Datasets:

afmck

/

text8-chunked1024

like 0

of stageira burned during the three four zero s bc and aristotle successfully requested that alexander rebuild it during his tutorship of alexander aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the academy his companion xenocrates was selected instead founder and master of the lyceum in about three three five bc alexander departed for his asiatic campaign and aristotle who had served as an informal adviser more or less since alexander ascended the macedonian throne returned to athens and opened his own school of philosophy he may as aulus gellius says have conducted a school of rhetoric during his former residence in athens but now following plato s example he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a gymnasium dedicated to apollo lyceios from which his school has come to be known as the lyceum it was also called the peripatetic school because aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down peripateo the shaded walks peripatoi around the

gymnasium during the thirteen years three three five bc three two two bc which he spent as teacher of the lyceum aristotle composed most of his writings imitating plato he wrote dialogues in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language he also composed the several treatises which will be mentioned below on physics metaphysics and so forth in which the exposition is more didactic and the language more technical than in the dialogues these writings show to what good use he put the resources alexander had provided for him they show particularly how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in greek philosophy and how he pursued either personally or through others his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena pliny claimed that alexander placed under aristotle s orders all the hunters fishermen and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests lakes ponds and cattle ranges and aristotle s works on zoology make this statement more believable

aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors and strabo asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library during the last years of aristotle s life the relations between him and alexander became very strained owing to the disgrace and punishment of callisthenes whom aristotle had recommended to alexander nevertheless aristotle continued to be regarded at athens as a friend of alexander and a representative of macedonia consequently when alexander s death became known in athens and the outbreak occurred which led to the lamian war aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the macedonians the charge of impiety which had been brought against anaxagoras and socrates was now with even less reason brought against aristotle he left the city saying according to many ancient authorities that he would not give the athenians a chance to sin a third time against philosophy he took up residence at his country house at chalcis in euboea and there he died the following year three tw

o two bc his death was due to a disease reportedly of the stomach from which he had long suffered the story that his death was due to hemlock poisoning as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea because he could not explain the tides is without historical foundation very little is known about aristotle s personal appearance except from hostile sources the statues and busts of aristotle possibly from the first years of the peripatetic school represent him as sharp and keen of countenance and somewhat below the average height his character as revealed by his writings his will which is undoubtedly genuine fragments of his letters and the allusions of his unprejudiced contemporaries was that of a high minded kind hearted man devoted to his family and his friends kind to his slaves fair to his enemies and rivals grateful towards his benefactors when platonism ceased to dominate the world of christian speculation and the works of aristotle began to be studied without fear and prejudice the personality

of aristotle appeared to the christian writers of the one three th century as it had to the unprejudiced pagan writers of his own day as calm majestic untroubled by passion and undimmed by any great moral defects the master of those who know aristotle s legacy also had a profound influence on islamic thought and philosophy during the middle ages the likes of avicenna farabi and yaqub ibn ishaq al kindi one were a few of the major proponents of the aristotelian school of thought during the golden age of islam methodology aristotle defines philosophy in terms of essence saying that philosophy is the science of the universal essence of that which is actual plato had defined it as the science of the idea meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of phenomena both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the universal aristotle however finds the universal in particular things and called it the essence of things while plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things

and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar for aristotle therefore philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences while for plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas in a certain sense aristotle s method is both inductive and deductive while plato s is essentially deductive in aristotle s terminology the term natural philosophy corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world which include motion light and the laws of physics many centuries later these subjects would become the basis of modern science as studied through the scientific method in modern times the term philosophy has come to be more narrowly understood as metaphysics distinct from empirical study of the natural world via the physical sciences in contrast in aristotle s time and use philosophy was taken to encompass all facets of intellectual inquiry in the larger sense of the word

he makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning which he also called science note however that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that which is covered by the scientific method all science dianoia is either practical poetical or theoretical by practical science he understands ethics and politics by poetical he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts while by theoretical philosophy he means physics mathematics and metaphysics the last philosophy in the stricter sense he defines as the knowledge of immaterial being and calls it first philosophy the theologic science or of being in the highest degree of abstraction if logic or as aristotle calls it analytic be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy we have as divisions of aristotelian philosophy one logic two theoretical philosophy including metaphysics physics mathematics three practical philosophy and four poetical philosophy aristotle s epistemology logic history aristotle says that on the subject of reasoning he had

nothing else on an earlier date to speak about boche ski one nine five one however plato reports that syntax was thought of before him by prodikos of keos who was concerned by the right use of words logic seems to have emerged from dialectics the earlier philosophers used concepts like reductio ad absurdum as a rule when discussing but never understood its logical implications even plato had difficulties with logic although he had the idea of constructing a system for deduction he was never able to construct one instead he relied on his dialectic which was a confusion between different sciences and methods boche ski one nine five one plato thought that deduction would simply follow from premises so he focused on having good premises so that the conclusion would follow later on plato realised that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial plato never obtained such a method but his best attempt was published in his book sophist where he introduced his division method rose one nine six eight anal

ytics and the organon what we call today aristotelian logic aristotle himself would have labelled analytics the term logic he reserved to mean dialectics most of aristotle s work is probably not in its original form since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers the logical works of aristotle were compiled into six books at about the time of christ categories on interpretation prior analytics posterior analytics topics on sophistical refutations the order of the books or the teachings from which they are composed is not certain but this list was derived from analysis of aristotle s writings there is one volume of aristotle s concerning logic not found in the organon namely the fourth book of metaphysics boche ski one nine five one modal logic aristotle is also the creator of syllogisms with modalities modal logic the word modal refers to the word modes explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of truth aristotle introduced the qualification of necessary and possible premises h

e constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was very difficult to interpret rose one nine six eight science aristotle by francesco hayez aristotelian discussions about science had only been qualitative not quantitative by the modern definition of the term aristotelian philosophy was not science as this worldview did not attempt to probe how the world actually worked through experiment for example in his book the history of animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than females had he only made some observations he would have discovered that this claim is false rather based on what one s senses told one aristotelian philosophy then depended upon the assumption that man s mind could elucidate all the laws of the universe based on simple observation without experimentation through reason alone one of the reasons for this was that aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reali

ty of their own in this philosophy he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them in contrast today s science assumes that thinking alone often leads people astray and therefore one must compare one s ideas to the actual world through experimentation only then can one see if one s ideas are based in reality this position is known as empiricism or the scientific method although aristotle initiated an important step in the history of scientific method by founding logic as a formal science he also left behind a trail of bankrupt cosmology that we may discern in selections of the metaphysics his cosmology would gain much acceptance up until the one five zero zero s where copernicus and galileo began to figure out that europe is not the center of the universe from the three rd century to the one five zero zero s the dominant view held that the earth was the center of the universe at this late date it is uncontroversial that the earth is not even the center of our own solar system in spite of arist

otle s bogus account of the planets and sun he is a vital character in the history of metaphysics both in terms of the etymology of the word as well as a figure within metaphysics as a discipline dubbed the stuff next to the physics by andronicus of rhodes metaphysics became connected to the idea of beyond the physical by simplicius a commentator on aristotle andronicus had published aristotle s works sometime around four three two zero bc so initially the etymology of metaphysics was simply that which is next to the physics aristotle s metaphysics causality aristole is the first who saw that all causes of things are beginnings that we have scientific knowledge when we know the cause that to know a thing s existence is to know the reason for its existence setting the guidelines for all the subsequent causal theories by specifying the number nature principles elements varieties order and modes of causation aristotle s account of the causes of things is the most comprehensive theory up to now according to arist

otle s theory all the causes fall into several senses the total number of which amounts to the ways the question why may be answered namely by reference to the matter or the substratum the essence the pattern the form or the structure to the primary moving change or the agent and its action and to the goal the plan the end or the good consequently the major kinds of causes come under the following divisions the material cause is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its parts constituents substratum or materials this reduces the explanation of causes to the parts factors elements constituents ingredients forming the whole system structure compound complex composite or combination the part whole causation the formal cause tells us what a thing is that any thing is determined by the definition form pattern essence whole synthesis or archetype it embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws as the whole macrostructure is the cause of its parts the whole part ca

usation the efficient cause is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts it identifies what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed and so suggests all sorts of agents nonliving or living acting as the sources of change or movement or rest representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect this covers the modern definitions of cause as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs the final cause is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities the final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve or it is that from which and that to which the change is this also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition need motivation or motives rational irrational ethical all that gives purpose to behavior additionally things can be causes of one another causing each ot

her reciprocally as hard work causes fitness and vice versa although not in the same way or function the one is as the beginning of change the other as the goal thus aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or action or influence of cause and effect also aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects its presence and absent may result in different outcomes besides aristotle marked two modes of causation proper prior causation and accidental chance causation all causes proper and incidental can be spoken as potential or as actual particular or generic the same language refers to the effects of causes so that generic effects assigned to generic causes particular effects to particular causes operating causes to actual effects essentiallly causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect all further investigations of causality will be consisting in imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order caus

es like as final efficient material formal aquinas or in restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality deterministic or chance or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores chance and spontaneity spontaneity and chance are causes of effects chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things it is from what is spontaneous but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance for a better understanding of aristotle s conception of chance it might be better to think of coincidence something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place but with the result of another thing not intended taking place for example a person seeks donations that person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum however if the person seeking the donations met the person donating not for the p

urpose of collecting donations but for some other purpose aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance it must be unusual that something happens by chance in other words if something happens all or most of the time we cannot say that it is by chance however chance can only apply to human beings it is in the sphere of moral actions according to aristotle chance must involve choice and thus deliberation and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice what is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance physics two six the five elements fire which is hot and dry earth which is cold and dry air which is hot and wet water which is cold and wet aether which is the divine substance that makes up the heavens these four elements interchange i e fire air water earth etc while aether is on its own the sun keeps this cycle going god keeps the sun going and thus the sun is eternal aristotle s ethics although aristotle wrote several works on ethics the major

one was the nicomachean ethics which is considered one of aristotle s greatest works it discusses virtues the ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the lyceum and were either edited by or dedicated to aristotle s son nicomachus aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge like metaphysics and epistemology but general knowledge also as it is a practical discipline rather than a theoretical one he thought that in order to become good one could not simply study what virtue is one must actually do virtuous deeds in order to do this aristotle had first to establish what was virtuous he began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is good the ultimate goal he called the highest good aristotle contested that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor he finally finds happiness by ascertaining the specific function of man but what is this function that will bring happiness to determine this aristotl

e analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts the nutritive soul plants animals and humans the perceptive soul animals and humans and the rational soul humans only thus a human s function is to do what makes it human to be good at what sets it apart from everything else the ability to reason or nous a person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfilling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul depending on how well they did this aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories the virtuous the continent the incontinent and the vicious aristotle believes that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between excess and deficiency this does not mean aristotle believed in moral relativism however he set certain emotions e g hate envy jealousy spite etc and certain actions e g adultery theft murder etc as always wrong regardless of the situation or the circumstances nicomachean ethics in nicomachean ethics aristotle focuses on the importance of continually behaving

virtuously and developing virtue rather than committing specific good actions this can be contrasted with kantian ethics in which the primary focus is on individual action nicomachean ethics emphasizes the importance of context to ethical behaviour what might be right in one situation might be wrong in another aristotle believed that happiness is the end of life and that as long as a person is striving for goodness good deeds will result from that struggle making the person virtuous and therefore happy aristotle s critics plato left and aristotle right a detail of the school of athens a fresco by raphael aristotle gestures to the earth representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience whilst plato points up to the heavens showing his belief in the ultimate truth aristotle has been criticised on several grounds his analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presupposes an active ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert passive lumpen fe

male element it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to aristotle as a misogynist at times the objections that aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher plato appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments although aristotle advised against plato that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience he frequently failed to take his own advice aristotle conducted projects of careful empirical investigation but often drifted into abstract logical reasoning with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence for example his assertion that objects of different mass fall at different speeds under gravity which was later refuted by john philoponus credit is often given to galileo even though philopinus lived centuries earlier in the middle ages roughly from the one two th century to the one five th century the philosophy of aristotle became firmly established dogma although aristotle himself was far fr

om dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma his works were wide ranging and systematic so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled he was also much less inclined to employ the skeptical methods of his predecessors socrates and plato some academics have suggested that aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time aristotle was called not a great philosopher but the philosopher by scholastic thinkers these thinkers blended aristotelian philosophy with christianity bringing the thought of ancient greece into the middle ages it required a repudiation of some aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods the loss of his works though we know that aristotle wrote many elegant treatises cicero described his literary style as a river of gold the originals have been lost i

n time all that we have now are the literary notes for his pupils which are often difficult to read the nicomachean ethics is a good example it is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works aristotle underestimated the importance of his written work for humanity he thus never published his books except from his dialogues the story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by strabo in his geography and plutarch in his parallel lives sulla the manuscripts were left from aristotle to theophrastus from theophrastus to neleus of scepsis from neleus to his heirs their descendants sold them to apellicon of teos when sulla occupied athens in eight six bc he carried off the library of appellicon to rome where they were first published in six zero bc from the grammarian tyrranion of amisus and then by philosopher andronicus of rhodes bibliography note bekker numbers are often used to uniquely identify passages of aristotle they are identified below where available major works the e

xtant works of aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the corpus aristotelicum not all of these works are considered genuine but differ with respect to their connection to aristotle his associates and his views some such as the athenaion politeia or the fragments of other politeia are regarded by most scholars as products of aristotle s school and compiled under his direction or supervision other works such on colours may have been products of aristotle s successors at the lyceum e g theophrastus and straton still others acquired aristotle s name through similarities in doctrine or content such as the de plantis possibly by nicolaus of damascus a final category omitted here includes medieval palmistries astrological and magical texts whose connection to aristotle is purely fanciful and self promotional those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk logical writings organon collected works on logic one a categories or categoriae one six a on interpretation or de interpreta

tione two four a prior analytics or analytica priora seven one a posterior analytics or analytica posteriora one zero zero b topics or topica one six four a on sophistical refutations or de sophisticis elenchis physical and scientific writings one eight four a physics or physica two six eight a on the heavens or de caelo three one four a on generation and corruption or de generatione et corruptione three three eight a meteorology or meteorologica three nine one a on the cosmos or de mundo or on the universe four zero two a on the soul or de anima four three six a little physical treatises or parva naturalia on sense and the sensible or de sensu et sensibilibus on memory and reminiscence or de memoria et reminiscentia on sleep and sleeplessness or de somno et vigilia on dreams or de insomniis on prophesying by dreams or de divinatione per somnum on longevity and shortness of life or de longitudine et brevitate vitae on youth and old age on life and death or de juventute et senectute de vita et morte on breathi

ng or de respiratione four eight one a on breath or de spiritu four eight six a history of animals or historia animalium or on the history of animals or description of animals six three nine a on the parts of animals or de partibus animalium six nine eight a on the gait of animals or de motu animalium or on the movement of animals seven zero four a on the progression of animals or de incessu animalium seven one five a on the generation of animals or de generatione animalium seven nine one a on colours or de coloribus eight zero zero a de audibilibus eight zero five a physiognomics or physiognomonica on plants or de plantis eight three zero a on marvellous things heard or mirabilibus auscultationibus or on things heard eight four seven a mechanical problems or mechanica eight five nine a problems or problemata nine six eight a on indivisible lines or de lineis insecabilibus nine seven three a situations and names of winds or ventorum situs nine seven four a on melissus xenophanes and gorgias or mxg the section

on xenophanes starts at nine seven seven a one three the section on gorgias starts at nine seven nine a one one metaphysical writings nine eight zero a metaphysics or metaphysica ethical writings one zero nine four a nicomachean ethics or ethica nicomachea or the ethics one one eight one a great ethics or magna moralia one two one four a eudemian ethics or ethica eudemia one two four nine a virtues and vices or de virtutibus et vitiis libellus libellus de virtutibus one two five two a politics or politica one three four three a economics or oeconomica aesthetic writings one three five four a rhetoric or ars rhetorica or the art of rhetoric or treatise on rhetoric rhetoric to alexander or rhetorica ad alexandrum one four four seven a poetics or ars poetica a work outside the corpus aristotelicum the constitution of the athenians or athenaion politeia or the athenian constitution specific editions princeton university press the complete works of aristotle the revised oxford translation two volume set bollingen

series vol lxxi no two edited by jonathan barnes isbn zero six nine one zero nine nine five zero two the most complete recent translation of aristotle s extant works oxford university press clarendon aristotle series scholarly edition harvard university press loeb classical library hardbound publishes in greek with english translations on facing pages oxford classical texts hardbound greek only named for aristotle aristoteles crater on the moon the aristotle university of thessaloniki aristotle s cockney legacy the name of aristotle like that of j arthur rank became a common expression in cockney rhyming slang see also aristotelian view of god aristotelian theory of gravity philia phronesis aristotle s theory of potentialiy and actuality references needless to say the secondary literature on aristotle is vast the following references are only a small selection a popular exposition for the general reader a detailed and scholarly work but very readable an classic overview by one of aristotle s most important e

nglish translators in print since one nine two three for the general reader external links a brief biography and e texts presented one chapter at a time the internet encyclopedia of philosophy aristotle two zero zero four an extensive collection of aristotle s philosophy and works including lesser known texts nicomachean ethics by aristotle aristotle and indian logic o connor j john the constitution of athens three two two bc deaths three eight four bc births ancient greek mathematicians ancient greek philosophers aristotelian philosophers aristotle empiricists greek logicians history of philosophy history of science meteorologists rhetoric rhetoricians an american in paris is also a one nine five one film musical starring gene kelly an american in paris is a symphonic composition by american composer george gershwin which debuted in one nine two eight inspired by gershwin s time in paris it is in the form of an extended tone poem evoking the sights and energy of the french capital in the one nine two zero s

in addition to the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra the score features period automobile horns gershwin brought back some parisian taxi cab horns for the new york premiere of the composition an american in paris is second only to rhapsody in blue as a favorite of gershwin s classical compositions the score also features instruments rarely seen in the concert hall celesta and saxophones compositions by george gershwin symphonic poems the academy awards popularly known as the oscars are the most prominent film awards in the united states and arguably the world the awards are granted by the academy of motion picture arts and sciences a professional honorary organization which as of two zero zero three had a voting membership of five eight one six actors with a membership of one three one one make up the largest voting bloc the votes have been tabulated and certified by auditing firm pricewaterhousecoopers since close to the awards inception the next oscars will take place on sunday march five th tw

o zero zero six oscar statuette the official name of the oscar statuette is the academy award of merit made of gold plated britannium on a black marble base it is one three five inches three four cm tall weighs eight five lbs three eight five kg and depicts a knight holding a crusader s sword standing on a reel of film the root of the name oscar is contested some believe it comes from academy librarian margaret herrick who saw it on a table and said it looks just like my uncle oscar others claim that bette davis named it after her first husband however it became the nickname stuck and is used almost as commonly as academy award even by the academy itself in fact the academy s domain name is oscars org and the official website for the academy awards is at oscar com awards night the major awards are given out at a ceremony most commonly in march following the relevant calendar year this is an elaborate extravaganza with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion

designers of the day the ceremony and extravagant afterparties including the academy s governors ball are televised around the world the ceremony has consecutively aired on abc since one nine seven six nominations today according to rules two and three of the official academy awards rules a film has to open in the previous calendar year from midnight january one to midnight december three one in los angeles county california to qualify rule two states that a film must be feature length defined as four zero minutes to qualify for an award except for short subject awards of course it must also exist either on a three five mm or seven zero mm film print or on a two four fps or four eight fps progressive scan digital film print with a native resolution no lower than one two eight zero x one zero two four the members of the various branches nominate those in their respective fields actors are nominated by the actors branch etc while all members may submit nominees for best picture the winners are then determined b

y a second round of voting in which all members are now allowed to vote in all categories membership academy membership may be obtained by one of two ways a competitive nomination however the nominee must be invited to join or a member may submit a name seconded by at least two other members then voted upon by the board of governors the academy does not publicly disclose its membership although past press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join if a person not yet a member is nominated in more than one category in a single year he she must choose which branch to join when he she accepts membership awards although he never won an oscar for any of his movie performances the comedian bob hope received five honorary oscars for contributions to cinema and humanitarian work academy award of merit current awards best picture one nine two eight to present best leading actor one nine two eight to present best leading actress one nine two eight to present best supporting actor one nine

three six to present best supporting actress one nine three six to present best animated feature two zero zero one to present best art direction one nine two eight to present also called interior or set decoration best cinematography one nine two eight to present best costume design one nine four eight to present best director one nine two eight to present best documentary feature best documentary short subject best film editing one nine three five to present best foreign language film one nine four seven to present best makeup one nine eight one to present best original score one nine three four to present best original song one nine three four to present best original musical one nine three four to present best animated short film one nine three one to present best live action short film best sound mixing one nine three zero to present best sound editing one nine six three to present best visual effects one nine three nine to present best adapted screenplay one nine two eight to present best original screen

play one nine four zero to present retired awards best assistant director one nine three three to one nine three seven best dance direction one nine three five to one nine three seven best engineering effects one nine two eight only best score adaptation or treatment best short film color one nine three six and one nine three seven best short film live action two reels one nine three six to one nine five six best short film novelty one nine three two to one nine three five best original story one nine two eight to one nine five six best title writing one nine two eight only best unique and artistic quality of production one nine two eight only in the first year of the awards the best director category was split into separate drama and comedy categories at times the best original score category has been split into separate drama and comedy musical categories today the best original score category is one category from the one nine three zero s through the one nine six zero s the cinematography art direction and

costume design awards were split into separate categories for black and white and color films special awards these awards are voted on by special committees rather than by the academy membership as a whole current awards academy honorary award one nine two eight to present academy special achievement award academy award scientific or technical one nine three one to present at three levels the irving g thalberg memorial award one nine three eight to present the jean hersholt humanitarian award gordon e sawyer award retired awards academy juvenile award one nine three four to one nine six zero academy award statistics academy award statistics films receiving one zero or more nominations academy award statistics films receiving eight or more awards academy award statistics films receiving awards for best picture directing actor actress and writing academy award statistics films receiving three or more acting nominations academy award statistics actors receiving five or more nominations academy award statistics

actors receiving two or more awards academy award statistics directors receiving three or more nominations see also list of academy awards ceremonies list of movies that have won eight or more academy awards list of academy award winning movies seven eight th academy awards two zero zero six references gail k piazza j two zero zero two the academy awards the complete history of oscar black dog leventhal publishers inc external links oscars org the academy awards database oscar com the academy awards at the internet movie database academy awards film awards animalia cover animalia is an illustrated children s book by graeme base it was published in one nine eight six animalia is an alphabet book and contains twenty six illustrations one for each letter of the alphabet each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom a is for alligator b is for butterfly etc the illustrations contain dozens of small objects that the curious reader can try to identify base also published a coloring book version for c

hildren to do their own coloring external links a web site that contains a fairly comprehensive list of items hidden in animalia s illustrations animalia on amazon com https www graemebase com home cfm graeme base s official website children s books temps atomique international tai or international atomic time is a very accurate and stable time scale it is a weighted average of the time kept by about three zero zero atomic clocks including a large number of caesium atomic clocks in over five zero national laboratories worldwide it has been available since one nine five five and became the international standard on which utc is based on january one one nine seven two as decided by the one four th general conference on weights and measures cgpm the international bureau of weights and measures is in charge of the realization of tai the highest precision realization of tai times can only be determined retrospectively as the timescale is defined by periodic comparisons among its participating atomic clocks however

these corrections are usually only needed for applications that require nanosecond scale accuracy most time service users use realtime estimates of tai provided by atomic clocks that have been previously referenced to the composite timescale gps is a commonly used realtime source of time traceable back to tai coordinated universal time utc is the basis for legal time throughout much of the world and always differs from tai by an integral number of seconds from one january two zero zero six utc was behind tai by three three seconds the difference is due to an initial ten second offset on one january one nine seven two when utc was established and leap seconds which have been periodically inserted into utc since the first on three zero june one nine seven two due to slight irregularities in earth s rate of rotation while tai is a continuous and stable timescale utc has intentional discontinuities to keep it from drifting more than zero nine second from ut one a timescale defined by the earth s rotation roughly

speaking solar noon the time at which the sun is directly overhead would drift away from one two zero zero zero zero without leap second corrections ut one is computed by the international earth rotation and reference systems service iers tai was defined such that tai ut two on january one one nine five eight because utc is a discontinuous timescale it is not possible to compute the exact time interval elapsed between two utc timestamps without consulting a table that describes how many leap seconds occurred during that interval therefore many scientific applications that require precise measurement of long multi year intervals use tai instead tai is also commonly used by systems that can not handle leap seconds see also terrestrial time coordinated universal time universal time sidereal time time and frequency transfer clock synchronization network time protocol external links bureau international des poids et mesures iers website nist time and frequency faqs time scales altruism is considered a belief a pr

actice a habit or an ethical doctrine many cultures and religious traditions judge altruism to be virtuous in english the idea was often described as golden rule of ethics in buddhism it is considered a fundamental property of human nature altruism can refer to being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one s efforts the colloquial definition this is distinct from merely helping others actions that benefit others with a net detrimental or neutral effect on the actor regardless of the actor s own psychology motivation or the cause of his or her actions this type of altruistic behavior is referred to in ecology as commensalism an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have a moral obligation to help others if necessary to the exclusion of one s own interest or benefit one who holds such a doctrine is known as an altruist the concepts have a long history in philosophical and ethical thought and have more recently become a topic for psychologists sociologists evolutionary

biologists and ethologists while ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields the different methods and focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism altruism can be distinguished from a feeling of loyalty and duty altruism focuses on a moral obligation towards all humanity while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific individual e g a king a specific organization e g a government or an abstract concept e g god country etc some individuals may feel both altruism and duty while others may not as opposed to altruism duty is much easier to enforce by an authority altruism in ethics main article altruism ethical doctrine the word altruism french altruisme from autrui other people derived from latin alter other was coined by auguste comte the french founder of positivism in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported he believed that individuals had a moral obligation to serve the interest of others or the greater good of humanity comte says

in his catechisme positiviste that the social point of view cannot tolerate the notion of rights for such notion rests on individualism we are born under a load of obligations of every kind to our predecessors to our successors to our contemporaries after our birth these obligations increase or accumulate for it is some time before we can return any service this to live for others the definitive formula of human morality gives a direct sanction exclusively to our instincts of benevolence the common source of happiness and duty man must serve humanity whose we are entirely as the name of the ethical doctrine is altruism doing what the ethical doctrine prescribes has also come to be referred to by the term altruism serving others through placing their interests above one s own however the idea that one has a moral obligation to serve others is much older than auguste comte for example many of the world s oldest and most widespread religions particularly buddhism and christianity advocate it in the new testamen

t of the christian bible it is explained as follows jesus made answer and said a certain man was going down from jerusalem to jericho and he fell among robbers who both stripped him and beat him and departed leaving him half dead and by chance a certain priest was going down that way and when he saw him he passed by on the other side and in like manner a levite also when he came to the place and saw him passed by on the other side but a certain samaritan as he journeyed came where he was and when he saw him he was moved with compassion and came to him and bound up his wounds pouring on them oil and wine and he set him on his own beast and brought him to an inn and took care of him and on the morrow he took out two shillings and gave them to the host and said take care of him and whatsoever thou spendest more i when i come back again will repay thee which of these three thinkest thou proved neighbor unto him that fell among the robbers and he said he that showed mercy on him and jesus said unto him go and do t

hou likewise luke one zero three zero three seven philosophers who support egoism have argued that altruism is demeaning to the individual and that no moral obligation to help others actually exists nietzsche asserts that altruism is predicated on the assumption that others are more important than one s self and that such a position is degrading and demeaning he also claims that it was very uncommon for people in europe to consider the sacrifice of one s own interests for others as virtuous until after the advent of christianity ayn rand argued that altruism is the willful sacrifice of one s values and represents the reversal of morality because only a rationally selfish ethics allows one to pursue the values required for human life advocates of altruism as an ethical doctrine maintain that one ought to act or refrain from acting so that benefit or good is bestowed on other people if necessary to the exclusion of one s own interests note that refraining from murdering someone for example is not altruism since

he is not receiving a benefit or being helped as he already has his life this would amount to the same thing as ignoring someone altruism in ethology and evolutionary biology in the science of ethology the study of behavior altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor this would appear to be counter intuitive if one presumes that natural selection acts on the individual natural selection however acts on the gene pool of the subjects not on each subject individually recent developments in game theory have provided some explanations for apparent altruism as have traditional evolutionary analyses among the proposed mechanisms are behavioral manipulation e g by certain parasites that can alter the behavior of the host see bounded rationality e g herbert simon conscience indirect reciprocity e g reputation kin selection including eusociality see also selfish gene memes by influencing behavior to favour their own spread e g

religion reciprocal altruism mutual aid sexual selection strong reciprocity the study of altruism was the initial impetus behind george r price s development of the price equation which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution an interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds such as dictyostelium mucoroides these protists live as individual amoebae until starved at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body social behavior and altruism share many similaraties to the interactions between the many parts cells genes of an organism but are distinguished by the ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute requirement for its neighbors altruism in psychology and sociology if one performs an act beneficial to others with a view to gaining some personal benefit then it is not an altruistically motivated act there are several d

ifferent perspectives on how benefit or interest should be defined a material gain e g money a physical reward etc is clearly a form of benefit while others identify and include both material and immaterial gains affection respect happiness satisfaction etc as being philosophically identical benefits according to psychological egoism while people can exhibit altruistic behavior they cannot have altruistic motivations psychological egoists would say that while they might very well spend their lives benefitting others with no material benefit or a material net loss to themselves their most basic motive for doing so is always to further their own interests for example it would be alleged that the foundational motive behind a person acting this way is to advance their own psychological well being good feeling critics of this theory often reject it on the grounds that it is non falsifiable in other words it is designed in such a way as to be impossible to prove or disprove because immaterial gains such as a good f

eeling cannot be measured or proven to exist in all people performing altruistic acts psychological egoism has also been accused of using circular logic if a person willingly performs an act that means he derives personal enjoyment from it therefore people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment this statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment in contrast to psychological egoism the empathy altruism hypothesis states that when an individual experiences empathy towards someone in need the individual will then be altruistically motivated to help that person that is the individual will be primarily concerned about that person s welfare not his or her own in common parlance altruism usually means helping another person without expecting material reward from that or other persons although it may well entail the internal

benefit of a good feeling sense of satisfaction self esteem fulfillment of duty whether imposed by a religion or ideology or simply one s conscience or the like in this way one need not speculate on the motives of the altruist in question humans are not exclusively altruistic towards family members previous co operators or potential future allies but can be altruistic towards people they don t know and will never meet for example humans donate to international charities and volunteer their time to help society s less fortunate it strains plausibility to claim that these altruistic deeds are done in the hope of a return favor the game theory analysis of this just in case strategy where the principle would be always help everyone in case you need to pull in a favor in return is a decidedly non optimal strategy where the net expenditure of effort tit is far greater than the net profit when it occasionally pays off tat according to some it is difficult to believe that these behaviors are solely explained as indir

ect selfish rationality be it conscious or sub conscious mathematical formulations of kin selection along the lines of the prisoner s dilemma are helpful as far as they go but what a game theoretic explanation glosses over is the fact that altruistic behavior can be attributed to that apparently mysterious phenomenon the conscience one recent suggestion proposed by the philosopher daniel dennett was initially developed when considering the problem of so called free riders in the tragedy of the commons a larger scale version of the prisoner s dilemma in game theory terms a free rider is an agent who draws benefits from a co operative society without contributing in a one to one situation free riding can easily be discouraged by a tit for tat strategy but in a larger scale society where contributions and benefits are pooled and shared they can be incredibly difficult to shake off imagine an elementary society of co operative organisms co operative agents interact with each other each contributing resources and

each drawing on the common good now imagine a rogue free rider an agent who draws a favor you scratch my back and later refuses to return it the problem is that free riding is always going to be beneficial to individuals at cost to society how can well behaved co operative agents avoid being cheated over many generations one obvious solution is for co operators to evolve the ability to spot potential free riders in advance and refuse to enter into reciprocal arrangements with them then the canonical free rider response is to evolve a more convincing disguise fooling co operators into co operating after all this can lead to an evolutionary arms races with ever more sophisticated disguises and ever more sophisticated detectors in this evolutionary arms race how best might one convince comrades that one really is a genuine co operator not a free rider in disguise one answer is by actually making oneself a genuine co operator by erecting psychological barriers to breaking promises and by advertising this fact to

everyone else in other words a good solution is for organisms to evolve things that everyone knows will force them to be co operators and to make it obvious that they ve evolved these things so evolution will produce organisms who are sincerely moral and who wear their hearts on their sleeves in short evolution will give rise to the phenomenon of conscience this theory combined with ideas of kin selection and the one to one sharing of benefits may explain how a blind and fundamentally selfish process can produce a genuinely non cynical form of altruism that gives rise to the human conscience critics of such technical game theory analysis point out that it appears to forget that human beings are rational and emotional to presume an analysis of human behaviour without including human rationale or emotion is necessarily unrealistically narrow and treats human beings as if they are mere machines sometimes called homo economicus another objection is that often people donate anonymously so that it is impossible to

determine if they really did the altruistic act beginning with an understanding that rational human beings benefit from living in a benign universe logically it follows that particular human beings may gain substantial emotional satisfaction from acts which they perceive to make the world a better place comparison of altruism and tit for tat studying the simple strategy tit for tat in the iterated prisoner s dilemma problem game theorists argue that tit for tat is much more successful in establishing stable cooperation among individuals than altruism defined as unconditional cooperation can ever be tit for tat starts with cooperation in the first step as altruism does and then just imitates the behaviour of the partner step by step if the partner cooperates then he rewards him with cooperation if he doesn t then he punishes him by not cooperating in the next step confronted with many strategies that try to exploit or abuse cooperation of others this simple strategy surprisingly proved to be the most successfu

l see the evolution of cooperation it was even more successful than these abusing strategies while unconditional cooperativity altruism was one of the most unsuccessful strategies confronted with altruistic behaviour tit for tat is indistinguishable from pure altruism robert axelrod and richard dawkins also showed that altruism may be harmful to society by nourishing exploiters and abusers and making them more and more powerful until they can force everyone to cooperate unconditionally which is not the case for tit for tat see also comparison of entrepreneur and entredonneur in the context of biology the tit for tat strategy is also called reciprocal altruism altruism in politics there is currently a pov dispute as to the wording of the section shown below if one is an adherent to the ethical doctrine called altruism that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others then one will support the kind of politics that one believes to be most effective in furthering the welfare of othe

rs regardless of the effect this may have on oneself since there is no general consensus on what kind of politics results in the greatest benefit for others different altruists may have very different political views with regard to their political convictions altruists may be divided in two broad groups those who believe altruism is a matter of personal choice and therefore selfishness can and should be tolerated and those who believe that altruism is a moral ideal which should be embraced if possible by all human beings a prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is lysander spooner who in natural law writes man no doubt owes many other moral duties to his fellow men such as to feed the hungry clothe the naked shelter the homeless care for the sick protect the defenceless assist the weak and enlighten the ignorant but these are simply moral duties of which each man must be his own judge in each particular case as to whether and how and how far he can or will perform them the latter

branch of altruist political thought on the other hand argues that egoism should be actively discouraged and that altruists have a duty not only to help other people but to teach those people to help each other as well thus in politics these altruists almost always take a left wing stance ranging from moderate social democracy to socialism or even communism moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of taxation funded government programs aimed at benefiting the needy for example transfer payments such as social welfare or public healthcare and public education less obvious things such as a law that motorists pull over to let emergency vehicles pass may also be justified by appealing to the altruism ethic finally radical altruists of this branch may take things further and advocate some form of collectivism or communalism on a somewhat related note altruism is often held even by non altruists to be the kind of ethic that should guide the actions of politicians and other people in positions o

f power such people are usually expected to set their own interests aside and serve the populace when they do not they may be criticized as defaulting on what is believed to be an ethical obligation to place the interests of others above their own politicians often speak of a moral obligation of individuals to help others for example george bush speaking to the united nations said we have a moral obligation to help others and a moral duty to make sure our actions are effective if one is an adherent to the ethical doctrine called altruism that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others it can become a moral justification for forcing or advocating forcing individuals to help others in the realm of politics the altruist may employ an agent in the form of government to enforce this supposed moral obligation this is not to say that an ethical altruist will necessarily force this on anyone an altruist may allow others the freedom to behave in a manner they believe to be immoral or se

lfish in other words their ethical doctrine would not manifest itself politically with regard those who believe benevolence is a moral obligation altruists may be divided in two broad groups those who believe helping others is a moral obligation but should not be enforced on individuals and those who believe that since helping others is a moral obligation forcing individuals to help others if they are not willing on their own is justified a prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is lysander spooner who in natural law writes man no doubt owes many other moral duties to his fellow men such as to feed the hungry clothe the naked shelter the homeless care for the sick protect the defenceless assist the weak and enlighten the ignorant but these are simply moral duties of which each man must be his own judge in each particular case as to whether and how and how far he can or will perform them the latter branch of altruist political thought on the other hand argues that egoism should be

actively discouraged and that individuals should be forced to help other people thus in politics these altruists almost always take a left wing stance ranging from moderate social democracy to socialism or even communism moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of taxation funded government programs aimed at benefiting the needy for example transfer payments such as social welfare or public healthcare and public education finally radical altruists of this branch may take things to an extreme and advocate some form of state enforced collectivism communalism or communism this is in line with august comte s philosophy who coined the term altruism which argues against individual rights finally many believe that helping others or serving society is not a moral obligation at all but that altrusm is an arbitrary pronouncement not philosophically derivable these oppose all government enforced charity individualist anarchist pierre joseph proudhon in one eight four seven warns of enforcing charity

that is why charity the prime virtue of the christian the legitimate hope of the socialist the object of all the efforts of the economist is a social vice the moment it is made a principle of constitution and a law that is why certain economists have been able to say that legal charity had caused more evil in society than proprietary usurpation the philosophy of poverty comte asserts that individual rights are not compatible with the supposed obligation to serve others some argue that the ethical doctrine if taken to its logical conclusion leads to tyranny altruism and religion all the major world religions promote altruism as a very important moral value christianity and buddhism place particular emphasis on altruistic morality as noted above but judaism islam and hinduism also promote altruistic behavior the good samaritan is a famous new testament parable appearing only in the gospel of luke one zero two five three seven the parable is told by jesus illustrating altruism see also altruism ethical doctrine

altruism in animals psychology euphemism will law trust law tit for tat reciprocal altruism external links what is altruism altruists international biological altruism the altruistic personality and prosocial behavior institute at humboldt state university international institute for prosocial behavior and altruism research references batson c d one nine nine one the altruism question hillsdale nj erlbaum fehr e seven nine one august comte catechisme positiviste one eight five two or catechism of positivism tr r congreve london kegan paul one eight nine one oord thomas jay science of love philadelphia templeton foundation press two zero zero four nietzsche friedrich beyond good and evil pierre joseph proudhon the philosophy of poverty one eight four seven lysander spooner natural law ayn rand the virtue of selfishness matt ridley the origins of virtue oliner samuel p and pearl m towards a caring society ideas into action west port ct praeger one nine nine five the evolution of cooperation robert axelrod basi

c books isbn zero four six five zero two one two one two the selfish gene richard dawkins one nine nine zero second edition includes two chapters about the evolution of cooperation isbn zero one nine two eight six zero nine two five robert wright the moral animal vintage one nine nine five isbn zero six seven nine seven six three nine nine six ethics evolutionary biology philanthropy social philosophy social psychology sociology virtues motivation lee accepting the best foreign film award for crouching tiger hidden dragon at the seven three rd academy awards ang lee chinese pinyin l n born october two three one nine five four is an academy award winning film director from taiwan early life ang lee was born and raised in pingtung taiwan and educated in the united states where he found success as a hollywood director well known for his wuxia film crouching tiger hidden dragon two zero zero zero he completed his bachelor s degree in theater from the university of illinois and received his mfa from new york unive

rsity s tisch school of the arts where in one nine eight four he made a thesis film called fine line he was a classmate of spike lee and worked on the crew of the latter lee s thesis film joe s bed stuy barbershop we cut heads career many of his films have focused on the interactions between modernity and tradition his films have also tended to have a light hearted comic tone which marks a break from the tragic historical realism which characterized taiwanese filmmaking after the end of the martial law period in one nine eight seven lee s films also tend to draw on deep secrets and internal torment that begin to come to the surface such as the gay themed films the wedding banquet one nine nine three brokeback mountain two zero zero five the martial arts epic crouching tiger hidden dragon two zero zero zero and the comic book adaptation hulk two zero zero three he received the dartmouth film award in two zero zero two along with meryl streep lee s film brokeback mountain two zero zero five won the best film aw

ard at the venice international film festival and was named two zero zero five s best film by the los angeles film critics it also won the golden globe award for best motion picture drama with lee winning the golden globe award for best director lee also won the best director award for the film at the two zero zero six british academy awards baftas in january two zero zero six brokeback scored a leading eight academy award nominations including lee for best director the film is considered to be the frontrunner for the march five two zero zero six ceremony he taught meryl streep s son and kai christophe wong initially scheduled for the lead in dark matter private life his wife jane is a microbiologist they have two children haan and mason he is a huge fan of the vancouver canucks of the national hockey league he kept his directing aspirations a secret because his culture did not encourage ambitions in a non practical career like film films director hulk two two zero zero seven brokeback mountain two zero zero

five hulk two zero zero three the hire bmw short movies chosen two zero zero two crouching tiger hidden dragon chinese two zero zero zero ride with the devil one nine nine nine the ice storm one nine nine seven sense and sensibility one nine nine five eat drink man woman chinese one nine nine four the wedding banquet chinese one nine nine three pushing hands chinese one nine nine two fine line one nine eight four shades of the lake one nine eight two i love chinese food one nine eight one beat the artist one nine eight one the runner one nine eight zero one day of ma chuan chen chinese laziness in a saturday afternoon chinese see also writer siao yu chinese one nine nine five eat drink man woman chinese one nine nine four the wedding banquet chinese one nine nine three pushing hands chinese one nine nine two actor the wedding banquet chinese one nine nine three the hulk two zero zero three editing eat drink man woman chinese one nine nine four pushing hands chinese one nine nine two producer crouching tiger h

idden dragon chinese two zero zero zero siao yu chinese one nine nine five external links ang lee on brokeback ang lee chinese one nine five four births living people american film directors hulk taiwanese americans taiwanese film directors best director golden globe best director oscar nominees ayn rand march six one nine eight two born alissa zinovievna rosenbaum was best known for her philosophy of objectivism and her novels we the living anthem the fountainhead and atlas shrugged her philosophy and her fiction both emphasize above all the concepts of individualism rational egoism rational self interest and capitalism which she believed should be implemented fully via laissez faire capitalism her politics has been described as minarchism and libertarianism though she never used the first term and detested the second her novels were based upon the projection of the randian hero a man whose ability and independence causes conflict with the masses but who perseveres nevertheless to achieve his values rand vie

wed this hero as the ideal and the express goal of her fiction was to showcase such heroes she believed that man must choose his values and actions by reason that the individual has a right to exist for his own sake neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self and that no one has the right to seek values from others by physical force or impose ideas on others by physical force biography early life rand was born in saint petersburg russia and was the eldest of three daughters of a jewish family her parents were agnostic and largely non observant from an early age she displayed a strong interest in literature and films she started writing screenplays and novels from the age of seven her mother taught her french and subscribed to a magazine featuring stories for boys where rand found her first childhood hero cyrus paltons an indian army officer in a rudyard kipling style story called the mysterious valley throughout her youth she read the novels of sir walter scott alexandre dumas and other romantic wri

ters and expressed a passionate enthusiasm toward the romantic movement as a whole she discovered victor hugo at the age of thirteen and fell deeply in love with his novels later she cited him as her favorite novelist and the greatest novelist of world literature she studied philosophy and history at the university of petrograd her major literary discoveries in university were the works of edmond rostand friedrich schiller and fyodor dostoevsky she admired rostand for his richly romantic imagination and schiller for his grand heroic scale she admired dostoevsky for his sense of drama and his intense moral judgments but was deeply against his philosophy and his sense of life she continued to write short stories and screenplays and wrote sporadically in her diary which contained intensely anti soviet ideas she also encountered the philosophical ideas of nietzsche and loved his exaltation of the heroic and independent individual who embraced egoism and rejected altruism in thus spoke zarathustra though an early

fan of nietzsche she eventually became critical seeing his philosophy as emphasizing emotion over reason nevertheless as allan gotthelf points out in book on ayn rand the influence was real she did still retain an admiration for some of his ideas and quoted nietzsche in the introduction to the two five th aniversary edition of the fountainhead the noble soul has reverence for itself her greatest influence by far is aristotle especially organon logic although leonard peikoff promoter of her ideas says she is the greatest philosopher who ever lived she herself considered aristotle the greatest philosopher ever and stated that he was the only philosopher who had influenced her this is probably because as she has stated she did not include her own work when analyzing the culture she then entered the state institute for cinema arts in one nine two four to study screenwriting in late one nine two five however she was granted a visa to visit american relatives she arrived in the united states in february one nine tw

o six at the age of twenty one after a brief stay with her relatives in chicago she resolved never to return to the soviet union and set out for hollywood to become a screenwriter she then changed her name to ayn rand there is a story told that she named herself after the remington rand typewriter but she began using the name ayn rand before the typewriter was first sold she stated that her first name ayn was an adaptation of the name of a finnish writer this may have been the finnish estonian author aino kallas but variations of this name are common in finnish speaking regions major works initially rand struggled in hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses while working as an extra on cecil b demille s king of kings she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor frank o connor who caught her eye the two married in one nine two nine in one nine three one rand became a naturalized citizen of the united states her first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay red pawn in

one nine three two to universal studios rand then wrote the play the night of january one six th in one nine three four which was highly successful and published two novels we the living one nine three six and anthem one nine three eight while we the living met with mixed reviews in the u s and positive reviews in the u k anthem received significiant and positive reviews only in england due in part to its odd publication history she was up against the red decade in america and anthem did not even find a publisher in the united states it was first published in england besides rand had still not perfected her literary style and these novels cannot be considered representative without rand s knowledge or permission we the living was made into a pair of films noi vivi and addio kira in one nine four two by scalara films rome they were nearly censored by the italian government under benito mussolini but they were permitted because the novel upon which they were based was anti soviet the films were successful and

the public easily realized that they were as much against fascism as communism and the government banned them quickly thereafter these films were re edited into a new version which was approved by rand and re released as we the living in one nine eight six rand s first major professional success came with her best selling novel the fountainhead one nine four three which she wrote over a period of seven years the novel was rejected by twelve publishers who thought it was too intellectual and opposed to the mainstream of american thought it was finally accepted by the bobbs merrill company publishing house thanks mainly to a member of the editorial board archibald ogden who praised the book in the highest terms and finally prevailed eventually the fountainhead was a worldwide success bringing rand fame and financial security the theme of the fountainhead is individualism and collectivism in man s soul it features the lives of five main characters the hero howard roark is rand s ideal a noble soul par excellence

an architect who is firmly and serenely devoted to his own ideals and believes that no man should copy the style of another in any field especially architecture all the other characters in the novel demand that he renounce his values but roark maintains his integrity unlike traditional heroes who launch into long and passionate monologues about their integrity and the unfairness of the world roark in contrast does it with a disdainful almost contemptuous taciturnity and laconicism rand s magnum opus atlas shrugged was published in one nine five seven becoming an international bestseller atlas shrugged is often seen as rand s most complete statement of the objectivist philosophy in any of her works of fiction in its appendix she offered this summary my philosophy in essence is the concept of man as a heroic being with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life with productive achievement as his noblest activity and reason as his only absolute the theme of atlas shrugged is the role of man s mind in so

ciety rand upheld the industrialist as one of the most admirable members of any society and fiercely opposed the popular resentment accorded to industrialists this led her to envision a novel wherein the industrialists of america go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway the american economy and its society in general slowly start to collapse the government responds by increasing the already stifling controls on industrial concerns the novel deals with issues as complex and divergent as sex music medicine politics and human ability along with nathaniel branden his wife barbara and others including alan greenspan and leonard peikoff jokingly designated the collective rand launched the objectivist movement to promote her philosophy the objectivist movement main article the objectivist movement in one nine five zero rand moved to new york city where in one nine five one she met the young psychology student nathaniel branden who had read her book the fountainhead at the age of one four branden then one n

ine enjoyed discussing rand s emerging objectivist philosophy with her together branden and some of his other friends formed a group that they dubbed the collective which included some participation by future federal reserve chairman alan greenspan after several years rand and branden s friendly relationship blossomed into a romantic affair despite the fact that both were married at the time their spouses were both convinced to accept this affair but it eventually led to the separation and then divorce of nathaniel branden from his wife although one of rand s most strident philosophical points was never to bow to societal pressure or norms ayn rand abandoned her own name see top of page as did branden born nathan blumenthal throughout the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s rand developed and promoted her objectivist philosophy through both her fiction and non fiction works and by giving talks at several east coast universities largely through the nathaniel branden institute the nbi which branden es

tablished to promote her philosophy after a convoluted series of separations rand abruptly ended her relationship with both nathaniel branden and his wife barbara branden in one nine six eight when she learned of nathaniel branden s affair with patrecia scott this later affair did not overlap chronologically with the earlier branden rand affair rand refused to have any further dealings with the nbi she then published a letter in the objectivist announcing her repudiation of branden for various reasons including dishonesty but did not mention their affair or her role in the schism the two never reconciled and branden remained a persona non grata in the objectivist movement one nine nine nine u s postage stamp honoring rand art by nick gaetano barbara branden presented an account of the breakup of the affair in her book the passion of ayn rand she describes the encounter between nathaniel and rand saying that rand slapped him numerous times and denounced him in these words if you have an ounce of morality left

in you an ounce of psychological health you ll be impotent for the next twenty years and if you achieve any potency you ll know it s a sign of still worse moral degradation conflicts continued in the wake of the break with branden and the subsequent collapse of the nbi many of her closest collective friends began to part ways and during the late seven zero s her activities within the formal objectivist movement began to decline a situation which increased after the death of her husband in one nine seven nine one of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of atlas shrugged rand died of heart failure on march six one nine eight two in new york city years after having successfully battled cancer and was interred in the kensico cemetery valhalla new york grave marker of frank o connor and ayn rand philosophical influences rand rejected virtually all other philosophical schools she acknowledged a shared intellectual lineage with aristotle and john locke and more generally with the philosophies of th

e age of enlightenment and the age of reason she occasionally remarked with approval on specific philosophical positions of e g baruch spinoza and thomas aquinas she seems also to have respected the american rationalist brand blanshard however she regarded most philosophers as at best incompetent and at worst downright evil she singled out immanuel kant as the most influential of the latter sort nonetheless there are connections between rand s views and those of other philosophers she acknowledged that she had been influenced at an early age by the writings of friedrich nietzsche though she later repudiated his thought and reprinted her first novel we the living with some wording changes in one nine five nine her own thought grew out of critical interaction with it generally her political thought is in the tradition of classical liberalism she expressed qualified enthusiasm for the economic thought of ludwig von mises and henry hazlitt though not mentioned as an influence by her specifically parallels between

her works and ralph waldo emerson s essay self reliance do exist later objectivists such as richard salsman have claimed that rand s economic theories are implicitly more supportive of the doctrines of jean baptiste say though rand herself was likely not acquainted with his work politics and house committee on un american activities testimony rand s political views were radically pro capitalist anti statist and anti communist her writings praised above all the human individual and the creative genius of which one is capable she exalted what she saw as the heroic american values of egoism and individualism rand also had a strong dislike for mysticism religion and compulsory charity all of which she believed helped foster a crippling culture of resentment towards individual human happiness and success rand detested many prominent liberal and conservative politicians of her time even including prominent anti communist crusaders like presidents harry s truman and ronald reagan and senators hubert h humphrey and

joseph mccarthy although she argued that mccarthyism was a myth and that the accusation of mccarthyism was used as an ad hominem argument to discredit anti communists in one nine four seven during the red scare rand testified as a friendly witness before the house committee on un american activities see rand s testimony involved analysis of the one nine four three film song of russia while many believe that ayn rand disclosed the names of members of the communist party in the u s thus exposing them to blacklisting her testimony consisted entirely of comments regarding the disparity between her experiences in the soviet union and the fanciful portrayal of it in the film rand argued that the movie grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the soviet union she told the committee that the film presented life in the ussr as being much better than it actually was apparently this one nine four three film was intentional wartime propaganda by u s patriots trying to put their soviet allies in world war ii

under the best possible light after the huac hearings when ayn rand was asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of their investigations she described the process as futile legacy rand s funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers including alan greenspan a six foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket in one nine eight five leonard peikoff a surviving member of the collective and ayn rand s designated heir established the ayn rand institute the center for the advancement of objectivism ari the institute has since registered the name ayn rand as a trademark despite rand s desire that her name never be used to promote the philosophy she developed rand expressed her wish to keep her name and the philosophy of objectivism separate to ensure the survival of her ideas another schism in the movement occurred in one nine eight nine when objectivist david kelley wrote a question of sanction in which he defended his choice to speak to non objectivist libertarian

groups kelley stated that objectivism was not a closed system and should engage with other philosophies peikoff in an article for the intellectual activist called fact and value argued that objectivism is indeed a closed system and that truth and moral goodness are directly related peikoff expelled kelley from his movement whereupon kelley founded the institute for objectivist studies now known as the objectivist center rand and objectivism are less well known outside north america although there are pockets of interest in europe and australia and her novels are reported to be popular in india and to be gaining an increasingly wider audience in africa her work has had little effect on academic philosophy for her followers are with some notable exceptions drawn from the non academic world neil peart the drummer and lyricist with the canadian progressive rock band rush was influenced by rand philosophy during the early years of the band the most notable instances of this are the track anthem from the album fly

by night one nine seven five and the title track from the album two one one two one nine seven six controversy rand s views are controversial religious and socially conservative thinkers have criticized her atheism many adherents and practitioners of continental philosophy criticize her celebration of rationality and self interest within the dominant philosophical movement in the english speaking world analytic philosophy rand s work has been mostly ignored no leading research university in this tradition considers rand or objectivism to be an important philosophical specialty or research area as is documented by brian leiter s report some academics however are trying to bring rand s work into the mainstream for instance the ayn rand society founded in one nine eight seven is affiliated with the american philosophical association in two zero zero six cambridge university press will publish a volume on rand s ethical theory written by ari affiliated scholar tara smith a notable exception to the general lack o

f attention paid to rand is the essay on the randian argument by harvard university philosopher robert nozick which appears in his collection socratic puzzles nozick s own libertarian political conclusions are similar to rand s but his essay criticizes her foundational argument in ethics which claims that one s own life is for each individual the only ultimate value because it makes all other values possible to make this argument sound nozick argues that rand still needs to explain why someone could not rationally prefer the state of eventually dying and having no values thus he argues her attempt to deduce the morality of selfishness is essentially an instance of assuming the conclusion or begging the question and that her solution to david hume s famous is ought problem is unsatisfactory nevertheless nozick respected rand as an author and noted that he found her books enjoyable and thought provoking rand has sometimes been viewed with suspicion for her practice of presenting her philosophy in fiction and no

n fiction books aimed at a general audience rather than publishing in peer reviewed journals rand s defenders note that she is part of a long tradition of authors who wrote philosophically rich fiction including dante john milton fyodor dostoevsky and albert camus and that other philosophers such as jean paul sartre presented their philosophies in both fictional and non fictional forms other critics argue that rand s idealistic philosophy and her romantic literary style are not applicable to the inhabited world in particular these critics claim that rand s novels are made up of unrealistic and one dimensional characters they criticize the portrayal of the objectivist heroes as incredibly intelligent unencumbered by doubt wealthy and free of flaws in contrast to the frequent portrayal of the antagonists as weak pathetic full of uncertainty and lacking in imagination and talent defenders of rand point out counterexamples to these criticisms neither eddie willers nor cherryl taggart both positive characters is e

specially gifted or intelligent but both are characters of dignity and respect leo kovalensky suffers enormously due to his inability to cope with the brutality and banality of communism andrei taganov dies after realizing his philosophical errors dominique francon is initially bitterly unhappy because she believes evil is powerful hank rearden is torn by inner emotional conflict brought on by a philosophical contradiction and dagny taggart thinks that she alone is capable of saving the world two of her main protagonists howard roark and john galt did not begin life wealthy though rand believed that under capitalism valuable contributions will routinely be rewarded by wealth she certainly did not think that wealth made a person virtuous in fact she presents many vicious bureaucrats and waspish elitists who use statism to accumulate money and power moreover hank rearden is exploited because of his social na vet as for the purportedly weak and pathetic villains rand s defenders point out that ellsworth toohey i

s represented as being a great strategist and communicator from an early age and dr robert stadler is a brilliant scientist rand herself replied to these literary criticisms and in advance of much of them with her essay the goal of my writing one nine six three there and in other essays collected in her book the romantic manifesto a philosophy of literature two nd rev ed one nine seven five rand makes it clear that her goal is to project her vision of an ideal man not man as he is but man as he might and ought to be rand s views on sex have also led to some controversy according to her for a woman qua woman the essence of femininity is hero worship the desire to look up to man one nine six eight some in the bdsm community see her work as relevant and supportive particularly the fountainhead another source of controversy is rand s view that homosexuality is immoral and disgusting as well as her support for the right of businesses to discriminate on the basis of homosexuality such as in their hiring practices s

pecifically she stated that there is a psychological immorality at the root of homosexuality because it involves psychological flaws corruptions errors or unfortunate premises on the topic of non governmental discrimination rand s defenders argue that her support for its legality was motivated by holding property rights above civil or human rights as she did not believe that human rights were distinct from property rights so it did not constitute an endorsement of the morality of the prejudice itself in support of this they cite rand s opposition to some prejudices though not homophobia on moral grounds in essays like racism and global balkanization while still arguing for the right of individuals and businesses to act on such prejudice without government intervention bibliography fiction night of january one six th one nine three four we the living one nine three six anthem one nine three eight the fountainhead one nine four three atlas shrugged one nine five seven posthumous fiction three plays two zero zer

o five nonfiction for the new intellectual one nine six one the virtue of selfishness with nathaniel branden one nine six four capitalism the unknown ideal with nathaniel branden alan greenspan and robert hessen one nine six six introduction to objectivist epistemology one nine six seven the romantic manifesto one nine six nine the new left the anti industrial revolution one nine seven one philosophy who needs it one nine eight two posthumous nonfiction the early ayn rand edited and with commentary by leonard peikoff one nine eight four the voice of reason essays in objectivist thought edited by leonard peikoff additional essays by leonard peikoff and peter schwartz one nine eight nine introduction to objectivist epistemology second edition edited by harry binswanger additional material by leonard peikoff one nine nine zero letters of ayn rand edited by michael s berliner one nine nine five journals of ayn rand edited by david harriman one nine nine seven ayn rand s marginalia her critical comments on the wri

tings of over twenty authors edited by robert mayhew one nine nine eight the ayn rand column written for the los angeles times edited by peter schwartz one nine nine eight russian writings on hollywood edited by michael s berliner one nine nine nine return of the primitive the anti industrial revolution expanded edition of the new left edited and with additional essays by peter schwartz one nine nine nine the art of fiction edited by tore boeckmann two zero zero zero the art of nonfiction edited by robert mayhew two zero zero one the objectivism research cd rom collection of most of rand s works in cd rom format two zero zero one ayn rand answers two zero zero five references in addition to rand s own works listed above the following references discuss rand s life and or literary work references that discuss her philosophy can be found in the bibliography of work on objectivism external links general information ayn rand faq frequently asked questions on ayn rand ayn rand entry from the internet encyclopedia

of philosophy organizations promoting ayn rand s philosophy the ayn rand institute ari watch argues that some positions of the ayn rand institute differ from those of ayn rand the objectivist center the center for the advancement of capitalism articles as astonishing as elvis by jenny turner essay review of ayn rand by jeff britting ayn rand one zero zero tribute includes reference to a tribute album concerto of deliverance inspired by rand s words describing such music ayn rand has finally caught the attention of scholars by jeff sharlet faq what s really wrong with objectivism the heirs of ayn rand by scott mclemee an article published in lingua franca which covers the arc of her publishing career while alive and posthomous as well as the continuing scholarship rand featured on c span s american writers realvideo discussions on rand s writing articles critical of ayn rand criticisms of objectivism or ayn rand from of the critiques of libertarianism site criticisms of objectivism from the objectivism referen

ce center site don t give to tsunami victims the message of the american right s philosopher queen a critical profile from the london independent the sociology of the ayn rand cult by murray rothbard written in one nine seven two this was the first piece of rand revisionism from the libertarian standpoint the unlikeliest cult in history by michael shermer rand s associates barbara branden s website nathaniel branden s website leonard peikoff s website online groups and blogs the atlasphere for admirers of rand s novels includes member directory dating service columns and news the ayn rand forum online forum for discussion of ayn rand and objectivism ayn rand livejournal community a large livejournal community for ayn rand dollars commentary from a pro capitalist perspective dr michael j hurd psychologist the daily dose of reason psychology life coaching and comments on cultural political topics from an objectivist perspective also the living resources newsletter and dr hurd s publications the forum for ayn ra

nd fans harry binswanger list e mail based discussion group the journal of ayn rand studies contains abstracts of articles author bios links to several articles and submission guidelines objectivism net ayn rand on cd rom and links objectivismonline net contains forums blogs essays chat room and a wiki on objectivism objectivist blogs a list of rand influenced bloggers randex index of online media references to ayn rand and objectivism sense of life objectivists online columns and discussion by and for objectivists hosted by lindsay perigo tia daily daily news and commentary from the objectivist perspective by e mail imagery portrait of ayn rand rand s writing and speeches anthem the complete text of the novel which has fallen into the public domain atlas shrugged book outline the fountainhead book outline we the living book outline philosophy who needs it address to the graduating class of the united states military academy at west point new york march six one nine seven four rand s huac testimony transcript

we the living video outline rand s papers at the library of congress one nine zero five births one nine eight two deaths two zero th century philosophers american literary critics american novelists american philosophers anti communism anti vietnam war aristotelian philosophers atheists atheist philosophers atheist thinkers and activists cat lovers epistemologists jewish american writers minarchists moral philosophers natives of saint petersburg naturalized citizens of the united states novelists objectivists philosophers political philosophers political writers pro choice celebrities women writers alain connes born april one one nine four seven is a french mathematician currently professor at the college de france paris france ihes bures sur yvette france and vanderbilt university nashville tennessee he is a specialist of von neumann algebras and succeeded in completing the classification of factors of these objects although his work in physics was not very convincing he tried to connect the planckian scale

s with what he called a two brane universe model which was largely rejected by string theorists so far the remarkable links between this subject the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in theoretical physics particle physics and differential geometry made him emphasize noncommutative geometry which is also the title of his major book to date he was awarded the fields medal in one nine eight two the crafoord prize in two zero zero one and the gold medal of the cnrs in two zero zero four see also cyclic homology factor functional analysis higgs boson c algebra m theory groupoid jean louis loday external links alain connes official web site one nine four seven births living people french mathematicians alumni of the cole normale sup rieure members and associates of the us national academy of sciences allan dwan april three one eight eight five december two one one nine eight one was a pioneering canadian born american motion picture director producer and screenwriter born joseph

aloysius dwan in toronto ontario canada his family moved to the united states when he was eleven years of age at university he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in chicago illinois however he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when essanay studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter he took the job at that time some of the east coast movie makers began to spend winters in california where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather soon a number of movie companies worked there year round and in one nine one one dwan began working part time in hollywood while still in new york in one nine one seven he was the founding president of the east coast chapter of the motion picture directors association allan dwan became a true innovator in the motion picture industry after making a series of westerns and comedies he directed fellow canadian mary pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband

douglas fairbanks notably in the acclaimed one nine two two robin hood following the introduction of the talkies in one nine three seven he directed child star shirley temple in heidi and rebecca of sunnybrook farm the following year over his long and successful career spanning over fifty years he directed over four zero zero motion pictures many of them highly acclaimed such as the one nine four nine box office smash the sands of iwo jima his last movie was in one nine six one dwan is one of the directors who spanned the silent to sound era most of the silent movies he directed are lost due to poor preservation little historical writing has been devoted to dwan but some believe that he will be the last discovered great director from the classic hollywood era he died in los angeles at the age of ninety six and is interred in the san fernando mission cemetery mission hills california allan dwan has a star on the hollywood walk of fame at six two six three hollywood boulevard in hollywood selected films as dire

ctor manhattan madness one nine one six fairbanks fine arts one nine one six fairbanks fragments one nine one six one nine one eight also screenwriter robin hood one nine two two the iron mask one nine two nine heidi one nine three seven rebecca of sunnybrook farm the little colonel one nine three eight rebecca of sunnybrook farm one nine three eight the three musketeers one nine three nine the gorilla one nine three nine young people one nine four zero look who s laughing one nine four one also producer friendly enemies one nine four two around the world one nine four three also producer up in mabel s room one nine four four abroad with two yanks one nine four four getting gertie s garter one nine four five also screenwriter brewster s millions one nine four five driftwood one nine four seven calendar girl one nine four seven northwest outpost one nine four seven also associate producer sands of iwo jima one nine four nine montana belle one nine five two silver lode one nine five four passion one nine five f

our cattle queen of montana one nine five four tennessee s partner one nine five five pearl of the south pacific one nine five five escape to burma one nine five five slightly scarlet one nine five six the restless breed one nine five seven enchanted island one nine five eight see also canadian pioneers in early hollywood external links one eight eight five births one nine eight one deaths roman catholics american film directors american film producers american screenwriters hollywood walk of fame ontario writers torontonians in the economy of algeria the hydrocarbons sector is the backbone accounting for roughly five two of budget revenues two five of gdp and over nine five of export earnings algeria has the fifth largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second largest gas exporter it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves algiers efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the arab world stalled in one nine nine two as the country became embroiled in political turmoil burdened