasman map 1644, also known as the Bonaparte Tasman map. This map is part of the collection of the State Library of New South Wales, Australia."><img alt="The Abel Tasman map 1644, also known as the Bonaparte Tasman map. This map is part of the collection of the State Library of New South Wales, Australia." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tasmanmap1644.jpg" src="../../images/151/15132.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15132.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Abel Tasman map 1644, also known as the Bonaparte Tasman map. This map is part of the collection of the <!--del_lnk--> State Library of New South Wales, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p><a id="Tasman.27s_legacy" name="Tasman.27s_legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tasman's legacy</span></h2> <p>As with many explorers, Tasman's name has been honoured in many places. These include:<ul> <li>the <!--del_lnk--> island of <!--del_lnk--> Tasmania, including features such as <ul> <li>the <!--del_lnk--> Tasman Peninsula<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Tasman Bridge<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Tasman Highway<li>the passenger/vehicle ferry <!--del_lnk--> <i>Abel Tasman</i></ul> <li>the <!--del_lnk--> Tasman Sea<li>in New Zealand: <ul> <li>the <!--del_lnk--> Tasman Glacier<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Tasman River<li><!--del_lnk--> Mount Tasman<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Abel Tasman National Park<li><!--del_lnk--> Tasman Bay<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Tasman District</ul> </ul> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel_Tasman"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Netherlands', 'New Zealand', 'Fiji', 'Australia', 'New Zealand', 'Netherlands', 'Jakarta', 'Taiwan', 'Japan', 'Sumatra', 'Mauritius', 'New Zealand', 'South America', 'Tonga', 'James Cook', 'Australia', 'Thailand', 'Manila', 'Australia']
Aberdeen	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Aberdeen,Scottish Cities,Aberdeen,Aberdeencity.OGG,Scottish Cities,Aberdeen,2003,2004,2006,2007,AB postcode area" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Aberdeen</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Aberdeen"; var wgTitle = "Aberdeen"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "1627"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130753864"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aberdeen"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aberdeen</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox geography vcard" style="width: 23em;"> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="width:100%; font-size: 1.25em; white-space: nowrap;"><b><span class="fn org">Aberdeen</span></b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Obar Dheathain<br /><a href="../../wp/s/Scots_language.htm" title="Scots language">Aiberdeen</a><br /><small>Granite City, Oil Capital of Europe, Silver City</small></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td colspan="2"> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;;"> <div class="floatleft"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/180/18012.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="87" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Aberdeen.gif" src="../../images/180/18012.gif" width="130" /></a></span></div> <div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/180/18022.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="91" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aberdeen-coa.png" src="../../images/180/18022.png" width="90" /></a></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td align="center" colspan="2"> <p><span id="coordinates"><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 57°09′09″N 2°06′36″W"><span class="latitude">57°09′09″N</span> <span class="longitude">2°06′36″W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec geo" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 57.1526 -2.11"><span class="latitude">57.1526</span>, <span class="longitude">-2.11</span></span></span></span></span><div style="width: 183px; float:none; clear:both;"> <div style="position: relative;border: 1px solid none; padding: 0px; width: 180px"><a class="image" href="../../images/180/18025.png.htm" title="Aberdeen (Scotland )"><img alt="Aberdeen (Scotland )" height="304" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Scotland_%28Location%29_Template_%28HR%29.png" src="../../images/180/18025.png" width="180" /></a><br /> <div style="position: absolute; z-index: 2; top: 60%; left: 81.2%; height: 0; width: 0; margin: 0; padding: 0;"> <div style="position: relative; text-align: center; left: -4px; top: -4px; width: 8px; font-size: 8px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/238/23824.png.htm" title="Aberdeen"><img alt="Aberdeen" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red_pog.svg" src="../../images/238/23824.png" width="8" /></a></div> <div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%; position: relative; top: -1.5em; width: 6em; left: 0.5em; text-align: left;"> </div> </div> </div> <div style="font-size: 90%"> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Population</th> <td>202,370</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</th> <td>2819 <!--del_lnk--> mile² (1,089 <!--del_lnk--> km²)</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">Language</a></th> <td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th> </th> <td><a href="../../wp/s/Scots_language.htm" title="Scots language">Scots</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Doric)</td> </tr> <tr class="mergetoprow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> OS grid reference</th> <td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> NJ925065</span></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th> - <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a></th> <td>94 miles (151 km)</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <th> - <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a></th> <td>403 miles (649 km)</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Parish</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Presbytery of Aberdeen</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Council area</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen City Council</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Lieutenancy area</th> <td>Aberdeen</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow adr"> <th><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries.htm" title="List of countries">Constituent country</a></th> <td class="country-name"><a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign state</a></th> <td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Post town</th> <td>ABERDEEN</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Postcode district</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> AB10-AB13 (part), AB15, AB16, AB22-AB25</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Dial code</th> <td>01224</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Vehicle code</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> SU-SW</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Police</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Grampian</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Fire</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Grampian</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Ambulance</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Scottish</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> UK Parliament</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen South</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th> </th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen North</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th> </th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Gordon</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Scottish Parliament</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> North East Scotland</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th> </th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Central</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th> </th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen North</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th> </th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen South</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> European Parliament</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Scotland</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Website:</b> <!--del_lnk--> aberdeencity.gov.uk</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td align="center" colspan="2"><small>List of places: <!--del_lnk--> UK • <!--del_lnk--> Scotland • <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen</small></td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Aberdeen</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA audiolink nounderlines" style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> /abɚdin/</span> ; <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Gaelic_language.htm" title="Scottish Gaelic language">Scottish Gaelic</a>: <span lang="gd" xml:lang="gd"><i>Obar Dheathain</i></span>) is <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>'s third largest <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">city</a> with a population of 202,370. Locals call it the <i>Granite City</i> and the <i>Silver City with the Golden Sands</i>, since much of the city was built of grey <a href="../../wp/g/Granite.htm" title="Granite">granite</a> which the loyal locals see as shimmering like silver in the sun.. It is also called the <i>Oil Capital of Europe</i> after the discovery of <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea_oil.htm" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a>.<p>The area around Aberdeen has had human settlement for at least 8,000 years, when small villages lay around the mouths of the <!--del_lnk--> River Dee and <!--del_lnk--> River Don. The city's name came from the Celtic 'Aber' meaning "the mouth of" and the river name Dee, literally meaning at the mouth of the Dee. Old Aberdeen, to the north of the modern city and on the river Don, was formerly known as "Aberdon".<p>In 1319, it received <!--del_lnk--> Royal Burgh status from <!--del_lnk--> Robert the Bruce, transforming the city economically. The city's two universities, <!--del_lnk--> University of Aberdeen, founded in 1495, and the <!--del_lnk--> Robert Gordon University, which was awarded university status in 1992, make Aberdeen the educational centre of the north-east. The traditional industries were fishing, paper-making, shipbuilding and textiles, but they have been overtaken by the <!--del_lnk--> oil industry and Aberdeen's <!--del_lnk--> seaport. The seaport is the largest in the northeast of Scotland.<p>Aberdeen has won the <!--del_lnk--> Britain in Bloom competition ten times, and hosts the <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen International Youth Festival.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18068.jpg.htm" title="Aberdeen Mercat Cross"><img alt="Aberdeen Mercat Cross" class="thumbimage" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aberdeen_Market_Cross.jpg" src="../../images/180/18068.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18068.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aberdeen <!--del_lnk--> Mercat Cross</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18090.jpg.htm" title="Aberdeen (c.1900)"><img alt="Aberdeen (c.1900)" class="thumbimage" height="149" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aberdeen1.jpg" src="../../images/180/18090.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18090.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> <center>Aberdeen (c.1900)</center> </div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>The Aberdeen area has seen human settlement for at least 8,000 years. The city began as two separate <!--del_lnk--> burghs: <!--del_lnk--> Old Aberdeen at the mouth of the river Don; and New Aberdeen, a fishing and trading settlement, where the Denburn waterway entered the river Dee estuary. The earliest <!--del_lnk--> charter was granted by <!--del_lnk--> William the Lion in 1179 and confirmed the corporate rights granted by <!--del_lnk--> David I. In 1319, the Great Charter of <!--del_lnk--> Robert the Bruce transformed Aberdeen into a property-owning and financially independent community. Granted with it was the nearby Forest of Stocket, whose income formed the basis for the city's <!--del_lnk--> Common Good Fund which still benefits Aberdonians.<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> Wars of Scottish Independence, Aberdeen was under <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> rule, so <!--del_lnk--> Robert the Bruce laid siege to <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Castle before destroying it in 1308 followed by the massacring of the English garrison and the retaking of Aberdeen for the townspeople. When Bruce took over the castle and finished the siege, <!--del_lnk--> Bon Accord was used as the code to initiate the final attack and has been the city's motto ever since. The city was burned by <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III of England</a> in 1336, but was rebuilt and extended, and called New Aberdeen. The city was strongly fortified to prevent attacks by neighbouring lords, but the gates were removed by 1770. During the <!--del_lnk--> Wars of the Three Kingdoms of 1644-1647 the city was impartially plundered by both sides. In 1644, it was taken and ransacked by Royalist troops after the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Aberdeen. A quarter of the population died in 1647 from an outbreak of <!--del_lnk--> bubonic plague.<p>In the 18th century, a new Town Hall was built and the first social services appeared with the <!--del_lnk--> Infirmary at <!--del_lnk--> Woolmanhill in 1742 and the Lunatic Asylum in 1779. The council began major road improvements at the end of the century with the main thoroughfares of George Street, King Street and <!--del_lnk--> Union Street all completed at the start of the next century.<p>A century later, the increasing economic importance of Aberdeen and the development of the shipbuilding and fishing industries led to the existing harbour with Victoria Dock, the South Breakwater, and the extension to the North Pier. The expensive infrastructure program had repercussions, and in 1817 the city was bankrupt. However, a recovery was made in the general prosperity which followed the <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleonic_Wars.htm" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic wars</a>. Gas street lighting arrived in 1824 and an enhanced water supply appeared in 1830 when water was pumped from the Dee to a reservoir in Union Place. An underground sewer system replaced open sewers in 1865.<p>The city was first <!--del_lnk--> incorporated in 1891. Although Old Aberdeen still has a separate charter and history, it and New Aberdeen are no longer truly distinct. They are both part of the city, along with <!--del_lnk--> Woodside and the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Burgh of <!--del_lnk--> Torry to the south of the River Dee.<p><a id="Architecture" name="Architecture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Architecture</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18096.jpg.htm" title="Seamount Court and Porthill Court (foreground)"><img alt="Seamount Court and Porthill Court (foreground)" class="thumbimage" height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Porthill_Court_%28foreground%29_and_Seamount_Courts.jpg" src="../../images/180/18096.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18096.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Seamount Court and Porthill Court (foreground)</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p><!--del_lnk--> Union Street, built of granite in 1801-05, runs from Castle Street for nearly a mile (1.5 km), is 70 feet (21 m) wide, and originally contained the principal shops and most public buildings. Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilised for the line of the <!--del_lnk--> Great North of Scotland Railway) by Union Bridge, a granite arch of 132 feet (40 m) span, with portions of the older town still fringing the gorge, 50 feet (15 m) below the level of <!--del_lnk--> Union Street.<p>The Town House, built in Franco-Scottish Gothic style, is at the east end of Union Street. Containing the great hall, with an open timber ceiling and oak-panel walls, the Sheriff Court House and the <!--del_lnk--> Town and County Hall contains portraits of various <!--del_lnk--> Lord Provosts and distinguished citizens. On the south-western corner is the 210 foot (64 m) grand tower high enough to give a view of the city and surrounding country. Adjoining the Town House is the old North of Scotland Bank building, in <!--del_lnk--> Greek Revival style.<p>Other notable buildings on the street are the Town and County Bank, the <!--del_lnk--> Music Hall, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (1398-1527, now a shopping centre), the Palace Hotel, and the former office of the Northern Assurance Company. Many of the city's most renowned buildings were designed by local architect <!--del_lnk--> Archibald Simpson. Just off Union Street, <!--del_lnk--> Marischal College is the second largest granite building in the world. Its present frontage was inaugurated by King <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VII of the United Kingdom">Edward VII</a> in 1906, but the central parts by Archibald Simpson are considerably older.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Mercat Cross, built in 1686 by <!--del_lnk--> John Montgomery, is an open-arched structure, 21 feet (6 m) in diameter and 18 feet (5 m) high with a large hexagonal base from the centre of which rises a shaft with a Corinthian capital, on which is the royal <!--del_lnk--> unicorn. The base is highly decorated, including medallions illustrating Scottish monarchs from <!--del_lnk--> James I to <!--del_lnk--> James VII.<p>Notable religious buildings are <!--del_lnk--> the Kirk of St Nicholas, in the centre of the city, with a large <!--del_lnk--> kirkyard separated from <!--del_lnk--> Union Street by a 147 foot (45 m) long Ionic facade, built in 1830. The divided church within, with a central tower and spire, forms one continuous building 220 feet (67 m) in length. In <!--del_lnk--> Old Aberdeen, <!--del_lnk--> St. Machar's Cathedral was started in the 12th century but took centuries to complete with the exception of the period of the episcopates of <!--del_lnk--> William Elphinstone and <!--del_lnk--> Gavin Dunbar, who completed the structure by adding the two western spires and the southern transept.<p>The ancient <!--del_lnk--> Brig o' Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning the deep black stream, is said to have been built by <!--del_lnk--> King Robert I. The Bridge of Dee consists of seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 feet (10 m) high, and was built early in the 16th century by Bishops <!--del_lnk--> Elphinstone and <!--del_lnk--> Dunbar. It was nearly all rebuilt in 1718-1723 and in 1842 was widened from 14 to 26 feet (4 to 8 m) wide.<div class="center"> <div class="thumb tnone"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:602px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18098.jpg.htm" title="Granite terrace in central Aberdeen"><img alt="Granite terrace in central Aberdeen" class="thumbimage" height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Granite_terrace_in_Aberdeen.jpg" src="../../images/180/18098.jpg" width="600" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/180/18098.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/g/Granite.htm" title="Granite">Granite</a> <!--del_lnk--> terrace in central Aberdeen</div> </div> </div> </div> <p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18100.jpg.htm" title="St. Machar's Cathedral"><img alt="St. Machar's Cathedral" class="thumbimage" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St._Machar%27s_Cathedral_tower%2C_Aberdeen.jpg" src="../../images/181/18100.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18100.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> St. Machar's Cathedral</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Traditionally <!--del_lnk--> Christian, Aberdeen's largest denominations are the <!--del_lnk--> Church of Scotland through the <!--del_lnk--> Presbytery of Aberdeen and the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic faith. The last census revealed that Aberdeen is the least religious city in Scotland, with nearly 43 % of people claiming to have no religion and several former churches in the city have been converted into bars and restaurants.<p>There is also an <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islamic</a> Mosque in Old Aberdeen and a small informal Jewish congregation. There is no formal <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> or <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> building. The <!--del_lnk--> University of Aberdeen has a small <a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" title="Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í</a> society.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Kirk of St Nicholas was the only burgh kirk and one of <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>'s largest parish churches. Like a number of other Scottish kirks, it was subdivided after the <!--del_lnk--> Reformation, in this case into the East and West churches. At this time, the city also was home to houses of the <!--del_lnk--> Carmelites (<!--del_lnk--> Whitefriars) and <!--del_lnk--> Franciscans <!--del_lnk--> Greyfriars), the latter or which surviving in modified form as the chapel of Marischal College as late as the early 20th Century.<p><!--del_lnk--> St Machar's Cathedral was formed twenty years after <!--del_lnk--> David I (1124-53) transferred the pre-Reformation <!--del_lnk--> Diocese from Mortlach in <!--del_lnk--> Banffshire to Old Aberdeen in 1137. With the exception of the episcopate of <!--del_lnk--> William Elphinstone (1484-1511), building progressed slowly. <!--del_lnk--> Gavin Dunbar, who followed him in 1518, completed the structure by adding the two western spires and the southern transept.<p><!--del_lnk--> St. Mary's Cathedral is a <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Cathedral in <!--del_lnk--> Gothic style, erected in 1859.<p><!--del_lnk--> St. Andrew's Cathedral is the <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Episcopal_Church.htm" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal</a> Cathedral, constructed in 1817 as Archibald Simpson's first commission. It is notable for having consecrated the first bishop of the <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church in the United States of America.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18102.jpg.htm" title="Donside Paper Mill under demolition, February 15 2006"><img alt="Donside Paper Mill under demolition, February 15 2006" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Donside_Paper_Mill_under_demolition%2C_2006..jpg" src="../../images/181/18102.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18102.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Donside Paper Mill under demolition, February 15 2006</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18104.jpg.htm" title="North Sea Oil Platforms"><img alt="North Sea Oil Platforms" class="thumbimage" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Oil_platform_in_the_North_Sea.jpg" src="../../images/181/18104.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18104.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> North Sea Oil Platforms</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18110.jpg.htm" title="Belmont Street Farmers Market"><img alt="Belmont Street Farmers Market" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BelmontStreetMarket-81625-Peter_Ward.jpg" src="../../images/181/18110.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18110.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Belmont Street Farmers Market</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Traditionally, Aberdeen was home to fishing, textile mills, ship building and paper making. These industries have all but gone now and have been replaced. High technology developments in the electronics design and development industry, research in agriculture and fishing and of course the <!--del_lnk--> oil industry, which has been largely responsible for Aberdeen's economic boom in the last three decades, are now major parts of Aberdeen's economy.<p>Until the 1970s, most of Aberdeen's leading industries dated from the 18th Century; mainly these were textiles, foundry work, shipbuilding and <!--del_lnk--> paper-making &mdash, the oldest industry in the city, with paper having been first made there in 1694. Paper-making has reduced in importance since the closures of Donside Paper Mill in 2001 and the Davidson Mill in 2005 leaving the Stoneywood Paper Mill with a workforce of approximately 500. Textile production ended in 2004 when <!--del_lnk--> Richards of Aberdeen closed.<p>Grey granite was <!--del_lnk--> quarried at <!--del_lnk--> Rubislaw quarry for more than 300 years, and used for paving setts, kerb and building stones, and monumental and other ornamental pieces. Aberdeen granite was used to build the terraces of the <!--del_lnk--> Houses of Parliament and <!--del_lnk--> Waterloo Bridge in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>. Quarrying finally ceased in 1971.<p>Fishing was once the predominant industry, but was surpassed by deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from improved technologies throughout the 20th Century. Catches have fallen due to overfishing and the use of the harbour by oil support vessels, and so although still an mportant fishing port it is now eclipsed by the more northerly ports of <!--del_lnk--> Peterhead and <!--del_lnk--> Fraserburgh. The <!--del_lnk--> Fisheries Research Services is based in Aberdeen, including its headquarters, and a marine research lab in Torry.<p>Aberdeen is well regarded for the agricultural and soil research that takes place at <!--del_lnk--> The Macaulay Institute, which has close links to the city's two universities. The <!--del_lnk--> Rowett Research Institute is a world renowned research centre for studies into food and nutrition located in Aberdeen. It has produced three Nobel laureates and there is a high concentration of <!--del_lnk--> life scientists working in the city.<p>There is also a dynamic and fast growing electronics design and development industry.<p>With the discovery of significant <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea_oil.htm" title="North Sea oil">oil deposits</a> in the <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea.htm" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> during the late 20th Century, Aberdeen became the centre of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>'s <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> industry. With the second largest heliport in the world and an important service ship harbour port serving <!--del_lnk--> oil rigs off-shore, Aberdeen is often called the <i>Oil Capital of Europe</i>.<p>Local political attempts have been made to turn Aberdeen's reputation as the <i>Oil Capital of Europe</i> into the <i>Energy Capital of Europe</i> as oil supplies may start to dwindle in coming years, and there is considerable interest in the development of new energy sources; technology transfer from oil to other industries is anticipated.<p>Aberdeen has managed to avoid the dilapidation of city centres as often seen in the late 20th century, with only supermarkets and "warehouse" style stores in the outlying areas of the city. The city ranks fourth in Scotland for shopping. The centre has remained relatively prosperous, although Union Street has more than its fair share of discount stores and empty units. The traditional shopping streets are <!--del_lnk--> Union Street and George Street which are now backed up by inner-city shopping centres, notably the <!--del_lnk--> Bon Accord-St Nicholas Centre and the <!--del_lnk--> The Mall Trinity.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18119.jpg.htm" title="University of Aberdeen, Elphinstone Hall"><img alt="University of Aberdeen, Elphinstone Hall" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Elphinstone_Hall2.jpg" src="../../images/181/18119.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18119.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> University of Aberdeen, Elphinstone Hall</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18121.jpg.htm" title="King's College, Old Aberdeen"><img alt="King's College, Old Aberdeen" class="thumbimage" height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Oldkingsaberdeen.jpg" src="../../images/181/18121.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18121.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> King's College, Old Aberdeen</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p><a id="Universities_and_colleges" name="Universities_and_colleges"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Universities and colleges</span></h3> <p>Aberdeen has two universities, the <!--del_lnk--> University of Aberdeen and <!--del_lnk--> Robert Gordon University. Aberdeen has a higher student rate than the national average of 11.5% compared to 7% nationally.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Aberdeen began life as <!--del_lnk--> King's College, Aberdeen, which was founded in 1495 by <!--del_lnk--> William Elphinstone (1431-1514), <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Aberdeen and Chancellor of Scotland. <!--del_lnk--> Marischal College, a separate institution, was founded in "New" Aberdeen by George Keith, 5th Earl Marischal of Scotland in 1593. These institutions were amalgamated to form the present University of Aberdeen in 1860. The university is the fifth oldest in the English speaking world.<p><!--del_lnk--> Robert Gordon's College (originally Robert Gordon's Hospital) was founded in 1729 by the merchant <!--del_lnk--> Robert Gordon, grandson of the map maker Robert Gordon of Straloch, and was further endowed in 1816 by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill. Originally devoted to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganised in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical education. In 1903, the vocational education component of the college was designated a <!--del_lnk--> Central Institution and was renamed as the Robert Gordon Institute of Technology in 1965. In 1992, university status was gained and it became the <!--del_lnk--> Robert Gordon University.<p>Aberdeen is also home to two artistic schools: <!--del_lnk--> Gray's School of Art, founded in 1886, which is one of the oldest established colleges of art in the UK, and is now incorporated into Robert Gordon University; and <!--del_lnk--> The Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and The Built Environment, which is situated on the Garthdee Campus of the Robert Gordon University, next to Gray's School of Art.<p><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen College has several campuses in the city and offers a wide variety of part-time and full-time courses leading to several different qualifications. It is the largest further education institution in Scotland.<p><a id="Schools" name="Schools"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Schools</span></h3> <p>There are currently 12 secondary schools and 54 primary schools which are run by the city council. The most notable are <!--del_lnk--> Cults Academy, <!--del_lnk--> Oldmachar Academy and <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Grammar School (founded in 1263) which were all rated in the top 50 Scottish secondary schools league tables published by <i><!--del_lnk--> The Times</i> in 2005.<p>There are a number of private schools in Aberdeen; <!--del_lnk--> Albyn School for Girls (co-educational as of 2005), <!--del_lnk--> St Margaret's School for Girls, the <!--del_lnk--> Hamilton School (a <!--del_lnk--> Montessori school), <!--del_lnk--> Robert Gordon's College, the <!--del_lnk--> Total French School (for French oil industry families), the <!--del_lnk--> International School of Aberdeen and a <!--del_lnk--> Waldorf/Steiner School.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18128.jpg.htm" title="Snow in Aberdeen, on Union Terrace"><img alt="Snow in Aberdeen, on Union Terrace" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Robertburnsstatue.jpg" src="../../images/181/18128.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18128.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Snow in Aberdeen, on Union Terrace</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18129.gif.htm" title="Aberdeen demographics"><img alt="Aberdeen demographics" class="thumbimage" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AberdeenDemographic.gif" src="../../images/181/18129.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18129.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aberdeen demographics</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3> <p>The mean temperature is 8 <!--del_lnk--> °C (47 <!--del_lnk--> °F) and it varies between an average low of 5 °C (41 °F) and 11 °C (52 °F). In summer (June - August) the average high is 16 °C (63 °F) and average low 9 °C (49 °F). In winter (December - February) the average high is 6 °C (43 °F) and average low 0 °C (33 °F).<p>The average yearly precipitation is 753 <!--del_lnk--> millimetres (29.7 <!--del_lnk--> in), with 64 millimetres (2.5 <!--del_lnk--> in) in summer (June - August) and 62 millimetres (2.5 in) in winter (December - February). The wettest months are October and November.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h3> <p>In 1396 the population was about 3,000. By 1801 it had become 26,992; (1901) 153,503; (1941) 182,467. In 2001 the UK <!--del_lnk--> census records the <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen City Council area's population at 212,125, but the Aberdeen locality's population at 184,788. The latest official population estimate, published by the General Register for Scotland for 2005, is 202,370. Data from the Aberdeen specific locality of the 2001 UK census shows that the demographics include a median male age of 35 and female age of 38 which are younger than Scotland's average and a 49% to 51% male to female ratio.<p>The census showed that there are less young people in Aberdeen, with 16.4 % under 16, opposed to the national average of 19.2 %. Ethnically, 15.7 % were born outside of Scotland, higher than the national average of 12.9 %. Of this population 8.4 % were born in England. 3 % of Aberdonians stated to be from an ethnic minority (non-white) in the 2001 census, with 0.7% from the Indian-subcontinent and 0.6% Asian, in comparison Scotland's overall population of non-white origin is 2 %. However this is a lower percentage than any of Scotland's other three main cities, <a href="../../wp/g/Glasgow.htm" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, and <a href="../../wp/d/Dundee.htm" title="Dundee">Dundee</a>.<p>In the household, there were 97,013 individual dwellings recorded in the city of which 61% were privately owned, 9% privately rented and 23% rented from the council. The most popular type of dwellings are apartments which compromise 49% of residences followed by semi-detached at just below 22%. The average income of a household in the city is £16,813 (2005) which places approximately 18% households in the city below the poverty line (defined as 60% of the mean income).<p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h3> <p>Aberdeen has grown over a site of mainly <!--del_lnk--> metamorphic <!--del_lnk--> quartzite <!--del_lnk--> mica <!--del_lnk--> schist, formed during the <!--del_lnk--> Dalradian period (approximately 480-600 million years ago) with sporadic areas of <!--del_lnk--> igneous <!--del_lnk--> Diorite <a href="../../wp/g/Granite.htm" title="Granite">grainites</a> to be found, such as that at the <!--del_lnk--> Rubislaw quarry which was used to build much of the <!--del_lnk--> Victorian parts of the city.<p>On the coast, Aberdeen has a long sand beach between the two rivers, the <!--del_lnk--> Dee and the <!--del_lnk--> Don, which turns into high <!--del_lnk--> sand dunes north of the Don stretching as far as <!--del_lnk--> Fraserburgh and to the south of the Dee rocky cliff faces with pebble and shingle beaches.<p><a id="Topography" name="Topography"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Topography</span></h3> <p>The city extends to 71.22 <!--del_lnk--> square miles (184.46 <!--del_lnk--> km²), and includes the former burghs of <!--del_lnk--> Old Aberdeen, New Aberdeen, <!--del_lnk--> Woodside and the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Burgh of <!--del_lnk--> Torry to the south of <!--del_lnk--> River Dee. This gives the city a population density of 2819 <!--del_lnk--> square miles (1,089 <!--del_lnk--> km²).The city is built on many hills, with the original beginnings of the city growing from Castle Hill, St. Catherine's Hill and Windmill Hill (also known as the Gallowgate).<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18135.jpg.htm" title="His Majesty's Theatre"><img alt="His Majesty's Theatre" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Playhouseaberdeen.jpg" src="../../images/181/18135.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18135.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> His Majesty's Theatre</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18153.jpg.htm" title="Looking down Shiprow with Provost Ross's house on the right"><img alt="Looking down Shiprow with Provost Ross's house on the right" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:RossHouse-117156-Richard_Slessor.jpg" src="../../images/181/18153.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18153.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Looking down Shiprow with Provost Ross's house on the right</div> </div> </div> <p>The city is blessed with amenities which cover a wide range of cultural activities and boasts a selection of museums. The city is regularly visited by <!--del_lnk--> Scotland's National Arts Companies. The <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Art Gallery houses a collection of <!--del_lnk--> Impressionist, <!--del_lnk--> Victorian, Scottish and 20th Century British paintings as well as collections of silver and glass. It also includes The Alexander Macdonald Bequest, a collection of late 19th century works donated by the museum's first benefactor and a constantly changing collection of contemporary work and regular visiting exhibitions.<p><a id="Museums_and_galleries" name="Museums_and_galleries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museums and galleries</span></h3> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Maritime Museum, located in Shiprow, tells the story of Aberdeen's links with the sea from the days of sail and <!--del_lnk--> clipper ships to the latest oil and gas exploration technology. It includes an 8.5m (28 feet) high model of the Murchison oil production platform and a 19th century assembly taken from <!--del_lnk--> Rattray Headlighthouse.<p><!--del_lnk--> Provost Ross' House is the second oldest dwelling house in the city. It was built in 1593 and became the residence of <!--del_lnk--> Provost John Ross of Arnage in 1702. The house retains some original <!--del_lnk--> medieval features, including a kitchen, fire places and beam-and-board ceilings. The <!--del_lnk--> Gordon Highlanders Museum tells the story of one of Scotland's best known regiments.<p><!--del_lnk--> Marischal Museum holds the principal collections of the <!--del_lnk--> University of Aberdeen, comprising some 80,000 items in the areas of fine art, Scottish history and archaeology, and European, Mediterranean & Near Eastern archaeology. The permanent displays and reference collections are augmented by regular temporary exhibitions.<p><a id="Performing_arts" name="Performing_arts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Performing arts</span></h3> <p>Aberdeen is home to a host of events and festivals including the <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen International Youth Festival (the world's largest arts festival for young performers), Aberdeen Jazz Festival, <i>Rootin' Aboot</i> (folk and roots music event based at <!--del_lnk--> The Lemon Tree), <i>Triptych</i>, and the <!--del_lnk--> University of Aberdeen's literature festival <i>Word</i>.<p>In 2006 <!--del_lnk--> Simon Farquhar's play Rainbow Kiss was staged at <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Royal Court Theatre. Directed by <!--del_lnk--> Richard Wilson and starring Joe McFadden and <!--del_lnk--> Dawn Steele, the play was an uncompromising depiction of Aberdeen life which, despite its strong sexual and violent content, won rave reviews from the liberal press and was applauded by MP for <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen South <!--del_lnk--> Anne Begg.<p><a id="Music_and_film" name="Music_and_film"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Music and film</span></h3> <p>Aberdeen's music scene includes a variety of live music venues including pubs, clubs, and a number of churches with thriving choirs. The music scene is particularly prevalent in the bars of <!--del_lnk--> Belmont Street. <!--del_lnk--> Cèilidhs are also common in some of the city's halls. Popular venues include The Lemon Tree, The Tunnels, the <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Exhibition and Conference Centre, and <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Music Hall. Aberdonian musicians include <!--del_lnk--> Evelyn Glennie and <!--del_lnk--> Annie Lennox.<p>Cultural cinema, educational work and local film events are provided by <!--del_lnk--> The Belmont Picturehouse on <!--del_lnk--> Belmont Street, Peacock Visual Arts and The Foyer.<p><a id="Open_spaces" name="Open_spaces"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Open spaces</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18156.jpg.htm" title="Union Terrace Gardens"><img alt="Union Terrace Gardens" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Union_Terrace_Gardens.jpg" src="../../images/181/18156.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18156.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Union Terrace Gardens</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18168.jpg.htm" title="Duthie Park Winter Gardens"><img alt="Duthie Park Winter Gardens" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Duthie_Park_-_Winter_Gardens.jpg" src="../../images/181/18168.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18168.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Duthie Park Winter Gardens</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18172.jpg.htm" title="Aberdeen Beach"><img alt="Aberdeen Beach" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aberdeen_Beach_2006.jpg" src="../../images/181/18172.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18172.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aberdeen Beach</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Aberdeen has long been famous for its 45 outstanding <a href="../../wp/p/Park.htm" title="Park">parks</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Garden.htm" title="Garden">gardens</a>, and citywide floral displays which include two million roses, eleven million daffodils and three million crocuses. The city has won the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Horticultural Society's <!--del_lnk--> Britain in Bloom 'Best City' award ten times, the overall Scotland in Bloom competition twenty times and the large city category every year since 1968. At one point after winning a period of nine years straight, Aberdeen was banned from the Britain in Bloom competition to give another city a chance. The city won the 2006 Scotland in Bloom "Best City" award along with the International Cities in Bloom award. The suburb of <!--del_lnk--> Dyce also won the Small Towns award.<p><!--del_lnk--> Duthie Park opened in 1899 on the north bank of the <!--del_lnk--> river Dee. It was named after and gifted to the city by Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston in 1881. It has extensive gardens, a rose hill, boating pond, bandstand, and play area as well Europe's second largest enclosed gardens the David Welch Winter Gardens. <!--del_lnk--> Hazlehead Park, is large and forested, located on the outskirts of the city, it is popular with walkers in the forests, sports enthusiasts, naturalists and picnickers. There are football pitches, two golf courses, a pitch and putt course and a horse riding school.<p>Aberdeen's success in the Britain in Bloom competitions is often attributed to <!--del_lnk--> Johnston Gardens, a small park of one hectare in the west end of the city containing many different flowers and plants which have been renowned for their beauty. The garden was in 2002, named the best garden in <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Britain</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Seaton Park, formerly the grounds of a private house, is on the edge of the grounds of <!--del_lnk--> St Machar's Cathedral. The Cathedral Walk is maintained in a formal style with a great variety of plants providing a popular display. The park includes several other areas with contrasting styles to this.<p><!--del_lnk--> Union Terrace Gardens opened in 1879 and is situated in the centre of the city. It is a popular rendezvous location in the heart of the city with locals, in particular students and other young locals and is filled with trees of over 200 years old and flowers arranged in the city's coat of arms in summer.<p>Situated next to each other, <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Park and <!--del_lnk--> Westburn Park cover 26 acres between them. <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Park opened in 1871. There is a conservatory used as a seating area and a fountain made of fourteen different granites, presented to the people by the granite polishers and master builders of Aberdeen. Opposite to the north is <!--del_lnk--> Westburn Park opened in 1901. With large grass pitches it is widely used for field sports. There is large tennis centre with indoor and outdoor courts, a children's cycle track, play area and a grass boules lawn.<p><a id="Dialect" name="Dialect"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dialect</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>The local dialect of <!--del_lnk--> Lowland Scots is often known as the <i>Doric</i>, and is spoken not just in the city, but across the north-east of Scotland. It differs somewhat from other Scots dialects most noticeable are the pronunciation <i>f</i> for what is normally written <i>wh</i> and <i>ee</i> for what in standard English would usually be written <i>oo</i> (Scots <i>ui</i>). Every year the annual Doric Festival takes place in Aberdeenshire to celebrate the history of the north-east's language.<p>As with all Scots dialects in urban areas, it is not spoken as widely as it used to be in Aberdeen. In the surrounding <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeenshire it can be heard quite commonly but within the city, some words are still commonly used, such as:<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="" style="background:transparent; width:100%;"> <tr> <td align="left" valign="top" width="50%"> <ul> <li><i>"Fit like?"</i> (Whit like): A greeting, essentially, "How are you doing?", to which the response is <i>"Aye... tyauvin on."</i> (Aye tawin on) "Fine, thanks"<li><i>"Fit?"</i> (Whit): "What?"<li><i>"Fit ye deein?"</i> (Whit ye daein?): "What are you doing?"<li><i>"Far aboots?"</i> (Whaur aboots?): "Whereabouts?" [often with the humorous spelling "Furry boots?"]<li><i>"Bide"</i>: "Reside" or "live"<li><i>"Far div ye bide?"</i> (Whaur div ye bide?): "Where do you live?"</ul> </td> <td align="left" valign="top" width="50%"> <ul> <li><i>"Fou's yer dous?"</i> (Hou's yer dous?): Literally "How are your pigeons?", now used as "How are you?"<li><i>"Aye peckin"</i>: Literally "Always pecking." This is the reply to <i>"Fou's yer dous?"</i><li><i>"Louns an quines"</i>: Lads and lassies, boys and girls<li><i>"Fair dingin doun"</i>: Raining heavily (i.e., pouring down)<li><i>"It's auld, ding it doun!"</i>: Speaking of buildings, "It's old, demolish it!"</ul> </td> </tr> </table> <ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Listen to recordings of a speaker of Scots from Aberdeen</ul> <h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sport</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18180.jpg.htm" title="Pittodrie's Dick Donald Stand"><img alt="Pittodrie's Dick Donald Stand" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Richard_Donald_Stand.JPG" src="../../images/181/18180.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18180.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Pittodrie's Dick Donald Stand</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Football is best represented in Aberdeen with the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Premier League football club, <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen FC, who play at <!--del_lnk--> Pittodrie. The club's major success was winning the <!--del_lnk--> European Cup Winners Cup and the <!--del_lnk--> European Super Cup in 1983, and three <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Premier League Championships between 1980 and 1985. The other senior team is <!--del_lnk--> Cove Rangers F.C. of the <!--del_lnk--> Highland Football League (HFL), who play at <!--del_lnk--> Allan Park in the suburb of <!--del_lnk--> Cove Bay.. Cove won the HFL championship in 2001.<p>In rugby, the city is home to the <!--del_lnk--> BT Premiership Division One rugby club <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen GSFP RFC who play at <!--del_lnk--> Rubislaw Playing Fields, and also Aberdeen Wanderers RFC whose most famous former player <!--del_lnk--> Jason White, is captain of the <!--del_lnk--> Scotland national rugby union team.<p>Golfing provision is excellent, and <!--del_lnk--> The Open Championship winner of 1999 <!--del_lnk--> Paul Lawrie hails from the city. The oldest golf club in the city is the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Aberdeen Golf Club which was founded in 1780 and which hosted the <!--del_lnk--> Senior British Open in 2005. The club has a second course, and there are public golf courses at Auchmill, <!--del_lnk--> Balnagask, <!--del_lnk--> Hazlehead and King's Links.<p>The <i>City of Aberdeen Swim Team</i> (COAST) is based in Northfield swimming pool and have been in operation since 1996. The team comprises several smaller swimming clubs, and has enjoyed success throughout Scotland and in international competitions. Three of the team's swimmers qualified for the 2006 <a href="../../wp/c/Commonwealth_Games.htm" title="Commonwealth Games">Commonwealth Games</a>.<p>The city council operates public tennis courts in various parks including an indoor tennis centre at Westburn Park. The Beach Leisure Centre is home to a climbing wall and gymnasium and there are numerous swimming pools dotted around the city notably the largest, the Bon-Accord Baths.<p><a id="Infrastructure" name="Infrastructure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Infrastructure</span></h2> <p><a id="Health" name="Health"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Health</span></h3> <p>Aberdeen's health is provided for most people by <!--del_lnk--> NHS Scotland through the <!--del_lnk--> NHS Grampian health board. <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Royal Infirmary is the main hospital in the city, with the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Aberdeen Children's Hospital for children, the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Cornhill Hospital for mental health and the <!--del_lnk--> Woodend Hospital and <!--del_lnk--> Woolmanhill Hospitals.<p>Privately there is the <!--del_lnk--> Albyn Hospital on Albyn Place which is owned and operated by BMI Healthcare.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18192.jpg.htm" title="Aberdeen Railway Station"><img alt="Aberdeen Railway Station" class="thumbimage" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aberdeenconcourse.jpg" src="../../images/181/18192.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18192.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aberdeen Railway Station</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Airport (ABZ), at <!--del_lnk--> Dyce in the north of the city, serves a number of domestic and international destinations including <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavian countries. The heliport which serves the oil industry and rescue services is the busiest commercial heliport in the world.<p><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen railway station is on the main UK rail network and connects directly to major cities such as <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>. Many services from London actually terminate at Dyce, serving the airport.<p>There are five major roads in and out of the city. The A90 is the main arterial route into the city from the north and south, linking Aberdeen to Edinburgh, <a href="../../wp/d/Dundee.htm" title="Dundee">Dundee</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Perth in the south and <!--del_lnk--> Ellon, <!--del_lnk--> Peterhead and <!--del_lnk--> Fraserburgh in the north. The A96 links to <!--del_lnk--> Elgin and <!--del_lnk--> Inverness and the north west. The A93 is the main route to the west, heading towards Royal Deeside and the <!--del_lnk--> Cairngorms. After <!--del_lnk--> Braemar, it turns south, providing an alternative tourist route to Perth. The A92 was the original southerly road to Aberdeen prior to the building of the A90, and is now used as a tourist route, connecting the towns of <!--del_lnk--> Montrose, <!--del_lnk--> Arbroath and <!--del_lnk--> Brechin on the east coast. The A947 exits the city at Dyce and goes on to <!--del_lnk--> Newmachar, <!--del_lnk--> Oldmeldrum and <!--del_lnk--> Turriff finally ending at <!--del_lnk--> Banff and Macduff<p>Aberdeen Harbour is important as the largest in the north of Scotland and as a ferry route to <a href="../../wp/o/Orkney.htm" title="Orkney">Orkney</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Shetland.htm" title="Shetland">Shetland</a>. Established in 1136, it has been referred to as the oldest business in Britain.<p><!--del_lnk--> First Group, headquartered in Aberdeen, operate the city buses in the city under the name FirstBus Aberdeen. There are 19 routes (numbered 1-2, 5-6, 9, 11-17, X18, 19-20, 22-24, 27, 40-41).<p>Aberdeen is connected to the UK <!--del_lnk--> National Cycle Network, and has a track to the south connecting to cities such as Dundee and Edinburgh and one to the north that forks about 10 miles from the city into two different tracks heading to Inverness and <!--del_lnk--> Fraserburgh respectively. Two particularly popular footpaths along old railway tracks are the <!--del_lnk--> Deeside Way to <!--del_lnk--> Banchory (which will eventually connect to Ballater) and the <!--del_lnk--> Formartine and Buchan Way to Ellon, both are used by a mixture of cyclists, walkers and occasionally horses.<p><a id="Utilities" name="Utilities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Utilities</span></h3> <p><!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen City Council is responsible for city owned infrastructure which is paid for by a mixture of council tax and income from <!--del_lnk--> HM Treasury. Infrastructure and services run by the council include; clearing snow in winter, maintaining parks, refuse collection, sewage, street cleaning and street lighting. Infrastructure in private hands includes electricity, gas, telecoms and water supplies.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Aberdeen is locally governed by Aberdeen City Council, which comprises forty-three councillors who represent the city's <!--del_lnk--> wards and is headed by the <!--del_lnk--> Lord Provost who is currently Provost John Reynolds.<p>Since May 2003 the council, with a <a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_Democrats.htm" title="Liberal Democrats">Liberal Democrat</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Conservatives coalition, consists of: 20 Liberal Democrat, 3 Conservatives, 14 <!--del_lnk--> Labour and 6 <!--del_lnk--> Scottish National Party councillors. All council seats will become vacant for the next general election to the council on <!--del_lnk--> 5 May <!--del_lnk--> 2007.<p>Aberdeen is represented in the <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom Parliament</a>, by three <!--del_lnk--> constituencies: <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen North, <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen South and <!--del_lnk--> Gordon, of which the first two are wholly within the Aberdeen City council area while the latter also encompasses a large swathe of <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeenshire.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Parliament the city is represented again by three constituencies, all of which are solely within the council area: <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen North, <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Central and <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen South and by a further seven MSPs elected as part of the <!--del_lnk--> North East Scotland electoral region.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, the city is represented by seven <!--del_lnk--> MEPs, as part of the all inclusive Scotland constituency in the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>.<p>Aberdeen is <!--del_lnk--> twinned with several cities across Europe and throughout the rest of the world, these are:<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="" style="background:transparent; width:100%;"> <tr> <td align="left" valign="top" width="33.33%"> <ul> <li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Regensburg, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> (1955)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Clermont-Ferrand, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (1983)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/8/851.png.htm" title="Flag of Norway"><img alt="Flag of Norway" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Norway.svg" src="../../images/8/851.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Stavanger, <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> (1955)</ul> </td> <td align="left" valign="top" width="33.33%"> <ul> <li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/547.png.htm" title="Flag of Belarus"><img alt="Flag of Belarus" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belarus.svg" src="../../images/5/547.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Gomel, <a href="../../wp/b/Belarus.htm" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> (1990)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1558.png.htm" title="Flag of Zimbabwe"><img alt="Flag of Zimbabwe" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg" src="../../images/15/1558.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Bulawayo, <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> (1990)</ul> </td> <td align="left" valign="top" width="33.33%"> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Scots language', 'Language', 'English language', 'Scots language', 'Edinburgh', 'London', 'List of countries', 'Scotland', 'List of sovereign states', 'United Kingdom', 'Scottish Gaelic language', 'Scotland', 'City status in the United Kingdom', 'Granite', 'North Sea oil', 'England', 'Edward III of England', 'Napoleonic Wars', 'Edward VII of the United Kingdom', 'Granite', 'Islam', 'Buddhism', 'Hinduism', "Bahá'í Faith", 'Middle Ages', 'Scotland', 'Scottish Episcopal Church', 'London', 'North Sea oil', 'North Sea', 'Europe', 'Petroleum', 'Glasgow', 'Edinburgh', 'Dundee', 'Granite', 'London', 'Park', 'Garden', 'Great Britain', 'Commonwealth Games', 'France', 'Netherlands', 'Edinburgh', 'London', 'Dundee', 'Orkney', 'Shetland', 'Liberal Democrats', 'Parliament of the United Kingdom', 'European Union', 'European Parliament', 'Germany', 'France', 'Norway', 'Belarus', 'Zimbabwe']
Aberration_of_light	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Aberration of light,1573,1674,1680,1689,1725,1727,1728,1795,1832,1898" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Aberration of light</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Aberration_of_light"; var wgTitle = "Aberration of light"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "2703"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "127876268"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aberration_of_light"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aberration of light</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.General_Physics.htm">General Physics</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p>The <b>aberration of light</b> (also referred to as <b>astronomical aberration</b> or <b>stellar aberration</b>) is an astronomical phenomenon which produces an <!--del_lnk--> apparent motion of celestial objects. It was discovered and later explained by the third <!--del_lnk--> Astronomer Royal, <!--del_lnk--> James Bradley, in <!--del_lnk--> 1725, who attributed it to the finite <a href="../../wp/s/Speed_of_light.htm" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> and the motion of <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a> in its orbit around the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>.<p>At the instant of any observation of an object, the apparent position of the object is displaced from its true position by an amount which depends upon the transverse component of the <!--del_lnk--> velocity of the observer, with respect to the vector of the incoming beam of light (i.e., the line actually taken by the light on its path to the observer). In the case of an observer on Earth, the direction of its velocity varies during the year as Earth <!--del_lnk--> revolves around the Sun (or strictly speaking, the <!--del_lnk--> barycenter of the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>), and this in turn causes the apparent position of the object to vary. This particular effect is known as <b>annual aberration</b> or <b>stellar aberration</b>, because it causes the apparent position of a star to vary periodically over the course of a year. The maximum amount of the aberrational displacement of a star is approximately 20 <!--del_lnk--> arcseconds in <!--del_lnk--> right ascension or <!--del_lnk--> declination. Although this is a relatively small value, it was well within the observational capability of the instruments available in the early eighteenth century.<p>Aberration should not be confused with <!--del_lnk--> stellar parallax, although it was an initially fruitless search for parallax that first led to its discovery. Parallax is caused by a change in the position of the observer looking at a relatively nearby object, as measured against more distant objects, and is therefore dependent upon the distance between the observer and the object.<p>In contrast, stellar aberration is <i>independent</i> of the distance of a celestial object from the observer, and depends only on the observer's <i>instantaneous transverse velocity</i> with respect to the incoming light beam, at the moment of observation. The light beam from a distant object cannot itself have any transverse velocity component, or it could not (by definition) be seen by the observer, since it would miss the observer. Thus, any transverse velocity of the emitting source plays no part in aberration. Another way to state this is that the emitting object <i>may</i> have a transverse velocity with respect to the observer, but any light beam emitted from it which reaches the observer, cannot, for it must have been previously emitted in such a direction that its transverse component has been "corrected" for. Such a beam must come "straight" to the observer along a line which connects the observer with the position of the object when it emitted the light.<p>Aberration should also be distinguished from <!--del_lnk--> light-time correction, which is due to the motion of the observed object, like a <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planet</a>, through space during the time taken by its light to reach an observer on Earth. Light-time correction depends upon the velocity and distance <i>of the emitting object</i> during the time it takes for its light to travel to Earth. Light-time correction does not depend on the motion of the Earth—it only depends on Earth's <i>position</i> at the instant when the light is observed. Aberration is usually larger than a planet's light-time correction except when the planet is near <!--del_lnk--> quadrature (90° from the Sun), where aberration drops to zero because then the Earth is directly approaching or receding from the planet. At <!--del_lnk--> opposition to or <!--del_lnk--> conjunction with the Sun, aberration is 20.5" while light-time correction varies from 4" for <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528planet%2529.htm" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> to 0.37" for <a href="../../wp/n/Neptune.htm" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> (the Sun's light-time correction is less than 0.03").<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Explanation" name="Explanation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Explanation</span></h2> <p>It has been stated above that aberration causes a displacement of the apparent position of an object from its true position. However, it is important to understand the precise technical definition of these terms.<p><a id="Apparent_and_true_positions" name="Apparent_and_true_positions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Apparent and true positions</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:184px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/181/18199.png.htm" title="Figure 1. Diagram illustrating stellar aberration"><img alt="Figure 1. Diagram illustrating stellar aberration" class="thumbimage" height="285" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aberration1.svg" src="../../images/181/18199.png" width="182" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Figure 1. Diagram illustrating stellar aberration</div> </div> </div> <p>The <b>apparent position</b> of a star or other very distant object is the direction in which it is seen by an observer on the moving Earth. The <b>true position</b> (or <b>geometric position</b>) is the direction of the straight line between the observer and star at the instant of observation. The difference between these two positions is caused mostly by aberration.<p>Aberration occurs when the observer's <!--del_lnk--> velocity has a component that is <!--del_lnk--> perpendicular to the line traveled by light between the star and observer. In Figure 1 to the right, <b>S</b> represents the <b>s</b>pot where the star light enters the telescope, and <b>E</b> the position of the <b>e</b>ye piece. If the telescope does not move, the true direction of the star relative to the observer can be found by following the line <b>ES</b>. However, if Earth, and therefore the eye piece of the telescope, moves from <b>E</b> to <b>E’</b> during the time it takes light to travel from <b>S</b> to <b>E</b>, the star will no longer appear in the centre of the eye piece. The telescope must therefore be adjusted so that the star light enters the telescope at spot <b>S’</b>. Now the star light will travel along the line <b>S’E’</b> and reach <b>E’</b> exactly when the moving eye piece also reaches <b>E’</b>. Since the telescope has been adjusted by the angle <b>SES’</b>, the star's apparent position is hence displaced by the same angle.<p><a id="Moving_in_the_rain" name="Moving_in_the_rain"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Moving in the rain</span></h3> <p>Many find aberration to be counter-intuitive, and a simple thought experiment based on everyday experience can help in its understanding. Imagine you are standing in the rain. There is no wind, so the rain is falling vertically. To protect yourself from the rain you hold an umbrella directly above you.<p>Now imagine that you start to walk. Although the rain is still falling vertically (relative to a stationary observer), you find that you have to hold the umbrella slightly in front of you to keep off the rain. Because of your forward motion relative to the falling rain, the rain now appears to be falling not from directly above you, but from a point in the sky somewhat in front of you.<p>The deflection of the falling rain is greatly increased at higher speeds. When you drive a <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Car">car</a> at night through falling rain, the rain drops illuminated by your car's <!--del_lnk--> headlights appear to fall from a position in the sky well in front of your car.<p><a id="Types_of_aberration" name="Types_of_aberration"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of aberration</span></h2> <p>There are a number of types of aberration, caused by the differing components of the Earth's motion:<ul> <li><b>Annual aberration</b> is due to the revolution of the Earth around the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>.<li><b>Planetary aberration</b> is the combination of aberration and light-time correction.<li><b>Diurnal aberration</b> is due to the <!--del_lnk--> rotation of the Earth about its own axis.<li><b>Secular aberration</b> is due to the motion of the Sun and <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> relative to other stars in the <a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a>.</ul> <p><a id="Annual_aberration" name="Annual_aberration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Annual aberration</span></h3> <p>As the Earth revolves around the Sun, it is moving at a velocity of approximately 30 km/s. The speed of light is approximately 300,000 km/s. In the special case where the Earth is moving perpendicularly to the direction of the star (i.e. if <b>SEE’</b> in the diagram is 90 degrees), the angle of displacement, <b>SES’</b>, would therefore be (in <!--del_lnk--> radians) the ratio of the two velocities, i.e. 1/10000 or about 20.5 <!--del_lnk--> arcseconds.<p>This quantity is known as the <i>constant of aberration</i>, and is conventionally represented by <i>κ</i>. Its precise accepted value is 20".49552 (at <!--del_lnk--> J2000).<div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:291px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/182/18200.png.htm" title="Figure 2. Diagram illustrating the effect of annual aberration on the apparent position of three stars at ecliptic longitude 270 degrees, and ecliptic latitude 90, 45 and 0 degrees, respectively"><img alt="Figure 2. Diagram illustrating the effect of annual aberration on the apparent position of three stars at ecliptic longitude 270 degrees, and ecliptic latitude 90, 45 and 0 degrees, respectively" class="thumbimage" height="449" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aberration3.png" src="../../images/182/18200.png" width="289" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Figure 2. Diagram illustrating the effect of annual aberration on the apparent position of three stars at ecliptic longitude 270 degrees, and ecliptic latitude 90, 45 and 0 degrees, respectively</div> </div> </div> <p> <br clear="all" /> <p>The plane of the Earth's orbit is known as the <!--del_lnk--> ecliptic. Annual aberration causes stars exactly on the ecliptic to appear to move back and forth along a straight line, varying by <i>κ</i> on either side of their true position. A star that is precisely at one of the ecliptic's poles will appear to move in a circle of radius <i>κ</i> about its true position, and stars at intermediate ecliptic latitudes will appear to move along a small <!--del_lnk--> ellipse (see figure 2).<p>A special case of annual aberration is the nearly constant deflection of the Sun from its true position by <i>κ</i> towards the <i>west</i> (as viewed from Earth), opposite to the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic. This constant deflection is often erroneously explained as due to the motion of the Earth during the 8.3 minutes that it takes light to travel from the Sun to Earth. The latter is a type of <!--del_lnk--> parallax, and actually causes the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic towards the <i>east</i> relative to the fixed stars. (8.316746 minutes divided by one sidereal year (365.25636 days) is 20.49265", very close to <i>κ</i>, but of opposite sign, east vs. west.) Nor is this the Sun's light-time correction because the Sun is almost motionless, moving around the <!--del_lnk--> barycenter (centre of mass) of the solar system by usually much less than 0".03 (as viewed from Earth) during 8.3 minutes.<p>Aberration can be resolved into east-west and north-south components on the <!--del_lnk--> celestial sphere, which therefore produce an apparent displacement of a star's <!--del_lnk--> right ascension and <!--del_lnk--> declination, respectively. The former is larger (except at the ecliptic poles), but the latter was the first to be detected. This is because very accurate clocks are needed to measure such a small variation in right ascension, but a <!--del_lnk--> transit telescope calibrated with a <!--del_lnk--> plumb line can detect very small changes in declination.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:426px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/182/18202.gif.htm" title="Figure 3. Diagram illustrating aberration of a star at the north ecliptic pole"><img alt="Figure 3. Diagram illustrating aberration of a star at the north ecliptic pole" class="thumbimage" height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aberration2.gif" src="../../images/182/18202.gif" width="424" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Figure 3. Diagram illustrating aberration of a star at the north ecliptic pole</div> </div> </div> <p> <br clear="all" /> <p>Figure 3, above, shows how aberration affects the apparent declination of a star at the north ecliptic pole, as seen by an imaginary observer who sees the star transit at the <!--del_lnk--> zenith (this observer would have to be positioned at <!--del_lnk--> latitude 66.6 degrees north – i.e. on the <!--del_lnk--> arctic circle). At the time of the March <!--del_lnk--> equinox, the Earth's orbital velocity is carrying the observer directly south as he or she observes the star at the zenith. The star's apparent declination is therefore displaced to the south by a value equal to <i>κ</i>. Conversely, at the September equinox, the Earth's orbital velocity is carrying the observer northwards, and the star's position is displaced to the north by an equal and opposite amount. At the June and December <!--del_lnk--> solstices, the displacement is zero.<p>Note that the effect of aberration is out of <!--del_lnk--> phase with any displacement due to parallax. If the latter effect were present, the maximum displacement to the south would occur in December, and the maximum displacement to the north in June. It is this apparently anomalous motion that so mystified Bradley and his contemporaries.<p><a id="Planetary_aberration" name="Planetary_aberration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Planetary aberration</span></h3> <p>Planetary aberration is the combination of the aberration of light (due to Earth's velocity) and <!--del_lnk--> light-time correction (due to the object's motion and distance). Both are determined at the instant when the moving object's light reaches the moving observer on Earth. It is so called because it is usually applied to planets and other objects in the solar system whose motion and distance are accurately known.<p><a id="Diurnal_aberration" name="Diurnal_aberration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Diurnal aberration</span></h3> <p>Diurnal aberration is caused by the velocity of the observer on the surface of the rotating Earth. It is therefore dependent not only on the time of the observation, but also the <!--del_lnk--> latitude and <!--del_lnk--> longitude of the observer. Its effect is much smaller than that of annual aberration, and is only 0".32 in the case of an observer at the equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest.<p><a id="Secular_aberration" name="Secular_aberration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Secular aberration</span></h3> <p>The Sun and solar system are revolving around the centre of the Galaxy, as are other nearby stars. It is therefore possible to conceive of an aberrational effect on the apparent positions of other stars and on <!--del_lnk--> extragalactic objects. However, the change in the solar system's velocity relative to the centre of the Galaxy varies over a very long timescale, and the consequent change in aberration would be extremely difficult to observe. Therefore, this so-called <i>secular aberration</i> is usually ignored when considering the positions of stars.<p>However, it is possible to estimate the displacement between the apparent and true position of a nearby star whose distance and motion are known. Newcomb gives the example of <!--del_lnk--> Groombridge 1830, where he estimates that the true position is displaced by approximately 3 <!--del_lnk--> arcminutes from the direction in which we observe it. This calculation also includes an allowance for light-time correction, and is therefore analogous to the concept of planetary aberration.<p><a id="Historical_background" name="Historical_background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historical background</span></h2> <p>The discovery of the aberration of light in <!--del_lnk--> 1725 by <!--del_lnk--> James Bradley was one of the most important in astronomy. It was totally unexpected, and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity that Bradley was able to explain it in <!--del_lnk--> 1727. Its origin is based on attempts made to discover whether the stars possessed appreciable <!--del_lnk--> parallaxes. The <!--del_lnk--> Copernican theory of the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> – that the Earth revolved annually about the Sun – had received confirmation by the observations of <a href="../../wp/g/Galileo_Galilei.htm" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tycho_Brahe.htm" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> (who, however, never accepted <a href="../../wp/h/Heliocentrism.htm" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a>), and the mathematical investigations of <a href="../../wp/j/Johannes_Kepler.htm" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>.<p><a id="Search_for_stellar_parallax" name="Search_for_stellar_parallax"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Search for stellar parallax</span></h3> <p>As early as <!--del_lnk--> 1573, <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Digges had suggested that this theory should necessitate a parallactic shifting of the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar parallaxes existed, then the Copernican theory would receive additional confirmation. Many observers claimed to have determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Battista Riccioli concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers, and were due to instrumental and personal errors. In <!--del_lnk--> 1680 <!--del_lnk--> Jean Picard, in his <i>Voyage d’<!--del_lnk--> Uranibourg,</i> stated, as a result of ten <!--del_lnk--> years' observations, that <!--del_lnk--> Polaris, or the <!--del_lnk--> Pole Star, exhibited variations in its position amounting to 40" annually. Some astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these attempts were futile, for the motion was at variance with that which parallax would produce.<p><a href="../../wp/j/John_Flamsteed.htm" title="John Flamsteed">John Flamsteed</a>, from measurements made in <!--del_lnk--> 1689 and succeeding years with his mural quadrant, similarly concluded that the declination of the Pole Star was 40" less in July than in September. <!--del_lnk--> Robert Hooke, in <!--del_lnk--> 1674, published his observations of γ <!--del_lnk--> Draconis, a star of <!--del_lnk--> magnitude 2<sup>m</sup> which passes practically overhead at the latitude of <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, and whose observations are therefore free from the complex corrections due to astronomical <!--del_lnk--> refraction, and concluded that this star was 23" more northerly in July than in October.<p><a id="Bradley.27s_observations" name="Bradley.27s_observations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bradley's observations</span></h3> <p>When James Bradley and <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Molyneux entered this sphere of astronomical research in <!--del_lnk--> 1725, there consequently prevailed much uncertainty whether stellar parallaxes had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of definitely answering this question that these astronomers erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at <!--del_lnk--> Kew. They determined to reinvestigate the motion of γ Draconis; the telescope, constructed by <!--del_lnk--> George Graham (1675-1751), a celebrated instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimney stack, in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the eyepiece, the amount of which (i.e. the deviation from the vertical) was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and a plumb line.<p>The instrument was set up in November 1725, and observations on γ Draconis were made on the <!--del_lnk--> 3rd, <!--del_lnk--> 5th, <!--del_lnk--> 11th, and <!--del_lnk--> 12th of December. There was apparently no shifting of the star, which was therefore thought to be at its most southerly point. On <!--del_lnk--> December 17, however, Bradley observed that the star was moving southwards, a motion further shown by observations on the <!--del_lnk--> 20th. These results were unexpected and inexplicable by existing theories. However, an examination of the telescope showed that the observed anomalies were not due to instrumental errors.<p>The observations were continued, and the star was seen to continue its southerly course until March, when it took up a position some 20" more southerly than its December position. After March it began to pass northwards, a motion quite apparent by the middle of April; in June it passed at the same distance from the <!--del_lnk--> zenith as it did in December; and in September it passed through its most northerly position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the angle between the March and September positions, being 40".<p><a id="Aberration_vs_nutation" name="Aberration_vs_nutation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aberration vs nutation</span></h3> <p>This motion was evidently not due to parallax, for the reasons given in the discussion of Figure 2, and neither was it due to observational errors. Bradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of finding the solution. The idea that immediately suggested itself was that the star's declination varied because of short-term changes in the orientation of the Earth's axis relative to the celestial sphere – a phenomenon known as <!--del_lnk--> nutation. Because this is a change to the observer's frame of reference (i.e. the Earth itself), it would therefore affect all stars equally. For instance, a change in the declination of γ Draconis would be mirrored by an equal and opposite change to the declination of a star 180 degrees opposite in right ascension.<p>Observations of such a star were made difficult by the limited field of view of Bradley and Molyneux's telescope, and the lack of suitable stars of sufficient brightness. One such star, however, with a right ascension nearly equal to that of γ Draconis, but in the opposite sense, was selected and kept under observation. This star was seen to possess an apparent motion similar to that which would be a consequence of the nutation of the Earth's axis; but since its declination varied only one half as much as in the case of γ Draconis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite solution. Whether the motion was due to an irregular distribution of the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, thus involving abnormal variations in the refractive index, was also investigated; here, again, negative results were obtained.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1727, Bradley then embarked upon a further series of observations using a telescope of his own erected at the Rectory, <!--del_lnk--> Wanstead. This instrument had the advantage of a larger field of view and he was able to obtain precise positions of a large number of stars that transited close to the zenith over the course of about two years. This established the existence of the phenomenon of aberration beyond all doubt, and also allowed Bradley to formulate a set of rules that would allow the calculation of the effect on any given star at a specified date. However, he was no closer to finding an explanation of why aberration occurred.<p><a id="Development_of_the_theory_of_aberration" name="Development_of_the_theory_of_aberration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Development of the theory of aberration</span></h3> <p>Bradley eventually developed the explanation of aberration in about September <!--del_lnk--> 1728 and his theory was presented to the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Society a year later. One well-known story (quoted in <i>Berry</i>, p 261) was that he saw the change of direction of a wind vane on a boat on the <!--del_lnk--> Thames, caused not by an alteration of the wind itself, but by a change of course of the boat relative to the wind direction. However, there is no record of this incident in Bradley's own account of the discovery, and it may therefore be <!--del_lnk--> apocryphal.<p>The discovery and elucidation of aberration is now regarded as a classic case of the application of <!--del_lnk--> scientific method, in which observations are made to test a theory, but unexpected results are sometimes obtained that in turn lead to new discoveries. It is also worth noting that part of the original motivation of the search for stellar parallax was to test the Copernican theory that the Earth revolves around the Sun, but of course the existence of aberration also establishes the truth of that theory.<p>In a final twist, Bradley later went on to discover the existence of the nutation of the Earth's axis – the effect that he had originally considered to be the cause of aberration.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_of_light"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Speed of light', 'Earth', 'Sun', 'Solar system', 'Planet', 'Mercury (planet)', 'Neptune', 'Car', 'Sun', 'Solar system', 'Galaxy', 'Solar system', 'Galileo Galilei', 'Tycho Brahe', 'Heliocentrism', 'Johannes Kepler', 'Isaac Newton', 'John Flamsteed', 'London', "Earth's atmosphere"]
Aberystwyth	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Aberystwyth,1109,1277,1404,1408,1647,1860s,1865,1872,1885,1916" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Aberystwyth</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Aberystwyth"; var wgTitle = "Aberystwyth"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "2718"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130588682"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aberystwyth"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aberystwyth</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox geography vcard" style="width: 23em;"> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="width:100%; font-size: 1.25em; white-space: nowrap;"><b><span class="fn org">Aberystwyth</span></b></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td colspan="2"> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td align="center" colspan="2"> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Population</th> <td>11,607 (2001) <!--del_lnk--> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergetoprow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> OS grid reference</th> <td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> SN585815</span></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Principal area</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ceredigion</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Ceremonial county</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Dyfed</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow adr"> <th><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries.htm" title="List of countries">Constituent country</a></th> <td class="country-name"><a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign state</a></th> <td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Post town</th> <td>ABERYSTWYTH</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Postcode district</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> SY23</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Dial code</th> <td>01970</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Police</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Dyfed-Powys</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Fire</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Mid and West Wales</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> Ambulance</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Welsh</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> UK Parliament</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Ceredigion</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <th><!--del_lnk--> European Parliament</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Wales</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td align="center" colspan="2"><small>List of places: <!--del_lnk--> UK • <!--del_lnk--> Wales • <!--del_lnk--> Ceredigion</small></td> </tr> </table> <div class="toccolours" style="position: relative; float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em;"><a class="image" href="../../images/182/18203.png.htm" title="Image:WalesCeredigion.png"><img alt="Image:WalesCeredigion.png" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WalesCeredigion.png" src="../../images/182/18203.png" width="200" /></a><div style="position: absolute; left: 94px; top: 118px"><a class="image" href="../../images/182/18204.png.htm" title="Image:Red Dot.svg"><img alt="Image:Red Dot.svg" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red_Dot.svg" src="../../images/182/18204.png" width="10" /></a></div> <br /><span style="font-size: 90%">Aberystwyth within Ceredigion UA</span></div> <p><b>Aberystwyth</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[abɛrˈəstwɪθ]</span>, South Welsh: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[abɛrˈəstɔʏθ]</span>) (<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">in English</a>: <i>Mouth of the <!--del_lnk--> Ystwyth</i>) is a historic <!--del_lnk--> market town, administrative centre and holiday resort within <!--del_lnk--> Ceredigion, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>. It is often called just "Aber".<p>In modern times Aberystwyth has become a major <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Welsh</a> educational centre. The indigenous population is around 12,000, but is swelled by an additional 9,232 (2006) students associated with the <!--del_lnk--> University of Wales, Aberystwyth. Thus for nine months of the year, Aberystwyth's population is around 21,000 people. The world's first department in international politics was established in Aberystwyth in <!--del_lnk--> 1919. It is also the home of the only AMBA accredited MBA programme in Wales. "Aber" is acknowledged as being Wales' spiritual capital.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2> <p>The town is situated near the <!--del_lnk--> confluence of the rivers <!--del_lnk--> Ystwyth and <!--del_lnk--> Rheidol, about midway down the length of <!--del_lnk--> Cardigan Bay. Although the name may seem to suggest otherwise, only the <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">River</a> Rheidol actually passes through the town - the River Ystwyth only just skirts the town, following the reconstruction of the harbour.<p>Aberystwyth has a <!--del_lnk--> pier and a fine sea-front which stretches from Constitution Hill at the north end of the Promenade to the mouth of the harbour at the south.<p><a id="Brief_information" name="Brief_information"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Brief information</span></h2> <p>Aberystwyth is a major tourist centre and a cultural link between the north and south of <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>. Constitution Hill is scaled by the <!--del_lnk--> Aberystwyth Electric Cliff Railway giving access to fine views and other attractions at the top, while much of the finest scenery in <!--del_lnk--> Mid Wales lies within easy reach of the town. This includes the wilderness of the <!--del_lnk--> Cambrian Mountains, whose valleys contain forests and meadows which have little changed in centuries. A convenient way of reaching the interior is by the preserved narrow gauge Vale of Rheidol railway.<p>Although the town is relatively modern, it contains a number of historic buildings, including the remains of the castle and the old buildings of the University College of Wales nearby, which could well be said to be similar aesthetically to that of Hogwarts Castle in the Harry Potter series. The Old College was originally intended to be a hotel, but due to a lack of funds the shell of the building was sold to the university. The new university campus overlooks Aberystwyth from Penglais Hill to the east of the town centre. The terminus for the standard gauge railway is also very impressive being built in 1924 in typical style of the period.<p>The architecture is a mix of Gothic, Classical Revival and Victorian, and the town is sometimes referred to as "the Oxford of Wales".<div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/182/18214.jpg.htm" title="The much-photographed seafront"><img alt="The much-photographed seafront" class="thumbimage" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aberystwyth_seafront.jpg" src="../../images/182/18214.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/182/18214.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The much-photographed seafront</div> </div> </div> <p>The town is generally regarded as the capital of Mid Wales, and several institutions have regional offices there. Perhaps the most important of the public bodies located in Aberystwyth is the <!--del_lnk--> National Library of Wales. The library also incorporates the <!--del_lnk--> National Screen and Sound Archive of Wales, one of six British regional film archives. The <!--del_lnk--> Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales, which maintains and curates the <!--del_lnk--> National Monuments Record of Wales (NMRW), provides the public with information about the built heritage of Wales. Aberystwyth is also the site of the <!--del_lnk--> Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research.<p>Aberystwyth is <!--del_lnk--> twinned with <!--del_lnk--> St Brieuc, <!--del_lnk--> Brittany and <!--del_lnk--> Kronberg im Taunus, Germany.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p><a id="Mesolithic" name="Mesolithic"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Mesolithic</span></h3> <p>There is evidence that during the Mesolithic Age the area of Tan-y-Bwlch at the foot of Pen Dinas was used as a flint knapping floor for hunters making weapons from flint that was deposited as the ice retreated.<p> <br /> <p><a id="Celtic" name="Celtic"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Celtic</span></h3> <p>The remains of a celtic fortress on <!--del_lnk--> Pen Dinas, a hill in <!--del_lnk--> Penparcau overlooking Aberystwyth, indicates that the site was inhabited before 700 BC. On a hill south of the present town, across the River Ystwyth, are the remains of a medieval <!--del_lnk--> ringfort believed to be the castle from which Princess Nest was abducted. This rare survival is now on private land and can only be accessed by arrangement.<p><a id="Middle_Ages" name="Middle_Ages"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Middle Ages</span></h3> <p>However, the recorded history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the building of a fortress on the present Castle Hill, in <!--del_lnk--> 1109. <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_I_of_England.htm" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a> rebuilt <!--del_lnk--> Strongbow's Castle in <!--del_lnk--> 1277, after its destruction by the Welsh. Between the years <!--del_lnk--> 1404 and <!--del_lnk--> 1408 <!--del_lnk--> Aberystwyth Castle was in the hands of <!--del_lnk--> Owain Glyndŵr, but finally surrendered to Prince Harry (the future King <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_V_of_England.htm" title="Henry V of England">Henry V of England</a>). Shortly after this the town was incorporated under the title of Ville de Lampadarn (the ancient name of the place being Llanbadarn Gaerog, or the fortified Llanbadarn, to distinguish it from <!--del_lnk--> Llanbadarn Fawr, the village one mile inland). It is thus styled in a charter granted by <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, but by <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I's</a> time the town was invariably termed <!--del_lnk--> Aberystwyth in all documents. In <!--del_lnk--> 1647 the Parliamentarian troops razed the castle, so that its remains are now inconsiderable, though portions of three towers still exist. Excavations in the 1970s within the castle, in what is believed to be a stables area, revealed a complete male skeleton, deliberately buried. Rarely surviving in Wales' acidic soil, this skeleton was probably preserved by the addition of lime from the collapsed building. Affectionately known as "Charlie", he probably dates from the Civil War period, probably dying during the Parliamentarian siege and is now housed in the <!--del_lnk--> Ceredigion Museum in the town.<p><a id="Victorian_era" name="Victorian_era"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Victorian era</span></h3> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Cambrian Railway line from Machynlleth reached Aberystwyth in the <!--del_lnk--> 1860s closely followed by rail links to <!--del_lnk--> Carmarthen which resulted in the construction of the town's impressive <!--del_lnk--> station. The railway's arrival gave rise to something of a <!--del_lnk--> Victorian tourist boom and the town was once even billed as the "Biarritz of Wales" <!--del_lnk--> . During this time a number of hotels and fine town houses were built including the Queens Hotel. One of the largest of these hotels 'The Castle Hotel' was never completed as a hotel but following bankruptcy was sold cheaply to the 'Welsh National University Committee', a group of people dedicated to the creation of a Welsh University. The University College of Wales (later to become the <!--del_lnk--> University of Wales, Aberystwyth) was founded in <!--del_lnk--> 1872 in this building.<p>Aberystwyth was a <!--del_lnk--> contributory parliamentary borough until the <!--del_lnk--> Third Reform Act, which caused its representation to be merged into that of the county in <!--del_lnk--> 1885.<p><a id="Modern_History" name="Modern_History"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Modern History</span></h3> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Vale of Rheidol Railway narrow gauge line from <!--del_lnk--> Devil's Bridge was constructed between 1901 and 1902, intended to ship mineral traffic, primarily lead, from Devil's Bridge down to Aberystwyth for trans-shipment. By the time it was finished the lead mines were in a deep downturn and it therefore came to rely largely on the tourist industry. The railway opened for passengers in December 1902. It is still open for the summer season today.<p>On the night of Friday 14th January <!--del_lnk--> 1938 a storm with estimated wind speeds of up to 90 mph struck the town. Most of the promenade was destroyed, along with 200 feet of the pier. Most properties on the seafront were damaged, most severely on Victoria Terrace.<p><!--del_lnk--> Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg held their historic first protest on Trefechan Bridge in Aberystwyth, back in <!--del_lnk--> 1963, and here also the first ever independent Welsh <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical Church was established (see <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical Movement of Wales).<p><!--del_lnk--> Merched y Wawr have their national headquarters in Aberystwyth.<p>Aberystwyth hosted the <!--del_lnk--> National Eisteddfod in <!--del_lnk--> 1865, <!--del_lnk--> 1916, <!--del_lnk--> 1952 and <!--del_lnk--> 1992.<p>On March 1st, 2005, Aberystwyth was granted <!--del_lnk--> Fairtrade Town status.<p><a id="Tourist_facilities" name="Tourist_facilities"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Tourist facilities</span></h2> <p>The town boasts:<ul> <li>A <!--del_lnk--> funicular railway and a <!--del_lnk--> camera obscura on Constitution Hill (known as Consti to locals)<li>A golf course<li>A marina<li>A cinema<li>A <!--del_lnk--> tour company specialising in day trips of the local aarea<li>A paint-balling centre<li>An Arts Centre featuring three theatre spaces, a cinema, 2d and 3d art studios, three art galleries, a photographic darkroom, rehearsal spaces, a bookshop, a craft shop, a dance school, three bars, a cafe and a restaurant<li>A <!--del_lnk--> university<li>A <!--del_lnk--> local museum<li>A <!--del_lnk--> steam railway (The aforementioned narrow gauge Vale of Rheidol Railway)<li>A <!--del_lnk--> microbrewery (Flannery's) which no longer brews beer in the town<li>The smallest commercial brewery in the world at the Tynllidiart Arms in Capel Bangor (Guiness World Record Holder).<li>A castle ruins (see history section)<li>The Old College historical seafront university building.</ul> <p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2> <p>Two of Wales's important trunk roads, the <!--del_lnk--> A487 and <!--del_lnk--> A44 meet in the town, with much traffic between north and south-west Wales passing through.<p><!--del_lnk--> Arriva Trains Wales provide a roughly two-hourly service over the scenic <!--del_lnk--> Cambrian Line to <!--del_lnk--> Shrewsbury and <a href="../../wp/b/Birmingham.htm" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> via <!--del_lnk--> Machynlleth and Mid Wales. Connecting services from Machynlleth also provide a link to <!--del_lnk--> Gwynedd's west coast.<p>Aberystwyth is also a hub for Wales's <!--del_lnk--> TrawsCambria bus network, with regular direct services to <!--del_lnk--> Bangor, <!--del_lnk--> Cardigan, <!--del_lnk--> Carmarthen and <a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a>. A daily <!--del_lnk--> National Express coach to London and Birmingham also exists.<p>The preserved Vale of Rheidol railway provides a convenient transport link during the summer months to Devil's Bridge, a tourist attraction about 12 miles east of the town.<p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h2> <p>Within Wales, Aberystwyth is known for its music scene which has produced successful bands and artists such as.<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> The Crocketts<li><!--del_lnk--> Hot Puppies<li><!--del_lnk--> Black Russian<li><!--del_lnk--> Pagan Wanderer Lu</ul> <p><a id="In_fiction" name="In_fiction"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">In fiction</span></h2> <p>Aberystwyth (albeit an alternate universe version) is the setting for the cult <!--del_lnk--> Louie Knight series which transfers <!--del_lnk--> Chandeleresque "noir" stories and dialogue to this small seaside town. This alternate reality features many landmarks of Aberystwyth such as <!--del_lnk--> the university and the <!--del_lnk--> National Library of Wales, but the social situation is radically altered to more closely resemble the pulp/noir stereotypical 'Dirty Town' that the narrative plays off of. Most of the humour in the books is derived from the almost seamless juxtaposition of the real Aberystwyth and the fictional, noir Aberystwyth. Various aspects of <!--del_lnk--> Welsh culture are reflections of what you might expect to see in reality, but with a pulp twist - for example, prostitutes wear Welsh stovepipe hats.<p>In the setting for Classic <!--del_lnk--> Battletech, a star system in the Timbuktu Theatre of Alarion Provence of the Lyran Commonwealth / Lyran Alliance is named Aberystwyth.<p>The local writer <!--del_lnk--> Niall Griffiths has set many of his novels here and reflects local slang, settings and even individuals. 'Grits', 'Stump', and 'Sheepshagger' are set wholly in Aberystwyth and it also features prominently in his other novels such as Kelly and Victor and 'Stump.' He portrays a more gritty side of Aberystwyth.<p><!--del_lnk--> Nancy Bond's "A String in the Harp" is set in the small coastal town of Borth, near Aberystwyth . The main characters' father is on sabbatical from Amherst University and working at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberystwyth"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['List of countries', 'Wales', 'List of sovereign states', 'United Kingdom', 'English language', 'Wales', 'Wales', 'River', 'Wales', 'Edward I of England', 'Henry V of England', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Elizabeth I of England', 'Birmingham', 'Cardiff']
Abhidhamma_Pitaka	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abhidhamma Pitaka,Abhidhamma,Anguttara Nikaya,B.C.E.,Bodhi,Buddha,Buddhism,Cambridge University Press,Comparative religion,Dhammasangani,Dhatukatha" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abhidhamma Pitaka</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abhidhamma_Pitaka"; var wgTitle = "Abhidhamma Pitaka"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "2340456"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "128552410"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abhidhamma_Pitaka"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abhidhamma Pitaka</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Religious_texts.htm">Religious texts</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p>The <b>Abhidhamma Pitaka</b> (abhidhammapiṭaka) is the last of the three <!--del_lnk--> pitakas, that is, baskets, constituting the <a href="../../wp/p/Pali_Canon.htm" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> scriptures of <!--del_lnk--> Theravāda <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. It presents a more formal, abstract, systematic form of teaching than the others.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Nature_of_abhidhamma" name="Nature_of_abhidhamma"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Nature of abhidhamma</span></h2> <p>Abhidhamma has been variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics etc. Most scholars regard it as an attempted systematization of the teachings of the <!--del_lnk--> Sutta Pitaka, but <!--del_lnk--> L. S. Cousins, former Lecturer in the Department of <!--del_lnk--> Comparative Religion at <!--del_lnk--> Manchester University and former President of the <!--del_lnk--> Pali Text Society, says that the abhidhamma methodology looks at things in terms of occasions or events instead of sequences or processes. Tradition says that the abhidhamma is the absolute teaching whereas the suttas are adapted to particular hearers.<p><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2> <p>According to the scriptures themselves, the <!--del_lnk--> abhidhamma was taught by the <a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> himself. Tradition says that he thought it out immediately after his <!--del_lnk--> enlightenment, but only taught it some years later, to the gods. He then repeated it to <!--del_lnk--> Sariputta, who handed it on to his disciples. Scholars do not take this literally, dating these works generally around the third century <!--del_lnk--> B.C.E. However, some consider important aspects do or may go back earlier. Thus Cousins says that the abhidhamma methodology goes back earlier, perhaps to the Buddha himself. Dr <!--del_lnk--> Rupert Gethin, Lecturer in Indian religions in the Department of <!--del_lnk--> Theology and <!--del_lnk--> Religious studies, and co-director of the <!--del_lnk--> Centre for Buddhist Studies, at the <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Bristol.htm" title="University of Bristol">University of Bristol</a>, and current (2006) President of the Pali Text Society, also says important elements of abhidhamma methodology probably go back to the Buddha's lifetime. A. K. Warder, <!--del_lnk--> Professor Emeritus of <a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Toronto, and Dr Peter Harvey of the <!--del_lnk--> University of Sunderland both suggest much earlier dates for the <!--del_lnk--> matikas on which most of the abidhamma books are based.<p><a id="Contents" name="Contents"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Contents</span></h2> <p>The Abhidhamma Pitaka consists of seven books.<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Dhammasangani (-saṅgaṇi or -saṅga&7751ī)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vibhanga (vibhaṅga)<li><!--del_lnk--> Dhatukatha (dhātukathā)<li><!--del_lnk--> Puggalapannatti (-paññatti)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kathavatthu (kathā-)<li><!--del_lnk--> Yamaka<li><!--del_lnk--> Patthana (paţţhāna)</ul> <p><a id="Dhammasangani" name="Dhammasangani"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Dhammasangani</span></h3> <p>This book begins with a <!--del_lnk--> matika (mātikā, literally, matrix), listing classifications of <!--del_lnk--> dhammas, variously translated as <!--del_lnk--> phenomena, <!--del_lnk--> ideas, <!--del_lnk--> states, etc. It starts with 22 threefold classifications, beginning with good/bad/unclassified, and follows this with 100 twofold ones according to the <!--del_lnk--> abhidhamma method. Many of these classifications are not exhaustive, and some are not even exclusive. The matika ends with 42 twofold classifications according to the <!--del_lnk--> sutta method, which are used only in this book, whereas the other 122 are used also in some of the other books.<p>The main body of the book is in four parts. The first of these goes through numerous <!--del_lnk--> states of mind, listing and defining, by lists of synonyms, factors present in them. The second deals with material form, beginning with its own matika, classifying by ones, twos and so on, explained after. The third explains the book's matika in terms of the first two parts, as does the fourth, by a different <!--del_lnk--> method, and omitting the sutta method.<p><a id="Vibhanga" name="Vibhanga"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Vibhanga</span></h3> <p>This book is in 18 chapters, each dealing with a different topic; for example the first deals with the five aggregates. A typical chapter (there are a number of divergences from this pattern) is in three parts. The first explains the topic according to the sutta method, often word-for-word the same as in actual suttas. The second is abhidhamma explanation, mainly by lists of synonyms as in the Dhammasangani. The third uses questions and answers, based on the matika: "How many aggregates are good etc?"<p><a id="Dhatukatha" name="Dhatukatha"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Dhatukatha</span></h3> <p>This book covers both the matika and various topics, mostly from the Vibhanga, relating them to the 5 aggregates, 12 bases and 18 elements. The first chapter is fairly simple: "In how many aggregates etc. are good dhammas etc. included?" The book progressively works up to more complicated questions: "From how many aggregates etc. are the dhammas dissociated from attention etc. dissociated?"<p><a id="Puggalapannatti" name="Puggalapannatti"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Puggalapannatti</span></h3> <p>This book starts with its own matika, which begins with some standard lists but then continues with lists of persons grouped numerically from ones to tens. This latter portion of the matika is then explained in the main body of the work. Most of the lists of persons and many of the explanations are also found in the <!--del_lnk--> Anguttara Nikaya.<p><a id="Kathavatthu" name="Kathavatthu"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Kathavatthu</span></h3> <p>This book consists of more than two hundred debates on questions of doctrine. It does not identify the participants. The commentary says the debates are between the Theravada and other schools, which it identifies in each case. These identifications are mostly consistent with what is known from other sources about the doctrines of different schools.<p><a id="Yamaka" name="Yamaka"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Yamaka</span></h3> <p>This book consists of ten chapters, each dealing with a different topic; for example, the first deals with roots. A typical chapter (there are a number of divergences from this pattern) is in three parts. The first part deals with questions of identity: "Is good root root?" "But is root good root?" The entire Yamaka consists of such pairs of converse questions, with their answers. Hence its name, which means pairs. The second part deals with arising: "For someone for whom the form aggregate arises, does the feeling aggregate arise?" The third part deals with understanding: "Does someone who understands the eye base understand the ear base?"<p><a id="Patthana" name="Patthana"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Patthana</span></h3> <p>This book deals with 24 conditions in relation to the matika: "Good dhamma is related to good dhamma by root condition", with details and numbers of answers.<p><a id="Place_in_the_tradition" name="Place_in_the_tradition"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Place in the tradition</span></h2> <p>The importance of the Abhidhamma Pitaka in classical Sinhalese Buddhism is suggested by the fact that it came to be furnished, not only, like much of the canon, with a commentary and a subcommentary on that commentary, but even with a subsubcommentary on that subcommentary. In more recent centuries, however, Burma has become the main centre of abhidhamma studies.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhidhamma_Pitaka"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Pali Canon', 'Buddhism', 'Buddha', 'University of Bristol', 'Sanskrit']
Abidjan	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Abidjan,Côte d'Ivoire,Db-spam,1990s,1 E9 m²,2002,2004,2006,2006 Ivory Coast toxic waste spill,APC,Abengourou" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abidjan</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abidjan"; var wgTitle = "Abidjan"; var wgArticleId = 56588; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abidjan"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abidjan</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.htm">African Geography</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children has projects in Abobo Gare in Abidjan. For more information see <a href="../../wp/c/Cote_Divoire.htm">SOS Children in Cote d'Ivoire, Africa</a></div> <!-- start content --> <table align="right" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" width="300"> <caption><big><big><b>District d'Abidjan</b></big></big></caption> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;"> <tr> <td align="center" width="300px"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="District logo" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AbidjanLogo.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="118" /></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="300px"><small>(District <!--del_lnk--> logo)</small></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#f9f9f9;"><a class="image" href="../../images/158/15822.png.htm" title="District map"><img alt="District map" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:District_d%27Abidjan2.png" src="../../images/158/15822.png" width="170" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Région</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Lagunes</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> District Governor</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Pierre Djédji Amondji<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> FPI) (since <!--del_lnk--> 2002)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 2,119 km²</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Subdivisions</b></td> <td>10 <!--del_lnk--> communes of Abidjan Ville<br /> 3 <!--del_lnk--> subprefectures outside of Abidjan Ville</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Population</b><br /> unofficial estimate<br /> 2003 official estimate<br /> 1998 census</td> <td> <br /> between 4 and 5 million<br /> 3,660,682<br /> 3,125,890</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Density</b></td> <td>1,728/km² (2003)</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Web site</b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> www.abidjan-da.ci</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Abidjan</b> is the largest city and former <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a>. It is the commercial and <!--del_lnk--> banking centre of Côte d'Ivoire as well as the <!--del_lnk--> de facto capital. (<a href="../../wp/y/Yamoussoukro.htm" title="Yamoussoukro">Yamoussoukro</a> is the official capital.) It stands in <!--del_lnk--> Ébrié Lagoon on several converging <!--del_lnk--> peninsulas and <!--del_lnk--> islands, connected by <a href="../../wp/b/Bridge.htm" title="Bridge">bridges</a>. There are an estimated 4 to 5 million inhabitants in the metropolitan area. The city is a study in contrasts. On one hand the city is hot and humid, congested and full of street hawkers. On the other hand, Abidjan is referred to as the "Paris of West Africa" because of its <a href="../../wp/p/Park.htm" title="Park">parks</a>, broad boulevards, <a href="../../wp/u/University.htm" title="University">universities</a>, exotic fashions and <!--del_lnk--> museums. Neighborhoods include <!--del_lnk--> Cocody, an upscale residential area located east of the modern business district, and <!--del_lnk--> Treichville, located southward on <!--del_lnk--> Petit-Bassam Island, with its busy traditional market. <!--del_lnk--> Banco National Park lies north of the city. Abidjan harbors numerous government departments. It is also the hub of the national <!--del_lnk--> road system and the terminus of the <!--del_lnk--> Abidjan-Niger Railway, which extends northward into <a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a>.<p>Since the start of the <!--del_lnk--> Ivorian Civil War in 2002, insecurity in Abidjan has risen, with frequent riots targeting foreigners as well as a sharp increase in criminality. Once one of the wealthiest and most peaceful cities in Africa, Abidjan is now considered one of the most dangerous cities on the continent.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Administration" name="Administration"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administration</span></h2> <p><a id="Before_2002" name="Before_2002"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Before 2002</span></h3> <p>Before 2002, there existed a City of Abidjan (<i>Ville d'Abidjan</i>). The city of Abidjan was subdivided into ten <!--del_lnk--> communes, with each their municipal council and their mayor. Above the 10 communes was the central city hall, with a city-wide mayor (<i>maire d'Abidjan</i>), often colloquially called "<i>super-maire</i>".<p>The city of Abidjan was inside the <i><!--del_lnk--> département</i> of Abidjan. This <i>département</i> was made up of the city of Abidjan, plus three <!--del_lnk--> subprefectures outside of the city of Abidjan. The <i>département</i> of Abidjan was itself inside the <!--del_lnk--> Lagunes <i><!--del_lnk--> région</i>.<p><a id="Since_2002" name="Since_2002"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Since 2002</span></h3> <p>In August 2001, the government of Ivory Coast disbanded the City of Abidjan. Instead, the ten communes of Abidjan were merged with the three subprefectures beyond the City of Abidjan to create the District of Abidjan (<i>District d'Abidjan</i>), whose limits match those of the <i>département</i> of Abidjan. The new District of Abidjan (2,119 km²/818 sq. miles) is thus much larger than the former City of Abidjan (422 km²/163 sq. miles). The reform was implemented in 2002, with local elections taking place that year.<p>The district of Abidjan is made up of the following subdivisions:<ul> <li>Abidjan Ville (422 km²/163 sq. miles): the territory of the former City of Abidjan, made up of ten autonomous <!--del_lnk--> communes, with each their mayor and their municipal council. These ten communes are: <!--del_lnk--> Abobo, <!--del_lnk--> Adjamé, <!--del_lnk--> Attécoubé, <!--del_lnk--> Cocody (the wealthiest commune of Abidjan), <!--del_lnk--> Koumassi, <!--del_lnk--> Marcory, <!--del_lnk--> Plateau (the business district and central government area), <!--del_lnk--> Port-Bouët, <!--del_lnk--> Treichville, and <!--del_lnk--> Yopougon (the largest and most populous commune).<li>outside of Abidjan Ville: three <!--del_lnk--> subprefectures (1,697 km²/655 sq. miles): <!--del_lnk--> Anyama, <!--del_lnk--> Bingerville, and <!--del_lnk--> Songon. Within the three subprefectures are found the communes of <!--del_lnk--> Anyama, <!--del_lnk--> Bingerville, and <!--del_lnk--> Songon, with their own municipal administrations, as well as rural areas.</ul> <p>It should be noted that the distinction between Abidjan Ville and areas outside of Abidjan Ville is purely statistical, much like the distinction between <!--del_lnk--> Inner London and <!--del_lnk--> Outer London. The administration of the district is unified, covering both Abdijan Ville and areas outside of Abidjan Ville.<p>Executive power is in the hands of the District Governor (<i>Governor du District</i>), appointed by the president of Ivory Coast. The governor serves a 5-year term. The governor of the district of Abidjan is the <i>de facto</i> mayor of Abidjan, and is often presented as such in international context.<p>Legislative power is in the hands of the District Council (<i>Conseil du District</i>). The District Council is made up of 78 members, who serve a 5-year term. One-third of the members are chosen by the municipal councils of the communes making up the district of Abidjan. Two-third of the members are directly elected every five years by the Ivorian citizens living in the District of Abidjan.<p>The District of Abidjan is inside the <!--del_lnk--> Lagunes <i><!--del_lnk--> région</i>, which is made up of the District of Abidjan plus five <i><!--del_lnk--> départements</i>.<p><a id="Geography_and_neighbourhoods" name="Geography_and_neighbourhoods"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography and neighbourhoods</span></h2> <p>Abidjan lies on the <!--del_lnk--> Ébrié Lagoon. The business district, <!--del_lnk--> Le Plateau, is the centre of the city. It lies with <!--del_lnk--> Cocody, <!--del_lnk--> Deux Plateaux (the richest neighbourhood with mansions, typically inhabited by diplomats and the wealthy) and the <!--del_lnk--> slum area of <!--del_lnk--> Adjamé on the north shore of the lagoon, while <!--del_lnk--> Treichville and <!--del_lnk--> Marcory (also poor areas) lie to the south, <!--del_lnk--> Abobo-Doume and <!--del_lnk--> Yopougon to the west and <!--del_lnk--> Boulay Island in the middle of the lagoon. Further south lies <!--del_lnk--> Port Bouët, home to the <!--del_lnk--> airport and main <!--del_lnk--> seaport. Abidjan is located at 5°25' North, 4°2' West (5.41667, -4.03333). <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p>The city grew after the construction of a new <!--del_lnk--> wharf in 1931 and its designation as the capital of the then <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <!--del_lnk--> colony in 1933. The completion of the <!--del_lnk--> Vridi Canal in 1951 enabled it to become an important <!--del_lnk--> sea port. In 1983, <a href="../../wp/y/Yamoussoukro.htm" title="Yamoussoukro">Yamoussoukro</a> was designated as the nation's capital, but most government offices and foreign <!--del_lnk--> embassies remained in Abidjan.<p><a id="Places_of_interest" name="Places_of_interest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Places of interest</span></h2> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Abidjan, technical colleges, and the <!--del_lnk--> national library and <!--del_lnk--> museum are in the city.<p>Sights in Abidjan include <!--del_lnk--> St Paul's Cathedral, designed by <!--del_lnk--> Aldo Spiritom, the <!--del_lnk--> Cocody Municipal Museum of Contemporary Art and the <!--del_lnk--> Parc du Banco <a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a> reserve. <i>Le Plateau</i> is known for its <!--del_lnk--> skyscrapers, unusual in <!--del_lnk--> West Africa. It is the business centre of Abidjan. With its chic boutiques and outdoor cafes, <i>le Plateau</i> is a favourite place of business travellers. There are many different banks located in the <i>le Plateau</i> district.<p><a id="Industry" name="Industry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Industry</span></h2> <p>Major industries include <!--del_lnk--> food processing, <!--del_lnk--> lumber, <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">automobile</a> manufacturing, and the manufacture of <!--del_lnk--> textiles, <!--del_lnk--> chemicals, and <!--del_lnk--> soap. There is also a large <a href="../../wp/o/Oil_refinery.htm" title="Oil refinery">oil refinery</a>.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h2> <p><a href="../../wp/t/Train.htm" title="Train">Trains</a> on the line to <a href="../../wp/o/Ouagadougou.htm" title="Ouagadougou">Ouagadougou</a> run from several stations in the city, the most important being in Treichville. <!--del_lnk--> Ferries link <!--del_lnk--> Treichville, <!--del_lnk--> Abobo-Doumé and <i>Le Plateau</i>. The <!--del_lnk--> airport is located approximately 10 mi/16 km from downtown Abidjan. <!--del_lnk--> Taxis and <!--del_lnk--> buses are available at the airport. Buses are considered unsafe, but the taxis are reasonably safe given the proper local knowledge. The taxis are metered and the fares are relatively low. Rental cars are also available, however the fees can be quite expensive. Vehicle accidents occur frequently, especially at night when roads are poorly lit. Roadblocks manned by government security forces are becoming magnets for corruption. Police officers routinely extort bribes from motorists. Travelers planning to travel outside of Abidjan should do so only in convoy, maintaining constant radio or satellite contact.<p><a id="Port_of_Abidjan" name="Port_of_Abidjan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Port of Abidjan</span></h3> <p>Abidjan's modern <!--del_lnk--> port opened in 1950, when the <!--del_lnk--> Vridi Canal was cut through a <!--del_lnk--> sandbar, linking the Ébrié Lagoon with the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf of Guinea and the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>. Formerly West <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>'s pre-eminent port, Abidjan is attempting to bring back traffic which veered to other ports during <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a>'s political unrest. Since a military putsch in December 1999, as well as widespread civil unrest in the ensuing years, traffic has switched to other main regional ports such as <a href="../../wp/a/Accra.htm" title="Accra">Accra</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lome, <!--del_lnk--> Cotonou and <a href="../../wp/d/Dakar.htm" title="Dakar">Dakar</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Xenophobia and harassment of foreigners, as well as numerous illegal roadblocks along the country's roads, have further discouraged shippers from using Abidjan's port. The Abidjan Port Authority (<i>Port Autonome d'Abidjan</i>) has invited delegations of shippers from the landlocked countries of <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a> -- which have seen increased difficulty in imports due to Abidjan's problems -- to working sessions to discuss improvements in the situation.<p><a id="Port_Bouet_Airport_.28DIAP.2FABJ.29" name="Port_Bouet_Airport_.28DIAP.2FABJ.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Port Bouet Airport (DIAP/ABJ)</span></h3> <p>The airport has a 3,000-meter <!--del_lnk--> runway, <!--del_lnk--> Instrument Landing System 3B equipment, 25 check-in counters, and nine boarding access points. AERIA, Abidjan Airport Management Company, operates and manages the whole airport area and relevant indirect services. There is a military apron at the airport. Private aircraft usually park in the commercial area, away from the terminal. Fencing and lighting are adequate at this facility.<p>A special airport police unit provides security at Abidjan's airport. <!--del_lnk--> X-ray machines and <!--del_lnk--> metal detectors are used to screen passengers and their baggage, but security measures at this facility are lacking both in terms of quality and coverage. Theft is a concern in the passenger terminal. Airport officials are known to be corrupt due to their low salaries. Incidents of theft and drug smuggling occur frequently. Do not allow ground service personnel to handle possessions without supervision.<p><a id="Political_unrest" name="Political_unrest"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Political unrest</span></h3> <p>During times of political unrest, the Ivorian government closes the airport and imposes an overnight curfew for days at a time. There is also a <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> military base near the airport where protests may occur during times of political unrest.<p>Occasional violence also occurs at the airport. Most recently, on <!--del_lnk--> 6 November <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Ivorian troops raided Abidjan's airport in an attempt to destroy French aircraft. One aircraft was slightly damaged during the incident, but there are no details as to the extent or specificity of the damage. As a result of the attack, the airport perimeter was sealed and closed to air traffic.<p>In the September 2002 mutiny, the Ivorian government closed Abidjan's international airport, as it usually does during times of unrest. Flights were diverted to neighboring Ghana and elsewhere. Unidentified gunmen briefly blocked the major highway leading in and out of Abidjan. Several carriers have cancelled service to Côte d'Ivoire.<p>A French Army convoy was ambushed in Abidjan by The Young Patriots rebel militia which left 3 <!--del_lnk--> French Army soldiers dead and wounding 5 including a <!--del_lnk--> VAB <!--del_lnk--> APC destroyed during the <!--del_lnk--> Côte d'Ivoire civil war.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2> <p>The musical group <!--del_lnk--> Magic System was founded in the city in the <!--del_lnk--> 1990s.<p><a id="Security" name="Security"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Security</span></h2> <ul> <li>The law requires that travelers in Abidjan carry one of the following: national identity card, employee card, consular card, residency permit or <!--del_lnk--> passport.</ul> <ul> <li>Although the overall situation in Abidjan has stabilized since the resurge in violence in November 2004, there are continual reports of violence. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="U.N.">U.N.</a> has stated "its concern over the security situation" throughout Côte d'Ivoire, particularly in Abidjan. <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Secretary of State <a href="../../wp/c/Condoleezza_Rice.htm" title="Condoleezza Rice">Condoleezza Rice</a> ranks Abidjan as the second most dangerous city in the world. With a proper tour guide, however, the city of Abidjan is quite safe and even pleasant.</ul> <ul> <li>The current political situation is highly unstable and security risks are acute due to ongoing conflict. Foreigners should avoid all travel outside Abidjan, the former capital, as well as rural and outlying areas. Other threats include crime, <!--del_lnk--> carjacking and demonstrations.</ul> <p><a id="Ongoing_Conflict" name="Ongoing_Conflict"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ongoing Conflict</span></h3> <p>As the economic capital and largest city in Côte d’Ivoire, violence due to ongoing conflict remains a concern in Abidjan. Although the security situation has stabilized significantly since November 2004 and citizens have resumed regular daily activities, sporadic violence still occurs. Pro-government militia groups have previously been concentrated in the Adjamé district. There have been isolated incidents of violence between these militia and local residents.<p><a id="Demonstrations" name="Demonstrations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Demonstrations</span></h3> <p>Abidjan has been the site of sporadic protests, some of which have turned violent. Demonstrations have normally been over political issues revolving around political opposition groups and disgruntled military personnel. The Young Patriots , a pro-government youth group, conducted a series of protests throughout the country in March 2005 to demand the withdrawal of French peacekeeping troops.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> September 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 hundreds of people protested in the streets after the death of two children who had inhaled fumes from <!--del_lnk--> toxic waste (See: <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Ivory Coast toxic waste spill) <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Crime" name="Crime"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Crime</span></h3> <p>Even before the September 2002 mutiny, the crime rate has continually increased as a result of poor economic conditions, an influx of weapons and refugees from neighboring <a href="../../wp/l/Liberia.htm" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, and urban migration. <!--del_lnk--> Burglaries commonly occur at residences, restaurants, and small businesses. Petty theft is prevalent throughout Abidjan and armed gangs are a growing problem. Tourists are frequently robbed on the Houphouet-Boigny and Charles de Gaulle bridges; travelers should not cross these bridges on foot. Persons who are victims of armed robbery should not attempt to resist thieves.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abidjan"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Capital', "Côte d'Ivoire", 'Yamoussoukro', 'Bridge', 'Park', 'University', 'Burkina Faso', 'France', 'Yamoussoukro', 'Rainforest', 'Automobile', 'Oil refinery', 'Train', 'Ouagadougou', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Africa', "Côte d'Ivoire", 'Accra', 'Dakar', 'Mali', 'Burkina Faso', 'Niger', 'France', 'U.N.', 'Condoleezza Rice', 'Liberia']
Abkhazia	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" /> <meta content="Abkhazia,Administrative divisions of Georgia,Non-sovereign territories of Europe,Non-sovereign territories of Europe,Administrative divisions of Georgia,1864,1921,1931,1989,1989 Sukhumi riots,1991" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abkhazia</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript">/<![CDATA[/ var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abkhazia"; var wgTitle = "Abkhazia"; var wgAction = "view"; var wgArticleId = "2832"; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserGroups = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; var wgBreakFrames = false; var wgCurRevisionId = "130603390"; /]]>/</script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abkhazia"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abkhazia</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Asia.Asian_Countries.htm">Asian Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table align="right" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background:transparent;"> <tr valign="top"> <td> <table class="infobox geography vcard" style="width:46ex;margin-top:0.75em;"> <tr> <th align="center" class="mergedtoprow adr" colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; padding:0.25em 0 0.33em; font-size:1.2em;"><span style="line-height:1.33em;"><span class="Unicode">Аҧсны</span><br /> აფხაზეთი<br /><i>Apsny / Apkhazeti</i></span><div class="fn org country-name" style="padding-top:0.25em;"><span style="line-height:1.33em;">Abkhazia</span></div> </th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="text-align:center; padding:0.6em 0em 0.6em 0em;"> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/182/18218.png.htm" title="Location of Abkhazia"><img alt="Location of Abkhazia" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abkhazia_detail_map.png" src="../../images/182/18218.png" width="250" /></a></span></div> </div> <div style="position:relative; top:3px;"> </div> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td colspan="3" style="text-align:center; padding:0.6em 0em 0.6em 0em;"> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/182/18219.png.htm" title="Location of Abkhazia"><img alt="Location of Abkhazia" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationAbkhazia2.png" src="../../images/182/18219.png" width="250" /></a></span></div> </div> <div style="position:relative; top:3px;"><small>Location of Abkhazia (dark green, circled)<br /> within <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> (lighter green)</small></div> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;">Total</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 8,600 km² <br /> 3,320 <!--del_lnk--> sq mi </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;"><a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">Water</a> (<!--del_lnk--> %)</td> <td>negligible</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;">2006 estimate</td> <td>157,000-190,000 (<!--del_lnk--> International Crisis Group)<br /> 177,000 (<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>) </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;">2003 census</td> <td>216,000 (disputed) </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;"><!--del_lnk--> Density</td> <td>29 /km² <br />  /sq mi</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th> <td><!--del_lnk--> MSK <span style="white-space:nowrap">(<!--del_lnk--> UTC+3)</span></td> </tr> </table> <table class="infobox geography vcard" style="width:46ex;margin-top:0.75em;"> <tr> <th align="center" class="mergedtoprow adr" colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; padding:0.25em 0 0.33em; font-size:1.2em;"> <div class="fn org country-name" style="padding-top:0.25em;">Government of the Abkhazian Republic</div> </th> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="3" style="padding:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;"> <table align="center" style="width:100%; background:none;"> <tr> <td align="center" style="width:58%; vertical-align:middle;"><span style="display:inline;"><span style="display:table-cell; border:1px solid #ddd;"><a class="image" href="../../images/182/18220.png.htm" title="Flag of Abkhazia"><img alt="Flag of Abkhazia" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Abkhazia.svg" src="../../images/182/18220.png" width="125" /></a></span></span></td> <td align="center" style="width:auto; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/182/18221.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Abkhazia"><img alt="Coat of arms of Abkhazia" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abkhasia_g.png" src="../../images/182/18221.png" width="85" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Anthem</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> <i>Aiaaira</i></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td colspan="2"><b><a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">Capital</a></b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Sukhumi<br /><small><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 43°00′N 40°59′E">43°00′N, 40°59′E</span></span></span></small></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle; white-space:nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Abkhaz, <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">Government</a></th> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;"><!--del_lnk--> President</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Sergei Bagapsh</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;"><!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Ankvab</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th colspan="3"><i>De facto</i> independence from <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></th> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;">Declared</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> 23 July <!--del_lnk--> 1992 </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;">Recognition</td> <td>none </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Russian ruble (<code><!--del_lnk--> RUB</code>)</td> </tr> <tr style="font-size:80%;"> <td align="right"><span style="position:relative; top:3px;"><sup>1</sup></span></td> <td colspan="2" style="padding-left:0px;">Russian has <!--del_lnk--> co-official status and widespread use by government and other institutions.</td> </tr> </table> <table class="infobox geography vcard" style="width:46ex;margin-top:0.75em;"> <tr> <th align="center" class="mergedtoprow adr" colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; padding:0.25em 0 0.33em; font-size:1.2em;"> <div class="fn org country-name" style="padding-top:0.25em;">Government of the Abkhazian Autonomous Republic</div> </th> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="3" style="padding:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;"> <table align="center" style="width:100%; background:none;"> <tr> <td align="center" style="width:58%; vertical-align:middle;"><span style="display:inline;"><span style="display:table-cell; border:1px solid #ddd;"><a class="image" href="../../images/182/18223.png.htm" title="Flag of Georgia (country)"><img alt="Flag of Georgia (country)" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Georgia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/182/18223.png" width="125" /></a></span></span></td> <td align="center" style="width:auto; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/55/5581.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Georgia (country)"><img alt="Coat of arms of Georgia (country)" height="73" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coat_of_Arms_of_Georgia_%28Sakartvelo%29.png" src="../../images/55/5581.png" width="85" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td> <td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td colspan="2"><b><a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">Capital</a></b></td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Sokhumi</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle; white-space:nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Abkhaz, <!--del_lnk--> Georgian</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">Government</a></th> </tr> <tr class="mergedrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;">Chairman,<br /> Cabinet of Ministers</td> <td> <br /><span style="white-space:nowrap"><!--del_lnk--> Malkhaz Akishbaia</span></td> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;">Chairman, Supreme Council</td> <td><!--del_lnk--> Temur Mzhavia</td> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <th colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Autonomous republic of <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></th> </tr> <tr class="mergedbottomrow"> <td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td> <td style="padding-left:0px;">Georgian independence<br /><span style="white-space:nowrap">from the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></span><br /> <div align="right">Declared<br /> Recognised</div> </td> <td> <br /> <br /><!--del_lnk--> 9 April <!--del_lnk--> 1991<br /><!--del_lnk--> 25 December <!--del_lnk--> 1991 </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Georgian lari (<code><!--del_lnk--> GEL</code>)</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Abkhazia</b> <!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/æbˈkeɪʒə/</span> or <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/æbˈkɑziə/</span> (<span class="Unicode"><!--del_lnk--> Abkhaz: <span lang="ab" xml:lang="ab">Аҧсны</span></span> <i>Apsny,</i> <!--del_lnk--> Georgian: <span lang="ka" xml:lang="ka">აფხაზეთი</span> <i>Apkhazeti,</i> or <i>Abkhazeti,</i> <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Абха́зия</span> <i>Abhazia</i>) is a <i><!--del_lnk--> de facto</i> independent republic located on the eastern coast of the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, bordering the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Federation to the north, and within the internationally recognised borders of <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>. Abkhazia’s independence <!--del_lnk--> is not recognized by any <!--del_lnk--> international organization or <a href="../../wp/c/Country.htm" title="Country">country</a> and it is regarded as an <!--del_lnk--> autonomous republic of Georgia (<!--del_lnk--> Georgian: <span lang="ka" xml:lang="ka">აფხაზეთის ავტონომიური რესპუბლიკა</span>, <!--del_lnk--> Abkhaz: <span class="Unicode">Аҧснытәи Автономтәи Республика</span>), with <!--del_lnk--> Sukhumi as its capital.<p>A secessionist movement of <!--del_lnk--> Abkhaz <!--del_lnk--> ethnic minority in the region led to the <!--del_lnk--> declaration of independence from Georgia in 1992 and the <!--del_lnk--> Georgian-Abkhaz armed conflict from 1992 to 1993 which resulted in the Georgian military defeat and the <!--del_lnk--> mass exodus of ethnic <!--del_lnk--> Georgian population from Abkhazia. In spite of the <!--del_lnk--> 1994 <!--del_lnk--> ceasefire accord and the ongoing <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">UN</a>-monitored <!--del_lnk--> CIS peacekeeping operation, the sovereignty dispute has not yet been resolved and the region remains divided between the two rival authorities, with over 83 percent of its territory controlled by the Russian-backed Sukhumi-based separatist government and about 17 percent governed by the representatives of the <!--del_lnk--> <i>de jure</i> Government of Abkhazia, the only body internationally recognized as a legal authority of Abkhazia, located in the <!--del_lnk--> Kodori Valley, part of Georgian-controlled <!--del_lnk--> Upper Abkhazia.<script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a id="Political_status" name="Political_status"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Political status</span></h2> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> international organizations such as <!--del_lnk--> United Nations (<!--del_lnk--> 28 Security Council Resolutions), <!--del_lnk--> EC, <!--del_lnk--> OSCE, <a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" title="NATO">NATO</a>, <!--del_lnk--> WTO, <!--del_lnk--> Council of the European Union, <!--del_lnk--> CIS as well as most <!--del_lnk--> sovereign states recognize Abkhazia as an integral part of Georgia and support its <!--del_lnk--> territorial integrity according to the principles of the <a href="../../wp/i/International_law.htm" title="International law">international law</a>. The United Nations is urging both sides to settle the dispute through <!--del_lnk--> diplomatic dialogue and ratifying the final status of Abkhazia in the Georgian <!--del_lnk--> Constitution. However, the Abkhaz de-facto government and the majority of current Abkhazia's population (excluding ethnic <!--del_lnk--> Georgians who still populate the <!--del_lnk--> Gali <!--del_lnk--> District and the <!--del_lnk--> Kodori Gorge) consider Abkhazia a sovereign country, even though not recognized by any party in the world. In <!--del_lnk--> 2005, the Georgian government offered Abkhazia high degree of <!--del_lnk--> autonomy and possible <!--del_lnk--> federal structure within borders and <!--del_lnk--> jurisdiction of Georgia.<p>Meanwhile the Russian <!--del_lnk--> State Duma is urging to take into consideration the appeal made by Abkhaz de facto authorities which calls for recognition of its independence, while Russian state media produce numerous materials in support of the separatist regime. During the <!--del_lnk--> Georgian-Abkhaz conflict, Russian authorities and <!--del_lnk--> military supplied logistical and military aid to the separatist side. Today, Russia still maintains a strong political and military influence over the separatist rule in Abkhazia. Additionally, the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Orthodox Church recently published translations of the <!--del_lnk--> Gospels in <!--del_lnk--> Abkhazian, which drew protests from the <!--del_lnk--> Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church as a violation of Orthodox Church <!--del_lnk--> canon law, constituting a meddling in the internal affairs of another Orthodox church and annexation of Georgian Orthodox property in Abkhazia.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the <!--del_lnk--> Abkhaz de facto parliament passed a resolution, calling upon Russia, international organizations, and the rest of the international community to recognize Abkhaz independence on the basis that Abkhazia possesses all the properties of an independent state. However, international organizations have confirmed their support for Georgian territorial integrity and outlined the basic principles of conflict resolution which calls for immediate return of all expelled ethnic Georgian refugees (approximately 250,000) and involvement of <!--del_lnk--> International Police to monitor the safety of all ethnic groups living in Abkhazia. About 60,000 Georgian refugees have spontaneously returned to Abkhazia's Gali district since 1994, but tens of thousands were displaced again when fighting resumed in the Gali district in 1998. Nevertheless from 40,000 to 60,000 refugees have returned to Gali district since 1998, including persons commuting daily across the ceasefire line and those migrating seasonally in accordance with agricultural cycles. In the Georgian-populated areas in Gali district, where local authorities are almost exclusively made up of ethnic Abkhaz, human right situation remains precarious. The United Nations and other international organizations have been fruitlessly urging the Abkhaz de facto authorities "to refrain from adopting measures incompatible with the right to return and with international human rights standards, such as discriminatory legislation… [and] to cooperate in the establishment of a permanent international human rights office in Gali and to admit United Nations civilian police without further delay."<p>Georgia accuses the Abkhaz secessionists of having conducted a deliberate campaign of <!--del_lnk--> ethnic cleansing, a claim supported by the OSCE and many Western governments. The UN Security Council has, however, avoided use of the term "ethnic cleansing", but has affirmed "the unacceptability of the demographic changes resulting from the conflict"<p><a id="Geography_and_climate" name="Geography_and_climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography and climate</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Abkhazia covers an area of about 8,600 km² at the western end of Georgia. The <!--del_lnk--> Caucasus Mountains to the north and the northeast divide Abkhazia from the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Federation. To the east and southeast, Abkhazia is bounded by the Georgian region of <!--del_lnk--> Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti; and on the south and southwest by the Black Sea.<p>Abkhazia is extremely mountainous. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range runs along the region's northern border, with its spurs – the Gagra, Bziphi, and Kodori ranges – dividing the area into a number of deep, well-watered valleys. The highest peaks of Abkhazia are in the northeast and east and several exceed 4,000 meters (13,120 feet) above sea level. The <a href="../../wp/l/Landscape.htm" title="Landscape">landscapes</a> of Abkhazia range from coastal forests and citrus plantations, to eternal snows and <!--del_lnk--> glaciers to the north of the region. Although Abkhazia's complex topographic setting have spared most of the territory from significant human development, its cultivated fertile lands produce <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wine.htm" title="Wine">wine</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, a mainstay of local agricultural sector.<p>Abkhazia is richly irrigated by small <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">rivers</a> originating in the Caucasus Mountains. Chief of these are: <!--del_lnk--> Kodori, <!--del_lnk--> Bzyb, <!--del_lnk--> Ghalidzga, and <!--del_lnk--> Gumista. The <!--del_lnk--> Psou River separates the region from Russia, and the <!--del_lnk--> Inguri serves as a boundary between Abkhazia and Georgia proper. There are several <!--del_lnk--> periglacial and <!--del_lnk--> crater <!--del_lnk--> lakes in mountainous Abkhazia. <!--del_lnk--> Lake Ritsa is the most important of them.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/182/18254.jpg.htm" title="A beach in Abkhazia"><img alt="A beach in Abkhazia" class="thumbimage" height="152" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abkhazia_Beach.jpg" src="../../images/182/18254.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/182/18254.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A beach in Abkhazia</div> </div> </div> <p>Because of Abkhazia's proximity to the Black Sea and the shield of the Caucasus Mountains, the region's climate is very mild. The coastal areas of the republic have a subtropical climate, where the average annual temperature in most regions is around 15 degrees <!--del_lnk--> Celsius. The climate at higher elevations varies from maritime mountainous to cold and summerless. Abkhazia receives high amounts of precipitation, but its unique micro-climate (transitional from subtropical to mountain) along most of its coast causes lower levels of humidity. The annual precipitation vacillates from 1,100-1,500 mm (43-59 inches) along the coast to 1,700-3,500 mm (67-138 in.) in the higher mountainous areas. The mountains of Abkhazia receive significant amounts of snow.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2> <p>The economy of Abkhazia is heavily dependent on Russia and the <!--del_lnk--> Russian ruble is used for currency. Tourism is a key industry. Abkhaz de facto authorities claim that the organised tourists (mainly from Russia) numbered more than 100,000 in the last years (compared to about 200,000 in the 1990 before the war)<!--del_lnk--> and estimate the total number of visitors in 2006 at 1-1.5 million.<!--del_lnk--> Although the CIS economic sanctions imposed against Abkhazia in 1994 are still formally in force and Russia has established a visa regime with Georgia, Russian tourists don’t need a visa to enter Abkhazia.<p>One of the main sources of electricity of Abkhazia is Inguri hydroelectric power station situated on the border river of Inguri and operated jointly by Abkhaz and Georgians.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> gabbro <!--del_lnk--> quarry near the Aigba village on the <!--del_lnk--> Psou river is scheduled to begin operations in September 2007. Furthermore, <!--del_lnk--> rubble quarries near the Skurcha village (<!--del_lnk--> Ochamchira region) and on the <!--del_lnk--> Bzyb river will be opening in 2007 as well. It is planned to use its output in the Olympic construction projects in <!--del_lnk--> Sochi, as the city is one of the <!--del_lnk--> 2014 Winter Olympics bidders.<p>Abkhazia is also renowned for its agricultural produce, including <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wine.htm" title="Wine">wine</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruits</a> (especially <!--del_lnk--> tangerines).<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2> <p>According to the Family Lists compiled in 1886 (published 1893 in Tbilisi) the Sukhumi District's population was 68,773, of which 30,640 were Samurzaq'anoans, 28,323 <!--del_lnk--> Abkhaz, 3,558 <!--del_lnk--> Mingrelians, 2,149 <!--del_lnk--> Greeks, 1,090 <!--del_lnk--> Armenians, 1,090 <!--del_lnk--> Russians and 608 <!--del_lnk--> Georgians (including Imeretians and Gurians). Samurzaq'ano is a present-day <!--del_lnk--> Gali region of Abkhazia. Most of the Samurzaq'anians must be thought to have been Mingrelians, and a minority Abkhaz.<p>According to the 1917 agricultural census organized by the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Provisional Government, Georgians and Abkhaz composed 41.7% (54,760) and 30,4% (39,915) of the rural population of Abkhazia respectively. At that time Gagra and its vicinity weren't part of Abkhazia.<p>The following table summarises the results of the censuses carried out in Abkhazia. The Russian, Armenian and Georgian population grew faster than Abkhaz one due to the large-scale migration.<table class="wikitable"> <tr> <th>Year</th> <th>Total</th> <th>Georgians</th> <th>Abkhaz</th> <th>Russians</th> <th>Armenians</th> <th>Greeks</th> </tr> <tr> <td>1897 Census<big><sup id="refQ.2A.2A.2A"><small><a href="#endnoteQ.2A.2A.2A" title="">1</a></small></sup></big></td> <td> </td> <td>25,640</td> <td>58,697</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td>1926 Census</td> <td>186,004</td> <td>67,494</td> <td>55,918</td> <td>12,553</td> <td>25,677</td> <td>14,045</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1939 Census</td> <td>311,885</td> <td>91,967</td> <td>56,197</td> <td>60,201</td> <td>49,705</td> <td>34,621</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1959 Census</td> <td>404,738</td> <td>158,221</td> <td>61,193</td> <td>86,715</td> <td>64,425</td> <td>9,101</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1970 Census</td> <td>486,959</td> <td>199,596</td> <td>77,276</td> <td>92,889</td> <td>74,850</td> <td>13,114</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1979 Census</td> <td>486,082</td> <td>213,322</td> <td>83,087</td> <td>79,730</td> <td>73,350</td> <td>13,642</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1989 Census</td> <td>525,061</td> <td>239,872</td> <td>93,267</td> <td>74,913</td> <td>76,541</td> <td>14,664</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2003 Census<big><sup id="refQ.2A.2A.2A"><small><a href="#endnoteQ.2A.2A.2A" title="">2</a></small></sup></big></td> <td>215,972</td> <td>45,953</td> <td>94,606</td> <td>23,420</td> <td>44,870</td> <td>1,486</td> </tr> </table> <div id="endnoteQ.2A.2A.2A"><big><sup><small><a href="#refQ.2A.2A.2A" title="">1</a></small></sup></big> - (by mother tongue). The population of the Sukhumi district (Abkhazia) was about 100,000 at that time. Greeks, Russians and Armenians composed 3.5%, 2% and 1.5% of the district's population.</div> <div id="endnoteQ.2A.2A.2A"><big><sup><small><a href="#refQ.2A.2A.2A" title="">2</a></small></sup></big> - Georgian authorities did not acknowledge the results of this census and consider it illegitimate. Several international sources also consider these figures unrealistically high. The <!--del_lnk--> International Crisis Group (2006) estimates Abkhazia's total population to be between 157,000 and 190,000 (or between 180,000 and 220,000 as estimated by <!--del_lnk--> UNDP in 1998), while <a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> puts it at 177,000 (2006 est.). The State Department of Statistics of Georgia estimated, in 2005, Abkhazia's population to be approximately 178,000. About 2,000 people (predominantly ethnic <!--del_lnk--> Georgians) live in Georgia-controlled Upper Abkhazia. <a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl><a id="Early_history" name="Early_history"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early history</span></h3> <p>In the 9th–6th centuries BC, the territory of modern Abkhazia became a part of the ancient <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgian</a> kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Colchis (<i>Kolkha</i>), which was absorbed in <!--del_lnk--> 63 BC into the Kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Egrisi. Greek traders established ports along the Black Sea shoreline. One of those ports, Dioscurias, eventually developed into modern <!--del_lnk--> Sukhumi, Abkhazia's traditional capital.<p>The <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> conquered Egrisi in the 1st century AD and ruled it until the 4th century, following which it regained a measure of independence, but remained within the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>'s sphere of influence. Although the exact time when the population of Abkhazia was converted to <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> is not determined, it is known that the Metropolitan of Pitius participated in the First &OElig;cumenical Council in 325 in Nicea. Abkhazia was made an autonomous principality of the Byzantine Empire in the 7th century — a status it retained until the 9th century, when it was united with the province of <!--del_lnk--> Imereti and became known as the <!--del_lnk--> Abkhazian Kingdom. In 9th–10th centuries the Georgian kings tried to unify all the Georgian provinces and in 1001 King <!--del_lnk--> Bagrat III Bagrationi became the first king of the unified Georgian Kingdom.<p>In the 16th century, after the break-up of the united Georgian Kingdom, the area was conquered by the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, during this time some Abkhazians converted to <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>. The Ottomans were pushed out by the Georgians, who established an autonomous Principality of Abkhazia (<i>abxazetis samtavro</i> in Georgian), ruled by the <!--del_lnk--> Shervashidze dynasty (aka Sharvashidze, or Chachba).<a id="Abkhazia_within_the_Russian_Empire_and_Soviet_Union" name="Abkhazia_within_the_Russian_Empire_and_Soviet_Union"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Abkhazia within the Russian Empire and Soviet Union</span></h3> <p>The expansion of the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Empire into the Caucasus region led to small-scale but regular conflicts between Russian colonists and the indigenous Caucasian tribes. Eventually the <!--del_lnk--> Caucasian War erupted, which ended with Russian conquest of the <!--del_lnk--> North and <!--del_lnk--> Western Caucasus. Various Georgian principalities were annexed to the empire between 1801 and 1864. The Russians acquired possession of Abhkazia in a piecemeal fashion between 1829 and 1842; but their power was not firmly established until <!--del_lnk--> 1864, when they managed to abolish the local principality which was still under <!--del_lnk--> Shervashidze rule. Large numbers of Muslim Abkhazians — said to have constituted as much as 60% of the Abkhazian population, although contemporary census reports were not very trustworthy — emigrated to the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> between 1864 and 1878 together with other Muslim population of Caucasus in the process known as <i><!--del_lnk--> Muhajirism</i>.<p>Modern Abkhazian historians maintain that large areas of the region were left uninhabited, and that many Armenians, Georgians and Russians (all Christians) subsequently migrated to Abkhazia, resettling much of the vacated territory. This version of events is strongly contested by some Georgian historians who argue that Georgian tribes (Mingrelians and Svans) had populated Abkhazia since the time of the Colchis kingdom. According to Georgian scholars, the Abkhaz are the descendants of <!--del_lnk--> North Caucasian tribes (<!--del_lnk--> Adygey, <!--del_lnk--> Apsua), who migrated to Abkhazia from the north of the <!--del_lnk--> Caucasus Mountains and merged there with the existing Georgian population.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/182/18264.jpg.htm" title="Soviet Caucasus 1989 political divisions and subdivisons showing the Abkhazian ASSR (Abkhazskaya ASSR in Russian) of Georgian SSR"><img alt="Soviet Caucasus 1989 political divisions and subdivisons showing the Abkhazian ASSR (Abkhazskaya ASSR in Russian) of Georgian SSR" class="thumbimage" height="312" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Soviet_Caucasus_SSRs_ASSRs_and_AOs_1989.jpg" src="../../images/182/18264.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/182/18264.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Soviet <!--del_lnk--> Caucasus 1989 political divisions and subdivisons showing the Abkhazian <!--del_lnk--> ASSR (<i>Abkhazskaya ASSR</i> in <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>) of <!--del_lnk--> Georgian SSR</div> </div> </div> <p>The <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_Revolution_of_1917.htm" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution</a> of 1917 led to the creation of an independent Georgia (which included Abkhazia) in 1918. Georgia's <!--del_lnk--> Menshevik government had problems with the area through most of its existence despite a limited autonomy being granted to the region. In <!--del_lnk--> 1921, the <!--del_lnk--> Bolshevik Red Army invaded Georgia and ended its short-lived independence. Abkhazia was made a Soviet republic with the ambiguous status of <i>Union Republic</i> associated with the <!--del_lnk--> Georgian SSR, In <!--del_lnk--> 1931, <!--del_lnk--> Stalin made it an autonomous republic within <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> Georgia. Despite its nominal autonomy, it was subjected to strong central rule from central Soviet authorities. Georgian became the official language. Purportedly, <!--del_lnk--> Lavrenty Beria encouraged Georgian migration to Abkhazia, and many took up the offer and resettled there. Russians also moved into Abkhazia in great numbers. Later, in the 1950s and 1960s, <!--del_lnk--> Vazgen I and the Armenian church encouraged and funded the migration of Armenians to Abkhazia. Currently, Armenians are the largest minority group in Abkhazia.<p>The repression of the Abkhaz was ended after Stalin's death and Beria's execution, and Abkhaz were given a greater role in the governance of the republic. As in most of the smaller autonomous republics, the Soviet government encouraged the development of culture and particularly of literature. Ethnic quotas were established for certain bureaucratic posts, giving the Abkhaz a degree of political power that was disproportionate to their minority status in the republic. This was interpreted by some as a "divide and rule" policy whereby local elites were given a share in power in exchange for support for the Soviet regime. In Abkhazia as elsewhere, it led to other ethnic groups - in this case, the Georgians - resenting what they saw as unfair discrimination, thereby stoking ethnic discord in the republic.<a id="The_Abkhazian_War" name="The_Abkhazian_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Abkhazian War</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>As the Soviet Union began to disintegrate at the end of the 1980s, ethnic tensions grew between the Abkhaz and Georgians over Georgia's moves towards independence. Many Abkhaz opposed this, fearing that an independent Georgia would lead to the elimination of their autonomy, and argued instead for the establishment of Abkhazia as a separate Soviet republic in its own right. The <!--del_lnk--> dispute turned violent on <!--del_lnk--> 16 July <!--del_lnk--> 1989 in Sukhumi. Sixteen Georgians are said to have been killed and another 137 injured when they tried to enroll in a Georgian University instead of an Abkhaz one. After several days of violence, Soviet troops restored order in the city and blamed rival nationalist paramilitaries for provoking confrontations.<p>Georgia declared independence on <!--del_lnk--> 9 April <!--del_lnk--> 1991, under the rule of the former Soviet dissident <!--del_lnk--> Zviad Gamsakhurdia. Gamsakhurdia's rule became unpopular, and that December the Georgian National Guard, under the command of <!--del_lnk--> Tengiz Kitovani, laid siege to the offices of Gamsakhurdia's government in <!--del_lnk--> Tbilisi. After weeks of stalemate, he was forced to resign in January 1992. He was replaced as president by <!--del_lnk--> Eduard Shevardnadze, the former Soviet foreign minister and architect of the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Shevardnadze inherited a government dominated by hardline Georgian nationalists, and although he was not an ethnic nationalist, he did little to avoid being seen as supporting the government figures and powerful coup leaders who were.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 21 February <!--del_lnk--> 1992, Georgia's ruling Military Council announced that it was abolishing the Soviet-era constitution and restoring the 1921 Constitution of the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Republic of Georgia. Many Abkhaz interpreted this as an abolition of their autonomous status. In response, on <!--del_lnk--> 23 July <!--del_lnk--> 1992, the Abkhazia government effectively declared secession from Georgia, although this gesture went unrecognised by any other country. The Georgian government accused Gamsakhurdia supporters of kidnapping Georgia's interior minister and holding him captive in Abkhazia. The Georgian government dispatched 3,000 troops to the region, ostensibly to restore order. Heavy fighting between Georgian forces and Abkhazian militia broke out in and around Sukhumi. The Abkhazian authorities rejected the government's claims, claiming that it was merely a pretext for an invasion. After about a week's fighting and many casualties on both sides, Georgian government forces managed to take control of most of Abkhazia, and closed down the regional parliament.<p>The Abkhazians' military defeat was met with a hostile response by the self-styled <!--del_lnk--> Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus, an umbrella group uniting a number of pro-Russian movements in the <!--del_lnk--> North Caucasus ((<!--del_lnk--> Chechens, <!--del_lnk--> Cossacks, <!--del_lnk--> Ossetians and others)), Russian military units. Hundreds of volunteer paramilitaries from Russia (including the then little known <!--del_lnk--> Shamil Basayev) joined forces with the Abkhazian separatists to fight the Georgian government forces. Regular Russian forces also reportedly sided with the secessionsts. In September, the Abkhaz and Russian paramilitaries mounted a major <!--del_lnk--> offensive against Gagra after breaking a cease-fire, which drove the Georgian forces out of large swathes of the republic. Shevardnadze's government accused Russia of giving covert military support to the rebels with the aim of "detaching from Georgia its native territory and the Georgia-Russian frontier land". The year 1992 ended with the rebels in control of much of Abkhazia northwest of Sukhumi.<p>The conflict remained stalemated until July 1993, when the Abkhaz separatist militias launched an abortive attack on Georgian-held Sukhumi. The capital was surrounded and heavily shelled, with Shevardnadze himself trapped in the city.<p>Although a truce was declared at the end of July, this collapsed after a renewed Abkhaz attack in mid-September. After ten days of heavy fighting, Sukhumi fell on <!--del_lnk--> 27 September <!--del_lnk--> 1993. Eduard Shevardnadze narrowly escaped death, having vowed to stay in the city no matter what, but he was eventually forced to flee when separatist snipers fired on the hotel where he was residing. Abkhaz, North Caucasian militants and their allies committed numerous atrocities against the remaining Georgian population of the city (these events are known as <!--del_lnk--> Sukhumi Massacre). The mass killings and destruction continued for two weeks, leaving thousands dead and missing.<p>The Abkhaz forces quickly overran the rest of Abkhazia as the Georgian government faced a second threat: an uprising by the supporters of the deposed Zviad Gamsakhurdia in the region of Mingrelia (Samegrelo). In the chaotic aftermath of defeat almost all ethnic Georgians fled the region, escaping an ethnic cleansing initiated by the victors. Many thousands died — it is estimated that between 10,000-30,000 ethnic Georgians and 3,000 ethnic Abkhaz may have perished — and some 250,000 people (mostly Georgians) were forced into exile.<p>During the war, gross human rights violations were reported on the both sides (see <!--del_lnk--> Human Rights Watch report), and the ethnic cleansing committed by the Abkhaz forces and their allies is recognized by the <!--del_lnk--> Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Summits in <a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" title="Budapest">Budapest</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1994), <a href="../../wp/l/Lisbon.htm" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1996) and <a href="../../wp/i/Istanbul.htm" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1999)<a id="De_jure_Government_of_Abkhazia" name="De_jure_Government_of_Abkhazia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>De jure</i> Government of Abkhazia</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>The <i>de jure</i> Government of Abkhazia is the only body internationally recognized as a legal authority of Abkhazia, which controls only the north-eastern part of Abkhazia and is located in <!--del_lnk--> Chkhalta, <!--del_lnk--> Upper Abkhazia. The <i>de jure</i> Government of Abkhazia, then the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Ministers of Abkhazia, left Abkhazia after the <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a>-backed Abkhaz separatist forces and their allies stormed Sukhumi on <!--del_lnk--> September 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1993 and expelled the majority of its Georgian residents and members of the Government. For about 13 years, the Government was known as the Government of Abkhazia in exile and was located in Tbilisi until the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Kodori crisis, which reinstalled the Government back within the administrative borders of Abkhazia. <!--del_lnk--> Malkhaz Akishbaia, a Western-educated Abkhaz politician was elected in April 2006 and is the current head of the <i>de jure</i> Government of Abkhazia. On <!--del_lnk--> September 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 President <!--del_lnk--> Mikheil Saakashvili, <!--del_lnk--> Nino Burjanadze, <!--del_lnk--> Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia <!--del_lnk--> Ilia II and others members of the central government visited Kodory Valley and officially changed the name and designated the area as "Upper Abkhazia". President Saakashvili addressed the nation during the opening of <i>de jure</i> Government headquarters in Chkhalta, Upper Abkhazia:<dl> <dd><i>"We are here – Upper Abkhazia, very close to Sokhumi - and we are not going to leave this place. We will return to Abkhazia very soon, but only through peaceful means."</i> <i>“...We have told every foreign ambassador in Georgia that Abkhazia and Tbilisi are not separate entities… From now on the protocol of each foreign diplomat [visiting Abkhazia], apart from trips to Sokhumi, will also include the route to Abkhazia’s administrative centre in the village of Chkhalta where the chairman of the Abkhaz government is Malkhaz Akishbaia.</i>"</dl><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15830.jpg.htm" title="There are approximately 300,000 Georgian IDPs from Abkhazia"><img alt="There are approximately 300,000 Georgian IDPs from Abkhazia" class="thumbimage" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Demoidps.jpg" src="../../images/158/15830.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15830.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> There are approximately 300,000 Georgian <!--del_lnk--> IDPs from Abkhazia</div> </div> </div> <p>Much of the Politics in Abkhazia is dominated by the territorial dispute with <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, from which the territory seceded, and by the fight over the presidency in 2004/2005.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 3 October <!--del_lnk--> 2004 presidential elections were held in Abkhazia. In the elections, Russia evidently supported <!--del_lnk--> Raul Khajimba, the prime minister backed by seriously ailing outgoing separatist President <!--del_lnk--> Vladislav Ardzinba. Posters of Russia's President <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Putin together with Khajimba, who like Putin had worked as a <!--del_lnk--> KGB official, were everywhere in Sukhumi. Deputies of Russia's parliament and Russian singers, lead by <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Kobzon, a deputy and a popular singer, came to Abkhazia campaigning for Khajimba.<p>However <!--del_lnk--> Raul Khajimba lost the elections to Sergey Bagapsh. The tense situation in the republic led to the cancellation of the election results by the Supreme Court. After that the deal was struck between former rivals to run jointly — Bagapsh as a presidential candidate and Khajimba as a vice presidential candidate. They received more than 90% of the votes in the new election.<p>The People's Assembly consisting of 35 elected members is vested with legislative powers. The last <!--del_lnk--> parliamentary elections were held on March 4, 2007.<p>About 250,000 ethnic Georgian residents of Abkhazia are restricted form entering the region by the Abkhazian separatist regime and cannot participate in the elections.<a id="International_involvement" name="International_involvement"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">International involvement</span></h2> <p>The UN has played various roles during the conflict and peace process: a military role through its observer mission (<!--del_lnk--> UNOMIG); dual diplomatic roles through the Security Council and the appointment of a Special Envoy, succeeded by a Special Representative to the Secretary-General; a humanitarian role (<!--del_lnk--> UNHCR and <!--del_lnk--> UNOCHA); a development role (<!--del_lnk--> UNDP); a human rights role (<!--del_lnk--> UNCHR); and a low-key capacity and confidence-building role (<!--del_lnk--> UNV). The UN’s position has been that there will be no forcible change in international borders. Any settlement must be freely negotiated and based on autonomy for Abkhazia legitimized by referendum under international observation once the multi-ethnic population has returned. According to Western interpretations the intervention did not contravene international law since Georgia, as a sovereign state, had the right to secure order on its territory and protect its territorial integrity.<p><!--del_lnk--> OSCE has increasingly engaged in dialogue with officials and civil society representatives in Abkhazia, especially from NGOs and the media, regarding human dimension standards and is considering a presence in Gali. OSCE expressed concern and condemnation over ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia during the 1994 <a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" title="Budapest">Budapest</a> Summit Decision and later at the Lisbon Summit Declaration in 1996.<p>The USA rejects the unilateral secession of Abkhazia and urges its integration into Georgia as an autonomous unit. In 1998 the USA announced its readiness to allocate up to $15 million for rehabilitation of infrastructure in the Gali region if substantial progress is made in the peace process. <!--del_lnk--> USAID has already funded some humanitarian initiatives for Abkhazia. The USA has in recent years significantly increased its military support to the Georgian armed forces but has stated that it would not condone any moves towards peace enforcement in Abkhazia.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Senator <!--del_lnk--> Richard Lugar, then visiting Georgia's capital Tbilisi, joined the Georgian politicians in criticism of the Russian peacekeeping mission, stating that "the U.S. administration supports the Georgian government’s insistence on the withdrawal of Russian peacekeepers from the conflict zones in Abkhazia and the Tskhinvali district."<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, <!--del_lnk--> Javier Solana, the <!--del_lnk--> High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, ruled out the possibility of replacing the Russian peacekeepers with the EU force." However, the Georgian parliament is preparing for the vote in October of 2006 which will demand the complete withdrawal of Russian peacekeepers from Abkhazia. On <!--del_lnk--> October 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, EU South Caucasus envoy <!--del_lnk--> Peter Semneby noted that "Russia's actions in the <!--del_lnk--> Georgia spy row have damaged its credibility as a neutral peacekeeper in the EU's Black Sea neighbourhood."<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the UN Security Council unanimously adopted a resolution, based on a Group of Friends of the Secretary-General draft, extending the <!--del_lnk--> UNOMIG mission until <!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2007. Acknowledging that the "new and tense situation" resulted, at least in part, from the Georgian special forces operation in the upper Kodori Valley, urged the country to ensure that no troops unauthorized by the Moscow ceasefire agreement were present in that area. It urged the leadership of the Abkhaz side to address seriously the need for a dignified, secure return of refugees and internally displaced persons and to reassure the local population in the Gali district that their residency rights and identity will be respected. The Georgian side is "once again urged to address seriously legitimate Abkhaz security concerns, to avoid steps which could be seen as threatening and to refrain from militant rhetoric and provocative actions, especially in upper Kodori Valley". Calling on both parties to follow up on dialogue initiatives, it further urged them to comply fully with all previous agreements regarding non-violence and confidence-building, in particular those concerning the separation of forces. Regarding the disputed role of the peacekeepers from the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Council stressed the importance of close, effective cooperation between UNOMIG and that force and looked to all sides to continue to extend the necessary cooperation to them. At the same time, the document reaffirmed the "commitment of all Member States to the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of Georgia within its internationally recognized borders."<a id="Gallery_of_Abkhazia" name="Gallery_of_Abkhazia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery of Abkhazia</span></h2> <center> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery"> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/182/18277.jpg.htm" title="Image:Pitsunda Cathedral.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/182/18277.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Pitsunda Cathedral<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/182/18281.jpg.htm" title="Image:Zd novyi afon.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/182/18281.jpg" width="90" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>New Athos Railway Station<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/182/18283.jpg.htm" title="Image:Nov afon monastyr.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/182/18283.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>New Athos monastery<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/182/18292.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ritsa1.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/182/18292.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Ritsa lake<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/182/18295.jpg.htm" title="Image:GagraColonnade.jpg"><img alt="" height="86" src="../../images/182/18295.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Gagra<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/182/18297.jpg.htm" title="Image:Gegsky1.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/182/18297.jpg" width="100" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Geg waterfall<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 29px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/182/18299.jpg.htm" title="Image:Sukhum1.jpg"><img alt="" height="87" src="../../images/182/18299.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>View of Sukhumi 1<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/183/18302.jpg.htm" title="Image:PICT3623.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/183/18302.jpg" width="95" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>View of Sukhumi 2<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/183/18304.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ridge view from pitsunda cape.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/183/18304.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>View from Pitsunda cape<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/183/18307.jpg.htm" title="Image:On quay. Sukhum.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/183/18307.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Sukhumi quay<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/183/18324.jpg.htm" title="Image:Botanical garden.Sukhum.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/183/18324.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Sukhumi botanical garden front entrance<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/183/18347.jpg.htm" title="Image:Dramatic theatre Chanba.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/183/18347.jpg" width="120" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Chanba Dramatic theatre in Sukhumi<p> <br /> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </center><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a></div> <!-- Pre-expand include size: 249370 bytes Post-expand include size: 91603 bytes Template argument size: 54483 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhazia"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Georgia (country)', 'Water', 'Encyclopædia Britannica', 'Time zone', 'Capital', 'Russian language', 'Government', 'Georgia (country)', 'Currency', 'Capital', 'Government', 'Georgia (country)', 'Soviet Union', 'Currency', 'Russian language', 'Black Sea', 'Georgia (country)', 'Country', 'United Nations', 'NATO', 'International law', 'Landscape', 'Tea', 'Tobacco', 'Wine', 'Fruit', 'River', 'Tea', 'Tobacco', 'Wine', 'Fruit', 'Encyclopædia Britannica', 'Georgia (country)', 'Roman Empire', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Christianity', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Islam', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Russian language', 'Russian Revolution of 1917', 'Soviet Union', 'Budapest', 'Lisbon', 'Istanbul', 'Russia', 'Georgia (country)', 'Budapest', 'European Union']
Able_Archer_83	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Able Archer 83,106th United States Congress,1983,1999,2005,2006,600-ship Navy,Airspace,Baltic sea,Barents sea,Benjamin B. Fischer" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Able Archer 83</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Able_Archer_83"; var wgTitle = "Able Archer 83"; var wgArticleId = 2024285; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Able_Archer_83"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Able Archer 83</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Military_History_and_War.htm">Military History and War</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <p><b>Able Archer 83</b> was a ten-day <a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" title="NATO">NATO</a> <!--del_lnk--> exercise starting on <!--del_lnk--> November 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1983 that spanned the continent of Europe and simulated a coordinated <!--del_lnk--> nuclear release. It incorporated a new, unique format of coded communication, <!--del_lnk--> radio silences, participation by heads of state, and a simulated <!--del_lnk--> DEFCON 1 nuclear alert. The realistic nature of the exercise, coupled with deteriorating relations between the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the anticipated arrival of "super-stealth" <!--del_lnk--> Pershing II nuclear missiles in Europe, led some in the USSR to believe that Able Archer 83 was a genuine nuclear strike. In response, the Soviets readied their nuclear forces and placed air units in <!--del_lnk--> East Germany and <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> on alert. This relatively obscure incident is considered by many historians to be the closest the world has come to <!--del_lnk--> nuclear war since the <!--del_lnk--> Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The immediate threat of nuclear war abruptly ended with the conclusion of the Able Archer 83 exercise on <!--del_lnk--> November 11.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Prelude" name="Prelude"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Prelude</span></h2> <p><a id="Operation_RYAN" name="Operation_RYAN"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Operation RYAN</span></h3> <p>The event that served as the single greatest catalyst to the Able Archer war scare occurred more than two years earlier, during a May 1981 closed-session meeting of <!--del_lnk--> KGB officers. At this meeting, <!--del_lnk--> General Secretary <!--del_lnk--> Leonid Brezhnev and KGB chairman <!--del_lnk--> Yuri Andropov bluntly announced that the United States was preparing a secret nuclear attack on the USSR. To combat this threat, Andropov announced, the KGB and <!--del_lnk--> GRU would begin <!--del_lnk--> Operation RYAN. RYAN (РЯН) was a Russian acronym for "Nuclear Missile Attack" (Ракетное Ядерное Нападение). Operation RYAN was the largest, most comprehensive peacetime <!--del_lnk--> intelligence gathering operation in Soviet history. Agents abroad were charged with monitoring the figures who would decide to launch a nuclear attack, the service and technical personnel who would implement the attack, and the facilities from which the attack would originate. In all probability, the unlikely goal of Operation RYAN was to discover the first <i>intent</i> of a nuclear attack and prevent it.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23108.gif.htm" title="One of five underground bunkers built for the East German Foreign Intelligence Service in 1983"><img alt="One of five underground bunkers built for the East German Foreign Intelligence Service in 1983" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:RYAN_command_center.gif" src="../../images/231/23108.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23108.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> One of five underground bunkers built for the <!--del_lnk--> East German Foreign Intelligence Service in 1983</div> </div> </div> <p>The impetus for the implementation of Operation RYAN is still largely unknown. <!--del_lnk--> Oleg Gordievsky, the highest-ranking KGB official ever to defect, suspected that it was born of the increased "Soviet Paranoia" coupled with "Reaganite Rhetoric". Gordievsky conjectured that Brezhnev and Andropov, who "were very, very old-fashioned and easily influenced ... by Communist dogmas," truly believed that an antagonistic Reagan would push the nuclear button and relegate the Soviet Union to the "ash-heap of history". CIA historian <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin B. Fischer lists several concrete occurrences that likely led to the birth of RYAN. The first of these was the use of psychological operations or <!--del_lnk--> PSYOP that began soon after <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> took office.<p><a id="PSYOP" name="PSYOP"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">PSYOP</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23109.gif.htm" title="The GIUK Gap"><img alt="The GIUK Gap" height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Guik_gap.gif" src="../../images/231/23109.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23109.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> GIUK Gap</div> </div> </div> <p>Psychological operations began mid-February 1981 and continued intermittently through 1983. These included a series of clandestine naval operations that stealthily accessed waters near the <a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>-<a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>-<a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <!--del_lnk--> GIUK gap, and the <!--del_lnk--> Barents, <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian, <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Baltic seas, demonstrating the extreme proximity <a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" title="NATO">NATO</a> ships could attain to critical Soviet military bases. American bombers also flew directly towards Soviet <!--del_lnk--> airspace, peeling off at the last moment, occasionally several times per week. These penetrations were designed to test Soviet radar vulnerability as well as demonstrate US capabilities in a nuclear war.<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>It really got to them," recalls Dr. William Schneider, [former] undersecretary of state for military assistance and technology, who saw classified "after-action reports" that indicated U.S. flight activity. "They didn't know what it all meant. A squadron would fly straight at Soviet airspace, and other radars would light up and units would go on alert. Then at the last minute the squadron would peel off and return home.</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="KAL_007" name="KAL_007"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">KAL 007</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>In contrast to the extremely secretive PSYOPs against the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union's attack on the <!--del_lnk--> Korean civilian airliner <!--del_lnk--> KAL 007, on September 1, 1983, brought relations between the two <!--del_lnk--> superpowers to a very public new low. In addition to illustrating the historically antagonistic relations between the USA and USSR in the early 1980s, the Soviet attack on KAL 007 lends several insights into Able Archer 83. First, the Soviet Union (perhaps due to PSYOP penetrations) guarded its territorial airspace strongly. Second, Soviet satellite systems were ineffective; they could not differentiate between a civilian and military aircraft, nor detect and prevent an American nuclear strike. Finally, the disaster demonstrated the hair-trigger mindset held by many in the Soviet Union. Reagan assessed in his memoirs, "If, as some people speculated, the Soviet pilots simply mistook the airliner for a military plane, what kind of imagination did it take to think of a Soviet military man with his finger close to a nuclear push button making an even more tragic mistake?"<p><a id="Weapons_buildup" name="Weapons_buildup"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Weapons buildup</span></h3> <p>On March 23, 1983, Reagan proposed the <!--del_lnk--> Strategic Defense Initiative, labeled by the media and critics as "Star Wars". While Reagan viewed the initiative as a safety net against nuclear war, leaders in the Soviet Union viewed it as a definitive departure from the relative weapons parity of <!--del_lnk--> Detente and an <!--del_lnk--> escalation of the arms race into space. General Secretary Andropov lambasted Reagan for "inventing new plans on how to unleash a nuclear war in the best way, with the hope of winning it."<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23110.jpg.htm" title="The US Pershing II Missile"><img alt="The US Pershing II Missile" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pershing_II.jpg" src="../../images/231/23110.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23110.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The US Pershing II Missile</div> </div> </div> <p>Despite the enormous Soviet outcry over the "Star Wars" program, the weapons plan that generated the most danger during Able Archer 83 was the 1979 NATO approval and subsequent deployment of intermediate-range <!--del_lnk--> Pershing II missiles in Western Europe. These missiles, deployed to counter Soviet <!--del_lnk--> SS-20 intermediate-range missiles on its own western border, represented a major threat to the Soviets. The Pershing II was capable of destroying Soviet "hard targets" such as underground missile silos and command and control bunkers. The missiles also possessed "super sudden first strike capability"; it was estimated that the missiles (deployed in <!--del_lnk--> West Germany) could reach targets in the Soviet Union within four to six minutes of their launch. These capabilities led Soviet leaders to believe that the only way to survive a Pershing II strike was to preempt it. This fear of an undetected Pershing II attack, according to CIA historian Benjamin B. Fischer, was explicitly linked to the mandate of Operation RYAN: to detect a decision by the United States to launch a nuclear attack and (it must be believed) to preempt it.<p><a id="Exercise_Able_Archer_83" name="Exercise_Able_Archer_83"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Exercise Able Archer 83</span></h2> <p>Thus, on 2 November 1983, as Soviet intelligence services were attempting to detect the signs of a nuclear strike, NATO began to simulate one. The exercise, codenamed Able Archer, spanned Europe and simulated European command and communications procedures during a nuclear war. It probably emulated the Pentagon’s <!--del_lnk--> Single Integrated Operational Plan (SIOP), which, at the time, named 25,000 military targets, 15,000 industrial targets, and 500 targets associated with Soviet leadership. Some Soviet leadership, because of the preceding world events and the exercise’s particularly realistic nature, believed — in accordance with Soviet military doctrine — that the exercise may have been a cover for an actual attack. Indeed, a KGB telegram of <!--del_lnk--> 17 February described one likely scenario as such:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>In view of the fact that the measures involved in State Orange [a nuclear attack within 36 hours] have to be carried out with the utmost secrecy (under the guise of maneuvers, training etc) in the shortest possible time, without disclosing the content of operational plans, it is highly probable that the battle alarm system may be used to prepare a surprise RYAN [nuclear attack] in peacetime.</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> 17 February <!--del_lnk--> 1983 KGB Permanent Operational Assignment assigned its agents to monitor several possible indicators of a nuclear attack. These included actions by "A cadre of people associated with preparing and implementing decision about RYAN, and also a group of people, including service and technical personnel ... those working in the operating services of installations connected with processing and implementing the decision about RYAN, and communication staff involved in the operation and interaction of these installations."<p>Because Able Archer 83 simulated an actual release, it is likely that the service and technical personnel mentioned in the memo were active in the exercise. More conspicuously, <!--del_lnk--> British Prime Minister <a href="../../wp/m/Margaret_Thatcher.htm" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> and <!--del_lnk--> German Chancellor <!--del_lnk--> Helmut Kohl participated (though not concurrently) in the nuclear drill. President Reagan, <!--del_lnk--> Vice President <!--del_lnk--> George H.W. Bush, and <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of Defense <!--del_lnk--> Casper Weinberger were also intended to participate. Fortunately, <!--del_lnk--> Robert McFarlane, who had assumed the position of <!--del_lnk--> National Security Advisor just two weeks earlier, realized the implications of such participation early in the exercise’s planning and rejected it.<p>Another illusory indicator likely noticed by Soviet analysts was an influx of <!--del_lnk--> ciphered communications between Great Britain and the United States. Soviet intelligence was informed that "so-called nuclear consultations in NATO are probably one of the stages of immediate preparation by the adversary for RYAN." To the Soviet analysts, this burst of secret communications between the United States and Great Britain one month before the beginning of Able Archer may have appeared to be this "consultation". In reality, the burst of communication regarded the US <a href="../../wp/i/Invasion_of_Grenada.htm" title="Invasion of Grenada">invasion of Grenada</a>, which caused a great deal of diplomatic traffic as the nominal sovereign of the island was <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a>.<p>A further startling aspect reported by KGB agents regarded the NATO communications used during the exercise. According to the Moscow Centre's 17 February 1983 memo,<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>It [was] of the highest importance to keep a watch on the functioning of communications networks and systems since through them information is passed about the adversary’s intentions and, above all, about his plans to use nuclear weapons and practical implementation of these. In addition, changes in the method of operating communications systems and the level of manning may in themselves indicate the state of preparation for RYAN.</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>Soviet Intelligence appeared to substantiate these suspicions by reporting that NATO was, indeed, using unique, never-before-seen procedures as well as message formats more sophisticated than previous exercises that possibly indicated the proximity of nuclear attack.<p>Finally, during Able Archer 83 NATO forces simulated a move through all alert phases, from <!--del_lnk--> DEFCON 5 to DEFCON 1. While these phases were simulated, alarmist KGB agents mistakenly reported them as actual. According to Soviet intelligence, NATO doctrine stated, "<i>Operational readiness No 1</i> is declared when there are obvious indications of preparation to begin military operations. It is considered that war is inevitable and may start at any moment."<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23111.jpg.htm" title="Soviet SS-20 Missile"><img alt="Soviet SS-20 Missile" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SS20_irbm.jpg" src="../../images/231/23111.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23111.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Soviet SS-20 Missile</div> </div> </div> <p>Upon learning that US nuclear activity mirrored its hypothesized first strike activity, the Moscow Centre sent its residencies a flash <!--del_lnk--> telegram on November 8 or 9 (Oleg Gordievsky cannot recall which), incorrectly reporting an alert on American bases and frantically asking for further information regarding an American first strike. The alert precisely coincided with the seven- to ten-day period estimated between NATO’s preliminary decision and an actual strike. This was the peak of the War Scare.<p>The Soviet Union, believing its only chance of surviving a NATO strike was to preempt it, readied its nuclear arsenal. The CIA reported activity in the Baltic Military District in Czechoslovakia, and it determined that nuclear capable aircraft in Poland and Germany were placed "on high alert status with readying of nuclear strike forces". Former CIA analyst Peter Vincent Pry went further, saying he suspects that the aircraft were merely the tip of the iceberg. He hypothesizes that — in accordance with Soviet military procedure and history — <!--del_lnk--> ICBM silos, easily readied and difficult for the United States to detect, were also prepared for a launch.<p>Soviet fears of the attack ended as the Able Archer exercise finished on 11 November. Upon learning of the Soviet reaction to Able Archer 83 by way of the <!--del_lnk--> double agent Oleg Gordievsky, a British <!--del_lnk--> MI6 asset, President Reagan commented, "I don’t see how they could believe that — but it’s something to think about."<p><a id="Soviet_reaction" name="Soviet_reaction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Soviet reaction</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23112.gif.htm" title="President Ronald Reagan and Soviet double agent Oleg Gordievsky"><img alt="President Ronald Reagan and Soviet double agent Oleg Gordievsky" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reagan_gordievsky.gif" src="../../images/231/23112.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23112.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> President Ronald Reagan and Soviet double agent Oleg Gordievsky</div> </div> </div> <p>The double agent <!--del_lnk--> Oleg Gordievsky, whose highest rank was KGB resident in London, is the only Soviet source ever to have published an account of Able Archer 83. <!--del_lnk--> Oleg Kalugin and <!--del_lnk--> Yuri Shvets, who were KGB agents in 1983, have published accounts that acknowledge Operation RYAN, but they do not mention Able Archer 83. It is important to note that Gordievsky and other <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Pact intelligence agents were extremely skeptical of a NATO first strike, perhaps because of their proximity and understanding of the West. Still, agents reported what they were ordered to observe, not their estimations of what their observations meant. This critical flaw in the Soviet intelligence system — coined by Gordievsky as the "intelligence cycle" — fed the fear of US nuclear aggression.<p>No Soviet political figure has publicly acknowledged Able Archer 83. Marshal <!--del_lnk--> Sergei Akhromeyev, who at the time was Chief of the main operations directorate of the Soviet General Staff, told Cold War historian Don Orbendorfer that he had never heard of Able Archer. The lack of public Soviet response over Able Archer 83 has led some historians, including <!--del_lnk--> Fritz W. Ermarth in his piece, "Observations on the 'War Scare' of 1983 From an Intelligence Perch", to conclude that Able Archer 83 posed no immediate threat to the United States.<p><a id="American_reaction" name="American_reaction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">American reaction</span></h2> <p>In May 1984, CIA Russian specialist Fritz W. Ermarth drafted "Implications of Recent Soviet Military-Political Activities", which concluded: "we believe strongly that Soviet actions are not inspired by, and Soviet leaders do not perceive, a genuine danger of imminent conflict with the United States." <!--del_lnk--> Robert M. Gates, Deputy Director for Intelligence during Able Archer 83, has published thoughts on the exercise that refute this conclusion:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>Information about the peculiar and remarkably skewed frame of mind of the Soviet leaders during those times that has emerged since the collapse of the Soviet Union makes me think there is a good chance — with all of the other events in 1983 — that they really felt a NATO attack was at least possible and that they took a number of measures to enhance their military readiness short of mobilization. After going through the experience at the time, then through the postmortems, and now through the documents, I don’t think the Soviets were crying wolf. They may not have believed a NATO attack was imminent in November 1983, but they did seem to believe that the situation was very dangerous. And US intelligence [SNIE 11-9-84 and SNIE 11-10-84] had failed to grasp the true extent of their anxiety.</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>A still-classified report written by Nina Steward for the President’s Foreign Advisory Board concurs with Gates and refutes the previous CIA reports, concluding that further analysis shows that the Soviets were, in fact, genuinely fearful of US aggression.<p>Some historians, including Beth B. Fischer in her book <i>The Reagan Reversal</i>, pin Able Archer 83 as profoundly affecting President Reagan and his turn from a policy of Confrontation towards the Soviet Union to a policy of Rapprochement. While somewhat cryptic, the thoughts of Reagan and those around him provide important insight upon the nuclear scare and its subsequent ripples. On 10 October 1983, just over a month before Able Archer 83, President Reagan screened a film about <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence, <!--del_lnk--> Kansas being destroyed by a nuclear attack entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> The Day After.</i> In his diary, the president wrote that the film "left me greatly depressed."<p>Later in October, Reagan attended a Pentagon briefing on nuclear war. During his first two years in office, he had refused to take part in such briefings, feeling it irreverent to rehearse a nuclear apocalypse; finally, he consented to the Pentagon official’s requests. According to officials present, the briefing "chastened" Reagan. Weinberg said, "[Reagan] had a very deep revulsion to the whole idea of nuclear weapons ... These war games brought home to anybody the fantastically horrible events that would surround such a scenario." Reagan described the briefing in his own words: "A most sobering experience with Cap W and <!--del_lnk--> Gen. Vessey in the <!--del_lnk--> Situation room, a briefing on our complete plan in the event of a nuclear attack."<p>These two glimpses of nuclear war primed Reagan for Able Archer 83, giving him a very specific picture of what would occur had the situation further developed. After receiving intelligence reports from sources including Gordievsky, it was clear that the Soviets were unnerved. While officials were concerned with the Soviet panic, they were hesitant about believing the proximity of a Soviet attack. <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State <!--del_lnk--> George P. Shultz thought it "incredible, at least to us" that the Soviets would believe the US would launch a genuine attack. In general, Reagan did not share the secretary's belief that cooler heads would prevail, writing:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>We had many contingency plans for responding to a nuclear attack. But everything would happen so fast that I wondered how much planning or reason could be applied in such a crisis... Six minutes to decide how to respond to a blip on a radar scope and decide whether to unleash Armageddon! How could anyone apply reason at a time like that?</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>According to McFarlane, the president responded with "genuine anxiety", in disbelief that his leadership could have led to an armed attack. A still-classified 1990 retroactive analysis shows the President’s more alarmed reaction to be more correct than the more relaxed view of some of his staff. To the ailing <!--del_lnk--> Politburo — led from the deathbed of the terminally ill Andropov, a man with no firsthand knowledge of the United States, and the creator of Operation RYAN — it seemed "that the United States was preparing to launch... a sudden nuclear attack on the Soviet Union." In his memoirs, Reagan, without specifically mentioning Able Archer 83 — he states earlier that he cannot mention classified information — wrote of a 1983 realization:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>Three years had taught me something surprising about the Russians:<br /> <p>Many people at the top of the Soviet hierarchy were genuinely afraid of America and Americans. Perhaps this shouldn't have surprised me, but it did...<br /> During my first years in Washington, I think many of us in the administration took it for granted that the Russians, like ourselves, considered it unthinkable that the United States would launch a first strike against them. But the more experience I had with Soviet leaders and other heads of state who knew them, the more I began to realize that many Soviet officials feared us not only as adversaries but as potential aggressors who might hurl nuclear weapons at them in a first strike...<br /> Well, if that was the case, I was even more anxious to get a top Soviet leader in a room alone and try to convince him we had no designs on the Soviet Union and Russians had nothing to fear from us.</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Able Archer 83">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Able Archer 83"><img alt="Able Archer 83" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Aftermath" name="Aftermath"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aftermath</span></h2> <p>Able Archer 83 was the last nuclear scare of the cold war. By 1983 the United States, under the leadership of <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, was in the middle of a massive arms build up, one which would last throughout the mid and later half of the 1980s. United States policies of the 1980s, such as the <!--del_lnk--> 600-ship Navy, drove home the US desire to continue opposition to the Soviet Union by any means necessary. In the Soviet Union the declining health of then <!--del_lnk--> General Secretary <!--del_lnk--> Konstantin Chernenko led to the rise of <a href="../../wp/m/Mikhail_Gorbachev.htm" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> in 1985. Gorbachev’s policies and programs within the Soviet Union — notably <!--del_lnk--> Glasnost and <!--del_lnk--> Perestroika — set into motion the events that ultimately led to <!--del_lnk--> its dissolution in 1991.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Able_Archer_83"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['NATO', 'United States', 'Soviet Union', 'Poland', 'President of the United States', 'Ronald Reagan', 'Greenland', 'Iceland', 'United Kingdom', 'Black Sea', 'NATO', 'Margaret Thatcher', 'Invasion of Grenada', 'Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom', 'President of the United States', 'Ronald Reagan', 'Mikhail Gorbachev']
Abraham_Goldfaden	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Abraham Goldfaden,1840,1883,1888,1907,1908,African American,Alexander II of Russia,Annetta Schwartz,Antisemitism,Asthma" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abraham Goldfaden</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abraham_Goldfaden"; var wgTitle = "Abraham Goldfaden"; var wgArticleId = 1237473; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abraham_Goldfaden"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abraham Goldfaden</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Writers_and_critics.htm">Writers and critics</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table cellspacing="4" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size:90%; text-align: left; align: right;"> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><big>Abraham Goldfaden</big></th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: #f9f9f9;"><a class="image" href="../../images/151/15133.jpg.htm" title="Image:Abraham Goldfaden.jpg"><img alt="Image:Abraham Goldfaden.jpg" height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abraham_Goldfaden.jpg" src="../../images/151/15133.jpg" width="134" /></a><br /><small>Abraham Goldfaden</small></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Origin</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Starokonstantinov, Russia</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Country</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russia, <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Years active</th> <td>1876–1908</td> </tr> <tr> <th><!--del_lnk--> Genres</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Yiddish theatre, <!--del_lnk--> operetta</td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Abraham Goldfaden</b> (<!--del_lnk--> July 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1840 – <!--del_lnk--> January 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1908), (<!--del_lnk--> Yiddish: <span lang="yi" xml:lang="yi">אברהם גולדפדן</span>) born <b>Abraham Goldenfoden</b> (first name alternately <b>Avram</b>, <b>Avron</b>, <b>Avrohom</b>, <b>Avrom</b>, or <b>Avrum</b>, last name alternately <b>Goldfadn</b>; the <!--del_lnk--> Romanian spelling <b>Avram Goldfaden</b> is common) was a <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a>-born <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> poet and playwright, author of some 40 plays. In 1876 he founded in <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a> what is generally credited as the world's first professional <!--del_lnk--> Yiddish-language theatre troupe. He was also responsible for the first <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew-language</a> play performed in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Jacob Sternberg called him "the <!--del_lnk--> Prince Charming who woke up the lethargic Romanian Jewish culture". <!--del_lnk--> Israil Bercovici wrote that in his works "...we find points in common with what we now call 'total theatre'. In many of his plays he alternates prose and verse, pantomime and dance, moments of acrobatics and some of <i>jonglerie</i>, and even of spiritualism..."<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Youth_and_early_manhood" name="Youth_and_early_manhood"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Youth and early manhood</span></h2> <p>Goldfaden was born in <!--del_lnk--> Starokonstantinov. His birthdate is sometimes given as <!--del_lnk--> July 12, following the <!--del_lnk--> "Old Style" calendar in use at that time in Russia. He attended a Jewish religious school (a <i><!--del_lnk--> cheder</i>), but his middle class family was strongly associated with the <i><!--del_lnk--> Haskalah</i>, the Jewish Enlightenment, and his father, a watchmaker, arranged that he receive private lessons in <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>. As a child, he is said to have appreciated and imitated the performances of wedding jesters and <!--del_lnk--> Brody singers to the degree that he acquired the nickname <i>Avromele Badkhen</i>, "Abie the Jester". In 1857 he began studies at the government-run rabbinical school at <!--del_lnk--> Zhytomyr, from which he emerged in 1866 as a teacher and a poet (with some experience in amateur theatre), but he never led a congregation.<p>Goldfaden's first published poem was called "Progress"; his <i><!--del_lnk--> New York Times</i> obituary described it as "a plea for <a href="../../wp/z/Zionism.htm" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> years before that movement developed". In 1865 he published his first book of poetry, <i>Zizim u-Ferahim</i> (in <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>); The <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i> (1901–1906) says that "Goldfaden's Hebrew poetry... possesses considerable merit, but it has been eclipsed by his Yiddish poetry, which, for strength of expression and for depth of true Jewish feeling, remains unrivaled." The first book of verse in Yiddish was published in 1866, and in 1867 he took a job teaching in <!--del_lnk--> Simferopol. A year later, he moved on to <!--del_lnk--> Odessa (in <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>), where he lived initially in his uncle's house, where a cousin who was a good <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">pianist</a> helped him set some of his poems to music.<p>In Odessa, Goldfaden renewed his acquaintance with fellow Yiddish-language writer <!--del_lnk--> Yitzhak Yoel Linetsky, whom he knew from Zhytomyr and met <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew-language</a> poet <!--del_lnk--> Eliahu Mordechai Werbel (whose daughter Paulina would become Goldfaden's wife) and published poems in the newspaper <i>Kol-Mevaser</i>. He also wrote his first two plays, <i>Die Tzwei Sheines</i> (<i>The Two Neighbors</i>) and <i>Die Murneh Sosfeh</i> (<i>Aunt Susie</i>), included with some verses in a modestly successful 1869 book <i>Die Yidene</i> (<i>The Jewish Woman</i>), which went through three editions in three years. At this time, he and Paulina were living mainly on his meagre teacher's salary of 18 <!--del_lnk--> rubles a year, supplemented by giving private lessons and taking a job as a cashier in a hat shop.<p>In 1875, Golfaden headed for <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a>, intending to study medicine. This did not work out, and he headed for <!--del_lnk--> Lvov/Lemberg in <!--del_lnk--> Galicia, where he again met up with Linetsky, now editor of a weekly paper, <i>Isrulik</i> or <i>Der Alter Yisrulik</i> (which was well reputed, but was soon shut by the government). A year later, he moved on to <!--del_lnk--> Chernivtsi in <!--del_lnk--> Bukovina, where he edited the Yiddish-language daily <i>Dos Bukoviner Israelitishe Folksblatt</i>. The limits of the economic sense of this enterprise can be gauged from his inability to pay a registration fee of 3000 ducats. He tried unsuccessfully to operate the paper under a different name, but soon moved on to <!--del_lnk--> Iaşi.<p><a id="Ia.C5.9Fi" name="Ia.C5.9Fi"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Iaşi</span></h2> <p>Arriving in Iaşi in 1876, Goldfaden was fortunate to be better known as a good poet — many of whose poems had been set to music and had become popular songs — than as a less-than-successful businessman. When he sought funds from Yitzhak Librescu for another newspaper, Librescu was uninterested in that proposition. Librescu's wife remarked that Yiddish-language journalism was just a way to starve; she suggested that there would be a lot more of a market for Yiddish-language theatre. Librescu offered Goldfaden 100 francs for a public recital of his songs in the garden of Shimen Mark, Gradina Pomul Verde ("the Green Fruit-Tree Garden").<p>Instead of a simple recital, Goldfaden expanded this into something of a <!--del_lnk--> vaudeville; either this or their first indoor performance later that year in <!--del_lnk--> Botoşani is generally counted as the first professional <!--del_lnk--> Yiddish theatre performance. However, the nature of his cast indicates exactly how nominal it is to choose one performance as "the first": Goldfaden's first actor, <!--del_lnk--> Israel Grodner, was already singing Goldfaden's songs (and others) in the salons of Iaşi.<p>In fact, another candidate for consideration as the first professional Yiddish theatre performance also included Grodner. He sang in a concert in <!--del_lnk--> Odessa in 1873, which also included some of the Goldfaden's songs, although Goldfaden was not personally involved. It appears to have had significant improvised material between songs, although no actual script.<p>Although Goldfaden, by his own account, was familiar at this time with "practically all of Russian literature", had plenty of exposure to Russian and <!--del_lnk--> Polish theatre, and had even seen <!--del_lnk--> African American tragedian <!--del_lnk--> Ira Aldrich perform <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, the performance at Gradina Pomul Verde was only a bit more of a play than Grodner had participated in three years earlier. The songs were strung together with a bit of character and plot and a good bit of improvisation. The performance by Goldfaden, Grodner, <!--del_lnk--> Sokher Goldstein, and possibly as many as three other men went over well. The first performance was either <i>Di bobe mitn einikl</i> (<i>Grandmother and Granddaughter</i>) or <i>Dos bintl holţ</i> (<i>The Bundle of sticks</i>); sources disagree. (Some reports suggest that Goldfaden himself was a poor singer, or even a non-singer and poor actor; according to Bercovici, these reports stem from Goldfaden's own self-disparaging remarks or from his countenance as an old man in New York, but contemporary reports show him to have been a decent, though not earth-shattering, actor and singer.)<p>After that time, Goldfaden continued miscellaneous newspaper work, but the stage became his main focus.<p>As it happens, <!--del_lnk--> Mihai Eminescu saw one of their Pomul Verde performances later that summer. He records that the company had six players. (A 1905 typographical error would turn this to a much-cited sixteen, suggesting a grander beginning for Yiddish theatre.) He was impressed by the quality of the singing and acting, but found the pieces "without much dramatic interest." [Bercovici, 1998, 58] His generally positive comments would seem to deserve to be taken seriously: Eminescu was "virulently <!--del_lnk--> antisemitic". Eminescu appears to have seen four of Goldfaden's early plays: a <!--del_lnk--> satiric musical revue <i>De velt a gan-edn</i> (<i>The World and Paradise</i>), <i>Der Farlibter Maskil un der Oifgheklerter Hosid'</i> (a dialogue between "an infatuated philosopher" and "an enlightened <!--del_lnk--> Hasid"), another musical revue <i>Der sver mitn eidem</i> (<i>Father-in-law and Son-in-Law</i>), and a comedy <i>Fishl der balegole un zain knecht Sider</i> (<i>Fishel the Junkman and His Servant Sider</i>).<p><a id="The_search_for_a_theater" name="The_search_for_a_theater"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The search for a theatre</span></h2> <p>As the season for outdoor performances was coming to a close, Goldfaden tried and failed to rent an appropriate theater in Iaşi. A theatre owner named Reicher, presumably Jewish himself, told him that "a troupe of Jewish singers" would be "too dirty". Goldfaden, Grodner, and Goldstein headed first to <!--del_lnk--> Botoşani, where they lived in a garret and Goldfaden continued to churn out songs and plays. An initial successful performance of <i>Di Rekruten</i> (<i>The Recruits</i>) in an indoor theater ("with loges!" as Goldfaden wrote) was followed by days of rain so torrential that no one would come out to the theatre; they pawned some possessions and left for <!--del_lnk--> Galaţi, which was to prove a bit more auspicious, with a successful three-week run.<p>In Galaţi they acquired their first serious set designer, a housepainter known as <!--del_lnk--> Reb Moishe Bas. He had no formal artistic training, but he proved to be good at the job, and joined the troupe, as did <!--del_lnk--> Sara Segal, their first actress. She was not yet out of her teens. After seeing her perform in their Galaţi premiere, her mother objected to her unmarried daughter cavorting on a stage like that; Goldstein (unlike Goldfaden and Grodner) was single; he promptly married her and she remained with the troupe. (Besides being known as Sara Segal and Sofia Goldstein, she became best known as Sofia Karp, after a second marriage to actor <!--del_lnk--> Max Karp).<p>After the successful run in Galaţi came a less successful attempt in <!--del_lnk--> Brăila, but by now the company had honed its act and it was time to go to the capital, <a href="../../wp/b/Bucharest.htm" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>.<p><a id="Bucharest" name="Bucharest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bucharest</span></h2> <p>As in Iaşi, Goldfaden arrived in Bucharest with his reputation already established. He and his players performed first in the early spring at the salon Lazăr Cafegiu on Calea Văcăreşti (<!--del_lnk--> Văcăreşti Avenue, in the heart of the <!--del_lnk--> ghetto), then, once the weather turned warm, at the Jigniţa garden, a pleasant tree-shaded <!--del_lnk--> beer garden on Str. Negru Vodă that up until then had drawn only a neighbourhood crowd. He filled out his cast from the great pool of Jewish vocal talent: synagogue <!--del_lnk--> cantors. He also recruited two eminently respectable classically trained <!--del_lnk--> prima donnas, sisters <!--del_lnk--> Margaretta and <!--del_lnk--> Annetta Schwartz.<p>Among the cantors in his casts that year were Lazăr Zuckermann (also known as Laiser Zuckerman; as a song-and-dance man, he would eventually follow Goldfaden to New York and a long stage career, Moishe Zilberman (also known as Silberman), and Simhe Dinman, but the find, soon to become a stage star, was the 18-year-old <!--del_lnk--> Zigmund Mogulescu (Sigmund Mogulesko), an orphan who had already made his way in the world as a singer not only as a soloist in the Great Synagogue of Bucharest, but in cafes, at parties, with a visiting French <!--del_lnk--> operetta company, and even in a church choir. Before his voice changed, he had sung with Zuckerman, Dinman, and Moses Wald in the "Israelite Chorus", performing at important ceremonies in the Jewish community. Mogulescu's audition for Goldfaden was a scene from <i>Vlăduţu Mamei</i> (<i>Mama's Boy</i>), which formed the basis later that year for Goldfaden's light comedy <i>Shmendrik, oder Die Komishe Chaseneh</i> (<i>Shmendrik or The Comical Wedding</i> starring Mogulescu as the almost painfully clueless and hapless young man (later, famously played in New York and elsewhere by actress <!--del_lnk--> Molly Picon); the title is a pun on the <i><!--del_lnk--> Chemical Wedding</i>).<p>This recruiting of cantors was not without controversy: Cantor Cuper (also known as Kupfer), the head cantor of the Great Synagogue, considered it "impious" that cantors should perform in a secular setting, to crowds where both sexes mingled freely, keeping people up late so that they might not be on time for morning prayers.<p>While one may argue over which performance "started" Yiddish theater, by the end of that summer in Bucharest Yiddish theatre was an established fact. The influx of Jewish merchants and middlemen to at the start of the <!--del_lnk--> Russo-Turkish War had greatly expanded the audience; among these new arrivals were <!--del_lnk--> Israel Rosenberg and <!--del_lnk--> Jacob Spivakovsky, the highly cultured scion of a wealthy Russian Jewish family, both of whom actually joined Goldfaden's troupe, but soon left to found the first <!--del_lnk--> Yiddish theatre troupe in <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russia.<p>Goldfaden was churning out a repertoire – new songs, new plays, translations of plays from Romanian, French, and other languages; in the first two years, he wrote 22 plays, and would eventually write about 40 – and while Goldfaden was not always able to retain the players in his company once they became stars in their own right, he continued for many years to recruit first-rate talent, and his company became a <i>de facto</i> training ground for Yiddish theatre. By the end of the year, others were writing Yiddish plays as well, such as <!--del_lnk--> Moses Horowitz with <i>Der tiranisher bankir</i>, (<i>The Tyrannical Banker</i>) or Grodner with <i>Curve un ganev</i>, (<i>Prostitutes and Thieves</i>), and Yiddish theater had become big theatre, with elaborate sets, duelling choruses, and extras to fill out crowd scenes.<p>Goldfaden was helped by <!--del_lnk--> Ion Ghica, then head of the <!--del_lnk--> Romanian National Theatre to legally establish a "dramatic society" to handle administrative matters. From those papers, we know that the troupe at the Jigniţa included Moris Teich, Michel Liechman (Glückman), Lazăr Zuckermann, Margareta Schwartz, Sofia Palandi, Aba Goldstein, and Clara Goldstein. We also know from similar papers that when Grodner and Mogulescu walked out on Goldfaden to start their own company, it included (besides themselves) I. Rosenberg, E. Epivakowsky, P. Şapira, M. Banderevsky, Anetta Grodner, and Rosa Friedman.<p>Ion Ghica was a valuable ally for Yiddish theater in Bucharest. On several occasions he expressed his favorable view of the quality of acting, and even more of the technical aspects of the Yiddish theater. In 1881, he obtained for the National Theatre the costumes that had been used for a Yiddish pageant on the coronation of King Solomon, which had been timed in tribute to the actual coronation of <!--del_lnk--> Carol I of Romania.<p><a id="A_turn_to_the_serious" name="A_turn_to_the_serious"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">A turn to the serious</span></h2> <p>While light comedy and satire might have established Yiddish theatre as a commercially successful medium, it would never have established Goldfaden as "the Yiddish Shakespeare" (which the <i>New York Times</i> called him at his death in 1908). As a man broadly read in several languages, he was acutely aware that there was no Eastern European Jewish tradition of dramatic literature, his audience was used to seeking just "a good glass of <!--del_lnk--> Odobeşti and a song". Years later, he would paraphrase the typical Yiddish theatergoer of the time as saying to him, "We don't go to the theater to make our head swim with sad things. We have enough troubles at home... We go to the theatre to cheer ourselves up. We pay up a coin and hope to be distracted, we want to laugh from the heart."<p>Goldfaden wrote that this attitude put him "pure and simply at war with the public". His stage was not to be merely "...a masquerade. No, brothers. If I have arrived at having a stage, I want it to be a school for you. In youth you didn't have time to learn and cultivate yourself... Laugh heartily if I amuse you with my jokes, while I, watching you, feel my heart crying. Then, brothers, I'll give you a drama, a tragedy drawn from life, and you, too, shall cry – while my heart shall be glad." Nonetheless, his "war with the public" was based on understanding that public. He would also write, "I wrote <i>Di kishofmeherin</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> The Witch</i>) in Romania, where the populace – Jews as much as Romanians – believe strongly in witches." Local superstitions and concerns always made good subject matter, and, as Bercovici remarks, however strong his inspirational and didactic intent, his historical pieces were always connected to contemporary concerns.<p>Even in the first couple of years of his company, Goldfaden did not shy away from serious themes: his rained-out vaudeville in Botoşani had been <i>Di Rekruten</i> (<i>The Recruits</i>), playing with the theme of the <!--del_lnk--> press gangs working the streets of that town to <!--del_lnk--> conscript young men into the army. Before the end of 1876, Goldfaden had already translated <i>Desolate Island</i> by <!--del_lnk--> August von Kotzebue; thus, a play by a German aristocrat and Russian spy became the first non-comic play performed professionally in Yiddish. After his initial burst of mostly vaudevilles and light comedies (although <i>Shmendrik</i> and <i>The Two Kuni-Lemls</i> were reasonably sophisticated plays), Goldfaden would go on to write many serious Yiddish-language plays on Jewish themes, perhaps the most famous being <i><!--del_lnk--> Shulamith</i>, also from 1880. Golfaden himself suggested that this increasingly serious turn became possible because he had educated his audience. Nahma Sandrow suggests that it may have had equally much to do with the arrival in Romania of Russian Jews at the time of the <!--del_lnk--> Russo-Turkish War, who had been exposed to more sophisticated <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian language</a> theatre. Goldfaden's strong turn toward almost uniformly serious subject matter roughly coincided with bringing his troupe to <!--del_lnk--> Odessa.<p>Goldfaden was both a theoretician and a practitioner of theater. That he was in no small measure a theoretician – for example, he was interested almost from the start in having set design seriously support the themes of his plays – relates to a key property of Yiddish theater at the time of its birth: in general, writes Bercovici, theory ran ahead of practice. Much of the Jewish community, Goldfaden included, were already familiar with contemporary theater in other languages. The initial itinerary of Goldfaden's company – Iaşi, Botoşani, Galaţi, Brăila, Bucharest – could as easily have been the itinerary of a Romanian-language troupe. Yiddish theater may have been seen from the outset as an expression of a Jewish national character, but the theatrical values of Goldfaden's company were in many ways those of a good Romanian theatre of the time. Also, Yiddish was a German dialect and a well-known language even among non-Jews in <!--del_lnk--> Moldavia (and <!--del_lnk--> Transylvania), an important language of commerce; the fact that one of the first to write about Yiddish theatre was Romania's <!--del_lnk--> national poet, <!--del_lnk--> Mihai Eminescu, is testimony that interest in Yiddish theatre went beyond the Jewish community.<p>Almost from the first, Yiddish theater drew a level of theater criticism comparable to any other European theater of its time. Bercovici cites a "brochure" by one G. Abramski, published in 1877. Abramski described and gave critiques of all of Goldfaden's plays of that year, discussed what a Yiddish theatre ought to be, speculated that this might be a moment comparable to the <!--del_lnk--> Elizabethan era for English theatre, noted the many sources of this emerging form (ranging from <!--del_lnk--> Purim plays to <!--del_lnk--> circus <!--del_lnk--> pantomime), praised the strong female roles, but criticized where he saw weaknesses: a male actor unconvincingly playing the mother in <i>Shmendrik</i>, or the entire play <i>Di shtume kale</i> (<i>The Mute Bride</i>) — a play apparently written to accommodate a pretty, young actress who was too nervous to deliver her lines — saying of it that the only evidence of Goldfaden's authorship was his name.<p><a id="Russia" name="Russia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Russia</span></h2> <p>Goldfaden's father wrote him to solicit the troupe to come to <!--del_lnk--> Odessa in <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, which was then part of <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russia. The timing was opportune: the end of the war meant that much of his best audience were now in Odessa rather than Bucharest; Rosenberg had already quit Goldfaden's troupe and was performing the Goldfadenian repertoire in Odessa.<p>With a loan from Librescu, Goldfaden headed east with a group of 42 people, including performers, musicians, and their families. After the end of the Russo-Turkish War he and his troupe travelled extensively through Imperial Russia, notably to <!--del_lnk--> Kharkov (also in Ukraine), <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Jacob Adler later described him at this time as "a <i>bon vivant</i>", "a cavalier", "as difficult to approach as an emperor". He continued to turn out plays at a prolific pace, now mostly serious pieces such as <i>Doctor Almasada, oder Die Yiden in Palermo</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Doctor Almasada, or The Jews of Palermo</i>), <i><!--del_lnk--> Shulamith</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Bar Kokhba</i>, the last being a rather dark play about <!--del_lnk--> Bar Kokhba's revolt, written after the <!--del_lnk--> pogroms following the 1881 assassination of Czar <!--del_lnk--> Alexander II, as the tide turned against Jewish emancipation.<p>As it happens, a <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">Frenchman</a> named Victor Tissot happened to be in <!--del_lnk--> Berdichev when Goldfaden's company was there. He saw two plays – <i>Di Rekruten</i>, first premiered in Botoşani, and the later <i>Di Shvebleh</i> (<i>Matches</i>), a play of intrigue. Tissot's account of what he saw gives an interesting picture of the theaters and audiences Goldfaden's troupe encountered outside of the big cities. "Berdichev," he begins, "has not one cafe, not one restaurant. Berdichev, which is a boring and sad city, nonetheless has a theatrical hall, a big building made of rough boards, where theatre troupes passing through now and then put on a play." Although there was a proper stage with a curtain, the cheap seats were bare benches, the more expensive ones were benches covered in red percale. Although there were many full beards, "there were no long caftans, no skullcaps." Some of the audience were quite poor, but these were assimilated Jews, basically secular. The audience also included Russian officers with their wives or girlfriends.<p>In Russia, Goldfaden and his troupe drew large audiences and were generally popular with progressive Jewish intellectuals, but slowly ran afoul of both the Czarist government and conservative elements in the Jewish community. Goldfaden was calling for change in the Jewish world:<dl> <dd><i>Wake up my people</i><dd><i>From your sleep, wake up</i><dd><i>And believe no more in foolishness.</i></dl> <p>A call like this might be a bit ambiguous, but it was unsettling to those who were on the side of the <i>status quo</i>. Yiddish theatre was banned in Russia starting <!--del_lnk--> September 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1883 as part of the anti-Jewish reaction following the assassination of Czar <!--del_lnk--> Alexander II. Goldfaden and his troupe were left adrift in Saint Petersburg. They headed various directions, some to <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, some to <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>, some to Poland, some to Romania.<p><a id="The_prophet_adrift" name="The_prophet_adrift"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The prophet adrift</span></h2> <p>While Yiddish theatre continued successfully in various places, Goldfaden was not on the best terms at this time with Mogulescu. They had quarelled (and settled) several times over rights to plays, and Mogulescu and his partner <!--del_lnk--> Moishe "Maurice" Finkel now dominated Yiddish theater in Romania, with about ten lesser companies competing as well. Mogulescu was a towering figure in Bucharest theater at this point, lauded on a level comparable to the actors of the National Theatre, performing at times in Romanian as well as Yiddish, drawing an audience that went well beyond the Jewish community.<p>Goldfaden seems, in Bercovici's words, to have lost "his theatrical elan" in this period. He briefly put together a theatre company in 1886 in <a href="../../wp/w/Warsaw.htm" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, with no notable success. In 1887 he went to <!--del_lnk--> New York (as did Mogulescu, independently). After extensive negotiations and great anticipation in the Yiddish-language press in New York ("Goldfaden in America", read the headline in the <!--del_lnk--> January 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1888 edition of the <i>New Yorker Yiddishe Ilustrirte Zaitung</i>), he briefly took on the job of director of Mogulescu's new Rumanian Opera House; they parted ways again after the failure of their first play, whose production values were apparently not up to New York standards. Goldfaden attempted (unsuccessfully) to found a theatre school, then headed in 1889 for <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, rather low on funds. There he wrote some poetry, worked on a play that he didn't finish at that time, and put together a theatre company that never got to the point of putting on a play (because the cashier made off with all of their funds [Adler, 1999, 262 commentary]). In October 1889 he scraped together the money to get to <!--del_lnk--> Lvov, where his reputation as a poet again came to his rescue.<p><a id="Lvov" name="Lvov"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Lvov</span></h2> <p>Lvov was not exactly a dramatist's dream. Leon Dreykurs described audiences bringing meals into the theater, rustling paper, treating the theater like a beer garden. He also quotes Jacob Schatzky: "All in all, the Galician milieu was not favorable to Yiddish theatre. The intellectuals were assimilated, but the masses were fanatically religious and they viewed Jewish 'comedians' with disdain."<p>Nonetheless, Iacob Ber Ghimpel, who owned a Yiddish theatre there, was glad to have a figure of Goldfaden's stature. Goldfaden completed the play he'd started in Paris, <i>Rabi Yoselman, oder Die Gzerot fun Alsas</i> ("Rabbi Yoselman, or The Alsatian Decree"), in five acts and 23 scenes, based on the life of <!--del_lnk--> Josel of Rosheim. At this time he also wrote an operetta <i>Rothschild</i> and a semi-autobiographical play called <i>Mashiach Tzeiten</i> (<i>Messiah Times</i>) that gave a less-than-optimistic view of America.<p>Kalman Juvelier, an actor in Ber Ghimpel's company, credited Goldfaden's brief time in Lvov as greatly strengthening the caliber of performance there, working with every actor on understanding his or her character, making sure that the play was more than just a series of songs and effects, respected by all.<p><a id="Back_to_Bucharest" name="Back_to_Bucharest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Back to Bucharest</span></h2> <p>Buoyed by his success in Lvov, he returned to Bucharest in 1892, as director of the Jigniţa theatre. His new company again included Lazăr Zuckermann; other players were Marcu (Mordechai) Segalescu, and later Iacob Kalich, Carol Schramek, Malvina Treitler-Löbel and her father H. Goldenbers. Among his notable plays from this period were <i>Dos zenteh Gebot, oder Lo tachmod</i> (<i>The Tenth Commandment, or Thou Shalt Not Covet</i>), <i>Judas Maccabaeus</i>, and <i>Judith and Holfernes</i> and a translation of <!--del_lnk--> Johann Strauss's <i>Gypsy Baron</i>.<p>However, it was not a propitious time to return to Romania. Yiddish theatre had become a business there, with slickly written advertisements, coordinated performances in multiple cities using the same publicity materials, and cutthroat competition: on one occasion in 1895, a young man named Bernfeld attended multiple performances of Goldfaden's <i>Story of Isaac</i>, memorized it all (including the songs), and took the whole package to Kalman Juvilier, who put on an unauthorized production in Iaşi. Such outright theft was possible because once Ion Ghica headed off on a diplomatic career, the National Theater, which was supposed to adjudicate issues like unauthorized performances of plays, was no longer paying much attention to Yiddish theatre. (Juvilier and Goldfaden finally reached an out-of-court settlement.)<p>Cutthroat competition was nothing to what was to follow. The 1890s were a tough time for the Romanian economy, and a rising tide of anti-Semitism made it an even tougher time for the Jews. One quarter of the Jewish population emigrated, with intellecuals particularly likely to leave, and those intellecuals who remained were more interested in politics than in theatre: this was a period of social ferment, with Jewish <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialists</a> in Iaşi starting <i>Der Veker</i> (<i>The Awakener</i>).<p>Goldfaden left Romania in 1896; soon Juvilier's was the only active Yiddish theater troupe in the country, and foreign troupes had almost entirely ceased coming to the country. Although Lateiner, Horowitz, and Shumer kept writing, and occasionally managed to put on a play, it was not a good time for Yiddish theater – or any theatre – in Romania, and would only become worse as the economy continued to decline.<p>Goldfaden wandered Europe as a poet and journalist. His plays continued to be performed in Europe and America, but rarely, if ever, did anyone send him royalties. His health deteriorated – a 1903 letter refers to <a href="../../wp/a/Asthma.htm" title="Asthma">asthma</a> and spitting up blood – and he was running out of money. In 1903, he wrote Jacob Dinesohn from Paris, authorizing him to sell his remaining possessions in Romania, clothes and all. This gave him the money to head once more to New York in 1904.<p><a id="New_York" name="New_York"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">New York</span></h2> <p>In America, he again tried his hand at journalism, but a brief stint as editor of the <i>New Yorker Yiddishe Ilustrirte Zaitung</i> resulted only in getting the paper suspended and landing himself a rather large fine. On <!--del_lnk--> March 31, 1905, he recited poetry at a benefit performance at <!--del_lnk--> Cooper Union to raise a pension for Yiddish poet <!--del_lnk--> Eliakum Zunser, even worse off than himself because he had found himself unable to write since coming to America in 1889. Shortly afterwards, he met a group of young people who had a Hebrew language association at the <!--del_lnk--> Dr. Herzl Zion Club, and wrote a Hebrew-language play <i>David ba-Milchama</i> (<i>David in the War</i>), which they performed in March 1906, the first Hebrew-language play to be performed in America. Repeat performances in March 1907 and April 1908 drew successively larger crowds.<p>He also wrote the spoken portions of <i>Ben Ami</i>, loosely based on <a href="../../wp/g/George_Eliot.htm" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a>'s <i><!--del_lnk--> Daniel Deronda</i>. After Goldfaden's former bit player <!--del_lnk--> Jacob Adler — by now the owner of a prominent New York Yiddish theatre — optioned and ignored it, even accusing Goldfaden of being "senile", it premiered successfully at rival <!--del_lnk--> Boris Thomashefsky's People's Theatre <!--del_lnk--> December 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1907, with music by H. Friedzel and lyrics by Mogulescu, who was by this time an international star.<p>He died in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> in 1908. At the time of his death, the <i><!--del_lnk--> New York Times</i> called him not only "the Yiddish Shakespeare", but "both a poet and a prophet", and added that "...there is more evidence of genuine sympathy with and admiration for the man and his work than is likely to be manifested at the funeral of any poet now writing in the English language in this country." An estimated 75,000 attended his funeral procession from the People's Theatre in <!--del_lnk--> the Bowery to Washington Cemetery in <!--del_lnk--> Brooklyn.<p><a id="Goldfaden_and_Zionism" name="Goldfaden_and_Zionism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Goldfaden and Zionism</span></h2> <p>Goldfaden had an on-again off-again relationship with <a href="../../wp/z/Zionism.htm" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>. Some of his earliest poetry was Zionist <i>avant la lettre</i> and one of his last plays was written in Hebrew; several of his plays were implicitly or explicitly Zionist (<i>Shulamith</i> set in <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <i>Mashiach Tzeiten?!</i> ending with its protagonists abandoning New York for <!--del_lnk--> Palestine); he served as a delegate from Paris to the World Zionist Congress in 1900. Still, he spent most of his life (and set slightly more than half of his plays) in the <!--del_lnk--> Pale of Settlement and in the adjoining Jewish areas in Romania, and when he left it was never to go to Palestine, but to cities such as New York, London or Paris.<p><a id="Works" name="Works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Works</span></h2> <p><a id="Plays" name="Plays"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Plays</span></h3> <p>Sources disagree about the dates (and even the names) of some of Goldfaden's plays. As usual in transcribing Yiddish, spellings vary wildly.<ul> <li><i>Die Murneh Sosfeh</i> (<i>Aunt Susie</i>) wr. 1869<li><i>Die Tzwei Sheines</i> (<i>The Two Neighbours</i>) wr. 1869 (possibly the same as <i>Die Sheines</i> 1877<li><i>Polyeh Shikor</i> (<i>Polyeh, the Drunkard</i>) 1871<li><i>Anonimeh Komedyeh</i> (<i>Anonymous Comedy</i>) 1876<li><i>Die Rekruten</i> (<i>The Recruits</i>) 1876, 1877<li><i>Dos Bintl Holtz</i> (<i>The Bundle of Sticks</i>) 1876<li><i>Fishl der balegole un zain knecht Sider</i> (<i>Fishel the Junkman and His Servant Sider</i>) 1876<li><i>Die Velt a Gan-Edn</i> (<i>The World and Paradise</i>) 1876<li><i>Der Farlibter Maskil un der Oifgheklerter Hosid</i> (<i>The Infatuated Philosopher and the Enlightened Hasid</i>) 1876<li><i>Der Shver mitn eidem</i> (<i>Father-in-Law and Son-in-Law</i>) 1876<li><i>Die Bobeh mit die Einikel</i> (<i>The Grandmother and the Granddaughter</i>) <b>1876</b> presumably the same play as <i>Die kaprizneh Kaleh-Moid</i> (<i>The Capricious Bridemaid</i>) 1887<li><i>Yontl Shnaider</i> (<i>Yontl the Tailor</i>) 1877<li><i>Vos tut men?</i> (<i>What Did He Do?</i>) 1877<li><i>Die Shtumeh Kaleh</i> (<i>The Dumb Bride</i>) <b>1877</b>, 1887<li><i>Die Tzwei Toibe</i> (<i>The Two Deaf Men</i>) 1877<li><i>Der Ghekoifter Shlof</i> (<i>The Purchased Sleep</i>) 1877<li><i>Die Sheines</i> (<i>The Neighbors</i>) 1877<li><i>Yukel un Yekel</i> (<i>Yukel and Yekel</i>) 1877<li><i>Der Katar</i> (<i>Catarrh</i>) 1877<li><i>Ix-Mix-Drix</i>, 1877<li><i>Die Mumeh Sose</i> (<i>Mute Susie</i>) 1877<li><i>Braindele Kozak</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Breindele Cossack</i>), 1877<li><i>Der Podriatshik</i> (<i>The Purveyor</i>), 1877<li><i>Die Alte Moid</i> (<i>The Old Maid</i>) 1877<li><i>Die Tzvei fardulte</i> (<i>The Two Scatter-Brains</i>) 1877<li><i>Die Shvebeleh</i> (<i>Matches</i>) 1877<li><i>Fir Portselaiene Teler</i> (<i>Four Porcelain Plates</i>) 1877<li><i>Der Shpigl</i> (<i>The Mirror</i>) 1877<li><i>Toib, Shtum un Blind</i> (<i>Deaf, Dumb and Blind</i>) 1878<li><i>Todres Bloz</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Todros, Blow</i> or <i>Todres the Trombonist</i>) 1878<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Ni-be-ni-me-ni-cucurigu</i> (<i>Not Me, Not You, Not Cock-a-Doodle-Doo</i> or <i>Neither This, Nor That, nor Kukerikoo</i>; Lulla Rosenfeld also gives the alternate title <i>The Struggle of Culture with Fanaticism</i>) 1878<li><i>Der Heker un der Bleher-iung</i> (<i>The Butcher and the Tinker</i>) 1878<li><i>Die Kishufmacherin</i> (<i>The Sorceress</i>, also known as <i><!--del_lnk--> The Witch of Botoşani</i>) <b>1878</b>, 1887<li><i>Soufflé</i>, <b>1878</b><li><i>Doi Intriganten</i> (<i>Two Intriguers</i>) 1878<li><i>Die tzwei Kuni-lemels</i> (<i>The Fanatic, or <!--del_lnk--> The Two Kuni-Lemls</i>) 1880<li><i>Thiat Hametim</i> (<i>The Winter of Death</i>) 1881<li><i>Shulamith</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Shulamith</i> or <i>The Daughter of Jerusalem</i>) wr. 1880, <b>1881</b><li><i>Dos Zenteh Gebot, oder Lo Tachmod</i> (<i>The Tenth Commandment, or Thou Shalt Not Covet</i>) <b>1882</b>, 1887<li><i>Der Sambatien</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Sambation</i>) 1882<li><i>Doctor Almasada, oder Die Yiden in Palermo</i> (<i>Doctor Almasada, or The Jews of Palermo</i> also known as <i>Doctor Almasado</i>, <i>Doctor Almaraso</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Doctor Almasaro</i>) 1880, 1883<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bar Kokhba</i>, 1883, 1885<li><i>Akeidat Itzhak</i> (<i>The Sacrifice of Isaac</i>), 1891<li><i>Dos Finfteh Gebot, oder Kibed Ov</i> (<i>The Fifth Commandment, or Thou Shalt Not Kill</i>), 1892<li><i>Rabi Yoselman, oder Die Gzerot fun Alsas</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Rabbi Yoselman, or The Alsatian Decree</i>) 1877, 1892<li><i>Judas Maccabeus</i>, 1892<li><i>Judith and Holofernes</i>, 1892<li><i>Mashiach Tzeiten?!</i> (<i>The Messianic Era?!</i>) 1891, <b>1893</b><li>Yiddish translation of <!--del_lnk--> Johann Strauss's <i><!--del_lnk--> Gypsy Baron</i> 1894<li><i>Sdom Veamora</i> (<i>Sodom and Gomorrah</i>) 1895<li><i>Die Catastrofe fun Braila</i> (<i>The Catastrophe in Brăila</i>) 1895<li><i>Meilits Ioisher</i> (<i>The Messenger of Justice</i>) 1897<li><i>David ba-Milchama</i> (<i>David in the War</i>) 1906, in Hebrew<li><i>Ben Ami</i> (<i>Son of My People</i>) <b>1907</b>, 1908<li><i>Der Ligner</i> (<i>The Liar</i>) 1911 (posthumous)</ul> <p><a id="Songs_and_poetry" name="Songs_and_poetry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Songs and poetry</span></h2> <p>Goldfaden wrote hundreds of songs and poems. Among his most famous are:<ul> <li><i>"Der Malekh"</i> ("The Angel")<li><i>"Royzhinkes mit mandlen"</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Raisins and Almonds)<li><i>"Shabes, Yontev, un Rosh Khoydesh"</i> ("Sabbath, Festival, and New Moon")<li><i>"Tsu Dayn Geburtstag!"</i> ("To Your Birthday!")</ul> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Goldfaden"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Romania', 'United States', 'Russia', 'Jew', 'Romania', 'Hebrew language', 'United States', 'German language', 'Russian language', 'Zionism', 'Hebrew language', 'Ukraine', 'Piano', 'Hebrew language', 'Munich', 'William Shakespeare', 'Bucharest', 'Russian language', 'Ukraine', 'Moscow', 'Saint Petersburg', 'France', 'England', 'New York City', 'Warsaw', 'Paris', 'Socialism', 'Asthma', 'George Eliot', 'New York City', 'Zionism', 'Jerusalem']
Abraham_Lincoln	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Abraham Lincoln,1809,1842,1843,1846,1850,1853,1854,1860,1861,1862" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Abraham Lincoln</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Abraham_Lincoln"; var wgTitle = "Abraham Lincoln"; var wgArticleId = 307; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Abraham_Lincoln"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Abraham Lincoln</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.USA_Presidents.htm">USA Presidents</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="width:23em; font-size:90%; text-align:left; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em;"> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>Abraham Lincoln</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/108/10877.jpg.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Abraham Lincoln" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg" src="../../images/151/15134.jpg" width="160" /></a><br /> </td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:110%;"> <hr /> <div style="background:lavender;">16th <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1861 – <!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1865</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Vice President(s)  </th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Hannibal Hamlin (1861 to 1865); <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (March - April 1865)</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Preceded by</th> <td><a href="../../wp/j/James_Buchanan.htm" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Succeeded by</th> <td><a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <hr /> </td> </tr> <tr> <th>Born</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> February 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1809<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hardin County, Kentucky</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Died</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1865<br /><a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Political party</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Whig, <!--del_lnk--> Republican</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Spouse</th> <td><!--del_lnk--> Mary Todd Lincoln</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Religion</th> <td>No affiliation</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Signature</th> <td><a class="image" href="../../images/151/15135.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="38" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abraham_Lincoln_signature.JPG" src="../../images/151/15135.jpg" width="128" /></a></td> </tr> </table> <p><b>Abraham Lincoln</b> (<!--del_lnk--> February 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1809 – <!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1865) was an <!--del_lnk--> American politician who was elected the 16th <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (serving from 1861 to 1865), and was the first president from the <!--del_lnk--> Republican Party. Today, he is best known for ending <!--del_lnk--> slavery and preserving the <!--del_lnk--> Union through his supervision of the Federal (i.e., Northern) forces during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. He selected the generals and approved their strategy; selected senior civilian officials; supervised diplomacy, patronage, and party operations; and rallied public opinion through messages and speeches. Lincoln's influence was magnified by his powerful rhetoric; his <a href="../../wp/g/Gettysburg_Address.htm" title="Gettysburg Address">Gettysburg Address</a> rededicated the nation to freedom and democracy and remains a core component of the American value system.<p>To achieve his main goal of preserving the Union, Lincoln first ended slavery in the <!--del_lnk--> Confederacy through his <!--del_lnk--> Emancipation Proclamation (1863), then in 1865 secured passage of the <!--del_lnk--> Thirteenth Amendment to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" title="United States Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a> to abolish slavery forever. He took personal charge of <!--del_lnk--> Reconstruction, seeking to speedily re-unite the nation through a policy of generous reconciliation. He was opposed by the <!--del_lnk--> Radical Republicans, who advocated much harsher policies.<p>His leadership qualities were evident in his bringing all factions of the party into his cabinet, in defusing a war scare with Britain in 1861, in handling the border slave states in 1861, and in his landslide reelection in <!--del_lnk--> 1864 presidential election. <!--del_lnk--> Copperheads criticized him vehemently for refusing to compromise on slavery, declaring <!--del_lnk--> martial law, suspending the writ of <!--del_lnk--> habeas corpus, ordering arrests of 18,000 opponents including public officials and newspaper publishers, needlessly ending the lives of hundreds of thousands of young soldiers in the war, and for overstepping the bounds of executive power as set forth in the Constitution. On the other hand, Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery, and not being ruthless enough toward the conquered South.<p>Lincoln had a lasting influence on U.S. political and social institutions, redefining <!--del_lnk--> republican values, promoting nationalism, and enlarging the powers of the federal government. <!--del_lnk--> Scholars rank Lincoln as one of the two or three greatest presidents. His assassination in 1865 as the war ended made him a martyr for national unity and an icon of Americanism.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Lincoln_to_1854" name="Lincoln_to_1854"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Lincoln to 1854</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15136.jpg.htm" title="Symbolic log cabin at Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site"><img alt="Symbolic log cabin at Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abe-Lincoln-Birthplace-2.jpg" src="../../images/151/15136.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15136.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Symbolic log cabin at <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site</div> </div> </div> <p><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h3> <p>Abraham Lincoln was born on <!--del_lnk--> February 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1809, to <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Lincoln and <!--del_lnk--> Nancy Hanks. He was born in a one-room <!--del_lnk--> log cabin on the 348 acre (1.4 km²) Sinking Spring Farm. The farm was in Nolin Creek, three miles (5 km) south of <!--del_lnk--> Hodgenville, <!--del_lnk--> Kentucky. This was the southeast part of <!--del_lnk--> Hardin County (now part of <!--del_lnk--> LaRue County), and was at that time considered the "<!--del_lnk--> frontier". Lincoln was named after his grandfather, who was killed in 1786 in an Indian raid. He had no middle name. Lincoln's parents were uneducated farmers. Lincoln had one elder sister, Sarah Lincoln, who was born in 1805. He also had a younger brother, Thomas Jr, who died in infancy. Thomas Lincoln for a while was a respected and relatively affluent citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the Sinking Spring Farm in December 1808 for $200 cash and assumption of a debt. But Thomas lost all his property in court cases and when Lincoln was a child the family was living in a dugout on the side of a hill in Indiana, with not even a log cabin to shelter them. His parents belonged to a <!--del_lnk--> Baptist church that had pulled away from a larger church because they refused to support slavery. From a very young age, Lincoln was exposed to anti-slavery sentiment. However, he never joined his parents' church, or any other church, and as a youth he ridiculed religion.<p>In 1816, when Lincoln was seven years old, he and his parents moved to <!--del_lnk--> Perry County (now in <!--del_lnk--> Spencer County), Indiana. He later noted that this move was "partly on account of slavery," and partly because of economic difficulties in Kentucky. In 1818, Lincoln's mother died of "<!--del_lnk--> milk sickness" at age thirty four, when Abe was nine. Soon afterwards, Lincoln's father remarried to Sarah Bush Johnston. Sarah Lincoln raised young Lincoln like one of her own children. Years later she compared Lincoln to her own son, saying "Both were good boys, but I must say — both now being dead that Abe was the best boy I ever saw or ever expect to see." Lincoln was affectionate toward his step-mother, but distant from his father.<p>In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on government land on a site selected by Lincoln's father in <!--del_lnk--> Macon County, Illinois. The following desolate winter was especially brutal, and the family nearly moved back to Indiana. When his father relocated the family to a nearby site the following year, the 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, canoing down the <!--del_lnk--> Sangamon River to <!--del_lnk--> Sangamon County, Illinois, in the village of <!--del_lnk--> New Salem. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman <!--del_lnk--> Denton Offutt and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans via flatboat on the Sangamon, <!--del_lnk--> Illinois and <a href="../../wp/m/Mississippi_River.htm" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a> rivers. While in New Orleans, he may have witnessed a slave auction that left an indelible impression on him for the rest of his life. Whether he actually witnessed a slave auction at that time or not, he visited Kentucky often and probably saw similar atrocities from time to time.<p> <br /> <p>His formal education consisted of perhaps 18 months of schooling from unofficial teachers. In effect he was self-educated, studying every book he could borrow. He mastered the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s works, <!--del_lnk--> English history and <!--del_lnk--> American history, and developed a plain style that puzzled audiences more used to grandiloquent oratory. He was a local wrestler and skilled with an axe; some of the rails he split were exhibited at the 1860 Republican National Convention, as the party celebrated the poor-boy-made-good theme. He avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals even for food and, though unusually tall and strong, spent so much time reading that some neighbors thought he must be doing it to avoid strenuous manual labor.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15137.jpg.htm" title="Young Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Young Abraham Lincoln" height="249" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abe_Lincoln_young.jpg" src="../../images/151/15137.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15137.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Young Abraham Lincoln</div> </div> </div> <p><a id="Early_career" name="Early_career"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Early career</span></h3> <p>Lincoln began his political career in 1832, at age 23, with a campaign for the <!--del_lnk--> Illinois General Assembly as a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Whig Party. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the <!--del_lnk--> Sangamon River in the hopes of attracting steamboat traffic to the river, which would allow sparsely populated, poor areas along and near the river to grow and prosper. He served as a captain in a company of the Illinois <!--del_lnk--> militia drawn from New Salem during the <!--del_lnk--> Black Hawk War, although he never saw combat. He wrote after being elected by his peers that he had not had "any such success in life which gave him so much satisfaction."<p>For a few months he operated a small store in New Salem, Illinois, selling tea, coffee, sugar, salt, blue calico, brown muslin, straw hats--and whiskey. After coming across the second volume of <!--del_lnk--> Sir William Blackstone's four-volume <i><!--del_lnk--> Commentaries on the Laws of England</i>, he taught himself law and was admitted to the bar in 1837. That same year, he moved to <!--del_lnk--> Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law with <!--del_lnk--> Stephen T. Logan. He became one of the most respected and successful lawyers in Illinois and grew steadily more prosperous. Lincoln served four successive terms in the <!--del_lnk--> Illinois House of Representatives, as a Whig representative from <!--del_lnk--> Sangamon County, beginning in 1834. He became a leader of the Whig party in the legislature. In 1837, he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was "founded on both injustice and bad policy".<p>It was in 1837, that Lincoln met his best friend, <!--del_lnk--> Joshua Fry Speed. In 1842, Lincoln wrote a series of anonymous letters which were published in the <i>Sangamo Journal,</i> mocking prominent Democrat and State Auditor <!--del_lnk--> James Shields. When Shields found out it was Lincoln, he challenged him to a duel. Since Shields was the challenger, Lincoln chose the weapon and specified "Cavalry broad swords of the largest size." Lincoln, much taller with long arms, had an overwhelming advantage; the duel was called off at the last minute.<p>In 1841, Lincoln entered law practice with <!--del_lnk--> William Herndon, a fellow Whig. In 1856, both men joined the fledgling <!--del_lnk--> Republican Party. Following Lincoln's death, Herndon began collecting stories about Lincoln from those who knew him in central Illinois, and published them in <i>Herndon's Lincoln</i>.<p><a id="Family" name="Family"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Family</span></h3> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1842, at the age of 33, Lincoln married <!--del_lnk--> Mary Todd. She came from a prominent slave-owning family from Kentucky and allowed his children to spend time in Kentucky surrounded by slaves. The couple had four sons.<ul> <li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Todd Lincoln (<!--del_lnk--> August 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1843 - <!--del_lnk--> July 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1926): born in Springfield, Illinois, and died in <!--del_lnk--> Manchester, Vermont.<li><!--del_lnk--> Edward Baker Lincoln (<!--del_lnk--> March 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1846 - <!--del_lnk--> February 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1850): born and died in Springfield.<li><!--del_lnk--> William Wallace Lincoln (<!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1850 - <!--del_lnk--> February 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1862): born in Springfield and died in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas "Tad" Lincoln (<!--del_lnk--> April 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1853 - <!--del_lnk--> July 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1871): born in Springfield and died in <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>.</ul> <p>Only Robert survived into adulthood. Lincoln greatly admired the science that flourished in <!--del_lnk--> New England and was one of the few men in Illinois at the time to send a son to elite eastern schools; he sent <!--del_lnk--> Robert Todd Lincoln to <!--del_lnk--> Phillips Exeter Academy and <!--del_lnk--> Harvard College). Robert had three children and three grandchildren, but none of these had children, so Abraham Lincoln's bloodline ended when Robert Beckwith (Lincoln's great-grandson) died on <!--del_lnk--> December 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1985.<p>Among his wife's family, four of his brothers-in-law fought for the Confederacy with one wounded and another killed in action. Lieutenant David H. Todd, a half-brother of Mary Todd Lincoln, served as commandant of the <!--del_lnk--> Libby Prison camp during the war.<p><a id="Antiwar_activist" name="Antiwar_activist"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Antiwar activist</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15138.jpg.htm" title="Lincoln in the 1840s "><img alt="Lincoln in the 1840s " height="249" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abelincoln1846.jpeg" src="../../images/151/15138.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15138.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lincoln in the 1840s</div> </div> </div> <p>In 1846, Lincoln was elected to a term in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a>. A staunch Whig, Lincoln often referred to party leader <!--del_lnk--> Henry Clay as his political idol. As a freshman House member, Lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in Congress. He spoke out against the <!--del_lnk--> Mexican-American War, which he attributed to <a href="../../wp/j/James_K._Polk.htm" title="James Knox Polk">President Polk's</a> desire for "military glory — that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood". Besides this rhetoric, he also directly challenged Polk's claims as to the boundary of Texas. Lincoln was among the 82 Whigs in January 1848 who defeated 81 Democrats in a procedural vote on an amendment to send a routine resolution back to committee with instructions for the committee to add the words "a war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States". The amendment passed, but the bill never reemerged from committee and was never finally voted upon. Lincoln damaged his reputation by an intemperate speech in the House. He announced, "God of Heaven has forgotten to defend the weak and innocent, and permitted the strong band of murderers and demons from hell to kill men, women, and children, and lay waste and pillage the land of the just." Two weeks later, Polk sent a peace treaty to Congress. No one in Washington paid any attention to Lincoln, but the Democrats orchestrated angry outbursts from all over his district, where the war was popular and many had volunteered. In Morgan County, resolutions were adopted in fervent support of the war and in wrathful denunciation of the "treasonable assaults of guerrillas at home; party demagogues;" slanderers of the President, defenders of the butchery at the <!--del_lnk--> Alamo, traducers of the heroism at <!--del_lnk--> San Jacinto. Lincoln's law partner William Herndon warned Lincoln that the damage was mounting and irreparable; Lincoln himself was despondent, and he decided not to run for reelection. In the fall 1848 election, he campaigned vigorously for <a href="../../wp/z/Zachary_Taylor.htm" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a>, the successful general whose atrocities he had denounced in January. Lincoln's attacks on Polk and Taylor came back to haunt him during the Civil War and indeed was held against him when he applied for a major patronage job from the new Taylor administration. Instead Taylor offered Lincoln a minor patronage job in remote <!--del_lnk--> Oregon Territory. Acceptance would end his career in the fast-growing state of Illinois, so he declined. Returning instead to Springfield, Lincoln gave up politics and turned his energies to making a living as an attorney, which involved grueling travels on horseback from county courthouse to county courthouse.<p><a id="Prairie_lawyer" name="Prairie_lawyer"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Prairie lawyer</span></h3> <p>By the mid-1850s, Lincoln faced competing transportation interests — both the river barges and the railroads. In 1849, he received a patent related to buoying vessels. Lincoln represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in an 1851 dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to the railroad on the grounds that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer proposed Alton & Sangamon route was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly the corporation had a right to sue Mr. Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the <!--del_lnk--> Illinois Supreme Court was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States.<p>An important example of Lincoln's skills as a railroad lawyer was a lawsuit over a tax exemption that the state had granted to the <!--del_lnk--> Illinois Central Railroad. <!--del_lnk--> McLean County argued that the state had no authority to grant such an exemption, and it sought to impose taxes on the railroad notwithstanding. In January 1856, the Illinois Supreme Court delivered its opinion upholding the tax exemption.<p>Lincoln's most notable criminal trial came in 1858 when he defended <!--del_lnk--> William "Duff" Armstrong, who was on trial for murder. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of <!--del_lnk--> judicial notice, a rare tactic at that time, to show that an eyewitness had lied on the stand. After the witness testified to having seen the crime by the light of the moon, Lincoln produced a <!--del_lnk--> Farmer's Almanac to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle that it could not have provided enough illumination to see anything clearly. Based upon this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.<p>Lincoln was involved in more than 5,100 cases in Illinois alone during a 23-year legal practice. Amounting to about one case per business day, many cases involved little more than filing a writ, while others were more substantial and drawn-out. Lincoln and his partners appeared before the Illinois State Supreme Court more than 400 times.<p><a id="Republican_politics_1854.E2.80.931860" name="Republican_politics_1854.E2.80.931860"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Republican politics 1854–1860</span></h2> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's spread that had been part of the <!--del_lnk--> Missouri Compromise of 1820, drew Lincoln back into politics. Illinois Democrat <!--del_lnk--> Stephen A. Douglas, the most powerful man in the Senate, proposed <!--del_lnk--> popular sovereignty as the solution to the slavery impasse, and he incorporated it into the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Douglas argued that in a democracy the people of a territory should decide whether to allow slavery and not have a decision imposed on them by Congress.<p> <br /> It was a speech against the act, on <!--del_lnk--> October 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1854, in <!--del_lnk--> Peoria, that caused Lincoln to stand out among the other <!--del_lnk--> free soil orators of the day. In the speech, Lincoln commented upon the Kansas-Nebraska Act:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Abraham Lincoln">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Abraham Lincoln" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td> <p>[The Act has a] <i>declared</i> indifference, but as I must think, covert <i>real</i> zeal for the spread of slavery, I cannot but hate. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world—enables the enemies of free institutions, with plausibility, to taunt us as hypocrites—causes the real friends of freedom to doubt our sincerity, and especially because it forces so many really good men amongst ourselves into an open war with the very fundamental principles of civil liberty—criticizing the Declaration of Independence, and insisting that there is no right principle of action but <i>self-interest</i>.</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Abraham Lincoln">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Abraham Lincoln" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>He helped form the new Republican Party, drawing on remnants of the old Whig, <!--del_lnk--> Free Soil, Liberty and Democratic parties. In a stirring campaign, the Republicans carried Illinois in 1854 and elected a senator. Lincoln was the obvious choice, but to keep the new party balanced he allowed the election to go to an ex-Democrat <!--del_lnk--> Lyman Trumbull.<p>In 1857-58, Douglas broke with President <a href="../../wp/j/James_Buchanan.htm" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan</a>, leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas in 1858, since he led the opposition to the administration's push for the <!--del_lnk--> Lecompton Constitution which would have admitted Kansas as a <!--del_lnk--> slave state. Accepting the Republican nomination for the Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered a famous speech in which he stated, "'A house divided against itself cannot stand.'(<!--del_lnk--> Mark 3:25) I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created a lasting image of the danger of disunion because of slavery, and rallied Republicans across the north.<p>The 1858 campaign featured the <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln-Douglas debates, a nationally famous contest on slavery. Lincoln warned that the <!--del_lnk--> Slave Power was threatening the values of republicanism, while Douglas emphasized democracy, as in his <!--del_lnk--> Freeport Doctrine, which said that local settlers should be free to choose slavery or not. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature reelected Douglas to the Senate. Nevertheless, Lincoln's eloquence transformed him into a national political star.<p>During the debates of 1858, the issue of race was often discussed. During a time period when racial egalitarianism was considered politically incorrect, Stephen Douglas informed the crowds, "If you desire Negro citizenship… if you desire them to vote on an equality with yourselves… then support Mr. Lincoln and the Black Republican party, who are in favour of the citizenship of the negro." On the defensive, Lincoln countered that he was "not in favour of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races." Lincoln's opposition to slavery was opposition to the <!--del_lnk--> Slave Power, and he was not an abolitionist in 1858. But the Civil War changed many things, including Lincoln's beliefs in race relations.<p> <br /> <p><a id="Election_of_1860" name="Election_of_1860"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Election of 1860</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:342px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15139.jpg.htm" title=""The Rail Candidate", Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is held up by slavery issue (slave on left) and party organization (New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley on right)"><img alt=""The Rail Candidate", Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is held up by slavery issue (slave on left) and party organization (New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley on right)" height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_Rail_Candidate.jpg" src="../../images/151/15139.jpg" width="340" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15139.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "The Rail Candidate", Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is held up by slavery issue (slave on left) and party organization (<i>New York Tribune</i> editor <!--del_lnk--> Horace Greeley on right)</div> </div> </div> <p>Entering the presidential nomination process as a distinct underdog, Lincoln was eventually chosen as the Republican candidate for the <!--del_lnk--> 1860 election for several reasons. His expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than the views of rivals <!--del_lnk--> William H. Seward and <!--del_lnk--> Salmon Chase. His "western" origins also appealed to the newer states. Other contenders, especially those with more governmental experience, had acquired enemies within the party and were weak in the critical western states. Lincoln was seen as a moderate who could win the west. Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party as the <!--del_lnk--> Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government. Despite his Southern connections (his in-laws owned slaves), Lincoln misunderstood the depth of the revolution underway in the South and the emergence of Southern nationalism. Throughout the 1850s he denied there would ever be a civil war. His supporters repeatedly denied that his election would be a spark for secession.<p>Lincoln did not campaign or give speeches. The campaign was handled by the state and county Republican organizations. They were thorough and used the newest techniques to sustain the enthusiasm of party members and thus obtain high turnout. There was little effort to convert non-Republicans, and there was virtually no campaigning in the South except for a few border cities such as <!--del_lnk--> St. Louis, Missouri, and <!--del_lnk--> Wheeling, Virginia; indeed the party did not run a slate of electors in most of the South. In the North, there were thousands of Republican speakers, tons of campaign posters and leaflets, and thousands of newspaper editorials. They focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, making the most of his boyhood poverty, his pioneer background, his native genius, his rise from obscurity to fame. His nicknames, "Honest Abe" and "the Rail-Splitter," were exploited to the full. The point was to emphasize the superior power of "free labor", whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th President of the United States, beating Democrat <!--del_lnk--> Stephen A. Douglas, <!--del_lnk--> John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats, and <!--del_lnk--> John C. Bell of the new <!--del_lnk--> Constitutional Union Party. Lincoln was the first Republican president. He won entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South — and won only 2 of 996 counties in the other Southern states. Lincoln gained 1,865,908 votes (39.9% of the total,) for 180 electoral votes; Douglas 1,380,202 (29.5%) for 12 electoral votes; Breckenridge 848,019 (18.1%) for 72 electoral votes; and Bell 590,901 (12.5%) for 39 electoral votes. There were <!--del_lnk--> fusion tickets in some states, but even if his opponents had combined in every state, Lincoln had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes and would still have won the electoral college and the election.<p><a id="Civil_War" name="Civil_War"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Civil War</span></h2> <p><a id="Secession_winter_1860.E2.80.931861" name="Secession_winter_1860.E2.80.931861"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Secession winter 1860–1861</span></h3> <p>As Lincoln's election became more probable, secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the Union. <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina took the lead followed by six other cotton-growing states in the deep South. The upper South (<!--del_lnk--> Delaware, <!--del_lnk--> Maryland, <!--del_lnk--> Virginia, <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina, <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee, <!--del_lnk--> Kentucky, <!--del_lnk--> Missouri, and <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas) listened to and rejected the secessionist appeal. They decided to stay in the Union, though warning Lincoln they would not support an invasion through their territory. The seven Confederate states seceded before Lincoln took office, declaring themselves an entirely new nation, the <!--del_lnk--> Confederate States of America. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, which became the immediate cause of the war.<p>President-elect Lincoln evaded possible assassins in Baltimore and on <!--del_lnk--> February 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1861, arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C. At Lincoln's inauguration on <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1861, the <!--del_lnk--> Turners formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the capital from Confederate invasion or insurrection from Confederates in the capital city.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:177px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15140.jpg.htm" title="Photograph showing the March 4, 1861, inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of U.S. Capitol Building"><img alt="Photograph showing the March 4, 1861, inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of U.S. Capitol Building" height="174" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abraham_lincoln_inauguration_1861.jpg" src="../../images/151/15140.jpg" width="175" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15140.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Photograph showing the <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1861, inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Capitol Building</div> </div> </div> <p>In his <!--del_lnk--> First Inaugural Address, Lincoln declared, "I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments", arguing further that the purpose of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> was "to form a more perfect union" than the <!--del_lnk--> Articles of Confederation which were <i>explicitly</i> perpetual, and thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it?<p>Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to unite the Union and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the pending <!--del_lnk--> Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which had passed Congress. It explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed, and was designed to appeal not to the Confederacy but to the critical border states. Lincoln adamantly opposed the <!--del_lnk--> Crittenden Compromise, however, which would have permitted slavery in the territories. Despite support for the Crittenden compromise among some Republicans, Lincoln denounced it saying it "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and Tierra del Fuego [at the far end of South America]."<p>By the time Lincoln took office, the Confederacy was an established fact, and no leaders of the insurrection proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. No compromise was found because no compromise was possible. Lincoln perhaps could have allowed the southern states to secede, and some Republicans recommended that. However, conservative Democratic nationalists, such as <!--del_lnk--> Jeremiah S. Black, <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Holt, and <!--del_lnk--> Edwin M. Stanton had taken control of Buchanan's cabinet around <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1861, and refused to accept secession. Lincoln and nearly all Republican leaders adopted this nationalistic position by March 1861: the Union could not be broken.<p><a id="Fighting_begins:_1861.E2.80.931862" name="Fighting_begins:_1861.E2.80.931862"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Fighting begins: 1861–1862</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>After Union troops at <!--del_lnk--> Fort Sumter were fired upon and forced to surrender in April 1861, Lincoln called on governors of every state to send 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union," which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. Virginia, which had repeatedly warned Lincoln it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state, then seceded, along with North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas.<p>Nevins argues that Lincoln made three serious mistakes at this point. He at first underestimated the strength of the Confederacy, assuming that 75,000 troops could end the insurrection in 90 days. Second, he overestimated the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South and border states; he assumed he could call the bluff of the insurrectionists and they would fade away. Finally he misunderstood the demands of Unionists in the border states, who warned they would not support an invasion of the Confederacy.<p>The slave states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware did not secede, and Lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there, promising not to interfere with slavery in loyal states. After the fighting started, he had rebel leaders arrested in all the border areas and held in military prisons without trial; over 18,000 were arrested. None were executed; one — <!--del_lnk--> Clement Vallandingham — was exiled; all were released, usually after two or three months. See <!--del_lnk--> Ex parte Merryman.<p><a id="Emancipation_Proclamation" name="Emancipation_Proclamation"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Emancipation Proclamation</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15141.jpg.htm" title="Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the Emancipation Proclamation draft on July 22, 1862. L-R: Edwin M. Stanton, Salmon P. Chase, Abraham Lincoln, Gideon Welles, Caleb Smith, William H. Seward, Montgomery Blair and Edward Bates."><img alt="Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the Emancipation Proclamation draft on July 22, 1862. L-R: Edwin M. Stanton, Salmon P. Chase, Abraham Lincoln, Gideon Welles, Caleb Smith, William H. Seward, Montgomery Blair and Edward Bates." height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Emancipation_proclamation.jpg" src="../../images/151/15141.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15141.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the <!--del_lnk--> Emancipation Proclamation draft on <!--del_lnk--> July 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1862. L-R: <!--del_lnk--> Edwin M. Stanton, <!--del_lnk--> Salmon P. Chase, Abraham Lincoln, <!--del_lnk--> Gideon Welles, <!--del_lnk--> Caleb Smith, <!--del_lnk--> William H. Seward, <!--del_lnk--> Montgomery Blair and <!--del_lnk--> Edward Bates.</div> </div> </div> <dl> <dd> </dl> <p>Congress in July 1862 moved to free the slaves by passing the Second Confiscation Act. The goal was to weaken the rebellion, which was led and controlled by slave owners. This did not abolish the legal institution of slavery (the 13th Amendment did that), but it shows Lincoln had the support of Congress in liberating the slaves owned by rebels. Lincoln implemented the new law by his "Emancipation Proclamation."<p>Lincoln is well known for ending slavery in the United States. In 1861-62, Lincoln made it clear that the North was fighting the war to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Freeing the slaves became, in late 1862, a war measure to weaken the rebellion by destroying the economic base of its leadership class. Abolitionists criticized Lincoln for his slowness, but on August 22, 1862, Lincoln explained,<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Abraham Lincoln">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Abraham Lincoln" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored; the nearer the Union will be "the Union as it was." ... My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that.</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Abraham Lincoln">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Abraham Lincoln" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Emancipation Proclamation, announced on <!--del_lnk--> September 22 and put in effect <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1863, freed slaves in territories not under Union control. As Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all of them in Confederate hands were freed (over three million). Lincoln later said: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." The proclamation made abolishing slavery in the rebel states an official war goal. Lincoln then threw his energies into passage of the <!--del_lnk--> 13th Amendment to permanently abolish slavery throughout the nation. <p>Lincoln had for some time been working on plans to set up <!--del_lnk--> colonies for the newly freed slaves. He remarked upon colonization favorably in the Emancipation Proclamation but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed. As <a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Douglass.htm" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> observed, Lincoln was, "The first great man that I talked with in the United States freely who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself, of the difference of colour."<p><a id="Domestic_measures" name="Domestic_measures"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Domestic measures</span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15142.jpg.htm" title="While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1861 at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell"><img alt="While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1861 at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abraham_Lincoln_seated%2C_Feb_9%2C_1864.jpg" src="../../images/151/15142.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15142.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1861 at the suggestion of 11-year-old <!--del_lnk--> Grace Bedell</div> </div> </div> <p>Lincoln believed in the Whig theory of the presidency, which left Congress to write the laws while he signed them, vetoing only bills that threatened his war powers. Thus, he signed the <!--del_lnk--> Homestead Act in 1862, making available millions of acres of government-held land in the west for purchase at very low cost. The <!--del_lnk--> Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also signed in 1862, provided government grants for <!--del_lnk--> agricultural <!--del_lnk--> universities in each state. Lincoln also signed the Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864, which granted federal support to the construction of the United States' first transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869. Other important legislation involved money matters, including the first income tax and higher tariffs. Also included was the creation of the system of national banks by the <!--del_lnk--> National Banking Acts of 1863, 1864, and 1865 which allowed the creation of a strong national financial system.<p>Lincoln sent a senior general to put down the "<!--del_lnk--> Sioux Uprising" of August 1862 in <a href="../../wp/m/Minnesota.htm" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>. Presented with 303 death warrants for convicted <!--del_lnk--> Santee Dakota who had massacred innocent farmers, Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for execution (one was later reprieved).<p><a name="1864_election_and_second_inauguration"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">1864 election and second inauguration</span></h3> <p>After Union victories at <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Gettysburg.htm" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Vicksburg and <!--del_lnk--> Chattanooga in 1863, victory seemed at hand. Lincoln promoted <a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> General-in-Chief on <!--del_lnk--> March 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1864. When the spring campaigns all turned into bloody stalemates, Lincoln strongly supported Grant's strategy of wearing down Lee's army at the cost of heavy Union casualties. Lincoln easily defeated efforts to deny his renomination, and selected <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>, a <!--del_lnk--> War Democrat from the Southern state of <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee as his running mate in order to form a broader coalition. They ran on the new <!--del_lnk--> Union Party ticket; it was a coalition of Republicans and War Democrats.<p>Republicans across the country had the jitters in August, fearing that Lincoln would be defeated. Acknowledging those fears, Lincoln wrote out and signed the following pledge that he would destroy the Confederacy even if he was defeated for reelection; he did not show it to his cabinet, asking them each to sign the sealed envelope. Lincoln wrote:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Abraham Lincoln">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Abraham Lincoln" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterwards.</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Abraham Lincoln">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Abraham Lincoln" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>That is, Lincoln pledged to destroy the Confederacy before he left office on <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1865.<p>The Democratic platform followed the <!--del_lnk--> Peace wing of the party, calling the war a "failure." However their candidate, General <!--del_lnk--> George McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform.<p>Lincoln provided Grant with new replacements and mobilized the Union party to support Grant and talk up local support for the war. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September ended defeatist jitters; the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln; the Union party was united and energized, and Lincoln was easily reelected in a landslide. He won all but two states, capturing 212 of 233 electoral votes.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1865, he delivered his <!--del_lnk--> second inaugural address, which was his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the rebels was at hand, slavery was dead, and Lincoln was looking to the future.<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Abraham Lincoln">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Abraham Lincoln" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> <td>Fondly do we hope — fervently do we pray — that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether". <p>With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20"> <div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;"> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Abraham Lincoln">   </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln"><img alt="Abraham Lincoln" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div> </td> </tr> </table> <p><a id="Conducting_the_war_effort" name="Conducting_the_war_effort"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Conducting the war effort</span></h3> <p>The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and it occupied nearly all of his time. Lincoln had a contentious relationship with General <!--del_lnk--> George B. McClellan, who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the <!--del_lnk--> First Battle of Bull Run and after the retirement of <!--del_lnk--> Winfield Scott in late 1861. Lincoln wished to take an active part in planning the war strategy despite his inexperience in military affairs. Lincoln's strategic priorities were two-fold: first, to ensure that Washington, D.C., was well defended; and second, to conduct an aggressive war effort in hopes of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press, who pushed for an offensive war. McClellan, a youthful <!--del_lnk--> West Point graduate and railroad executive called back to military service, took a more cautious approach. McClellan took several months to plan and execute his <!--del_lnk--> Peninsula Campaign, which involved capturing <a href="../../wp/r/Richmond%252C_Virginia.htm" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond</a> by moving the <!--del_lnk--> Army of the Potomac by boat to the <!--del_lnk--> peninsula between the <!--del_lnk--> James and <!--del_lnk--> York Rivers. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did McClellan's insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of his Peninsula Campaign.<p>McClellan, a lifelong <!--del_lnk--> Democrat who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his <i><!--del_lnk--> Harrison's Landing Letter</i>, where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint fellow Republican <!--del_lnk--> John Pope as head of the new <!--del_lnk--> Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire for the Union to move towards Richmond from the north, thus guarding Washington, D.C. However, Pope was soundly defeated at the <!--del_lnk--> Second Battle of Bull Run during the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back into the defenses of Washington for a second time. Pope was sent to Minnesota to fight the <!--del_lnk--> Sioux.<p>Panicked by Confederate General <!--del_lnk--> Robert E. Lee's invasion of Maryland, Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Antietam in September 1862. It was the Union victory in that battle that allowed Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln relieved McClellan of command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican <!--del_lnk--> Ambrose Burnside to head the Army of the Potomac, who promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for an aggressive offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was stunningly defeated at <!--del_lnk--> Fredericksburg, <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Hooker was given command, despite his idle talk about becoming a military strong man. Hooker was routed by Lee at <!--del_lnk--> Chancellorsville in May 1863 and relieved of command early in the subsequent <!--del_lnk--> Gettysburg Campaign.<p>After the Union victory at <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Gettysburg.htm" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Meade's failure to pursue Lee, and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln decided to bring in a western general: General <a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>. He had a solid string of victories in the Western Theatre, including <!--del_lnk--> Vicksburg and <!--del_lnk--> Chattanooga. Earlier, reacting to criticism of Grant, Lincoln was quoted as saying, "I cannot spare this man. He fights." Grant waged his bloody <!--del_lnk--> Overland Campaign in 1864, using a strategy of a <!--del_lnk--> war of attrition, characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the <!--del_lnk--> Wilderness and <!--del_lnk--> Cold Harbour but by proportionately higher losses in the Confederate army. Grant's aggressive campaign eventually bottled up Lee in the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Petersburg and result in the Union's taking Richmond and bringing the war to a close in the spring of 1865.<p>Lincoln authorized Grant to destroy the civilian infrastructure that was keeping the Confederacy alive, hoping thereby to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue the war. This allowed Generals <a href="../../wp/w/William_Tecumseh_Sherman.htm" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Philip Sheridan to destroy farms and towns in the <!--del_lnk--> Shenandoah Valley, <!--del_lnk--> Georgia, and South Carolina. The damage in <!--del_lnk--> Sherman's March to the Sea through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million.<p>Lincoln had a star-crossed record as a military leader, possessing a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the <a href="../../wp/m/Mississippi_River.htm" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. However, he had limited success in motivating his commanders to adopt his strategies, until in late 1863 he found in Grant a man who shared his vision of the war, his insistence on using black troops, and was able to bring that vision to reality with his relentless pursuit of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters of war.<p>Lincoln showed a keen curiosity with military campaigning during the war. He spent hours at the <!--del_lnk--> War Department <!--del_lnk--> telegraph office, reading dispatches from his generals on many nights. He frequently visited battle sites and seemed fascinated by watching scenes of war. During <!--del_lnk--> Jubal A. Early's <!--del_lnk--> raid into Washington, D.C., in 1864, Lincoln had to be told to duck his head to avoid being shot while observing the scenes of battle.<p><a id="Homefront" name="Homefront"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Homefront</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15143.jpg.htm" title="The last photograph taken of Lincoln alive, April 10, 1865."><img alt="The last photograph taken of Lincoln alive, April 10, 1865." height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abraham_Lincoln_half_length_seated%2C_April_10%2C_1865.jpg" src="../../images/151/15143.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15143.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The last photograph taken of Lincoln alive, <!--del_lnk--> April 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1865.</div> </div> </div> <p><a id="Rhetoric_mobilizes_the_nation" name="Rhetoric_mobilizes_the_nation"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Rhetoric mobilizes the nation</span></h3> <p>Lincoln was more successful in giving the war meaning to Northern civilians through his oratorical skills. Lincoln possessed an extraordinary command of the English language, as evidenced by the <a href="../../wp/g/Gettysburg_Address.htm" title="Gettysburg Address">Gettysburg Address</a>, a speech dedicating a cemetery of Union soldiers from the <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Gettysburg.htm" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Battle of Gettysburg</a> that he delivered on <!--del_lnk--> November 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1863. Lincoln's choice words resonated across the nation and across history, defying Lincoln's own prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here." Lincoln's <!--del_lnk--> second inaugural address is also greatly admired and often quoted. In these speeches, Lincoln articulated better than anyone the rationale behind the Union effort.<p><a id="Civil_liberties_suspended" name="Civil_liberties_suspended"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Civil liberties suspended</span></h3> <p>During the Civil War, Lincoln appropriated powers no previous President had wielded: he used his war powers to proclaim a <!--del_lnk--> blockade, suspended the writ of <!--del_lnk--> habeas corpus, spent money without congressional authorization, and imprisoned 18,000 suspected Confederate sympathizers without trial. All his actions, although vehemently denounced by the <!--del_lnk--> Copperheads, were subsequently upheld by Congress and the Courts.<p><a id="Reconstruction" name="Reconstruction"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Reconstruction</span></h3> <p><!--del_lnk--> Reconstruction began during the war as Lincoln and his associates pondered the questions of how to reintegrate the Southern states back into the Union, and what to do with Confederate leaders and with the freed slaves. Lincoln was the leader of the "moderates" regarding Reconstruction policy, and usually was opposed by the <!--del_lnk--> Radical Republicans led by <!--del_lnk--> Thaddeus Stevens in the House and <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Sumner.htm" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Wade in the Senate (though he cooperated with those men on most other issues). Lincoln was determined to find a course that would reunite the nation as soon as possible and not permanently alienate the Southerners, and throughout the war Lincoln urged speedy elections under generous terms in areas behind Union lines. Critical decisions had to be made during the war, as state after state was reconquered. Of special importance were <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee, where Lincoln appointed <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> as governor, and <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana where Lincoln tried a plan that would restore the state when 10% of the voters agreed. The Radicals thought that policy was too lenient, and passed their own plan, the <!--del_lnk--> Wade-Davis Bill in 1864. Lincoln vetoed Wade-Davis, and the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. <p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1865, General Lee surrendered at <!--del_lnk--> Appomattox Court House in Virginia; the war was effectively over. The other rebel armies surrendered and there was no guerrilla warfare. Lincoln went to Richmond to make a public gesture of sitting at <!--del_lnk--> Jefferson Davis's own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer's quote, "I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him." When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy." <p><a id="Assassination" name="Assassination"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Assassination</span></h3> <dl> <dd> </dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15144.jpg.htm" title="The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: Henry Rathbone, Clara Harris, Mary Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln and John Wilkes Booth."><img alt="The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: Henry Rathbone, Clara Harris, Mary Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln and John Wilkes Booth." height="159" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lincolnassassination.jpg" src="../../images/151/15144.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15144.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: <!--del_lnk--> Henry Rathbone, <!--del_lnk--> Clara Harris, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln and <!--del_lnk--> John Wilkes Booth.</div> </div> </div> <p>Originally, <!--del_lnk--> John Wilkes Booth had formulated a plan to <!--del_lnk--> kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. However, on <!--del_lnk--> April 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1865 Lincoln gave a speech outside the White House giving his support to voting rights to blacks. This infuriated Booth, who was in the attending crowd. His plan to kidnap Lincoln changed to a plan for <!--del_lnk--> assassination.<p>Lincoln had met frequently with Grant as the war drew to a close. The two men planned matters of reconstruction, and it was evident to all that they held each other in high regard. During their last meeting, on <!--del_lnk--> April 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1865 (<!--del_lnk--> Good Friday), Lincoln invited Grant to a social engagement that evening. Grant declined. Finally, Major Henry Rathbone and Clara Harris (his step-sister and fiancee) agreed to go.<p><!--del_lnk--> John Wilkes Booth, a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland, heard that the President and Mrs. Lincoln, along with the Grants, would be attending <!--del_lnk--> Ford's Theatre. Having failed in a plot to kidnap Lincoln earlier, Booth informed his co-conspirators of his intention to kill Lincoln. Others were assigned to assassinate <!--del_lnk--> vice-president <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State <!--del_lnk--> William H. Seward.<p>Without his main bodyguard <!--del_lnk--> Ward Hill Lamon, to whom he related his famous dream of his own assassination, Lincoln left to attend the play <i><!--del_lnk--> Our American Cousin</i> at Ford's Theatre. As a lone bodyguard wandered, and Lincoln sat in his state box (Box 7) in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President's box and waited for the funniest line of the play, hoping the laughter would cover the noise of the gunshot. On stage, a character named Lord Dundreary (played by Harry Hawk) who has just been accused of ignorance in regards to the manners of good society, replies, "Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal — you sockdologizing old man-trap..." When the laughter came Booth jumped into the box with the President and aimed a single-shot, round-slug .44 caliber <!--del_lnk--> Deringer at his head, firing at point-blank range. The bullet entered behind Lincoln's left ear and lodged behind his right eyeball. Major <!--del_lnk--> Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth but was cut by Booth's knife. Booth then leapt to the stage and shouted "<i><!--del_lnk--> Sic semper tyrannis!</i>" (Latin: "Thus always to tyrants") and escaped, despite a broken leg suffered in the leap. A twelve day manhunt ensued, in which Booth was chased by Federal agents (under the direction of <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of War Edwin Stanton), until he was finally cornered in a barnhouse in Virginia and shot, dying soon after. Of Booth's other conspirators, only one came close to assassinating his target: <!--del_lnk--> Lewis Powell attacked and critically injured Secretary of State Seward.<p>An army surgeon, Doctor <!--del_lnk--> Charles Leale, quickly assessed the wound as mortal. The President was taken across the street from the theatre to the <!--del_lnk--> Petersen House, where he lay in a coma for nine hours before he died. Several physicians attended Lincoln, including U.S. Army Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes of the Army Medical Museum. Using a probe, Barnes located some fragments of Lincoln's skull and the ball lodged 6 inches (15 cm) inside his brain. Lincoln never regained consciousness and was officially pronounced dead at 7:22 a.m. <!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1865. There is some disagreement among historians as to Stanton's words after Lincoln died. All agree he began "Now he belongs to the..." with some stating he said "ages", while others believe he said "angels". After Lincoln's body was returned to the <!--del_lnk--> White House, his body was prepared for his <!--del_lnk--> lying in state in the <!--del_lnk--> East Room.<p>The Army Medical Museum, now named the National Museum of Health and Medicine, has retained in its collection several artifacts relating to the assassination. Currently on display in the museum are the bullet that was fired from the Deringer pistol, the probe used by Barnes, pieces of Lincoln's skull and hair, and the surgeon's cuff stained with Lincoln's blood.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15145.jpg.htm" title="Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles (2,661 km) to Illinois."><img alt="Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles (2,661 km) to Illinois." height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LincolnTrain.jpeg" src="../../images/151/15145.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15145.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lincoln's <!--del_lnk--> funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles (2,661 km) to Illinois.</div> </div> </div> <p>Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois. The nation mourned a man whom many viewed as the savior of the United States. <!--del_lnk--> Copperheads celebrated the death of a man they considered an unconstitutional tyrant. He was buried in <!--del_lnk--> Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, Illinois, where a 177 foot (54 m) tall granite tomb surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln was constructed by 1874. To prevent repeated attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Todd Lincoln had Lincoln <!--del_lnk--> exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick in 1901.<p><a id="Presidential_appointments" name="Presidential_appointments"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Presidential appointments</span></h2> <p><a id="Administration_and_Cabinet" name="Administration_and_Cabinet"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Administration and Cabinet</span></h3> <p>Lincoln was known for appointing his political rivals to high positions in his Cabinet to keep in line all factions of his party — and to let them battle each other and not combine against Lincoln. Historians agree that except for Cameron, it was a highly effective group.<table class="wikitable"> <tr> <th>Office</th> <th>Name</th> <th>Term</th> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a></td> <td><b>Abraham Lincoln</b></td> <td>1861–1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Vice President</td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Hannibal Hamlin</b></td> <td>1861–1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><b><a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a></b></td> <td>1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State</td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> William H. Seward</b></td> <td>1861–1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Treasury</td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Salmon P. Chase</b></td> <td>1861–1864</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> William P. Fessenden</b></td> <td>1864–1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Hugh McCulloch</b></td> <td>1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of War</td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Simon Cameron</b></td> <td>1861–1862</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Edwin M. Stanton</b></td> <td>1862–1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Attorney General</td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Edward Bates</b></td> <td>1861–1864</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> James Speed</b></td> <td align="left">1864–1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Postmaster General</td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Horatio King</b></td> <td>1861</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Montgomery Blair</b></td> <td>1861–1864</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> William Dennison</b></td> <td>1864–1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Navy</td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Gideon Welles</b></td> <td>1861–1865</td> </tr> <tr> <td><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Interior</td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> Caleb B. Smith</b></td> <td>1861–1863</td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><b><!--del_lnk--> John P. Usher</b></td> <td>1863–1865</td> </tr> </table> <p> <br clear="all" /> <p><a id="Supreme_Court" name="Supreme_Court"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Supreme Court</span></h3> <p>Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the <a href="../../wp/s/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States.htm" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a>:<ul> <li><b><!--del_lnk--> Noah Haynes Swayne</b> – <!--del_lnk--> 1862<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Samuel Freeman Miller</b> – <!--del_lnk--> 1862<li><b><!--del_lnk--> David Davis</b> – <!--del_lnk--> 1862<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Stephen Johnson Field</b> – <!--del_lnk--> 1863<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Salmon P. Chase</b> – <!--del_lnk--> Chief Justice – <!--del_lnk--> 1864</ul> <p><a id="Major_presidential_acts" name="Major_presidential_acts"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Major presidential acts</span></h2> <p><a id="Enacted_as_President" name="Enacted_as_President"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Enacted as President</span></h3> <ul> <li>Signed <!--del_lnk--> Revenue Act of 1861<li>Signed <!--del_lnk--> Homestead Act<li>Signed <!--del_lnk--> Morill Land-Grant College Act<li>Signed <!--del_lnk--> Internal Revenue Act of 1862<li>Signed Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864<li>Established <!--del_lnk--> United States Department of Agriculture (1862)<li>Signed <!--del_lnk--> National Banking Act of 1863<li>Signed <!--del_lnk--> Internal Revenue Act of 1864</ul> <p>Lincoln spent most of his attention on military matters and politics, but with his strong support, U.S government established the current system of <!--del_lnk--> national banks with the <!--del_lnk--> National Bank Act. His Administration increased the <!--del_lnk--> tariff to raise revenue, imposed the first <!--del_lnk--> income tax, issued hundreds of millions of dollars of bonds and the first national Greenbacks (paper money), encouraged immigration from Europe, started the <a href="../../wp/f/First_Transcontinental_Railroad.htm" title="First Transcontinental Railroad">transcontinental railroad</a>, set up the <!--del_lnk--> Department of Agriculture, and encouraged farm ownership with the Homestead Act of 1862. During the war, his Treasury department effectively controlled all cotton trade in the occupied South—the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy.<p><a id="States_admitted_to_the_Union" name="States_admitted_to_the_Union"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">States admitted to the Union</span></h3> <ul> <li><a href="../../wp/w/West_Virginia.htm" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> – <!--del_lnk--> 1863<li><!--del_lnk--> Nevada – <!--del_lnk--> 1864</ul> <p><a id="Legacy_and_memorials" name="Legacy_and_memorials"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Legacy and memorials</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15146.jpg.htm" title="Daniel Chester French's seated Lincoln faces the National Mall to the east."><img alt="Daniel Chester French's seated Lincoln faces the National Mall to the east." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lincoln_Memorial_%28Lincoln_contrasty_thumb%29.jpg" src="../../images/151/15146.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"><!--del_lnk--> Daniel Chester French's seated <i>Lincoln</i> faces the <!--del_lnk--> National Mall to the east.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15147.jpg.htm" title="A portrait of Lincoln as seen on the U.S. five dollar bill."><img alt="A portrait of Lincoln as seen on the U.S. five dollar bill." height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lincoln%27s_closeup_on_5_dollar_bill.jpg" src="../../images/151/15147.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15147.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A portrait of Lincoln as seen on the U.S. five dollar bill.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15148.jpg.htm" title="Lincoln's likeness on Mt. Rushmore."><img alt="Lincoln's likeness on Mt. Rushmore." height="141" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MtRushmore_Abe_close.JPG" src="../../images/151/15148.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15148.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lincoln's likeness on <!--del_lnk--> Mt. Rushmore.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15149.jpg.htm" title="Lincoln as depicted on the Illinois state quarter"><img alt="Lincoln as depicted on the Illinois state quarter" height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Illinois_quarter%2C_reverse_side%2C_2003.jpg" src="../../images/151/15149.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15149.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lincoln as depicted on the Illinois state quarter</div> </div> </div> <p>Lincoln's death made the President a <!--del_lnk--> martyr to many. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the <!--del_lnk--> greatest presidents in U.S. history. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as a figure who personifies classical values of honesty, integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general. Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the <!--del_lnk--> gay rights group <!--del_lnk--> Log Cabin Republicans to the <!--del_lnk--> insurance corporation <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln Financial. The <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln automobile is also named after him.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:145px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15150.jpg.htm" title="Lincoln stamp, issued Nov. 19, 1965."><img alt="Lincoln stamp, issued Nov. 19, 1965." height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lincoln_Stamp.jpg" src="../../images/151/15150.jpg" width="143" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/151/15150.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lincoln stamp, issued <!--del_lnk--> Nov. 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1965.</div> </div> </div> <p>Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the <!--del_lnk--> capital of Nebraska. <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln, Illinois, is the only city to be named for Abraham Lincoln before he became President. Lincoln's name and image appear in numerous places. These include the <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln Memorial in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> (<i>pictured, left</i>); the U.S. <!--del_lnk--> $5 bill and the <!--del_lnk--> 1 cent coin; as part of the <!--del_lnk--> Mount Rushmore National Memorial; <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln's Tomb, <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, Illinois. In addition, <!--del_lnk--> New Salem, Illinois (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), <!--del_lnk--> Ford's Theatre and Petersen House (where he died) are all preserved as museums. The <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln Shrine in <!--del_lnk--> Redlands, California is located behind the <!--del_lnk--> A.K. Smiley Public Library. The <!--del_lnk--> state nickname for <!--del_lnk--> Illinois is <i>Land of Lincoln</i>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Counties in 19 <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Arkansas, <!--del_lnk--> Colorado, <!--del_lnk--> Idaho, <!--del_lnk--> Kansas, <!--del_lnk--> Maine, <!--del_lnk--> Minnesota, <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi, <!--del_lnk--> Montana, <!--del_lnk--> Nebraska, <!--del_lnk--> Nevada, <!--del_lnk--> New Mexico, <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma, <!--del_lnk--> Oregon, <!--del_lnk--> South Dakota, <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee, <!--del_lnk--> West Virginia, <!--del_lnk--> Washington, <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin, and <!--del_lnk--> Wyoming) are named after Lincoln.<p>Abraham Lincoln's birthday, <!--del_lnk--> February 12, (the same date as <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>), is observed in Illinois and many other states as a separate legal holiday, <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln's Birthday. It was previously a national holiday that is now <!--del_lnk--> Presidents' Day. Over time <!--del_lnk--> Presidents' Day has become a common name for the federal holiday. A dozen states have legal holidays celebrating the third Monday in February as 'Presidents' Day' and a combination Washington-Lincoln Day.<div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/12/1262.jpg.htm" title="Proof-quality Lincoln cent with cameo effect, obverse."><img alt="Proof-quality Lincoln cent with cameo effect, obverse." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:United_States_penny%2C_obverse%2C_2002.jpg" src="../../images/151/15151.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/12/1262.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Proof-quality Lincoln cent with <!--del_lnk--> cameo effect, <!--del_lnk--> obverse.</div> </div> </div> <p>Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site in <!--del_lnk--> Hodgenville, Kentucky and <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, Illinois. The <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum opened in 2005 in Springfield as a major tourist attraction with state-of-the-art exhibits. The <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery is located in <!--del_lnk--> Elwood, Illinois.<p>Statues of Lincoln can be found in other countries. In <!--del_lnk--> Ciudad Juárez, <!--del_lnk--> Chihuahua, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, is a 13-foot (4 m) high bronze statue, a gift from the United States, dedicated in 1966 by President <a href="../../wp/l/Lyndon_B._Johnson.htm" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>. The U.S. received a statue of <!--del_lnk--> Benito Juárez in exchange, which is in Washington, D.C. Juárez and Lincoln exchanged friendly letters, and Mexico remembers Lincoln's opposition to the <!--del_lnk--> Mexican-American War. There is also a statue in <a href="../../wp/t/Tijuana.htm" title="Tijuana">Tijuana</a>, Mexico, showing Lincoln standing and destroying the chains of slavery. There are at least three statues of Lincoln in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> — one in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> by <!--del_lnk--> Augustus St. Gaudens, one in <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester.htm" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> by <!--del_lnk--> George Grey Barnard and another in <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> by <!--del_lnk--> George Bissell. In <!--del_lnk--> Havana, Cuba, there is a bust of Abraham Lincoln in the <!--del_lnk--> Museum of the Revolution, a small statue of him in front of the Abraham Lincoln School, and a bust of him near the Capitolio.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> ballistic missile <!--del_lnk--> submarine <!--del_lnk--> <i>Abraham Lincoln</i> (SSBN-602) and the <a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft_carrier.htm" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carrier</a> <!--del_lnk--> <i>Abraham Lincoln</i> (CVN-72) were named in his honour. Also, the <!--del_lnk--> Liberty ship, <!--del_lnk--> SS <i>Nancy Hanks</i> was named to honour his mother. During the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Civil War the American faction of the <!--del_lnk--> International Brigades named themselves the <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Lincoln Brigade after Lincoln.<p>In a recent public vote entitled "<!--del_lnk--> The Greatest American," Lincoln placed second (placing first was <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>).<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['President of the United States', 'Andrew Johnson', 'James Buchanan', 'Andrew Johnson', 'Washington, D.C.', 'President of the United States', 'American Civil War', 'Gettysburg Address', 'United States Constitution', 'Mississippi River', 'Bible', 'William Shakespeare', 'Washington, D.C.', 'Chicago', 'United States House of Representatives', 'James Knox Polk', 'Zachary Taylor', 'James Buchanan', 'United States Constitution', 'Frederick Douglass', 'Minnesota', 'Battle of Gettysburg', 'Ulysses S. Grant', 'Andrew Johnson', 'Richmond, Virginia', 'Battle of Gettysburg', 'Ulysses S. Grant', 'William Tecumseh Sherman', 'Mississippi River', 'Gettysburg Address', 'Battle of Gettysburg', 'Charles Sumner', 'Andrew Johnson', 'Andrew Johnson', 'President of the United States', 'Andrew Johnson', 'Supreme Court of the United States', 'First Transcontinental Railroad', 'West Virginia', 'Washington, D.C.', 'U.S. state', 'Charles Darwin', 'Mexico', 'Lyndon B. Johnson', 'Tijuana', 'United Kingdom', 'London', 'Manchester', 'Edinburgh', 'Aircraft carrier', 'Ronald Reagan']
Absinthe	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> <meta content="Absinthe,1915,1988,1999,2003,2005,2006,Absente,Absinth Wormwood,Absinthe in popular culture,Absinthe spoon" name="keywords" /> <link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" /> <link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" /> <title>Absinthe</title> <style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /]]>/</style> <link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]--> <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script> <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> <script type="text/javascript"> var skin = "monobook"; var stylepath = "/skins-1.5"; var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1"; var wgScriptPath = "/w"; var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org"; var wgCanonicalNamespace = ""; var wgNamespaceNumber = 0; var wgPageName = "Absinthe"; var wgTitle = "Absinthe"; var wgArticleId = 3073; var wgIsArticle = true; var wgUserName = null; var wgUserLanguage = "en"; var wgContentLanguage = "en"; </script> <script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script> <script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script> <style type="text/css">/<![CDATA[/ @import "../../css/wp-common.css"; @import "../../css/wp-monobook.css"; @import "../../css/wp.css"; /]]>/</style> <!-- Head Scripts --> </head> <body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Absinthe"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Absinthe</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Drink.htm">Drink</a></h3> <!-- start content --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23113.jpg.htm" title="A reservoir glass filled with a naturally colored verte next to an absinthe spoon."><img alt="A reservoir glass filled with a naturally colored verte next to an absinthe spoon." height="287" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Absinthe-glass.jpg" src="../../images/231/23113.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23113.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A reservoir glass filled with a naturally colored verte next to an <!--del_lnk--> absinthe spoon.</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Absinthe</b> (also <b>absinth</b>) (<!--del_lnk--> IPA English: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈæbsɪnθ]</span> <!--del_lnk--> IPA French: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ap.sɛ̃t]</span>) is a <!--del_lnk--> distilled, highly <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">alcoholic</a>, <!--del_lnk--> anise-<!--del_lnk--> flavored spirit derived from <!--del_lnk--> herbs including the flowers and leaves of the medicinal plant <i><!--del_lnk--> Artemisia absinthium</i>, also called <!--del_lnk--> wormwood. Although it is sometimes incorrectly called a <!--del_lnk--> liqueur, absinthe is not bottled with added <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a> and is therefore classified as a <a href="../../wp/d/Distilled_beverage.htm" title="Distilled beverage">liquor</a> or spirit.<p>Absinthe is often referred to as <i>la Fée Verte</i> ('The Green <!--del_lnk--> Fairy') because of its coloring — typically pale or <!--del_lnk--> emerald green, but sometimes clear or in rare cases rose red. Due to its high <!--del_lnk--> proof and concentration of <!--del_lnk--> oils, absintheurs (absinthe drinkers) typically add three to five parts ice-cold water to a dose of absinthe, which causes the drink to turn cloudy (called 'louching'); often the water is used to dissolve added sugar to decrease bitterness. This preparation is considered an important part of the experience of drinking absinthe, so much so that it has become ritualized, complete with special slotted <!--del_lnk--> absinthe spoons and other accoutrements. Absinthe's flavor is similar to anise-flavored liqueurs, with a light bitterness and greater complexity imparted by multiple herbs.<p>Modern absinthe originated in <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> as an <!--del_lnk--> elixir but is better known for its popularity in late 19th and early 20th century <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, particularly among <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Parisian</a> artists and writers whose romantic associations with the drink still linger in popular culture. In its heyday, the most popular brand of absinthe worldwide was <!--del_lnk--> Pernod Fils. At the height of this popularity, absinthe was portrayed as a dangerously <!--del_lnk--> addictive, <!--del_lnk--> psychoactive drug; the chemical <!--del_lnk--> thujone was blamed for most of its deleterious effects. By 1915, it was banned in a number of European countries and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Even though it was vilified, no evidence shows it to be any more dangerous than ordinary alcohol. A modern absinthe revival began in the 1990s, as countries in the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> began to reauthorize its manufacture and sale.<p> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2> <p>The French word <i>absinthe</i> can refer either to the liquor or to the actual wormwood plant (<i>grande absinthe</i> being <i><!--del_lnk--> Artemisia absinthium</i>, and <i>petite absinthe</i> being <i><!--del_lnk--> Artemisia pontica</i>). The word derives from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>absinthium</i>, which is in turn a stylization of the <!--del_lnk--> Greek <i>αψινθιον</i> (apsinthion). Some claim that the word means 'undrinkable' in Greek, but it may instead be linked to the <!--del_lnk--> Persian root <i>spand</i> or <i>aspand</i>, or the variant <i>esfand</i>, which may have been, rather, <i><!--del_lnk--> Peganum harmala</i>, a variety of <!--del_lnk--> rue, another famously bitter herb. That this particular plant was commonly burned as a protective offering may suggest that its origins lie in the reconstructed <!--del_lnk--> Proto-Indo-European root <i>*spend</i>, meaning 'to perform a ritual' or 'make an offering'. Whether the word was a borrowing from Persian into Greek, or rather from a common ancestor, is unclear.<p>Absinth (without the 'e') is a spelling variation of absinthe often seen in central Europe. Because so many Bohemian-style products use it, many groups see it as synonymous with bohemian absinth, even though that is not always the case.<p><a id="Production" name="Production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23114.jpg.htm" title="anise, one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe"><img alt="anise, one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe" height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Koehler1887-PimpinellaAnisum.jpg" src="../../images/231/23114.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23114.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> anise, one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23115.jpg.htm" title="Grande Wormwood, one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe"><img alt="Grande Wormwood, one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe" height="249" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Koeh-164.jpg" src="../../images/231/23115.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23115.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Grande Wormwood, one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe</div> </div> </div> <p>The main herbs used are <!--del_lnk--> grande wormwood, florence <a href="../../wp/f/Fennel.htm" title="Fennel">fennel</a> and green <!--del_lnk--> anise, often called the 'holy trinity'. Many other herbs may be used as well, such as <!--del_lnk--> hyssop, <a href="../../wp/l/Lemon_balm.htm" title="Lemon balm">melissa</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Star_anise.htm" title="Star anise">star anise</a> and petite wormwood (<i>Artemisia pontica</i> or Roman wormwood). Various recipes also include <a href="../../wp/a/Angelica.htm" title="Angelica">angelica</a> root, <!--del_lnk--> Sweet Flag, <!--del_lnk--> dittany leaves, <a href="../../wp/c/Coriander.htm" title="Coriander">coriander</a>, <!--del_lnk--> veronica, <!--del_lnk--> juniper, <a href="../../wp/n/Nutmeg.htm" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a>, and various mountain herbs.<p>The simple <!--del_lnk--> maceration of wormwood in alcohol without distillation produces an extremely bitter drink, due to the presence of the water-soluble absinthine, one of the most bitter substances known. Authentic recipes call for <!--del_lnk--> distillation after a primary maceration and before the secondary or 'coloring' maceration. The distillation of wormwood, anise, and Florence fennel first produces a colorless distillate that leaves the <!--del_lnk--> alembic at around 82% <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a>. It can be left clear, called a <i>Blanche</i> or <i>la Bleue</i> (used for bootleg Swiss absinthe), or the well-known green colour of the beverage can be imparted either artificially or with <!--del_lnk--> chlorophyll by steeping petite wormwood, hyssop, and melissa in the liquid. After this process, the resulting product is reduced with water to the desired percentage of alcohol. Over time and exposure to light, the chlorophyll breaks down, changing the color from emerald green to yellow green to brown. Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process.<p>Non-traditional varieties are made by cold-mixing herbs, essences or oils in alcohol, with the distillation process omitted. Often called 'oil mixes', these types of absinthe are not necessarily bad, though they are generally considered to be of lower quality than properly distilled absinthe and often carry a distinct bitter aftertaste.<p>Alcohol makes up the majority of the drink and its concentration is extremely high, between 45% and 89.9%, though there is no historical evidence that any commercial vintage absinthe was higher than 74%. Given the high strength and low alcohol solubility of many of the herbal components, absinthe is usually not imbibed 'straight' but consumed after a fairly elaborate preparation <!--del_lnk--> ritual.<p>Historically, there were five grades of absinthe: <i>ordinaire</i>, <i>demi-fine</i>, <i>fine</i>, <i>supérieure</i> and <i>Suisse</i> (which does not denote origin), in order of increasing alcoholic strength and production quality. While a supérieure and Suisse would always be naturally colored and distilled; ordinaire and demi-fine could be artificially colored and made from oil extracts. These were only naming guidelines and not an industry standard. Most absinthes contain between 60% and 75% alcohol. It is said to improve materially with storage. In the late 19th century, cheap brands of absinthe were occasionally <!--del_lnk--> adulterated by profiteers with <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="../../wp/z/Zinc.htm" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <!--del_lnk--> indigo plant, or other <!--del_lnk--> dyes to impart the green colour, and with <a href="../../wp/a/Antimony.htm" title="Antimony">antimony</a> trichloride to produce or enhance the <i>louche</i> effect (see below). It is also thought that the use of cheaper industrial alcohol and poor distillation technique by the manufacturers of cheaper brands resulted in contamination with <!--del_lnk--> methanol, <!--del_lnk--> fusel alcohol, and similar unwanted distillates. This addition of toxic chemicals is quite likely to have contributed to absinthe's reputation as a hallucination-inducing or otherwise harmful beverage.<p><a id="Hausgemacht_absinthe" name="Hausgemacht_absinthe"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Hausgemacht</i> absinthe</span></h3> <p>German for homemade (often abbreviated HG), also called clandestine, hausgemacht absinthe is home distilled by hobbyists and thus illegal in most countries. Mainly for personal use and not for sale, clandestine absinthe is produced in small quantities allowing experienced distillers to select the best herbs and fine tune each batch. Clandestine production got a major boost after the ban of absinthe when small producers went underground, especially in Switzerland. Although the Swiss produced both vertes and blanches before the ban, clear absinthe (known as La Bleue) became popular as it was easier to hide. Though the Swiss ban was recently lifted, many clandestine distillers have yet to become legal; the authorities believe high taxes on alcohol and the mystique of being underground has kept many from seeking a license. Those that have become legal often still use the 'clandestine' moniker on their products. HG absinthe should not be confused with absinthe kits.<p><a id="Absinthe_kits" name="Absinthe_kits"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Absinthe kits</span></h3> <p>There are numerous recipes for homemade absinthe floating around on the Internet, many of which revolve around soaking or mixing a kit or store-bought herbs and wormwood extract with high-proof liquor such as <!--del_lnk--> vodka or <!--del_lnk--> Everclear. Even though these do-it-yourself kits have gained in popularity, it is simply not possible to produce absinthe without distillation. Absinthe distillation, like the production of any fine liquor, is a science and an art in itself and requires expertise and care to properly manage.<p>Besides being unpleasant to drink and a pale impression of authentic distilled absinthe, these homemade concoctions can sometimes be poisonous. Many of these recipes call for the usage of liberal amounts of wormwood extract or essence of wormwood in the hopes of increasing the believed <!--del_lnk--> psychoactive effects. Consuming essential oils will not only fail to produce a high, but can be very dangerous. Wormwood extract can cause <!--del_lnk--> renal failure and death due to excessive amounts of <!--del_lnk--> thujone, which in large quantities acts as a <!--del_lnk--> convulsive <!--del_lnk--> neurotoxin. Essential oil of wormwood should never be consumed straight.<p><a id="Preparation" name="Preparation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Preparation</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23116.jpg.htm" title="Preparing absinthe the traditional way."><img alt="Preparing absinthe the traditional way." height="249" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Preparing_absinthe.jpg" src="../../images/231/23116.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23116.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Preparing absinthe the traditional way.</div> </div> </div> <p>Traditionally, absinthe is poured into a glass over which a specially designed <!--del_lnk--> slotted spoon is placed. A sugar cube is then deposited in the bowl of the spoon. Ice-cold water is poured or dripped over the sugar until the drink is diluted 3:1 to 5:1. During this process, the components that are not soluble in water, mainly those from anise, fennel and star anise, come out of solution and cloud the drink; the resulting milky <!--del_lnk--> opalescence is called the <i>louche</i> (<i>Fr.</i> 'opaque' or 'shady', IPA [luʃ]). The addition of water is important, causing the herbs to 'blossom' and bringing out many of the flavours originally overpowered by the anise. For most people, a good quality absinthe should not require sugar, but it is added according to taste and will also thicken the mouth-feel of the drink.<p>With increased popularity, the absinthe fountain, a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots, came into use. It allowed a number of drinks to be prepared at once, and with a hands-free drip patrons were able to socialize while louching a glass.<p>Although many bars served absinthe in standard glasses, a number of glasses were specifically made for absinthe, having a dose line, bulge or bubble in its lower portion to mark how much absinthe should be poured into it (often around 1 oz (30 ml)).<br clear="all" /> <p><a id="Czech.2C_or_Bohemian.2C_absinth" name="Czech.2C_or_Bohemian.2C_absinth"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Czech, or Bohemian, absinth</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23117.jpg.htm" title="'Absinthe Drinker' by Viktor Oliva"><img alt="'Absinthe Drinker' by Viktor Oliva" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Oliva.jpg" src="../../images/231/23117.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23117.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 'Absinthe Drinker' by <!--del_lnk--> Viktor Oliva</div> </div> </div> <p>Often called Bohemian-style, Czech-style, anise-free absinthe or just absinth (without the 'e'), Bohemian absinth is produced mainly in the <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> where it gets its <!--del_lnk--> Bohemian designation. It contains little to no anise, fennel or other herbs normally found in the more traditional absinthes produced in countries such as France and Switzerland, and can be extremely bitter. Often the only similarities with its traditional counterpart are the use of wormwood and a high alcohol content; for all intents and purposes, it should be considered a completely different product. In most cases, Bohemian-style absinths are not processed by distillation, but are rather high-proof alcohol or vodka which has been cold-mixed with herbal extracts and artificial coloring. Not all absinth produced in the Czech Republic is in the Bohemian style, and there has been a resurgence of traditional absinthe to compete better with the growing world market.<p>Absinthe (with anise) has been consumed in <!--del_lnk--> Czech lands (then part of <!--del_lnk--> Austria-Hungary) since the turn of the 20th century, notably by Czech artists, some of whom had an affinity for France, frequenting <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a>'s Cafe Slavia. Its wider appeal is uncertain. Contemporary Czech producers claim absinth has been produced in the Czech Republic since the 1920s, and that their brands use the same eighty-year-old recipes (e.g. in case of the Hills company, '98% the same'), but there is no independent evidence to support these claims. Since there are currently few legal definitions for absinthe, producers have taken advantage of its romantic associations and psychoactive reputation to market their products under a similar name. Many Bohemian-style producers heavily market thujone content, exploiting the many myths and half truths that surround thujone even though none of these types of absinth contain enough thujone to cause any noticeable effect.<p>The Czech- or Bohemian-style absinth lacks many of the oils in absinthe that create the louche, and a modern ritual involving fire was created to take this into account. In this ritual, absinth is added to a glass and a sugar cube on a spoon is placed over it. The sugar cube is soaked in absinth then set on fire. The cube is then dropped into the absinth setting it on fire, and water is added until the fire goes out, normally a 1:1 ratio. The crumbling sugar can provide a minor simulation of the louche seen in traditional absinthe, and the lower water ratio enhances effects of the high-strength alcohol.<p>It is sometimes claimed that this ritual is old and traditional; however, this is false. This method of preparing absinth was in fact first used by Czech manufacturers in the late 1990s and used as a marketing tool, but has since been accepted by many as historical fact, largely because this method has filtered its way into several contemporary movies. Amongst many of the more traditional absinthe enthusiasts, this method of preparing absinthe is looked down upon, and it can negatively affect the flavor of traditional absinthe.<p>There are a few Czech products that claim to have levels of thujone, which would make them illegal to sell in Europe, as well as the rest of the world. Some of the most expensive Czech products go to the extent of macerating wormwood in the bottle quite similar to an absinthe kit. There is no historical basis for a high thujone level which in fact lends an overwhelming bitterness. Absinthe connoisseurs consider these drinks to be overpriced marketing gimmicks with no historical relationship to real absinthe.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23118.jpg.htm" title="A vintage Pernod Fils absinthe advertisement."><img alt="A vintage Pernod Fils absinthe advertisement." height="281" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pernodad.jpg" src="../../images/231/23118.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23118.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A vintage <!--del_lnk--> Pernod Fils absinthe advertisement.</div> </div> </div> <p>The precise origin of absinthe is unclear, although there is evidence of absinthe in several ancient cultures. According to popular legend, however, modern absinthe began as an all-purpose patent <!--del_lnk--> remedy created by Dr. Pierre Ordinaire, a French doctor living in Couvet, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, around 1792 (the exact date varies by account). Ordinaire's recipe was passed on to the Henriod sisters of Couvet, who sold absinthe as a medicinal <!--del_lnk--> elixir. In fact, by other accounts, the Henriod sisters may have already been making the elixir before Ordinaire's arrival. In either case, one Major Dubied in turn acquired the formula from the sisters and, in 1797, with his son Marcellin and son-in-law Henry-Louis Pernod, opened the first absinthe distillery, Dubied Père et Fils, in Couvet. In 1805 they built a second distillery in <!--del_lnk--> Pontarlier, France, under the new company name Maison Pernod Fils.<p>Absinthe's popularity grew steadily until the 1840s, when absinthe was given to French <!--del_lnk--> troops as a <!--del_lnk--> fever preventative. When the troops returned home, they brought their taste for absinthe with them, and it became popular at <!--del_lnk--> bars and <!--del_lnk--> bistros.<p>By the 1860s, absinthe had become so popular that in most <!--del_lnk--> cafés and <!--del_lnk--> cabarets 5 p.m. signalled <i>l’heure verte</i> ('the green hour'). Still, it remained expensive and was favored mainly by the <!--del_lnk--> bourgeoisie and eccentric Bohemian artists. By the 1880s, however, the price had dropped significantly, the market expanded, and absinthe soon became <i>the</i> drink of France; by 1910 the French were consuming 36 million <!--del_lnk--> litres of absinthe per year.<p><a id="Ban" name="Ban"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ban</span></h3> <p>Spurred by the <!--del_lnk--> temperance movement and winemakers' associations, absinthe was publicized in connection with several violent crimes supposedly committed under the influence of the drink. This, combined with rising hard liquor consumption due to the <!--del_lnk--> wine shortage in France during the 1880s and 1890s, effectively labelled absinthe a social menace. Its critics said that "Absinthe makes you crazy and criminal, provokes epilepsy and tuberculosis, and has killed thousands of French people. It makes a ferocious beast of man, a martyr of woman, and a degenerate of the infant, it disorganizes and ruins the family and menaces the future of the country." <!--del_lnk--> Edgar Degas' 1876 painting <!--del_lnk--> L'Absinthe (<i>Absinthe</i>) (now at the <!--del_lnk--> Musée d'Orsay) epitomized the popular view of absinthe 'addicts' as sodden and benumbed; <!--del_lnk--> Émile Zola described their serious intoxication in his novel <i><!--del_lnk--> L'Assommoir</i>.<p>Absinthe was banned as early as 1898 in the <!--del_lnk--> Congo Free State (later Belgian Congo).<p>The Lanfray murders were the last straw for absinthe. In 1905, it was reported that Jean Lanfray murdered his family and attempted to kill himself after drinking absinthe. The fact that he was an alcoholic who had drunk considerably after the two glasses of absinthe in the morning was forgotten, and the murders were blamed solely on absinthe. A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland was quickly signed by over 82,000 people.<p>Soon thereafter (in 1906), <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> banned the sale and redistribution of absinthe. In <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, the prohibition of absinthe was even written into the constitution in 1907, following a popular initiative. <!--del_lnk--> The Netherlands came next, banning absinthe in 1909, followed by the United States in 1912 and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> in 1915. Around the same time, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> banned the liquor too. The prohibition of absinthe in France led to the growing popularity of <i><!--del_lnk--> pastis</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> ouzo</i>, anise-flavored liqueurs that do not use wormwood. Although Pernod moved their absinthe production to <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, where absinthe was still legal, slow sales eventually caused it to close down. In Switzerland, it drove absinthe underground. Evidence suggests small home clandestine distillers have been producing absinthe since the ban, focusing on <!--del_lnk--> La Bleues as it was easier to hide a clear product. Many countries never banned absinthe, which eventually led to its revival.<p><a id="Modern_revival" name="Modern_revival"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Modern revival</span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23119.jpg.htm" title="An assortment of modern absinthe."><img alt="An assortment of modern absinthe." height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Absinthe-bottles.jpg" src="../../images/231/23119.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23119.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An assortment of modern absinthe.</div> </div> </div> <p>In the 1990s an importer, BBH Spirits, realized that there was no <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> law prohibiting the sale of absinthe (as it was never banned there) other than the standard regulations governing <!--del_lnk--> alcoholic beverages. <!--del_lnk--> Hill's Liquere, a <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> distillery founded in 1920, began manufacturing Hill's Absinth, a Bohemian-style absinth, which sparked a modern resurgence in absinthe's popularity.<p>It had also never been banned in <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> or <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, where it continues to be made. Likewise, the former Spanish and Portuguese New World colonies, especially <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, allow the sale of absinthe and it has retained popularity through the years.<p>France never repealed its 1915 law, but in 1988 a law was passed to clarify that only beverages that do not comply with <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> regulations with respect to <!--del_lnk--> thujone content, or beverages that call themselves 'absinthe' explicitly, fall under that law. This has resulted in the re-emergence of French absinthes, now labelled <i>spiritueux à base de plantes d'absinthe</i> ('wormwood-based spirits'). Interestingly, as the 1915 law regulates only the sale of absinthe in France but not its production, many manufacturers also produce variants destined for export which are plainly labelled 'absinthe'. <!--del_lnk--> La Fée Absinthe, launched in 2000, was the first brand of absinthe distilled and bottled in France since the 1915 ban, initially mainly for export from France, but now one of over twenty French 'spiritueux ... d'absinthe' available in Paris and other French cities.<p>In December 2000, Australia reclassified it from a prohibited product to a restricted product, requiring a special permit to import or sell absinthe, though it is still available in most bottle shops.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23120.jpg.htm" title="Collection of absinthe spoons. These specialized spoons were used to hold the sugar cube over which ice-cold water was poured to dilute the absinthe. Note the slot on the handle that allows the spoon to rest on the brim of the glass."><img alt="Collection of absinthe spoons. These specialized spoons were used to hold the sugar cube over which ice-cold water was poured to dilute the absinthe. Note the slot on the handle that allows the spoon to rest on the brim of the glass." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Absinthe_spoons.jpg" src="../../images/231/23120.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23120.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Collection of absinthe spoons. These specialized spoons were used to hold the sugar cube over which ice-cold water was poured to dilute the absinthe. Note the slot on the handle that allows the spoon to rest on the brim of the glass.</div> </div> </div> <p>In the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, this law was successfully challenged by the <a href="../../wp/a/Amsterdam.htm" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> wine seller <!--del_lnk--> Menno Boorsma in July 2004, making absinthe once more legal. <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, as part of an effort to simplify its laws, removed its absinthe law on the first of January 2005, citing (as did the Dutch judge) European food regulations as sufficient to render the law unnecessary (and indeed, in conflict with the spirit of the Single European Market).<p>In Switzerland, the constitutional ban on absinthe was repealed in 2000 during a general overhaul of the national constitution, but the prohibition was written into ordinary law instead. Later that law was also repealed, so from <!--del_lnk--> March 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, absinthe is again legal in its country of origin, after nearly a century of prohibition. Absinthe is now not only sold in Switzerland, but is once again distilled in its Val-de-Travers birthplace, with Kubler and <!--del_lnk--> La Clandestine Absinthe among the first new brands to emerge, albeit with an underground heritage.<p>It is once again legal to produce and sell absinthe in practically every country where alcohol is legal, the major exception being the United States. It is not, however, illegal to possess or consume absinthe in the United States. Despite the legal status of absinthe containing thujone, it can, however, be obtained in a small number of establishments around the United States, notably one in <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans, but typically locating those establishments is only achieved via word of mouth.<p>The only other countries where it is believed that absinthe may not be sold are Denmark, Singapore and Norway. The Norway prohibition is due to the fact that the law forbids the sale of alcohol stronger than 60 percent by volume, which is applicable to most kinds of absinthe.<p><a id="Cruise_ship_mystery" name="Cruise_ship_mystery"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cruise ship mystery</span></h3> <p>In January 2006, a widely published <!--del_lnk--> Associated Press <!--del_lnk--> wire service article echoed the press' sensationalistic absinthe scare of a century earlier. It was reported that on the night he disappeared, <!--del_lnk--> George Allen Smith IV (a Greenwich, Connecticut, man who in July 2005 vanished from aboard the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Caribbean's <i>Brilliance of the Seas</i> while on his honeymoon cruise) and other passengers drank a bottle of absinthe. The story noted the modern revival and included quotes from various sources suggesting that absinthe remains a serious and dangerous hallucinogenic drug:<blockquote> <p>"In large amounts, it would certainly make people see strange things and behave in a strange manner," said Jad Adams, author of the book 'Hideous Absinthe: A History of the Devil in a Bottle'. "It gives people different, unusual ideas that they wouldn't have had of their own accord because of its stimulative effect on the mind."</blockquote> <blockquote> <p>Absinthe is banned in the United States because of harmful neurological effects caused by a toxic chemical called thujone, said Michael Herndon, spokesman for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.</blockquote> <p>The story also noted: "Defenders of the drink say it is safe and its harmful effects a myth." Jad Adams and Ted Breaux were interviewed on <!--del_lnk--> MSNBC about this issue. Ted Breaux had this to say:<blockquote> <p>One thing we know is that absinthe, old and new, does not contain a lot of thujone. And what we know, from certain scientific studies, which have been published in the past year or so, is that, first of all, thujone is not present in any absinthe in sufficient concentration to cause any type of deleterious effects in humans.</blockquote> <p><a id="Controversy" name="Controversy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Controversy</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23121.jpg.htm" title="Edouard Manet, The Absinthe Drinker"><img alt="Edouard Manet, The Absinthe Drinker" height="344" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Manet%2C_Edouard_-_The_Absinthe_Drinker.jpg" src="../../images/231/23121.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23121.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Edouard Manet, <i>The Absinthe Drinker</i></div> </div> </div> <p>It was thought that excessive absinthe drinking led to effects which were specifically worse than those associated with overindulgence in other forms of alcohol—which is bound to have been true for some of the less-scrupulously adulterated products, creating a condition called <i>absinthism</i>. Undistilled wormwood essential oil contains a substance called <!--del_lnk--> thujone, which is a convulsant and can cause <!--del_lnk--> renal failure in extremely high doses, and the supposed ill effects of the drink were blamed on that substance in 19th century studies. Many of these studies were flawed, such as a study by Dr. Magnan in 1869 that exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood oil vapor and another to alcohol vapors. The guinea pig exposed to wormwood had seizures while the other did not. Based on this it was concluded absinthe was more dangerous than alcohol. These studies were further taken advantage of as the French word for wormwood is 'absinthe', and it was incorrectly stated that absinthe, the drink, had caused these problems.<p>Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as high, possibly up to 350 mg/kg. More recent studies have shown that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe, even one recreated using historical recipes and methods. Most proper absinthes, both vintage and modern, are naturally within the EU limits. A recent French distiller has had to add pure <a href="../../wp/e/Essential_oil.htm" title="Essential oil">essential oil</a> of wormwood to make a 'high thujone' variant of his product. It can remain in higher amounts in oils produced by other methods than distillation, or when wormwood is macerated and not distilled, especially when the plant stems are used, where thujone content is the highest. Tests on mice show an <!--del_lnk--> LD50 of around 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight, much higher than what is contained in absinthe and the high amount of alcohol would kill a person many times over before the thujone became a danger. Although direct effects on humans are unknown, many have consumed thujone in higher amounts than present in absinthe through non-controversial sources like <a href="../../wp/c/Common_sage.htm" title="Common sage">common sage</a> and its oil, which can be up to 50% thujone. Long term effects of low wormwood consumption in humans is unknown as well.<p>The effects of absinthe have been described by artists as mind opening and even <!--del_lnk--> hallucinogenic and by prohibitionists as turning good people mad and desolate. Both are exaggerations. Sometimes called 'secondary effects', the most commonly reported experience is a 'clear-headed' feeling of inebriation - a 'lucid drunk', said to be caused by the thujone. The <!--del_lnk--> placebo effect and individual reaction to the herbs make these secondary effects subjective and minor compared to the <!--del_lnk--> psychoactive effects of alcohol.<p>A study in the <i>Journal of Studies on Alcohol</i> concluded that a high concentration of thujone in alcohol has negative effects on attention performance. It slowed down <!--del_lnk--> reaction time, and subjects concentrated their attention in the central field of vision. Medium doses did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol. The high dose of thujone in this study was larger than what one can get from current beyond-EU-regulation 'high thujone' absinthe before becoming too drunk to notice, and while the effects of even this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test, the test subjects themselves could still not reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone. As most people describe the effects of absinthe as a more lucid and aware drunk, this suggests that thujone alone is not the cause of these effects. The deleterious effects of absinthe as well as its hallucinogenic properties are a persistent myth often repeated in modern books and scientific journals with no evidence for either.<p><a id="Cultural_impact" name="Cultural_impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural impact</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23122.jpg.htm" title="L’Absinthe, by Edgar Degas."><img alt="L’Absinthe, by Edgar Degas." height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Degasabsinthe.jpg" src="../../images/231/23122.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23122.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> L’Absinthe</i>, by <!--del_lnk--> Edgar Degas.</div> </div> </div> <p>The legacy of absinthe as a mysterious, addictive, and mind-altering drink continues to this day. Absinthe has been seen or featured in fine art, movies, video, music and literature. The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal. It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking, even though traditionally neither is true.<p><a id="Historical" name="Historical"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Historical</span></h3> <p>Numerous artists and writers living in France during the late 19th and early 20th centuries were noted absinthe drinkers and featured absinthe in their works. These include <a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a>, <a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2589douard_Manet.htm" title="Édouard Manet">Édouard Manet</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Guy de Maupassant, <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Rimbaud and <!--del_lnk--> Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Later authors and artists would draw from this cultural well including <a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Oscar Wilde and <a href="../../wp/e/Ernest_Hemingway.htm" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a>.<p><a id="Modern" name="Modern"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Modern</span></h3> <p>The mystery and illicit quality surrounding the popular view of absinthe has played into modern music, movies and television shows. These depictions vary in their authenticity, often applying <!--del_lnk--> dramatic license to depict the drink as everything from <!--del_lnk--> aphrodisiac to <!--del_lnk--> poison.<p><a id="Regulations" name="Regulations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Regulations</span></h2> <p>Currently, most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike, for example, <!--del_lnk--> Scotch whisky or <!--del_lnk--> cognac). Therefore, manufacturers can label a product 'absinthe' or 'absinth', regardless of whether it matches the traditional definition. Due to many countries never banning absinthe, not every country has regulations specifically governing it.<p><a id="Australia_and_New_Zealand" name="Australia_and_New_Zealand"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Australia and New Zealand</span></h3> <p>Bitters can contain a maximum 35 mg/kg thujone, other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum 10 mg/kg of thujone. In Australia, import and sales require a special permit.<p><a id="Canada" name="Canada"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Canada</span></h3> <p>In <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, liquor laws are the domain of the provincial governments. <!--del_lnk--> British Columbia has no limits on thujone content; <!--del_lnk--> Alberta, <!--del_lnk--> Ontario and <!--del_lnk--> Nova Scotia allow 10 mg/kg thujone,<!--del_lnk--> Québec allows 3 mg per kg (according to the SAQ) and all other provinces do not allow the sale of absinthe containing thujone (although, in <!--del_lnk--> Saskatchewan, one can purchase any liquor available in the world upon the purchase of a minimum of one case, usually 12 bottles x 750ml or 8 x 1L). The individual liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold on shelves, and currently, only Hill's Absinth, Elie-Arnaud Denoix, Pernod, Absente, Versinthe and, in limited release, La Fée Absinthe are approved. Other brands may appear in the future.<p><a id="European_Union" name="European_Union"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">European Union</span></h3> <p>The <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mg/kg in alcoholic beverages with more than 25% <!--del_lnk--> ABV, and 35 mg/kg in alcohol labelled as bitters. Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework. Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it.<div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23123.jpg.htm" title="The end of the Green Fairy (1910): Critical poster by Albert Gantner illustrating the absinthe ban in Switzerland."><img alt="The end of the Green Fairy (1910): Critical poster by Albert Gantner illustrating the absinthe ban in Switzerland." height="319" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Affiche_absinthe.jpg" src="../../images/231/23123.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/231/23123.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>The end of the Green Fairy</i> (1910): Critical poster by <!--del_lnk--> Albert Gantner illustrating the absinthe ban in Switzerland.</div> </div> </div> <p><a id="France" name="France"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">France</span></h3> <p>In addition to EU standards, products explicitly called 'absinthe' cannot be sold in France, although they can be produced for export. Absinthe is now commonly labelled as <i>spiritueux à base de plantes d'absinthe</i> ('wormwood-based spirits'). France also regulates Fenchone, a chemical in the herb fennel, to 5 mg/l. This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformatting.<p><a id="Switzerland" name="Switzerland"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Switzerland</span></h3> <p>To be legally sold, absinthe must be distilled and either uncolored or naturally colored. In Switzerland, the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1908 to 2005.<p><a id="United_States" name="United_States"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">United States</span></h3> <p>According to <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "The importation of Absinthe and any other liquors or liqueurs that contain <i>Artemisia absinthium</i> is prohibited." This runs contrary to FDA regulations, which allow Artemisia species in foods or beverages, but those that contain Artemisia species, white cedar, oak moss, tansy or Yarrow, must be thujone free. Other herbs that contain <!--del_lnk--> thujone have no restrictions. For example, sage and sage oil (which can be almost 50% thujone) are on the FDA's list of substances generally recognized as safe.<p>The prevailing consensus of interpretation of <!--del_lnk--> United States law and regulations among American absinthe connoisseurs is that it is probably legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the U.S. It is prohibited to sell items meant for human consumption which contain thujone derived from <i>Artemisia</i> species. (This derives from a <!--del_lnk--> Food and Drug Administration regulation, as opposed to a <!--del_lnk--> DEA regulation.) Customs regulations specifically forbid the importation of 'absinthe'. Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs if it appears to be for human consumption and can be seized inside the U.S. with a warrant.<p>A faux-absinthe liquor called <!--del_lnk--> Absente, made with <i>southern wormwood</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Artemisia abrotanum</i>) instead of regular wormwood (<i>Artemisia absinthium</i>), is sold legally in the United States and does not contain thujone.<p><a id="Vanuatu" name="Vanuatu"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vanuatu</span></h3> <p>The Absinthe (Prohibition) Act <!--del_lnk--> 1915, passed in the <!--del_lnk--> New Hebrides, has never been repealed, and is included in the <!--del_lnk--> 1988 <a href="../../wp/v/Vanuatu.htm" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> consolidated legislation, and contains the following all-encompassing restriction: The manufacture, importation, circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absinthe"</div> <!-- end content --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --> <div class="visualClear"> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script> </div> </body> </html>	['Ethanol', 'Sugar', 'Distilled beverage', 'Switzerland', 'France', 'Paris', 'United States', 'European Union', 'Latin', 'Fennel', 'Lemon balm', 'Star anise', 'Angelica', 'Coriander', 'Nutmeg', 'Ethanol', 'Copper', 'Zinc', 'Antimony', 'Czech Republic', 'Prague', 'Switzerland', 'Belgium', 'Brazil', 'Switzerland', 'France', 'Australia', 'Spain', 'United Kingdom', 'Czech Republic', 'Spain', 'Portugal', 'Mexico', 'European Union', 'Netherlands', 'Amsterdam', 'Belgium', 'Essential oil', 'Common sage', 'Vincent van Gogh', 'Édouard Manet', 'Pablo Picasso', 'Ernest Hemingway', 'Canada', 'European Union', 'Vanuatu']