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= Transit of Venus = A transit of Venus across the Sun takes place when the planet Venus passes directly between the Sun and a superior planet , becoming visible against ( and hence obscuring a small portion of ) the solar disk . During a transit , Venus can be seen from Earth as a small black disk moving across the face of the Sun . The duration of such transits is usually measured in hours ( the transit of 2012 lasted 6 hours and 40 minutes ) . A transit is similar to a solar eclipse by the Moon . While the diameter of Venus is more than 3 times that of the Moon , Venus appears smaller , and travels more slowly across the face of the Sun , because it is much farther away from Earth . Transits of Venus are among the rarest of predictable astronomical phenomena . They occur in a pattern that generally repeats every 243 years , with pairs of transits eight years apart separated by long gaps of 121 @.@ 5 years and 105 @.@ 5 years . The periodicity is a reflection of the fact that the orbital periods of Earth and Venus are close to 8 : 13 and 243 : 395 commensurabilities . The last transit of Venus was on 5 and 6 June 2012 , and was the last Venus transit of the 21st century ; the prior transit took place on 8 June 2004 . The previous pair of transits were in December 1874 and December 1882 . The next transits of Venus will be on 10 – 11 December 2117 , and 8 December 2125 . Venus transits are historically of great scientific importance as they were used to gain the first realistic estimates of the size of the Solar System . Observations of the 1639 transit , combined with the principle of parallax , provided an estimate of the distance between the Sun and the Earth that was more accurate than any other up to that time . The 2012 transit provided scientists with a number of other research opportunities , particularly in the refinement of techniques to be used in the search for exoplanets . = = Conjunctions = = Venus , with an orbit inclined by 3 @.@ 4 ° relative to the Earth 's , usually appears to pass under ( or over ) the Sun at inferior conjunction . A transit occurs when Venus reaches conjunction with the Sun at or near one of its nodes — the longitude where Venus passes through the Earth 's orbital plane ( the ecliptic ) — and appears to pass directly across the Sun . Although the inclination between these two orbital planes is only 3 @.@ 4 ° , Venus can be as far as 9 @.@ 6 ° from the Sun when viewed from the Earth at inferior conjunction . Since the angular diameter of the Sun is about half a degree , Venus may appear to pass above or below the Sun by more than 18 solar diameters during an ordinary conjunction . Sequences of transits usually repeat every 243 years . After this period of time Venus and Earth have returned to very nearly the same point in their respective orbits . During the Earth 's 243 sidereal orbital periods , which total 88757 @.@ 3 days , Venus completes 395 sidereal orbital periods of 224 @.@ 701 days each , equal to 88756 @.@ 9 Earth days . This period of time corresponds to 152 synodic periods of Venus . The pattern of 105 @.@ 5 , 8 , 121 @.@ 5 and 8 years is not the only pattern that is possible within the 243 @-@ year cycle , because of the slight mismatch between the times when the Earth and Venus arrive at the point of conjunction . Prior to 1518 , the pattern of transits was 8 , 113 @.@ 5 and 121 @.@ 5 years , and the eight inter @-@ transit gaps before the AD 546 transit were 121 @.@ 5 years apart . The current pattern will continue until 2846 , when it will be replaced by a pattern of 105 @.@ 5 , 129 @.@ 5 and 8 years . Thus , the 243 @-@ year cycle is relatively stable , but the number of transits and their timing within the cycle will vary over time . Since the 243 : 395 Earth : Venus commensurability is only approximate , there are different sequences of transits occurring 243 years apart , each extending for several thousand years , which are eventually replaced by other sequences . For instance , there is a series which ended in 541 BC , and the series which includes 2117 only started in AD 1631 . = = History of observation = = = = = Ancient history = = = Ancient Indian , Greek , Egyptian , Babylonian and Chinese observers knew of Venus and recorded the planet 's motions . The early Greek astronomers called Venus by two names — Hesperus the evening star and Phosphorus the morning star . Pythagoras is credited with realizing they were the same planet . There is no evidence that any of these cultures knew of the transits . Venus was important to ancient American civilizations , in particular for the Maya , who called it Noh Ek , " the Great Star " or Xux Ek , " the Wasp Star " ; they embodied Venus in the form of the god Kukulkán ( also known as or related to Gukumatz and Quetzalcoatl in other parts of Mexico ) . In the Dresden Codex , the Maya charted Venus ' full cycle , but despite their precise knowledge of its course , there is no mention of a transit . However , it has been proposed that frescoes found at Mayapan may contain a pictorial representation of the 12th or 13th century transits . = = = 1639 – first scientific observation = = = In 1627 , Johannes Kepler became the first person to predict a transit of Venus , by predicting the 1631 event . His methods were not sufficiently accurate to predict that the transit would not be visible in most of Europe , and as a consequence , nobody was able to use his prediction to observe the phenomenon . The first recorded observation of a transit of Venus was made by Jeremiah Horrocks from his home at Carr House in Much Hoole , near Preston in England , on 4 December 1639 ( 24 November under the Julian calendar then in use in England ) . His friend , William Crabtree , also observed this transit from Broughton , near Manchester . Kepler had predicted transits in 1631 and 1761 and a near miss in 1639 . Horrocks corrected Kepler 's calculation for the orbit of Venus , realized that transits of Venus would occur in pairs 8 years apart , and so predicted the transit of 1639 . Although he was uncertain of the exact time , he calculated that the transit was to begin at approximately 15 : 00 . Horrocks focused the image of the Sun through a simple telescope onto a piece of paper , where the image could be safely observed . After observing for most of the day , he was lucky to see the transit as clouds obscuring the Sun cleared at about 15 : 15 , just half an hour before sunset . Horrocks ' observations allowed him to make a well @-@ informed guess as to the size of Venus , as well as to make an estimate of the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun — the astronomical unit . He estimated that distance to be 59 @.@ 4 million miles ( 95 @.@ 6 Gm , 0 @.@ 639 AU ) – about two thirds of the actual distance of 93 million miles ( 149 @.@ 6 million km ) , but a more accurate figure than any suggested up to that time . The observations were not published until 1661 , well after Horrocks 's death . = = = 1761 and 1769 = = = In 1663 Scottish mathematician James Gregory had suggested in his Optica Promota that observations of a transit of the planet Mercury , at widely spaced points on the surface of the Earth , could be used to calculate the solar parallax and hence the astronomical unit using triangulation . Aware of this , a young Edmond Halley made observations of such a transit on 28 October O.S. 1677 from Saint Helena but was disappointed to find that only Richard Towneley in Burnley , Lancashire had made another accurate observation of the event whilst Gallet , at Avignon , simply recorded that it had occurred . Halley was not satisfied that the resulting calculation of the solar parallax at 45 " was accurate . In a paper published in 1691 , and a more refined one in 1716 , he proposed that more accurate calculations could be made using measurements of a transit of Venus , although the next such event was not due until 1761 . Halley died in 1742 , but in 1761 numerous expeditions were made to various parts of the world so that precise observations of the transit could be made in order to make the calculations as described by Halley — an early example of international scientific collaboration . This collaboration was , however , underpinned by competition , the British , for example , being spurred to action only after they heard of French plans from Joseph @-@ Nicolas Delisle . In an attempt to observe the first transit of the pair , astronomers from Britain , Austria and France traveled to destinations around the world , including Siberia , Norway , Newfoundland and Madagascar . Most managed to observe at least part of the transit , but successful observations were made in particular by Jeremiah Dixon and Charles Mason at the Cape of Good Hope . Less successful , at Saint Helena , were Nevil Maskelyne and Robert Waddington , although they put the voyage to good use by trialling the lunar @-@ distance method of finding longitude . The existence of an atmosphere on Venus was concluded by Mikhail Lomonosov on the basis of his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 from the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg . He used a two @-@ lens achromat refractor and a weak solar filter ( smoked glass ) and reported seeing a bump or bulge of light ( " Lomonosov 's arc " ) off the solar disc as Venus began to exit the Sun . Lomonosov attributed that effect to refraction of solar rays through an atmosphere ; he also reported the appearance of a sliver around the part of Venus that had just entered the Sun 's disk during the initial phase of transit . In 2012 , Pasachoff and Sheehan reported , based on knowing what Venus 's atmosphere would look like because of Pasachoff and Schneider 's observations of the 2004 transit of Venus , that what Lomonosov reported was not Venus 's atmosphere . To make a decisive test , a group of researchers carried out experimental reconstruction of Lomonosov 's discovery of Venusian atmosphere with antique refractors during the transit of Venus on 5 – 6 June 2012 . They observed the " Lomonosov 's arc " and other aureole effects due to Venus 's atmosphere and concluded that Lomonosov 's telescope was fully adequate to the task of detecting the arc of light around Venus off the Sun 's disc during ingress or egress if proper experimental techniques as described by Lomonosov in his 1761 paper are employed . For the 1769 transit , scientists traveled to Tahiti , Norway , and locations in North America including Canada , New England , and San José del Cabo ( Baja California , then under Spanish control ) ; . The Czech astronomer Christian Mayer was invited by Catherine the Great to observe the transit in Saint Petersburg with Anders Johan Lexell , while other members of Russian Academy of Sciences went to eight other locations in the Russian Empire , under the general coordination of Stepan Rumovsky . The Hungarian astronomer Maximilian Hell and his assistant János Sajnovics traveled to Vardø , Norway , delegated by Christian VII of Denmark . William Wales and Joseph Dymond made their observation in Hudson Bay , Canada , for the Royal Society . Observations were made by a number of groups in the British colonies in America . In Philadelphia , the American Philosophical Society erected three temporary observatories and appointed a committee , of which David Rittenhouse was the head . Observations were made by a group led by Dr. Benjamin West in Providence , Rhode Island. and published in 1769 . The results of the various observations in the American colonies were printed in the first volume of the American Philosophical Society 's Transactions , published in 1771 . Comparing the North American observations , William Smith published in 1771 a best value of the solar parallax of 8 @.@ 48 to 8 @.@ 49 arc @-@ seconds , which corresponds to an Earth @-@ sun distance of 24000 times the Earth 's radius , about 3 % different from the correct value . Observations were also made from Tahiti by James Cook and Charles Green at a location still known as " Point Venus " . This occurred on the first voyage of James Cook , after which Cook explored New Zealand and Australia . This was one of five expeditions organised by the Royal Society and the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne . Jean @-@ Baptiste Chappe d 'Auteroche went to San José del Cabo in what was then New Spain to observe the transit with two Spanish astronomers ( Vicente de Doz and Salvador de Medina ) . For his trouble he died in an epidemic of yellow fever there shortly after completing his observations . Only 9 of 28 in the entire party returned home alive . The unfortunate Guillaume Le Gentil spent eight years travelling in an attempt to observe either of the transits . His unsuccessful journey led to him losing his wife and possessions and being declared dead ( his efforts became the basis of the play Transit of Venus by Maureen Hunter ) . Under the influence of the Royal Society Ruđer Bošković travelled to Istanbul , but arrived too late . Unfortunately , it was impossible to time the exact moment of the start and end of the transit because of the phenomenon known as the " black drop effect " . This effect was long thought to be due to Venus ' thick atmosphere , and initially it was held to be the first real evidence that Venus had an atmosphere . However , recent studies demonstrate that it is an optical effect caused by the smearing of the image of Venus by turbulence in the Earth 's atmosphere or imperfections in the viewing apparatus . In 1771 , using the combined 1761 and 1769 transit data , the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande calculated the astronomical unit to have a value of 153 million kilometers ( ± 1 million km ) . The precision was less than had been hoped for because of the black drop effect , but still a considerable improvement on Horrocks ' calculations . Maximilian Hell published the results of his expedition in 1770 , in Copenhagen . Based on the results of his own expedition , and of Wales and Cook , in 1772 he presented another calculation of the astronomical unit : 151 @.@ 7 million kilometers . Lalande queried the accuracy and authenticity of the Hell expedition , but later he retreated in an article of Journal des sçavans , in 1778 . = = = 1874 and 1882 = = = Transit observations in 1874 and 1882 allowed this value to be refined further . Three expeditions — from Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States — were sent to the Kerguelen Archipelago for the 1874 observations . The American astronomer Simon Newcomb combined the data from the last four transits , and he arrived at a value of about 149 @.@ 59 million kilometers ( ± 0 @.@ 31 million kilometers ) . Modern techniques , such as the use of radio telemetry from space probes , and of radar measurements of the distances to planets and asteroids in the Solar System , have allowed a reasonably accurate value for the astronomical unit ( AU ) to be calculated to a precision of about ± 30 meters . As a result , the need for parallax calculations has been superseded . = = = 2004 and 2012 = = = A number of scientific organizations headed by the European Southern Observatory ( ESO ) organized a network of amateur astronomers and students to measure Earth 's distance from the Sun during the transit . The participants ' observations allowed a calculation of the astronomical unit ( AU ) of 149 608 708 km ± 11 835 km which had only a 0 @.@ 007 % difference to the accepted value . There was a good deal of interest in the 2004 transit as scientists attempted to measure the pattern of light dimming as Venus blocked out some of the Sun 's light , in order to refine techniques that they hope to use in searching for extrasolar planets . Current methods of looking for planets orbiting other stars only work for a few cases : planets that are very large ( Jupiter @-@ like , not Earth @-@ like ) , whose gravity is strong enough to wobble the star sufficiently for us to detect changes in proper motion or Doppler shift changes in radial velocity ; Jupiter or Neptune sized planets very close to their parent star whose transit causes changes in the luminosity of the star ; or planets which pass in front of background stars with the planet @-@ parent star separation comparable to the Einstein ring and cause gravitational microlensing . Measuring light intensity during the course of a transit , as the planet blocks out some of the light , is potentially much more sensitive , and might be used to find smaller planets . However , extremely precise measurement is needed : for example , the transit of Venus causes the Sun 's light to drop by a mere 0 @.@ 001 magnitude , and the dimming produced by small extrasolar planets will be similarly tiny . The 2012 transit provided scientists numerous research opportunities as well , in particular in regard to the study of exoplanets . Research of the 2012 Venus transit includes : Measuring dips in a star 's brightness caused by a known planet transiting the Sun will help astronomers find exoplanets . Unlike the 2004 Venus transit , the 2012 transit occurred during an active phase of the 11 @-@ year activity cycle of the Sun , and it is likely to give astronomers practice in picking up a planet 's signal around a " spotty " variable star . Measurements made of the apparent diameter of Venus during the transit , and comparison with its known diameter , will give scientists an idea of how to estimate exoplanet sizes . Observation made of the atmosphere of Venus simultaneously from Earth @-@ based telescopes and from the Venus Express gives scientists a better opportunity to understand the intermediate level of Venus ' atmosphere than is possible from either viewpoint alone . This will provide new information about the climate of the planet . Spectrographic data taken of the well @-@ known atmosphere of Venus will be compared to studies of exoplanets whose atmospheres are thus far unknown . The Hubble Space Telescope , which cannot be pointed directly at the Sun , used the Moon as a mirror to study the light that had passed through the atmosphere of Venus in order to determine its composition . This will help to show whether a similar technique could be used to study exoplanets . = = Past and future transits = = NASA maintains a catalog of Venus Transits covering the period 2000 BCE to 4000 CE . Currently , transits occur only in June or December ( see table ) and the occurrence of these events slowly drifts , becoming later in the year by about two days every 243 @-@ year cycle . Transits usually occur in pairs , on nearly the same date eight years apart . This is because the length of eight Earth years is almost the same as 13 years on Venus , so every eight years the planets are in roughly the same relative positions . This approximate conjunction usually results in a pair of transits , but it is not precise enough to produce a triplet , since Venus arrives 22 hours earlier each time . The last transit not to be part of a pair was in 1396 . The next will be in 3089 ; in 2854 ( the second of the 2846 / 2854 pair ) , although Venus will just miss the Sun as seen from the Earth 's equator , a partial transit will be visible from some parts of the southern hemisphere . Thus after 243 years the transits of Venus returns . The 1874 transit is a member of the 243 @-@ years cycle # 1 . The 1882 transit is a member of # 2 . The 2004 transit is a member of # 3 and the 2012 transit is a member of # 4 . The 2117 transit is a member of # 1 and so on . However , the ascending node ( December transits ) of the orbit of Venus moves backwards after each 243 years so the transit of 2854 is the last member of series # 3 instead of series # 1 . The descending node ( June transits ) moves forwards , so the transit of 3705 is the last member of # 2 . From -125,000 till + 125 @,@ 000 only about ten series at both nodes each are needed for all the transits of Venus in this very long timespan , because both nodes of the orbit of Venus moves back and forward in time . Over longer periods of time , new series of transits will start and old series will end . Unlike the saros series for lunar eclipses , it is possible for a transit series to restart after a hiatus . The transit series also vary much more in length than the saros series . = = Grazing and simultaneous transits = = Sometimes Venus only grazes the Sun during a transit . In this case it is possible that in some areas of the Earth a full transit can be seen while in other regions there is only a partial transit ( no second or third contact ) . The last transit of this type was on 6 December 1631 , and the next such transit will occur on 13 December 2611 . It is also possible that a transit of Venus can be seen in some parts of the world as a partial transit , while in others Venus misses the Sun . Such a transit last occurred on 19 November 541 BC , and the next transit of this type will occur on 14 December 2854 . These effects occur due to parallax , since the size of the Earth affords different points of view with slightly different lines of sight to Venus and the Sun . It can be demonstrated by closing an eye and holding a finger in front of a smaller more distant object ; when you open the other eye and close the first , the finger will no longer be in front of the object . The simultaneous occurrence of a transit of Mercury and a transit of Venus does occur , but extremely infrequently . Such an event last occurred on 22 September 373 @,@ 173 BC and will next occur on 26 July 69 @,@ 163 , and again on 29 March 224 @,@ 508 . The simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is currently possible , but very rare . The next solar eclipse occurring during a transit of Venus will be on 5 April 15 @,@ 232 . The last time a solar eclipse occurred during a transit of Venus was on 1 November 15 @,@ 607 BC . It could be noticed that the day after the Venerean transit of 3 June 1769 there was a total solar eclipse , which was visible in Northern America , Europe and Northern Asia .

= Ímar mac Arailt = Ímar mac Arailt ( died 1054 ) was an eleventh @-@ century ruler of the Kingdom of Dublin and perhaps the Kingdom of the Isles . He was the son of a man named Aralt , and appears to have been a grandson of Amlaíb Cuarán , King of Northumbria and Dublin . Such a relationship would have meant that Ímar was a member of the Uí Ímair , and that he was a nephew of Amlaíb Cuarán 's son , Sitriuc mac Amlaíb , King of Dublin , a man driven from Dublin by Echmarcach mac Ragnaill in 1036 . Ímar 's reign in Dublin spanned at least eight years , from 1038 to 1046 . Although he began by seizing the kingship from Echmarcach in 1038 , he eventually lost it to him in 1046 . As king , Ímar is recorded to have overseen military operations throughout Ireland , and seems to have actively assisted the family of Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig , King of Gwynedd overseas in Wales . After Echmarcach 's final expulsion from Dublin 1052 , Ímar may well have been reinstalled as King of Dublin by Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó , King of Leinster . Whatever the case , Ímar died in 1054 . He may have been an ancestor or close kinsman of Gofraid Crobán , King of Dublin and the Isles , the progenitor of a family that ruled in the Isles until the mid thirteenth century . = = Familial background = = Ímar was probably the son of Aralt mac Amlaíb ( died 999 ) , a man whose death at the Battle of Glenn Máma is recorded by the Annals of Clonmacnoise , the Annals of the Four Masters , the Annals of Ulster , and Chronicon Scotorum . If this identification is correct , Ímar 's paternal grandfather would have been Amlaíb Cuarán , King of Northumbria and Dublin ( died 980 / 981 ) , and a paternal uncle of Ímar would have been Sitriuc mac Amlaíb , King of Dublin ( died 1042 ) . = = Struggle for Dublin = = Ímar 's probable uncle , Sitriuc , ruled Dublin for almost fifty years between 989 and 1036 . There is reason to suspect that the latter 's realm included Mann by the second or third decade of the eleventh century . His reign in Dublin was finally put to an end by Echmarcach mac Ragnaill ( died 1064 / 1065 ) , who drove Sitriuc from the coastal town and claimed the kingship for himself . Previously , Sitriuc seems to have been closely aligned with Knútr Sveinnsson ( died 1035 ) , ruler of the kingdoms of England , Denmark , and Norway . Knútr 's apparent authority in the Irish Sea region , coupled with Sitriuc 's seemingly close connections with him , could account for the remarkable security enjoyed by Sitriuc during Knútr 's reign . It is possible that Echmarcach had been bound from taking action against Sitriuc whilst Knútr held power , and that the confusion caused by the latter 's death in 1035 enabled Echmarcach to exploit the situation and seize control of the Irish Sea region . Although there is no direct evidence that Echmarcach controlled Mann by this date , Sitriuc does not appear to have taken refuge on the island after his expulsion from Dublin . This seems to suggest that the island was outside Sitriuc 's possession , and may indicate that Mann had fallen into the hands of Echmarcach sometime before . In fact , it is possible that Echmarcach used the island to launch his takeover of Dublin . Echmarcach 's hold on Dublin was short @-@ lived as the Annals of Tigernach records that Ímar replaced him as King of Dublin in 1038 . This annal @-@ entry has been interpreted to indicate that Ímar drove Echmarcach from the kingship . There is reason to suspect that Þórfinnr Sigurðarson , Earl of Orkney ( died c . 1065 ) extended his presence into the Isles and the Irish Sea region at about this period . The evidence of Þórfinnr 's power in the Isles could suggest that he possessed an active interest in the ongoing struggle over the Dublin kingship . In fact , Þórfinnr 's predatory operations in the Irish Sea region may have contributed to Echmarcach 's loss of Dublin in 1038 . It is conceivable that Ímar received some form of support from Knútr 's son and successor in Britain , Haraldr Knútsson , King of England ( died 1040 ) . The latter was certainly in power when Ímar replaced Echmarcach , and an association between Ímar and Haraldr could explain why the Annals of Ulster reports the latter 's death two years later . Ímar 's reign lasted about eight years , and one of his first royal acts appears to have been the invasion of Rathlin Island within the year . The fact that he proceeded to campaign in the North Channel could indicate that Echmarcach had held power in this region before his acquisition of Mann and Dublin . In 1044 , the Annals of Tigernach records that Ímar penetrated into the domain of the Uí Fhíachrach Arda Sratha and killed their chief . The annal @-@ entry also indicates that Ímar stormed the church of Armagh , and burned Scrín Pátraic ( the " Shrine of Patrick " ) in the attack . The following year , he again invaded Rathlin Island , and his subsequent slaughter of three hundred noblemen of the Ulaid , including a certain heir apparent named Ragnall Ua Eochada , is documented by the Annals of Clonmacnoise , the Annals of Inisfallen , the Annals of Tigernach , and the Annals of the Four Masters . This remarkable action may indicate that the Dubliners and Ulaid were battling for control of Rathlin Island . If so , it could be evidence that Ímar enjoyed the possession of Mann by this date . The domain of the Ulaid is certainly the closest Irish territory to Mann , and the control of the Manx fleet could account for the Dubliner 's ability to challenge the Ulaid . Whatever the case , within the year Niall mac Eochada , King of Ulaid ( died 1063 ) is recorded to have attacked Fine Gall — Dublin 's agriculturally @-@ rich northern hinterland — in what may have been a retaliatory raid . The following year , the Annals of Tigernach states that Echmarcach succeeded Ímar . The Annals of the Four Masters specifies that Ímar was driven from the kingship by Echmarcach , who was then elected king by the Dubliners . After this point in Ímar 's life , all that is known for certain is that he died in 1054 , as recorded by the Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Loch Cé . Nevertheless , since these sources style Ímar in Gaelic rí Gall ( " king of the foreigners " ) , there may be evidence to suggest that , when Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó , King of Leinster ( died 1072 ) drove Echmarcach from Dublin in 1052 , Diarmait reinstalled Ímar as king . After Ímar 's death , Diarmait appears to have appointed his own son , Murchad ( died 1070 ) , control of Dublin later that decade , as the Annals of the Four Masters accords him the title tigherna Gall , meaning " lord of the foreigners " in 1059 . In 1061 , Murchad invaded Mann and seems to have overthrown Echmarcach . Both father and son were dead by 1072 , and the Annals of Tigernach describes Diarmait on his death that year as King of the Isles ( rí Innsi Gall , literally " king of the isles of the foreigners " ) , a declaration which seems to indicate that , by the eleventh century at least , the kingship of the Isles was contingent upon control of Mann . = = Involvement in Wales = = The principal Welsh monarch during Ímar 's reign was Gruffudd ap Llywelyn ( died 1063 / 1064 ) . One of the latter 's main rivals was Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig , King of Gwynedd ( died 1039 ) , a man who had killed Gruffudd 's father in 1023 , and thenceforth ruled Gwynedd until his own demise in 1039 . Gruffudd himself may have been responsible for Iago 's slaying , and certainly succeeded to the kingship of Gwynedd after his death . It was likely in the context of Iago 's fall and this resulting regime change that the latter 's son , Cynan ( fl . 1064 ) , fled overseas and sought refuge in Dublin . According to Historia Gruffud vab Kenan , the mother of Cynan 's son was Ragnailt ingen Amlaíb , a paternal granddaughter of Sitriuc . Further revealed by this source is the fact that this woman 's father , Amlaíb mac Sitriuc , built and commanded a Welsh fortress called Castell Avloed . Although it is unknown how long the Dubliners possessed the fortress , in 1036 another son of Sitriuc was slain in Wales by an apparent kinsman , an event which could be evidence of a struggle for control of the site . Echmarcach 's aforesaid expulsion of Sitriuc from Dublin in the same year could in turn indicate that this exiled monarch sought refuge in Wales . Despite the uncertainty of its specific location , Castell Avloed appears to have been situated in territory formerly controlled by Iago , and there is reason to suspect that — after Iago 's fall and Cynan 's flight — Ímar oversaw military actions against Gruffudd . Three years later , for example , Brut y Tywysogion and the " B " and " C " versions of Annales Cambriæ report that this Welsh king was captured by forces from Dublin . The episode is further elaborated upon by a sixteenth @-@ century text compiled by David Powell ( died 1598 ) and a seventeenth @-@ century text by compiled by James Ware . According to these admittedly late versions of events , Gruffudd was captured by the Dubliners in the context of them supporting the cause of Cynan . The accounts further state that Gruffudd managed to escape his captors when the Dubliners were counterattacked by Welsh forces before they could return to Ireland . The evidence of Cynan cooperating with the Dubliners against Gruffudd suggests that , not only was Ímar personally involved as king , but that the Welsh fortress of Castell Avloed was still controlled by the Dubliners . Another conflict that could have involved Ímar and the military forces of Dublin was Gruffudd 's final defeat of Hywel ab Edwin , King of Deheubarth ( died 1044 ) . According to Brut y Tywysogion and the " B " version of Annales Cambriæ this last stand of Hywel took place at the mouth of the River Tywi — perhaps in the vicinity of Carmarthen — and included Vikings from Ireland who supported Hywel 's cause . It is apparent that Gruffudd 's adversaries generally utilised foreign military support from Ireland 's Viking enclaves . Certainly , the Book of Llandaff declares that Gruffudd struggled against English , Irish , and Vikings during his career . = = Ancestral figure = = Ímar may have been the father , uncle , or possibly even the brother of Gofraid Crobán , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1095 ) . In 1091 , the Annals of Tigernach reveals that Gofraid possessed the kingship of Dublin in an annal @-@ entry recording his patronym as " ... mac Maic Arailt " . The Chronicle of Mann , on the otherhand , gives Gofraid 's patronym as " ... filius Haraldi nigri de Ysland " . Whilst the former source identifies Gofraid as the son of a man named Aralt ( Old Norse Haraldr ) , the latter identifies Gofraid as the paternal grandson of a man so named . In the aforesaid record of the military actions conducted in 1044 , Ímar is merely named as the son of Aralt , a fact which could indicate that this was how he was known to his contemporaries . If correct , the patronym preserved by the Chronicle of Mann could merely be a garbled form of this style . The patronym given by the Chronicle of Mann states that Gofraid 's father was from " Ysland " , a place which could refer to either Iceland , Islay , or Ireland . Other than this passage , there is no evidence hinting of a connection between Gofraid and Iceland . The chronicle elsewhere states that Gofraid died on Islay , although the island 's name is rendered " Ile " in this case . If " Ysland " instead refers to Ireland , the spelling could be the result of influence from a source originating in England , or a source written in Mediaeval French .

= Tessa Noël = Tessa Noël is a fictional character in the television series Highlander : The Series , portrayed by Alexandra Vandernoot . A mortal artist and sculptor , Tessa is the French lover of the protagonist Immortal , Duncan MacLeod , played by Adrian Paul . Tessa is introduced in the pilot episode " The Gathering " , first shown in 1992 , and appears in all subsequent episodes until " The Darkness " ( 1993 ) , the fourth episode of season two , in which she is killed . Vandernoot returned to the program for a number of guest appearances in the season two finale , " Counterfeit " , broadcast in 1994 , and the two @-@ part series conclusion " To Be " / " Not To Be " ( 1998 ) . Tessa is MacLeod 's mortal companion and bears the consequences of his immortality . These include her aging while he does not , the impossibility of having children together and the dangers of MacLeod 's involvement in the Game , an ongoing battle in which all Immortals must behead each other until a single victor remains . Fully aware of this situation , Tessa stays with MacLeod , demonstrating her courage , understanding , generosity and compassion . The first series of Highlander was a multi @-@ national co @-@ production including the French entertainment conglomerate Gaumont , which resulted in a French @-@ speaking actor playing Tessa . Vandernoot had to adapt to the North American , fast @-@ paced method of series production and worked with a dialect coach . Her performance was generally praised by reviewers , who especially praised the strong on @-@ screen relationship that Vandernoot and Paul created between their characters . When Vandernoot decided to leave the show , her character was killed , leading to fierce protests among the show 's audience and subsequently prompted the producers to have Vandernoot play an evil lookalike of Tessa in the episode " Counterfeit " . Despite her return , Tessa 's death influenced the rest of the series , making it more pessimistic , and creating a significant precedent ; Tessa was the first main character of the series to die . = = Story arc = = Tessa Noël is a central character , who appeared in every episode of the first season of Highlander : The Series , and in the first four episodes of the second . After the character 's death , she later returned for cameo appearances in the episodes " Counterfeit Part Two " in the second season , and " To Be " and " Not To Be " , the sixth season 's final two episodes . = = = Background = = = Tessa was born on August 28 , 1958 in Lille , France . When she was seven years old , she fell in love for the first time with then @-@ nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Alan Rothwood ( Anthony Head ) . Tessa recalls in " Nowhere To Run " that she was " heartbroken " when he completed his studies and left the country . She remembered that at her first Christmas party in the ballroom of Alan 's house , she " couldn 't believe anything could be so beautiful . " Tessa mentions in " See No Evil " that she was educated at the Sorbonne in Paris , France . Tessa 's first encounter with MacLeod is shown in a flashback sequence in " For Evil 's Sake " . She had recently left the Sorbonne and was working as an artist and conducting tours of the River Seine in Paris . In May 1980 , to escape Immortal Christoph Kuyler ( Peter Howitt ) who was trying to behead him , MacLeod jumped on a Bateau Mouche on which Tessa was working , and charmed her so that he could stay on board . Another flashback scene in the episode " Counterfeit Part Two " shows how MacLeod revealed his immortality to Tessa . On April 1 , 1983 , MacLeod made Tessa shoot him in the chest with a pistol . After he revived , MacLeod revealed himself to be an Immortal who could not age or father children , but did not mention the Game . MacLeod expected Tessa to show disgust or fear , but instead Tessa expressed compassion and sadness for his loneliness . As Tessa remains unaware of the Game , MacLeod occasionally fights other Immortals without her knowledge . = = = Season one = = = When the series begins , Tessa and MacLeod have been in a relationship for twelve years and are the proprietors of an antiques store , " MacLeod and Noel 's Antiques " , in the fictional city of Seacouver , Washington , United States . Immortals Slan Quince ( Richard Moll ) and Connor MacLeod ( Christopher Lambert ) break into their store , making Tessa aware of the Game . When she learns of this ultimate battle of good and evil , in which Duncan MacLeod must behead or be beheaded , she sarcastically remarks ; " And you didn 't think it was important enough to mention . " When Quince threatens Tessa to distract MacLeod , she first wants to flee with MacLeod , who prepared for her departure and beheads Quince . Aware that other Immortals will challenge MacLeod , Tessa decides to stay with him . They also allow Richie Ryan ( Stan Kirsch ) , a quick @-@ talking petty thief and street punk , to live with them because he was aware of MacLeod 's immortality . In " Eyewitness " ( 1993 ) , Tessa witnesses the brutal murder of former artist Anne Wheeler ( Diana Barrington ) , and reacts angrily when she realizes that the police will do nothing about it , saying : " I 'm not hysterical , I don 't see things , and I 'm not looking for attention . I just want something to be done . " She decides to find the murderer on her own . When MacLeod tells Tessa that she is stronger than Anne , and that if something happened to him she would be fine , Tessa retorts , " You only think so because it suits you . " The murderer is Chief Police Officer Andrew Ballin ( Tom Butler ) who is beheaded by MacLeod after Ballin failed to kill Tessa . In " Band of Brothers " ( 1993 ) , Tessa is chosen as the curator of a traveling exhibition entitled " An historical retrospective on sculpture and form " , which is based in Paris , France . Meanwhile , Immortal Grayson ( James Horan ) is seeking Victor Paulus , a protegee of MacLeod 's friend Darius ( Werner Stocker ) . Tessa decides to leave to Paris before MacLeod fights Grayson and her parting words are : " Remember . Paris is our city . I 'll be waiting for you " . After MacLeod beheads Grayson , he , Tessa and Richie , live in a barge on the Seine near Notre Dame de Paris . In " Avenging Angel " ( 1993 ) , MacLeod and Tessa search for information about newborn Immortal Alfred Cahill ( Martin Kemp ) . Becoming Immortal has made Cahill insane ; he believes he is an angel sent by God to free the world from sin . Cahill starts with the last prostitute he met , Tessa 's old friend , Elaine Trent ( Sandra Nelson ) . Tessa is angry to learn the fate of her intelligent , beautiful friend , but later realizes that she " [ sounds ] like her judge and jury . " MacLeod believes that the only way to stop Cahill is to behead him , despite Tessa 's opinion that " Enlightened societies don 't kill their insane . They treat them . " When Cahill comes to the barge looking for MacLeod and finds Tessa alone , Tessa diverts him by welcoming Cahill as a messenger of God . Later , she tells MacLeod with disgust , " I had to crawl inside his head ... I had to think like him ... I had to become like him . " = = = Season two = = = The first episode of the second season , " The Watchers " ( 1993 ) , shows Tessa , MacLeod and Richie settling back to their antiques store in Seacouver and meeting the Watchers , a secret society that observes Immortals without interfering . In " The Darkness " ( 1993 ) , Tessa meets a fortune teller named Greta ( Traci Lords ) who urges her to flee the city . This reminds MacLeod of another fortune teller , who , back in 1848 , predicted that he would bury many women , but marries none . MacLeod impulsively asks Tessa to marry him , to which she agrees . The next day , Tessa is abducted by Pallin Wolf ( Andrew Jackson ) , a renegade Watcher who wants to behead MacLeod . In the meantime , MacLeod tells Richie that he is getting married because of the thought of losing Tessa . Tessa holds her ground in front of Wolf and tries to escape , but Wolf brings her back to her cell . MacLeod finally finds them and kills Wolf , then sends Tessa home with Richie . On their way to the car , Tessa and Richie are shot dead by Marc Roszca ( Travis MacDonald ) , a drug addict wanting their money . Richie 's previously unknown immortality is revealed when he returns to life on the spot , but Tessa dies . MacLeod , devastated , leaves their home and sells the antique store . " Eye For An Eye " ( 1993 ) shows the aftermath of Tessa 's death . MacLeod tells Richie , " She was part of our lives , Richie . Never pretend she wasn 't . " MacLeod also advises Richie to get used to her loss , because it " won 't be the last time it happens to you . " Later , while MacLeod trains Richie roughly so that he can face Immortal Annie Devlin ( Sheena Easton ) , Richie angrily tells MacLeod , " You can 't get past it , Mac . I know . You 've seen a lot of people die . But you had to be the hero , you sent us out to the car that night , you could have been there ... You look me in the eyes and you tell me you don 't blame yourself for her death . " Some time later , MacLeod bitterly tells Devlin , " Nothing you do brings anyone back . Once they 're dead ... nothing . " In the two @-@ part finale to series two , " Counterfeit " ( 1994 ) , James Horton ( Peter Hudson ) , a renegade Watcher who believes all Immortals must be eliminated , uses killer Lisa Halle ( Meilani Paul ) to try and kill MacLeod . Lisa undergoes plastic surgery to resemble Tessa and therefore is played by Vandernoot from that point on . MacLeod meets Lisa just after he admitted to himself how much he missed Tessa , and he is stunned by her resemblance with Tessa . Despite knowing that Tessa is dead and cannot return , he eagerly pursues a relationship with Lisa . He eventually admits the truth when he discovers a scar on Lisa 's jaw . Horton kills Lisa on Tessa 's grave before being himself killed by MacLeod . " To Be " and " Not To Be " ( 1998 ) , the series finale , respectively depict MacLeod dreaming of a world in which he was never born . Vandernoot reprises her role as Tessa , this time never having met MacLeod . Tessa leads an unsatisfactory life in which she has a husband and children , but is forced to sacrifice her art and sculpture . In this storyline she has an affair with MacLeod but feels she has betrayed her husband . = = Characteristics = = = = = Relationship with MacLeod = = = Tessa , and Kirsch 's character Richie , were designed as MacLeod 's mortal companions and contacts . Tessa and MacLeod are lovers and share deep feelings for each other . Adrian Paul commented that MacLeod spent twelve years with Tessa without wanting another relationship and that " ... she was a very important part of his life " . Vandernoot thought that " ... the relationship between Tessa and MacLeod was very deep because very soon , he told her about himself ( ... ) because he trusted her , and I think trust is a very good definition of their relationship . She trusted him entirely and he trusted her . " Tessa is thus MacLeod 's only mortal lover who knows of his immortality . However , executive producer Bill Panzer was intrigued by the idea that a mortal would want to spend their life with an Immortal , this choice having several drawbacks . MacLeod does not age , while Tessa is mortal and will age . Despite their mutual wish , they know growing old together is impossible and this uneasy thought " ... haunts them both , sometimes more than others . " As an Immortal , MacLeod is also sterile and Tessa resigns herself to having no children . " The Sea Witch " deals with Tessa 's choice and its impact upon her life . In this episode , Tessa becomes very fond of a four @-@ year @-@ old girl and muses ; " For a while there , just for a few hours ... I felt like she was mine . I liked how it felt . But , she 's not ... I have my own life and it 's more than enough . " Panzer commented that " The Sea Witch " " ... brings forth in a very powerful way what exactly [ Tessa ] ' s giving up to be with MacLeod . " Tessa occasionally meets MacLeod 's previous Immortal lovers . In " The Lady and the Tiger " , she immediately dislikes Amanda ( played by Elizabeth Gracen ) and the script notes that " ... sparks fly between the two women " . Although she quickly earns Amanda 's respect , Tessa feels like she has to compete with Amanda , while Amanda comments that Tessa is " ... quite refreshing in a gauche sort of way . " Gracen played Amanda 's interaction with Tessa ambiguously and a little flirtatiously . Tessa is usually jealous of MacLeod 's past lovers , but acknowledges in " Saving Grace " that " ... it would take me several lifetimes to find out everything in Duncan 's past . I know there 've been others , but I never thought I would meet one of them . " In addition , Tessa shares with MacLeod the consequences of his involvement in the Game . She dislikes the Game and would like to escape from it with him , since she fears for his life . According to Vandernoot , Tessa " ... always thought that she [ would ] die before [ MacLeod ] " , but when he told her about the Game during " The Gathering " , " she [ realised ] that he [ could ] be killed " , thus she avoided thinking about it . Another consequence of the Game is that Tessa is sometimes exposed to danger from Immortals who want to use her to pressure MacLeod . Despite being captured by Quince in " The Gathering " , by the time of " Band of Brothers " , she is able to face Grayson : " If you think [ MacLeod ] will stand by , ... you have misjudged him terribly . So you 'd better kill me , now , and be done with it . " Grayson releases her and calls her " ... a remarkable woman , well worth keeping alive . " Consequently , Tessa is fully aware of the risks of their relationship , but stays with MacLeod , explaining in " Eyewitness " that " I know the risks I choose to take ... I stay with you because I want to . I won 't run . I 'm not the little woman and I 'll never be barefoot and pregnant . We all have things to face . This is mine . " However , she finds difficult to deal with her fears when MacLeod leaves to fight another Immortal . = = = Character traits = = = Vandernoot found Tessa 's personality " ... very nice , " " very understanding , generous , supportive . " MacLeod appreciates that Tessa always has a way of reminding him of his humanity . In " For Evil 's Sake " , she tells a guilt @-@ ridden MacLeod that " You may be Immortal , but you 're not omnipotent ... The world is not your responsibility . " Tessa often jokes about MacLeod 's immortality , for example telling him in " For Tomorrow We Die " that the last time MacLeod " ... wore a tuxedo was on the deck of the Titanic . " Tessa is able to empathise with others , feel as they do , think as they do and so become like them . When MacLeod revealed his immortality to Tessa in " Counterfeit Part Two " , she can show compassion instead of the fear or disgust he expects : " I was just thinking how lonely you must be . Your parents , your friends ... having them all die . " Tessa is a very empathic and understanding character , for example , in " Saving Grace " , she is jealous of MacLeod 's former lover Grace ; however , when MacLeod assures her that he no longer loves Grace , her response is simply that " ... that 's all that need to be said . She 's your friend and she 's been hurt . You 'll help her . I 'd expect you to do no less . " Furthermore , Tessa demonstrates great courage , for example in " Mountain Men " , where she is abducted by three mountain men led by Immortal Caleb Cole , who wants to marry her . Tessa refuses to submit and spreads doubt among them , resulting in Cole finally killing one of his own men before MacLeod rescues her . Reviewer Rob Lineberger of DVDVerdict.com commented that " ... this episode shows the tough stuff Tessa is made of . " Tessa is a very selfless character , although it has , occasionally , been known to put her into rather sticky situations , for example , in the episode " See No Evil " , Tessa 's friend , Natalie , is attacked by serial killer Michael Tanovsky and Tessa uses herself as bait : " Nobody 's watching over his next victim , Duncan ... and she 's going to die if you and I don 't stop him . " Lineberger commented that " [ in " See No Evil " ] , Tessa gets a taste for how Duncan 's life must feel when she faces the killer . " She hits Tanovsky with her car , telling MacLeod " I thought ridding the world of evil would feel better than this . " Panzer comments that having Tessa stop the killer " ... was kind of an unusual idea [ in television in 1992 ] , and this was the subject of a lot of meetings with [ then @-@ supervising producer ] David Abramowitz , myself and the people from the various networks , domestic and foreign , who were involved . " Tessa has a reputation for speaking frankly and for refusing to tolerate any nonsense . In " Innocent Man " , when MacLeod refuses to take her where an evil Immortal is , she says , " I know why you don 't want me there . You 're afraid that what happened to Lucas [ MacLeod 's friend who has just been beheaded ] could happen to you . " Tessa has no self @-@ pity and " ... doesn 't like euphemisms " . For example , in " For Tomorrow We Die " , MacLeod calls her " contrary by nature " Tessa parks her car without regard to interdictions , can drive a speedboat , is a poor chess player and dislikes war . = = = Employment and career = = = Tessa is a prominent professional artist . She organises exhibitions of her works and sells a metallic sculpture to the City of Seacouver to adorn a park . Tessa is often seen making art works and welding large pieces of metal together , drawing or using modelling clay . She is also seen sketching people with whom she has problems . Tessa believes that " ... an artist should never grow complacent . Change is good , " and fears the Paris art critics because " ... they are the worst " . = = Character concept and development = = In the script of " The Gathering " , Tessa is described as " ... a beautiful , elegantly casual woman , artist , free spirit , and proprietor of the most unusual antique shop in the city . " The script of the episode " Saving Grace " says that she has grace and style . Tessa is portrayed as a tall , thin woman with blonde hair and blue eyes . Because Highlander : The Series was an international co @-@ production , the producers cast a French @-@ speaking actor to play Tessa . Producer Gary Goodman explained that they wanted someone " ... that would be appealing on a television screen ... in the sense that you were comfortable with her accent and her character " . They chose Belgian actress Alexandra Vandernoot because she " ... was able to be exotic , pretty and not so unfamiliar to an American audience that she was accepted . " Vandernoot recalled , " I think I was quite close to Tessa , she was very well written , very easy to play and I wish I was like that . I 'm not sure I 'd like that but ... it 's very nice , you know , to play a character with nice feelings and nice emotions . " Vandernoot had to adapt to the North American way of filming series and learn to work fast . She said that filming the series was " ... exhausting but formative " , and that filming in English was " challenging " . Vandernoot , who is a native French speaker , had a dialect coach . Vandernoot and Paul created a strong on @-@ screen relationship between their characters . David Abramowitz , creative consultant from the second season onwards , said , " When I saw her and Adrian together , I thought that if I died , and there was a Mount Olympus , that the two of them would be standing together with thunderbolts around them . They were god @-@ like . They were so beautiful and had such presence . " Paul said that he was " detached " from the fictional relationship between Tessa and MacLeod , but that " ... it was a good relationship " . Later , he said he " ... was sad to see it go . " Producer Barry Rosen said , " We were very lucky that [ Vandernoot and Kirsch ] were so human @-@ grounded , so we could really play off of them and the way they looked at things that [ Paul ] went through . They were also able to get into real @-@ life situations , romances , getting in trouble , jealousies and so on . " Although Vandernoot and Kirsch are three years apart in age ( Vandernoot being the older of the two ) , on set Vandernoot treated Kirsch like a young boy , while Kirsch seemed to her like a younger brother because of his youthful appearance . = = Death = = In 1993 , Vandernoot wanted to leave the show because shooting Highlander was too demanding and required her to spend several months each year in Canada . Vandernoot also wanted to spend more time with her family . According to Abramowitz , a further , artistic , reason was that " ... a small part of [ Vandernoot ] being a really strong actress wanted to play a more aggressive part in the show and sadly , the nature of the beast was that it couldn 't happen and she made a decision . " Panzer said that creating interesting female characters in the Highlander franchise was often a challenge because the producers found it difficult to " ... have the women be something other than a victim , a hostage , other things when [ one is ] dealing with an immortal hero . " Consequently , the creative staff needed to write Tessa out of the show but were restricted because of the character 's strong relationship with MacLeod . Associate Creative Consultant Gillian Horvath said that , " There was no way ... to have a scene where she said , ' Okay , I 'm going to go to Paris without you . Nice knowing you , MacLeod . ' " The writers decided that the only solution was for Tessa to die , despite Abramowitz 's feeling that her death was " ... sad " and " ... heartbreaking " . Tessa 's death occurs in the fourth episode of the second season ; " The Darkness " . The creative staff decided Tessa would die in a random carjacking incident . Tessa 's death played no role in the episode 's main storyline . It was not formulaic ; the writers wanted to shock the audience . Abramowitz said that " ... it would have been easier to kill her off in the episode , " but the writers " ... wanted it to be a surprise and show how shocking [ Tessa 's death ] was to [ them ] . " Horvath said that " ... losing a loved one to a random act of violence isn 't something that only happens to television action heroes or Immortals or people in another type of life , it happens in the real world too- totally unexpectedly , at a moment that makes no sense dramatically . " Tessa 's death scene shows MacLeod kneeling next to Tessa and cuddling her , then Richie reviving and speaking with MacLeod . During the filming of the episode , however , no dialog was recorded . The final version of the episode shown in North America did not show Richie revive . The European version showed Richie reviving , but no dialog was present . This scene was later re @-@ recorded in Paris in 1994 during the filming of the season finale " Counterfeit Part Two " , this time including the dialog . However , this footage was not seen in the final version ; the footage was eventually used in the season four episode " Leader of the Pack " . = = = Viewers ' reception = = = " The Darkness " had the desired effect ; Lineberger wrote that " I was taken aback by the dark tone and emotional range generated by this episode . Highlander is a fantasy series , yet I cared about the characters as though I know them ... Vandernoot gave Tessa such vitality and charm that her death left me reeling . " Abramowitz said that Tessa 's death strongly angered many viewers , and that " ... people hated me for killing her . " The audience became angrier still when in the following episode , " Eye For An Eye " , MacLeod made love to Immortal Annie Devlin . Abramowitz explained the creative decision of his staff by saying that " ... someone once told me that death was an aphrodisiac . It 's a thing that pushes you to life and the greatest thing in life , that 's ' seize life ' , is sex . " Lineberger wrote in his review of " Eye For An Eye " , " This one caused an uproar — one I feel is justified . [ Abramowitz ] gave a defense ( in my opinion a weak one ) ( ... ) I have a high tolerance for insensitive guy stuff , but this got to me . When Duncan rolled into Annie 's arms , part of me smirked in appreciation of Duncan 's magnetic charm . But the rest of me found his actions cruel to the viewers . " Abramowitz confirmed that " ... the fans hated it . And the women wanted to string me up . I was a ' cad ' and a ' card ' ... " Paul also reported an angry reaction from the audience after the seventh episode , " The Return of Amanda " , in which MacLeod sleeps with Amanda . Tessa 's death was a turning point in Highlander : The Series . It marked the first time that a regular character died in the show ; it would be followed by the deaths of Charlie DeSalvo and Richie Ryan . Horvath recalled that " ... it changed the tone of the show . It made Highlander the show where you couldn 't be positive that the characters were safe because they were in the credits . " Tessa 's death also gave the show a pessimistic tone that influenced the remaining characters . Rosen explained that " ... in the years that followed without her and with [ Kirsch 's character ] becoming Immortal , ( ... ) you had to play the show differently . " Lineberger said that " Richie and Duncan relate to each other differently from now on , and Duncan is bereft of much of his joy [ and ] moodier as well . Tessa is no longer around to lighten him . " = = = " Counterfeit " = = = Tessa remained extremely popular with the audience after her death , prompting the producers to develop the season two finale episode " Counterfeit " to bring her back . According to Kirsch , Vandernoot did not realize her , or her character 's , popularity before attending conventions . Paul said that Vandernoot was surprised that her character had so much influence on the show and that her return was " ... fun for her to do , especially to play a different character which was similar to Tessa but also had an evil intent to her . " The " Counterfeit " story features the character Lisa undergoing plastic surgery to become Tessa 's double . Lisa was played by Meilani Paul before the surgery and by Vandernoot after it . The producers wondered whether the story needed to explain the change in Lisa 's voice , as she would be played by a different actor . They considered suggesting that her voice changed because of the surgery , then decided that Lisa would have voice training . After her operation , Lisa speaks with Vandernoot 's voice when posing as Tessa , and with Meilani Paul 's voice when the character was not acting . This was achieved using automated dialogue replacement during post @-@ production . Adrian Paul said that Vandernoot portrayed Lisa as a smoker to mark her out as a different character from Tessa . Paul also said that his lovemaking scene with Vandernoot had to reflect the different relationship between MacLeod and Lisa from that between MacLeod and Tessa . According to Paul , Lisa was more like a temptress to MacLeod than was Tessa . According to Panzer , the original script featured Horton sending Lisa to kill MacLeod on the latter 's barge . After reading the draft script , Adrian Paul thought the idea of Lisa trying to kill MacLeod on Tessa 's grave would have a more dramatic effect . = = Critical reception = = Bill Panzer said that Tessa became popular with the program 's audience . Rob Lineberger called Tessa " ... beautiful and spirited , " and said that " ... she is the perfect mortal foil for MacLeod 's heavy concerns . She lightens and strengthens him . " Reviewer Abbie Bernstein of the Audio Video Revolution website wrote that Tessa was " ... depicted not as a screechy , in @-@ the @-@ dark Lois Lane but rather as a woman who handles her lover ’ s supernatural aspects with remarkable pragmatism . " Berstein added that Tessa was " estimable " and " ... an unusually gutsy love interest ( not to mention a refreshing sexually active heroine , as opposed to the coy ' sexual tension ' -generating females who usually populate the genre ) . " Other reviewers had a more negative opinion . Reviewer Gord Lacey of TVShowsOnDVD.com " ... found it odd that everyone liked Tessa because [ he ] found her rather annoying . " Reviewer Doug Anderson of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that Tessa was " ... too arty and sympathetic to serve any purpose other than an emotional spur for the hero 's vengeance . " Reviewer David M. Gutierrez , also of DVDVerdict.com , noted the " ... strong on @-@ screen chemistry between Tessa and MacLeod . " So did Lineberger : " One gets the feeling they have been together for years , though the series is fresh out of the box , " and he added , " Together , they are a model couple . They have healthy banter , intense arguments , plenty of romance , and an easy comfort with each other . " Bernstein wrote ; " Paul and Vandernoot are charming separately and together " . Joanne Ostrow of The Denver Post wrote that " Paul and Vandernoot don 't look like typical American TV @-@ style bimbos and hunks , and for good reason . They were cast to appeal internationally . " Discussing Vandernoot 's performance , Lineberger called her a " ... gifted actor " , saying that " ... she has the poise , restraint , and grace to be both sensual and frustrated , accomplished yet vulnerable , mortal but aware of greater concerns . " John Goff of Variety noted that Vandernoot was " attractive " and Anderson called her a " ... Michelle Pfeiffer look @-@ alike . " Reviewing the episode " Counterfeit " , Gutierrez wrote that " ... despite the fact that the having an exact twin of Tessa 's pop up is flatly ludicrous , it plays out due to MacLeod 's desire to have Tessa back overriding his sense of reason . ( ... ) Vandernoot likes the Tessa character quite a bit and gave me the impression she was sad to see her go , " and that she " ... looks like she enjoys playing the good / bad Lisa . Her triple performance as Tessa shows Vandernoot 's range . " Kathie Huddleston of Scifi.com felt that " ... a visit from Tessa in " Counterfeit " , even an evil Tessa look @-@ alike , is a welcome nod to a significant character from the first season , and it gave our boy Duncan a moment or two to reflect on his recent lost love . "

= M @-@ 5 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 5 , commonly referred to as Grand River Avenue and the northern section as the Haggerty Connector , is a 20 @.@ 807 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 33 @.@ 486 km ) state trunkline highway in the Metro Detroit area of the US state of Michigan . The highway runs through suburbs in Oakland and Wayne counties in addition to part of Detroit itself . It starts in Commerce Township as a north – south divided highway and freeway called the Haggerty Connector and connects with Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) in Novi . The freeway then turns southeasterly to bypass the suburb of Farmington as an east – west highway . The freeway ends on the southeast side of Farmington , and M @-@ 5 follows Grand River Avenue as boulevard into Detroit . The eastern terminus is at an interchange with I @-@ 96 in Detroit . The trunkline passes between suburban residential subdivisions and along urban commercial areas while serving 17 @,@ 200 – 68 @,@ 800 vehicles on average each day . Grand River Avenue started as the path of an early wagon trail in the Michigan Territory , carrying settlers from Detroit inland along a route previously used by Native Americans . It was later a plank road that helped to connect Detroit with the state capital of Lansing and Grand Rapids . When the state highway system was signed in 1919 , the avenue was numbered as part of M @-@ 16 . Later it became US Highway 16 ( US 16 ) . Grand River Avenue was supposed to be the path for I @-@ 96 from Novi into downtown Detroit , and a section of freeway now used by M @-@ 5 was constructed as part of I @-@ 96 before the Interstate was rerouted to a different location . In the 1990s another section of freeway , which was originally proposed for a northern extension of I @-@ 275 , was opened . This freeway called the Haggerty Connector was added to M @-@ 5 . Additional projects have extended the highway farther north and added a roundabout to the northern terminus . A different highway was previously designated M @-@ 5 in another area of the state in the 1930s . = = Route description = = M @-@ 5 starts at a roundabout intersection with Pontiac Trail in Commerce Township . It runs south @-@ southwesterly from here in Oakland County as a divided highway between suburban residential subdivisions in the township . South of Maple Road , the highway is bordered by commercial developments to the east and Long Park to the west as it angles southeasterly . Between 14 and 13 Mile roads , the highway is once again bounded by subdivisions . Along this part of the trunkline , access to the road is limited to major intersections only , making the highway an expressway . Immediately south of the 13 Mile Road intersection , M @-@ 5 's median widens out as the highway transitions to a full freeway called the Haggerty Connector . Traffic can only access the highway at grade @-@ separated interchanges instead of at @-@ grade intersections . A collector @-@ distributor lane setup parallels the main freeway lanes proving access to the ramps at the 12 Mile Road interchange as well as ramps from the massive interchange with I @-@ 96 , I @-@ 275 and I @-@ 696 . Through this interchange complex that straddles the Novi – Farmington Hills city line , M @-@ 5 turns to the southeast , and signage changes direction . The Haggerty Connector is signed north – south , while the rest of M @-@ 5 is signed east – west . M @-@ 5 has direct connections with ramps to I @-@ 696 and I @-@ 96 east / I @-@ 275 south as it crosses over into Farmington Hills . The next interchange for the M @-@ 5 freeway connects to Grand River Avenue and 10 Mile Road . This section of the freeway bypasses residential areas of Farmington Hills . Further east , M @-@ 5 crosses into Farmington where it bypasses the downtown area of the suburb . Past 9 Mile Road , the freeway ends at the intersection with Grand River Avenue , and M @-@ 5 follows Grand River southeasterly as a boulevard , a type of divided street . Traffic that wishes to make left turns must use a Michigan left maneuver along this section of the highway . Additionally , traffic that needs to change sides of the street must use crossovers in the median to perform a U @-@ turn . Once again running through suburban Farmington Hills , the trunkline passes Botsford Hospital before intersecting 8 Mile Road . This intersection marks the place where M @-@ 5 crosses into Wayne County , and the western terminus of the M @-@ 102 designation on 8 Mile Road . Grand River Avenue runs through the northern section of Redford Township in Wayne County and crosses into Detroit at the intersection with 7 Mile Road and 5 Points Street . The northwest corner of Detroit is mostly residential as M @-@ 5 intersects US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . Past Telegraph , Grand River Avenue forms the northern boundary of the Grand Lawn Cemetery and later the southern boundary of the New Rogell Golf Course . The properties bordering M @-@ 5 transition to commercial use past these two green spaces , and the highway continues southeasterly through the city as an undivided street . Grand River Avenue intersects Outer Drive near several businesses . M @-@ 5 crosses over M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) near the intersection with Fenkell Street , which would be 5 Mile Road in the Detroit grid system . The residential areas off the adjacent side streets increase in density east of the Southfield Freeway . M @-@ 5 ends at the interchange with I @-@ 96 between Schoolcraft and Plymouth roads in the middle of another larger commercial zone ; Grand River Avenue continues from this location as an unsigned highway numbered internally as OLD BS I @-@ 96 all the way into downtown . M @-@ 5 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 5 were the 68 @,@ 793 vehicles daily between 12 and 13 Mile roads ; the lowest counts were the 17 @,@ 176 vehicles per day southeast of Schoolcraft Road to I @-@ 96 . All of M @-@ 5 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The trunkline is six- or eight @-@ lanes wide along the freeway section to the north and west of the Grand River Avenue interchange ; south and east of there it is a four @-@ lane freeway or six @-@ lane highway all the way to I @-@ 96 . = = History = = = = = Previous designation = = = Starting in 1933 , M @-@ 5 was used as the designation along a section of highway that was previously part of US 2 in Mackinac and Chippewa counties in the Upper Peninsula . This designation was in use until 1939 when it was replaced by M @-@ 129 . = = = Current designation = = = = = = = Grand River Avenue = = = = The chief transportation routes in 1701 were the Indian trails that crossed the future state of Michigan ; the Grand River Trail was one of these thirteen trails at the time . Detroit created 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principal streets of the city , Grand River Avenue included , in 1805 . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit . A ten @-@ year project to construct a plank road between Detroit and Howell was authorized in 1820 along the Grand River Trail . Grand River Avenue was included as one of Five Great Military Roads in 1825 , along with the River Road , Michigan Avenue , Woodward Avenue and Gratiot Avenue . The Grand River Road , precursor to the modern Grand River Avenue was named by Benjamin Williams , cofounder of Owosso ; it was named for La Grande Riviere , the French name for the river . The opening of the Erie Canal in New York in 1826 brought new settlers to the Great Lakes region , and to the future state of Michigan . Many of these settlers began their inland journeys in Detroit . At first the Grand River Road was a " deep rutted , ditch bordered road " . The Grand River Road was a major route for settlers headed inland to Grand Rapids in 1836 , as the shortest route for travelers coming from Detroit . In 1850 , the Michigan State Legislature established the Lansing and Howell Plank Road Company , which set about converting various Indian trails into the Lansing – Howell Plank Road , a task the company completed by 1853 . At Howell the road connected with the Detroit – Howell Plank Road , establishing the first improved connection direct from the state capital to Michigan 's largest metropolis . The Lansing – Detroit Plank Road was a toll road until the 1880s . It eventually evolved into the eastern part of the modern Grand River Avenue . By 1900 , only a short stretch of the Detroit – Howell Plank Road was still make of planks ; most of the other plank roads had been converted to gravel by this time . When the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) had numbered and signed highways in the state in 1919 , it applied the M @-@ 16 number to Grand River Avenue across the state between Grand Haven and Detroit . The M @-@ 16 designation lasted for seven years . As the states were meeting with the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO , now AASHTO ) to plan the United States Numbered Highway System , the route of M @-@ 16 was originally planned to be included in US 18 . When the system was announced on November 11 , 1926 , Grand River Avenue and M @-@ 16 became part of US 16 . The first change to the US 16 routing in the Detroit area was made in 1933 when the highway was moved to bypass Farmington , with the old routing retained as a state highway . = = = = Metro Detroit freeways = = = = MSHD had plans to upgrade the US 16 corridor to freeway standards in the middle of the 20th century . The first planning map in 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System showed a highway in the corridor . The General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas Designated in September 1955 , or Yellow Book after the cover color , showed generalized plans for the locations of Interstate Highways as designated in 1955 . This also included a highway in the US 16 corridor . The 1957 approval for the Interstate Highway System replaced much of US 16 with a portion of Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . MSHD submitted a recommended numbering plan for the Interstates in 1958 that showed I @-@ 96 following the US 16 corridor . The segments of the road between Brighton and Farmington were upgraded in 1956 . The MSHD initially signed the various freeways as Interstates in 1959 , and US 16 through the Farmington area gained the additional I @-@ 96 numbering . Two years later , the business route through Farmington was redesignated as a business loop of I @-@ 96 instead of US 16 . The final connection for I @-@ 96 between Lansing and Brighton was completed in late 1962 , and the US 16 designation was decommissioned in the state . The sections of highway through the Detroit metro area were given Business Loop ( BL ) or Business Spur ( BS ) I @-@ 96 designations . When I @-@ 96 was completed in 1977 , several highway designations were shifted in the Metro Detroit area . The BS I @-@ 96 designation was removed from Grand River Avenue . Rather than revert to its original number , M @-@ 16 , MDOT selected M @-@ 5 as the new highway designation . Grand River was signed as M @-@ 5 between 8 Mile Road and its present eastern terminus at I @-@ 96 while leaving Grand River Avenue southeast of I @-@ 96 an unsigned state trunkline , OLD BS I @-@ 96 . Both the portion of BS I @-@ 96 north of 8 Mile Road and the stub of I @-@ 96 that continued out to I @-@ 275 became part of M @-@ 102 . = = = = Haggerty Connector = = = = A freeway running north of Novi to the Davisburg area was included in the original Interstate Highway plans for Michigan . Originally included in the corridor for I @-@ 275 , the Michigan Highway Commission canceled the northern section of the highway on January 26 , 1977 , after it spent $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( equivalent to $ 6 @.@ 65 million in 2016 ) the year before purchasing land for the roadway . This northern section was not planned as an Interstate Highway at that time , bearing the designation M @-@ 275 instead . Opposition to construction came from various citizen 's groups and different levels of local government . Additionally , both The Detroit News and Detroit Free Press opposed the project . The Detroit City Council , led by then @-@ Chairman Carl Levin opposed the plan . Levin said at the time , " At last I think people are waking up to the dangers of more and more expressways . At some point we 've got to say enough . And I think we 've reached it . " The US Department of the Interior reviewed the state 's environmental impact study of the project and stated the project , " will cause irreparable damages on recreation lands , wetlands , surface waters and wildlife habitat . " The total project to link Farmington Hills with Davisburg with the 24 @-@ mile ( 39 km ) freeway would have cost $ 69 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 271 million in 2016 ) and saved drivers an estimated eight minutes off travel time around the city of Detroit . After many years of inactivity , further work began along this same route , but the resulting highway was designated as a northern extension to M @-@ 5 rather than I @-@ 275 or M @-@ 275 . The first section of this freeway extension was opened in October 1994 . This extended the route from M @-@ 5 's previous terminus at M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) over the latter highway 's alignment west and north to 12 Mile Road . A plan enacted by then Governor John Engler in 1995 angered road officials when funding was diverted from county road commissions to help complete state highway projects like the M @-@ 5 Haggerty Connector project . In 1999 , a second extension of M @-@ 5 was completed to 14 Mile Road , but only as an expressway . The final two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) between 14 Mile Road and Pontiac Trail opened to traffic on November 1 , 2002 . In 2011 , a roundabout was placed at the northern terminus of M @-@ 5 . This last project also included a northern extension of roadway into the Eldorado Golf Course in Commerce Township to better serve the community . This extension does not carry the M @-@ 5 designation . = = Exit list = = All exits are unnumbered .

= McAllister Tower Apartments = McAllister Tower Apartments is a 28 @-@ story , 94 m ( 308 ft ) residential apartment skyscraper at 100 McAllister Street in San Francisco , California . The property is owned and operated by the University of California , Hastings College of the Law . The tower includes mixed @-@ use offices on various floors , and the Art Deco @-@ styled " Sky Room " with a panoramic view on the 24th floor . Conceived as an unusual combination of a large church surmounted by a hotel , construction of the building brought architectural dispute . Initially designed by Timothy L. Pflueger in the style of Gothic Revival , the investors fired his firm and hired Lewis P. Hobart , who changed little of Pflueger 's design . In a resulting lawsuit , Pflueger won nearly half the damages he asked for . The building opened in 1930 as the William Taylor Hotel and Temple Methodist Episcopal Church . However , extra construction expenses had put the congregation at greater financial risk , and the church @-@ hotel concept did not prove popular . No profit was made in six years , and the church left , losing their investment . In the late 1930s the building housed the Empire Hotel , known for its Sky Room lounge , then from World War II to the 1970s , 100 McAllister served as U.S. government offices . Reopening as university housing and offices in 1981 , McAllister Tower is home to some 300 law students and their families . " The Tower " is sited one block from the administrative and scholastic center of Hastings College of the Law , and is the most prominent building in the district . = = History = = = = = Church and hotel = = = The skyscraper at 100 McAllister began in 1920 with a plan formulated by Reverend Walter John Sherman to merge four of the largest Methodist Episcopal congregations in San Francisco , sell their various churches and properties and combine their assets to build a " superchurch " with a hotel on top of it . From their initial $ 800 @,@ 000 they bought property at McAllister and Leavenworth streets and hired the architectural firm of Miller and Pflueger to design the edifice . Timothy L. Pflueger was chosen as the designer . The new hotel , intended to be " dry " ( serving no alcoholic beverages ) in the " sinful " city , was to be named after William Taylor , a Methodist Episcopal street preacher and missionary who formed the first Methodist church in San Francisco . The large church was named Temple Methodist Episcopal Church , or simply " Temple Methodist " . Beginning in 1925 , Pflueger designed a 308 ft ( 94 m ) , 28 @-@ story , step @-@ back skyscraper made of brick framed with steel , along the lines of his just @-@ completed Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company Building . Its main decorative theme was neo @-@ Gothic , expressed strongly in the three Gothic arches which formed the main street @-@ level entrance for the church . The Great Hall , the large worship area located within the second , third and fourth floors was to seat 1 @,@ 500 churchgoers and a smaller chapel was designed for 125 more . A grand pipe organ from Skinner Organ Company was installed with four manuals controlling 3 @,@ 881 pipes . A stained glass window was placed 80 feet above the sanctuary , representing Faith , Love and Hope in three tall , narrow panels . Two assembly halls could be combined to hold 1 @,@ 100 attendees for theatrical or athletic events . Some 500 guest rooms and 32 tower apartments were intended to bring a steady flow of visitors and a source of profit to the church . Though never the tallest building in San Francisco , it was to be the tallest hotel on the Pacific Coast for many decades . In a dispute , the architectural firm of Miller and Pflueger was fired from the project , and was replaced by Lewis P. Hobart . Miller and Pflueger sued for $ 81 @,@ 600 , alleging that Hobart 's design was little changed from Pflueger 's original . Three months after the hotel and church opened in January 1930 , Miller and Pflueger won $ 38 @,@ 000 in a favorable court decision . Dedication of the church 's pipe organ took place August 31 , 1930 . The combined congregation was very satisfied with their new place of worship . Eventually costing US $ 2 @.@ 8 million ( $ 40 million in current value ) , the building 's completion required several rounds of new financing from its investors in order to overcome unanticipated expenses . Unfortunately for the congregation , the idea of a hotel above a church didn 't attract the requisite number of guests and the venture failed to turn a profit . From 1990 through 2001 , the church housed the theater of George Coates Performance Works – an experimental multi @-@ media theater troupe that utilized the 60 foot high vaulted ceiling for projections . = = = Empire Hotel = = = By November 1936 , enough debt had accumulated that a bondholder 's protective committee foreclosed on the property , buying it back for $ 750 @,@ 000 . The Temple Methodist congregation lost its investment and was asked to leave . The Skinner Opus pipe organ was removed to be sold to Occidental College in Los Angeles and rebuilt in their Thorne Hall . The three @-@ piece stained glass window was removed and exhibited , eventually making its way to Stockton , California where it was installed in the Morris Chapel at the University of the Pacific . The 100 McAllister building itself was refurbished : the church 's floor area was given over to parking , a coffee shop was built in part of the first floor lobby and the new enterprise opened again as the Empire Hotel , noted for completing , in 1938 , the first view lounge in the area , the Sky Room on the 24th floor . With plush carpeting , a large Art Deco @-@ style oval bar , and plate glass windows on all sides , the Sky Room provided a panoramic view of the city . Architect & Engineer wrote of the luxurious bar in April , 1938 , that it " has no prototype west of New York " , referring to Manhattan 's Rainbow Room which opened three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years earlier . = = = Federal offices = = = At the beginning of direct American involvement in World War II , the U.S. government bought the building and converted it to federal offices , officer billets , spaces used by the Army 's Ordnance Procurement department , a passport agency and an induction center run by the local draft board . The high vaulted ceiling of the Great Hall worship center was hidden by a dropped ceiling . After the war , the Internal Revenue Service moved offices into the building . Many federal groups at 100 McAllister moved their offices in 1959 – 1960 to the newly built federal building at 450 Golden Gate Avenue , later named the Phillip Burton Federal Building . Occupancy at 100 McAllister was low , though the United States Army Corps of Engineers moved their San Francisco District offices there in the 1960s , and local draftees were still required to appear there through the late 1960s . The San Francisco Selective Service System offices were located in the lower floors of the building during the Vietnam War . = = = UC Hastings = = = In 1978 , the University of California , Hastings College of the Law bought the building , the most prominent in the Tenderloin district , and began two years of refurbishment and redesign . Calling it " McAllister Tower " , 248 units were modernized for residential use by law students , and the building opened in 1981 with a combination of compact studio units as well as larger one- and two @-@ bedroom apartments taking up a total of 17 floors . The building , home to about 300 law students and their families , is casually referred to as " the Tower " by Hastings residents and faculty , who have but a one @-@ block commute to the law school 's main building at 200 McAllister . The old Sky Room with its spectacular 360 @-@ degree view reopened in 1999 as the James Edgar Hervey Skyroom , in honor of alumnus James Edgar Hervey , Class of 1950 , a prominent San Diego trial lawyer . It is used as a space for student study by day ( no alcohol allowed ) and is available for special events in the evenings . Other floors of the building hold offices , apartments and residential conveniences . The mezzanine level contains a compact fitness center , the third and fourth floors contain classrooms and offices for political action groups and legal assistance organizations , and the 22nd and 23rd floors hold publishing headquarters for a number of scholarly journals . The Great Hall remains un @-@ refurbished and has been judged by UC Hastings to be in need of substantial repair and improvement , including major architectural engineering work . The college has plans to create a 400 @-@ seat performing arts venue within the Great Hall .

= Karamokho Alfa = Karamokho Alfa ( born Ibrahima Musa Sambeghu and sometimes called Alfa Ibrahim ) ( died c . 1751 ) was a Fula religious leader who led a jihad that created the Imamate of Futa Jallon in what is now Guinea . This was one of the first of the Fulbe jihads that established Muslim states in West Africa . Alfa Ba , Karamoko Alfa 's father , formed a coalition of Muslim Fulbe and called for the jihad in 1725 , but died before the struggle began . The jihad was launched around 1726 @-@ 1727 . After a crucial , concluding victory at Talansan , the state was established at a meeting of nine Fulbe ulama who each represented one of the Futa Jallon provinces . Ibrahima Sambeghu , who became known as Karamokho Alfa , was the hereditary ruler of Timbo and one of the nine ulama . He was elected leader of the jihad . Under his leadership , Futa Jallon became the first Muslim state to be founded by the Fulbe . Despite this , Karamokho Alfa was constrained by the other eight ulama . Some of the other Ulama had more secular power than Karamokho Alfa , who directly ruled only the diwal of Timbo ; for this reason the new state was always a tenuous confederation . Karamoko Alfa ruled the theocratic state until 1748 , when his excessive devotions caused him to become mentally unstable and Sori was selected as de facto leader . Karamokho Alfa died around 1751 and was formally succeeded by Ibrahim Sori , his cousin . = = Background = = The Futa Jallon is the highland region where the Senegal and Gambia rivers rise . In the fifteenth century the valleys were occupied by Mandé peoples - Susu and Yalunka farmers . Around that time , Fulbe herders began moving into the region , grazing their livestock on the plateaux . At first they peacefully accepted a subordinate position to the Susu and Yalunka . The Fulbe and Mandé peoples intermixed to some extent , and the more sedentary of the Fulbe came to look down on their pastoral cousins . Europeans began to establish trading posts on the upper Guinea coast in the seventeenth century , stimulating a growing trade in hides and slaves . The pastoral Fulbe expanded their herds to meet the demand for hides . They began to compete for land with the agriculturalists , and became interested in the profitable slave trade . They were increasingly influenced by their Muslim trading partners . In the last quarter of the seventeenth century the Zawāyā reformer Nasir al @-@ Din launched a jihad to restore purity of religious observance in the Futa Toro region to the north . He gained support from the Torodbe clerical clan against the warriors , but by 1677 the movement had been defeated . Some of the Torodbe migrated south to Bundu and some continued on to the Futa Jallon . The Torodbe , the kinsmen of the Fulbe of the Futa Jallon , influenced them in embracing a more militant form of Islam . = = Jihad = = Alfa Ba , Karamoko Alfa 's father , formed a coalition of Muslim Fulbe and called for the jihad in 1725 , but died before the struggle began . The jihad was launched around 1726 or 1727 . The movement was primarily religious , and its leaders included both Mandé and Fulbe marabouts . The jihad also attracted some formerly non @-@ Muslim Fulbe , who associated it not just with Islam but with freedom of the Fulbe from subordination to the Mandé peoples . It was opposed by other non @-@ Muslim Fulbe and by non @-@ Muslim Yalunka leaders . According to tradition , Ibrahim Sori symbolically launched the war in 1727 by destroying the great ceremonial drum of the Yalunka people with his sword . The jihadists then won a major victory at Talansan . A force of 99 Muslims defeated a non @-@ Muslim force ten times greater , killing many of their opponents . After this victory the state was established at a meeting of nine Fulbe ulama who each represented one of the Futa Jallon provinces . Ibrahima Sambeghu , who became known as Karamokho Alfa , was the hereditary ruler of Timbo and one of the nine ulama . He was elected leader of the jihad . He took the title almami , or " the Imam " . Under his leadership Futa Jallon became the first Muslim state to be founded by the Fulbe . Karamoko Alfa managed to enlist disadvantaged groups such as gangs of young men , outlaws and slaves . Karamokho Alfa 's maternal cousin was Maka Jiba , the ruler of Bundu , and both men studied in Fugumba under the famous scholar Tierno Samba . However , there are no records of Bundu participation in the Futa Jallon jihad , perhaps because of the internal troubles in Bundu at that time , or perhaps because Maka Jiba was not greatly interested in the cause . Although he was an inspired religious leader , Karamoko Alfa was not qualified as a military leader . Ibrahim Sori took this role . Some of the population resisted conversion for many years , particularly the nomadic Fulbe herders . They rightly feared that the marabouts would abuse their authority . = = Ruler = = Karamokho Alfa was constrained by the other eight ulama , each of whom ruled their own province , or diwal . The structure of the new Fulbe state had an almami at its head , Karamokho Alfa being the first , with his political capital at Timbo . However , some of the other Ulama had more secular power than Karamokho Alfa , who directly ruled only the diwal of Timbo . The religious capital was at Fugumba , where the council of the alama sat . The council operated as a strong curb on the power of the almami , and the ulama retained much autonomy , so the new state was always a loose federation . Karamokho Alfa was known for his Islamic scholarship and piety . He respected the rights of the old " masters of the soil " , saying " it was Allah who had established them . " Despite this ruling , the imams reserved the right to reassign land , since they held it in trust for the people . In effect the existing property owners were not displaced , but now had to pay Zakāt as a form of rent . Karamoko Alfa ruled the theocratic state until 1748 , when his excessive devotions caused him to become mentally unstable and Sori was selected as de facto leader . = = Legacy = = Karamokho Alfa died around 1751 and was formally succeeded by Ibrahim Sori , his cousin . Ibrahim Sori Mawdo was chosen because Alfa Saadibu , son of Karamoko Alfa , was too young . Ibrahim Sori was an aggressive military commander who initiated a series of wars . After many years of conflict , Ibrahim Sori achieved a decisive victory in 1776 that consolidated the power of the Fulbe state . The jihad had achieved its goals and Ibrahim Sori assumed the title of almami . Under Ibrahima Sori slaves were sold to obtain munitions needed for the wars . This was considered acceptable as long as the slaves were not Muslim . The jihad created a valuable supply of slaves from the defeated peoples that may have provided a motive for further conquests . The Fulbe ruling class became wealthy slave owners and slave traders . Slave villages were founded , whose inhabitants provided food for their Fulba masters to consume or sell . At one time more than half the population were slaves . As of 2013 the Fulbe were the largest ethnic group in Guinea at 40 % of the population , after the Malinke ( 30 % ) and Susu ( 20 % ) . The jihad in Futa Jallon was followed by a jihad in Futa Toro between 1769 and 1776 led by Sileymaani Baal . The largest of the Fulani jihads was led by the scholar Usman dan Fodio and established the Sokoto Caliphate in 1808 , stretching across what is now the north of Nigeria . The Fulbe Muslim state of Masina was established to the south of Timbuktu in 1818 . Karamokho Alfa came to be thought of as a saint . A story is told of a miracle that occurred more than a hundred years after his death . The chief of the Ouassoulounké , Kondé Buraima , opened Karamokho Alfa 's tomb and cut off the left hand of the body . Blood poured from the severed wrist , causing Kondé Buraima to flee in terror .

= Murder of Tom ap Rhys Pryce = Thomas Mervyn " Tom " ap Rhys Pryce ( 13 October 1974 – 12 January 2006 ) was a 31 @-@ year @-@ old British lawyer who was robbed and murdered by two black teenagers as he made his way home in Kensal Green , northwest London , on 12 January 2006 . The two , Donnel Carty and Delano Brown , showed little or no remorse and were sentenced to life imprisonment . The crime gained national notoriety for the particularly brutal way in which Pryce was murdered , only metres from his own home , and had only his Oyster card and mobile phone taken from him , but no money ( the case being widely reported as an example of steaming ) . The murderers were later tracked down when the police examined CCTV footage of where the Oyster card was used after the murder . The crime caused a political uproar and condemnation of railway station security . The Tom ap Rhys Pryce Memorial Trust was set up after the murder , and a school was built in his honour . = = Life of Tom ap Rhys Pryce = = Tom ap Rhys Pryce was a 31 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer who worked for Linklaters , a leading London corporate law firm . Pryce was born in Broxbourne , Hertfordshire , England . At the age of three , the Pryce family moved to Somalia after Pryce 's father , John , a civil engineer , was sent to work there as part of a project to build a sugar factory , there he " enjoyed an idyllic early childhood " . After 18 months they returned home to Hertfordshire before moving in 1980 to the family home in Weybridge where Tom grew up . His ancestry was one well known within the military and among his ancestors was his great @-@ grandfather , General Sir Henry Edward ap Rhys Pryce ( 1874 – 1950 ) . At 13 , Tom won an academic and music exhibition which was later upgraded to a full scholarship at 16 to attend Marlborough College , Wiltshire , England . There he achieved passes at A @-@ levels in Greek , Latin and English Literature , with three grade As . From there Pryce went on to gain a First @-@ Class honours at Trinity College , Cambridge in June 1996 , where he read Classics staying on to study for a masters . Pryce was also known to be a talented musician and lived on Bathurst Gardens , Kensal Green in a flat which he shared with his fiancée Adele Eastman , 31 , a solicitor specialising in employment law with Farrer & Co , the Queen 's solicitors . = = Events of 12 January 2006 = = Childhood friends , Donnel Carty , 18 , and Delano Brown , 17 , had earlier that evening robbed chef Kurshid Ali , a middle @-@ aged man in Kensal Green station , 20 minutes before Pryce arrived at the station on his way home from work . Pryce was walking from Kensal Green Tube station at about 2300 to 2330 GMT , when he was attacked . According to witness reports , Pryce was running along Bathurst Gardens from two black youths . According to testimony from Delano Brown , Donnel Carty stabbed Pryce after they had chased him from Kensal Green Tube station where police found a trail of blood and belongings , including a pair of gloves and papers regarding Pryce 's wedding arrangements . As the youths chased Pryce , Carty " fly @-@ kicked " him in the back and he dropped to the floor . As Pryce attempted to stand up , Carty kicked him in the face . Trying to get away , Pryce began to fight Carty , as Carty stopped him . Some time during this Pryce was stabbed twice in the chest and once in the hip , the wounds penetrating vital organs including his heart . He also suffered cuts to his head , hands and torso . As Pryce 's belongings lay scattered around him , Carty and Brown took Pryce 's mobile phone and Oyster card , the only possessions of value Pryce was carrying . Carty then shouted ' What else have you got ? ' to which Pryce responded ' Nothing . You have got everything ' . Carty and Brown then ran off towards Clifford Gardens , heading to Carty 's home leaving Pryce dying on the ground . Pryce was later taken to Central Middlesex Hospital , where he was confirmed dead shortly after midnight . The scene of the crime which took place along Bathurst Gardens showed the course of events of the violent confrontation . Pryce 's book and gloves were lying outside No 56 , a silver Audi car was smeared with blood outside No 82 and a list of wedding venues outside 84 . Pryce was found collapsed in the gutter between parked cars outside No 90 . = = Donnel Carty and Delano Brown = = Carty and Brown were , according to Brown , childhood friends who thought of each other as cousins . Carty lived with his grandparents in Burrows Road , Kensal Green , and Brown lived with his mother in Rosebank Avenue , Sudbury , northwest London . Carty had one conviction for assaulting a police officer when he was 16 years old , and a caution for possessing cannabis . Brown had no previous convictions . The pair were members of a violent gang calling itself the KG Tribe , taking part in the unlawful wounding of two commuters in December 2005 as well as other robberies . At the time of the murder of Pryce , Carty and Brown were 18 and 17 respectively . When both men were arrested on 18 January , Carty said he was innocent of the allegations and claimed he had been in a pub in Kilburn with relatives and friends , and stayed the night at a relative 's house . When police searched his home , they found a pair of trainers that forensic tests showed had a drop of ap Rhys Pryce 's blood on one toe . DNA from several people , including Brown , were found on the trainers . Officers also found a top with traces of Brown 's DNA , and fibres found on Pryce 's overcoat were microscopically indistinguishable from the material of that top . Brown also said he had been in Kilburn the night of the murder and initially claimed that he had nothing to do with either the robbery of the other man or the robbery and murder of Pryce . When the mobile phone of the other victim ( Ali ) was discovered at his home , he claimed he had bought it from two men . Detectives also found that Brown had hoarded press cuttings of Pryce . = = Trial of Carty and Brown = = Police caught Carty through CCTV footage which showed him using Pryce 's Oyster Card ( which he claimed to have found ) at Kensal Green station , forensic evidence found at the homes of Carty and Brown , and Pryce 's mobile phone . Carty and Brown both denied murder but admitted that they had robbed Pryce and another man just before . Brown was 17 at the time of the offence so initially could not be named for legal reasons . The trial of the two defendants opened on 30 October 2006 at the Central Criminal Court before Mr Justice Aikens and a jury . Throughout the trial Brown declared that it was Carty who had stabbed Pryce and that it had simply been a ' robbery gone bad ' . This led to an alleged attack on Brown by three youths at Feltham Young Offender Institution during the trial , in which his attackers reportedly said : " You are snitching on your co @-@ d ( co @-@ defendant ) . " Carty denied any involvement in the incident , claiming it had been the result of an argument Brown had with the youths earlier . On 27 November 2006 , Carty and Brown were convicted of murder . Carty and Brown reacted calmly to the guilty verdicts , turning to each other , shaking hands and embracing . On 28 November 2006 , both men were sentenced to life imprisonment . The minimum termed for Carty was fixed at 21 years , and that for 18 @-@ year @-@ old Brown at 17 years . The trial judge said he could not tell who wielded the knife but considered both defendants equally guilty . Both sentences were referred to the Court of Appeal ( Criminal Division ) as " unduly lenient " by Her Majesty 's Attorney General , Lord Goldsmith QC . That court , constituted by the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers , Mr Justice Henriques and Mr Justice Teare , increased Brown 's minimum term to 20 years , although it did not interfere with the sentence imposed upon Carty . = = Reaction = = The then Prime Minister Tony Blair 's immediate response to the murder was to pledge the investigation of public safety at the station close to where Pryce was murdered , Kensal Green Station , and this was later improved . David Cameron criticised the Labour Government 's criminal justice system and the absence of father @-@ figures in ethnic minority cultures , which he claimed as causes in the murder of Pryce . Cameron stated that lack of strong deterrent sentences for knife crimes and the failure of police to stop prolific criminals had played a role in the killing of Pryce . He insisted that parental background had a key role in preventing crime and called for zero tolerance of knife crime , claiming that not enough criminals were being sent to jail . In January 2006 the Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Ian Blair created considerable controversy when he described the media as institutionally racist . This accusation had also been levelled at the police for the allegedly unbalanced coverage of black @-@ on @-@ white crimes , such as this murder , as compared to that given to crimes against ethnic minorities . The example Blair cited was that of Balbir Mathura , an Asian man murdered on the same day as Pryce . Mathura was run over and dragged almost 44 yards ( 40 m ) by a car driven by thieves he had disturbed as they broke into a van parked outside his workplace . Newspapers argued that the number of stories printed regarding the two victims were similar , though a survey of national newspapers after the two murders showed that longer and more in @-@ depth articles were written about the murder of Pryce than that of Mathura . = = Legacy = = Following the murder of Pryce , his friends and family set up The Tom ap Rhys Pryce Memorial Trust to enable individuals who could not otherwise afford it to achieve their potential by gaining access to appropriate educational facilities . It aims to raise at least £ 1million to help educate society 's poorest children . This incident sparked a major public discussion on station safety and security , mainly because the station was unstaffed when the suspects mugged Ali on the platform . The only security present was CCTV cameras , and the ticket barriers were left open allowing the suspects to enter the station freely . Many high @-@ profile politicians spoke on the issue of station safety and called on rail companies to provide security or staff the station until the last train had left the station . The Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone assailed Silverlink , the train company who managed the station , for not providing all @-@ night staffing or security . The new provider of every franchise across the rail network will have to provide staff at all times the station is open . A school was built in Vietnam in memory of Pryce . His colleagues raised enough money to have the school built to leave a lasting legacy in his honour . The primary school opened in 2007 . Its cost was met by the Hong Kong office of Pryce 's employer , Linklaters .

= Lágrimas Cálidas = Lágrimas Cálidas ( English : Warm Tears ) is the debut studio album by Colombian recording artist Fanny Lu , released on January 1 , 2005 . The record contains ten tracks , most of which were composed by Jose Gaviria , and produced with Andres Munera . Musically , the album experiments with tropipop , which is composed of the genres of vallenato , merengue , and pop music . Recording for the album took place in 2004 in three cities : Miami , Bogota and Medellin . An international version of the album , containing two remixes , was released exclusively in United States , Spain and Colombia . The album was certified gold in Colombia , Venezuela and Ecuador and ranked number thirteen on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart in the United States . The album earned Lu many accolades , including a Latin Grammy nomination , five Billboard Latin Music Awards nominations , and three Premios Shock nominations , winning two . Three singles were released from the record , two of which , " No Te Pido Flores " and " Y Si Te Digo " , reached number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . = = Background = = While studying for a degree in engineering at the University of Los Andes in 1994 , Fanny Lu began her career in the entertainment industry as a host for shows such as Locomotora , Siempre Música , and Radio Hits y Bailoteca . As a host on Locomotora , she was given the opportunity to work with musicians such as Luis Manuel Díaz , Gil Magno , and Cesar Franco . She met Colombian producer , Jose Gaviria , during her career in television , and they began working on a musical project , but the production was halted , because Fanny was busy in her television career . Eight years later , she reunited with Gaviria to finish this recording . Her experience as a television host led to her signing a music deal with Universal Music Latino . Her first album under that agreement was Lágrimas Cálidas , which was released in Colombia on January 1 , 2005 . = = Composition = = Lágrimas Cálidas was produced by Jose Gaviria and Andres Munera . It was recorded at Crescent Moon Studios and Big Dog Studios in Miami , New World Studios in Bogota and Promix Estudios in Medellin . The genre of the album is defined as Tropipop , because it mixes tropical genres such as vallenato and merengue with pop and Caribbean influences . The album opens with " No Te Pido Flores " ( " I 'm Not Requesting Flowers " ) , where the predominant instruments are the accordion , guitar and caja vallenata . Lyrically , the song begins with the absence of her man , but then , in the chorus , transitions into a warning not to fall in love with material things . The second track , " Lágrimas Cálidas " ( " Warm Tears " ) , is a vallenato @-@ stylized pop ballad , expressing her suffering due to being abandoned by her lover . " Te Arrepentiras " ( " You 'll Regret " ) , is about a woman who surrendered completely to a man who did not appreciate her . " Solo Quiero " ( " Only Want " ) begins with an accordion solo , and is a song explaining to her lover that she only wants to be with him forever , because with him all the things in life are more beautiful . The fifth track , " Cariñito " ( " Sweetie " ) , describes her need for the affection of the person she loves , and her desire to remedy the void left in her heart . " Sin Razones " ( " Without Reasons " ) , express the reasons why she should not have to prove her love , while " Y Si Te Digo " ( " And If I Tell You " ) , tells of her desire to confess her love to the person who doesn 't know she loves him . " Es Por Ti " ( " It Is For You " ) is a poem describing the strength of an all @-@ encompassing love . The penultimate track , " Para Que Si Tu No Estas " ( " For That If You Aren 't " ) , asks her boyfriend whether or not she should suffer for him . The eleventh and final track of the album , " Me Acordare de Ti " ( " I Will Remember You " ) , expresses that everything she feels , sees , and perceives , reminds her of her beloved . = = Reception = = The album was certified gold in Colombia , Venezuela and Ecuador . In the United States , the album debuted at number 18 on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart , peaking three weeks later at number 13 . Lágrimas Cálidas was generally well received . At the Colombian Premios Shock , it won the category of Radio Album , as well as winning best Radio Song for " No Te Pido Flores " . At the 15th Latin Billboard Music Awards , the album was nominated for two awards : Tropical Album of the Year for a Female Artist and Best New Artist . At the 2007 Latin Grammy Awards , " No Te Pido Flores " received a nomination for Best Tropical Song , but lost to " La Llave De Mi Corazón " , by Juan Luis Guerra . = = Singles = = " No Te Pido Flores " was the first single from the album , released in 2005 . The song was a success in Latin America , reaching number one in Colombia , Ecuador , Perú and Venezuela . In the United States , it also reached number one on the Billboard Latin Tropical Airplay chart . It was nominated for two Billboard Latin Music Awards and a Latin Grammy for Best Tropical Song . " No Te Pido Flores " has two music videos , one recorded in Lake Guatavita , Sesquilé , Colombia , and the international version , which was recorded in the Plaza Moreno in La Plata , Argentina . Unlike " No Te Pido Flores " , the album 's second single , " Te Arrepentirás " , was released after the release of Lágrimas Cálidas in Latin America . The third and final single , " Y Si Te Digo " , was released on May 27 , 2007 . In Latin America , the song did not have the same success as the first single , but in the United States , the song hit number one on Billboard 's Hot Latin Songs chart and Billboard 's Tropical Airplay chart . The song won a Billboard Latin Music Award for Best Tropical Airplay for a new artist . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = The following credits are from Allmusic : Performance credits Technical credits = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =

= Roger Federer = Roger Federer ( German : [ ˈfeːdərər ] born 8 August 1981 ) is a Swiss professional tennis player who is currently ranked world No. 3 by the Association of Tennis Professionals ( ATP ) . His accomplishments in professional tennis have led to him being regarded by many as the greatest tennis player of all time . Federer turned professional in 1998 and has been continuously ranked in the top 10 since October 2002 . Federer holds several records of the Open Era : holding the world No. 1 position for 302 weeks ( including 237 consecutive weeks ) ; winning 17 Grand Slam singles titles ; reaching each Grand Slam final at least five times ( an all @-@ time record ) ; and reaching the Wimbledon final ten times . He is among the eight men ( and among the five in Open Era ) to capture a career Grand Slam . Federer shares an Open Era record for most titles at Wimbledon with Pete Sampras ( seven ) and at the US Open with Jimmy Connors and Sampras ( five ) . He is the only male player to win five consecutive US Open titles . Federer has reached 27 men 's singles Grand Slam finals , including 10 in a row from the 2005 Wimbledon Championships to the 2007 US Open , both statistics being records . He also appeared in 18 of 19 finals from the 2005 Wimbledon through to the 2010 Australian Open . He reached the semifinals at 23 consecutive Grand Slam tournaments , from the 2004 Wimbledon Championships through the 2010 Australian Open . At the 2016 Wimbledon Championships , he reached a record 48th Grand Slam quarterfinal and a record 40th Grand Slam semifinal . Earlier at the 2016 Australian Open , he played in a record 65th consecutive Grand Slam tournament . Earlier at the 2015 US Open , he reached a record 27th Grand Slam final . Also earlier at the 2013 French Open , Federer reached a record 36th consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal . Federer has won the most matches in Grand Slam events ( 307 ) and is the first to record 65 + wins at each Grand Slam tournament . Federer 's ATP tournament records include winning a record six ATP World Tour Finals , playing in the finals at all nine ATP Masters 1000 tournaments ( a record shared with Djokovic and Nadal ) . He also won the Olympic gold medal in doubles with his compatriot Stan Wawrinka at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games and the Olympic silver medal in singles at the 2012 Summer Olympic Games . Representing Switzerland , he was a part of the 2014 winning Davis Cup team . He finished eight consecutive years ( 2003 – 2010 ) in one of the top two positions in the year @-@ end men 's rankings and ten ( 2003 – 2012 ) in the top three . He was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years ( 2005 – 2008 ) . = = Personal life = = = = = Childhood and early life = = = Federer was born at the Basel Cantonal Hospital in Basel , Switzerland . His father , Robert Federer , is Swiss , from Berneck , near the borders between Switzerland , Austria and Germany ; and his mother , Lynette Federer ( born Durand ) , from Kempton Park , Gauteng , is a South African whose ancestors were Dutch and French Huguenots . Federer has one sibling , his older sister Diana , who is the mother of a set of twins . He holds both Swiss and South African citizenship . He grew up in nearby Birsfelden , Riehen , and then Münchenstein , close to the French and German borders and speaks Swiss German , Standard German , English and French fluently , Swiss German being his native language . Federer was raised as a Roman Catholic and met Pope Benedict XVI while playing the 2006 Internazionali BNL d 'Italia tournament in Rome . Like all male Swiss citizens , Federer was subject to compulsory military service in the Swiss Armed Forces . However , in 2003 he was ruled " unsuitable " and was subsequently not required to fulfill his military obligation . Instead , he served in the civil protection force and was required to pay 3 % of his taxable income as an alternative . He grew up supporting F.C. Basel and the Swiss National Football Team . Federer also credits the range of sports he played as a child — he also played badminton and basketball — for his hand @-@ eye coordination . = = = Family = = = Federer is married to former Women 's Tennis Association player Mirka Vavrinec . He met her while both were competing for Switzerland in the 2000 Sydney Olympics . Vavrinec retired from the tour in 2002 because of a foot injury . They were married at Wenkenhof Villa in Riehen near Basel on 11 April 2009 , surrounded by a small group of close friends and family . In July 2009 , Mirka gave birth to identical twin girls , Myla Rose and Charlene Riva . The Federers had another set of twins in 2014 , this time boys whom they named Leo and Lennart , called Lenny . = = = Philanthropy and outreach = = = In 2003 , he established the Roger Federer Foundation to help disadvantaged children and to promote their access to education and sports . Since May 2004 , citing his close ties with South Africa including because that is where his mother was raised , he started supporting the South Africa @-@ Swiss charity IMBEWU which helps children better connect to sports and social and health awareness and , in 2005 , Federer visited South Africa to meet the children that had benefited from his support . In 2005 , he auctioned his racquet from his US Open championship to aid victims of Hurricane Katrina . At the 2005 Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells , Federer arranged an exhibition involving several top players from the ATP and WTA tour called Rally for Relief . The proceeds went to the victims of the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In December 2006 he visited Tamil Nadu , one of the areas in India most affected by the tsunami . He was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador by UNICEF in April 2006 and has appeared in UNICEF public messages to raise public awareness of AIDS . In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Federer arranged a collaboration with fellow top tennis players for a special charity event during the 2010 Australian Open called ' Hit for Haiti ' , in which proceeds went to Haiti earthquake victims . He participated in a follow @-@ up charity exhibition during the 2010 Indian Wells Masters which raised $ 1 million . The Nadal vs Federer " Match for Africa " in 2010 in Zurich and Madrid raised more than $ 4 million for the Roger Federer Foundation and Fundación Rafa Nadal . In January 2011 , Federer took part in an exhibition , Rally for Relief , to raise money for the victims of the Queensland floods . In 2014 , the " Match for Africa 2 " between Federer and Stan Wawrinka , again in Zurich , raised £ 850 @,@ 000 for education projects in southern Africa . = = Tennis career = = = = = Pre – 1998 : Junior years = = = Federer 's main accomplishments as a junior player came at Wimbledon in 1998 , where he won both the boys ' singles final over Irakli Labadze , and in doubles teamed with Olivier Rochus , defeating the team of Michaël Llodra and Andy Ram . In addition , Federer lost the US Open Junior final in 1998 to David Nalbandian . He won four ITF junior singles tournaments in his career , including the prestigious Orange Bowl , where he defeated Guillermo Coria in the final . He ended 1998 with the No. 1 junior world ranking , and he entered his first tournament as a professional during 1998 in Gstaad , where he lost to Lucas Arnold Ker in the first round . = = = 1998 – 2002 : Early career and breakthrough in the ATP = = = Federer entered the top 100 ranking for the first time on 20 September 1999 . His first final came at the Marseille Open in 2000 , where he lost to fellow Swiss Marc Rosset . Federer won the 2001 Hopman Cup representing Switzerland , along with Martina Hingis . The duo defeated the American pair of Monica Seles and Jan @-@ Michael Gambill in the finals . Federer 's first singles win was at the 2001 Milan Indoor tournament , where he defeated Julien Boutter in the final . Although he won his first title already in 1999 on the Challenger tour , winning the doubles event in Segovia , Spain with Dutchman Sander Groen , the final was played on Federer 's 18th birthday . In 2001 , Federer made his first Grand Slam quarterfinal at the French Open , and at Wimbledon that same year defeated four @-@ time defending champion Pete Sampras to reach the quarterfinals . The most prestigious event final he reached during this period was the 2002 Miami Masters event , where he lost to Andre Agassi on hard court . Federer won his first Master Series event at the 2002 Hamburg Masters on clay , over Marat Safin ; the victory put him in top 10 for the first time . Federer made 10 singles finals between 1998 and 2002 , of which he won four and lost six . He also made six finals in doubles . Of note are Federer and partner Max Mirnyi 's defeat in the final of the Indian Wells Masters in 2002 , and their victory in the same year in the final of the Rotterdam 500 series event . Federer had won the latter a year earlier with partner Jonas Björkman . He finished 2001 with an ATP ranking of No. 13 , and 2002 was the first year he was ranked within the top 10 , finishing at No. 6 . = = = 2003 : Wimbledon breakthrough = = = In 2003 , Federer won his first Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon , beating Mark Philippoussis in the final . Federer won his first and only doubles Masters Series 1000 event in Miami with Max Mirnyi and made it to one singles Masters Series 1000 event in Rome on clay , which he lost . Federer made it to nine finals on the ATP Tour and won seven of them , including the 500 series events at Dubai and Vienna . Lastly , Federer won the year @-@ end championships over Andre Agassi , finishing the year as world No. 2 , narrowly behind Andy Roddick . = = = 2004 : Imposing dominance = = = During 2004 , Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles for the first time in his career and became the first person to do so since Mats Wilander in 1988 . His first major hard @-@ court title came at the Australian Open over Marat Safin , thereby becoming the world No. 1 for the first time . He then won his second Wimbledon crown over Andy Roddick . Federer defeated the 2001 US Open champion , Lleyton Hewitt , at the US Open for his first title there . Federer won three ATP Masters Series 1000 events , one was on clay in Hamburg , and the other two were on hard surfaces at Indian Wells and in Canada . Federer took the ATP 500 series event at Dubai and wrapped up the year by winning the year @-@ end championships for the second time . He also won his first tournament on home soil by capturing the Swiss Open in Gstaad . His 11 singles titles were the most of any player in two decades , and his record of 74 – 6 was the best since Ivan Lendl in 1986 . He improved his year @-@ end ranking to world No. 1 for the first time . = = = 2005 : Consolidating dominance = = = In 2005 , Federer failed to reach the finals of the first two Grand Slam tournaments , losing the Australian Open semifinal to eventual champion Safin after holding match points , and the French Open semifinal to eventual champion Rafael Nadal . However , Federer quickly reestablished his dominance on grass , winning the Wimbledon Championships over Andy Roddick . At the US Open , Federer defeated Andre Agassi in the latter 's last major final . Federer also took four ATP Masters Series 1000 wins : Indian Wells , Miami , and Cincinnati on hard court , and Hamburg on clay . The win in Miami was particularly noteworthy as it was the first final contested between Federer and Rafael Nadal in what would become one of the greatest rivalries in tennis history . Federer received from down two sets and a break to take the final in five sets . Furthermore , Federer won two ATP 500 series events at Rotterdam and Dubai . Federer lost the year @-@ end championships to David Nalbandian in five sets while playing through a foot injury that sidelined him for almost the entire season after September . He maintained his position as world No. 1 for the entirety of the season . The season was statistically one of the most dominant in the Open Era . He won 11 singles titles , which tied his 2004 season as the most in over two decades , his 81 match victories were the most since Pete Sampras in 1993 , and his record of 81 – 4 ( 95 @.@ 2 % ) remains the second @-@ best winning percentage in the Open Era behind only John McEnroe in 1984 . = = = 2006 : Career best season = = = The 2006 season was statistically the best season of Federer 's career , as well as one of the greatest seasons of any player in tennis history . In December 2011 , Stephen Tignor , chief editorial writer for Tennis.com , ranked Federer 's 2006 season as the second @-@ greatest season of all time during the Open Era , behind only Rod Laver 's Grand Slam year of 1969 . Federer won 12 singles titles ( the most of any player since John McEnroe in 1984 ) and had a match record of 92 – 5 ( the most wins since Ivan Lendl in 1982 ) . Federer reached the finals in an astounding 16 of the 17 tournaments he entered during the season . In 2006 , Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles and reached the final of the other , with the only loss coming against Nadal in the French Open . This was Federer and Nadal 's first meeting in a Grand Slam final . He was the first man to reach all four finals in a calendar year since Rod Laver in 1969 . Federer defeated Nadal in the Wimbledon Championships final . In the Australian Open , Federer defeated Marcos Baghdatis , and at the US Open , Federer defeated Roddick ( 2003 champion ) . In addition , Federer made it to six ATP Masters Series 1000 finals , winning four on hard surfaces and losing two on clay to Nadal . Federer , however , consistently pushed Nadal to the limit on clay throughout the season taking him to fourth @-@ set tiebreakers in Monte @-@ Carlo and Paris , and a thrilling match in Rome that went to a deciding fifth @-@ set tiebreaker . Federer won one ATP 500 series event in Tokyo and captured the year @-@ end championships for the third time in his career , again finishing the year as world No. 1 . Federer only lost to two players during 2006 , to Nadal four times in finals , and to 19 @-@ year @-@ old Andy Murray in the second round of the 2006 Cincinnati Masters , in what would be Federer 's only defeat before the final that year . Federer finished the season on a 29 @-@ match winning streak , as well as winning 48 of his last 49 matches after the French Open . A personal highlight for Federer came near the end of the season when he finally won his hometown tournament the Swiss Indoors in Basel , Switzerland . = = = 2007 : Holding off young rivals = = = In 2007 , Federer reached all four Grand Slam singles finals , winning three of them again . He won the Australian Open over Fernando González and did so without dropping a set . This made him the first man in the 21st century to accomplish the feat , as Björn Borg at the 1980 French Open was the last to win a Grand Slam tournament without the loss of a set . Federer had entered the year on a huge winning streak and after capturing his fourth Dubai crown Federer 's winning streak stood at 41 matches , the longest of his career and only five shy of the record . Federer entered Indian Wells as the three @-@ time defending champion , but his streak would end in controversy . He was defeated by an Argentine , Guillermo Canas , who had failed a drug test for illegal doping . This surprising first @-@ round defeat marked the first time since August 2006 he suffered defeat , a period spanning over seven months . During the clay season , Federer 's victory in the Hamburg Masters final was particularly impressive , as it snapped Rafael Nadal 's 81 @-@ match winning streak on clay , an Open @-@ Era record . Federer turned the match around from a set down to sweep 12 of the final 14 games , including a final set bagel . At the French Open , some anticipated that Federer could become the first man in almost 40 years to hold all four majors simultaneously , having just resoundingly defeated young rival Nadal on clay entering the tournament . However , in a repeat of the previous year Federer played a tough four @-@ set final against Nadal , but was undone by going 1 / 18 on break @-@ point chances . At Wimbledon , Federer entered the tournament not only as the four @-@ time defending champion , but also riding a 48 @-@ match winning streak on grass . Once again , he defeated Rafael Nadal for a second consecutive year in the final , this time in a thrilling five @-@ set encounter that many analysts hailed as the greatest Wimbledon final since 1980 . Victory at Wimbledon equaled him with Björn Borg for the record of five consecutive championships at the All England Club . Federer reached the final in Montreal before playing a young and relatively unknown Serbian named Novak Djokovic . Djokovic proved his potential by stunning the world No. 1 in a final @-@ set tiebreaker upset . Federer rebounded in Cincinnati to capture his fifth title of the year . Federer entered the US Open as the three @-@ time defending champion and faced Djokovic in the final . This time , Federer prevailed in a close straight @-@ set match . Victory in New York moved him ahead of Laver and Borg for third on the all @-@ time list of major championship victories . Throughout the tournament , the American press labeled him Darth Federer for his all @-@ black attire ( which included tuxedo @-@ striped shorts ) and the tournament played The Imperial March from Star Wars when he was announced onto the court for each of his matches . He would close out the year with victories in Basel and the Year End Championships in Shanghai . He finished as the year @-@ end world No. 1 for the fourth year in a row , demonstrating his dominance , and during these four years he won 11 Grand Slam singles titles . After his phenomenal triple Grand Slam season yet again , Federer became the only player in history to win three Majors in a year for three years ( 2004 , 2006 , 2007 ) . It was the third consecutive season that Federer would hold the world No. 1 ranking for all 52 weeks of the year . = = = 2008 : Illness , fifth US Open title and Olympic Gold = = = Federer 's success in 2008 was severely hampered by a lingering bout of mononucleosis , which he suffered from during the first half of the year . At the end of the year , he would suffer a back injury that would prove to be recurring throughout his career . In 2008 , Federer won one Grand Slam singles title at the US Open over Briton Andy Murray . Federer was defeated by Nadal in two Grand Slam finals , at the French Open , and at Wimbledon , when he was going for six straight wins to break Björn Borg 's record . At the Australian Open , Federer lost in the semifinals to eventual winner Djokovic , which ended his record of 10 consecutive finals . Later in the year , it was found Federer had been suffering from mononucleosis at the start of the year , particularly during the Australian Open . He lost twice in Masters Series 1000 finals on clay to Nadal , at Monte Carlo and Hamburg . However , Federer captured three titles in 250 @-@ level events at Estoril , Halle , and Basel . At the Olympic Games , Federer and Stan Wawrinka won the gold medal in doubles , after beating the Bryan brothers American team in the semifinals and the Swedish duo of Simon Aspelin and Thomas Johansson in the final However , Federer could only reach the quarterfinals in the singles draw , knocked out by then world No. 8 James Blake . He ended the year as world No. 2 . = = = 2009 : Career Grand Slam , sixth Wimbledon , breaking Grand Slam record = = = In 2009 , Federer won two Grand Slam singles titles , the French Open over Robin Söderling , and Wimbledon over Andy Roddick . Federer reached two other Grand Slam finals , losing to Nadal at the Australian Open , and to Juan Martín del Potro at the US Open , both in tight five @-@ set matches . The 2009 season was perhaps the most historically relevant of Federer 's career as he completed a career Grand Slam by winning his first French Open title and won a men 's record fifteenth Grand Slam singles title by defeating Andy Roddick at Wimbledon in five sets , surpassing Pete Sampras 's mark of fourteen . The 2009 Wimbledon final was also historic for being the longest Grand Slam final in terms of games played with Federer prevailing 16 – 14 in a thrilling fifth set . Upon breaking the Grand Slam tournament record , Federer was hailed by most analysts and many tennis greats as the greatest player in tennis history . Federer won two more events , the first at the Madrid Masters over Nadal on clay . The second was in Cincinnati over Novak Djokovic . = = = 2010 : Fourth Australian Open = = = The year started with a win at the Australian Open , where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and extended the Grand Slam singles record to sixteen titles , matching Andre Agassi 's record of four Australian Open titles . Since Wimbledon 2005 Federer had made the finals of 18 out of 19 Grand Slam tournaments , an extraordinary period of sustained excellence unparalleled in the Open Era . This tournament , however , would mark the end of his utter dominance at the majors . At the French Open , Federer won his 700th tour match and 150th tour match on clay . However , he failed to reach a Grand Slam semifinal for the first time since the 2004 French Open , losing to Söderling in the quarterfinals and relinquishing his No. 1 ranking , having been just one week away from equaling Pete Sampras 's record of 286 weeks as world No. 1 . In a huge upset at Wimbledon , Federer lost in the quarterfinals to Tomáš Berdych and fell to No. 3 in the rankings for the first time in 6 years and 8 months . Towards the middle of July , Federer hired Pete Sampras ' old coach Paul Annacone on a trial basis to put his tennis game and career back on the right path . At the 2010 US Open , Federer reached the semifinals , where he lost a heart @-@ breaking five @-@ set match to Novak Djokovic after holding two match points . Federer made it to four Masters 1000 finals , prevailing at the Cincinnati Masters against Mardy Fish . Federer finished the year in strong form , winning indoor titles at the Stockholm Open , Swiss Indoors , and the ATP World Tour Finals in London , which brought his tally to 66 career titles . Federer won the year @-@ end championships in London by beating rival Rafael Nadal for his fifth title at the event . He showed much of his old form , beating all contenders except Nadal in straight sets . It remains the only tournament in his career where Federer defeated all fellow members of the Big Four . Since Wimbledon 2010 , Federer had a win @-@ loss record of 34 – 4 . Federer finished in the top two for the eighth consecutive season . = = = 2011 : Sixth World Tour Finals title = = = The 2011 season , although great by most players ' standards , was a lean year for Federer . He was defeated in straight sets in the semifinals of the 2011 Australian Open by eventual champion Novak Djokovic , marking the first time since July 2003 that he did not hold any of the four major titles . In the French Open semifinals , Federer ended Djokovic 's undefeated streak of 43 consecutive wins with a stunning four @-@ set victory . However , Federer then lost in the final to Rafael Nadal . At Wimbledon , Federer advanced to his 29th consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal , but lost to Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . It marked the first time in his career that he had lost a Grand Slam tournament match after winning the first two sets . At the US Open , Federer lost a much @-@ anticipated semifinal match with Novak Djokovic , after squandering two match points in the fifth set , which repeated his previous year 's result against Djokovic and added a second loss from two sets up in Grand Slam tournament play to his record . The loss at Flushing Meadows meant that Federer did not win any of the four majors in 2011 , the first time this has happened since 2002 . Later that month , in September 2011 , in a South African poll , Federer was voted the second most trusted and respected person in the world , next to Nelson Mandela . Federer finished the season on a high note by yet again dominating the indoor season , winning his last three tournaments of the year at the Swiss Indoors , Paris Masters , and ATP World Tour Finals . He ended a 10 @-@ month title drought by winning the Swiss Indoors for the fifth time , defeating rising star Kei Nishikori . Federer followed this up with his first Paris Masters title , where he became the first player to reach all nine Masters 1000 finals . In the final of the 2011 ATP World Tour Finals , Federer defeated Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga for the third consecutive Sunday and , in doing so , claimed a record sixth ATP World Tour Finals title , finishing the year as world No. 3 . = = = 2012 : Seventh Wimbledon , second Olympic Medal and return to No. 1 = = = The 2012 season was a return to excellence for Federer . He had his most match wins since 2006 and his highest winning percentage and number of titles won since 2007 . Federer reached the semifinal of the 2012 Australian Open , setting up a 27th career meeting with Nadal , a match he lost in four tight sets . He then won the Rotterdam Open for the first time since 2005 , defeating Juan Martin del Potro . Federer played in the 2012 Dubai Tennis Championships , where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and won the championship title for the fifth time in his career . Federer then moved on to the Indian Wells Masters , where he defeated Rafael Nadal in the semifinals , and John Isner in the final . Federer won the title for a record fourth time , and , in doing so , equalled Rafael Nadal 's record of 19 ATP Masters 1000 titles . Federer went on to compete at the Madrid Masters on the new blue clay surface , where he beat Tomáš Berdych in the final , thus regaining the world No. 2 ranking from Rafael Nadal . In the French Open , Federer made the semifinals before losing to Djokovic . At Wimbledon , Federer survived an epic five @-@ set thriller in the third round against Julien Benneteau on his way to the semifinals . In his semifinal match @-@ up against world No. 1 Novak Djokovic , Federer earned a record eighth Wimbledon final appearance after dispatching Djokovic in four sets . Federer defeated Andy Murray in four sets in the 2012 Wimbledon final , regaining the world No. 1 ranking in the process . " It 's amazing . It equals me with Pete Sampras , who 's my hero . It just feels amazing " , Federer said of winning his seventh Wimbledon championship , tying Sampras ' Open Era record . By defeating top @-@ ranked Djokovic in the semifinals and winning in the finals , Federer returned to the top spot in the world rankings and , in doing so , broke Sampras ' record of 286 weeks atop the list . Four weeks after the Wimbledon final , Federer again faced Murray on the Wimbledon centre court , this time for the final of the 2012 Summer Olympics . This came after an epic 4 @-@ hour 26 @-@ minute semifinal against Juan Martin del Potro of Argentina that Federer won 19 – 17 in the third and final set . He lost to Murray in straight sets in the final , winning a silver medal for his country . Federer won in Cincinnati , beating Novak Djokovic soundly in the final . In the US Open , five @-@ time champ Federer was defeated by Tomáš Berdych in the quarterfinals . In the Shanghai Rolex Masters , defeating Stan Wawrinka in the third round , Federer confirmed his 300th week at No. 1 . Federer made it to the finals of the ATP World Tour Finals , where he lost to Novak Djokovic in two tight sets . = = = 2013 : Injury struggles = = = Federer struggled with back injuries sustained in March and again in July and saw his ranking drop from No. 2 to No. 6 . The 2013 season was the first since 1999 in which Federer failed to reach a final in the first four months of the year . Federer 's first and only title of 2013 came at the Gerry Weber Open ( def . Mikhail Youzhny ) , where he also played doubles with good friend Tommy Haas . With the victory in Halle , he tied John McEnroe for the third @-@ most number of ATP titles won by a male player in the Open Era . Federer , however , was unable to maintain his form into Wimbledon , suffering his worst Grand Slam tournament defeat since 2003 in the second round against Sergiy Stakhovsky . Not only did the loss end Federer 's record streak of 36 consecutive quarterfinals at Grand Slam tournaments , it meant he would drop out of the top 4 for first time since July 2003 , exactly 10 years after he won his first Wimbledon title . During the summer , he experimented with various different racquets and played the German Open with a blacked @-@ out 98 @-@ inch Wilson racquet , instead of his regular Pro Staff 6 @.@ 1 90 BLX racquet with the smaller 90 @-@ inch hitting area . He returned to his regular racquet for the second half of the season . After Wimbledon , Federer continued to be upset early in tournaments because of a serious back injury through October , when he announced that he was parting ways with Paul Annacone , his coach for the last three years . Federer made the final in Basel , succumbing to Juan Martín del Potro . On 27 December 2013 , Federer announced that Stefan Edberg was joining his team as co @-@ coach with Severin Lüthi . = = = 2014 : Wimbledon runner @-@ up , and Davis Cup glory = = = Federer began the season by changing rackets for the first time in his career , from his longtime frame of 90 square inches to one measured at 97 square inches . He had long been at a comparative disadvantage in equipment as almost the entire tour , including his top rivals Nadal and Djokovic , used more powerful frames of between 95 and 100 square inches . Federer played well at the Australian Open , defeating Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga and Andy Murray to reach his 11th consecutive semifinal in Melbourne , before losing to Rafael Nadal in straight sets . At the Dubai Tennis Championships , he defeated Novak Djokovic in the semifinals , and then defeated Tomáš Berdych in the final to win his sixth Dubai crown and his first title since Halle in 2013 . Federer made the final at the Indian Wells Masters , but lost to Novak Djokovic in a final @-@ set tiebreaker . At the Davis Cup quarterfinals , Federer won both of his singles rubbers against Kazakhstan , the second of which was the first live deciding rubber of his Davis Cup career . Federer then took a wild card into the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters defeating Novak Djokovic on his way to the finals , but lost to compatriot Stan Wawrinka in a tight final . In June , Federer announced that after the end of his third term , he would resign as President of the ATP Players Council , a position he had held since 2008 . At the Halle Open , Federer reached both the singles and the doubles finals and won his seventh Halle singles title , beating Alejandro Falla in the final . At Wimbledon , Federer reached a record ninth final , but he defeated by Djokovic in an epic five @-@ set match . Federer made the final of the Canadian Open , but was defeated by Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . Federer defeated Spain 's David Ferrer in three sets to capture his sixth Cincinnati crown and his 22nd ATP World Tour Masters 1000 title , his first since Cincinnati 2012 . He then reached the semifinals at the US Open , but lost in straight sets to eventual champion Marin Čilić . At the Davis Cup semifinals , Federer won both of his singles matches against Italy in straight sets and hence led Switzerland to the final for the first time since 1992 . Federer then played in the Shanghai Masters . He beat Novak Djokovic in the semifinals , ending the Serb 's 28 @-@ match unbeaten run on Chinese soil . He battled Frenchman Gilles Simon in his second Shanghai final , defeating him in two tiebreak sets and collected the 23rd Masters 1000 title of his career . The victory saw Federer return to world No. 2 for the first time since May 2013 . Federer then played the Swiss Indoors in October , where he won a record sixth title and his 82nd ATP men 's singles title overall . Federer also reached the finals of the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals to face Djokovic again , but withdrew from the final because of another back injury from his semifinal match against Stan Wawrinka . Despite his injury , Federer finished the season on a high by defeating Richard Gasquet to clinch the Davis Cup for Switzerland for the first time in its history . = = = 2015 : 1,000th career win , Wimbledon and US Open runners @-@ up = = = Federer started his season at the Brisbane International . He defeated Milos Raonic in the final , thereby becoming only the third man in the Open Era to have 1000 or more wins , joining Jimmy Connors and Ivan Lendl , as well as the first man in the Open Era to win at least one title in each of 15 consecutive years . In Dubai , Federer successfully defended his title with a straight @-@ set victory over Novak Djokovic in the final , marking his seventh title at the tournament and , after Wimbledon and Halle , was the third time he had won seven or more titles in a tournament . In addition , Federer became the fourth person since 1991 to surpass 9 @,@ 000 career aces . In March , he reached the final of the Indian Wells , but lost in three sets to defending champion Djokovic . Federer won his third title of the season at the inaugural Istanbul Open clay @-@ court tournament , ending a title drought on red clay since the 2009 French Open . Federer made it to the finals of the Italian Open in May. but was unable to win his first title there , losing to Djokovic in the final . As the new expanded grass season began , Federer won his record eighth Gerry Weber Open and become only the third man in the Open Era to win a title eight times . Federer entered Wimbledon as the second seed . He played a flawless match to defeat Andy Murray in straight sets in the semifinals and advance to his 10th Wimbledon final in a repeat against Novak Djokovic . Federer lost the match in four sets . He defeated Andy Murray and Novak Djokovic in straight sets to win the Cinicinnati Masters for the seventh time . This marked the first time that Federer had beaten the top 2 players in the world at the same tournament . At the US Open , he advanced to his first final there since 2009 without dropping a set , including a win over Stan Wawrinka in the semifinals . In the final , he was once again defeated by top seed Djokovic in four sets . At the Swiss Indoors tournament in Basel , Federer won his sixth singles title of the year , and his 88th ATP title , defeating his old rival Rafael Nadal in the final . It was the seventh time he had captured his hometown tournament . In December , Federer announced that he headed into the 2016 ATP World Tour season with a new @-@ look coaching team , after announcing that Stefan Edberg would not be traveling with him next year . While countryman Severin Lüthi remained Federer ’ s head coach , joining the team in 2016 was Croatian former world No. 3 player Ivan Ljubicic . The Swiss tennis player revealed that Edberg originally signed on to the coaching team for one season only in 2014 , but agreed to stay on in 2015 . = = = 2016 : Knee surgery and back problems , long injury break = = = Federer started his season by participating in the Brisbane International as the defending champion , despite having a flu when the tournament started . However , in a rematch of the previous year final , he lost in the final to Milos Raonic in straight sets . Federer then participated at the 2016 Australian Open and rebounded from his third round defeat by Andreas Seppi in 2015 by reaching the semifinals but lost to eventual champion Novak Djokovic in four sets . The day after his loss to Djokovic , Federer sustained a knee injury and in early February , he underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair a torn meniscus in his knee and missed the tournaments in Rotterdam and Dubai in February and in Indian Wells in March . He was scheduled to return to action in Miami . Due to a stomach flu he had to withdraw from Miami thus prolonging his time on the sidelines . He did however , make his comeback at the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters with straight set wins over Guillermo García @-@ López and Roberto Bautista Agut before losing in the quarterfinals to Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga in three sets . Federer then announced that he would be entering the Madrid Open . However , he suffered a back injury during practice and withdrew shortly after arriving . Although the season had been plagued with injuries , Federer regained the # 2 ranking in the world for a brief moment following Madrid . He then participated in the Internazionali BNL d 'Italia where he defeated Alexander Zverev in straight sets , but lost in the third round to Dominic Thiem . He subsequently missed the Madrid Open , before withdrawing from the French Open , breaking a run of 65 consecutive participations in the main @-@ draw of Grand Slam tournaments , stretching back to the 2000 Australian Open . On 6 July , he came back from two sets down to defeat Marin Čilić in five sets in the 2016 Wimbledon quarterfinals , equalling Jimmy Connors ' all @-@ time records of eleven Wimbledon semifinals and 84 match wins . He suffered his first ever defeat in a Wimbledon semifinal two days later , in five set loss to Raonic . On 26 July , Federer announced that he would miss the 2016 Summer Olympics and the remainder of the 2016 season to fully recover from his knee injury . = = Rivalries = = = = = Federer vs. Nadal = = = Federer and Nadal have been playing each other since 2004 , and their rivalry is a significant part of both men 's careers . They held the top two rankings on the ATP Tour from July 2005 until 17 August 2009 , when Nadal fell to world No. 3 ( Andy Murray became the new No. 2 ) . They are the only pair of men to have ever finished six consecutive calendar years at the top . Federer was ranked No. 1 for a record 237 consecutive weeks beginning in February 2004 . Nadal , who is five years younger , ascended to No. 2 in July 2005 and held this spot for a record 160 consecutive weeks , before surpassing Federer in August 2008 . Nadal leads their head @-@ to @-@ head 23 – 11 . Of their 34 matches , 15 have been on clay , which is by far Nadal 's best surface . Federer has a winning record on grass ( 2 – 1 ) and indoor hard courts ( 5 – 1 ) , while Nadal leads the outdoor hard courts ( 8 – 2 ) and clay ( 13 – 2 ) . Because tournament seedings are based on rankings , 21 of their matches have been in tournament finals which have included an all @-@ time record eight Grand Slam finals . From 2006 to 2008 , they played in every French Open and Wimbledon final . They then met in the 2009 Australian Open final and the 2011 French Open final . Nadal won six of the eight , losing the first two Wimbledon finals . Three of these finals were five set @-@ matches ( 2007 and 2008 Wimbledon , 2009 Australian Open ) , with the 2008 Wimbledon final being lauded as the greatest match ever by many long @-@ time tennis analysts . Of their 34 meetings , 12 have reached a deciding set . They have also played in 10 Masters Series finals , including their lone five @-@ hour match at the 2006 Rome Masters which Nadal won in a fifth @-@ set tie @-@ break , having saved two match points . = = = Federer vs. Djokovic = = = Federer and Djokovic have met 45 times with Djokovic leading 23 – 22 wins . They are tied 17 – 17 on hard @-@ courts and 4 – 4 on clay while Djokovic leads 2 – 1 on grass . The Federer – Djokovic rivalry is the largest rivalry in men 's Grand Slam tournament history with a record 15 matches played against each other with Djokovic leading 9 – 6 . Djokovic is the only player besides Nadal to defeat Federer in consecutive Grand Slam tournaments ( 2010 US Open and 2011 Australian Open , also 2015 Wimbledon , US Open and 2016 Australian Open ) , and the only player besides Nadal and Murray who has double @-@ figure career wins over Federer . Djokovic is one of two players ( the other again being Nadal ) currently on tour to have defeated Federer in straight sets at a Grand Slam event ( 2008 Australian Open , 2011 Australian Open , 2012 French Open ) and the only player to do so three times . Of their 45 meetings , 15 have reached a deciding set . Federer and Djokovic first played in a Grand Slam final at the 2007 US Open where the three @-@ time reigning champion and world No. 1 Federer emerged victorious in straight sets . Federer ended Djokovic 's perfect 41 – 0 start to the 2011 season in the semifinals of the French Open , but Djokovic was able to avenge this loss at the 2011 US Open in five sets after saving two match points against Federer for the second straight year . In the semifinals of Wimbledon 2012 , Federer beat defending champion and world No. 1 Djokovic in four sets . The two met again during the finals of the 2014 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic emerging victorious after 5 sets . Federer also ended Djokovic 's 28 straight wins in China at 2014 Shanghai Open . Federer and Djokovic rematched in the 2015 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic once again claiming victory in four sets . The pair met once more for the final major of the season , the 2015 US Open and once more Djokovic prevailed in 4 sets . Many experts have included the rivalry between Federer and Djokovic as one of the best rivalries in the Open Era . = = = Federer vs. Murray = = = Federer and Andy Murray have met 25 times with Federer leading 14 – 11 . Federer leads 12 – 10 on hard courts , and 2 – 1 on grass . They have never met on clay . The two have met six times at the Grand Slam tournament level , the first three times in the finals , Federer winning all three of these matches ; at the 2008 US Open and the 2010 Australian Open , both of which he won in straight sets , and at the 2012 Wimbledon Championships in which Murray took the opening set , but went on to lose in four sets . However , Murray won their encounter in the semifinals of the 2013 Australian Open , defeating the Swiss for the first time at a Grand slam tournament in five sets . At the 2014 Australian Open , Federer reversed that result , defeating Murray in four sets in the quarterfinals . The most recent meeting between the two in a Major was in the semifinals of the 2015 Wimbledon Championships , where a dominant Federer triumphed in straight sets . They met in the final of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games , in which Murray defeated Federer in straight sets , denying the Swiss a career Golden Slam . Murray also leads 6 – 3 in ATP 1000 tournaments , 2 – 0 in finals . They have also met five times at the ATP World Tour Finals , with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008 , and Federer in London in 2009 , 2010 , 2012 , and 2014 . Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories over Federer ( the other two being Nadal and Novak Djokovic ) . = = = Federer vs. Roddick = = = One of Federer 's longstanding rivalries was with American Andy Roddick . Roddick lost his world No. 1 ranking to Federer after Federer won his first Australian Open in 2004 . Federer and Roddick met on 24 occasions , including four Grand Slam event finals ( three at Wimbledon and one at the US Open – all won by Federer ) . Federer 's record is overall 21 – 3 . Roddick himself said it was not much of a rivalry , being so one @-@ sided . In the 2009 Wimbledon final , Roddick lost to Federer in five sets . The match included a fifth set of 30 games ( a Grand Slam final record ) and was over four hours long . In the final game of the deciding set , Roddick 's serve was broken for the first time in the match . With that victory , Federer broke Pete Sampras ' record of 14 Grand Slam tournament titles , and Roddick apologized to Sampras ( who was there ) for not being able to hold Federer . = = = Federer vs. Hewitt = = = Lleyton Hewitt and Roger Federer played each other on 27 occasions . Early in their careers , Hewitt dominated Federer , winning seven of their first nine meetings , including a victory from two sets down in the 2003 Davis Cup semifinal which allowed Australia to defeat Switzerland . However , from 2004 onward , Federer dominated the rivalry , winning 16 of the last 18 meetings to finish with an 18 – 9 overall head @-@ to @-@ head record . This is Hewitt 's longest rivalry as these two first played each other as juniors in 1996 . They met in one Grand Slam tournament final , the 2004 US Open final , where Federer won his first US Open title in a lopsided encounter in which Federer scored a bagel either side of a second @-@ set tiebreak . Federer met Hewitt at six of the Grand Slam tournaments in which he lifted the trophy , including all five of his triumphs between 2004 and 2005 . Their last meeting was at the 2014 Brisbane International , where Hewitt triumphed over Federer in three sets for his first title since 2010 , when he also beat Federer to the Halle title . Hewitt and Federer teamed up in the men 's doubles at Wimbledon in 1999 . They got to the third round before losing to Jonas Björkman and Pat Rafter . = = = Federer vs. Agassi = = = Federer and Agassi played each other 11 times between 1998 and 2005 before Agassi 's retirement in 2006 . Federer led the rivalry 8 – 3 . This was Federer 's most significant rivalry with an all @-@ time great player of the previous generation . They first met in only the third tournament of Federer 's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer 's hometown , with Agassi prevailing over the 17 @-@ year @-@ old . Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Masters in 2002 . Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003 , when he defeated Agassi in both the round robin and the final . They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over 2 days with Federer eventually prevailing in 5 sets . At the 2005 Dubai Championships , Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 700 feet above sea level at the world famous seven @-@ star luxury hotel the Burj al @-@ Arab . Their final match was at one of the most prestigious platforms in the sport , when they played in the finals of the 2005 US Open . Federer was victorious in four sets , claiming the 6th Grand Slam tournament of his career and denying Agassi his 9th . = = = Federer vs. del Potro = = = Juan Martin del Potro and Roger Federer have played 20 times with Federer leading 15 – 5 . They have met six times in Grand Slam tournaments with Federer leading 5 – 1 . Their two most famous Grand Slam tournament meetings both came in 2009 . The first was in the French Open semifinals , when Federer survived an epic five @-@ set clash when he was chasing the only French title of his career . The second was in the final of the US Open , where del Potro stunned Federer in five sets , ending his 20 @-@ match winning streak at majors . Another high @-@ profile match was in the semifinals of the 2012 London Olympics , where Federer prevailed 19 – 17 in a grueling final set to secure the Olympic silver medal . Most recently , they met in the finals of the Swiss Indoors in 2012 and 2013 , with del Potro prevailing on both occasions in tight three @-@ set matches . = = = Federer vs. Safin = = = Marat Safin and Federer played each other 12 times , with Federer leading 10 – 2 . Federer and Safin turned pro within one year of each other , with Safin turning pro in 1997 and Federer in 1998 . Federer leads 4 – 1 on hard courts , 3 – 0 on grass , and 3 – 0 on clay courts , while Safin leads 1 – 0 on carpet . Notable meetings include Federer 's defeating Safin at the 2002 Hamburg Masters to win the first Masters 1000 title of his career , as well as Federer 's emerging victorious in the semifinals of the 2004 Tennis Masters Cup , after winning a tiebreak 20 – 18 on his eighth match point . Federer also defeated Safin in the finals of the 2004 Australian Open to capture his first Australian Open and second Grand Slam tournament title . However , Safin defeated Federer in the 2005 Australian Open semifinals , having saved one match point in the fourth @-@ set tiebreak , to end a 26 @-@ match winning streak by Federer . They met each other five times in Grand Slam tournaments , with Federer leading 4 – 1 . = = = Federer vs. Nalbandian = = = David Nalbandian was Federer 's biggest rival in his early career . The two played each other 19 times , with Federer leading 11 – 8 . Nalbandian dominated early on , taking all of their first five matches from 2002 – 03 . Federer reversed this trend at the 2003 Masters Cup , where he recorded his first victory , and would go on to win 11 of their last 14 meetings . Federer led 6 – 5 on hard courts , 1 – 0 on grass , and 3 – 1 on clay courts , while Nalbandian led 2 – 1 on carpet . Notable meetings include Nalbandian 's win in a fifth @-@ set tiebreaker to win the 2005 Masters Cup , and Federer 's win in the 2006 French Open semifinals . They met each other six times in Grand Slam tournaments , with Federer leading 4 – 2 . = = = Federer vs. Berdych = = = Tomáš Berdych and Federer have played each other 22 times with Federer leading 16 – 6 . Federer leads 9 – 5 on hard courts , 2 – 1 on grass courts , 4 – 0 on clay courts , and 1 – 0 on carpet . Berdych won their first professional match , notably upsetting then world No. 1 Federer at the 2004 Summer Olympics . Federer then went on to win their next eight meetings , before Berdych ended the losing streak in 2010 . Between 2010 and 2013 , Berdych won 5 of 8 meetings . Federer then switched to a larger racquet in 2014 to prevent being overpowered by players like Berdych and leads 5 – 0 since . They have met seven times in Grand Slam tournaments , with Federer leading 5 – 2 , and Berdych is one of five players , along with Arnaud Clément , Álex Corretja , David Nalbandian , and Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga , to defeat Federer multiple times in majors before the semifinal stage . Their most notable Grand Slam matches took place in the 2009 Australian Open , when Federer prevailed in five sets after dropping the first two sets , the 2010 Wimbledon Championships , the 2012 US Open , both of which Berdych won in four sets. and the 2016 Australian Open , which Federer won in straight sets . = = Legacy = = Federer has been regarded by many pundits , coaches , and past and present players as the greatest tennis player of all time . He dominated the game at his peak and has more Grand Slam tournament titles ( 17 ) than any other men 's singles player . He is also the first men 's singles player to have reached 10 consecutive Grand Slam tournament finals and a total of 27 Grand Slam finals . He spent the most amount of time in the Open Era at the top of the ATP Rankings ( 302 weeks ) . He also holds the record for the most titles ( 6 ) at the year @-@ end tournament , where only the year @-@ end 8 highest @-@ ranked players participate . Federer has been ranked among the top 8 players in the world continuously since 14 October 2002 Federer has won the ATPWorldTour.com Fans ' Favourite Award a record 13 times consecutively ( 2003 – 2015 ) and the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award ( voted for by the players ) a record 11 times ( 2004 – 2009 , 2011 – 2015 ) , both being awards indicative of respect and popularity . He also won the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year Award twice in 2006 and 2013 . He was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years ( 2005 – 2008 ) . Federer is at times referred to as the Federer Express , shortened to Fed Express or FedEx , and the Swiss Maestro , or just Maestro . = = Playing style = = Federer 's versatility has been summarised by Jimmy Connors : " In an era of specialists , you 're either a clay court specialist , a grass court specialist , or a hard court specialist ... or you 're Roger Federer . " An elite athlete , Federer is an all @-@ court , all @-@ around player known for his speed , fluid style of play , and exceptional shot making . Federer mainly plays from the baseline but is also comfortable at the net , being one of the best volleyers in the game today . He has a powerful , accurate smash and very effectively performs rare elements in today 's tennis , such as backhand smash and skyhook , half @-@ volley and jump smash ( slam dunk ) . David Foster Wallace compared the brute force of Federer 's forehand motion with that of " a great liquid whip " , while John McEnroe has referred to Federer 's forehand as " the greatest shot in our sport . " Federer is also known for his efficient movement around the court and excellent footwork , which enables him to run around shots directed to his backhand and instead hit a powerful inside @-@ out or inside @-@ in forehand , one of his best shots . Federer plays with a single @-@ handed backhand , which gives him great variety . He employs the slice , occasionally using it to lure his opponent to the net and deliver a passing shot . Federer can also fire topspin winners and possesses a ' flick ' backhand with which he can generate pace with his wrist ; this is usually used to pass the opponent at the net . His serve is difficult to read because he always uses a similar ball toss , regardless of what type of serve he is going to hit and where he aims to hit it , and turns his back to his opponents during his motion . He is often able to produce big serves on key points during a match . His first serve is typically around 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) ; however , he is capable of serving at 220 km / h ( 137 mph ) . Federer is also accomplished at serve and volleying , and employed this tactic frequently in his early career . Later in his career , Federer added the drop shot to his arsenal and can perform a well @-@ disguised one off both wings . He sometimes uses a between @-@ the @-@ legs shot , which is colloquially referred to as a " tweener " or " hotdog " . His most notable use of the tweener was in the semifinals of the 2009 US Open against Novak Djokovic , bringing him triple match point . Federer is one of the top players who employs successfully the " squash shot " , when he gets pushed deep and wide on his forehand wing . Since Stefan Edberg joined his coaching team at the start of the 2014 season , Federer has played a more offensive game , attacking the net more often , and improved his volley shots . In the lead @-@ up to the 2015 US Open , Federer successfully added a new unique shot to his arsenal called SABR ( Sneak Attack by Roger ) , in which he charges his opponent while receiving the serve and hits a return on the run . = = Equipment and apparel = = = = = Equipment = = = Federer currently plays with the Wilson Prostaff RF97 Autograph , a 97 square inch tennis racquet with 21 @.@ 5 mm beam , 360 g weight , 331 swing weight and 16x19 string pattern ( all strung with overgrip ) . Since the 1998 Wimbledon Junior Championships Federer played with a Pro Staff 6 @.@ 1 90 BLX tennis racquet , which is characterised by its smaller hitting area of 90 square inches , heavy strung weight of 364 grams , and thin beam of 17 @.@ 5 millimeters . His grip size was 4 3 / 8 inches ( sometimes referred to as L3 ) . Federer strung his racquets at 21 @.@ 5 kg mains / 20 kg crosses pre @-@ stretched 20 percent , using Wilson Natural Gut 16 gauge for his main strings and Luxilon Big Banger ALU Power Rough 16L gauge ( polyester ) for his cross strings . When asked about string tensions , Federer stated " this depends on how warm the days are and with what kind of balls I play and against who I play . So you can see – it depends on several factors and not just the surface ; the feeling I have is most important . " = = = Apparel = = = Federer has a contract with Nike footwear and apparel . For the 2006 championships at Wimbledon , Nike designed a jacket emblazoned with a crest of three tennis racquets , symbolising the three Wimbledon Championships he had previously won , and which was updated the next year with four racquets after he won the Championship in 2006 . In Wimbledon 2008 and again in 2009 , Nike continued this trend by making him a personalized cardigan which also has his own logo , an R and F joined together . = = Endorsements = = Federer is one of the highest @-@ earning athletes in the world . He is listed at number five on Forbes World 's Highest Paid Athletes list . As of 2013 , he remains the top earner in tennis with ten endorsement deals . He makes 40 to 50 million euros a year from prize money and endorsements from Nike and the Swiss companies Nationale Suisse , Credit Suisse , Rolex , Lindt , and Jura Elektroapparate . In 2010 , his endorsement by Mercedes @-@ Benz China was extended into a global partnership deal . His other sponsors include Gillette , Wilson , and Moët & Chandon . Previously , he was an ambassador for NetJets , Emmi AG , and Maurice Lacroix . = = Career statistics = = = = = Grand Slam tournament performance timeline = = = Note : Federer received fourth @-@ round walkovers at the US Open ( 2004 and 2012 ) and the Wimbledon Championships ( 2007 ) , and a second @-@ round walkover at the Australian Open ( 2012 ) ; these are not counted as wins = = = = Finals : 27 ( 17 titles , 10 runners @-@ up ) = = = = = = = Year @-@ End Championship performance timeline = = = = = = = Year – End Championship finals : 10 ( 6 titles , 4 runners @-@ up ) = = = = ( i ) = Indoor = = = Records = = = = = = = All @-@ time tournament records = = = = = = = = Open Era records = = = = These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis . Records in bold indicate peerless achievements . Records in italics are currently active streaks . = = = Video = = = Wimbledon Classic Match : Federer vs Sampras . Standing Room Only , DVD release date : 31 October 2006 , run time : 233 minutes , ASIN B000ICLR98 . Wimbledon 2007 Final : Federer vs. Nadal ( 2007 ) . Kultur White Star , DVD release date : 30 October 2007 , run time : 180 minutes , ASIN B000V02CU0 . Wimbledon — The 2008 Finals : Nadal vs. Federer . Standing Room Only , DVD release date : 19 August 2008 , run time : 300 minutes , ASIN B001CWYUBU . = = = Profiles = = = Roger Federer at the Association of Tennis Professionals Roger Federer at the International Tennis Federation Roger Federer at the Davis Cup Roger Federer at the Internet Movie Database

= Jane 's Attack Squadron = Jane 's Attack Squadron is a 2002 combat flight simulator developed by Looking Glass Studios and Mad Doc Software and published by Xicat Interactive . Based on World War II , the game allows players to pilot fifteen reproductions of that era 's military aircraft and to carry out missions for the Axis or Allies . Although it contains dogfights , the game focuses largely on air @-@ to @-@ ground combat . Jane 's Attack Squadron was first conceived by Looking Glass employee Seamus Blackley as Flight Combat , a combat @-@ based sequel to Flight Unlimited . The company continued designing the game after Blackley was fired in 1995 , and it entered production under Electronic Arts in 1998 . The team experienced problems with deadlines and funding during development , with the game eventually being heavily redesigned and renamed Jane 's Attack Squadron at the request of the publisher . These issues contributed to Looking Glass 's bankruptcy and closure in 2000 . In 2001 and 2002 , the game was acquired and finished by Mad Doc Software , a company in part composed of former Looking Glass employees . The game received mixed to poor reviews . Critics found its physics modelling unrealistic , and many believed that the game 's graphics and gameplay were outdated , particularly in light of contemporary simulators like IL @-@ 2 Sturmovik . The limited number of missions and large number of glitches were widely panned . Certain critics enjoyed Jane 's Attack Squadron 's air @-@ to @-@ ground combat and several hoped that fans would improve the game with the included physics and mission editors . = = Gameplay = = As a combat flight simulator , Jane 's Attack Squadron allows players to pilot military aircraft in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphical environment . The game is set in Western Europe during World War II ; and players may control fifteen German and Allied planes from the era , including the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 , Supermarine Spitfire , Junkers Ju 88 , Avro Lancaster and Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator . Although dogfights are possible , the game places a heavy focus on air @-@ to @-@ ground combat . Objectives range from bombing and torpedo runs to defense and escort missions . The player may engage in tutorials , " quick missions " , " single missions " and a campaign . Quick missions allow the player to select variables such as the objective and the number of friendly and enemy aircraft , while single missions , of which there are five , are scripted , " pre @-@ made " levels . Two campaigns are available : one each for the Allies and Germans . Both campaigns feature ten missions that branch depending on the outcome achieved by the player . An online multiplayer component allows players to engage in dogfights . Each plane in Jane 's Attack Squadron is composed of forty @-@ five parts that may be removed or otherwise damaged in combat . Damage to these parts affects performance ; for example , a broken fuel line will leak , quickly decreasing the fuel gauge . Various adjustments may be made to the game 's realism , including an " arcade physics " option that drastically reduces flight difficulty . The game is packaged with the mission and physics editors that were used to develop it . = = Development = = = = = At Looking Glass = = = In September 1994 , Looking Glass Technologies employee Seamus Blackley told Computer Gaming World that he wanted to create a combat @-@ based sequel to Flight Unlimited , whose development he was directing at the time . The magazine 's Johnny L. Wilson wrote , " If Flight Unlimited can pass the civilian tests , the military version should be right behind it . " In March of the next year , Blackley told PC Gamer US that the sequel " should feel so real that pilots will be afraid . They 'll feel the gun hits . " He dismissed the flight dynamics in other flight simulators , such as Falcon 3 @.@ 0 , in favor of the real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics ( CFDs ) model he created for Flight Unlimited . When PC Gamer 's Bernie Yee asked why the team had waited to make a combat flight simulator , Blackley responded that they wanted to " retrain " players first . In September , Computer Gaming World reported that Blackley was designing a combat @-@ based sequel to Flight Unlimited under the working title Flight Combat . Blackley told them that it would " make you into a fighter pilot " , and the magazine commented that it would teach the same material as the Air Force . The team planned to allow players to practice an element and then execute it on a mission , and Blackley said that the game would feature competitive online play . However , a new manager at Looking Glass Technologies , instated by venture capital investors , demanded that Blackley work on Flight Unlimited II instead of Flight Combat . Blackley refused and was fired , leaving the company in late 1995 . In March 1996 , PC Gamer US reported that Flight Combat was " still taxiing across the design board " , and that the team planned to focus " on how the aerial manoeuvres are performed as you fight " . Looking Glass designer Constantine Hantzopoulos told the magazine that a modified version of the Flight Unlimited engine was being used to develop Flight Combat and Flight Unlimited II . Hantzopoulos commented that Flight Combat was " the project everybody at Looking Glass wants to work on " . The team expected to be finished with the game in roughly one year . By June 1997 , GameSpot reported that Flight Unlimited II was running on the new ZOAR engine , coded from scratch by programmer James Fleming . In addition , the real @-@ time CFDs model from Flight Unlimited had been discarded , as its programming was " all black box spaghetti code from Seamus " . GameSpot 's T. Liam MacDonald noted that the Flight Unlimited II team expected soon to use the same engine for a combat flight simulator set in World War II . Computer Gaming World similarly reported that the company was " definitely hot " to develop Flight Combat , and that it might be created after Flight Unlimited II . Following that game 's completion , the team could not decide between developing Flight Unlimited III or Flight Combat . As a result , they decided to develop them simultaneously , and Flight Combat began production in early 1998 . Unlike all of the studio 's other games , development of Flight Combat was funded through an insured bond , in an attempt to guarantee that the game would be finished . The company 's Tim Stellmach later said that this setup was " a real pain for [ the team ] in some ways " . Looking Glass signed a multi @-@ game publishing deal with Electronic Arts in May 1998 , and that company became the publisher of Flight Combat . The team " undersold " the game to Electronic Arts , and James Sterrett of the fansite Through the Looking Glass believed that the team " gambled that it could get the game out the door faster than the budget actually called for " . In March 1999 , the game was announced as the World War II @-@ themed Flight Combat : Thunder Over Europe , directed by Hantzopoulos and scheduled for release in fall of that year . That May , the game was shown at the Electronic Arts booth at E3 . Computer Games Magazine 's Steve Udell wrote that the game would feature a new iteration of the Flight Unlimited terrain renderer , and IGN reported that one million square miles of terrain based on European landscapes would be available . Weather conditions such as snow and rain were planned . Udell wrote that Flight Combat 's flight physics were an updated version of those from recent Flight Unlimited games , with new material taken from operations manuals and flight tests . Plane models and textures were based on photographs , and many of the moving parts and flight control surfaces were modeled individually . Players were given the option to customize planes . Udell described a physics @-@ based damage system that , according to the company , made it impossible to " see the exact same kind of damage twice " . Two campaigns — the Battle of Britain and the Defence of the Reich — were announced , with missions based on dogfights , air @-@ to @-@ ground combat and bombing runs . Looking Glass claimed that the game would feature " moving tanks and ships duk [ ing ] it out on a dynamic battlefield " as the player carried out missions . Aesthetically , IGN 's Tal Blevins noted that the game had " a very distinct 40s charm " , which was present " from the briefings to the options screens " . = = = Bankruptcy and cancellation = = = Electronic Arts rebranded Flight Combat as Jane 's Attack Squadron , to fit with the Jane 's Information Group license that the publisher had used for its Jane 's Combat Simulations line . According to Stellmach , the publisher demanded that the game be heavily redesigned " partway through " development , which exacerbated the team 's existing problems with meeting deadlines . Sterrett believed that the game 's schedule and funding did not receive the necessary adjustments to allow for this redesign . Together with Flight Unlimited III 's commercial failure , the expenses of Jane 's Attack Squadron 's long development used up revenue from Thief : The Dark Project , which had helped the company recover from the failure of Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri and British Open Championship Golf . Compounding these problems , business deals with Microsoft , Irrational Games and Eidos Interactive were unsuccessful . As a result , Looking Glass Studios went bankrupt in May 2000 . At the time , Jane 's Attack Squadron was roughly three months from completion . Thief II Gold and Thief III were cancelled as a result of the company 's closure , but Jane 's Attack Squadron , because it was near completion and funded through an insured bond , had a chance of being finished . According to Gordon Berg of Computer Gaming World , the legal and logistical problems of keeping " a portion of Looking Glass [ ... ] intact " to finish the game had been " hurdled " . Further , because of the game 's type of funding , the continued development of Jane 's Attack Squadron would have been at little cost to Electronic Arts . Fans petitioned the publisher to let development continue , and Looking Glass employee Rich Carlson said that Hantzopoulos and others from the Flight series , roughly twenty in all , were prepared to work on the game again . The petition reached 2 @,@ 000 signatures by May 30 and 5 @,@ 000 by June 1 . However , Electronic Arts dropped the game . The publisher 's Jeff Brown said that the decision " was based on our deep uncertainty that the project could meet any schedule given the changes in senior management and a history of missing deadlines . " Brown told the website Combatsim that Electronic Arts had " worked diligently " with Looking Glass for more than two years , and that , although the game had missed its planned October 1999 release , they had been willing to delay the project into 2000 . He blamed the developer 's closure for the decision to cancel the game . Rumors circulated that the decision was part of the publisher 's larger plan to abandon the flight simulator genre , and Computer Gaming World 's Denny Atkin later summarized that the company " ran screaming from the simulation market " after Looking Glass 's bankruptcy . Electronic Arts soon dropped the Jane 's Information Group license . = = = At Mad Doc = = = After the closure of Looking Glass , certain employees of that company moved to developer Mad Doc Software , and they hoped to complete Jane 's Attack Squadron . The game 's original lead designer and lead programmer were among those hired by Mad Doc . Dotted Line Entertainment , Mad Doc 's agent company , secured the rights to the game 's code for the team in 2001 . Development commenced shortly afterward . In August of that year , it was reported that the Jane 's Information Group license had been obtained by Xicat Interactive , and that the company planned to publish Mad Doc 's revival of Jane 's Attack Squadron . The full details of the agreement were announced at that year 's European Computer Trade Show , where it was revealed that Jane 's Attack Squadron would focus heavily on air @-@ to @-@ ground combat . According to Mad Doc 's Tim Farrar , " Our goal wasn 't to create a completely new game , it was to complete the game that was started at LG . " Farrar noted that , although the company " trimmed some of the more ambitious features " , Jane 's Attack Squadron was effectively " the same game " created by Looking Glass . As with Flight Combat , the game features one million square miles of terrain , planes with individually modelled moving parts and a physics @-@ based damage system . In October 2001 , the game was officially announced in a press release by Mad Doc . Steve Nadeau , the lead designer of the game at both development studios , said that he looked forward to polishing Jane 's Attack Squadron and " giv [ ing ] it a new life " . He believed that the team was " very excited " to finish the game , a sentiment later echoed by the game 's producer , David Halpern . According to Nadeau , the presence of members of the Looking Glass team ensured that it would " closely reflect our original vision of the game : an action @-@ packed World War II air combat simulation accessible to users of all skill levels " . Farrar announced that the team 's mission and physics editors would be released alongside the game , which he hoped would generate interest among players . Farrar later commented that , because of the game 's physics @-@ based damage system and individually modelled components , wings could be shot off and fuel tanks detonated . He also explained that coolant tanks could be hit , giving the pilot a limited amount of time before the plane engine overheated . He wrote that losing a wing tip meant " a bumpy ride " , but the loss of the tail caused the plane to " spin into the ground " . Jane 's Attack Squadron went gold in March 2002 , and was released that month . = = Reception = = Denny Atkin of Computer Gaming World wrote that Jane 's Attack Squadron " had the potential to be sim of the year in 2000 " , but that it had been rendered largely irrelevant by delays and " unrealized design goals . " He believed that its graphics would have been " state of the art in 2000 " , but he found them middling in 2002 ; and he noted the presence of numerous glitches . He considered the game 's most serious flaw to be its low number of missions . Although Atkin found the air @-@ to @-@ air combat " generally fun " , citing " good pilot AI " and " decent " flight physics , he believed that the game 's bombing runs were its most outstanding element . He hoped that fans would use the mission and physics editors to improve the game , and he concluded , " It 's buggy , but when it works it 's worth flying . " Andy Mahood of PC Gamer US wrote that Jane 's Attack Squadron is " unquestionably an entertaining and unique WWII prop sim " , but he believed that it was clearly inferior to games such as IL @-@ 2 Sturmovik . He found the game 's graphics to be outdated and its design to be " simplistic " , and he wrote that its " somewhat basic flight model " prevents advanced maneuvers . He praised the game 's sound effects and music , as well as its " intricate damage modeling " , as its best features . He finished by saying that , because the genre was " starving for fresh titles " , Jane 's Attack Squadron could be recommended despite its flaws . IGN 's Tom Chick found it " unrealistic , erratic , and limited " , writing that it " looks bad , plays poorly , and is unstable . " He disliked its " canned and rigidly scripted missions " , although he found its bombing runs " interesting " and its air @-@ to @-@ air combat features acceptable . However , he believed that ease of shooting down aircraft made the damage system 's " powerful amount of flexibility " worthless . Chick believed that the multiplayer component was one of the game 's worst features , and he derided the game 's " suspiciously canned physics " , which offered " a grab bag of fidelity mixed in with heaps of silliness . " He summarized Jane 's Attack Squadron as " awful . " Josh Horowitz of The Adrenaline Vault noted the complex damage system , and he believed that the game " looks as good as most of today 's flight simulators " , although he experienced performance issues . He noted that the gameplay was hurt by " corner cutting or general incompletion " , such as the limited in @-@ game tutorials . Horowitz found the game " repetitive " because of its lack of missions and " low sense of involvement " , and , like Chick , he disliked its multiplayer and " linear " missions . Although he offered significant praise for its sound , Horowitz concluded that the game was " a buggy , incomplete offering " , and that those " looking for the next great Jane 's title will likely be disappointed . " GameSpy 's Bernard Dy wrote that the game failed to live up to the Jane 's Combat Simulations pedigree , and he believed that those who enjoyed " the realism of Il @-@ 2 Sturmovik will be disappointed . " He disliked its " relaxed flight models " and lack of features , and he cited a large number of glitches . However , Dy found its damage system " robust " and he believed that the game was " not a total loss . " Like Atkin , he hoped that fans would improve the game with its detailed editors , although he believed that this was somewhat unlikely .

= 1955 Atlantic hurricane season = The 1955 Atlantic hurricane season was , at the time , the costliest season ever recorded . The hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1955 , and ended on November 15 , 1955 . It was slightly above average , with 13 recorded tropical cyclones . The first storm , Alice , had persisted since December 30 , 1954 . Alice caused relatively minor impact as it tracked through the Lesser Antilles and eastern Caribbean Sea in early January . Tropical Storm Brenda caused two deaths and minor damage along the Gulf Coast of the United States in early August . The quick succession of Hurricanes Connie and Diane caused significant flooding in the Northeastern United States , with nearly $ 1 billion ( 1955 USD ) in losses and at least 232 fatalities . The next three storms – Hurricanes Edith and Flora and Tropical Storm Five – caused very minor or no impact . In early August , Hurricane Gladys caused severe localized flooding in Mexico , primarily in Mexico City . Additionally , an offshoot of Gladys inflicted minor impact in Texas . Hurricane Hilda struck the Greater Antilles and then Mexico . It was attributed to at least 304 deaths and $ 120 million in losses . In mid @-@ September , Hurricane Ione struck eastern North Carolina and contributed the flooding from Connie and Diane , resulting in seven fatalities and $ 88 million in damage . Later that month , Hurricane Janet , which peaked as a Category 5 hurricane , lashed several countries adjacent to the Caribbean Sea , as well as Mexico and British Honduras . Janet resulted in $ 53 @.@ 8 million in damage and at least 716 deaths . An unnamed tropical storm in the month of October did not impact land . Hurricane Katie , the final storm , caused minor damage in a sparsely populated area of Hispaniola , totaling to at least $ 200 @,@ 000 ; 7 fatalities were also reported . Collectively , the storms caused 1518 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in losses , making it the costliest season at the time . A record number of names – four – were retired following the season , which was tied by 1995 and 2004 , and then surpassed in 2005 ( when five names were retired ) . = = Season summary = = On April 11 , 1955 , which was prior to the start of the season , Gordon Dunn was promoted to the chief meteorologist of the Miami Hurricane Warning Office . Dunn was replacing Grady Norton , who died from a stroke while forecasting Hurricane Hazel of the previous season . In early June , the Hurricane Hunters received new reconnaissance aircraft , which contained the latest radar and electronic equipment , at the time . Later that month , shortly before the start of the 1955 season , a bill was proposed in the United States Senate to provide funding for 55 new radar stations along the East Coast of the United States . After the United States House of Representatives passed a bill allotting $ 5 million , the Senate disputed about possibly increasing the funding two @-@ fold to $ 10 million . Eventually , the radars were installed , starting in July 1955 . After the devastating storms of the season , particularly Connie and Diane , a United States Government organization with the propose of monitoring tropical cyclones was established in 1956 with $ 500 @,@ 000 in funding ; it later became the modern @-@ day National Hurricane Center . The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1955 . It was an above average season in which 13 tropical cyclones formed . In a typical season , about nine tropical storms develop , of which five strengthen to hurricane strength . All thirteen depressions attained tropical storm status , and eleven of these attained hurricane status . Six hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes . The season was above average most likely because of an strong , ongoing La Niña . Hurricane Alice developed in late December 1954 , but persisted into January 1955 , and was operationally analysed to have developed in the latter . Within the official hurricane season bounds , tropical cyclogenesis did not occur until July 31 , with the development of Tropical Storm Brenda . However , during the month of August , four tropical cyclones formed – including Connie , Diane , Edith , and an unnamed tropical storm . Five additional tropical cyclones – Flora , Gladys , Hilda , Ione , and Janet – all developed in September . Tropical cyclogenesis briefly halted until an unnamed tropical storm formed on October 10 . The final storm of the season , Katie , dissipated on October 19 , almost a month before the official end of hurricane season on November 15 . Eight hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 1 @,@ 603 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in damage . The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 199 , which was above the 1950 @-@ 2000 average of 96 @.@ 1 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical cyclones with winds exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength . = = Storms = = = = = Hurricane Alice ( 1954 ) = = = On January 1 , there was already a tropical cyclone located in the central Atlantic Ocean , having developed on December 30 of the previous year . Operationally it was first observed as a hurricane on January 1 , which resulted in it being named Alice . The hurricane passed through the Leeward Islands on January 2 . Alice reached peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) before encountering cold air and turning to the southeast . It dissipated on January 6 over the southeastern Caribbean Sea . Alice produced heavy rainfall and moderately strong winds across several islands along its path . Saba and Anguilla were affected the most , with total damage amounting to $ 623 @,@ 500 . Operationally , lack of definitive data prevented the U.S. Weather Bureau from declaring the system a hurricane until January 2 . It received the name Alice in early 1955 , though re @-@ analysis of the data supported extending its track to the previous year , resulting in two tropical cyclones of the same name in one season . It was one of only two storms to span two calendar years , along with Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 and 2006 . = = = Tropical Storm Brenda = = = Tropical Storm Brenda developed in the north @-@ central Gulf of Mexico at 0600 UTC on July 31 . During the next 24 hours , the storm strengthened rapidly and attained its maximum sustain wind speed of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) early on August 1 ( although it is possible it briefly reached hurricane intensity ) . Later that day , Brenda made landfall east of New Orleans , Louisiana at the same intensity . The storm steadily weakened inland and by August 2 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression . Early on August 3 , Brenda dissipated while located over eastern Texas . Between Pensacola , Florida and Lake Charles , Louisiana , rainfall totals were generally about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) ; flooding , if any , was insignificant . Tropical storm force winds were reported , peaking at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) at Shell Beach , Louisiana on the south shore of Lake Borgne . At the same location , tides between 5 and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 8 m ) above normal were measured . Four people were rescued by the United States Coast Guard after their tugboat sank in Lake Pontchartrain , while three others swam to shore . Additionally , two fatalities occurred in the vicinity of Mobile , Alabama . = = = Hurricane Connie = = = A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression east of Cape Verde on August 3 . After six hours , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Connie . By August 4 , Connie began to rapidly strengthen , becoming the first major hurricane of the season later that day . Initially , it posed a threat to the Lesser Antilles , although it passed about 50 miles ( 80 km ) north . The outer rainbands produced hurricane force wind gusts and intense precipitation , reaching 8 @.@ 65 inches ( 220 mm ) in Puerto Rico . In the United States Virgin Islands , three people died due to the hurricane , and a few homes were destroyed . In Puerto Rico , Connie destroyed 60 homes and caused crop damage . After affecting Puerto Rico , Connie turned to the northwest , reaching peak winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . The hurricane weakened while slowing and turning to the north , and struck North Carolina on August 12 as a Category 2 hurricane . Connie produced strong winds , high tides , and heavy rainfall as it moved ashore , causing heavy crop damage and 27 deaths in the state of North Carolina . Connie made a second landfall in Virginia , and it progressed inland until dissipating on August 15 near Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan . Four people were killed in Washington , D.C. due to a traffic accident . In the Chesapeake Bay , Connie capsized a boat , killing 14 people and prompting a change in Coast Guard regulation . There were six deaths each in Pennsylvania and New Jersey , and eleven deaths in New York , where record rainfall flooded homes and subways . At least 225 @,@ 000 people lost power during the storm . Damage in the United States totaled around $ 86 million , although the rains from Connie was a prelude to flooding by Hurricane Diane . The remnants of Connie destroyed a few houses and boats in Ontario and killed three people in Ontario . = = = Hurricane Diane = = = A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde on August 7 . It slowly strengthened and became Tropical Storm Diane on August 9 . After a Fujiwhara interaction with Hurricane Connie , Diane curved northward or north @-@ northeastward and quickly deepened . By early on August 8 , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . Only several hours later , Diane peaked as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The storm resumed its west @-@ northwestward motion on August 13 . Colder air in the region caused Diane to weaken while approaching the East Coast of the United States . A recently installed radar in North Carolina noted an eye feature , albeit poorly defined . Early on August 17 , Diane made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina as a strong tropical storm . The storm then moved in a parabolic motion across North Carolina and the Mid @-@ Atlantic before re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic Ocean on August 19 . Diane headed east @-@ northeastward until becoming extratropical on August 20 . Despite landfall in North Carolina , impact in the state was minor , limited to moderate rainfall , abnormally high tides , and relatively strong winds . Further north , catastrophic flooding occurred in Pennsylvania , New Jersey , New York , and New England . Of the 287 stream gauges in the region , 129 reported record levels after the flooding from Tropical Storm Diane . Many streams reported discharge rates that were more than twice of the previous record . Most of the flooding occurred along small river basins that rapidly rose within hours to flood stage , largely occurring in populated areas ; the region in which the floods occurred had about 30 million people , and 813 houses overall were destroyed . The floods severely damaged homes , highways , power lines , and railroads , and affected several summer camps . Overall utility damage was estimated at $ 79 million . Flooding in mountainous areas caused landslides and destroyed crop fields ; agriculture losses was estimated at $ 7 million . Hundreds of miles of roads and bridges were also destroyed , accounting for $ 82 million in damage . Overall , Diane caused $ 754 @.@ 7 million in damage , of which $ 600 million was in New England . Overall , there were at least 184 deaths . = = = Hurricane Edith = = = An easterly tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on August 21 in the tropical Atlantic . Moving towards the west @-@ northwest , the disturbance slowly intensified , reaching tropical storm strength at 1200 UTC on August 23 and as such was named Edith by the Weather Bureau . Afterwards , Edith began to curve towards the northwest as it gradually intensified , attaining hurricane strength on August 25 . The hurricane continued to intensify as it recurved and accelerated to the northeast , reaching its peak intensity on August 28 as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . At the same time , a reconnaissance aircraft reported a minimum barometric pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 27 inHg ) in the storm 's eye as Edith made its closest pass to Bermuda . The hurricane began to gradually weaken after it passed east of the island , before becoming extratropical on August 31 . The cyclone would later make a clockwise loop before dissipating completely late on September 3 . Although Edith remained at sea , it was suspected that the hurricane may have caused the loss of the pleasure yacht Connemara IV , after it separated from its moorings . = = = Tropical Storm Five = = = A weak disturbance was first observed near Grand Cayman on August 23 , gaining tropical storm strength by 0600 UTC that day . Moving towards the north @-@ northwest , the storm passed over western Cuba on August 24 , without much change in intensity . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , the tropical storm marginally intensified , reaching peak intensity with maximum sustained wind speeds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) by 1200 UTC on August 26 . Nearing the Gulf Coast of the United States , the system curved towards the west . The storm maintained its intensity up until landfall in Louisiana near New Orleans on August 27 . Moving inland , it slowly weakened while crossing the Central United States , degenerating to tropical depression strength by August 29 and later dissipating over Missouri the following day . Strong waves generated by the storm caused tides 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above average , slightly damaging coastal resorts . Weather offices advised small craft offshore to remain in port due to the strong waves . Rough seas battered the schooner Princess Friday , but the ship was able to ride out the storm . The storm produced squalls further inland , causing heavy rains . A weather station reported a minimum pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) , the lowest in association with the tropical storm . Despite the strong waves and heavy rains , only minor damage was reported . = = = Hurricane Flora = = = A tropical wave moved along the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) and passed through Cape Verde between August 30 and August 31 . Although the Panair do Brasil headquarters in Recife , Brazil reported a closed circulation on August 30 , Tropical Storm Flora did not develop until 0600 UTC on September 2 , while located about 400 miles ( 640 km ) of Cape Verde . The storm strengthened at a steady pace for the following 48 hours and reached hurricane status late on September 3 . Flora headed on a parabolic track , initially moving west @-@ northwestward and then northwesterly by September 4 . It continued to intensify and by September 6 , the storm curved northward . Around time , a minimum barometric pressure of 967 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) was reported . However , it may have been lower , as the storm did not attain its maximum sustained wind speed of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) until September 7 . Flora maintained this intensity while curving to the northeast , but became extratropical at 0000 UTC on September 9 , while located about midway between Flores Island in the Azores and Sable Island , Nova Scotia . = = = Hurricane Gladys = = = A tropical depression developed in the southern Gulf of Mexico at 1200 UTC on September 4 . Six hours later , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Gladys . The storm quickly intensified and reached hurricane status on September 5 , roughly 24 hours after developing . Around that time , Gladys peaked as a Category 1 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Later on September 5 , an offshoot of Gladys with cyclonic turning formed in the northern Gulf of Mexico and struck Texas on September 6 ; it may have been a separate tropical cyclone . Initially , Gladys headed north @-@ northwestward , but then re @-@ curved south @-@ southwestward while approaching the Gulf Coast of Mexico . Early on September 6 , it made landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas as a weakening tropical storm . The system rapidly dissipated inland . Gladys dropped up to 25 inches ( 640 mm ) in Tampico , Tamaulipas . The worst of the flooding from Gladys occurred in Mexico City . Roughly 5 @,@ 000 residents were isolated and required rescue . Police estimated that 2 @,@ 300 homes were inundated with 5 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) of water . About 30 @,@ 000 families were impacted by the storm . Two children drowned and five additional people were listed as missing . In Texas , the highest sustained wind speed was 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in the Corpus Christi – Port O 'Connor area , with gusts between 55 and 65 mph ( 89 and 105 km / h ) offshore . Precipitation peaked at 17 @.@ 02 inches ( 432 mm ) in Flour Bluff , a neighborhood of Corpus Christi . Flooding in the area forced " scores " of people to evacuate their homes . Damage estimates reached $ 500 @,@ 000 . = = = Hurricane Ione = = = A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression early on September 10 , while located about midway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles . After six hours , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Ione . Eventually , it turned to the northwest . At 0000 UTC on September 15 , Ione reached hurricane intensity , while situated north of the Leeward Islands . Ione continued to deep while moving northwest . The storm reached Category 4 intensity with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 938 mbar ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) early on September 18 . Around midday on the following day , it made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane . Shortly after moving inland over eastern North Carolina , Ione weakened to a tropical storm . Late on September 19 , Ione re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic near Norfolk , Virginia . The storm quickly re @-@ strengthened early on September 20 , but transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 21 . Strong winds , heavy rainfall , and abnormally high tides lashed some areas along the East Coast of the United States , especially North Carolina . In Cherry Point , sustained winds reached 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , with gusts up to 107 mph ( 172 km / h ) . Overall , damage was slightly more than $ 88 million , mostly to crops and agriculture . Rainfall in the state peaked at 16 @.@ 63 inches ( 422 mm ) in Maysville . Storm surge in North Carolina peaked at 5 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) in Wrightsville Beach . As a result , several coastal roadways were flooded , including a portion of Highway 94 and Route 264 . Seven deaths were reported in North Carolina . The remnants of Ione brought gusty winds to Atlantic Canada , which broken poles , uprooted trees , interrupted telephone service , damaged chimneys and caused power outages , especially in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador . = = = Hurricane Hilda = = = A tropical wave located near the Lesser Antilles spawned a tropical depression on September 12 . It is estimated that the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Hilda early on the following day . Hilda quickly intensified while moving westward into a small hurricane by September 12 . Although the storm passed just north of Hispaniola on September 13 , damage is unknown , if any . Later that day , Hilda made landfall near the southeastern tip of Cuba on September 13 . There , it dropped heavy rainfall and produced gusty winds that destroyed 80 % of the coffee crop in Oriente Province . In the eastern Cuban city of Baracoa , Hilda severely damaged the oldest church in the country . Damage totaled $ 2 million in Cuba , and there were four deaths . Later , the hurricane moved across the Caribbean Sea , causing light damage in the sparsely @-@ populated region of the eastern Yucatán Peninsula . After reaching the Gulf of Mexico , Hilda strengthened to reach peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) late on September 18 . Before the hurricane moved ashore , there was residual flooding in Tampico from earlier Hurricane Gladys . Hilda struck the city early on September 19 , with gusts estimated at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . The storm dropped heavy rainfall that flooded 90 % of Tampico , while its strong winds damaged half of the homes , leaving 15 @,@ 000 homeless . Throughout Mexico , 11 @,@ 432 people were directly affected by Hilda . Overall , the storm killed 300 people and caused over $ 120 million . Additionally , the outerbands of Hilda caused minor flooding in southern Texas , particularly in Raymondville . = = = Hurricane Janet = = = Hurricane Janet was the most powerful tropical cyclone of the season and one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes on record . The hurricane formed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles on September 21 . Moving toward the west across the Caribbean Sea , Janet fluctuated in intensity , but generally strengthened before reaching its peak intensity as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale with winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . The intense hurricane made landfall at that intensity near Chetumal , Mexico on September 28 . Janet 's landfall as a Category 5 hurricane on the Yucatán Peninsula marked the first recorded instance that a storm of such intensity in the Atlantic basin made on a continental mainland , with all previous storms making landfall as Category 5 hurricanes on islands . After weakening over the Yucatán Peninsula , it moved into the Bay of Campeche , where it slightly strengthened before making its final landfall near Veracruz on September 29 . Janet quickly weakened over Mexico 's mountainous terrain before dissipating on September 30 . In its developmental stages near the Lesser Antilles , Janet caused significant damage to the island chain , resulting in 189 deaths and $ 7 @.@ 8 million in damages in the Grenadines and Barbados . While Janet was in the central Caribbean Sea , a reconnaissance aircraft flew into the storm and was lost , with all eleven crew members believed perished . This was the only such loss which has occurred in association with an Atlantic hurricane . A Category 5 upon landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula , Janet caused severe devastation in areas on Quintana Roo and British Honduras . Only five buildings in Chetumal , Mexico remained intact after the storm . An estimated 500 deaths occurred in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo . At Janet 's second landfall near Veracruz , significant river flooding ensued , worsening effects caused by Hurricanes Gladys and Hilda earlier in the month . The floods left thousands of people stranded and killed at least 326 people in the Tampico area . The flood damage would lead to the largest Mexican relief operation ever executed by the United States . At least 1 @,@ 023 deaths were attributed to Hurricane Janet , as well as $ 65 @.@ 8 million in damages . = = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = = A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 18 and continued west @-@ northwestward . It is possible that the system developed into a tropical depression the next day , although lack of data prevented such classification until September 23 , when a nearby ship reported winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . An approaching cold front turned the system to the north on September 24 . The structure gradually became better organized , and after turning to the northeast on September 26 , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . This was based on a ship report of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds , which was also estimated as the system 's peak intensity . On September 27 , the system became extratropical and accelerated its forward motion , dissipating within a larger extratropical storm south of Iceland on the next day . = = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = = A tropical wave was reported to have passed through Cape Verde on October 4 . The system slowly developed a vertex as it curved in a generally northward direction . By early on October 10 , two ships reported that a tropical depression formed almost halfway between the Azores and the Leeward Islands . After six hours , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm . While re @-@ curving to the northeast , the storm attained its maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) ; the lowest atmospheric pressure recorded in relation to the storm was 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) , but the time of measurement is unknown . Although no significant weakening occurred , it eventually merged with an extratropical cyclone on October 14 , while still well southwest of the Azores . During its extratropical stage , a ship in the area reported an atmospheric pressure as low as 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . = = = Hurricane Katie = = = A disturbance in the ITCZ developed into a tropical depression north of Panama on October 14 . Early on the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Katie . The system moved generally northeast due to the presence of a strong low pressure area along the East Coast of the United States . Later that day , Hurricane Hunters observed a rapidly intensifying hurricane , encountering winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a pressure of 984 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) several hours before the peak intensity . Early on October 17 , Katie made landfall in extreme eastern Sud @-@ Est Department , Haiti as a strong Category 2 hurricane ( although it may have been stronger ) . About half of homes in the town of Anse @-@ à @-@ Pitres were destroyed . Across the border in Pedernales , Dominican Republic , 68 houses were damaged . Overall losses were at least $ 200 @,@ 000 and 7 fatalities were reported . While crossing the mountainous terrain of Hispaniola , Katie became very disorganized and rapidly weakened to a tropical storm early on October 17 , within a few hours after moving inland . Later that day , the storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean just east of Puerto Plata , Dominican Republic . Katie began accelerating to the northeast on October 18 . During that time , the storm re @-@ intensified and briefly approached hurricane intensity , although it failed to strengthen further due to interaction with a cold front . After passing just east of Bermuda on October 19 , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants of Katie were last observed the following day . = = Storm names = = The following names were used for tropical cyclones that reached at least tropical storm intensity in the North Atlantic in 1955 . However , two of such storms went unnamed . Connie , Diane , Ione , and Janet would later be retired . The 1955 season was tied with the 1995 and 2004 for the most storm names retired after a single season , until five names were retired in 2005 . Storms were named Brenda , Connie , Diane , Edith , Flora , Gladys , Hilda , Ione , Janet and Katie for the first time . Names not assigned are marked in gray .

= NoitulovE = noitulovE ( " Evolution " backwards ) is a British television and cinema advertisement launched by Diageo in 2005 to promote Guinness Draught stout . The 60 @-@ second piece formed the cornerstone of a £ 15 million advertising campaign targeting men in their late twenties and early thirties . The commercial shows , in reverse , the adventures of three characters who evolve from mudskippers to present day humans before tasting Guinness in a London pub . The commercial was handled by the advertising agency Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO , with a budget of £ 1.3M. It was directed by Daniel Kleinman . Production was contracted to Kleinman Productions , with post @-@ production by Framestore CFC . It premiered on British television on 3 October 2005 . noitulovE is the fifth television / cinema piece in the Good things come to those who wait series , and its premiere marked the end of a four @-@ year hiatus . The advert and its associated campaign were a critical and financial success . It received over 30 awards from professional organisations in the advertising and television industries , and was the most @-@ awarded commercial worldwide in 2006 . The impact of the campaign was such that during a period in which the UK beer market experienced a substantial decline in revenue , Guinness reported that its year @-@ on @-@ year earnings within the region had noticeably increased . At the same time , Guinness achieved its highest @-@ ever volume and value shares and became the market leader within the region . This was attributed in no small part to the positive reception of noitulovE . = = Sequence = = The piece begins with three patrons taking their first sip of Guinness in a London pub . To the accompaniment of Sammy Davis , Jr . ' s rendition of " The Rhythm of Life " from the 1969 film version of the 1966 Broadway musical Sweet Charity , a reverse @-@ motion sequence begins . The three men retreat from the bar and into the street , other patrons disappearing as they pass . As they move down the street , a reverse time @-@ lapse @-@ style sequence transforms their clothes to match a rapidly changing urban scene , which progresses through modern @-@ day London to the Edwardian period . Electric lights transform into gas lamps and buildings begin to disappear frame by frame . A short cutaway sequence shows the city regressing into the past , shrinking to a small Saxon settlement before disappearing entirely . Returning to the main sequence , the three men 's clothes and hairstyles are adjusted into Bronze Age equivalents as they pass through thickening woodland . A close @-@ up of one of the characters shows his features quickly transformed into those of a caveman . The trio are then frozen in an ice age glacier . The three re @-@ emerge from the glacier as primitive hominids , their clothes ripped away to reveal loincloths . They continue to walk backwards with a more simian gait , and soon turn into chimpanzees . From there , they are transformed into a number of different species in quick succession , including flying squirrels , furry mammals , aquatic mammals , fish , flightless birds , small dinosaurs , and burrowing lizard @-@ like creatures . The environment around them changes rapidly as they travel , with cutaways showing millions of years of geological changes occurring in less than a few seconds . Finally , the three become mudskippers around a green @-@ brown puddle . The action briefly moves forward again to show the middle character registering his disgust at the taste of the water with a " Pweugh ! " sound . The commercial ends with a transition to a product shot of three pints of Guinness accompanied by the strapline " Good things come to those who wait " . = = Production = = = = = Background = = = Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO won the account for Guinness in 1996 with a campaign built on their new strapline " Good things come to those who wait " . They produced several commercials using variations on the theme , including Swimblack , Bet on Black , and the critically acclaimed Surfer , voted the " Best Advert of All Time " by the British public in 2002 . After the 2001 Dreamer advertisements , Diageo , the corporate owners of Guinness , decided to pursue a more pan @-@ European marketing strategy . The strapline proved difficult to translate , and was abandoned . Several new straplines were tried out over the next three years , including " Believe " ( Free and Tom Crean ) and " A story of darkness and light " ( Moth and Mustang ) . The new marketing strategy did not prove particularly successful , and in 2004 Diageo returned to regional advertising . AMV BBDO were presented with the choice of coming up with either a new theme to appeal to the 18 – 35 British male demographic or a new angle on the tried and tested Good things ... concept . A number of ideas were put forward , including " The Longest Wait " . From this concept , noitulovE was quickly plotted out : the advert would show three individuals waiting 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years before finally taking their first sip of Guinness , the timeline compressed into a 50 @-@ second clip . The decision to run the " Evolution sequence " in reverse was taken fairly early , as it was felt that it would better hold viewers ' interest during a 60 @-@ second television spot . = = = Pre @-@ production = = = The project had not yet been greenlit when the agency approached Daniel Kleinman , known for his work on James Bond title sequences , with the intention of taking him on as a director . After looking over the concept pitch and a rough draft of the script , Kleinman 's immediate impressions were that the idea was " fresh " , " an opportunity to try out some new techniques " , and that it would " put Guinness back on track , doing a big ' wow ' idea " . Kleinman contacted a pair of Canadian graphic novel artists to begin the storyboarding process . Storyboarding the commercial meant that the agency could determine how much of the £ 1.3M budget to allocate to each section , and provided them with visuals to use as part of the presentation to Diageo when pitching the various concepts for a decision on which to pursue . The effort paid off and approval was given to move ahead with production . = = = Production = = = Production of the commercial took place over two months , with principal photography shot in Iceland . Time @-@ lapse photographs were taken of the country 's mudpots , volcanic terrain and frozen lakes using 35 mm film cameras . The shooting was done in the early summer for the nearly continuous daylight that the season afforded them . The next pieces of the commercial to be assembled were the live @-@ action segments , shot in a greenscreen studio in London . Filming was done in three stages , with the three actors changing into different sets of prosthetic makeup at each stage . For the final section the actors spent a week practising the choreography behind walking backwards with an appropriately simian gait . Wires were attached to the back of each actor , allowing them to lean forwards to give the impression that they were being " sucked back in time " when the final cut was put together . While filming the actor sequences , VFX supervisor William Bartlett filmed the aerial view of London from Tower 42 's Vertigo bar . With computer @-@ generated imagery looking to make up so much of the commercial , Kleinman attempted to use film of real elements wherever possible . To this end , 200 mudskippers were brought to the studio from South Africa for the final scene , arriving via Singapore . An entire afternoon was set aside for filming the mudskipper sequence . The footage obtained formed the major part of the final cut of the scene , with only one or two post @-@ production changes : the addition of tail fins and animation of the expression of disgust that closes the piece . Stop motion footage of other real elements was taken , including a stage @-@ by @-@ stage blowtorching of plants , used to show flora coming back to life in the reverse sequence , and shots of baking bread , used to model the geological changes to background rock formations . Additional real elements were to have been incorporated into the commercial , mostly from stock footage of several animal species , but only short segments of apes and lizards appeared in the final cut . = = = Post @-@ production = = = Post @-@ production work was handled mostly by Framestore CFC , who had worked on previous Guinness campaigns Surfer and Dreamer , and had worked with Daniel Kleinman on a number of outside projects , including several commercials and James Bond title sequences . The project was overseen by William Bartlett , known for his visual effects work on the BBC television documentary Walking with Dinosaurs . The original schedule allowed for three and a half months in post @-@ production , with airing of the commercial to follow almost immediately . The 24 @-@ man animation team was split into two groups . Half were assigned to the creation of the 15 new CGI creatures populating noitulovE ( in Maya ) , while the other half created the backgrounds ( in Houdini ) . Compositing work – combining the greenscreen shots with stock footage and CGI elements – was performed in Flame and Inferno . As the final commercial was to be shown on cinema screens , the animators worked at a resolution higher than that afforded by the 576i definition used by British PAL @-@ encoded television sets , to improve the appearance of the advert when projected . Near the end of post @-@ production , the creative team decided that the music chosen to accompany the advert , an electronic track by Groove Armada , was not working particularly well . Peter Raeburn , who had chosen the track used in Surfer ( Leftfield 's " Phat Planet " ) , was brought on as music director . Raeburn suggested three pieces , with " Rhythm of Life " ultimately presented to Guinness as an alternative and approved as a replacement . = = Release and reception = = = = = Schedule = = = noitulovE was originally to have begun its run in September 2005 , but the airdate was pushed back several weeks as post @-@ production took longer than anticipated . As had been the case with several earlier campaigns , the commercial was to air in several bursts , throughout 2005 and 2006 . Spots were purchased in the commercial breaks of sports broadcasts , high @-@ budget television dramas and shows whose primary audience overlapped with the campaign 's target demographic of British males in the 24 – 35 age range . The first burst was commissioned to run from 3 October to 13 November 2005 , during programming such as the UEFA Champions League , Lost , Vincent , Ant and Dec 's Saturday Night Takeaway and terrestrial television screenings of Austin Powers : Goldmember . The second burst lasted through December . The focus moved to multichannel television , with appearances in live televised football matches , films , and popular programming such as I 'm a Celebrity , Get Me Out of Here ! . Two further bursts were commissioned for 2006 , to run from 15 May to 9 June and 22 August to 8 October . Programmes selected for the May – June burst included Celebrity X Factor , Big Brother and live football and cricket matches . The final series of spots ran during programming totalling 56 ratings points per week ( 56 % of British television viewers ) , with much of the budget assigned to multichannel television . = = = Awards = = = noitulovE was well received by critics within the advertising and television industries , and was predicted to win the 2006 Cannes Lions Film Grand Prix , one of the advertising industry 's highest awards . Advertising Age said of the piece : " A flawless DGI production to an irresistible piece of music propelling a brilliant , astonishingly witty new iteration of a longstanding , unique positioning . This isn 't just great advertising ; it is perfect advertising . " Gastón Bigio , Executive Creative Director for Del Campo Nazca Saatchi & Saatchi remarked on the campaign in the run @-@ up to the festival , saying " noitulovE is , in my opinion , the best . [ ... ] This execution is absolutely incredible , as is the production . " The main competition for the prize was thought to be the Australian Big Ad for Carlton draught beer , and the British Balls , for Sony 's BRAVIA line of high definition television sets . After the three received Gold Lions in the Film category , they were shortlisted by the judges as contenders for the Grand Prix . Ultimately , the honour went to noitulovE . After the decision , David Droga , president of the jury which determined the outcome , said " It 's a very very strong ad . A lot of the jurors felt that it was not only a stand @-@ alone , remarkable ad , but also a triumphant return for a fabulous campaign . " The victory placed director Daniel Kleinman at Number 29 in The Independent 's list of the Top 50 Newsmakers of 2006 . The 2006 edition of the Gunn Report , an authoritative annual publication determining the advertising industry 's most critically successful campaigns , revealed that noitulovE had received more awards that year than any other campaign worldwide . Among the awards were three Clios , two Golden Sharks , and the Special Jury Prize at the Imagina Awards . The ad was also a hit with the public . It has been credited by Guinness as being responsible for the substantial boost in sales experienced by the brand during the period in which it was broadcast . While revenues within the UK beer market declined by an average of − 0 @.@ 4 % ( − £ 19M ) , the year @-@ on @-@ year figures for Guinness showed an increase of 3 @.@ 6 % ( + £ 13.3M ) . Between October 2005 and October 2006 , Guinness achieved its highest ever volume ( 6 @.@ 8 % ) and value ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) shares , taking the position of market leader from Stella Artois . Diageo attributed the growth in no small part to the positive reception garnered by noitulovE . = = = Legacy = = = As one of the most recognisable British television advertisements of 2006 , noitulovE was one of two commercials ( the other being Sony 's Balls ) to feature in a £ 200M campaign launched by Digital UK to raise awareness of the imminent switchover within the UK from analogue to digital television . New versions of the two adverts were produced , showing the first few seconds of the original spot before being interrupted by " Digit Al " , an animated spokesman for the campaign . In 2004 , Guinness launched a retrospective television advertising campaign promoting Guinness Extra Cold stout , featuring new ten @-@ second versions of commercials broadcast between 1984 and 2004 . These included Mars ( with Rutger Hauer reprising his role as the " Pure Genius " ) , Anticipation , Fish Bicycle , Surfer , and Bet on Black. noitulovE joined the campaign in 2006 , and was the only piece to receive more than one new version . In the first of these , the patrons are encased only seconds after taking their first sip of Guinness in a glacier identical to the one which appeared half @-@ way through the original spot . In the second , the sea through which the three fish bound backwards in the original spot is frozen while the trio are in mid @-@ leap , leaving the characters skidding across the surface . In the final version , the primeval pool at the end of the original spot freezes while the mudskippers are taking their drink , and the protagonists ' tongues are left stuck in the ice . When noitulovE was first proposed , it was the only pitch revisiting the Good things come to those who wait campaign , as , according to copywriter Ian Heartfield , both AMV BBDO and Diageo " didn 't think [ they ] could do something good enough to warrant following on from Surfer and the like . " However , following the success of noitulovE , three additional commercials have been aired within the Good Things ... campaign : Fridge , Hands , and Tipping Point ( Guinness ' most expensive advertising campaign to date ) .

= Stuart McCall = Andrew Stuart Murray McCall ( born 10 June 1964 ) , usually known as Stuart McCall , is a football manager and former player who is the current manager of Bradford City . He made a total of 763 league games and in 40 full international matches for Scotland during his playing career . McCall started his professional career with Bradford City , where he made his senior debut in 1982 . He played six seasons at Valley Parade , during which time he won the Division Three championship , a title which was overshadowed by the Bradford City stadium fire when 56 people died and in which his father Andy was injured . After missing out on promotion in 1987 – 88 , McCall moved to Everton , for whom he scored twice but finished on the losing side in the 1989 FA Cup Final . In 1991 , he moved to Rangers , with whom he spent seven seasons and won six league titles , three Scottish Cups and two Scottish League Cups . McCall returned to Bradford City as captain to take them into the top division of English football for the first time in 77 years . After four seasons he moved to Sheffield United , where he retired as a player in 2005 . Born and raised in England , McCall qualified to play for Scotland through his Scottish father . He won 40 international caps and scored one goal in the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy . He also played in two European Championships but his international career ended after he was left out of the 1998 World Cup squad . McCall was part of the coaching staff during his second spell at Bradford City , briefly serving as caretaker @-@ player manager in 2000 . He continued his coaching at Sheffield United and was assistant manager to Neil Warnock until May 2007 , when he returned to Bradford City for a third time , this time as manager . He spent two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons in charge of Bradford City , leaving in February 2010 . Just before the end of 2010 , he was appointed Motherwell manager . He stayed at Fir Park for four years , helping the club finish second in the league twice . After a poor start to the 2014 – 15 season , he resigned in November 2014 . McCall was appointed manager of Rangers in March 2015 , but left the club at the end of a short @-@ term contract . = = Early and personal life = = Stuart McCall was born on 10 June 1964 in Leeds , England , to Scottish parents Andy , a former professional footballer , and Jean McCall . He was the couple 's third child after Leslie and Janette , who were 20 and 15 respectively when Stuart was born . The family home was just round the corner from Leeds United 's Elland Road ground where McCall would spend many Saturday afternoons watching United , dreaming of following his father and playing for Leeds , even after the family moved to Wortley . McCall played football for Upper Wortley Primary School and Thornhill Middle School , even scoring a winning goal for the latter in a cup final when he came on as a substitute with his arm in a sling . McCall also played table tennis as a schoolboy but excelled at football , captaining the Leeds under @-@ 11 boys team and playing for other Leeds representative sides . McCall 's parents split and he made up for his size when he moved to one of Leeds ' toughest estates and played for pub sides by the age of 14 . He moved schools to Harrington High and also played for local young sides Pudsey Juniors , Holbeck and later Farsley Celtic . McCall thought he had missed his chance of playing professionally after a string of other players were signed by professional clubs , until Farsley played Bradford City 's junior side in a friendly and he impressed coach Bryan Edwards enough to be asked for a trial . = = Playing career = = = = = Club career = = = = = = = Bradford City = = = = McCall came through City 's youth system after he was signed by George Mulhall in 1980 from Farsley Celtic at the age of 16 , before becoming an apprentice in June 1981 . Mulhall 's successor , Roy McFarland gave McCall his debut at Reading on 28 August 1982 – the opening day of the 1982 – 83 season – when he deputised for Ces Podd at right back . He had played just six league games by 29 January 1983 when he made the first of 134 consecutive league appearances , all in midfield under new manager Trevor Cherry . City finished 12th in Division Three that season . The following season City struggled to make up for the absence of Bobby Campbell , who had left to join Derby County , and won just one of their first fifteen games , until Cherry bought Campbell back from Derby , and City won a record ten consecutive games on their way to a seventh place finish . During the summer of 1984 , Cherry made the two key signings of central defender Dave Evans and right winger John Hendrie to build on the previous season 's high finish . McCall was an integral part of the team as City won the Division Three championship in 1984 – 85 , during which he scored eight goals as one of two ever @-@ present players . The title was assured in the penultimate game when McCall scored the second goal in a 2 – 0 victory over Bolton Wanderers . The league title was paraded before the final game of the season on 11 May 1985 at home to Lincoln City . However , the club 's title was overshadowed when 56 people died in the Bradford City stadium fire when the Valley Parade ground 's main stand caught fire after 40 minutes of play , during which McCall 's father , who was with other family members , was badly injured . After the fire , McCall , still in his kit , spent several hours driving from the ground to his sister 's house , then to Bradford Royal Infirmary and Pinderfields Hospital trying to find his father . His father had suffered severe burns and needed skin grafts on his hands and head and was in hospital for several weeks . For the following 19 months , the club played games away from Valley Parade . Cherry and the players became a close @-@ knit team , attending funerals of the victims and other engagements in the months that followed , and the club 's 13th place finish in Division Two in 1985 – 86 was hailed a major achievement . During Bradford 's time away from Valley Parade , McCall also turned his back on Leeds United , the team he had supported as a child , after their fans set fire to a chip van at Odsal Stadium . McCall became club captain in November 1986 , aged just 21 , after Peter Jackson moved to Newcastle United . Under Cherry 's replacement , Terry Dolan , the club held off any relegation threats to finish tenth in 1986 – 87 . Like Jackson , McCall and Hendrie were both keen to move to a Division One club , but they agreed in 1987 to stay for one final season . Dolan brought in Paul Tomlinson , Brian Mitchell and Lee Sinnott in a bid to help McCall and Hendrie realise their dreams with City . They mounted a promotion challenge in 1987 – 88 and were top for much of the season until they faltered in the New Year . When promotion was missed initially by one point on the last day of the season after a 3 – 2 defeat against Ipswich Town and then through play @-@ off defeat to Middlesbrough , McCall left the club , signing for Everton for £ 850 @,@ 000 in June 1988 . He had played 238 league games for the club , scoring 37 goals , and in total played 285 games , scoring 46 goals . McCall was later outspoken in his autobiography , The Real McCall , about City 's failure to strengthen the side to secure promotion . His departure was soured when he was forced to go to the Football League with a Professional Footballers ' Association representative to win £ 8 @,@ 327 @.@ 15 of an unpaid signing @-@ on fee . = = = = Everton = = = = McCall joined Everton at a time when its former triumphant side of the mid @-@ 1980s had broken up , following the ban on English sides competing in Europe , which marked the start of a period of underachievement at Goodison Park . His Everton debut came in a 4 – 0 victory over Newcastle United on 27 August 1988 against his former teammate Hendrie , who was making his debut for Newcastle . McCall also returned to Valley Parade for a League Cup tie , but his Everton side were knocked out by Bradford 3 – 1 on 14 December 1988 . He started 29 league games in 1988 – 89 as well as another four substitute appearances , but failed to score in the league . He was also a substitute in the 1989 FA Cup Final when he scored Everton 's equaliser in the Merseyside derby against Liverpool to take the game into extra @-@ time . He scored another equaliser during extra @-@ time , but Liverpool 's own substitute Ian Rush also scored two to secure a 3 – 2 victory for Liverpool . McCall made a second appearance in an Everton shirt at Valley Parade , when he was invited by former teammate Mark Ellis to bring a side for his testimonial . In three seasons at Everton , McCall played 103 league games as well as earned his first caps with Scotland but he failed to lift any trophies as the club finished eighth , sixth and ninth in the league . Apart from the FA Cup final defeat in 1989 , the closest he came to winning a trophy at Everton was in the 1989 – 90 season , when Everton topped the league in late autumn and remained in contention for the title for the most the rest of the season until disappointing form in the run @-@ in saw them finish sixth . = = = = Rangers = = = = In the summer of 1991 , McCall signed for Scottish club Rangers for £ 1 @.@ 2 million . Rangers had just won their third successive Scottish Premier Division title . Under newly appointed manager Walter Smith , McCall ended up playing in the final six of the club 's nine successive Scottish league titles . In his first season at Ibrox , Rangers won the league and cup double , before they achieved greater success in 1992 – 93 , winning both cups 2 – 1 against Aberdeen and coming nine points ahead of Aberdeen in the league . McCall also enjoyed European success that season when the Glasgow club narrowly missed out on an appearance in the UEFA Champions League 1992 – 93 final , coming second in the semi @-@ final group stage to eventual winners Olympique de Marseille . Citing the reason for their success as the spirit which Smith instilled in the team , McCall later said : " It was an incredible season . We won the domestic Treble , we went 44 games unbeaten and we did not lose a single game in Europe . And , though we said we would do it again next year , we all knew it was unrepeatable . " In 1993 – 94 , Rangers added another Scottish League Cup title along with the league championship , but lost 1 – 0 in the final of the Scottish Cup to Dundee United , surprisingly being denied a second successive treble . The following season saw Rangers win the league by their greatest margin as they finished 15 points ahead of Motherwell , but they failed to reach the final of either of the domestic cups . Although their winning margin was reduced to four points , from city rivals Celtic , in 1995 – 96 , Rangers ' points tally of 87 was a record @-@ high total . McCall played in his fourth Scottish Cup final as Rangers defeated Hearts 5 – 1 . His Rangers side again pushed Celtic into second place in 1996 – 97 and defeated Hearts 4 – 3 in the Scottish League Cup . But with the club chasing an unprecedented 10th straight title in 1997 – 98 they had to settle for the runners @-@ up position , with Celtic winning the league by two points on the final day of the season . McCall was substituted in the Scottish Cup final defeat to Hearts as Rangers went the season without picking up a single title for the first season in McCall 's time at the club . In February 2008 , McCall became the 71st inductee into the Rangers hall of fame . McCall 's former teammate and Rangers assistant manager Ally McCoist presented him with the award . = = = = Back to Bradford City = = = = McCall still had one year left on his Rangers contract in 1998 , but much of the team that Walter Smith had built had left and McCall was allowed to leave on a free transfer by new manager Dick Advocaat , as long as he joined an English club . Barnsley and Huddersfield Town were both interested in signing McCall , but he rejoined Bradford City as club captain . Rookie manager Paul Jewell put together a squad which emerged as surprise promotion contenders after two seasons spent battling relegation , adding other new signings , including central midfield partner Gareth Whalley and striker Lee Mills , who went on to be club 's top goal @-@ scorer . The season started off slowly with just one win from the first seven games , but by the latter half of the season , City were vying with Ipswich Town and Birmingham City for the second promotion spot behind runaway leaders Sunderland . Loan signing Lee Sharpe and Dean Windass were added to the ranks and City had the chance to seal promotion in their penultimate game against relegation @-@ threatened Oxford United . The game finished as a 0 – 0 draw , with McCall heading over the goal in the final minutes , taking the promotion bid to the final game of the season . Days later he was named the club 's player of the year . A 3 – 2 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 9 May 1999 ensured promotion to the Premier League and denied Ipswich Town – the team that had thwarted McCall and Bradford 11 years before . Bradford were expected to struggle in their first season in the top flight for 77 years . Jewell signed David Wetherall , Dean Saunders and Neil Redfearn , all experienced top flight performers , but City were in the bottom four teams for most of the season . It was Bradford 's home form – they earned 26 of their 36 points at Valley Parade – that was key to City avoiding relegation , which was narrowly averted by two points after a shock 1 – 0 final day victory over Liverpool in 1999 – 2000 , sending Wimbledon down instead . When Jewell left only days after the season ended , McCall was appointed assistant manager to Chris Hutchings , and subsequently served as caretaker manager for two games when Hutchings was sacked after just 12 games of the 2000 – 01 league season . City were relegated with just 26 points . During a 6 – 1 defeat to West Yorkshire rivals Leeds United in the penultimate game , McCall and team @-@ mate Andy Myers fought on the pitch . McCall stayed on for one more season before he was released by manager Nicky Law in May 2002 , shortly before the club went into administration for the first time after finishing 15th in Division One . His playing career at Bradford City had looked uncertain in December 2001 before Law arrived , when previous manager Jim Jefferies had left McCall out of the side in a 3 – 1 defeat at Manchester City following a training ground dispute . However , it was Jefferies who lost out in the dispute when he resigned his post a week later after summit talks with chairman Geoffrey Richmond . In April 2002 , McCall 's testimonial match against Rangers attracted a crowd of more than 21 @,@ 000 to Valley Parade . McCall gave part of the proceeds from his testimonial to the Bradford burns research unit , which was set up following the 1985 fire . Two years after his benefit match , McCall played one more time in City colours in a Save Our City appeal match organised by Bradford 's evening newspaper , the Telegraph & Argus , to raise funds for the club , who were now in administration for a second time . = = = = Sheffield United = = = = On 2 July 2002 McCall joined Sheffield United , where he played an integral part in their first @-@ team side , despite being 38 , and also coached the reserves to the league title . He played 71 league games over the next two seasons , and scored twice , including a winner against former side Bradford . He was in the side that reached the Division One play @-@ off final in 2003 as well as the semi @-@ finals of both cup competitions that year . However he and Dean Windass , who was also now at Sheffield United , were both left out of the play @-@ off final , as United lost 3 – 0 to Wolverhampton Wanderers . McCall played just two League Cup games in the 2004 – 05 season , and retired just a few weeks before his 41st birthday . His career total of 763 league games placed him in 13th position on the all @-@ time appearance list of British footballers . = = = International career = = = McCall was picked for England and Scotland under @-@ 21 sides on the same day in 1984 , and chose to play for England in a game against Turkey . However , he was only picked as a substitute and the referee blew the final whistle with McCall waiting to come on . He later told Scottish newspaper Glasgow Herald , " I felt it was a mistake almost from the start . I was put on the bench and they tried to bring me on with a minute to go . But I took my time re @-@ tying my boots and generally warming up and luckily didn 't get on , otherwise that would have been that . " As a result , McCall was still eligible for both England and Scotland , and he eventually switched allegiances to the latter , for whom he qualified through his father . He made his Scotland debut at under @-@ 21 level in March 1988 , ironically against England . McCall made one more appearance for Scotland under 21s , against France in 1990 . Later the same year , McCall was called up to the Scottish senior team . He won his first cap on 28 March 1990 in a 1 – 0 friendly victory over Argentina . He played in five friendlies in 1990 which earned him a call up to the Italia 90 World Cup squad . He played in all three of Scotland 's World Cup games . They lost their first game 1 – 0 to Costa Rica , before McCall scored what would be his only international goal against Sweden in a 2 – 1 victory . However , Scotland failed to qualify for the knock @-@ out stage when they were defeated 1 – 0 by Brazil . McCall represented Scotland at the European Championships in 1992 , when they again failed to go beyond the group stage after defeats to Netherlands and Germany , and in 1996 when they were edged out in the first round by Netherlands . Scotland failed to qualify for the World Cup in 1994 . McCall played just two qualifying games for the 1998 World Cup and his last cap came in a friendly against Denmark on 25 March 1998 , as he was overlooked for the final squad for the finals in France along with team @-@ mate Ally McCoist . He was capped a total of 40 times for Scotland , scoring one goal . McCall 's caps included 11 while at Everton and 29 during his career with Rangers . = = Coaching and management career = = = = = Early coaching career = = = In July 2000 , McCall accepted his first coaching role , when he was appointed assistant manager to Chris Hutchings at Bradford City , after Hutchings was promoted from the role to replace Paul Jewell as City manager . Just four months later , Hutchings was sacked , and McCall was appointed as caretaker – player manager . His first game in the role was against his former team Everton , who were led by his former manager Walter Smith , but ended with a 1 – 0 defeat . He was in charge for one more game , which also ended in defeat , until Jim Jefferies was appointed the new manager . Jefferies brought with him his own assistant Billy Brown , and McCall was appointed first @-@ team coach . After leaving Bradford City , he joined Sheffield United , where he also took up a coaching role . When he retired in 2004 , he remained at Sheffield United as assistant to Neil Warnock . Working alongside Warnock and learning the managerial ropes from him , he helped mastermind Sheffield 's promotion to the Premier League in 2006 . United were relegated to the Championship on the final day of the 2006 – 07 season and Warnock resigned three days later . McCall had already decided that the 2006 – 07 season would be his last as assistant manager , and when he was overlooked as a successor to the United manager 's position , in favour of Bryan Robson , he decided to leave after five years with the club . = = = Bradford City = = = McCall admitted in his autobiography , The Real McCall , he wanted to manage Bradford . He had been linked with the manager 's position at Bradford City on numerous previous occasions , and after Colin Todd was sacked on 12 February 2007 , City chairman Julian Rhodes made McCall his number one target to take over in the summer . Club captain David Wetherall temporarily took over and was later announced as caretaker manager for the rest of the 2006 – 07 season . On 18 May 2007 it was announced McCall would become full @-@ time manager of the club where he started his career , and on 1 June 2007 he assumed the position . In less than seven years since McCall 's first two @-@ game reign , serious financial problems had driven the club to the verge of closure , and although they survived the threat of oblivion , they were unable to avoid a terrible on @-@ the @-@ pitch decline , which continued after the financial nightmare had been relieved . On McCall 's return to Valley Parade , the Bantams had just been relegated to League Two — meaning that they would be playing in the bottom division for the first time in 25 years . McCall set himself a target of earning promotion back to League One in his first season . Bradford had just 13 players when McCall took over , and he made a number of summer signings including defender Darren Williams , midfielders Kyle Nix , Alex Rhodes and Scott Phelan , and strikers Barry Conlon , Guylain Ndumbu @-@ Nsungu and Peter Thorne . McCall recorded his first win as a manager against Wrexham on 25 August 2007 after substitute Luke Medley scored a late winner , but despite his pre @-@ season target his team spent much of the first half of the season in the bottom half of the table . After going unbeaten in January , the club were still 15th in League Two , and McCall told the Telegraph & Argus he did not regret his pre @-@ season target but was carried away with the euphoria at the time . City 's form continued to improve during the second half of the season , and McCall led his side to 10th place in League Two . Despite City finishing outside the play @-@ off places , they were again installed as favourites for promotion by bookmakers for the 2008 – 09 season . McCall released 13 players from his squad and replaced them with a number of signings with experience in a higher division , as well as Michael Boulding , who was one of League Two 's top goalscorers during the 2007 – 08 campaign . McCall 's side made a good start to the season , and after winning five of their opening six league games , went top of the league – the first time City had led the table in seven years . As a result of maintaining a place in the promotion places during the first half of the season and his " stabling influence " on the club , chairmen Julian Rhodes and Mark Lawn offered McCall a new contract in January 2009 . Later in the month , Lawn gave further backing to McCall , who was coming under pressure from the club 's fans following a run of one win in nine games ; during the run McCall was also charged by The Football Association for the first time of his managerial career after he had contested a refereeing decision during a game with Luton Town . McCall signed a new contract in February , which extended his deal by another two years and would have kept him at the club until 2011 . He set himself the goal of earning two promotions to put City in the Championship . However , less than a month later , McCall offered to resign if they did not reach the play @-@ offs after his side lost 4 – 1 to Bournemouth – their fifth consecutive away defeat . " Nobody is hurting more than me but it 's as simple as that , if we miss out I don 't deserve to be here , " he said . City eventually missed out on promotion , but McCall decided to stay on as manager and took a voluntary pay cut in the process because of the club 's budget being reduced . As a result of the cuts , McCall made a number of changes to his squad during the summer of 2009 . His team started the 2009 – 10 season by going four games without scoring , until they recorded a 5 – 4 victory against Cheltenham Town . After the game , McCall said : " That was the youngest , and certainly cheapest , team Bradford have put out for a long time and I ’ m really proud of them . " City continued by going ten games unbeaten and reached the area semi @-@ finals of the Football League Trophy where they lost to Carlisle United , managed by McCall 's friend Greg Abbott , but at the start of 2010 found themselves 16th in League Two and eight points off the play @-@ offs after a run of five defeats in seven games . McCall laid down a challenge to his team to win three of their next four games , saying : " The bottom line is that the players and me personally will get judged on results . And the results aren 't good enough . " Despite the club 's slide down the table , he denied he would resign , but it was reported that two late goals from summer signing Gareth Evans to give City a late 2 – 1 away at Torquay United saved McCall from being sacked . However , defeat to Bury in the club 's following fixture was McCall 's last game as manager , with McCall saying after the game : " It 's time for somebody else to come in and take up the reins and hopefully do well . " He won a little more than one @-@ third of his 133 games in charge of City . McCall left by mutual consent . = = = Motherwell = = = After leaving Bradford , McCall spent some time out of the game before being recruited to work as a scout for Norwich City by Rangers former chief scout Ewan Chester . At the end of 2010 , he was among a number of men interviewed for the managerial vacancy at Scottish Premier League side Motherwell to succeed Craig Brown , before being given the job on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract . His first game in charge was a 0 – 0 draw away to Hamilton Academical on New Year 's Day 2011 , with McCall stating : " It was a fair result . You take positives , a clean sheet , but we can be better and we will be better . " He followed it up with a 4 – 0 victory in the Scottish Cup against Dundee before his maiden league victory – and the club 's first since November – against Hibernian by the end of January . McCall was partly selected as new manager because of his knowledge of the lower leagues of English football ; he was active in the transfer market in his early days , bringing in Steve Jones – a player he had at Bradford – and Mike Grella from Leeds United , although the latter move was cancelled because of a FIFA ruling limiting the number of clubs a player can sign for in one season . Having operated without an assistant for his first few weeks in charge , McCall chose former Airdrie United manager Kenny Black as his number two . McCall led Motherwell to the semi @-@ finals of both Scottish Cup competitions – they were defeated 2 – 1 by his former side Rangers in the League Cup but reached the final of the Scottish Cup by defeating St Johnstone 3 – 0 . At the start of the following season , Motherwell lost only one match in their first six making them joint leaders of the Scottish Premier League , which led to McCall being named the Clydesdale Bank Premier League manager of the month for July and August . Well continued their good form , with McCall winning the award again in October , alongside player of the month Keith Lasley , in a month when the side went unbeaten . Motherwell 's final position in the Premier League was in 3rd , allowing them into the Champions League for the first time in the club 's history . At the start of the 2012 @-@ 13 season , McCall was unable to make signings after losing ten players . In the summer transfer window , he made two signings Simon Ramsden and Fraser Kerr . McCall attempted to sign the returning James McFadden and Ryan Stevenson , but both were unsuccessful . McCall then managed the club 's first Champions League match in the second round against Panathinaikos , but they proved to be too strong and Motherwell failed to win either leg losing 2 @-@ 0 and 3 @-@ 0 respectively , which McCall described as " cruel " . After the match , Motherwell entered the Europa League play @-@ offs to face Levante ; McCall wanted to play with an " up @-@ and @-@ at @-@ them approach " against the Spaniards . Once again , their opposition proved to be too strong and they lost each leg 2 – 0 and 1 – 0 respectively , ending the club 's European competitions ; the second game at the Estadi Ciutat de València had Motherwell playing with a youthful and inexperienced squad due to injuries . On 24 January 2013 , it was announced McCall would join the backroom staff of new Scotland national football team manager Gordon Strachan . During the 2012 / 13 season , the club managed to stay in the top @-@ six . On 28 March 2013 , McCall signed a new two @-@ year contract with Motherwell . In April 2013 , McCall was awarded March 's SPL manager of month for helping the club win three and draw one of their games during the month . At the end of the season , Motherwell finished second for the first time , their highest league position since 1994 @-@ 95 season , which he described as " incredible " . As a result , McCall won Clydesdale Bank Manager of the Year . On 22 May 2013 , it was reported that he was set to open talks with Sheffield United about their managerial vacancy in the next 24 hours and that he had cut short a family holiday to intend the interview . Eventually , McCall rejected a move to Sheffield United , following talks between the two and was happy to continue as manager of Motherwell , claiming it was the wrong time to join United . At the start of the 2013 @-@ 14 season , key players Darren Randolph , Nicky Law , Chris Humphrey , Michael Higdon and Henrik Ojamaa all left the club . McCall replaced them by signing Paul Lawson , Iain Vigurs , John Sutton , Fraser Kerr , Gunnar Nielsen and Stephen McManus . He also managed to persuade James McFadden to stay at the club . Motherwell enjoyed another successful season , finishing second in the 2013 – 14 Scottish Premiership . The position was achieved by winning on the final day against nearest rivals Aberdeen . After a bad start to the 2014 – 15 season left Motherwell second from bottom , McCall resigned as manager on 2 November . = = = Rangers = = = McCall was appointed manager of Rangers on 12 March 2015 , agreeing a contract with the club to the end of the 2014 – 15 season . In his first match in charge Rangers were held to a 1 – 1 draw at home by bottom @-@ placed Livingston on 14 March 2015 . Rangers finished third in the 2014 – 15 Scottish Championship and in the Premiership play @-@ off final they were beaten 6 – 1 on aggregate by McCall 's former team Motherwell . Insisting he had " done a decent job " he wanted to extend his contract for the following season . Rangers instead opted to appoint Mark Warburton as manager for the new season . = = = Return to Bradford City = = = On 20 June 2016 , he returned as manager of Bradford City , replacing Phil Parkinson . McCall gave up his coaching role with the Scottish national team . = = Style of play = = McCall was a box @-@ to @-@ box midfielder characterised by his tireless running , tackling and also weighing in with an average of one goal every 11 games . Despite his position in the middle of the park he was rarely suspended and was sent off just once in his career – in the final minute of a 2 – 0 defeat to Charlton Athletic on 4 November 2000 . He also had a never @-@ say @-@ die attitude proven by a number of key late goals including his equaliser which sent the 1989 FA Cup Final into extra @-@ time , and a 93rd @-@ minute equaliser against Tottenham Hotspur during Bradford 's difficult start to their Premier League campaign in the 1999 – 2000 season . He was a passionate player whose strong desire to win even ran to reserve games . Even in his final years of his career he was described as a player with " plenty of drive and ambition " by manager Neil Warnock . = = Career statistics = = = = = Playing = = = = = = = Club = = = = = = = = International = = = = = = = = = International goals = = = = = Scores and results list Scotland 's goal tally first . = = = Managerial = = = As of 31 May 2015 = = Honours = = = = = Player = = = Bradford City English Third Division ( 1 ) : 1984 – 85 English First Division promotion ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99 Rangers Scottish Premier Division ( 6 ) : 1991 – 92 , 1992 – 93 , 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95 , 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97 Scottish Cup ( 3 ) : 1992 , 1993 , 1996 Scottish League Cup ( 2 ) : 1993 , 1994 = = = Manager = = = Motherwell Lanarkshire Cup ( 3 ) : 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 = = = Individual = = = PFA Team of the Year ( 2 ) : Second Division : 1987 , 1988 Third Division : 1985 Manager of the Month : July / August 2011 , October 2011 , March 2013 SPL Manager of the Season : 2012 – 13

= Black @-@ tailed jackrabbit = The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus californicus ) , also known as the American desert hare , is a common hare of the western United States and Mexico , where it is found at elevations from sea level up to 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . Reaching a length around 2 ft ( 61 cm ) , and a weight from 3 to 6 lb ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ) , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the third @-@ largest North American hare . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits occupy mixed shrub @-@ grassland terrains . Their breeding depends on the location ; it typically peaks in spring , but may continue all year round in warm climates . Young are born fully furred with eyes open ; they are well camouflaged and are mobile within minutes of birth , thus females do not protect or even stay with the young except during nursing . The average litter size is around four , but may be as low as two and as high as seven in warm regions . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit does not migrate or hibernate during winter and uses the same habitat of 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 mi2 ( 1 – 3 km2 ) year @-@ round . Its diet is composed of various shrubs , small trees , grasses , and forbs . Shrubs generally comprise the bulk of fall and winter diets , while grasses and forbs are used in spring and early summer , but the pattern and plant species vary with climate . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is an important prey species for raptors and carnivorous mammals , such as eagles , hawks , owls , coyotes , foxes , and wild cats . The rabbits host many ectoparasites including fleas , ticks , lice , and mites ; for this reason , hunters often avoid collecting them . = = Description = = Like other jackrabbits , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit has distinctive long ears , and the long , powerful rear legs characteristic of hares . Reaching a length about 2 ft ( 61 cm ) , and a weight from 3 to 6 lb ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ) , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the third @-@ largest North American hare , after the antelope jackrabbit and the white @-@ tailed jackrabbit . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit 's dorsal fur is agouti ( dark buff peppered with black ) , and its undersides and the insides of its legs are creamy white . The ears are black @-@ tipped on the outer surfaces , and unpigmented inside . The ventral surface of the tail is grey to white , and the black dorsal surface of the tail continues up the spine for a few inches to form a short , black stripe . The females are larger than males , with no other significant differences . = = Taxonomy and distribution = = Although 17 subspecies are recognized , this number may be excessive . Using a cluster analysis of anatomical characters , Dixon and others found that black @-@ tailed jackrabbit subspecies separated into two distinct groups that are geographically separated west and east of the Colorado Rocky Mountains and the Colorado River . They suggested only two infrataxa are warranted : the western subspecies L. c. californicus and the eastern subspecies L. c. texianus . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the most widely distributed jackrabbit ( Lepus species ) in North America . Native black @-@ tailed jackrabbit populations occur from central Washington east to Missouri and south to Baja California Sur and Zacatecas . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbit distribution is currently expanding eastward in the Great Plains at the expense of white @-@ tailed jackrabbit . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit has been successfully introduced in southern Florida and along the coastline in Maryland , New Jersey , and Virginia . Distribution of subspecies occurring entirely or partially in the United States is : Lepus californicus altamirae ( Nelson ) L. c. asellus ( G. S. Miller ) L. c. bennettii ( Gray ) – coastal southern California to Baja California Norte L. c. californicus ( Gray ) – coastal Oregon to coastal and Central Valley California L. c. curti ( E. R. Hall ) L. c. deserticola ( Mearns ) – southern Idaho to Sonora L. c. ememicus ( J. A. Allen ) – central Arizona to Sonora L. c. festinus ( Nelson ) L. c. magdalenae ( Nelson ) L. c. martirensis ( J. M. Stowell ) L. c. melanotis ( Mearns ) – South Dakota to Iowa , Missouri , and central Texas L. c. merriamai ( Mearns ) – south @-@ central and southeastern Texas to Tamaulipas L. c. richardsonii ( Bachman ) – central California L. c. sheldoni ( W. H. Burt ) L. c. texianus ( Waterhouse ) – southeastern Utah and southwestern Colorado to Zacatecas L. c. wallawalla ( Merriam ) – eastern Washington to northeastern California and northwestern Nevada L. c. xanti ( Thomas ) = = Plant communities = = The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit occupies plant communities with a mixture of shrubs , grasses , and forbs . Shrubland @-@ herb mosaics are preferred over pure stands of shrubs or herbs . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbit populations are common in sagebrush ( Artemisia spp . ) , creosotebush ( Larrea tridentata ) , and other desert shrublands ; palouse , shortgrass , and mixed @-@ grass prairies ; desert grassland ; open @-@ canopy chaparral ; oak ( Quercus spp . ) , and pinyon @-@ juniper ( Pinus @-@ Juniperus spp . ) woodlands ; and early seral ( succeeding each other ) , low- to mid @-@ elevation coniferous forests . It is also common in and near croplands , especially alfalfa ( Medicago sativa ) fields . = = Major life events = = Male black @-@ tailed jackrabbits reach sexual maturity around 7 months of age . Females usually breed in the spring of their second year , although females born in spring or early summer may breed in their first year . Ovulation is induced by copulation . The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and environmental factors . In the northern part of their range in Idaho , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits breed from February through May . In Utah , they breed from January through July , with over 75 % of females pregnant by April . The Kansas breeding season extends from January to August . Breeding in warm climates continues nearly year @-@ round . Two peak breeding seasons corresponding to rainfall patterns and growth of young vegetation occur in California , Arizona , and New Mexico . In Arizona , for example , breeding peaks during winter ( January – March ) rains and again during June monsoons . The gestation period ranges from 41 to 47 days . More litters are born in warm climates : the number of litters born each year ranges from two per year in Idaho to seven in Arizona . Litter sizes are largest in the northern portions of black @-@ tailed jackrabbit 's range and decrease toward the south . Average litter size has been reported at 4 @.@ 9 in Idaho , 3 @.@ 8 in Utah , and 2 @.@ 2 in Arizona . Female black @-@ tailed jackrabbits do not prepare an elaborate nest . They give birth in shallow excavations called forms that are no more than a few centimeters deep . Females may line forms with hair prior to giving birth , but some drop litters in existing depressions on the ground with no further preparation . Young are born fully furred with eyes open , and are mobile within minutes of birth . Females do not protect or even stay with the young except during nursing . Ages of weaning and dispersal are unclear since the young are well camouflaged and rarely observed in the field . Captive black @-@ tailed jackrabbits are fully weaned by 8 weeks . The young stay together for at least a week after leaving the form . = = Preferred habitat = = The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit can occupy a wide range of habitats as long as diversity in plant species exists . It requires mixed grasses , forbs , and shrubs for food , and shrubs or small trees for cover . It prefers moderately open areas without dense understory growth and is seldom found in closed @-@ canopy habitats . For example , in California , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits are plentiful in open chamise ( Ademostoma fasciculatum ) and Ceanothus spp. chaparral interspersed with grasses , but does not occupy closed @-@ canopy chaparral . Similarly , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit occupies clearcuts and early seral coniferous forest , but not closed @-@ canopy coniferous forest . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits do not migrate or hibernate during winter ; the same habitat is used year @-@ round . Diurnal movement of 2 to 10 miles ( 3 – 16 km ) occurs from shrub cover in day to open foraging areas at night . Home range area varies with habitat and habitat quality . Home ranges of 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 mi2 ( 1 – 3 km2 ) have been reported in big sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata ) and black greasewood ( Sarcobatus vermiculatus ) communities of northern Utah . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits require shrubs or small conifers for hiding , nesting , and thermal cover , and grassy areas for night feeding . A shrub @-@ grassland mosaic or widely spaced shrubs interspersed with herbs provides hiding cover while providing feeding opportunities . Small shrubs do not provide adequate cover . In the Snake River Birds of Prey Study Area in southwestern Idaho , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits were more frequent on sites dominated by big sagebrush or black greasewood than on sites dominated by the smaller shrubs winterfat ( Krascheninnikovia lanata ) or shadscale ( Atriplex confertifolia ) . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits do not habitually use a burrow , although they have occasionally been observed using abandoned burrows for escape and thermal cover . = = Food habits = = The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit diet is composed of shrubs , small trees , grasses , and forbs . Throughout the course of a year , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits feed on most if not all of the important plant species in a community . Growth stage and moisture content of plants may influence selection more than species . Shrubs generally comprise the bulk of fall and winter diets , while grasses and forbs are used in spring and early summer . This pattern varies with climate : herbaceous plants are grazed during greenup periods while the plants are in prereproductive to early reproductive stages , and shrubs are used more in dry seasons . Shrubs are browsed throughout the year , however . Most of a jackrabbit 's body water is replaced by foraging water @-@ rich vegetation . Jackrabbits require a plant 's water weight to be at least five times its dry weight to meet daily water intake requirements . Therefore , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits switch to phreatophyte ( deep @-@ rooted ) shrubs when herbaceous vegetation is recovering from their foraging . Plant species used by black @-@ tailed jackrabbits are well documented for desert regions . Forage use in other regions is less well known . However , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits browse Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) , lodgepole pine ( P. contorta ) , and western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) seedlings , and oak ( Quercus spp . ) seedlings and sprouts . = = = Great Basin = = = In Great Basin , big sagebrush is a primary forage species and is used throughout the year ; in southern Idaho it forms 16 – 21 % of the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit summer diet . Rabbitbrush ( Chrysothamnus spp . ) , spiny hopsage ( gray spinosa ) , and black greasewood are also browsed . Four @-@ wing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens ) is heavily used in western Nevada . In Butte County , Idaho , winterfat comprises 41 % of black @-@ tailed jackrabbits ' annual diet . Grasses comprise 14 % of the diet , with most grass consumption in March and April . Russian thistle ( Salsoda kali ) is an important forb diet item . Needle @-@ and @-@ thread grass ( Stipa comata ) and Indian ricegrass ( Oryzopsis hymenoides ) are preferred grasses . Other preferred native grasses include Sandberg bluegrass ( Poa secunda ) and bluebunch wheatgrass ( Pseudoroegneria spicata ) . Where available , crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron desertorum and Agropyron cristatum ) and barley ( Hordeum vulgare ) are highly preferred . Cheatgrass ( Bromus tectorum ) use is variable : it comprises 45 % of the April diet on two southern Idaho sites , but black @-@ tailed jackrabbit on an eastern Washington site do not use it . = = = Warm desert = = = In warm desert , mesquite ( Prosopis spp . ) and creosotebush ( Larrea tridentata ) are principal browse species . Broom snakeweed ( Gutierrezia sarothrae ) and Yucca spp. are also used . In honey mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa ) communities in New Mexico , the overall black @-@ tailed jackrabbit diet was 47 % shrubs , 22 % grasses , and 31 % forbs . Black grama ( Bouteloua spp . ) , dropseed ( Sporobolus spp . ) , fluffgrass ( Erioneuron pulchellum ) , and threeawns ( Aristida spp . ) are the most commonly grazed grasses . Leather croton ( Croton pottsii ) , silverleaf nightshade ( Solanum elaeagnifolium ) , desert marigold ( Baileya multiradiata ) , wooly paperflower ( Psilostrophe tagetina ) , and globemallow ( Sphaeralcea spp . ) are important forbs , although many forb species are grazed . Opuntia spp . , saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea ) , and other cacti are used throughout the year , but are especially important in dry seasons as a source of moisture . = = Predators = = The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is an important prey species for many raptors and carnivorous mammals . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit and Townsend 's ground squirrel ( Spermophilus townsendii ) are the two most important prey species on the Snake River Birds of Prey Study Area . Hawks preying on black @-@ tailed jackrabbits include the ferruginous hawk ( Buteo regalis ) , white @-@ tailed hawk ( Buteo albicaudatus ) , Swainson 's hawk ( B. swainsoni ) , and red @-@ tailed hawk ( B. jamaicensis ) . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the primary prey of Swainson 's , red @-@ tailed , and ferruginous hawks on Idaho and Utah sites . Other raptors consuming black @-@ tailed jackrabbits include the great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus ) , burrowing owl ( Athene cunicularia ) , golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ) , and bald eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) . A significant correlation exists between golden eagle and black @-@ tailed jackrabbit reproduction patterns . In Colorado and southeastern Wyoming , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits constitute 9 % of nesting bald eagles ' diet . Jackrabbits and cottontails ( Sylvilagus spp . ) combined form 9 % of the diet of bald eagles wintering on national forests in Arizona and New Mexico . Mammalian predators include coyote ( Canis latrans ) , bobcat ( Lynx rufus ) , lynx ( Lynx canadensis ) , domestic dog ( Canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic cat ( Felis catus ) , red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) , common gray fox ( Urocyon cinereoargenteus ) , American badger ( Taxidea taxus ) , wolf ( Canis lupus ) , and mountain lion ( Felis concolor ) . In many areas , black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the primary item in coyote diets . It is locally and regionally important to other mammalian predators . One study found that jackrabbits made up 45 % of the bobcat diet in Utah and Nevada . Another Utah – Nevada study found that jackrabbits were the fourth @-@ most commonly consumed prey of mountain lions . Rattlesnakes ( Crotalus spp . ) and garter snakes ( Thamnophis sirtalis ) prey on black @-@ tailed jackrabbit young . Raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) and striped skunks ( Mephitis mephitis ) may also capture young . = = Parasites and disease = = The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit plays host to many ectoparasites including fleas , ticks , lice , and mites , and many endoparasites including trematodes , cestodes , nematodes , and botfly ( Cuterebra ) larvae . Diseases affecting the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit in the West are tularemia , equine encephalitis , brucellosis , Q fever , and Rocky Mountain spotted fever . Ticks are vectors for tularemia , and infected ticks have been found on jackrabbits in the West . Jackrabbits infected with tularemia die very quickly . The high prevalence of disease and parasites in wild jackrabbits affects human predation . Many hunters will not collect the jackrabbits they shoot , and those who do are well advised to wear gloves while handling carcasses and to cook the meat thoroughly to avoid contracting tularemia . Most hunting of jackrabbits is done for pest control or sport .

= Battle of Romani = The Battle of Romani was the last ground attack of the Central Powers on the Suez Canal at the beginning of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign during the First World War . The battle was fought between 3 and 5 August 1916 near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula , 23 miles ( 37 km ) east of the Suez Canal . This victory by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the Anzac Mounted Division of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) over a joint Ottoman and German force , which had marched across the Sinai , marked the end of the Defence of the Suez Canal campaign , also known as the Offensive zur Eroberung des Suezkanals and the İkinci Kanal Harekâtı , which had begun on 26 January 1915 . This British Empire victory , the first against the Ottoman Empire in the war , ensured the safety of the Suez Canal from ground attacks , and ended the Central Powers ' ambitions of disrupting traffic through the canal by gaining control of the strategically important northern approaches to the Suez Canal . The pursuit by the Anzac Mounted Division which ended at Bir el Abd on 12 August began the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . Thereafter , the Anzac Mounted Division supported by the Imperial Camel Brigade were on the offensive , pursuing the German and Ottoman army many miles across the Sinai Peninsula , reversing in a most emphatic manner the defeat suffered at Katia three months earlier . From late April 1916 , after a German @-@ led Ottoman force attacked British yeomanry at Katia , British Empire forces in the region at first doubled from one brigade to two and then grew as rapidly as the developing infrastructure could support them . The construction of the railway and a water pipeline soon enabled an infantry division to join the light horse and mounted rifle brigades at Romani . During the heat of summer , regular mounted patrols and reconnaissance were carried out from their base at Romani , while the infantry constructed an extensive series of defensive redoubts . On 19 July , the advance of a large German , Austrian and Ottoman force across the northern Sinai was reported . From 20 July until the battle began , the Australian 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades took turns pushing out to clash with the advancing hostile column . During the night of 3 / 4 August 1916 , the advancing force including the German Pasha I formation and the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division launched an attack from Katia on Romani . Forward troops quickly became engaged with the screen established by the 1st Light Horse Brigade ( Anzac Mounted Division ) . During fierce fighting before dawn on 4 August , the Australian light horsemen were forced to slowly retire . At daylight , their line was reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , and about mid morning , the 5th Mounted Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade joined the battle . Together these four brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division , managed to contain and direct the determined attackers into deep sand . Here the attackers came within range of the strongly entrenched 52nd ( Lowland ) Division defending Romani and the railway . Coordinated resistance by all these EEF formations , the deep sand , the heat and thirst prevailed , and the German , Austrian and Ottoman advance was checked . Although the attacking force fought strongly to maintain its positions the next morning , by nightfall they had been pushed back to their starting point at Katia . The retiring force was pursued by the Anzac Mounted Division between 6 and 9 August , during which the Ottomans and Germans forces fought a number of strong rearguard actions against the advancing Australian light horse , British yeomanry and New Zealand mounted rifle brigades . The pursuit ended on 12 August , when the German and Ottoman force abandoned their base at Bir el Abd and retreated back to El Arish . = = Background = = At the beginning of the First World War , the Egyptian police controlling the Sinai Peninsula had withdrawn , leaving the area largely unprotected . In February 1915 , a German and Ottoman force unsuccessfully attacked the Suez Canal . Minor Ottoman and Bedouin forces operating across the Sinai continued to threaten the canal from March through the Gallipoli Campaign until June , when they practically ceased until the autumn . Meanwhile , the German and Ottoman Empires supported an uprising by the Senussi ( a political @-@ religious group ) on the western frontier of Egypt which began in November 1915 . By February 1916 , however , there was no apparent sign of any unusual military activity in the Sinai itself , when the British began construction on the first 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) stretch of 4 @-@ foot @-@ 8 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 42 m ) standard gauge railway and water pipeline from Kantara to Romani and Katia . Reconnaissance aircraft of the Royal Flying Corps and seaplanes of the Royal Naval Air Service found only small , scattered Ottoman forces in the Sinai region and no sign of any major concentration of troops in southern Palestine . By the end of March or early in April 1916 , the British presence in the Sinai was growing ; 16 miles ( 26 km ) of track , including sidings , had been laid . Between 21 March and 11 April , the water sources at Wady Um Muksheib , Moya Harab and Jifjafa along the central Sinai route from southern Palestine were destroyed . In 1915 , they had been used by the central group of about 6 @,@ 000 or 7 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers who moved across the Sinai Desert to attack the Suez Canal at Ismailia . Without these wells and cisterns , the central route could no longer be used by large forces . German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein 's raiding force retaliated to this growing British presence , by attacking the widely dispersed 5th Mounted Brigade on 23 April , Easter Sunday and also St George 's Day , when Yeomanry were surprised and overwhelmed at Katia and Oghratina east of Romani . The mounted Yeomanry brigade had been sent to guard the water pipeline and railway as they were being extended beyond the protection of the Suez Canal defences into the desert towards Romani . In response to this attack , the British Empire presence in the region doubled . The next day , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade which had served dismounted during the Gallipoli Campaign , of the Australian Major General Harry Chauvel 's Anzac Mounted Division reoccupied the Katia area unopposed . = = Prelude = = On 24 April , the day after the Katia and Oghratina , Chauvel , commander of the Anzac Mounted Division , was placed in command of all the advanced troops : the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades at Romani and an infantry division ; the 52nd ( Lowland ) at Dueidar . The infantry moved forward to Romani between 11 May and 4 June 1916 . The building of the railway and pipeline had not been greatly affected by the fighting on 23 April and by 29 April , four trains a day were running regularly to the railhead , manned by No. 276 Railway Company , and the main line to Romani was opened on 19 May . A second standard gauge railway line from Romani to Mahamdiyah on the Mediterranean coast was completed by 9 June . But conditions on the ground were extreme ; after the middle of May and in particular from mid June to the end of July , the heat in the Sinai Desert ranged from extreme to fierce when temperatures could be expected to be in the region of 123 ° F ( 51 ° C ) in the shade . The terrible heat was not as bad as the Khamsin dust storms which blow once every 50 days for between a few hours and several days ; the air is turned into a haze of floating sand particles flung about by a strong , hot southerly wind . No major ground operations were carried out during these midsummer months , the Ottoman garrisons in the Sinai being scattered and out of reach of the British forces . But constant patrolling and reconnaissance were carried out from Romani to Ogratina , to Bir el Abd and on 16 May to Bir Bayud , 19 miles ( 31 km ) south @-@ east of Romani , on 31 May to Bir Salmana 22 miles ( 35 km ) east north @-@ east of Romani by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade , when they covered 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) in 36 hours . These patrols concentrated on an area of great strategic importance to large military formations wishing to move across the Sinai along the northern route . Here water was freely available in a large area of oases which extends from Dueidar , 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Kantara on the Suez Canal , along the Darb es Sultani ( the old caravan route ) , to Salmana 52 miles ( 84 km ) away . Between 10 and 14 June , the last water source on the central route across the Sinai Peninsula was destroyed by the Mukhsheib column . This column , consisting of engineers and units of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , the Bikaner Camel Corps , and the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps drained 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 19 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 l ; 4 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water from pools and cisterns in the Wadi Mukhsheib and sealed the cisterns . This action effectively narrowed the area in which Ottoman offensives might be expected to the coastal or northern route across the Sinai Peninsula . Ottoman aircraft attacked the Suez Canal twice during May , dropping bombs on Port Said . British aircraft bombed the town and aerodrome at El Arish on 18 May and 18 June , and bombed all the Ottoman camps on a front of 45 miles ( 72 km ) parallel to the canal on 22 May . By the middle of June , the No. 1 Australian Squadron , Australian Flying Corps , had begun active service , with " B " Flight at Suez performing reconnaissance . On 9 July , " A " Flight was stationed at Sherika in Upper Egypt , with " C " Flight based at Kantara . = = = German and Ottoman force = = = At the beginning of July , it was estimated there were at least 28 @,@ 000 Ottoman troops in the Gaza – Beersheba area of southern Palestine , and that just before the battle began at Romani , there were 3 @,@ 000 troops at Oghratina , not far from Katia , another 6 @,@ 000 at the forward base of Bir el Abd , east of Oghratina , 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 at Bir Bayud to the south @-@ east , and another 2 @,@ 000 at Bir el Mazar , some 42 miles ( 68 km ) to the east , not far from El Arish . Kress von Kressenstein 's Fourth Army was made up of the 3rd ( Anatolian ) Infantry Division 's three regiments , the 31st , 32nd and 39th Infantry Regiments , totalling 16 @,@ 000 men , of whom 11 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 873 were combatants , Arab ancillary forces ; and one regiment of the Camel Corps . Estimates of their arms range from 3 @,@ 293 to 12 @,@ 000 rifles , 38 to 56 machine guns , and two to five anti @-@ aircraft gun sections ; they also fielded four heavy artillery and mountain gun batteries ( 30 artillery pieces ) and the Pasha I formation . Nearly 5 @,@ 000 camels and 1 @,@ 750 horses accompanied the advance . The Pasha I formation with a ration strength of about 16 @,@ 000 , consisted of personnel and materiel for a machine gun battalion of eight companies with four guns each with Ottoman drivers , five anti @-@ aircraft groups , the 60th Battalion Heavy Artillery consisting of one battery of two 100mm guns , one battery of four 150 mm howitzers and two batteries of 210 mm howitzers ( two guns in each battery ) . The officers , NCOs and " leading numbers " of this artillery battalion were German ; the remainder were Ottoman Army personnel . In addition Pasha I also included two trench mortar companies , the 300th Flight Detachment , Wireless detachment , three railway companies and two field hospitals . Austria provided two mountain howitzer batteries of six guns each . With the exception of the two 210 mm howitzers , the trench mortars and the railway personnel the remainder of Pasha I took part in the advance to Romani . The 300th Flight Detachment provided a squadron for aerial reconnaissance , and increased the numbers of aircraft available to support the advance across Sinai . These Pasha I aircraft were faster and more effective than the " hopelessly outclassed " British aircraft and were able to maintain air superiority over the battleground . It is also possible that the 81st Regiment of the 27th Division advanced to Bir el Abd and took part in the defence of that place . The objectives of the German , Austrian and Ottoman advance were to capture Romani and to then establish a strongly entrenched position opposite Kantara , from which place their heavy artillery would be within range of the Suez Canal . The attacking force assembled in the southern Ottoman Empire at Shellal , north @-@ west of Beersheba , and departed for the Sinai on 9 July 1916 ; they reached Bir el Abd and Ogratina ten days later . = = = British forces = = = General Sir Archibald Murray , the commander of the British Empire forces in Egypt , formed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) in March 1916 by merging the Force in Egypt , which had protected Egypt since the beginning of the war , with the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force which had fought at Gallipoli . The role of this new force was to both defend the British Protectorate of Egypt and provide reinforcements for the Western Front . Murray had his headquarters in Cairo to better deal with his multiple responsibilities , although he was at Ismailia during the battle for Romani . With the occupation of Romani , the area became part the Northern or No. 3 Sector of the Suez Canal defences , which originally stretched along the canal from Ferdan to Port Said . Two further sectors grouped the defence forces along the central and southern sections of the Canal ; No. 2 , the Central Sector , stretched south from Ferdan to headquarters at Ismailia and on to Kabrit , where the No. 1 or Southern Sector extended from Kabrit to Suez . Murray considered it very unlikely that an attack would occur anywhere other than in the northern sector and therefore was prepared to reduce the troops in Nos 1 and 2 Sectors to a minimum . He decided not to reinforce his four infantry brigades , but to increase the available fire @-@ power at Romani by moving up the 160th and 161st Machine Gun Companies of the 53rd ( Welsh ) and the 54th ( East Anglian ) Divisions . He also ordered the concentration of a small mobile column made up of the 11th Light Horse , the City of London Yeomanry ( less one squadron each ) with the 4th , 6th and 9th Companies of the Imperial Camel Brigade in No. 2 Sector . He calculated that the whole of the defensive force , including the camel transport necessary to enable infantry in the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Division to advance into the desert , would be fully equipped and the camels assembled by 3 August . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 Egyptian Camel Transport Corps camels concentrated at Romani prior to the battle . British monitors in the Mediterranean Sea off Mahamdiyah got into position to shell the assembling Ottoman force , while an armoured train at Kantara was ready to assist the defence of the right flank , and all available aircraft were on standby at Ismailia , Kantara , Port Said and Romani . Major General H. A. Lawrence commanded No. 3 Section Canal Defences , and as part of those defences , the Romani position was commanded by Lawrence , who had his headquarters at Kantara . Stationed at Kantara were infantry in the 42nd Division , an infantry brigade of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division with 36 guns and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , detached from the Anzac Mounted Division . Lawrence moved two infantry battalions of the 42nd Division from No. 2 Section Canal defences to Kantara , and sent infantry in the 158th ( North Wales ) Brigade of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division to Romani on 20 July . The deployments on 3 August on and near the battlefield were as follows : at Hill 70 , 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Romani , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ( less the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment , but with the 2nd Light Horse Brigade 's 5th Light Horse Regiment , temporarily attached ) , commanded by Edward Chaytor , and the 5th Mounted Brigade , under the direct command of Lawrence , were joined on the railway by infantry in the 126th ( East Lancashire ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) . Together with the 5th Light Horse Regiment , attached to the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade at Dueidar , to the east of Hill 70 , this force was to stop or delay von Kressenstein 's attack should he attempt to bypass Romani and advance directly towards the Suez Canal , at Hill 40 , infantry from the 125th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade and the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) were also on the railway line at Gilban Station , the Mobile Column was based in the Sinai at the end of the El Ferdan railway , while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was at Ballybunion , also in the Sinai at the end of the Ballah railway . The force at Romani , responsible for its defence when the battle began , consisted of infantry from the British 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , commanded by Major General W. E. B. Smith , and the Anzac Mounted Division commanded by Chauvel ( less the 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) . The 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades , ( less the 5th Light Horse Regiment , but with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment attached ) were commanded by Lieutenant Colonels J. B. H Meredith and J. R. Royston respectively . = = = Development of defensive positions = = = Infantry from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division joined the two mounted brigades at Romani between 11 May and 4 June , when the development of the railway made it possible to transport and supply such a large number of soldiers . The infantry occupied a defensive position known as Wellington Ridge , facing a tangle of sand dunes . The area favoured defence ; sand dunes , stretching about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland , covered an area of 30 square miles ( 78 km2 ) , including , to the south of Romani , the northern route from El Arish . On the southern and south eastern edges , a series of dunes of shifting sand with narrow sloping lanes led to a tableland of deep soft sand . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division developed a strong defensive position at Romani which had its left flank on the Mediterranean Sea , here a series of redoubts were built running southwards from Mahamdiyah along the line of high sand hills about 7 miles ( 11 km ) to a dune known as Katib Gannit 100 feet ( 30 m ) high . This line of sand hills , which were high enough to see Katia oasis from , marked the eastern edge of an area of very soft and shifting sand beyond which were lower dunes and harder sand where movement by both infantry and mounted forces was considerably easier . Between the shore at the western end of the Bardawil Lagoon and Katib Gannit ( the principal tactical point on the eastern slopes of the Romani heights ) , the infantry constructed a line of 12 redoubts about 750 yards ( 690 m ) apart , with a second series of redoubts covering the Romani railway station and the right of the defensive position which curved like a hook westward , then northward . A total of 18 redoubts were constructed , which when fully garrisoned held from 40 to 170 rifles each , with Lewis guns and an average of two Vickers machine guns allotted to each position ; they were well wired on the right side of each of the positions , although there was no wire between the redoubts . This defensive line was supported by artillery . The threat of an Ottoman attack towards the Suez Canal had been considered by Lawrence in consultation with his divisional commanders , and a second defensive area was developed to address their concerns . Their plans took into account the possibility of an Ottoman army at Katia moving to attack Romani or following the old caravan route to assault Hill 70 and Dueidar on their way to the Suez Canal . Any attempt to bypass Romani on the right flank would be open to attack from the garrison , which could send out infantry and mounted troops on the hard ground in the plain to the south @-@ west . The New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade was stationed at Hill 70 at the end of June and the 5th Light Horse Regiment at Dueidar to prevent such an Ottoman force from reaching the Suez Canal . = = = Light Horse patrols before the battle = = = Active patrolling by mounted troops continued throughout the period leading up to the battle , but by early July , there were no indications of any imminent resumption of hostilities . The nearest Ottoman garrison of 2 @,@ 000 men was at Bir el Mazar 42 miles ( 68 km ) east of Romani , and on 9 July , a patrol found Bir Salmana unoccupied . However , greatly increased aerial activity over the Romani area began about 17 July , when faster and better @-@ climbing German aircraft quickly established superiority over British aircraft . But they could not stop British aircraft from continuing to reconnoitre the country to the east , and on 19 July , a British aircraft , with Brigadier General E. W. C. Chaytor ( commander of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ) acting as observer , discovered an Ottoman force of about 2 @,@ 500 at Bir Bayud . A slightly smaller force was detected at Gameil and another similar sized force was found at Bir el Abd with about 6 @,@ 000 camels seen at the camps or moving between Bir el Abd and Bir Salmana . The next morning , 3 @,@ 000 men were found to be entrenched at Mageibra , with an advance depot for supplies and stores at Bir el Abd . A small force was spotted as far forward as the oasis of Oghratina , which by the next day , 21 July , had grown to 2 @,@ 000 men . On 20 July , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade with two guns mounted on ped @-@ rails of the Ayrshire Battery demonstrated against Oghratina , capturing several prisoners , and beginning a series of patrols which , together with the 1st Light Horse Brigade , they continued until the eve of battle . Every day until 3 August , these two brigades alternated riding out from their base at Romani towards Katia at about 02 : 00 and bivouacking until dawn , at which time they advanced on a wide front until German or Ottoman fire was provoked . If the enemy position was weak , the light horse pushed forward , and if a counterattack began , the brigade retired slowly , thereafter to return to camp at Romani at nightfall . The following day , the other brigade carried out similar manoeuvres in the direction of Katia and the advancing Ottoman columns , picking up the officers patrols which had been left out during the night to monitor enemy movements . During this period , one of many clashes occurred on 28 July at Hod Um Ugba , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the British line . Two squadrons of the Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel W. Meldrum , made a bayonet assault , supported by several machine guns and two 18 @-@ pounder guns . They drove the Ottomans from the Hod , leaving 16 dead and taking eight prisoners from the Ottoman 31st Infantry Regiment . The tactic of continuous forward patrolling was so successful that the advancing force 's every move was known to the defenders , but the light horsemen were substantially outnumbered and could not stop the advance . By daylight on 3 August , the German , Austrian and Ottoman force had occupied Katia and were within striking distance of Romani , Dueidar , Hill 70 and the Suez Canal . Their line ran north @-@ east and south @-@ west from the Bardawil Lagoon to east of Katia , with their left flank thrown well forward . = = = Plans = = = The German and Ottoman objective was not to cross the canal , but to capture Romani and establish a strongly entrenched heavy artillery position opposite Kantara , from which to bombard shipping on the canal . Kress von Kressenstein 's plan for the attack on Romani was to bombard the line of defensive redoubts with heavy artillery and employ only weak infantry detachments against them , while his main force launched attacks against the right and rear of the Romani position . The defenders expected the German and Ottoman attack to be one of containment against their prepared line of defence , and an all @-@ out attack on the right south of Katib Gannit . They also appreciated that such an attack would expose the German and Ottoman left flank . Murray 's plan was to firstly delay the attackers and make it very difficult for them to gain ground south of Katib Gannit , and secondly , only when the German and Ottoman force was totally committed , to then disorganise their flank attack with an attack by Section Troops at Hill 70 and Dueidar , with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the Mobile Column operating more widely against the flank and rear . Chauvel had selected a position for the defence of Romani , which stretched for 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) between Katib Gannit and Hod el Enna , with a second fall @-@ back position covering a series of parallel gullies running south @-@ east and north @-@ west giving access to the area of soft sand to the rear of the Romani defences . No visible works were constructed , but together with Chauvel , the commanders of the two light horse brigades , whose task it would be to hold the attackers on this ground until the flank attack could begin , studied the area closely . = = Battle on 4 August = = Just before midnight on 3 / 4 August , three columns of the German Pasha I and the 4th Ottoman Army , consisting of about 8 @,@ 000 men , began their attack on an outpost line held by the 1st Light Horse Brigade three and a half hours after the return of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade from their regular daytime patrol . In addition to the usual officers patrols left out overnight to monitor the enemy 's positions , Chauvel decided to leave out for the night the whole of the 1st Light Horse Brigade to hold an outpost line of about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , covering all entrances to the sandhill plateau which formed the Romani position and which were not protected by infantry posts . A shot or two fired out in the desert to the south @-@ east of their position put the long piquet line of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) on alert about midnight , when the 3rd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) was called up to the front line . The Austrian , German and Ottoman advance paused after finding the gullies held by the light horsemen , but at about 01 : 00 , a sudden heavy burst of fire along the whole front began the attack of the considerably superior Ottoman and German forces , and by 02 : 00 they had in many places advanced to within 50 yards ( 46 m ) of the Australian line . The Ottoman centre and left columns were skilfully led round the open flank of the infantry 's entrenchments and on towards the camp and railway . After the moon had set at around 02 : 30 , the Germans and Ottomans made a bayonet charge on Mount Meredith . Although vastly outnumbered , the light horsemen fought an effective delaying action at close quarters , but were forced to relinquish ground slowly and to ultimately evacuate the position by 03 : 00 . Without the benefit of moon light , the light horsemen had fired at the flashes of the enemy 's rifles until they were close enough to use bayonets . The 1st Light Horse Brigade was eventually forced back ; withdrawing slowly , troop covering troop with steady accurate fire , staving off a general attack with the bayonet to their fall @-@ back position ; a large east / west sand dune called Wellington Ridge at the southern edge of the Romani encampment . During the retirement to Wellington Ridge , the covering squadrons on the left near Katib Gannit were also attacked , as was the squadron on the right , which was taken in the flank and suffered considerable loss , but managed to hold its ground until the position in its rear was occupied . By 03 : 30 , all light horsemen south of Mount Meredith had been forced back to their led horses and had succeeded in disengaging and falling back to their second position . Soon after , an Ottoman machine gun was shooting down on the light horse from Mount Meredith . Chauvel had relied on the steadiness of the 1st Light Horse Brigade , which he had commanded during the Gallipoli campaign , to hold the line against greatly superior numbers for four hours until dawn , when the general situation could be assessed . Daylight revealed the weakness of the light horse defenders in their second position on Wellington Ridge and that their right was outflanked by strong German and Ottoman forces . At 04 : 30 , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , commanded by Colonel J. R. Royston , was ordered up by Chauvel from Etmaler and went into action in front of Mount Royston to support and prolong the 1st Light Horse Brigade 's right flank by moving up the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments into the front line . German , Austrian or Ottoman artillery now opened fire on the infantry defences and camps in the rear ; shrapnel inflicted some losses , but the high explosive shells were smothered by the soft sand . The attackers succeeded in forcing the light horse off Wellington Ridge , which placed them within 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) of the Romani camp . However , they were unable to press further , as they now became exposed to machine gun and rifle fire from the entrenched infantry of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , and shelling from the horse artillery supporting the light horsemen 's determined defence . Having been held south of Romani , the German and Ottoman force attempted a further outflanking manoeuvre to the west , concentrating 2 @,@ 000 troops around Mount Royston another sand dune , south @-@ west of Romani . At 05 : 15 , the Ottoman 31st Infantry Regiment pushed forward ; then the 32nd and the 39th Infantry Regiments swung around the left and into the British rear . This outflanking movement was steadily progressing along the slopes of Mount Royston and turning the right of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , whose third regiment , the Wellington Mounted Rifles , was now also committed to the front line . The two brigades of light horse continued to gradually withdraw , pivoting on the extreme right of the infantry position , which covered the left flank and rear of Romani . They were pushed back between Wellington Ridge and Mount Royston , about 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) west of the former ; the attackers continually forcing back their right flank . Between 05 : 00 and 06 : 00 , they were compelled to also retire slowly from this ridge , although the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiment ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) still held the western edge . At 06 : 15 , Meredith was ordered to withdraw the 1st Light Horse Brigade behind the line occupied by the 7th Light Horse Regiment north of Etmaler camp . At 07 : 00 , the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments retired , squadron by squadron , from the remainder of Wellington Ridge . By about 08 : 00 , German , Austrian and Ottoman fire from the ridge top was directed into the camp only a few hundred yards away , but the Ayrshire and Leicester Batteries quickly stopped this artillery attack . It became apparent that the German and Ottoman right column , ( 31st Infantry Regiment ) was attempting a frontal attack on redoubts held by infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . The defenders were able to hold on , but were subjected to severe artillery shelling during the day . Frontal attacks began with heavy German or Austrian fire by their artillery which attempted to breach the infantry defensive line . About 08 : 00 , attacks were being made on Numbers 4 and 5 redoubts which began with heavy artillery fire , but the attacks broke completely when the 31st Ottoman Infantry Regiment were within 150 yards ( 140 m ) of No. 4 redoubt ; subsequent attempts were less successful . At about 10 : 00 , Chauvel contacted Brigadier General E. S. Girdwood , commanding 156th Infantry Brigade , requesting his brigade temporarily relieve the light horse brigades until they had watered their horses in preparation for a mounted counterattack . Girdwood refused because his brigade was being held in reserve to support an intended attack eastward by infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . The light horse had gradually withdrawn back until , at about 11 : 00 , the main German and Ottoman attack was stopped by well directed fire from the Royal Horse Artillery batteries of the Anzac Mounted Division and by light horse rifle and machine gun fire , to which the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division contributed considerable firepower . The attackers appeared to have exhausted themselves , but they held their ground while Austrian and Ottoman artillery of various calibres , including 5 @.@ 9 " and 10 @.@ 5 cm guns , fired on the defenders and their camps , and German and Ottoman aircraft severely bombed the defenders . The three columns of the German , Austrian and Ottoman attacking force were brought to a standstill by the coordinated , concerted and determined defence of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . The Ottoman advance was at a standstill everywhere . After a long night 's march , the German and Ottoman troops faced a difficult day under the desert sun without being able to replenish their water and exposed to artillery fire from Romani . At this time , the attacking forces held a line running from the Bardawil ( on the Mediterranean coast ) southward along the front of the 52nd Infantry Division 's entrenchments and then westward through and including the very large sand dunes of Mount Meredith and Mount Royston . But from their position on Mount Royston , the German , Austrian and Ottoman force dominated the camp area of Romani and threatened the railway line . = = = Reinforcements = = = Chaytor , commander of the New Zealander Mounted Rifles Brigade , had been advised of the Austrian , German and Ottoman advance against Romani at 02 : 00 . By 05 : 35 , Lawrence at his headquarters of the Northern No. 3 Canal Defences Sector at Kantara , had been informed of the developing attack . He recognised that the main blow was falling on Romani and ordered the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade at Hill 70 to move towards Mount Royston . They were led by a Composite Regiment , which moved off at once , the remainder of the brigade preparing to follow . At 07 : 25 , Lawrence ordered the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade consisting of brigade headquarters and the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment ( less the Auckland Mounted Rifles and the attached 5th Light Horse Regiments , 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) , to move towards Mount Royston via Dueidar and there , pick up the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment . The Yeomanry and New Zealand brigades had both been stationed at Hill 70 , 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Romani , when their orders to move were received . The New Zealanders were to " operate vigorously so as to cut off the enemy , who appears to have got round the right of the Anzac Mounted Division . " Meanwhile , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Ballybunion was directed to move forward to Hill 70 and send one regiment to Dueidar , while the Mobile Column was ordered by GHQ to march towards Mageibra . = = = Mount Royston counterattack = = = The German , Austrian and Ottoman attack on Mount Royston was checked to the north by the 3rd and 6th Light Horse Regiments ( 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades ) , and under constant bombardment from the horse artillery and the infantry 's heavy artillery of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . At 10 : 00 , the front held by the two light horse brigades faced south from a point 700 yards ( 640 m ) northwest of No. 22 Redoubt north of Wellington Ridge to the sand hills north of Mount Royston . As the line had fallen back , the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Regiments ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) had come in between the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) ; from right to left , the line was now held by the 6th , 3rd , 2nd and 7th Light Horse and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments , while 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north north @-@ west of Mount Royston , " D " Squadron of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars ( a regiment in the 5th Mounted Brigade ) held its ground . The plan called for the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades , the 5th Mounted and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades to swing round the attackers ' left flank and envelop them . The first reinforcements to arrive were the Composite Regiment of the 5th Mounted Brigade ; they came up on the flank of their mounted regiment ; the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars ' " D " Squadron 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) west of Mount Royston , which was being attacked by a strong body of Ottoman soldiers . The regiment attacked the Ottomans in enfilade and forced them back . When the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's headquarters and the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiments were within 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Dueidar on the old caravan road , they were ordered to move directly to Canterbury Hill , the last defensible position in front of the railway , east of Pelusium Station , as the strong German and Ottoman attack was threatening to take the railway and Romani . The Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment arrived with its brigade between 11 : 00 and 11 : 30 to find the Composite Yeomanry Regiment ( 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade ) in contact with the German and Ottoman forces on the south @-@ west side of Mount Royston . The 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades first made contact with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade by heliograph , after which Royston , commanding the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , galloped across to explain the situation . Chaytor then moved the Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiments , supported by the Somerset Battery , onto high ground between the right of the light horse and the Yeomanry , which was shortly afterwards joined by the remainder of the 5th Mounted Brigade under the command of Brigadier General Wiggin . At the most critical period of the day 's fighting , when the German and Ottoman force of 2 @,@ 000 dominated the Romani area from Mount Royston , the five mounted brigades ( still less the 5th Light Horse Regiment ) began their counterattack at 14 : 00 from the west towards Mount Royston . The New Zealand riflemen soon gained a footing on Mount Royston , aided by accurate and rapid shooting from the Somerset Royal Horse Artillery Battery . By 16 : 00 , the attack had proceeded to a point where Chaytor arranged with the 5th Mounted Brigade for a squadron of Royal Gloucestershire Hussars and two troops of the Worcestershire Yeomanry to gallop against the southern spur of Mount Royston . They easily took the spur , the defenders not waiting for the onslaught of the mounted charge . From the crest of the spur , the Gloucestershire squadron shot down the horse teams of an Austrian , German or Ottoman battery of pack guns concentrated in the hollow behind the spur , and the attacking force began to surrender . The New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades were supported by leading infantry battalions of the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade ( which had just arrived ) when Ottoman and German soldiers began to surrender en masse . At about 18 : 00 , 500 prisoners , two machine guns and the pack battery were captured , and the outer flank of the attacking force was completely routed . Meanwhile , the inner flank of the German and Ottoman force on Wellington Ridge made a last effort to advance across the ridge , but was driven back by artillery fire . Fresh frontal attacks launched against the main British infantry system of redoubts broke down completely . At 17 : 05 , Major General Smith ordered infantry in the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade to attack the enemy force on Wellington Ridge on the left of the light horse and in coordination with the counterattack on Mount Royston . An artillery bombardment of Wellington Ridge began at 18 : 45 . Just before 19 : 00 , infantry in the 7th and 8th Cameronians ( Scottish Rifles ) moved south from behind No. 23 Redoubt ; the 8th Scottish Rifles advancing to within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of the crest of Wellington Ridge , before being stopped by heavy rifle fire . When darkness put an end to the fighting , the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades established an outpost line and spent the night on the battlefield , while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and 5th Mounted Brigades withdrew for water and rations at Pelusium Station , where the newly arrived infantry brigades of the 42nd Division were assembling . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade halted at Hill 70 , while the Mobile Force had reached the Hod el Bada , 14 miles ( 23 km ) south of Romani station . At 19 : 30 , when the New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades moved from the positions they had won to water and rest at Pelusium , the area was consolidated by infantry in the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade , 42nd Division . Brigadier General Girdwood ordered infantry in the 7th and 8th Scottish Rifles Battalions to hold their ground on Wellington Ridge until daylight , but to keep close contact with the enemy during the night in the hope of capturing large numbers of tired and disorganised soldiers in the morning . Approximately 1 @,@ 200 unwounded prisoners were captured during the day and sent to the Pelusium railway station . = = Battle on 5 August = = Within 24 hours , British commanders were able to concentrate a force of 50 @,@ 000 men in the Romani area , a three to one advantage . This force included the two infantry divisions – the 52nd and the newly arrived 42nd – four mounted brigades , two of which had been on active duty since 20 July , and two heavily engaged on the front line the day before , and may have included the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , although it was still at Hill 70 , and the Mobile Column at Hod el Bada . At this time , command of the 5th Mounted Brigade passed from the Anzac Mounted Division to the infantry division ; the 42nd Division , it being suggested that orders required the Anzac Mounted Division to remain in position , and that the 3rd Light Horse Brigade alone was to make a flank attack . However , Lawrence 's orders for a general advance on 5 August beginning at 04 : 00 included an advance by the Anzac Mounted Division . His orders read : Anzac Mounted Division to press forward with its right on the Hod el Enna and its left in close touch with the infantry from the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , advancing on the line Katib Gannit to Mount Meredith . 3rd Light Horse Brigade to move towards Bir el Nuss and attack Hod el Enna from the south keeping in close touch with the Anzac Mounted Division . 5th Mounted Brigade , under orders of 42nd Infantry Division to assist the 3rd Light Horse Brigade 's link with the Anzac Mounted Division 's right . 42nd Division to move on the line Canterbury Hill – Mount Royston – Hod el Enna and drive back any opposition to the advance of the mounted troops in close support of Anzac Mounted Division 's right flank . 52nd ( Lowland ) Division to move in close support of Anzac Mounted Division 's left flank towards Mount Meredith and to prepare for a general advance towards Abu Hamra which was not to be undertaken until further orders from Lawrence at No. 3 Section Headquarters . Meanwhile , the German , Austrian and Ottoman force was now spread from Hill 110 almost to Bir en Nuss , but with their left flank unprotected . They could not have been in good shape after fighting all the previous day in intense midsummer heat and having to remain in position overnight , far from water and harassed by British infantry . Their situation was now precarious , as their main attacking force was well past the right of the main British infantry positions ; infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was closer to the nearest enemy @-@ controlled water source at Katia than most of the attacking force . Had the British infantry left their trenches promptly and attacked in a south easterly direction , von Kressenstein 's force would have had great difficulty escaping . = = = British capture Wellington Ridge = = = At daybreak , infantry in the 8th Scottish Rifles , 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division ) advanced with the 7th Light Horse and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) , covered by infantry in the 7th Scottish Rifles , 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division on the left , who had brought 16 machine guns and Lewis guns into a position from which they could sweep the crest and reverse slopes of Wellington Ridge . The Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment , with the 7th Light Horse Regiment and supported on the left by Scottish Rifles ' infantry posts , fixed bayonets and stormed Wellington Ridge . They encountered heavy rifle and machine gun fire , but rushed up the sandy slope and quickly broke through the German and Ottoman front line . After clearing Wellington Ridge , the mounted riflemen , light horsemen and infantrymen pressed forward from ridge to ridge without pause . These troops swept down on a body of about 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 Ottoman soldiers , who became demoralised . As a result of this attack , a white flag was hoisted and by 05 : 00 the German and Ottoman soldiers who had stubbornly defended their positions on Wellington Ridge , dominating the camps at Romani , were captured . A total of 1 @,@ 500 became prisoners in the neighbourhood of Wellington Ridge ; 864 soldiers surrendered to infantry in the 8th Scottish Rifles alone , while others were captured by the light horse and mounted rifles regiments . By 05 : 30 , the main German and Ottoman force was in a disorganised retreat towards Katia , with the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades and the Ayrshire and Leicestershire batteries not far behind . At 06 : 00 , a further 119 men surrendered to the infantry in No. 3 Redoubt ; while these prisoners were being dealt with , it became apparent that they were part of a rearguard and that a full retreat was under way . At 06 : 30 , Lawrence ordered Chauvel to take command of all troops and to initiate a vigorous general advance eastwards . = = = British advance on Ottoman rearguard at Katia = = = Infantry from the 42nd Division had arrived during the battle the day before by train from Hill 70 , Hill 40 and Gilban Station , and along with infantry from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , was ordered to move out in support of the mounted Australian , New Zealand and British Yeomanry brigades . The 42nd Division was ordered to advance to Hod el Enna ; their 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade marched out at 07 : 30 and reached Hod el Enna between 09 : 30 and 10 : 00 , while their 125th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade arrived at 11 : 15 . They were supported by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps , which worked with the Army Service Corps to supply them with drinking water . In much distress in the scorching midsummer sands , infantry in the 42nd Division marched very slowly and far in the rear . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division also experienced difficulties ; although Lawrence ordered the division to move at 06 : 37 , the men did not leave their trenches until nearly midday , reaching their objective of Abu Hamra late in the evening . As a result , Kress von Kressenstein was able to extricate most of his troops and heavy guns from the immediate battle area during the day . Although it has been stated that " British reserves hammered " the Germans and Ottomans to a halt on 5 August , it appears one of the infantry divisions was reluctant to leave their defences ; neither infantry division were trained in desert warfare and found the sand dunes extremely difficult to negotiate . They could not match the pace and endurance of the well @-@ trained German and Ottoman force and were hampered by water supply problems . At 06 : 30 , when Lawrence ordered Chauvel to take command of all mounted troops ( excluding the Mobile Column ) , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles , the 5th Mounted and the 3rd Light Horse Brigades were somewhat scattered . By 08 : 30 , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade had reached Bir en Nuss ; there they found the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which had been ordered to move first on Hamisah and then left towards Katia to cooperate in a general attack . The advance guard moved to fulfill these orders at 09 : 00 . At 10 : 30 , the general mounted advance began and by midday , was on a line from west of Bir Nagid to south of Katib Gannit ; in the centre the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were approaching the south @-@ west edge of the Katia oasis ; on their left the 1st , the 2nd Light Horse , the 5th Mounted Brigades and infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division were attacking Abu Hamra , to the north of the old caravan road , while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was away to the New Zealander 's right , south of the old caravan road , attacking German and Ottoman units at Bir el Hamisah . Between 12 : 00 and 13 : 00 , the commanders of the New Zealand Mounted Rifle , 1st and 2nd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades reconnoitred the German , Austrian and Ottoman rearguard position 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Katia . It was decided that the three light horse brigades would advance mounted with the Yeomanry to attack the German and Ottoman right flank . The rearguard force made a very determined stand on a well @-@ prepared line , stretching from Bir El Hamisah to Katia and on to Abu Hamra . Their artillery and machine guns were well placed in the palms fringing the eastern side of a great flat marsh , which stretched right across the front of their position , giving them an excellent field of fire . A general mounted attack commenced at 14 : 30 . By 15 : 30 , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades were advancing at the gallop on Katia . When they had reached the edge of the white gypsum , the light horse and mounted rifle brigades formed a line , fixed bayonets , and charged over the exposed country . They galloped in a long line of charging horses , through shell fire and bullets , holding fixed bayonets . On the far left , the intensity of fire from the rearguard , made it necessary for the 5th Mounted Brigade of sword carrying Yeomanry , to send back their horses and advance dismounted . While all the brigades which charged , were eventually forced to attack dismounted also , when the ground became too swampy . They were met by well @-@ directed , heavy German , Austrian and Ottoman artillery fire , which completely outgunned the supporting Ayrshire and Somerset Batteries ; by sunset , the advance of the British Empire mounted brigades had been stopped . The 9th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) on the extreme right was held up by a determined German and Ottoman rearguard and was unable to work round the right flank of that position . But after galloping to within a few hundred yards of the rearguard 's line , they made a dismounted bayonet attack under cover of machine gun fire and the Inverness Battery . As a result , the German and Ottoman force abandoned their position , leaving 425 men and seven machine guns to be captured . But , instead of holding their ground , they drew off , and this withdrawal led to a strong German and Ottoman counterattack falling on the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment . Darkness finally put an end to the battle . During the night , the Germans , Austrians and Ottomans withdrew back to Oghrantina , while the Anzac Mounted Division watered at Romani , leaving a troop of the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment as a listening post on the battlefield . The two @-@ day battle for Romani and the Suez Canal had been won by the British infantry and Australian , British and New Zealand mounted troops . They captured approximately 4 @,@ 000 German and Ottoman combatants and killed more than 1 @,@ 200 , but the main enemy force was able to escape with all their artillery , except for one captured battery , and retreat back to Oghratina after fighting a successful rearguard action at Katia . Having borne the burden of the long days of patrolling , reconnaissance and minor engagements with the advancing Austrian , German and Ottoman columns prior to the battle , the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades had alone withstood the attack from midnight on 3 / 4 August until dawn on 4 August , as well as continuing to fight during the long days of battle . By the end of 5 August , they were completely exhausted ; their depleted ranks stumbled back to their bivouac lines at Romani and Etmaler where they were ordered one day 's rest . = = Pursuit begins = = Von Kressenstein had prepared successive lines of defence during his advance towards Romani , and despite losing one artillery battery and more than one third of his soldiers , fought a series of effective rearguard actions which slowed the pursuit by British Empire mounted troops and enabled his force to retreat back to El Arish . During the night of 5 / 6 August , infantry in the 155th ( South Scottish ) Brigade and 157th ( Highland Light Infantry ) Brigade were at Abu Hamra , the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) at Hod el Enna , the 125th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) on its left in touch with the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , ( 52nd Division ) which had its left on Redoubt No. 21 . The next morning , infantry in the 42nd Division was ordered to advance eastwards at 04 : 00 and occupy a line from Bir el Mamluk to Bir Katia , while the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was to advance from Abu Hamra and prolong the infantry line of the 42nd Division to the north @-@ east . Although they carried out their orders during their two @-@ day march from Pelusium Station to Katia , infantry in the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade lost 800 men , victims to thirst and the sun ; other infantry brigades suffered similarly . It became clear that the infantry could not go on , and they ceased to be employed in the advance . Indeed , it was necessary for the Bikanir Camel Corps and Yeomanry detachments , as well as the medical services , to search the desert for those who had been left behind . The Mobile Column in the south , consisting of the Imperial Camel Brigade , the 11th Light Horse , and the mounted City of London Yeomanry Regiments ( less two squadrons ) , advanced from Ferdan and the Ballah railhead to attack the German and Ottoman left flank , working through Bir El Mageibra , Bir El Aweidia and Hod El Bayud . They found Mageibra evacuated on 5 August . After camping there for the night , they fought strong hostile forces between Bayud and Mageibra the following day , but could make no impression . Some days later , on 8 August , the Mobile Column did succeed in getting round the Ottoman flank , but was too weak to have any effect and retired to Bir Bayud . = = = Advance towards Oghratina – 6 August = = = During the previous night , the German and Ottoman force evacuated Katia and was moving towards Oghratina when Chauvel ordered the Anzac Mounted Division to continue the attack . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades and the 5th Mounted Brigade were ordered to capture Oghratina . Despite attempts by these two brigades to turn the enemy flank , they were forced to make a frontal attack on strongly entrenched rearguards in positions which favoured the defenders and which were supported by carefully positioned artillery . Meanwhile , the two infantry divisions moved to garrison Katia and Abu Hamra and Lawrence moved his headquarters forward from Kantara to Romani . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the right advanced towards Badieh , but could only make small progress , against positions securely held by German and Ottoman forces . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade had moved out at dawn , followed by the 5th Mounted Brigade without ambulance support , as the New Zealand Field Ambulance had not returned from Romani and the 5th Mounted Field Ambulance had not yet arrived . Fortunately , casualties were light , and both ambulances arrived in the evening . The 3rd Light Horse Field Ambulance , had formed a dressing station at Bir Nagid to the south of Romani , treating wounded from 3rd Light Horse Brigade 's engagement at Bir el Hamisah , a convoy brought in wounded Ottomans from a hod to the south of Romani , and 150 cases of heat exhaustion from infantry in the 42nd Division were treated during the day . We are still pursuing but it has been perforce slow as the horses are done and the enemy , when advancing , entrenched himself at various points … which has enabled him to fight a most masterly rearguard action … As I am moving on , I must close = = = Oghratina entered on 7 August = = = The same three brigades – one mounted rifle , one light horse and one Yeomanry , with the 10th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) supporting the Yeomanry – moved to attack the German and Ottoman position at Oghratina , but the rearguard position was again found to be too strong . Lacking the support of infantry or heavy artillery , the mounted force was too small to capture this strong rearguard position , but the threat from the mounted advance was enough to force the hostile force to evacuate the position . During the night , the German and Ottoman forces retreated back to Bir el Abd , where they had been three weeks before , on 20 July , when they established a base with a depot for supplies and stores . On 7 August the Greater Bairam ( a feast day celebrating the end of the Islamic year ) coincided with the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps at Romani being ordered to move out with supplies for the advancing troops , but 150 men , most of whom were past the end of their contracts and entitled to be discharged , refused orders to fill their water bottles , draw their rations and saddle up . One man was hit about the head with the butt of a pistol and the dissenters were dispersed into small groups and reassigned to various units in the infantry division ; the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . = = = Debabis occupied on 8 August = = = The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade reached Debabis on 8 August . As the 3rd Light Horse Brigade came up , they passed many dead Ottomans and Yeomanry ; one dead Ottoman sniper had a heap of hundreds of rounds of empty cartridge shells beside him . Meanwhile , the Bikanir Camel Corps and a squadron of aircraft continued searching the desert sands for missing men . = = Action of Bir el Abd – 9 to 12 August = = Chauvel planned , with Lawrence 's approval , to capture the Ottoman rearguard at their forward base of Bir El Abd , 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the east of Romani . The position was strongly held by greatly superior numbers of Germans , Austrians and Ottomans , supported by well @-@ placed artillery , but the garrison was seen burning stores and evacuating camps . Chauvel deployed the Anzac Mounted Division for the advance , with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade in the centre following the telegraph line . On their right , with a gap of 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , was the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which was in touch with a small flying column ; the Mobile Column of the City of London Yeomanry , 11th Light Horse Regiments and the Imperial Camel Brigade , which was to again attempt to get round the German and Ottoman left flank and cut off their retreat . The advance of the 3rd Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Brigades from Oghratina to Bir el Abd was to begin at daylight on 9 August , with the 5th Mounted Brigade forming the reserve . On the left of the New Zealanders , Royston 's Column ; a composite of the depleted 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades , had gone to Katia to water and had then march through the night to the Hod Hamada 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of Bir el Abd , where they arrived at 03 : 00 on 9 August . They were to bivouaced for one and a half hours before advancing to a point 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north @-@ east of Bir el Abd , to cooperate with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's attack on the rearguard position at 06 : 30 . Since the attack , supported by only four horse artillery batteries , was on a prepared position held in superior strength , strong in machine guns , and covered by double the number of guns , including heavy howitzers , it was something of a gamble . The attacking force 's only advantage was its mobility . = = = Attack on 9 August = = = The 3rd Light Horse Brigade set out to find and turn the German and Ottoman left , while at 04 : 00 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade headed directly towards Bir el Abd along the old caravan route . By 05 : 00 , they had driven in enemy outposts and reached high ground overlooking Bir el Abd . Royston 's Column moved off at 05 : 00 with the intention of enveloping the Ottoman right , while the New Zealanders attacked in the centre ; the four brigades covering a front of 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) . The forward troops of the German and Ottoman rearguard , which held a front of about 10 miles ( 16 km ) , were driven back to Bir el Abd by the New Zealanders . At this time , the attackers appeared likely to succeed , as they had firmly established themselves across the telegraph line and the old caravan road , supported by the Somerset and Leicester batteries . But the German , Austrian and Ottoman rearguard quickly realised how thin the attacking line was , and at 09 : 00 advanced out of their trenches to counterattack . This aggressive move was only checked by artillery fire from the Somerset Battery effectively combined with fire from machine guns . The subsequent fire fight made it extremely difficult for the mounted riflemen to maintain their position , and on the flanks the light horse were also held up . The German and Ottoman infantry renewed their attack towards a gap between the New Zealanders and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , but the 5th Light Horse Regiment covered the gap , and the German and Ottoman advance was halted . Chauvel ordered the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which had been unable to turn the German and Ottoman flank , to move towards the New Zealanders who renewed their efforts , but they only succeeded in exposing their flanks , as the Australians were unable to conform to their forward movement . By 10 : 30 , all progress had stopped . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade continued to hold on in the centre , while both flanks were bent back by pressure from the strong German and Ottoman force . The result was that the New Zealanders ended up holding a very exposed salient line on the forward slopes of the hills overlooking the Hod . Fresh German or Ottoman reinforcements from El Arish , then launched a fierce counterattack on a front of about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) , on the centre . This fell on the Canterbury and Auckland Regiments and a squadron of Warwickshire Yeomanry of the 5th Mounted Brigade under Chaytor 's command . The New Zealanders were supported by machine guns ; one section , attached to the Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment , fired all their guns directly on the advancing soldiers , stopping them when they were within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of the New Zealand position . By midday , the advance had been completely held up by determined counterattacks supported by fresh German or Ottoman troops from El Arish . Even more than at Katia on 5 August , these soldiers were more numerous , ready , full of fight and more strongly supported by well @-@ placed Austrian and Ottoman guns delivering both heavy and accurate fire . At this time , the rearguard launched another heavy counterattack with two columns of 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 German and Ottoman soldiers against the Canterbury and Auckland Regiments and the squadron of the Warwickshire Yeomanry . By 14 : 00 , the attack had extended to the mounted force 's left flank where the Ayrshire Battery with Royston 's Column was badly cut up by this fire , losing 39 horses killed and making it extremely difficulty to move the guns . They were forced to retire nearly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , after advancing well up on the right flank , was also forced to give ground by the accuracy of enemy shellfire . A further withdrawal by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade made the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's position critical and at 17 : 30 , Chauvel gave orders for a general retirement . Disengagement proved to be a challenge ; it was only the tenacity of the New Zealanders and nightfall which saved them from certain capture . At the last , the Machine Gun Squadron had all its guns in line , some of them firing at a range of 100 yards ( 91 m ) ; they were supported by squadrons of the 5th Mounted Brigade , which together , successfully covered the New Zealanders ' withdrawal . After this day of fierce fighting , which has been described as the hardest @-@ fought action of the whole Sinai campaign , the Anzac Mounted Division 's advance was effectively stopped . Chauvel ordered the division to return to water at Oghratina , despite Lawrence 's wish for them to bivouac close to Bir el Abd but Chauvel concluded that his force was in no condition to remain within reach of this strong and aggressive enemy force . Further , the Anzac Mounted Division had lost a significant proportion of their strength ; over 300 casualties , including eight officers and 65 other ranks killed . = = = Planned attack for 12 August = = = At daylight on 10 August , strong patrols went forward and remained in touch with the force at Bir el Abd throughout the day , but without fresh troops , an attack in force could not be made . No serious fighting took place on 11 August , but von Kressenstein 's force at Bir el Abd was watched and harassed , and plans were made for an attack on 12 August . The advance of the Anzac Mounted Division began at daylight , but soon afterwards , forward patrols reported that the garrison at Bir el Abd was retiring . The mounted force followed the Austrians , Germans and Ottomans as far as Salmana , where another rearguard action delayed the mounted force , as the enemy withdrawal continued back to El Arish . The Anzac Mounted Division 's lines of communication were now fully extended , and the difficulties of supplying the mounted troops from Romani made it impossible for the British Empire mounted force to consider any further advance at that time . Arrangements were made to hold and garrison the country decisively won by this series of indecisive engagements , from Katia eastwards to Bir El Abd . Von Kressenstein succeeded in withdrawing his battered force from a potentially fatal situation ; both his advance to Romani and the withdrawal were remarkable achievements of planning , leadership , staff work and endurance . = = = Casualties = = = According to the Australian official medical history , the total British Empire casualties were : Other sources put the total killed at 202 , with all casualties at 1 @,@ 130 , of whom 900 were from the Anzac Mounted Division . Ottoman Army casualties have been estimated to have been 9 @,@ 000 ; 1 @,@ 250 were buried after the battle and 4 @,@ 000 were taken prisoner . Casualties were cared for by medical officers , stretcher bearers , camel drivers and sand @-@ cart drivers who worked tirelessly , often in the firing line , covering enormous distances in difficult conditions and doing all they could to relieve the suffering of the wounded . The casualties were transported on cacolets on camels or in sand @-@ carts back to the field ambulances , as the heavy sand made it impossible to use motor- or horse @-@ drawn ambulances . Between 4 and 9 August , the Anzac Mounted Division 's five field ambulances brought in 1 @,@ 314 patients , including 180 enemy wounded . The evacuation by train from Romani was carried out in a manner which caused much suffering and shock to the wounded . It was not effected till the night of August 6 – the transport of prisoners of war being given precedence over that of the wounded – and only open trucks without straw were available . The military exigencies necessitated shunting and much delay , so that five hours were occupied on the journey of twenty @-@ five miles . It seemed a cruel shame to shunt a train full of wounded in open trucks , but it had to be done . Every bump in our springless train was extremely painful . In the absence of orders coordinating evacuation from the field ambulances , the Assistant Director of Medical Services ( ADMS ) made their own arrangements . The ADMS , Anzac Mounted Division arranged with his counterparts in the two infantry divisions to set up a clearing station at the railhead 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) beyond Romani . This station was formed from medical units of the Anzac Mounted , the 42nd and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Divisions . With no orders from No. 3 Section Headquarters as to the method of evacuation of casualties of the three divisions , prisoners of war were transported back to Kantara by train before the wounded , generating amongst all ranks a feeling of resentment and distrust towards the higher command which lasted for a long time . = = Aftermath = = The Battle of Romani was the first large @-@ scale mounted and infantry victory by the British Empire in the First World War . It occurred at a time when the Allied nations had experienced nothing but defeat , in France , at Salonika and at the capitulation of Kut in Mesopotamia . The battle has been widely acknowledged as a strategic victory and a turning point in the campaign to restore Egypt 's territorial integrity and security , and marked the end of the land campaign against the Suez Canal . Romani was the first decisive victory attained by British Land Forces and changed the whole face of the campaign in that theatre , wresting as it did from the enemy , the initiative which he never again obtained . It also made the clearing of his troops from Egyptian territory a feasible proposition . This series of successful British infantry and mounted operations resulted in the complete defeat of the 16 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 strong German , Austrian and Ottoman force , about half of whom were killed or wounded , and nearly 4 @,@ 000 taken prisoner . Also captured were a mountain gun battery of four heavy guns , nine machine guns , a complete camel @-@ pack machine gun company , 2 @,@ 300 rifles and a million rounds of ammunition , two complete field hospitals with all instruments , fittings and drugs , while a great quantity of stores in the supply depot at Bir el Abd was destroyed . All the captured arms and equipment were made in Germany , and the camel @-@ pack machine gun company 's equipment had been especially designed for desert warfare . Many of the rifles were of the latest pattern and made of rustless steel . Murray estimated the total German and Ottoman casualties at about 9 @,@ 000 , while a German estimate put the loss at one third of the force ( 5 @,@ 500 to 6 @,@ 000 ) , which seems low considering the number of prisoners . The tactics employed by the Anzac Mounted Division were to prove effective throughout the coming campaigns in the Sinai and in the Levant ( also known at the time as Palestine ) . The key to the mounted rifles and light horse 's approach was to quickly move onto tactical ground and then to effectively operate as infantry once dismounted . In defence , the artillery and machine guns wrought havoc on enemy attacks , and during the mounted advance , they covered and supported the British Empire mounted force . This battle was fought under extreme conditions in the Sinai desert in midsummer heat over many days , causing much suffering to man and beast and demanding tenacity and endurance on the part of all who took part . The battle of Romani marked the end of the German and Ottoman campaign against the Suez Canal ; the offensive had passed decisively into the hands of the British Empire force led by the Anzac Mounted Division . After the battle , von Kressenstein 's force was pushed back across the Sinai Peninsula , to be beaten at the Battle of Magdhaba in December 1916 and back to the border of Ottoman Empire @-@ controlled Palestine to be defeated at the Battle of Rafa in January 1917 , which effectively secured the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula . This successful , seven @-@ month @-@ long British Empire campaign , begun at Romani in August , ended at the First Battle of Gaza in March 1917 . = = = Some criticisms = = = The Battle of Romani has , however , been surrounded with controversy and criticism . It has been suggested that , like the attack on the Suez Canal in 1915 , it was merely a raid to disrupt maritime traffic rather than a determined attempt to gain control of the canal . That the Ottoman Empire 's intention was to strongly occupy Romani and Kantara is supported by preparations in the southern territory of Palestine adjacent to , and extending into , the Sinai . These included extending the Palestine railway system to Wadi El Arish , with a good motor road beside the railway . Cisterns and other works were constructed along this route to store water and at Wadi El Arish , enormous rock cut reservoirs were under construction in December 1916 when the Anzac Mounted Division reached that place just before the Battle of Magdhaba . Murray , Lawrence and Chauvel have all been criticised for letting von Kressenstein 's force escape . Further , it has been asserted that the tactics of the mounted troops actually helped the enemy withdrawal by concentrating on direct assaults rather than flank attacks . The official British historian acknowledges the disappointment caused by the successful retirement of the German , Austrian and Ottoman force but he also notes the quality of the successive rearguard positions constructed during the advance , and the strength , determination and endurance of the enemy . The strength of the rearguards was clearly demonstrated at Bir el Abd on 9 August , when the mounted force attempted to outflank the large entrenched force . They failed because they were greatly outnumbered . Indeed , if the Anzac Mounted Division had succeeded in getting round the flank without infantry support , they would have been faced with vastly superior forces and could have been annihilated . It has been suggested that an opportunity was lost on 5 August to encircle and capture the invading Austrian , German and Ottoman force when it was allowed to withdraw to Katia . The infantry 's difficulties regarding the supply of water and camel transport combined with their lack of desert training , together with Lawrence 's confusing orders for infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division to move south and east , stopped them from promptly advancing to cut off the retreating force in the early hours of the second day 's battle . General Lawrence was criticised for taking a grave and unnecessary risk by relying on just one entrenched infantry division and two light horse brigades to defend Romani . That the strong enemy attack on the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades during the first night 's battle pushed them so far back that the planned flanking attack by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade became almost a frontal attack . Lawrence was also faulted for remaining at his headquarters at Kantara , which was considered to be too far from the battlefield , and that this contributed to his loss of control of the battle during the first day , when the telephone line was cut and he was out of contact with Romani . Lawrence was also criticised for not going forward to supervise the execution of his orders on 5 August , when there was a failure to coordinate the movements of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the Mobile Column . Chauvel responded by pointing out that the criticisms of the battle were in danger of obscuring the significance of the victory . = = = Awards = = = Murray lavished praise on the Anzac Mounted Division in cables to the Governors General of Australia and New Zealand and in his official despatch and in letters to Robertson , writing : Every day they show what an indispensable part of my forces they are ... I cannot speak too highly of the gallantry , steadfastness and untiring energy shown by this fine division throughout the operations ... These Anzac troops are the keystone of the defence of Egypt . But he failed to ensure the fighting qualities of these soldiers earned them a proportionate share of recognition and honours . Further , despite claims that Chauvel alone had a clear view of the battle , that his coolness and skill were crucial in gaining the victory , his name was omitted from the long list of honours published on New Year 's Day 1917 . Murray did offer Chauvel a lesser award ( a Distinguished Service Order ) for Romani which he declined . On reading Murray 's description in his official despatch covering the battle , and reprinted in a Paris edition of the ' Daily Mail ' , Chauvel wrote to his wife on 3 December 1916 @,@ I am afraid my men will be very angry when they see it . I cannot understand why the old man cannot do justice to those to whom he owed so much and the whole thing is so absolutely inconsistent with what he had already cabled . It was not until after the victory at the Battle of Rafa that Chauvel was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George , but this particular order is awarded for important non @-@ military service in a foreign country . It was not just his military service at Romani which had not been recognised , but also the service of all those who fought in the Anzac Mounted Division at Romani , at El Arish , at Magdhaba and at Rafa . In September 1917 , not long after General Edmund Allenby became Commander in Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force , Chauvel wrote to GHQ to point out the injustice done to his front @-@ line troops , acknowledging that it was " difficult to do anything now to right this , but consider the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief should know that there is a great deal of bitterness over it . "

= The Litigators = The Litigators is a 2011 legal thriller novel by John Grisham , his 25th fiction novel overall . The Litigators is about a two @-@ partner Chicago law firm attempting to strike it rich in a class action lawsuit over a cholesterol reduction drug by a major pharmaceutical drug company . The protagonist is a Harvard Law School grad big law firm burnout who stumbles upon the boutique and joins it only to find himself litigating against his old law firm in this case . The book is regarded as more humorous than most of Grisham 's prior novels . The theme of a young lawyer being fed up with a giant law firm and bolting away to less lucrative but more satisfying career is shared with " The Associate " . The theme of a lawsuit against a giant corporation appeared in " The Runaway Jury " - but in the present book , the corporation is vindicated and proven to have been unjustly maligned ( at least on the specific drug which is the subject of the lawsuit ) and the mass tort lawyers are seen as greedy and unscrupulous , ultimately bolting and leaving the protagonist 's tiny Chicago firm in the lurch . Critical reviews were mixed for the book , with several opinions noting a lack of suspense . Nonetheless , the book has achieved both hardcover and ebook # 1 best seller status on various lists , including both The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal . However , since some services do not separate fiction and non @-@ fiction books , it did not debut as a # 1 bestseller on certain lists , such as the USA Today . Some reviewers noted that this story would lend itself to an adapted screenplay . = = Background = = Having sold 250 million copies of his previous 24 novels in 29 languages , Grisham had produced an international bestseller with each prior book . Including the release of The Litigators , Grisham has produced 23 adult fiction novels and 2 children 's fiction novels as well as a short story collection . In addition , he has produced one non @-@ fiction book . Thus , various sources claim this to be his 23rd , 25th , or 26th book . In the first of a two @-@ part interview with The Wall Street Journal , Grisham claimed that although he usually attempts to include humor in his submitted drafts , it is usually removed during the editorial process . However , in this case much of the humor survived editing . In the second part of the interview the following week , Grisham noted that his inspirations for the book included television advertisements and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill . = = Publication = = Leading book retailers such as Amazon.com , Barnes & Noble , and Walmart released the book in hardcover format in the United States as a Doubleday publication on October 25 , 2011 . In the United Kingdom , the book was published with different cover art by Hodder & Stoughton on the same date . Random House published the paperback version on June 26 , 2012 . The book is also available as an audiobook , narrated by Scott Brick , and in ebook format . Other formats available on October 25 , included large @-@ print , compact disc and abridged compact disc . A limited edition will be available on November 22 , 2011 . An excerpt from the book was included in some editions including the iTunes Store edition of The Confession , which was his prior adult novel . = = Plot = = Oscar Finley and Wally Figg are the bickering partners of a small law firm in the South Side of Chicago . Oscar 's character holds the firm together despite the childish and unethical behavior of Wally , his junior partner . Their bickering is often mediated by Rochelle , the highly competent African American secretary , who had learned a lot of law in he eight years in the office . Meanwhile David Zinc , a graduate of the Harvard Law School , is completely fed up with the grinding and dehumanizing - though well @-@ paid - life of an Associate in the giant law firm of Rogan Rothberg , where in five years of work he had never seen the inside of a courtroom . He suddenly breaks away , goes on a drinking binge and by chance finds himself at the Finley & Figg office . Feeling an elevating sense of freedom and vowing never to go back , Zink willingly relegates himself to working for the two disreputable street lawyers and ambulance chasers . While Wally goes to a funeral home to attend the wake of a former estate client , the client 's son claims that his father was killed by Krayoxx , a cholesterol @-@ lowering drug developed by the fictional pharmaceutical company Varrick Labs . Ecstatic at the possible monetary returns on the case , the firm finds several former clients who appear to have valid claims about Krayoxx . Oscar and Wally generate publicity in the Chicago Tribune with a picture of their filing ; this induces an avalanche of communications and leads them to several additional claimants . Wally notices a blossoming class action lawsuit against Varrick Labs in Florida , and realizes that if he can find some patients to sign as clients , he can earn a big payday on another firm 's coattails . However , some complications make the story interesting . Although none of the three Finley & Figg lawyers had previously argued in United States federal court , that is where they find themselves pitted against Zinc 's old firm with this case . In fact , David 's expertise was in long @-@ term bonds . Once the firm 's claims become prominent , mass tort operators approach them about being part of a mass settlement . Wally flies to Las Vegas to meet the other mass tort interests , most notably Jerry Alisandros . Varrick 's CEO flies to Chicago to meet Nadine Karros , a leading defense attorney , who works for Rogan Rothberg . Believing that they can get federal judge Harry Seawright to claim jurisdiction , Karros is chosen for her firms ' ties to him and her expertise . The case is soon expedited on Seawright 's docket with Finley & Figg 's claim singled out of the tort claimants and Karros takes action to have Finley & Figg 's eight death cases heard separately . Eventually , Alisandros learns that tests of Krayoxx yield benign results . Oscar and his wife , Paula , are often at odds , and as a large settlement looms , he attempts to divorce her and cash out . After settlement talks break down with Varrick , Alisandros withdraws as co @-@ counsel and Finley & Figg motions to withdraw their claims . Once at Finley & Figg , Zinc stumbles upon a lead poisoning brain damage case involving Burmese immigrants . He expends his own time and resources on their case . He also succeeds in representing immigrants in a labor law case . During the labor case , the employer attempted to have Finley & Figg 's offices burned down and the would @-@ be arsonist stumbled upon Oscar at the office . Oscar shot him and added an unnecessary debilitating shot that shattered his leg . He was sued for using excessive force . With Varrick having spent 18 million dollars defending itself and the mass tort bar having vociferously discredited Krayoxx in the mass media , Karros motioned for frivolous lawsuit sanctions pending a withdrawn motion . Additionally , actions were initiated for legal malpractice regarding Wally 's letters that promised 2 million dollar settlement followed by motions to dismiss without notifying his clients . After realizing that they could be sued for defense costs and malpractice for withdrawing the case , Finley & Figg withdraw their motions and agree to a jury trial that they believe to be futile . The trial opens as originally scheduled . During opening statements , Oscar suffered a myocardial infarction . Wally attempted to make light of the situation by proclaiming it an example of Krayoxx effects . Karros moved for mistrial and the motion was granted , leading to the need to pick a new jury . Wally stood in for Oscar as lead attorney while a new jury was seated and for the first day of testimony . The next day , the recovering alcoholic Figg was nowhere to be found although an empty pint bottle of Smirnoff Vodka was . After Wally was AWOL for a second day , David was pressed into service . Rueben Massey , Varrick 's CEO , instructed Karros not to move for likely @-@ successful summary judgment . Zinc declined to cross @-@ examine the first handful of expert witnesses that Varrick called , Eventually , Zinc discredited Varrick 's clinical trials during cross @-@ examination of the final expert witness . Nonetheless , the jury rendered a very quick not guilty verdict . Zinc continued to pursue the lead poisoning product liability case . He settled the case for $ 6 @.@ 5 million ( including $ 1 @.@ 5 million in legal fees ) . David returns to the office and tells Oscar and Wally of his settlement . He tells them of his plan to split his earnings evenly with them . In return the three of them are to sign a 12 @-@ month contract to enter an equal partnership and will no longer be an ambulance @-@ chasing firm . Oscar and Wally agree to the new contract . Later that year the partnership fell apart . Finley began spending less time in the office and eventually retired a happy man , Figg packed up and moved to Alaska , and Zinc opened his own product liability practice , David E. Zinc , Attorney @-@ at @-@ Law and hired Rochelle as his new secretary . = = = List of characters = = = Oscar Finley , Finley & Figg Senior Partner - A lazy , unhappily married , nearing retirement " fender @-@ benders , slip @-@ and @-@ falls and quickie divorces veteran " and former police officer , who took the bar exam three times . Wally Figg , Finley & Figg Junior Partner - A former DUI convictee and four @-@ time divorcé who trolls funeral parlors and sickrooms for clients . A University of Chicago Law School grad who took the bar exam three times . David Zinc , Finley & Figg Associate attorney - Prototypical Grisham young hot shot Harvard graduate lawyer whose life is turned upside down . Rochelle Gibson , Finley & Figg secretary - Former claimant against Finley & Figg who holds the firm together . Nadine Karros , Defendant 's leading litigator recruited by Varrick . Harry Seawright , federal judge . DeeAnna Nuxhall , repeat Finley & Figg divorce customer and eventual love interest of Wally 's Jerry Alisandros , mass tort operator who brings F & F into his firm 's fold . Paula Finley , Oscar 's wife Rueben Massey , CEO Varrick . Helen , David 's wife Anderson Zinc , David 's father ( Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Minnesota ) ( per Ch . 15 ) Caroline Zinc , David 's mother ( art and photography teacher ) ( per Ch . 15 ) Lana , David 's secretary = = Critical review = = The Litigators is said to be " an amusing and appalling look into the machinations of a nationwide class @-@ action suit , " according to Tobin Harshaw of Bloomberg L.P. The Wall Street Journal 's Christopher John Farley noted that the book is lighter than Grisham 's other works . Publishers Weekly called it a " bitingly farcical look at lawyers at the bottom of the food chain " . CNN described the book as an original perspective of " the best and worst the American system of justice has to offer " . Louis Bayard of The Washington Post , who described himself as someone who abandoned Grisham after his first three novels , noted that this book might be a good starting point for those who have tired of Grisham . Andrea Simakis of The Plain Dealer describes the book as a " heartier meal " than Grisham 's usual " potato @-@ chip fiction " . Publishers Weekly also notes that the fairy tale ending is not really in keeping with the introduction 's dark humor . Rick Arthur of The United Arab Emirates publication The National describes the book unfavorably as a cross between prior Grisham works The Street Lawyer and The King of Torts and similarly describes the protagonist unfavorably to those of The Firm and The Rainmaker . Geoffrey Wansell of the Daily Mail presented one of the more favorable reviews describing the book as " a spectacular return to form , displaying the clarity and passion that were there in his first thrillers but seemed to ebb away . " Wansell notes that Grisham returned to one of his seminal themes of the idealistic young lawyer fighting with the realization that corporations only care about maximizing profits . The book has been derided for its lack of suspense . Carol Memmott of USA Today says that Grisham 's latest attempt to capture the spirit of the legal David and Goliath story is missing " the ratcheting @-@ up of suspense " that he has employed successfully in recent adult and youth novels . Harshaw claims that the book is lacking in the suspense that made The Firm so successful . Arthur finds elements of the plot implausible and the story unsuspenseful as well as unsatisfying . Although the book is somewhat predictable , Bayard notes that " Grisham swerves clear of the usual melodramatic devices . Corporations aren ’ t intrinsically venal ; plaintiffs aren ’ t lambent with goodness . And best of all , no one is murdered for stumbling Too Close to the Truth . " Some sources noted that the book has potential to become an adapted screenplay . Irish Independent describes Grisham 's new book as " following his usual route to the bestsellers list " and projects it as a candidate to be his next Hollywood film . Although it is standard Grisham fare , Independent noted that it provides the usual thrills in Grisham 's comfortable legal world and should be a gripping read for his usual fans . The Sunday Express noted that the book could be readily converted to a screenplay , but its critic , Robin Callender Smith , viewed the " ambulance chasing " ethos as a foreign thing that Brits might have to worry about in the near future . Simakis praised the book for having more depth of character than Grisham 's novels customarily do . She compares the protagonist to Mitch McDeere from The Firm and Rudy Baylor from The Rainmaker . Memmott says that most of the claimants that they find are unsympathetic , but a few are from somewhat sympathetic immigrant families . Simakis notes that Wally trades sex for legal services with one claimant . Harshaw says that the book is a bit sentimental and comparatively lacking in terms of secondary character development for Grisham . Larry Orenstein of Canada 's Globe and Mail notes that on the dramatic scale this book has instances of laugh out loud humor that make it more like Boston Legal than The Practice , which Boston Legal was spun off from . = = Commercial success = = According to The Huffington Post , this book is the ninth best @-@ selling fiction book of the year in 2011 , while according to the USA Today this was the 16th best selling book overall in 2011 . According to Amazon.com the book was the number eight overall best seller . = = = Hardcover = = = It immediately was listed as the Publishers Weekly # 1 best @-@ seller among fiction hardcover books according to Reuters . It was also listed as the # 1 best @-@ seller by The New York Times in the November 13 , 2011 book review section for the week ending October 29 , 2011 for Hardcover Fiction , E @-@ Book Fiction , Combined Hardcover & Paperback Fiction , and the Combined Print and E @-@ Book Fiction . It dropped from the # 1 position in its second week on the list . It remained on the Combined Hardcover & Paperback Fiction list until the February 19 , 2012 list ( 15 weeks ) for the week ending February 4 . It remained on both the Hardcover Fiction list and the Combined Print and E @-@ Book Fiction list until the February 26 list ( 16 weeks ) for the week ending February 11 . It remained on the E @-@ Book Fiction list until the March 11 list ( 18 weeks ) for the week ending February 25 . The Wall Street Journal announced that on Saturday October 29 , it would begin incorporating digital book sales in its best seller lists . When the book debuted in The Wall Street Journal list on November 5 for the week ending October 30 , it was listed first in Hardcover Fiction , Fiction E @-@ Books and Fiction Combined . It retained the hardcover lead the following week , but lost the other leads . After two weeks it was surpassed on the hardcover list as well . It remained on The Wall Street Journal Hardcover Fiction , Fiction E @-@ Books and Fiction Combined best seller lists until the January 7 listing for the week ended on January 1 , 2012 . The book was released the day after Walter Isaacson 's biography of Steve Jobs , entitled Steve Jobs , was released by Simon & Schuster . Jobs had died on October 5 and the release date was moved forward . The Jobs book 's release had been moved forward twice ; It had been moved from spring 2012 to November 21 after Jobs stepped down and then to the October 24 date after his death . When The Litigators debuted on November 3 on the USA Today best @-@ seller list , which does not separate fiction and non @-@ fiction , it debuted at number 2 behind the Jobs book . = = = Paperback = = = It debuted at # 1 on the New York Times Paperback Mass @-@ Market Fiction Best Sellers list on July 15 , 2012 ( reflecting sales for the week ending June 30 , 2012 ) . The book remained at # 1 until the August 12 list ( reflecting sales of the week ending July 28 , 2012 ) , making a five @-@ week run . It continued to appear on the list until the January 13 , 2013 list ( reflecting sales for the week ending December 29 , 2012 ) . On the USA Today list , which include fiction and non @-@ fiction as well as hardcover and paperback , it debuted at # 10 in the week of July 5 , following its paperback release .

= Stanley Green = Stanley Owen Green ( 22 February 1915 – 4 December 1993 ) , known as the Protein Man , was a human billboard who became a well @-@ known figure in central London in the latter half of the 20th century . Green patrolled Oxford Street in the West End for 25 years , from 1968 until 1993 , with a placard recommending " protein wisdom " , a low @-@ protein diet that he said would dampen the libido and make people kinder . His 14 @-@ page pamphlet , Eight Passion Proteins with Care , sold 87 @,@ 000 copies over 20 years . Green 's campaign to suppress desire , as one commentator called it , was not always popular , but he became one of London 's much @-@ loved eccentrics . The Sunday Times interviewed him in 1985 , and his " less passion from less protein " slogan was used by the fashion house Red or Dead . When he died at the age of 78 , the Daily Telegraph , Guardian and Times published his obituary , and the Museum of London added his pamphlets and placards to their collection . In 2006 his biography was included in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . = = Early life = = Green was born in Harringay , north London , the youngest of four sons of Richard Green , a clerk for a bottle stopper manufacturer , and his wife , May . He attended Wood Green School before joining the Royal Navy in 1938 . Philip Carter writes in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography that Green 's time with the Navy affected him deeply . He was shocked by the obsession with sex . " I was astonished when things were said quite openly – what a husband would say to his wife when home on leave " , he told the Sunday Times " A Life in the Day " column in 1985 . " I 've always been a moral sort of person . " After leaving the Navy in September 1945 , Green worked for the Fine Art Society . In March 1946 , Carter writes , he failed the entrance exam for the University of London , then worked for Selfridges and the civil service , and as a storeman for Ealing Borough Council . He said that he had lost jobs twice because he had refused to be dishonest . In 1962 he held a job with the post office , then worked as a self @-@ employed gardener until 1968 when he began his anti @-@ protein campaign . He lived with his parents until they died , his father in 1966 and his mother the following year , after which he was given a council flat in Haydock Green , Northolt , north London . = = His mission = = = = = On the streets = = = Green began his mission in June 1968 , at the age of 53 , initially in Harrow on Saturdays , becoming a full @-@ time human billboard six months later on Oxford Street . He cycled there from Northolt with a sandwich board attached to the bicycle , a journey of 12 miles ( 19 km ) that could take up to two hours , until he was given a bus pass when he turned 65 . He rose early , and after porridge for breakfast made bread that would rise while he was on patrol , ready for his evening meal . Otherwise his diet consisted of steamed vegetables and pulses , and a pound of apples a day . Lunch was prepared on a Bunsen burner and eaten at 2 : 30 in a " warm and secret place " near Oxford Street . From Monday to Saturday he walked up and down the street until 6 : 30 pm , reduced to four days a week from 1985 . Saturday evenings were spent with the cinema crowds in Leicester Square . He would to go to bed at 12 : 30 am after saying a prayer . " Quite a good prayer , unselfish too " , he told the Sunday Times . " It is a sort of acknowledgment of God , just in case there happens to be one . " Peter Ackroyd wrote in London : The Biography that Green was for the most part ignored , becoming " a poignant symbol of the city 's incuriosity and forgetfulness " . He was arrested for public obstruction twice , in 1980 and 1985 . " The injustice of it upsets me " , he said , " because I 'm doing such a good job " . He took to wearing overalls to protect himself from spit , several times finding it on his hat at the end of the day . = = = Writing = = = Sundays were spent at home producing Eight Passion Proteins on his printing press . Waldemar Januszczak described it as worthy of Heath Robinson , who was known for his cartoons of ancient contraptions . The racket caused trouble between Green and his neighbours . Noted for its eccentric typography , Eight Passion Proteins went through 52 editions between 1973 and 1993 . Green sold 20 copies on weekdays and up to 50 on Saturdays ( for 10 pence in 1980 and 12 pence 13 years later ) , a total of 87 @,@ 000 copies by February 1993 , according to Carter . He sent copies to those in the public eye , including five British prime ministers , the Prince of Wales , the Archbishop of Canterbury , and Pope Paul VI . The booklet argued that " those who do not have to work hard with their limbs , and those who are inclined to sit about " will " store up their protein for passion " , making retirement , for example , a period of increased passion and marital discord . He left several unpublished manuscripts , including a novel , Behind the Veil : More than Just a Tale ; a 67 @-@ page text called Passion and Protein ; and a 392 @-@ page version of Eight Passion Proteins , which , Carter writes , was rejected by Oxford University Press in 1971 . = = Posthumous recognition = = Green enjoyed his local fame . The Sunday Times interviewed him in 1985 for its " A Life in the Day " feature , and some of his slogans , including " less passion from less protein " were used on dresses and t @-@ shirts by the London fashion house Red or Dead . When he died in 1993 at the age of 78 , the Daily Telegraph , Guardian and Times all published obituaries . His letters , diaries , pamphlets and placards were given to the Museum of London ; other artefacts went to the Gunnersbury Park Museum . His printing press was featured in Cornelia Parker 's exhibition " The Maybe " ( 1995 ) at the Serpentine Gallery , along with Robert Maxwell 's shoelaces , one of Winston Churchill 's cigars and Tilda Swinton in a glass box . In 2006 he was given an entry in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Two decades after his death Green was still remembered by writers and bloggers , fondly for the most part , although not invariably so . Artist Alun Rowlands ' documentary fiction , 3 Communiqués ( 2007 ) , portrayed him as trawling the streets of London , " campaigning for the suppression of desire " . Musician Martin Gordon included a track about Green on his 2013 album , Include Me Out .

= Sclerodermatineae = Sclerodermatineae is a suborder of the fungal order Boletales . Circumscribed in 2002 by mycologists Manfred Binder and Andreas Bresinsky , it contains nine genera and about 80 species . The suborder contains a diverse assemblage fruit body morphologies , including boletes , gasteroid forms , earthstars ( genus Astraeus ) , and puffballs . Most species are ectomycorrhizal , although the ecological role of some species is not known with certainty . The suborder is thought to have originated in the late Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 Ma ) in Asia and North America , and the major genera diversified around the mid Cenozoic ( 66 – 0 Ma ) . = = Taxonomy = = The Sclerodermatineae was first legitimately used by Manfred Binder and Andreas Bresinsky in 2002 based on molecular analyses of nuclear ribosomal large subunit ( 25S ) rRNA sequences from 60 species of Boletales . This research was an extension of Binder 's 1999 graduate work , in which he argued for the need to recognize the molecular differences of the sclerodermatoid fungi . Sclerodermatineae is one of six lineages of the Boletales recognized as a suborder ; the others are the Boletineae , Paxillineae , Suillineae , Tapinellineae , and Coniophorineae . Of the nine genera assigned to the Sclerodermatineae , three are hymenomycetes ( Boletinellus , Gyroporus , and Phlebopus ) , and six are gasteroid ( Astraeus , Calostoma , Diplocystis , Pisolithus , and Scleroderma ) . Since the suborder 's original description , there have been several phylogenetic studies investigating the Sclerodermatineae . Some studies have revealed the existence of numerous cryptic species and have contributed to taxonomic expansion of the group . The " core " Sclerodermatineae include the genera Astraeus , Calostoma , Scleroderma , Pisolithus , Diplocystis , Tremellogaster ( all gasteroid ) , and the boletoid genus Gyroporus ; Phlebopus and Boletinellus resolved as sister to this core group . As of 2012 , there are an estimated 78 species in the Sclerodermatineae . The type of the suborder is the family Sclerodermataceae ; other families in the suborder are the Boletinellaceae , Diplocystaceae , and the Gyroporaceae . Boletinellaceae Boletinellus ( 2 species ) Phlebopus ( 12 species ) Diplocystaceae Astraeus ( 5 species ) Diplocystis ( 1 species ) Endogonopsis ( 1 species ) Tremellogaster ( 1 species ) Gyroporaceae Gyroporus ( 10 species ) Sclerodermataceae Calostoma ( 15 species ) Chlorogaster ( 1 species ) Favillea ( 1 species ) Horakiella ( 1 species ) Pisolithus ( 5 species ) Scleroderma ( about 30 species ) Based on ancestral reconstruction studies , the earliest ( basal ) members of the Sclerodermatineae originated in the late Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 Ma ) . The major genera diversified near the mid Cenozoic ( 66 – 0 Ma ) . Asia and North America are the most probable ancestral areas for all Sclerodermatineae , and Pinaceae and angiosperms ( primarily rosids ) are the most probable ancestral hosts . = = Description = = Members of the Sclerodermatineae have fruit body shapes ranging from boletoid ( with a cap , stipe , and tubes on the underside of the cap ) to gasteroid . Boletoid fruit bodies sometimes have hollow stipes with a surface that is smooth to somewhat furfuraceous ( covered with flaky particles ) , and lack the reticulation ( a net @-@ like pattern of interlacing lines ) characteristic of some members of the Boletaceae . The pores are merulioid ( wrinkled with low , uneven ridges ) , boletinoid , and either fine or coarse . The flesh is usually whitish to yellowish , and some species exhibit a blue staining reaction upon injury . In mass , spores are yellow ; microscopically , the spores are ellipsoid in shape and have a smooth surface . Gasteroid fruit body types are either roughly spherical or tuberous , occasionally with stipes , and usually have a peridium that is either simple or multi @-@ layered . Mature gasteroid fruit bodies generally open irregularly at maturity to expose a powdery gleba with a color ranging from white to yellow or black @-@ brown to black . Capillitia are generally absent from the gleba . Spores are spherical or nearly so , and have a surface texture that ranges from smooth to wart @-@ like and spiny , or sometimes with reticulations . Hyphae have clamp connections . = = Morphological diversity = = A distinguishing feature of the Sclerodermatineae is the diversity of morphologies within the group . The hymenomycete genera Boletinellus , Gyroporus , and Phlebopus are typical boletes with a cap and stipe . However , each of the gasteroid Sclerodermatineae has a distinct morphology . Species of Astraeus have an " earthstar " morphology where the outer peridium peels back in sections . The gleba of Pisolithus is partitioned into hundreds of membranous chambers . Scleroderma is a simple puffball with a thin outer skin and a powdery gleba at maturity . Diplocystis and Tremellogaster are each distinct in their morphologies : the former comprises compound fruit bodies each with 3 – 60 spore sacs crowded together , while the latter forms a roughly spherical sporocarp with a thick multi @-@ layered peridium . Calostoma ( Greek for " pretty mouth " ) is morphologically distinct from other gasteroid members , having a fruit body that forms a globed , spore @-@ bearing head composed of a three @-@ layered peridium . About two @-@ thirds of Sclerodermatineae species have a gasteroid morphology , although this may be an underestimate due to the existence of cryptic species that have yet to be formally described . For example , studies of the gasteroid genera Astraeus and Pisolithus indicate the existence of numerous cryptic taxa . = = Ecology = = The mycorrhizal associations of several Sclerodermatineae genera have been established . Studies have demonstrated that Astraeus , Pisolithus , and Scleroderma form ectomycorrhizal associations with both angiosperms and gymnosperms . Previously thought to be saprophytic , the Calostomataceae were determined to be ectomycorrhizal with Fagaceae and Myrtaceae using isotopic and molecular analyses . Species from the genera Pisolithus and Scleroderma have been used in forestry as mycorrhizal inocula to help promote the growth and vigor of young seedlings . As a group , the Sclerodermatineae have a broad distribution , and some genera ( Pisolithus and Scleroderma ) have been found on all continents except Antarctica . = = = Cited literature = = = Kirk PM , Cannon PF , Minter DW , Stalpers JA ( 2008 ) . Dictionary of the Fungi ( 10th ed . ) . Wallingford , UK : CAB International . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85199 @-@ 826 @-@ 8 .

= SM U @-@ 3 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) = SM U @-@ 3 or U @-@ III was the lead boat of the U @-@ 3 class of submarines or U @-@ boats built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) before and during the First World War . The submarine was built as part of a plan to evaluate foreign submarine designs , and was built by Germaniawerft of Kiel , Germany . U @-@ 3 was authorized in 1906 , begun in March 1907 , launched in August 1908 , and towed from Kiel to Pola in January 1909 . The double @-@ hulled submarine was just under 139 feet ( 42 m ) long and displaced between 240 and 300 tonnes ( 260 and 330 short tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . The design of the submarine had poor diving qualities and several modifications to U @-@ 3 's diving planes and fins occurred in her first years in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Her armament , as built , consisted of two bow torpedo tubes with a supply of three torpedoes , but was supplemented with a deck gun in 1915 . The boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in September 1909 , and served as a training boat — sometimes making as many as ten cruises a month — through the beginning of the First World War in 1914 . At the start of that conflict , she was one of only four operational submarines in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy U @-@ boat fleet . Over the first year of the war , U @-@ 3 conducted reconnaissance cruises out of Cattaro . On 12 August 1915 , U @-@ 3 was damaged after an unsuccessful torpedo attack on an Italian armed merchant cruiser and , after she surfaced the next day , was sunk by a French destroyer . U @-@ 3 's commanding officer and 6 men died in the attack ; the 14 survivors were captured . = = Design and construction = = U @-@ 3 was built as part of a plan by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy authorized the construction of U @-@ 3 ( and sister ship , U @-@ 4 ) in 1906 by Germaniawerft of Kiel , Germany . U @-@ 3 was laid down on 12 March 1907 and launched on 20 August 1908 . After completion , she was towed via Gibraltar to Pola , where she arrived on 24 January 1909 . U @-@ 3 's design was an improved version of Germaniawerft 's design for the Imperial German Navy 's first U @-@ boat , U @-@ 1 , and featured a double hull with internal saddle tanks . The Germaniawerft engineers refined the design 's hull shape through extensive model trials . U @-@ 3 was 138 feet 9 inches ( 42 m ) long by 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 81 m ) . She displaced 240 tonnes ( 260 short tons ) surfaced and 300 tonnes ( 330 short tons ) submerged . She was armed with two bow 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , and was designed to carry up to three torpedoes . = = Service career = = After U @-@ 3 's arrival at Pola in January 1909 , she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 12 September 1909 as SM U @-@ 3 . During the evaluation of the U @-@ 3 class conducted by the Navy , the class ' poor diving and handling characteristics were noted . To alleviate the diving problems , U @-@ 3 's fins were changed in size and shape several times , and eventually , the front diving planes were removed and a stationary stern flap was affixed to the hull . U @-@ 3 served as a training boat between 1910 and 1914 and made as many as ten cruises per month in that capacity . At the beginning of World War I , she was one of only four operational submarines in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . On 22 August 1914 , U @-@ 3 began operating reconnaissance cruises out of the naval base at Brioni , but moved a month later to Cattaro . In April 1915 , a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick firing ( QF ) deck gun was added . On 10 August , U @-@ 3 departed from Cattaro for what would be her final time for a patrol north of Brindisi . Two days later , while returning to Cattaro from the Straits of Otranto , U @-@ 3 launched a torpedo attack on the Italian armed merchant cruiser Citta di Catania . The torpedoes missed their mark and , in the ensuing action , U @-@ 3 was rammed by Citta di Catania , which destroyed the U @-@ boat 's periscope . When she attempted to surface , she was shelled by the escorting destroyers . She submerged to escape the artillery but was further damaged by a depth charge attack from the French destroyer Bisson while resting on the seabed . When U @-@ 3 surfaced the following day , she was shelled and sunk by Bisson . Fourteen of her crew were saved and captured , but seven died in the attack , including her commander , Linienschiffsleutnant Karl Strnad . U @-@ 3 had no successes during the war .

= The Son Also Draws = " The Son Also Draws " is the sixth episode of the first season of the animated comedy series Family Guy , originally aired on Fox on May 9 , 1999 . The episode follows Chris as he is ejected from the Youth Scouts , and Peter drives the family to Scout headquarters to get him readmitted . During a rest stop at a Native American casino , Lois gambles away the family car . Peter pretends to be a member of the tribe in an attempt to get it back , and is sent on a vision quest to prove his heritage , giving him and Chris an opportunity to bond . " The Son Also Draws " was written by Ricky Blitt and directed by Neil Affleck , both working on their first Family Guy episode . The episode guest starred actors Suzie Plakson , Kevin Michael Richardson , Fred Tatasciore and Wally Wingert . Recurring guest voice actors included writer and animator Butch Hartman and actor Patrick Bristow . Much of the episode 's humor is structured around cutaway sequences that parody popular culture , including references to Speed Racer , Happy Days , Nova , One Day at a Time , and The More You Know . Critical reception for the episode was mixed ; certain critics believed the episode was not an " instant classic " in contrast to the other episodes of the season but called it " memorable " and " brilliant " nevertheless , while others regarded it as the black sheep of the season . The episode caused controversy in Canada for the episode 's final gag , in which Peter states that " Canada sucks . " = = Plot = = Chris hates being in the Youth Scouts and wants to quit , but is afraid to tell his father Peter . Chris is finally kicked out when he runs over the troop leader during a Soap Box Derby . Peter insists on driving Chris and the rest of the family ( Peter 's wife Lois , their daughter Meg and their infant Stewie ) to the Youth Scout headquarters , in Manhattan , to get Chris readmitted . While they are gone , their talking dog Brian is watching Nova just as the show is interrupted to show several episodes of the sitcom One Day at a Time . He tries to change the channel , but is unable to do so ( nor he can turn the TV off ) , losing his intelligence shortly after watching a few episodes . The family stops at a Native American casino as Peter needs to use the bathroom , Lois quickly becomes addicted to gambling and loses the family car . After hearing that Lois has gambled the car away , Peter tries to get it back by claiming to be Native American . The doubtful Indian elders demand that he go on a vision quest to prove his heritage . Chris accompanies Peter into the wilderness , hoping to tell him that he only wants to draw instead of being in the Scouts . Delirious from hunger , Peter begins talking to anthropomorphic trees and sees a vision of his spiritual guide , Fonzie . After hearing Fonzie 's advice Peter finally listens to Chris 's complaints and realizes his son is a talented artist . Peter and Chris return to the casino and reclaim the car . The episode ends with Lois , Stewie , and Meg counteracting stereotypes about Native Americans , Mexicans , and Swedes , respectively , before Peter comments that " Canada sucks . " = = Production = = " The Son Also Draws " was written by Ricky Blitt , his first episode in the Family Guy series , and directed by former Simpsons director Neil Affleck , also in his first Family Guy episode . Peter Shin and Roy Allen Smith , who have since supervised other episodes of Family Guy , both acted as supervising directors on this episode . Alex Borstein , the voice of Lois , helped write this episode , making her the first female member in the Family Guy writing staff ; show creator Seth MacFarlane mentioned that her input on the character of Lois was particularly helpful . Andrew Gormley and voice actor Mike Henry acted as staff writers for this episode , while Ricky Blitt , Neil Goldman and Chris Sheridan worked as the story editors . The subplot of " The Son Also Draws " that involved Lois losing the car was based on the 1985 comedy film Lost in America . The part where Peter pretends to be an Indian to get the family car back was inspired by real @-@ life instances of people who were " 1 / 64th " Native American receiving money from wealthy casino tribes . In addition to the regular cast , " The Son Also Draws " featured the voices of actors Suzie Plakson , Kevin Michael Richardson , Fred Tatasciore and Wally Wingert . Recurring guest voice actors included writer and animator Butch Hartman and actor Patrick Bristow . = = Cultural references = = The television show the family is watching near the beginning of the show is an episode from the 1974 ABC sitcom Happy Days . When the rest of the family is gone on the trip to Manhattan , Brian watches an episode of Nova , which is interrupted by a PBS announcement that they will be showing various episodes of One Day at a Time . Speed and Pops from Speed Racer make an appearance at the Soap Box Derby starting line and again when the Griffins prepare to leave for Manhattan . When Peter has to search for his spiritual guide , it turns out to be Fonzie from Happy Days . The end of the episode features a parody of the The More You Know series of public service announcements . = = Reception = = Reviews for " The Son Also Draws " were mixed to favorable . In his 2008 review , Ahsan Haque of IGN rated the episode an 8 / 10 , stating that while the episode is not an " instant classic " , it is " still quite strong " and has " more than a few clever moments " . He also notes that the cutaways are " kept to a minimum " , and much of the humor comes from the storyline . He commented that the episode did not have as much laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments as other episodes , but stated that it had bolder humor than the show would later be known for . In his review of the first volume DVD collection of Family Guy , Aaron Beierle of DVD Talk listed " The Son Also Draws " as one of the series ' " most brilliant moments " , praising the spiritual vision sequence and naming the conversation between Peter and Brian among the best moments of the series , calling the conversation " rolling @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor funny . " Robin Pierson of The TV Critic , however , was far more hostile towards the episode , giving it the lowest rating of the season , a 44 out of 100 . Pierson believed the episode was " very poor " and called the storyline " lame " and " unfocussed [ sic ] , " with " a bunch of jokes to match . " The gag at the end of the episode , in which Peter states that " Canada sucks " , inspired anger from Canadian viewers of the show , which led them to send letters to the show 's producers . Ricky Blitt , the writer of the episode and the person responsible for the controversial gag , is Canadian . = = Home media = = " The Son Also Draws " and the complete first and second seasons of the series were released under the title Family Guy Volume One ; this standard four @-@ disc DVD box set debuted in Region 1 on April 15 , 2003 , three months before the premiere of the third season . Distributed by 20th Century Fox Television , it included several DVD extras such as episode commentaries , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , and online promo spots . The same episodes , without the special features , were released in Region 2 on November 12 , 2001 and in Region 4 on October 20 , 2003 .

= Protomycena = Protomycena is an extinct monotypic genus of gilled fungus in the family Mycenaceae , of order Agaricales . At present it contains the single species Protomycena electra , known from a single specimen collected in an amber mine in the Cordillera Septentrional area of the Dominican Republic . The fruit body of the fungus has a convex cap that is 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter , with distantly spaced gills on the underside . The curved stipe is smooth and cylindrical , measuring 0 @.@ 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 030 in ) thick by 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long , and lacks a ring . It resembles extant ( currently living ) species of the genus Mycena . Protomycena is one of only five known agaric fungus species known in the fossil record and the second to be described from Dominican amber . = = Discovery and classification = = The genus is known only from the holotype specimen , a single fruit body ( mushroom ) currently residing in the private collection owned by Ettore Morone of Turin , Italy . The specimen was collected in one of the amber mines in the Cordillera Septentrional area of the island of Hispaniola , in the Dominican Republic . The amber is believed to date from the Miocene Burdigalian stage , about 20 to 16 million years before the present . It was first studied by a group of researchers consisting of David Hibbett and Michael Donoghue from Harvard University , with David Grimaldi of the American Museum of Natural History . Hibbett and colleagues published their 1997 type description in the American Journal of Botany . The generic name Protomycena is derived from a combination of the Latin proto meaning " first " , and " Mycena " , a modern genus that it resembles . The specific epithet electra was coined by the authors from the Latin for " amber " , in reference to the mode of preservation . When it was reported , Protomycena electra was the third species of fossil agaric fungus to be described . The two species Coprinites dominicana and Aureofungus yaniguaensis are also known from the amber mines of the Dominican Republic , while the fourth species Archaeomarasmius leggeti is from the older , Cretaceous age New Jersey Amber . With the 2007 publication of a fifth extinct agaric species , Palaeoagaracites antiquus , the minimum age for the Agaricales order was pushed back to the Albian ( approximately 100 Ma ) . = = Description = = The holotype of Protomycena is a single fruit body without any associated structures , preserved in a piece of clear light yellow polished amber approximately 4 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 77 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) wide . The pileus is 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter and has a convex shape , sporting a raised central region ( an umbo ) . The pale flesh appears yellowish in the amber , and is smooth and glossy , changing to striate and slightly translucent towards the margin . The pileus margin is striated and slightly flared . The gills on the underside of the pileus are broadly attached ( adnate ) to the top of the stipe , and distantly spaced — between six and eight gills extend completely from the pileus margin to the stipe . These full @-@ length gills are anastomosed with lamellulae ( short gills which do not reach the edge of the stipe from the pileus margin ) of varying lengths . The pileus is centered on the curved stipe , which is smooth and cylindrical , measuring 0 @.@ 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 030 in ) thick by 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long . The stipe lacks a ring and rhizoids . The mushroom is preserved with a small liquid and gas @-@ filled bubble , possibly originating from the mushroom itself , which indicates the amber to be very solid and well @-@ sealed . In Hibbett and colleagues ' 1997 publication , Protomycena was placed in the subfamily Myceneae , which at the time was considered part of the Tricholomataceae family ; Mycena is currently classified in the Mycenaceae family . The placement was based solely on the visible structures , or macromorphology of the fruit body . Many of the features which are typically used to classify species into fungal families and subfamilies are based on microscopic features not visible or preserved in the amber specimen . Consequently , the assignment to Mycena is provisional ( the authors also note certain similarities with extant members of Marasmius ) , and the describing authors leave open the option of treating the genus placement as incertae sedis ( uncertain placement ) within the Agaricales . Protomycena is distinct from other amber @-@ preserved mushroom taxa such as Coprinites , in the grooved surface of its pileus and its anastomosing gills .

= Art in Medieval Scotland = Art in Medieval Scotland includes all forms of artistic production within the modern borders of Scotland , between the fifth century and the adoption of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century . In the early Middle Ages , there were distinct material cultures evident in the different federations and kingdoms within what is now Scotland . Pictish art was the only uniquely Scottish Medieval style ; it can be seen in the extensive survival of carved stones , particularly in the north and east of the country , which hold a variety of recurring images and patterns . It can also be seen in elaborate metal work that largely survives in buried hoards . Irish @-@ Scots art from the kingdom of Dál Riata suggests that it was one of the places , as a crossroads between cultures , where the Insular style developed . Insular art is the name given to the common style that developed in Britain and Ireland from the eighth century and which became highly influential in continental Europe and contributed to the development of Romanesque and Gothic styles . It can be seen in elaborate jewellery , often making extensive use of semi @-@ precious stones , in the heavily carved high crosses found particularly in the Highlands and Islands , but distributed across the country and particularly in the highly decorated illustrated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells , which may have been begun , or wholly created at the monastic centre of Iona . Scotland adopted the Romanesque style relatively late and retained and revived elements of its style after the Gothic style had become dominant from the thirteenth century . Much of the best Scottish artwork of the High and Late Middle Ages was either religious in nature or realised in metal and woodwork , and has not survived the impact of time and the Reformation . However , examples of sculpture are extant as part of church architecture , including evidence of elaborate church interiors . From the thirteenth century there are relatively large numbers of monumental effigies . Native craftsmanship can be seen in a variety of items . Visual illustration can be seen in the illumination of charters and occasional survivals of church paintings . Surviving copies of individual portraits are relatively crude , but more impressive are the works or artists commissioned from the continent , particularly the Netherlands . = = Early Middle Ages = = = = = Pictish stones = = = About 250 Pictish stones survive and have been assigned by scholars to three classes . Class I stones are those thought to date to the period up to the seventh century and are the most numerous group . The stones are largely unshaped and include incised symbols of animals such as fish and the Pictish beast , everyday objects such as mirrors , combs and tuning forks and abstract symbols defined by names including V @-@ rod , double disc and Z @-@ rod . They are found between from the Firth of Forth to Shetland . The greatest concentrations are in Sutherland , around modern Inverness and Aberdeen . Good examples include the Dunrobin ( Sutherland ) and Aberlemno stones ( Angus ) . Class II stones are carefully shaped slabs dating after the arrival of Christianity in the eighth and ninth centuries , with a cross on one face and a wide range of symbols on the reverse . In smaller numbers than Class I stones , they predominate in southern Pictland , in Perth , Angus and Fife . Good examples include Glamis 2 , which contains a finely executed Celtic cross on the main face with two opposing male figures , a centaur , cauldron , deer head and a triple disc symbol and Cossans , Angus , which shows a high @-@ prowed Pictish boat with oarsmen and a figure facing forward in the prow . Class III stones are thought to overlap chronologically with Class II stones . Most are elaborately shaped and incised cross @-@ slabs , some with figurative scenes , but lacking idiomatic Pictish symbols . They are widely distributed but predominate in the southern Pictish areas . = = = Pictish metalwork = = = Items of metalwork have been found throughout Pictland . The earlier Picts appear to have had a considerable amount of silver available , probably from raiding further south , or the payment of subsidies to keep them from doing so . The very large hoard of late Roman hacksilver found at Traprain Law may have originated in either way . The largest hoard of early Pictish metalwork was found in 1819 at Norrie 's Law in Fife , but unfortunately much was dispersed and melted down . Over ten heavy silver chains , some over 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) long , have been found from this period ; the double @-@ linked Whitecleuch Chain is one of only two that have a penannular ring , with symbol decoration including enamel , which shows how these were probably used as " choker " necklaces . The St Ninian 's Isle Treasure of 28 silver and silver @-@ gilt objects , contains perhaps the best collection of late Pictish forms , from the Christian period , when Pictish metalwork style , as with stone @-@ carving , gradually merged with Insular , Anglo @-@ Saxon and Viking styles . = = = Irish @-@ Scots art = = = Thomas Charles @-@ Edwards has suggested that the kingdom of Dál Riata was a cross @-@ roads between the artistic styles of the Picts and those of Ireland , with which the Scots settlers in what is now Argyll kept close contacts . This can be seen in representations found in excavations of the fortress of Dunadd , which combine Pictish and Irish elements . This included extensive evidence for the production of high status jewellery and moulds from the seventh century that indicate the production of pieces similar to the Hunterston brooch , found in Ayrshire , which may have been made in Dál Riata , but with elements that suggest Irish origins . These and other finds , including a trumpet spiral decorated hanging bowl disc and a stamped animal decoration ( or pressblech ) , perhaps from a bucket or drinking horn , indicate the ways in which Dál Riata was one of the locations where the Insular style was developed . In the eighth and ninth centuries the Pictish elite adopted true penannular brooches with lobed terminals from Ireland . Some older Irish pseudo @-@ penannular brooches were adapted to the Pictish style , for example the Breadalbane Brooch ( British Museum ) . The eighth century Monymusk Reliquary has elements of Pictish and Irish style . = = = Early Anglo @-@ Saxon art = = = Early examples of Anglo @-@ Saxon art are largely metalwork , particularly bracelets , clasps and jewellery , that has survived in pagan burials and in exceptional items such as the intricately carved whalebone Franks Casket , thought to have been produced in Northumbria in the early eighth century , which combines pagan , classical and Christian motifs . There is only one known pagan burial in Scotland , at Dalmeny Midlothian , which contains a necklace of beads similar to those found in mid @-@ seventh @-@ century southern England . Other isolated finds include a gold object from Dalmeny , shaped like a truncated pyramid , with filigree and garnet , similar to sword harness mounts found at Sutton Hoo . There is also a bun @-@ shaped loom from Yetholm , Roxburghshire and a ring with an Anglian runic inscription . From eastern Scotland there is a seventh @-@ century sword pommel from Culbin Sands , Moray and the Burghead drinking horn mount . After Christianisation in the seventh century artistic styles in Northumbria , which then reached to the Firth of Forth , interacted with those in Ireland and what is now Scotland to become part of the common style historians have identified as Insular or Hiberno @-@ Saxon . = = = Insular art = = = Insular art , or Hiberno @-@ Saxon art , is the name given to the common style produced in Scotland , Britain and Anglo @-@ Saxon England from the seventh century , with the combining of Celtic and Anglo @-@ Saxon forms . Surviving examples of Insular art are found in metalwork , carving , but mainly in illuminated manuscripts . In manuscripts surfaces are highly decorated with intricate patterning , with no attempt to give an impression of depth , volume or recession . The best examples include the Book of Kells , which may have been wholly or partly created in Iona , and the Book of Durrow , which may be from Ireland or Northumbria . Carpet pages are a characteristic feature of Insular manuscripts , although historiated initials ( an Insular invention ) , canon tables and figurative miniatures , especially Evangelist portraits , are also common . The finest era of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and aristocratic life of the Viking raids in the late eighth century . Christianity discouraged the burial of grave goods so the majority of examples of insular metalwork that survive from the Christian period have been found in archaeological contexts that suggest they were rapidly hidden , lost or abandoned . There are a few exceptions , notably portable shrines ( " cumdachs " ) for books or relics , several of which have been continuously owned , mostly by churches on the Continent — though the Monymusk Reliquary has always been in Scotland . The highest quality survivals are either secular jewellery , the largest and most elaborate pieces probably for male wearers , tableware or altarware . The finest church pieces were probably made by secular workshops , often attached to a royal household , though other pieces were made by monastic workshops . There are a number of large brooches , each of their designs is wholly individual in detail , and the workmanship is varied . Many elements of the designs can be directly related to elements used in manuscripts . Surviving stones used in decoration are semi @-@ precious ones , with amber and rock crystal among the commonest , and some garnets . Coloured glass , enamel and millefiori glass , probably imported , are also used . None of the major insular manuscripts , like the Book of Kells , have preserved their elaborate jewelled metal covers , but documentary evidence indicates that these were as spectacular as the few remaining continental examples . The most significant survivals in sculpture are in High crosses , large free @-@ standing stone crosses , usually carved in relief with patterns , biblical iconography and occasionally inscriptions . The tradition may have begun in Ireland or Anglo @-@ Saxon England and then spread to Scotland . They are found throughout the British Isles and often feature a stone ring around the intersection , forming a Celtic cross , apparently an innovation of Celtic Christianity , that may have begun at Iona . Distribution in Scotland is heaviest in the Highlands and Islands and they can be dated to the period c . 750 to 1150 . All the surviving crosses are of stone , but there are indications that large numbers of wooden crosses may also have existed . In Scotland biblical iconography is less common than in Ireland , but the subject of King David is relatively frequently depicted . In the east the influence of Pictish sculpture can be seen , in areas of Viking occupation and settlement , crosses for the tenth to the twelfth centuries have distinctive Scandinavian patterns , often mixed with native styles . Important examples dated to the eighth century include St Martin 's Cross on Iona , the Kildalton Cross from the Hebrides and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Ruthwell Cross . Through the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission to the continent , insular art was highly influential on subsequent European Medieval art , especially the decorative elements of Romanesque and Gothic styles . = = = Viking age art = = = Viking art avoided naturalism , favouring stylised animal motifs to create its ornamental patterns . Ribbon @-@ interlace was important and plant motifs became fashionable in the tenth and eleventh centuries . Most Scottish artefacts come from 130 " pagan " burials in the north and west from the mid @-@ ninth to the mid @-@ tenth centuries . These include jewellery , weapons and occasional elaborate high status items . Amongst the most impressive of these is the Scar boat burial , on Orkney , which contained an elaborate sword , quiver with arrows , a brooch , bone comb , gaming pieces and the Scar Dragon Plaque , made from whalebone , most of which were probably made in Scandinavia . From the west , another boat burial at Kiloron Bay in Colonsay revealed a sword , shield , iron cauldron and enamelled scales , which may be Celtic in origin . A combination of Viking and Celtic styles can be see in a penannular brooch from Pierowall in Orkney , which has a Pictish @-@ style looped pin . It is about two inches in diameter , with traces of gilding , and probably housed a piece of amber surrounded by interweaving ribbons . After the conversion to Christianity , from the tenth to the twelfth centuries , stone crosses and cross @-@ slabs in Viking occupied areas of the Highlands and Islands were carved with successive styles of Viking ornament . They were frequently mixed with native interlace and animal patterns . Examples include the eleventh @-@ century cross @-@ slab from Dóid Mhàiri on the island of Islay , where the plant motifs on either side of the cross @-@ shaft are based upon the Ringerike style of Viking art . The most famous artistic find from modern Scotland , the Lewis Chessmen , from Uig , were probably made in Trondheim in Norway , but contain some decoration that may have been influenced by Celtic patterns . = = Late Middle Ages = = = = = Architecture and sculpture = = = Architectural evidence suggests that , while the Romanesque style peaked in much of Europe in the later eleventh and early twelfth century , it was still reaching Scotland in the second half of the twelfth century and was revived in the late fifteenth century , perhaps as a reaction to the English perpendicular style that had come to dominate . Much of the best Scottish artwork of the High and Late Middle Ages was either religious in nature or realised in metal and woodwork and has not survived the impact of time and the Reformation . However , examples of sculpture are extant as part of church architecture , a small number of significant crafted items have also survived and , for the end of the period , there is evidence of painting , particularly the extensive commissioning of works in the Low Countries and France . The interiors of churches were often more elaborate before the Reformation , with highly decorated sacrament houses , like the ones surviving at Deskford and Kinkell . The carvings at Rosslyn Chapel , created in the mid @-@ fifteenth century , elaborately depicting the progression of the seven deadly sins , are considered some of the finest in the Gothic style . Monumental effigies began to appear in churches from the thirteenth century and they were usually fully coloured and gilded . Many were founders and patrons of churches and chapels , including members of the clergy , knights and often their wives . In contrast to England , where the fashion for stone @-@ carved monuments gave way to brass etchings , they continued to be produced until the end of the Medieval period , with the largest group dating from the fifteenth century , including the very elaborate Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas . Sometimes the best continental artists were employed , as for Robert I 's elaborate tomb in Dunfermline Abbey , which was made in his lifetime by the Parisian sculptor Thomas of Chartres , but of which only fragments now survive . The greatest group of surviving sculpture from this period are from the West Highlands , beginning in the fourteenth century on Iona under the patronage of the Lordship of the Isles and continuing until the Reformation . Common motifs were ships , swords , harps and Romanesque vine leaf tracery with Celtic elements . = = = Decorative arts = = = Survivals from late Medieval church fittings and objects in Scotland are exceptionally rare even compared to those from comparable areas like England or Norway , probably because of the thoroughness of their destruction in the Scottish Reformation . The Scottish elite and church now participated in a culture stretching across Europe , and many objects that do survive are imported , such as Limoges enamels . It is often difficult to decide the country of creation of others , as work in international styles was produced in Scotland , along with pieces retaining more distinctive local styles . Two secular small chests with carved whalebone panels and metal fittings illustrate some aspects of the Scottish arts . The Eglington and Fife Caskets are very similar and were probably made by the same workshop around 1500 , as boxes for valuables such as jewellery or documents . The overall form of the caskets follows French examples , and the locks and metal bands are decorated in Gothic style with " simple decorations of fleurons and debased egg and dart " while the whalebone panels are carved in relief with a late form of Insular interwoven strapwork characteristic of late Medieval West Scotland . Key examples of native craftsmanship on items include the Bute mazer , the earliest surviving drinking cup of its type , made of maple @-@ wood and with elaborate silver @-@ gilt ornamentation , dated to around 1320 . The Savernake Horn was probably made for the earl of Moray in the fourteenth century and looted by the English in the mid @-@ sixteenth century . A few significant reliquaries survive from West Scotland , examples of the habit of the Celtic church of treating the possessions rather than the bones of saints as relics . As in Irish examples these were partly reworked and elaborated at intervals over a long period . These are St Fillan 's Crozier and its " Coigreach " or reliquary , between them with elements from each century from the eleventh to the fifteenth , the Guthrie Bell Shrine , Iona , twelfth to fifteenth century , and the Kilmichael Glassary Bell Shrine , Argyll , mid @-@ twelfth century . The Skye Chess piece is a single elaborate piece in carved walrus ivory , with two warriors carrying heraldic shields in a framework of openwork vegetation . It is thought to be Scottish , of the mid @-@ thirteenth century , with aspects similar to both English and Norwegian pieces . One of the largest groups of surviving works of art are the seal matrices that appear to have entered Scottish usage with feudalism in the reign of David I , beginning at the royal court and among his Anglo @-@ Norman vassals and then by about 1250 they began to spread to the Gaelicised areas of the country . They would be made compulsory for barons of the king in a statute of 1401 and seal matrices show very high standards of skill and artistry . Examples of items that were probably the work of continental artists include the delicate hanging lamp in St. John 's Kirk in Perth , the vestments and hangings in Holyrood and the Medieval maces of the Universities of St Andrews and Glasgow . = = = Illumination and painting = = = Manuscript illumination continued into the late Middle Ages , moving from elaborate gospels to charters , like that confirming the rights of Kelso Abbey from 1159 . Very little painting from Scottish churches survives . There is only one surviving Doom painting in Scotland , at Guthrie near Arbroath , which may have been painted by the same artist as the elaborate crucifixion and other paintings at Foulis Easter , eighteen miles away . As in England , the monarchy may have had model portraits of royalty used for copies and reproductions , but the versions of native royal portraits that survive are generally crude by continental standards . Much more impressive are the works or artists imported from the continent , particularly the Netherlands , generally considered the centre of painting in the Northern Renaissance . The products of these connections included a fine portrait of William Elphinstone , Bishop of Aberdeen ( 1488 – 1514 ) ; the images of St Catherine and St John brought to Dunkeld ; Hugo van Der Goes 's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh , commissioned by James III , and the work after which the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland is named . There are also a relatively large number of elaborate devotional books from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries , usually produced in the Low Countries and France for Scottish patrons , including the prayer book commissioned by Robert Blackadder , Bishop of Glasgow , between 1484 and 1492 and the Flemish illustrated book of hours , known as the Hours of James IV of Scotland , given by James IV to Margaret Tudor and described as " perhaps the finest medieval manuscript to have been commissioned for Scottish use " .

= Humpty Dumpty = Humpty Dumpty is a character in an English nursery rhyme , probably originally a riddle and one of the best known in the English @-@ speaking world . He is typically portrayed as an anthropomorphic egg , though he is not explicitly described so . The first recorded versions of the rhyme date from late eighteenth @-@ century England and the tune from 1870 in James William Elliott 's National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs . Its origins are obscure and several theories have been advanced to suggest original meanings . The character of Humpty Dumpty was popularised in the United States by actor George L. Fox ( 1825 – 77 ) . As a character and literary allusion , he has appeared or been referred to in a large number of works of literature and popular culture , particularly Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking @-@ Glass ( 1872 ) . The rhyme is listed in the Roud Folk Song Index as No. 13026 . = = Lyrics and melody = = The rhyme is one of the best known and most popular in the English language . The most common modern text is : It is a single quatrain with external rhymes that follow the pattern of AABB and with a trochaic metre , which is common in nursery rhymes . The melody commonly associated with the rhyme was first recorded by composer and nursery rhyme collector James William Elliott in his National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs ( London , 1870 ) . The Roud Folk Song Index catalogues folk songs and their variations by number , and classifies this song as 13026 . = = Origins = = The earliest known version was published in Samuel Arnold 's Juvenile Amusements in 1797 with the lyrics : A manuscript addition to a copy of Mother Goose 's Melody published in 1803 has the modern version with a different last line : " Could not set Humpty Dumpty up again " . It was published in 1810 in a version of Gammer Gurton 's Garland as : In 1842 , James Orchard Halliwell published a collected version as : According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term " humpty dumpty " referred to a drink of brandy boiled with ale in the seventeenth century . The riddle probably exploited , for misdirection , the fact that " humpty dumpty " was also eighteenth @-@ century reduplicative slang for a short and clumsy person . The riddle may depend upon the assumption that a clumsy person falling off a wall might not be irreparably damaged , whereas an egg would be . The rhyme is no longer posed as a riddle , since the answer is now so well known . Similar riddles have been recorded by folklorists in other languages , such as " Boule Boule " in French , " Lille Trille " in Swedish and Norwegian , and " Runtzelken @-@ Puntzelken " or " Humpelken @-@ Pumpelken " in different parts of Germany — although none is as widely known as Humpty Dumpty is in English . = = Meaning = = The rhyme does not explicitly state that the subject is an egg , possibly because it may have been originally posed as a riddle . There are also various theories of an original " Humpty Dumpty " . One , advanced by Katherine Elwes Thomas in 1930 and adopted by Robert Ripley , posits that Humpty Dumpty is King Richard III of England , depicted as humpbacked in Tudor histories and particularly in Shakespeare 's play , and who was defeated , despite his armies , at Bosworth Field in 1485 . Professor David Daube suggested in The Oxford Magazine of 16 February 1956 that Humpty Dumpty was a " tortoise " siege engine , an armoured frame , used unsuccessfully to approach the walls of the Parliamentary held city of Gloucester in 1643 during the Siege of Gloucester in the English Civil War . This was on the basis of a contemporary account of the attack , but without evidence that the rhyme was connected . The theory was part of an anonymous series of articles on the origin of nursery rhymes and was widely acclaimed in academia , but it was derided by others as " ingenuity for ingenuity 's sake " and declared to be a spoof . The link was nevertheless popularised by a children 's opera All the King 's Men by Richard Rodney Bennett , first performed in 1969 . From 1996 , the website of the Colchester tourist board attributed the origin of the rhyme to a cannon recorded as used from the church of St Mary @-@ at @-@ the @-@ Wall by the Royalist defenders in the siege of 1648 . In 1648 , Colchester was a walled town with a castle and several churches and was protected by the city wall . The story given was that a large cannon , which the website claimed was colloquially called Humpty Dumpty , was strategically placed on the wall . A shot from a Parliamentary cannon succeeded in damaging the wall beneath Humpty Dumpty which caused the cannon to tumble to the ground . The Royalists ( or Cavaliers , " all the King 's men " ) attempted to raise Humpty Dumpty on to another part of the wall , but the cannon was so heavy that " All the King 's horses and all the King 's men couldn 't put Humpty together again " . Author Albert Jack claimed in his 2008 book Pop Goes the Weasel : The Secret Meanings of Nursery Rhymes that there were two other verses supporting this claim . Elsewhere , he claimed to have found them in an " old dusty library , [ in ] an even older book " , but did not state what the book was or where it was found . It has been pointed out that the two additional verses are not in the style of the seventeenth century or of the existing rhyme , and that they do not fit with the earliest printed versions of the rhyme , which do not mention horses and men . = = In Through the Looking @-@ Glass = = Humpty appears in Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking @-@ Glass ( 1872 ) , where he discusses semantics and pragmatics with Alice . " I don 't know what you mean by ' glory , ' " Alice said . Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously . " Of course you don 't — till I tell you . I meant ' there 's a nice knock @-@ down argument for you ! ' " " But ' glory ' doesn 't mean ' a nice knock @-@ down argument ' , " Alice objected . " When I use a word , " Humpty Dumpty said , in rather a scornful tone , " it means just what I choose it to mean — neither more nor less . " " The question is , " said Alice , " whether you can make words mean so many different things . " " The question is , " said Humpty Dumpty , " which is to be master — that 's all . " Alice was too much puzzled to say anything , so after a minute Humpty Dumpty began again . " They 've a temper , some of them — particularly verbs , they 're the proudest — adjectives you can do anything with , but not verbs — however , I can manage the whole lot ! Impenetrability ! That 's what I say ! " This passage was used in Britain by Lord Atkin in his dissenting judgement in the seminal case Liversidge v. Anderson ( 1942 ) , where he protested about the distortion of a statute by the majority of the House of Lords . It also became a popular citation in United States legal opinions , appearing in 250 judicial decisions in the Westlaw database as of 19 April 2008 , including two Supreme Court cases ( TVA v. Hill and Zschernig v. Miller ) . It has been suggested by A. J. Larner that Carroll 's Humpty Dumpty had prosopagnosia on the basis of his description of his finding faces hard to recognise . " The face is what one goes by , generally , " Alice remarked in a thoughtful tone . " That 's just what I complain of , " said Humpty Dumpty . " Your face is the same as everybody has — the two eyes , — " ( marking their places in the air with his thumb ) " nose in the middle , mouth under . It 's always the same . Now if you had the two eyes on the same side of the nose , for instance — or the mouth at the top — that would be some help . " = = In popular culture = = Humpty Dumpty has become a highly popular nursery rhyme character . American actor George L. Fox ( 1825 – 77 ) helped to popularise the character in nineteenth @-@ century stage productions of pantomime versions , music , and rhyme . The character is also a common literary allusion , particularly to refer to a person in an insecure position , something that would be difficult to reconstruct once broken , or a short and fat person . Humpty Dumpty has been used in a large range of literary works in addition to his appearance as a character in Through the Looking @-@ Glass , including L. Frank Baum 's Mother Goose in Prose ( 1901 ) , where the rhyming riddle is devised by the daughter of the king , having witnessed Humpty 's " death " and her father 's soldiers ' efforts to save him . In Neil Gaiman 's early short story The Case of the Four and Twenty Blackbirds , the Humpty Dumpty story is turned into a film noir @-@ style hardboiled crime story , involving also Cock Robin , the Queen of Hearts , Little Bo Peep , Old Mother Hubbard , and other characters from popular nursery rhymes . Robert Rankin used Humpty Dumpty as one victim of a serial fairy @-@ tale character murderer in The Hollow Chocolate Bunnies of the Apocalypse ( 2002 ) . Jasper Fforde included Humpty Dumpty in his novels The Well of Lost Plots ( 2003 ) and The Big Over Easy ( 2005 ) , which use him respectively as a ringleader of dissatisfied nursery rhyme characters threatening to strike and as the victim of a murder . The rhyme has also been used as a reference in more serious literary works , including as a recurring motif of the Fall of Man in James Joyce 's 1939 novel Finnegans Wake . Robert Penn Warren 's 1946 American novel All the King 's Men is the story of populist politician Willie Stark 's rise to the position of governor and eventual fall , based on the career of the corrupt Louisiana Senator Huey Long . It won the 1947 Pulitzer Prize and was twice made into a film All the King 's Men in 1949 and 2006 , the former winning the Academy Award for best motion picture . This was echoed in Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward 's book All the President 's Men , about the Watergate scandal , referring to the failure of the President 's staff to repair the damage once the scandal had leaked out . It was filmed as All the President 's Men in 1976 , starring Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman . Similarly , Humpty Dumpty is referred to in Paul Auster 's 1985 novel City of Glass , when two characters discuss him as " the purest embodiment of the human condition " and quote extensively from Through the Looking Glass . It has also been used as a common motif in popular music , including Hank Thompson 's " Humpty Dumpty Heart " ( 1948 ) , The Monkees ' " All the King 's Horses " ( 1966 ) , Aretha Franklin 's " All the King 's Horses " ( 1972 ) , Tori Amos 's " Humpty Dumpty " ( 1992 ) , and Travis 's " The Humpty Dumpty Love Song " ( 2001 ) . In jazz , Ornette Coleman and Chick Corea wrote different compositions , both titled Humpty Dumpty . ( In Corea 's case , however , it is a part of a concept album inspired by Lewis Carroll called " The Mad Hatter " , 1978 ) . In the Dolly Parton song Starting Over Again , it 's all the king 's horses and all the king 's men who can 't put the divorced couple back together again . In an extra verse in one version of ABBA 's On and On and On , Humpty Dumpty is mentioned as being afraid of falling off the wall . = = In science = = Humpty Dumpty has been used to demonstrate the second law of thermodynamics . The law describes a process known as entropy , a measure of the number of specific ways in which a system may be arranged , often taken to be a measure of " disorder " . The higher the entropy , the higher the disorder . After his fall and subsequent shattering , the inability to put him together again is representative of this principle , as it would be highly unlikely ( though not impossible ) to return him to his earlier state of lower entropy , as the entropy of an isolated system never decreases . A variation on the poem using near @-@ sounding French nonsense words is often used to illustrate the difficulty of speech recognition in different languages . A common version is as follows : To a listener expecting a nursery rhyme , it will generally be heard as the English version , while someone expecting French will instead tend to hear nonsense words .

= Welsh National Opera = Welsh National Opera ( WNO ) ( Welsh : Opera Cenedlaethol Cymru ) is an opera company based in Cardiff , Wales ; it gave its first performances in 1946 . It began as a mainly amateur body and transformed into an all @-@ professional ensemble by 1973 . In its early days the company gave a single week 's annual season in Cardiff , gradually extending its schedule to become an all @-@ year @-@ round operation , with its own salaried chorus and orchestra . It has been described by The New York Times as " one of the finest operatic ensembles in Europe " . For most of its existence the company lacked a permanent base in Cardiff , but in 2004 it moved into the new Wales Millennium Centre , Cardiff Bay . The company tours nationally and internationally , giving more than 120 performances annually , with a repertoire of eight operas each year , to a combined audience of more than 150 @,@ 000 people . Its most frequent venues other than Cardiff are Llandudno in Wales and Bristol , Birmingham , Liverpool , Milton Keynes , Oxford , Plymouth , and Southampton in England . Singers who have been associated with the company include Geraint Evans , Thomas Allen , Anne Evans , and Bryn Terfel . Guest artists from other countries have included Joan Hammond , Tito Gobbi and Elisabeth Söderström . Among the conductors have been Sir Charles Mackerras , Reginald Goodall , James Levine and Pierre Boulez . The company has been led since 2011 by David Pountney as chief executive and artistic director . = = Background = = Choral singing became increasingly popular in 19th @-@ century Wales , principally owing to the rise of the eisteddfod as a symbol of its culture . The first Welsh National Opera Company was formed in 1890 . A local newspaper commented that it was remarkable that " a race of people to whom vocal music is a ruling passion should not generations ago have established a permanent national opera " . The company gave performances of operas by the Welsh composer Joseph Parry in Cardiff and on tour in Wales . The company , predominantly amateur with some professional guest singers from the London stage , gave numerous performances of Parry 's Blodwen and Arienwen , composed in 1878 and 1890 respectively . An American tour was planned , but the company folded , and Parry 's final opera , The Maid of Cefn Ydfa , was given at Cardiff by the Moody @-@ Manners Opera Company in 1902 . A Cardiff Grand Opera Society ran from 1924 to 1934 . It presented week @-@ long annual seasons of popular operas including Faust , Carmen and Il trovatore , and like its predecessor was mainly an amateur body , with professional guest principals . Apart from the productions of these two enterprises , opera in Wales in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was generally presented by visiting companies from England . In the 1930s Idloes Owen , a singing teacher and conductor , ran an amateur choir , the Lyrian Singers , based in Cardiff . In November 1941 , together with John Morgan – a former Carl Rosa baritone – and Morgan 's fiancée Helena Hughes Brown , Owen agreed to found the Lyrian Grand Opera Company , with Brown as secretary and Owen as conductor and general manager . They publicised their plan and held a general meeting of potential supporters in December 1943 ; at that meeting the name of the proposed organisation was changed to " Welsh National Opera Company " . By January 1944 plans were far enough advanced for the company 's first rehearsals to be held . Owen recruited a local businessman , W. H. ( Bill ) Smith ( 1894 – 1968 ) , who agreed to serve as business manager . At first doubtful of the company 's prospects , Smith became its dominant influence , leading fund @-@ raiser , and chairman for twenty years from 1948 . = = Early years = = The new company made its debut at the Prince of Wales Theatre , Cardiff on 15 April 1946 with a double bill of Cavalleria Rusticana and Pagliacci . The orchestra was professional , mostly drawn from members of the BBC Welsh Orchestra ; all the singers were amateurs , except for Tudor Davies , a tenor well known at Covent Garden and Sadler 's Wells , who sang Canio in Pagliacci . During the week @-@ long season the new company also staged Faust , with Davies in the title role . Although nearing the end of his career he was a considerable box @-@ office draw , and the company played to full houses . Nevertheless , the expense of a professional orchestra and the hire of costumes and scenery outweighed the box @-@ office receipts , and the season made a small loss . Finance remained a recurring problem over the succeeding decades . Although Owen was the conductor for the performances of Cavalliera Rusticana , and remained as musical director of the company until 1952 , his health was fragile and he conducted none of the company 's other productions . His colleague , the chorus master , Ivor John , was in charge of the first season 's Pagliacci and Faust . In 1948 the organisation was registered as a limited company , and the Cardiff season was extended from one week to two . The following year the company gave its first performances in Swansea . The chorus featured 120 performers by this time . The company 's first few seasons attracted little attention from the British musical establishment , but by the early 1950s London papers began to take notice . Picture Post hailed the WNO 's chorus as the finest in Britain . The Times also praised the chorus : " It has body , lightness , rhythmic precision , and , most welcome of all , unflagging and spontaneous freshness . " By this time the company had expanded its repertoire to take in Carmen , La traviata , Madame Butterfly , The Tales of Hoffmann , The Bartered Bride and Die Fledermaus . The Times commented that Smith , Owen and their colleagues were " making history for Wales . The shackles of puritanism , which had kept this country from an art @-@ form perfectly suited to its national talents and predilections ( for histrionics and dressing @-@ up are as natural to the Welsh as singing ) had been broken for ever " . = = Consolidating : 1950s and 60s = = In 1952 the company moved its Cardiff venue to the Sophia Gardens Pavilion ( built for the Festival of Britain ) , with the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra as the company 's orchestra , replacing the previous ad hoc ensemble . The Pavilion was acoustically mediocre and lacked an orchestra pit ; two years later the company moved again , to the New Theatre where it played Cardiff seasons across the next fifty years . The 1952 season attracted particular interest because it included what was then a rarity : Verdi 's Nabucco . The company built a reputation for staging seldom @-@ seen Verdi works , including The Sicilian Vespers staged in the same year , I Lombardi in 1956 , and The Battle of Legnano , under the shortened title The Battle , in 1960 . The 1952 Nabucco was the WNO 's first production for which costumes and scenery were specially designed ( by Patrick Robertson ) rather than hired . In 1953 the company staged its first work by a Welsh composer : Menna by Arwel Hughes . The composer conducted , and the leads were sung by two professional guest stars , Richard Lewis and Elsie Morison . The same year marked WNO 's first appearances outside Wales , playing a week at Bournemouth in April , and a week at Manchester in October , when The Manchester Guardian found the soloists first @-@ rate but the chorus disappointing , in both Nabucco and Il trovatore . A reviewer in The Musical Times commented on potential difficulties in assembling the wholly amateur chorus for performances beyond daily travelling range of their day jobs . By the time of the company 's first London season – a week at Sadler 's Wells in 1955 – the chorus was judged to be " lively and exciting " ( The Musical Times ) , " vibrant " and " moving " ( The Times ) and " joyous " ( The Manchester Guardian ) . By the mid @-@ 1950s professional singers were cast in leading roles in most productions ; they included Walter Midgley in Tosca and La bohème ( 1955 ) , Raimund Herincx in Mefistofele ( 1957 ) , Heather Harper in La traviata ( 1957 ) , and Joan Hammond in Madame Butterfly ( 1958 ) . A possibility of strengthening the professional element of the company was mooted in 1958 , when a merger was proposed with the Carl Rosa Company , which was in financial difficulties . The proposal was not followed through and WNO continued independently while the Carl Rosa folded . During the 1960s the company continued to widen its range . Its first Wagner production , Lohengrin , and its first Mozart , The Marriage of Figaro , were both performed in 1962 , conducted by Charles Groves . Another Welsh opera , Hughes 's Serch yw 'r Doctor ( " Love , the Doctor " ) was staged in 1960 . The popular Italian repertoire remained the core of the annual seasons , mostly directed by the head of production , John Moody . Leading roles were taken by rising stars such as John Shirley @-@ Quirk , Gwyneth Jones , Thomas Allen , Josephine Barstow and Margaret Price , the last of whom made her operatic debut with the company in 1962 . Established singers guesting with the company included Geraint Evans who played the title role in Don Pasquale in 1966 , and Ian Wallace in the same part the following year . Evans was also seen as Leporello in Don Giovanni in 1966 and as Falstaff in 1969 . The gradual switch from amateur to professional continued in 1968 , when for the first time the chorus was supplemented by a smaller , professional group of singers ; the mix of amateur and professional choristers continued over the next five years . At the end of the 1960s the main WNO company , now a year @-@ round operation , consisted of 8 salaried principal singers , 57 guest soloists and a chorus of 90 amateurs and 32 professionals . As well as the Bournemouth players , the company engaged the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic , City of Birmingham Symphony and Ulster orchestras for different venues . In the last season of the decade 32 performances were given in Cardiff and 61 elsewhere in the UK . In addition to the main company , WNO maintained two smaller groups : one , with orchestra , toured Welsh towns , the other , consisting of 12 singers with piano , toured 79 , mostly small , towns in Wales and England . WNO instituted its own training scheme for young singers during the decade . = = Fully professional : 1970s = = In 1970 WNO stopped using the Bournemouth and other orchestras and established its own , known at first as the Welsh Philharmonia . Three years later the last amateur element of the company was removed when the chorus became fully professional . A further broadening of the repertoire took place in the 1970s : in 1971 WNO staged the first performances in Britain of Berg 's Lulu , directed by Michael Geliot , who had succeeded Moody in 1969 . In the view of Malcolm Boyd in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera , Geliot , " unpredictable and often controversial " , largely shaped the company 's style in the 1970s . In collaboration with the company 's musical director James Lockhart , Geliot is credited by The Times with introducing new young singers and " directing a host of groundbreaking productions " before leaving in 1978 . The critic Rodney Milnes wrote in 1975 about WNO 's productions : I have never seen , well , hardly ever , a pretentious , silly or seriously misguided production , and neither have I seen a dull one . … The company 's greatest virtue is that its work is dedicated above all to the service of composers and audiences , and not to some abstract notion of " prestige " nor to the vanity or ambition of individuals , and in this it is almost unique . In 1973 Geliot 's WNO staging of Britten 's Billy Budd with Allen in the title role was presented on a Swiss tour , and two years later it was given in Barcelona . The company returned to London with its participation in the Amoco Festival of Opera at the Dominion Theatre in 1979 , presenting The Makropoulos Case , The Magic Flute , Ernani , Madame Butterfly , and Tristan and Isolde to capacity audiences . The company 's traditional preference for the Italian repertoire was partly redressed during the decade : productions include WNO 's first staging of a Richard Strauss opera , Elektra , in 1978 . A new Welsh work , Alun Hoddinott 's The Beach of Falesá , was presented in 1974 . In 1975 , in co @-@ production with Scottish Opera , WNO began a cycle of Janáček operas , directed by David Pountney . Beginning with Jenůfa , the cycle continued with The Makropoulos Case ( 1978 ) , The Cunning Little Vixen ( 1980 ) , Kátya Kabanová ( 1982 ) and From the House of the Dead ( 1982 ) . Among the guest artists who appeared with the company in the 1970s were the baritone Tito Gobbi , as Falstaff ( 1972 ) , the sopranos Elisabeth Söderström as Emilia in The Makropoulos Case ( 1978 ) and Anne Evans as Senta in The Flying Dutchman ( 1972 ) , and the conductors James Levine ( Aida , 1970 ) and Reginald Goodall ( Tristan and Isolde , 1979 ) . In the late 1970s WNO combined with the Cardiff @-@ based Welsh Drama Company , becoming the Welsh National Opera and Drama Company . The work of the drama company came under continued criticism , the Welsh Arts Council cut its grant , and the partnership ended in 1979 with the formal closure of the Welsh Drama Company . = = 1980s = = During the 1980s WNO continued to expand in scope . Handel ( Rodelinda , 1981 ) and Martinů ( The Greek Passion , 1981 ) were added to the company 's repertoire , and in 1983 Das Rheingold was staged in the WNO 's first Ring cycle , followed by the other three operas of the cycle over the next two years . Das Rheingold , Siegfried and Götterdämmerung were conducted by the company 's musical director , Richard Armstrong ; Die Walküre ( 1984 ) was conducted by Goodall ; it was seen as a coup for the company to secure his services – he was described by The Guardian as the greatest living Wagnerian conductor – but the casting of the whole cycle was criticised for some serious weaknesses among the principal singers , and reviewers were generally unimpressed by Göran Järvefelt 's production . The chief executive , Brian McMaster , did not appoint a replacement to Geliot as principal director during the 1980s , preferring to engage guest producers . Boyd mentions Andrei Șerban 's Eugene Onegin ( 1980 ) among the successes and Lucian Pintilie 's Carmen ( 1983 ) and Ruth Berghaus 's Don Giovanni ( 1984 ) as productions that received more mixed responses . Sir Charles Mackerras , the conductor for Don Giovanni , was open in his contempt for Berghaus 's production . Harry Kupfer 's Fidelio ( 1981 ) was condemned by The Daily Telegraph as " a piece of Marxist polemic " making " political sport " of Beethoven 's work . McMaster was thought by some too inclined to favour radical eastern European directors : Jonathan Miller , a leading English director , commented that he did not intend to take Bulgarian nationality , although it was " a must before Brian pays any attention " . Armstrong stepped down in 1986 after thirteen years as musical director ; he was succeeded by Mackerras , whose association with the company dated back more than thirty years . Among the features of his six @-@ year tenure was an increasing use of surtitles for performances not given in English . In the company 's early days , all operas had been sung in English , but as more international stars began to appear as guest principals the language policy had to be reconsidered : few of the leading names in world opera were interested in relearning their roles in English . WNO steered a middle course between the practices of the two main London companies ; after the 1960s The Royal Opera had generally given operas in the original language , and English National Opera was committed to opera in English . WNO 's practice varied , after its early years . Examples from the 1980s include Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde sung in German , and the Ring in English ; and Verdi 's The Force of Destiny given in English and Otello in Italian . Mackerras was a strong advocate of performance in the original language , with surtitles : " I can 't imagine a greater advance for opera . … What a gift ! It 's like Siegfried understanding the woodbird . " = = 1990s = = McMaster resigned in 1991 , having led the company to international status , with performances at La Scala , Milan ; the Metropolitan Opera , New York ; and in Tokyo . One of the last legacies of his tenure was the 1992 production of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande , directed by Peter Stein and conducted by Pierre Boulez . The New York Times called WNO " one of the finest operatic ensembles in Europe " and noted that the first night of the Debussy work , in Cardiff , " attracted 80 critics from all over the United Kingdom and the Continent ... the most prestigious , intensely awaited event of the British operatic season . " The production was given at the Théâtre du Châtelet , Paris , a few weeks afterwards . McMaster was followed as chief executive by Matthew Epstein , whose three years in charge ( 1991 – 94 ) were described in a 2006 study by Paul Atkinson as " a less happy and less successful period " . Epstein was replaced by Anthony Freud , under whom , according to Atkinson , productions became " consistently strong , musically well prepared , intelligently staged and well cast . " Mackerras was succeeded in 1992 by Carlo Rizzi , who was music director at the time of WNO 's golden jubilee in 1996 . When the occasion was marked with a new production of the " Cav and Pag " double bill that had launched the company in 1946 , the BBC commented that WNO was " one of the most respected opera companies in the world " . In The Observer , Michael Ratcliffe called the company " the most popular , populist and consistently successful arts organisation ever to come out of Wales ... with the loyalty and affection of audiences in Cardiff and across England … ' The people 's opera ' is not a myth . It happened here . " The jubilee celebrations were overshadowed by the collapse of a plan for a purpose @-@ built home for the company , the Cardiff Bay Opera House . During the 1990s WNO made its Proms debut , with a complete performance of Mozart 's Idomeneo , conducted by Mackerras in 1991 . The company played three short seasons at the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden in the mid @-@ 1990s , featuring Tristan und Isolde and La favorita in 1993 , The Yeomen of the Guard in 1995 , and The Rake 's Progress and the jubilee double bill of Cavalleria Rusticana and Pagliacci in 1996 . = = 21st century = = The company entered the new millennium in a state of some turmoil . A financial crisis had led to redundancies in the orchestra and the curtailment of the touring schedule ; the conservative works chosen for 2001 – 02 were condemned by the press as " the dullest programme in recent memory " ; and Rizzi was about to be replaced by a young and untried successor , Tugan Sokhiev . Rizzi had gained great respect and affection during his nine @-@ year term as musical director ; his successor 's reign was brief and unhappy . Having taken up post in 2003 , Sohkiev resigned precipitately the following year . Rizzi agreed to reorganise his schedule , and , to public and critical acclaim , returned to the musical directorship in time to prepare the company for its long @-@ awaited move into a permanent base in Cardiff . After the collapse of the Cardiff Bay Opera House scheme , a new project , the Wales Millennium Centre , met with more success . The necessary consents and funding were obtained , and work began in 2002 on a new multipurpose arts centre on the Cardiff Bay site . The centre included a 1 @,@ 900 @-@ seat theatre , which , among other uses , became WNO 's home base from 2004 , with its own rehearsal space and offices in the complex . In the first decade of the 21st century WNO gave more than 120 performances a year , with a repertoire , generally , of eight full @-@ scale operas . Its regular audience figures totalled over 150 @,@ 000 annually , in ten principal venues , three of them in Wales and seven in England . During this period the company was criticised for being insufficiently Welsh . A local politician , Adam Price , said that WNO ought to have a Welsh musical director ; Alun Hoddinott said in 2004 , " WNO has put on perhaps four or five Welsh operas over 20 years . ... They just seem to have an anti @-@ Welsh music bias . I am sad that they do not do something for Welsh composers , especially young ones . " A more positive view of WNO came from Scotland , where the two main newspapers , The Scotsman and The Herald , greeted a visit from the company in 2005 with enthusiastic praise , contrasting the flourishing of opera in Wales with its neglect by politicians in Scotland and the consequent decline of Scottish Opera . In 2010 WNO commissioned Gair ar Gnawd ( " Word on Flesh " ) , by Pwyll ap Siôn and Menna Elfyn , with words in Welsh , described as " a contemporary story about Wales today ... inspired by the translation of the Bible " . From 2006 to 2011 the chief executive ( titled " artistic director " ) was John Fisher . His term overlapped with that of Lothar Koenigs who was musical director from 2009 to 2016 . A highlight of this period was the 2010 production of Die Meistersinger , produced by Richard Jones , starring Bryn Terfel as Hans Sachs . The production won superlatives from reviewers . In 2011 David Pountney was appointed to succeed Fisher as chief executive . He had worked with the company since the 1970s , most recently on a 2006 The Flying Dutchman with Terfel which was set in space . In 2013 he programmed a trilogy of operas set in Tudor England : Donizetti 's Anna Bolena , Maria Stuarda and Roberto Devereux , with another trilogy the following year , on the theme of fallen women – Puccini 's Manon Lescaut , Henze 's Boulevard Solitude and Verdi 's La traviata . For 2016 Pountney scheduled another trilogy , this time on the theme of Figaro , consisting of Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro and Rossini 's The Barber of Seville and a new work , Figaro Gets a Divorce with music by Elena Langer and libretto by Pountney . In September 2015 WNO announced the appointment of Tomáš Hanus as its next music director , taking office for the 2016 – 17 season . At the same time Carlo Rizzi was named the company 's conductor laureate , with immediate effect . = = Recordings = = Although the chorus and orchestra of Welsh National Opera have appeared on many commercial recordings , often featuring regular WNO soloists , there have been few sets , either audio or video , of the company 's own productions . Among those are Tristan und Isolde conducted by Goodall ( 1981 ) , Pelléas et Mélisande conducted by Boulez ( 1992 ) , The Yeomen of the Guard , conducted by Mackerras ( 1995 ) , The Doctor of Myddfai conducted by Armstrong ( 1998 ) , and Ariodante conducted by Ivor Bolton , directed by David Alden ( 1999 ) . The BBC made a studio video recording of a WNO cast in Katya Kabanova , conducted by Armstrong in 1982 . The WNO chorus and orchestra have been engaged for studio opera recordings unconnected with the company 's productions , including Hamlet ( 1983 ) , Norma ( 1984 ) , Anna Bolena ( 1987 ) , Ernani ( 1987 ) and Adriana Lecouvreur ( 1988 ) conducted by Richard Bonynge , Faust ( 1993 ) and Katya Kabanova ( 1994 ) conducted by Rizzi ; and Gloriana ( 1993 ) , Eugene Onegin ( 1994 ) and Jenůfa ( 2004 ) conducted by Mackerras . For the WNO jubilee in 1996 , Decca drew on some of its studio recordings for a celebratory CD set with contributions from many soloists who had appeared onstage with the company and some who had not , the latter including Joan Sutherland , Luciano Pavarotti , Montserrat Caballe and Thomas Hampson . The orchestra of WNO has made studio recordings of non @-@ operatic music by Elgar , Delius , Coleridge @-@ Taylor and George Lloyd , and several sets of traditional Welsh songs and crossover music . = = Music directors = =

= England national rugby union team = The England national rugby union team represents England in rugby union . They compete in the annual Six Nations Championship with France , Ireland , Scotland , Italy , and Wales . They have won this championship on a total of 27 occasions , 13 times winning the Grand Slam , making them the most successful team in the tournament 's history . They are ranked second in the world by the International Rugby Board as of 20 June 2016 . England are the first , and to date the only , team from the northern hemisphere to win the Rugby World Cup , when they won the tournament back in 2003 . They were also runners @-@ up in 1991 and 2007 . The history of the team extends back to 1871 when the English rugby team played their first official Test match , losing to Scotland by one goal . England dominated the early Home Nations Championship ( now the Six Nations ) which started in 1883 . Following the schism of rugby football in 1895 , England did not win the Championship again until 1910 . England first played against New Zealand in 1905 , South Africa in 1906 , and Australia in 1909 . England was one of the teams invited to take part in the inaugural Rugby World Cup in 1987 and went on to appear in the final in the second tournament in 1991 , losing 12 – 6 to Australia . Following their 2003 Six Nations Championship Grand Slam , they went on to win it again in 2016 . England also won the World Cup – beating Australia 20 – 17 in extra time . They also contested the final in 2007 , losing 15 – 6 to South Africa . England players traditionally wear a white shirt with a Rose embroidered on the chest , white shorts , and navy blue socks with a white trim . Their home ground is Twickenham Stadium where they first played in 1910 . The team is administered by the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) . Four former players have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame ; one of these is also a member of the IRB Hall of Fame . Seven other former players are members of the IRB Hall — four solely for their accomplishments as players , two solely for their achievements in other roles in the sport , and one for achievements both as a player and administrator . = = History = = The expansion of rugby in the first half of the 19th century was driven by ex @-@ pupils from many of England 's Public Schools , especially Rugby , who , upon finishing school , took the game with them to universities , to London , and to the counties . England 's first international match was against Scotland on Monday 27 March 1871 . Not only was this match England 's first , but it also proved to be the first ever rugby union international . Scotland won the match by a goal and a try to a try , in front of a crowd of 4 @,@ 000 people at Raeburn Place , Edinburgh . A subsequent international took place at the Oval in London on 5 February 1872 which saw England defeat Scotland by a goal , a drop goal and two tries to one drop goal . In those early days there was no points system , it was only after 1890 that a format allowing the introduction of a points system was provided . Up until 1875 international rugby matches were decided by the number of goals scored ( conversions and dropped goals ) , but from 1876 the number of tries scored could be used to decide a match if teams were level on goals . In 1875 , England played their first game against the Irish at the Oval , winning by one goal , one drop goal and one try to nil ; the match was Ireland 's first ever Test . England defeated Scotland in 1880 to become the first winners of the Calcutta Cup . Their first match against Wales was played on 19 February 1881 at Richardson 's Field in Blackheath . England recorded their largest victory , defeating the Welsh by seven goals , six tries , and one drop goal to nil and scoring 13 tries in the process . The subsequent meeting the following year at St Helens in Swansea was a closer contest ; with England winning by two goals and four tries to nil Two years later , the first Home Nations championship was held and England emerged as the inaugural winners . In 1889 , England played their first match against a non @-@ home nations team when they defeated the New Zealand Natives by one goal and four tries to nil at Rectory Field in Blackheath . In 1890 England shared the Home Nations trophy with Scotland . England first played New Zealand ( the All Blacks ) in 1905 . The All Blacks scored five tries , worth three points at this time , to win 15 – 0 . The following year , they played France for the first time , and later that year they first faced South Africa ( known as the Springboks ) ; James Peters was withdrawn from the England squad after the South Africans objected to playing against a black player . The match was drawn 3 – 3 . England first played France in 1905 , and Australia ( known as the Wallabies ) in 1909 when they were defeated 9 – 3 . The year 1909 saw the opening of Twickenham as the RFU 's new home , which heralded a golden era for English rugby union . England 's first international at Twickenham brought them victory over Wales , and England went on to win the International Championship ( then known as the Five Nations ) for the first time since the great schism of 1895 . Although England did not retain the title in 1911 , they did share it in 1912 . A Five Nations Grand Slam was then achieved in 1913 and 1914 as well as in 1921 following the First World War . England subsequently won the Grand Slam in 1924 and as well as in 1925 . This was despite having started 1925 with a loss to the All Black Invincibles in front of 60 @,@ 000 fans at Twickenham . After winning another Grand Slam in 1928 , England played the Springboks in front of 70 @,@ 000 spectators at Twickenham in 1931 . Following the ejection of France due to professionalism in 1930 , which thus reverted The Five Nations back to the Home Nations tournament , England went on to win the 1934 and 1937 Home Nations with a Triple Crown , and in 1935 achieved their first victory over the All Blacks . When the Five Nations resumed with the re @-@ admission of France in 1947 after the Second World War , England shared the championship with Wales . The early Five Nations competitions of the 1950s were unsuccessful for England , winning one match in the 1950 and 1951 championships . England won the 1953 Five Nations , and followed this up with a Grand Slam in 1957 , and win in 1958 . England broke France 's four @-@ championship streak by winning the 1963 Championship . After this victory , England played three Tests in the Southern Hemisphere and lost all three : 21 – 11 and 9 – 6 against the All Blacks , and 18 – 9 against Australia . England did not win a single match in 1966 , and managed only a draw with Ireland . They did not win another Championship that decade ; a fact that prompted amateur historian F. W. P. Syms to declare this period ' the sorriest in English Rugby Union History ' . Don White was appointed as England 's first @-@ ever coach in 1969 . According to former Northampton player Bob Taylor , " Don was chosen because he was the most forward @-@ thinking coach in England " . His first match in charge was an 11 – 8 victory over South Africa at Twickenham in 1969 . Of the eleven games England played with White in charge they won three , and drew one and lost seven . He resigned as England coach in 1971 . England had wins against Southern Hemisphere teams in the 1970s ; with victories over South Africa in 1972 , New Zealand in 1973 and Australia in 1973 and 1976 . The 1972 Five Nations Championship was not completed due to the Troubles in Northern Ireland when Scotland and Wales refused to play their Five Nations away fixtures in Ireland . England played in Dublin in 1973 and were given a standing ovation lasting five minutes . After losing 18 – 9 at Lansdowne Road , the England captain , John Pullin famously stated , " We might not be very good but at least we turned up . " England started the following decade with a Grand Slam victory in the 1980 Five Nations – their first for 23 years . However in the 1983 Five Nations Championship , England failed to win a game and picked up the wooden spoon . In the first Rugby World Cup in New Zealand and Australia , England were grouped in pool A alongside Australia , Japan and the United States . England lost their first game 19 – 6 against Australia . They went on to defeat Japan and the United States , and met Wales in their quarter @-@ final , losing the match 16 – 3 . In 1989 , England won matches against Romania and Fiji , followed by victories in their first three Five Nations games of 1990 . They lost to Scotland in their last game however , giving Scotland a Grand Slam . England recovered in the following year by winning their first Grand Slam since 1980 . England hosted the 1991 World Cup and were in pool A , along with the All Blacks , Italy and the United States . Although they lost to the All Blacks in pool play , they qualified for a quarter @-@ final going on to defeat France 19 – 10 . England then defeated Scotland 9 – 6 to secure a place in the final against Australia which they lost 12 – 6 . The next year , England completed another Grand Slam and did not lose that year , including a victory over the Springboks . In the lead up to the 1995 World Cup in South Africa , England completed another Grand Slam – their third in five years . In the World Cup , England defeated Argentina , Italy and Samoa in pool play and then defeated Australia 25 – 22 in their quarter @-@ final . England 's semi @-@ final was dominated by the All Blacks and featured four tries , now worth five points each , by Jonah Lomu ; England lost 45 – 29 . They then lost the third / fourth place play @-@ off match against France . In 1997 , Clive Woodward became England 's coach . That year , England drew with New Zealand at Twickenham after being heavily defeated in Manchester the week before . England toured Australia , New Zealand and South Africa in 1998 . Many of the England team made themselves unavailable for the tour nicknamed the " tour from hell " where England were beaten 76 – 0 by the Wallabies . In 1999 during the last ever Five Nations match , Scott Gibbs sliced through six English tackles to score in the last minute , and the last ever Five Nations title went to Scotland . England commenced the new decade by winning the inaugural Six Nations title . In 2001 , Ireland defeated England 20 – 14 in a postponed match at Lansdowne Road to deny them a Grand Slam . Although the 2002 Six Nations Championship title was won by France , England had the consolation of winning the Triple Crown . In 2002 , England defeated Argentina in Buenos Aires , and then a second string All Blacks , Australia , and South Africa at Twickenham . In 2003 , England won the Grand Slam for the first time since 1995 , followed by wins over Australia and the All Blacks on their Summer tour in June . Going into the 2003 World Cup , England were one of the tournament favourites . They reached the final on 22 November 2003 against host Australia and became world champions after a match @-@ winning drop goal by star flyhalf Jonny Wilkinson deep into extra time that made the final score 20 – 17 . Not only was it their first Rugby World Cup victory , but it was the country 's first World Cup since winning the 1966 FIFA ( football ) World Cup as hosts . On 8 December , the English team greeted 750 @,@ 000 supporters on their victory parade through London before meeting Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace . In the 2004 Six Nations Championship , England lost to both France and Ireland and finished third . Sir Clive Woodward resigned on 2 September and Andy Robinson was appointed England head coach . Robinson 's first Six Nations campaign in 2005 resulted in fourth place for England , and although they then defeated Australia 26 – 16 , the year was completed with a 23 – 19 loss to the All Blacks . Following their loss to South Africa in the 2006 end of year Tests , England had lost eight of their last nine Tests – their worst ever losing streak . Coach Andy Robinson resigned after this run , and attack coach Brian Ashton was appointed head coach in December 2006 . England started the 2007 Six Nations Championship with a Calcutta Cup victory over Scotland . The championship also included a historic match at Croke Park against Ireland which England lost 43 – 13 , their heaviest ever defeat to Ireland . In the 2007 World Cup England played in Pool A with Samoa , Tonga , South Africa and the United States . They qualified for the quarter finals after losing embarrassingly to South Africa 36 – 0 where they defeated Australia 12 – 10 , and then faced hosts France in their semi final . England won 14 – 9 to qualify for the final against South Africa , which they lost 15 – 6 . England followed up the World Cup with two consecutive 2nd place finishes in the Six Nations , behind Wales and Ireland respectively . The 2009 Six Nations also saw former England Captain Martin Johnson take up the job of head coach . However , Johnson could not replicate his on @-@ field success to management , and resigned in November 2011 following a miserable 2011 Rugby World Cup which ended in quarter @-@ final defeat by France and featured a series of on and off @-@ field controversies . On 29 March 2012 , Stuart Lancaster , the former Elite Rugby Director at Leeds Carnegie was appointed England head coach by the Rugby Football Union . Previously Lancaster was appointed as the head coach on a short term basis assisted by existing forwards coach Graham Rowntree and Andy Farrell . Lancaster was considered a success in his first campaign as England coach - during the 2012 Six Nations Championship , defending Champions England finished in second place after losing 19 – 12 to Wales at Twickenham Stadium , but successfully defended the Calcutta Cup beating Scotland 13 – 6 at Murrayfield . England finished the year on a high , after outplaying World Cup holders New Zealand in November , in which England dominated to win 38 – 21 . The All Blacks had been unbeaten in 20 matches but were completely outplayed by England . During the 2013 Six Nations Championship again England finished in second place behind Wales after losing the opportunity of being Grand Slam winners for the first time since 2003 , by losing to Wales in Cardiff 30 – 3 . It was also the first time every team managed to win at least 3 competition points ( the equivalent of a win and a draw or three draws ) since 1974 . However , England did again defeat Scotland for the Calcutta Cup 38 – 18 at Twickenham . During the 2013 summer tour to South America in which Lancaster took an experimental side , England beat a South American select XV before a 2 – 0 series victory over Argentina , a first away series win against The Pumas for 32 years . England hosted the 2015 Rugby World Cup but were eliminated in the Pool stage , earning the unenviable reputation of being the first side in Rugby World Cup history to have hosted the tournament and yet to have failed to qualify for the knockout stages . = = Twickenham = = Up until 1910 , the English rugby team used various stadia in a number of venues around England before settling at Twickenham Stadium . It is the largest rugby @-@ dedicated stadium in the world . After sell @-@ out matches at Crystal Palace in 1905 and 1906 against New Zealand and South Africa respectively , the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) decided to invest in their own ground . In 1906 , the RFU arranged for William Williams to find a home ground for English Rugby . The land for the ground was purchased the following year for £ 5 @,@ 572 12s and 6d , and construction began the following year . The first England match was held on 9 October 1910 between England and Wales . England ran out winners , 11 – 6 , beating Wales for the first time since 1898 . The stadium was expanded in 1927 and again in 1932 . Further upgrades did not happen until the 1990s when new North , East and West stands were built . A new South stand was built in 2005 and 2006 to make the stadium into a complete bowl . The first match to be played at the redeveloped Twickenham was on Sunday 5 November 2006 against the All Blacks . England lost the match 41 @-@ 20 in front of a record crowd of 82 @,@ 076 . Although England have played home matches almost exclusively at Twickenham since 1910 , they have played at Huddersfield 's Galpharm Stadium twice in 1998 , at Old Trafford against New Zealand in 1997 and at Wembley Stadium against Canada in 1992 . They also played the first of a two @-@ test series against Argentina at Old Trafford in June 2009 , a match originally scheduled to be held in Argentina but moved by the country 's national federation for financial reasons . The pitch at Twickenham was replaced by a hybrid ' Desso ' type , in June 2012 , which uses artificial fibres entwined with real grass . This makes it a lot harder wearing in wet conditions . = = = Swing Low , Sweet Chariot = = = " Swing Low , Sweet Chariot " is very commonly sung at England fixtures – especially at Twickenham . The song arrived in the rugby canon through the Welsh male voice choirs who sang many spirituals . It was a popular rugby song at clubs during the 1950s and 1960s and was sung every year at Twickenham during the end @-@ of @-@ season all @-@ day Middlesex Sevens tournament accompanied by risqué hand gestures that played on the double entendres of some of the words . During the 1970s the Twickenham crowd also sang it during England matches then coming into the last match of the 1988 season , against the Irish , England had lost 15 of their previous 23 matches in the Five Nations Championship . The Twickenham crowd had only seen one solitary England try in the previous two years and at half time against Ireland they were 3 – 0 down . During the second half a remarkable transformation took place and England started playing an expansive game many had doubted they were capable of producing . A 3 – 0 deficit was turned into a 35 – 3 win , with England scoring six tries . In the 35 – 3 win , three of England 's tries were scored by Chris Oti , a player who had made a reputation for himself that season as a speedster on the left wing . A group of boys from the Benedictine school Douai following a tradition at their school games sang the song on his final try , and other spectators around the ground joined in . Since then " Swing Low , Sweet Chariot " became a song to sing at England home games , in the same way that " The Fields of Athenry " is sung in Dublin and " Cwm Rhondda " is sung at Cardiff . It has since become the anthem of the team as in 1991 the result of a plan of the then RFU marketing director Mike Coley for the team to launch a song leading up to that year 's Rugby World Cup . He had wanted to use Jerusalem but it was used in the Rugby League cup final that year so the song was changed at short notice to " Swing Low " . There were a number of versions recorded including a ' rap ' version with Jerry Guscott doing a solo . Needless to say that was never released but the version released did reach the top 40 in the UK singles chart during the competition and was then adopted as the England rugby song . = = Strip = = England have typically worn all @-@ white shirts , white shorts with navy and white socks . The emblem on the shirts is a red rose , rather than the Plantagenet Three Lions displayed on the shirts of the England football and cricket teams . The strip is manufactured by Canterbury and O2 is the shirt sponsor . Red was the change strip , although prior to the introduction of the red strip , navy blue was used . Purple was used as the change strip as of the 2009 autumn internationals , reflecting the traditional colour of the original England track @-@ suits from the 1960s , 70s and 80s . For the 2011 Rugby World Cup the change kit was black . The Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) had created the national side 's emblem prior to an English team being sent to Edinburgh to play a Scottish side . A red rose was chosen to be the side 's emblem . The white kit worn by the national team was taken from the kit used at Rugby School . Alfred Wright , an employee of the Rugby Football Union , is credited with the standardisation and new design of the rose , which up until 1920 had undergone many variations in its depiction . The Wright design is thought to have been used without minor alteration until the late 1990s . It was not until 1997 that the rose was modernised when Nike became the official strip supplier . In 2003 England first used a skin @-@ tight strip . This was intended to make it more difficult for the opposition to grasp the shirt when tackling . The home and away strips for 2007 were unveiled on 15 May that year . The materials used are superior , offering improved performance to the 2003 kit . However , a sweeping red mark on the base @-@ white front which forms St George 's Cross on the top left , and a changed away @-@ strip ( dark blue to red ) , have received criticism because it is felt that emphasis has been placed on St George 's Cross at the expense of the traditional red rose . The new strip was introduced in England 's home game against Wales on 4 August , while the alternative strip was first used against France on 18 August . The former England home strip was white with a strip of red around the neck , and the away strip was black ( causing much controversy due to the famous All @-@ Black kit of New Zealand ) , both kits had a ground breaking new technology in the form of a gripper print . A special strip was worn during the match versus Wales in the 2010 Six Nations Championship which replicated that worn in 1910 to celebrate the 100 year anniversary of Twickenham . The current , 2013 @-@ 14 , England strip is made by Canterbury . It features plain white shorts and a plain white shirt , but with an added black stripe on each sleeve . The current away kit has a red and white striped shirt , with blue shorts . In 2014 / 15 , the home shirt was white , with a " V @-@ Neck " around the collar . The kit also had little St George 's crosses on the main chest . It also had the O2 sponsorship marking on the chest . The shorts were plain white with the sponsorship marking on them . The socks were dark blue and had a white stripe at the top . The alternate shirt was exactly the same but was red instead of white . The shorts were navy blue and the socks were red with a white stripe on top . The 2015 / 16 strip was similar but didn 't have the small crosses on the shirt . The Canterbury logo was straight and not diagonal it had white lines going horizontally across the chest . For the 2015 Rugby World Cup , the kit remained the same just with the Rugby World Cup logo on the right and no O2 logo in the centre . For the home strip , the shorts and socks remained the same . The away 2015 / 16 strip and World Cup strip was red , with dark red and maroon sleeves . The shorts were maroon and the socks were red with a maroon stripe on top . = = Record = = = = = Six Nations = = = England competes annually in the Six Nations Championship , which is played against five other European nations : France , Ireland , Italy , Scotland , and Wales . The Six Nations started out as the Home Nations Championship in 1883 which England won with a Triple Crown . England have won the title outright 27 times ( a record for the tournament ) and shared victory ten times . Their longest wait between championships was 18 years ( 1892 – 1910 ) . During the Six Nations , England also contests the Calcutta Cup with Scotland ( which England first won in 1880 ) and the Millennium Trophy with Ireland ( which England first won in 1988 ) . The matches between England and France are traditionally known as " Le Crunch " . = = = World Cup = = = England have contested every Rugby World Cup since it began in 1987 , reaching the final three times and winning in 2003 . In the inaugural tournament they finished second in their pool before losing to Wales in the quarter @-@ finals . They again finished pool runners @-@ up in 1991 but recovered to beat France in their quarter @-@ final , and then Scotland in their semi @-@ final , en route to a 12 – 6 final defeat to Australia . In 1995 , England topped their pool and defeated Australia 25 – 22 at the quarter @-@ final stage before being beaten by the All Blacks in the semi @-@ final . Their third @-@ fourth place play @-@ off match against France was lost 19 – 9 . The 1999 competition saw England again finish second in the pool stage . Though they proceeded to win a play @-@ off game against Fiji , they went out of the tournament in the quarter @-@ finals , losing 44 – 21 to South Africa . In the 2003 tournament , England came top of their pool . They progressed to the final beating Wales and France in the quarter and semi finals . England won the final with a drop goal in the last minute of extra time . The 2007 defence of the cup in France got off to a very poor start , with a below par victory over the United States and a heavy 36 – 0 defeat to South Africa leaving the holders on the brink of elimination at the group stage . Improved performances against Samoa and Tonga saw England again reach the knockout stages as pool runners @-@ up , before a surprise 12 – 10 defeat of Australia in Marseille and a narrow 14 – 9 victory over the host nation France carried England to a second successive final appearance . The final was played in Paris on 20 October against South Africa , who won by 15 points to 6 . In 2011 , England reached the quarter final stage , losing 19 @-@ 12 to France . In 2015 , England became the first sole host nation to fail to qualify for the knockout stage , exiting the pool stage after losses to Wales and Australia . England 's Jonny Wilkinson is the highest points scorer in the rugby world cup , having scored 277 points between 1999 and 2011 . England have the fourth most points and fourth most tries scored in the World Cup . = = = Overall = = = When the World Rankings were introduced in October 2003 , England was ranked 1st . They briefly fell to 2nd in September that year before regaining 1st place . They fell to 2nd , and then to 3rd in June 2004 . After the 2005 Six Nations they fell to 6th where they remained until they moved into 5th in December that year . In 2006 , their ranking again fell and they finished the year ranked 7th . 2007 saw them bounce back to 3rd after their good run in that year 's World Cup , where they finished Runners Up . In 2008 , their rankings slipped so that during the 2009 Six Nations Championship they dropped to their lowest ranking of 8th . They again were 8th during the autumn internationals of the same year . After a resurgence which saw them rise to a ranking of 4th in the world , the team again slipped , following a poor showing at the 2011 Rugby World Cup , and was ranked 6th in February 2012 . England entered the 2015 Rugby World Cup ranked 4th . However , after failing to exit the pool stage , England were ranked 8th in the world as of 1 November 2015 . England has won 381 of their 701 Test matches , a winning record of 54 @.@ 35 % . Below is a summary table of capped England matches up until 25 June 2016 . Only fixtures recognised as test matches by the RFU are included . = = Players = = = = = Current squad = = = On 22 May , head coach Eddie Jones named a 32 @-@ man squad for England 's tour of Australia . An additional 5 players ( denoted through * ) were also named ahead of the test match against Wales on 29 May , with the Aviva Premiership final taking place in the 28 May between Saracens and Exeter Chiefs . Ben Te 'o has been named in the squad by virtue of his English mother . Despite playing for Irish province Leinster , Te 'o will moving to Worcester Warriors in the 2016 / 17 season making him eligible for selection . On 30 May , Luther Burrell replaced Manu Tuilagi in the touring squad , after Tuilagi withdrew from the squad due to injury . Note : The number of caps was updated 25 June 2016 . = = = Notable players = = = Four former England representatives have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame : Bill Beaumont , Martin Johnson , Jason Leonard and Wavell Wakefield . Seven former England internationals are also members of the IRB Hall of Fame . Four of them — Johnson , Alan Rotherham , Harry Vassall and Robert Seddon — were inducted for their accomplishments as players . Two other former England players , John Kendall @-@ Carpenter and Clive Woodward , were inducted into the IRB Hall for non @-@ playing accomplishments in the sport . Another former England player , Alfred St. George Hamersley , was inducted for achievements as both a player and a rugby administrator . Wavell Wakefield represented England in 31 Tests between 1920 and 1927 , including 13 Tests as captain . He was involved in three Five Nations Grand Slams in 1921 , 1923 and 1924 . Playing as flanker , Wakefield introduced new elements to back row tactics which beforehand concentrated on the set piece . He became a Member of Parliament in 1935 , and was knighted in 1944 . He became the RFU President in 1950 and following his retirement from politics was awarded the title the first Baron Wakefield of Kendal . Between 1975 and 1982 , Bill Beaumont represented England in 34 Tests . Playing at lock , he was captain between 1978 and 1982 in 21 Tests including the 1980 Grand Slam – England 's first since 1957 . Later that year , he captained the British Lions to South Africa – the first time an Englishman had captained the Lions since 1930 . Furthermore , Beaumont represented the Barbarians FC on fifteen occasions . The youngest ever England captain at 22 , Will Carling represented England in 72 Tests , and as captain 59 times between 1988 and 1996 . He was best known as a superlative leader , motivating England to a remarkable three Grand Slams in five years , including back to back slams in 1991 and 1992 . He also led England to the final of the 1991 World Cup , and captained the Barbarians FC . His playing talents were not as flamboyant as some of his colleagues , but his effectiveness cemented him as a first choice at centre . It is possible he would already be in the Hall of Fame were it not for outspoken tendencies with respect to the English RFU committee ( " Old Farts " ) , who may as a result be reluctant to acknowledge his achievements . He was made an OBE in 1991 . Described as arguably " the greatest forward " to play for England , Martin Johnson played 84 Tests for England , and 8 Tests for the British and Irish Lions . He first represented England in 1993 , and later that year the Lions . He captained the Lions to South Africa in 1997 , and in 1999 was appointed captain of England . He became England 's most successful ever captain . He became the first player to captain two Lions tours when he captained them in Australia in 2001 . He retired from Test rugby after he led England to a Six Nations Grand Slam and World Cup victory in 2003 and has since become the team Manager . At the 2011 IRB Awards ceremony in Auckland on 24 October 2011 , the night after the World Cup Final , Johnson was inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame alongside all other World Cup @-@ winning captains from 1987 through 2007 ( minus the previously inducted Australian John Eales ) . Jason Leonard , also known as " The Fun Bus " , appeared 114 times for England at prop , which was the world record for international appearances for a national team until 2005 , when it was surpassed by Australia 's scrum @-@ half George Gregan . He was on the England team that finished runners up to Australia in the 1991 Rugby World Cup final , but avenged this twelve years later , coming on as a substitute for Phil Vickery in England 's victorious 2003 Rugby World Cup final appearance . He also went on three British and Irish Lions tours where he was capped five times . Alan Rotherham and Harry Vassall , both 19th @-@ century greats for Oxford and England , were inducted into the IRB Hall in April 2011 . The IRB recognised them for " their unique contribution to the way that Rugby was played " , specifically stating that they " are credited with pioneering the passing game and the three @-@ man backline , which became widespread during the 1880s . " Two other England internationals , John Kendall @-@ Carpenter and Clive Woodward , were inducted into the IRB Hall alongside Johnson at the 2011 IRB Awards . Although both had notable careers for England , they were recognised for accomplishments in other roles in the sport . Kendall @-@ Carpenter was cited as one of four key figures in the creation of the Rugby World Cup , whilst Woodward was inducted as coach of the 2003 World Cup winners , alongside all other World Cup @-@ winning coaches from 1987 to 2007 . England 's most recent inductees into the IRB Hall are 19th @-@ century internationals Alfred St. George Hamersley and Robert Seddon , both inducted in 2013 . Hamersley played for England in the first @-@ ever rugby union international against Scotland in 1871 , and captained England in the last of his four appearances in 1874 . He went on to play significant roles in the early development of the sport in both New Zealand and Canada . Seddon , capped three times for England in 1887 , was most notable as the captain of the unofficial British side that toured Australia and New Zealand in 1888 ; he died in a boating accident during the tour . This venture proved to be the genesis of the modern British and Irish Lions . The touring team was also inducted alongside Seddon . = = = Individual records = = = Jonny Wilkinson holds the record for most points for England : 1 @,@ 151 . The record for tries is held by Rory Underwood with 49 tries . The most capped England player is former prop Jason Leonard who made 114 appearances over his 14 @-@ year career . England 's youngest ever Test player was Colin Laird who was 18 years and 134 days old when he played against Wales in 1927 . = = Training = = Pennyhill Park Hotel in Bagshot , Surrey , is the chosen training base for the team in the 2015 Rugby World Cup . Loughborough University , Bisham Abbey and the University of Bath grounds served as training bases prior to this agreement . Martin Johnson noted the hotel 's facilities and its proximity to Twickenham and Heathrow as deciding factors in this decision . The team had their own pitchside gym and fitness rooms constructed on the hotel premises at the start of the long @-@ term arrangement . Since its completion in 2010 the team also regularly use Surrey Sports Park at the University of Surrey in nearby Guildford for much of their training . = = = Club versus country = = = Although the England team is governed by the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) , players have been contracted to their clubs since the advent of professionalism in late 1995 . Since then , players have often been caught in a " power struggle " between their clubs and the RFU ; this is commonly referred to as a " club versus country " conflict . The first major dispute between England 's top clubs ( who play in the English Premiership ) and the RFU occurred in 1998 , when some of the clubs refused to release players to tour Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . The tour became known as the " Tour from hell " after an England squad of second @-@ string players were defeated in all four Tests , including a 76 – 0 defeat by Australia . The clubs also withdrew from the 1998 / 99 European Cup . In 2001 , the top clubs and the RFU formed " England Rugby " to help govern the club and international game . The parties agreed to restrict the number of matches at club and international level that elite players ( a group of 50 or 60 players selected by the RFU ) could play in order to reduce player burnout and injuries . In return for releasing players from club commitments , the clubs were to receive compensation from the RFU . This agreement was considered central to the England victory in the 2003 World Cup . Clive Woodward , England coach from November 1997 , resigned in 2004 because he was unable to get the access to the players that he wanted ; " I wanted more from the union – more training days with the players , more influence over the way they were treated – and ended up with less . " Andy Robinson , Woodward 's successor , blamed the lack of control over players for his team 's unsuccessful record . Brian Ashton , who took over from Robinson , intentionally named his playing squad for Six Nations matches in 2007 early in the hope that their clubs would not play them in the weekend prior to a Test . The RFU and the Premiership clubs are negotiating a similar deal to the one in 2001 that will enable international players to be released into the England squad prior to international matches . = = = Coaches = = = The following is a list of all England coaches . The first appointed coach was Don White in 1969 . The most recent coach is Eddie Jones . He took over from Stuart Lancaster a week after Lancaster 's resignation . Jones became the first foreigner to coach the English side . Updated 25 June 2016 = = Media coverage = = England 's mid @-@ year tests and end of year tests are televised live by Sky Sports while end of year matches are highlighted by BBC Three on that game day and repeated on BBC Two the next day . England 's 2014 end of year international against Samoa was not highlighted on BBC Three . All Six Nations games are shown for free on the BBC and ITV from 2016 . = = Titles = =

= Jeremi Wiśniowiecki = Jeremi Wiśniowiecki ( Ukrainian : Ярема Вишневецький - Yarema Vyshnevetsky ; August 17 , 1612 – August 20 , 1651 ) nicknamed Hammer on the Cossacks or Iron Hand , was a notable member of the aristocracy of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , Prince of Wiśniowiec , Łubnie and Chorol in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the father of the future King of Poland , Michael I. A notable magnate and military commander with Ruthenian and Romanian origin , Wiśniowiecki was heir of one of the biggest fortunes of the state and rose to several notable dignities , including the position of voivode of the Ruthenian Voivodship in 1646 . His conversion from Eastern Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism caused much dissent in Ruthenia and Ukraine ( parts of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ) . Wiśniowiecki was a successful military leader as well as one of the wealthiest magnates of Poland , ruling over lands inhabited by 230 @,@ 000 people . = = Biography = = = = = Youth = = = Jeremi Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki was born in 1612 ; neither the exact date nor the place of his birth are known . His father , Michał Wiśniowiecki , of the Lithuanian @-@ Ruthenian Wiśniowiecki family , died soon after Jeremi 's birth , in 1616 . His mother , Regina Mohyła ( Raina Mohylanka ) was a Moldavian @-@ born noble woman of the Movilești family , daughter of the Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă , Jeremy 's namesake ; she died in 1619 . Both of his parents were of the Eastern Orthodox Church rite ; Jeremy 's uncle was the influential Orthodox theologian Peter Mogila , and his great @-@ uncle was George Mogila , the Metropolitan of Moldavia . Orphaned at the age of seven , Wiśniowiecki was raised by his uncle , Konstanty Wiśniowiecki , whose branch of the family were Roman Catholics . Jeremi attended a Jesuit college in Lwów and later , in 1629 , he traveled to Italy , where he briefly attended the University of Bologna . He also acquired some military experience in the Netherlands . The upbringing by his uncle and the trips abroad polonized him , and turned him from a provincial Ruthenian princeling into one of the youngest magnates of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1631 Wiśniowiecki returned to the Commonwealth and took over from his uncle the management of his father 's huge estate , which included a large part of what is now Ukraine . In 1632 he converted from Eastern Orthodoxy to Catholicism , an action that caused much concern in Ukraine . His decision has been analyzed by historians , and often criticized , particularly in Ukrainian historiography . The Orthodox Church feared to lose a powerful protector , and Isaiah Kopinsky , metropolitan bishop of Kiev and a friend of his mother , unsuccessfully plead with him to change his mind . Jeremi would not budge although he remained on decent terms with the Orthdox Church , avoiding provocative actions , and supported his uncle and Orthodox bishop Peter Mogila and his Orthodox Church collegium . = = = Later life = = = Wiśniowiecki 's courtier and first biographer , Michał Kałyszowski , counted that Jeremi participated in nine wars in his lifetime . The first of those was the Smolensk Campaign of 1633 – 34 against the Tsardom of Russia . In that war he accompanied castellan Aleksander Piaseczyński 's southern army and took part in several battles , among them the unsuccessful siege of Putyvl ; later that year they took Rylsk and Sevsk before retreating . The following year he worked with Adam Kisiel and Łukasz Żółkiewski , commanding his own private army of 4 @,@ 000 . As his troops formed 2 / 3 of their army ( not counting supporting Cossack elements ) , Jeremi , despite being the most junior of commanders , had much influence over their campaign . Lacking in artillery , they failed to take any major towns , but ravaged the countryside near Sevsk and Kursk . The war ended soon afterward , and in May 1634 he returned to Lubny . For his service , he received a commendation from the King of Poland , Władysław IV Vasa , and the castellany of Kiev . After the war Wiśniowiecki engaged in a number of conflicts with neighbouring magnates and nobles . Jeremi was able to afford a sizable private army of several thousands , and through the threat of it he was often able to force his neighbours to a favourable settlement of disputes . Soon after his return from the Russian front , he participated on the side of the Dowmont family in the quarrel over the estate of Dowmontów against another magnate , Samuel Łaszcz , located on his lands ; soon after the victorious battle against Łaszcz he bought the lands from the Dowmonts and incorporated them into his estates . Around 1636 the Sejm ( Polish parliament ) opposed the marriage of King Władysław IV Waza to Wiśniowiecki 's sister , Anna . Following this , Jeremi distanced himself from the royal court , although he periodically returned to Warsaw , usually as one of the deputies to the Sejm from the Ruthenian Voivodeship . Soon afterward , Jeremi himself married Gryzelda Zamoyska , daughter of Chancellor Tomasz Zamoyski , on 27 February 1639 , on Gryzelda 's 16th birthday . At that time Wiśniowiecki also engaged in a political conflict over nobility titles , in particular , the title of prince ( kniaź ) . The nobility in the Commonwealth was officially equal , and used different and non @-@ hereditary titles then those found in rest of the world ( see officials of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ) ; the gist of the conflict , which took much of the Sejm 's time around 1638 – 41 , revolved around whether old prince titles ( awarded to families before their lands were incorporated into the Commonwealth in the 1569 Union of Lublin ) , and the new titles , awarded more recently by some foreign courts , should be recognized . Wiśniowiecki was one of the chief participants in this debate , successfully defending the old titles , including that of his own family , and succeeding in abolishing the new titles , which gained him the enmity of another powerful magnate , Jerzy Ossoliński . Other than this conflict , in his years as a deputy ( 1635 – 46 ) , Jeremi wasn 't involved in any major political issues , and only twice ( in 1640 and 1642 ) he served in the minor function of a commissar for investigating the eastern and southern border disputes . In 1637 Wiśniowiecki might have fought under Hetman Mikołaj Potocki against the Cossack rebellion of Pavel Pavluk ( the Pawluk Uprising ) ; Jan Widacki notes that historians are not certain whether he did and in either case , no detailed accounts of his possible participation survive . A year later , returning from the Sejm and from the engagement ceremony with Gryzelda , he gathered a 4 @,@ 000 strong division that participated in putting down of the Ostrzanin Uprising and arrived at the region affected by the unrest in June that year . Together with Hetman Potocki he defeated the insurgents at the Battle of Żownin , which turned into a rather difficult siege of the Cossack camp that lasted from 13 June till the Cossack relief forces were defeated on 4 August , and the Cossacks capitulated on 7 August . = = = Final years = = = In 1641 , after the death of his uncle Konstanty Wiśniowiecki , Jeremi became the last adult male of the Wiśniowiecki family and inherited all the remaining estates of the clan , despite a brief conflict with Aleksander Ludwik Radziwiłł who also claimed the inherited land . The conflict stemmed from the fact that Konstanty asked Jeremi to take care of his grandchildren , but their mother , Katarzyna Eugenia Tyszkiewicz , married Aleksander , who declared he is able and willing to take care of her children - and their estates . A year later , Katarzyna Eugenia decided to divorce Aleksander , and the matter was settled in favor of Jeremi . Wiśniowiecki also fought against the Tatars in 1640 – 46 , whose raids on the south @-@ east frontier of the Commonwealth endangered his holdings . In 1644 together with Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski he took part in the victorious Battle of Ochmatów , in which they crushed forces of Crimean Tatars led by Toğay bey ( Tuhaj Bej ) . In 1644 , after the false news of the death of Adam Kazanowski , Wiśniowiecki took over his disputed estate of Rumno by subterfuge . For this he was at first sentenced to exile , but due to his influence , even the King could not realistically expect to enforce this ruling without a civil war . Eventually after more discussions at local sejmiks and then in the Sejm , he won the case and was granted the right for Rumno . In 1646 , after the death of Koniecpolski , he became the voivode of Ruthenia . He invaded and took over the town of Hadiach which was also being claimed by a son of Koniecpolski , Aleksander Koniecpolski , but a year later , in 1647 , he lost that case and was forced to return the town . On 4 April 1646 Wiśniowiecki received the office of the voivode of Ruthenia , which granted him a seat in the Senate of Poland . He was the third member of the Wiśniowiecki family to gain that privilege . Soon afterward , however , he refused to support King Władysław 's plan for a war against the Ottoman Empire , even though the King offered him the rank of a Field Crown Hetman . Then the autumn of 1646 , Wiśniowiecki invaded and took over the starostwo kaniowskie vacated recently by banished Samuel Łaszcz . He did so without any legal justifications , which caused a court ruling against him ; a ruling that was however never enforced . Later that year , he raised a large private army of about 25 @,@ 000 for a purpose unknown , as noted by Widacki , who writes that the army , which Jeremi raised with an immense cost for a short time , did not participate in any engagement , nor did it have any clear purpose . He notes that such an army might have been useful in provoking the Ottomans , but as Jeremi was opposed to the war with them up to the point of refusing the hetman office , his actions are puzzling even for the modern historians . = = = Khmelnytsky Uprising = = = Wiśniowiecki fought against the Cossacks again during Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648 – 51 . He received information about a growing unrest , and began mobilizing his troops , and in early May learned about the Cossack victory at the Battle of Zhovti Vody . Receiving no orders from Hetmans Mikołaj Potocki and Marcin Kalinowski , he began moving on his own , soon learning about the second Cossack victory at Battle of Korsuń , which meant that his troops ( about 6 @,@ 000 strong ) were the only Polish forces in Transdnieper at that moment . After taking in the situation , he began retreating towards Chernihiv ; his army soon became a focal point for various refugees . Passing Chernihiv , he continued through Liubech to Brahin . He continued to Mazyr , Zhytomir , and Pohrebyshche , stopping briefly in Zhytomir for the local sejmik . After some skirmishes near Nemyriv , Machnówka and Starokostiantyniv ( Battle of Starokostiantyniv ) against the Cossack forces . By July he would arrive near Zbarazh . Wiśniowiecki 's fighting retreat had a major impact on the course of the war . In the words of the historian Władysław Konopczyński , " he was not defeated , not victorious , and thus he made the peace more difficult . " Politicians in safe Warsaw tried to negotiate with the Cossacks , who in turn used Wisniowiecki 's actions as an excuse to delay any serious negotiations . Around late August or early September , Wiśniowiecki met with the army regimentarzs Władysław Dominik Zasławski @-@ Ostrogski , Mikołaj Ostroróg and Aleksander Koniecpolski . He was not on overly friendly terms with them , as he resented being passed in military nominations , but after short negotiations he agreed to follow their orders , and thus reduced to a junior commander status which had little impact over the next phase of the campaign . On 23 September , their forces were , however , defeated at the Battle of Pyliavtsi ; near the end of the battle some accounts suggest Wiśniowiecki was offered the hetman 's position , but refused . On 28 September in Lviv , Wiśniowiecki , with popular support , was given a field regimentarz nomination ; about a week later this nomination was confirmed by the Sejm . To the anger of Lviv 's townfolk , he decided to focus on retreating towards the key fortress in Zamość instead of Lviv ; he would leave garrisons on both towns , and keep his army in the field . In the end , the cities were not captured by the Cossacks , who in the light of the coming winter decided to retreat , after being paid a ransom by both town councils ; no other large field battle toke place that year . Meanwhile , the convocation sejm of 1648 had elected a new king , Jan Kazimierz II Vasa . Wiśniowiecki supported other candidates , such as George I Rákóczi and Karol Ferdynand Vasa ( Jan Kazimierz 's brother ) . Due to the opposition from Jeremi 's detractors , he was not granted a hetman position , although after a full two days of debate on the subject he was granted a document that stated he had a " power equal to that of a hetman . " Wiśniowiecki faction , arguing for increase in army size , was once again marginalized by the faction that hoped for a peaceful resolution . In the end , the King and most of the szlachta were lulled into a false sense of security , and the military was not reinforced significantly . To add an insult to an injury , the coronation sejm of January – February 1649 , held in Kraków , revoked Wiśniowieck 's regimentarz rank . In the first half of 1649 , the negotiations with the Cossacks fell through , and the Polish @-@ Lithuanian military begun gathering near the borders with the rebellious Ukraine , a major camp was in Zbarazh , where Wiśniowiecki would arrive as well in late June , after gathering a new army of 3 @,@ 000 in Wiśnicz , which was all he was able to afford at that time , as due to most of his estates being overrun by the Cossacks . Wiśniowiecki 's arrival raised the morale of the royal army , and despite having no official rank , both the common soldiers and the new regimentarz promised to take his advice , and even offered him the official command ( which he refused ) . During the Siege of Zbarazh Wiśniowiecki was thus not the official commander ( role was taken by regimentarz Andrzej Firlej ) but most historians agree he was the real , if unofficial , commander of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian army . The siege would last until the ceasefire of the Treaty of Zboriv . Wiśniowiecki 's command during the siege was seen as phenomenal , and his popularity among the troops and nobility rose again , however the King , still not fond of him , gave him a relatively small reward ( the land grant of starostwo przasnyskie , much less when compared to several others he distributed around that time ) . Needing Wiśniowiecki 's support in December that year , the King granted him once again a temporary hetman nomination , and several more land grants . In April 1650 , Wiśniowiecki had to return his temporary hetman office to Mikołaj Potocki , recently released from Cossack 's captivity . During December that year , in light of the growing tensions with Muscovy 's , Wiśniowiecki 's military faction succeeded in convincing the Sejm to pass a resolution increasing the size of the army to 51 @,@ 000 , the largest army since the Cossack unrest begun two years ago . The truce of Zborov did not last long , and in the spring of 1651 Khmelnytsky 's Cossacks begun advancing west again . On June 1 , 1651 Wiśniowiecki brought his private army to face the Cossacks in Sokal . He commanded the left wing of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian army in the victorious Battle of Berestechko on 28 – 30 June . The Polish @-@ Lithuanian army advanced after the retreating Cossacks , but on July 17 the King " left the whole army to Potocki ... and having given the order that the army march into Ukraine , the King himself parted ... to Warsaw to celebrate his victories over the Cossacks . " Later that year , on 14 August , Wiśniowiecki suddenly fell ill while in a camp near the village of Pawołocz , and died on August 20 , 1651 , at the age of only 39 . His cause of death was never known , while some ( even contemporaries ) speculated he was poisoned , but no conclusive evidence to support such a claim have ever been found . Based on sparse descriptions of his illness and subsequent investigations , some medical historians suggest the cause of death might have been a disease related to cholera . However , one account states , " following a cheerful conversation with other officers who had congregated for a military council in his tent on Sunday , 13 August N.S. he had eaten some cucumbers with zest and washed them down with mead , and from that contracted dysentery . After lying ill for a week , he died there , at Pavoloch " . He was given a " ceremonial funeral with the entire army present . On August 22 , Wiśniowiecki 's body was seen off with the utmost pomp on its journey to his residence " . Wiśniowiecki 's indebted family was not able to provide him with a funeral his rank and fame deserved . In the end , he never received the large funeral and the temporary location of his body , the monastery of the Holy Cross at Łysa Góra , became his final resting place . His body was lost in the fire at the end of the 18th century , which also prevents a modern reexamination of the cause of his death . = = Wealth = = The majority of the Wiśniowiecki family estates were found on the eastern side of the Dnieper River ( Volhynian , Ruthenian and Kiev Voivodships ) , and most of them were acquired by Jeremi 's grandfather , Aleksander Wiśniowiecki , in the 16th century . The capital of his estate was located at a fortified manor at Lubny , where his father rebuilt an old castle ; the population of the town itself could be estimated at about 1 @,@ 000 . Wiśniowiecki inherited lands inhabited , according to an estimate from 1628 , by about 4 @,@ 500 people , of which Lubny was the largest town . Smaller towns in his lands included Khorol , Piratyn and Przyłuka . By 1646 his lands were inhabited by 230 @,@ 000 people . The number of towns on his lands rose from several to about thirty , and their population increased as well . The prosperity of those lands reflected Wiśniowiecki 's skills in economic management , and the income from his territories ( estimated at about 600 @,@ 000 zloties yearly ) made him one of the wealthiest magnates in the Commonwealth . Because of its size and relatively consistent borders , Wiśniowiecki 's estate was often named Wiśniowieczczyzna ( " Wiśniowieckiland " ) . Despite his wealth , he was not known for a lavish life . His court of about a hundred people was not know for being overly extravagant , he built no luxurious residences , and did not even have a single portrait of himself made during his life . It is uncertain how Wiśniowiecki looked , although a number of portraits and other works depicting him exist . Jan Widacki notes that much of the historiography concerning Wiśniowiecki focuses on the military and political aspects of his life , and few of his critics discuss his successes in the economic development of his estates . = = Remembrance and popular culture = = Wiśniowiecki was widely popular among the noble class , who saw in him a defender of tradition , a patriot and an able military commander . He was praised by many of his contemporaries , including a poet , Samuel Twardowski , as well as numerous diary writers and early historians . For his protection of civilian population , including Jews , during the Uprising , Wiśniowiecki has been commended by early Jewish historians . Until the 19th century , he has been idolized as the legendary , perfect " knight of the borderlands " , his sculpture is among the twenty sculpture of famous historical personas in the 18th century " Knight Room " of the royal Warsaw Castle . In the 19th century this image begun to waver , as a new wave in historiography begun to reinterpret his life , and as the era of positivism in Poland put more value on builders , and less on warriors . Further , at that time the Polish historians begun to question the traditional view of the " Ukrainian problem " , and the way that the Polish noble class had dealt with the Cossacks . Slowly , Wiśniowiecki 's image as a hero began to waver , with various aspects of his life and personality being questioned and criticized in the work of historians such as Karol Szajnocha and Józef Szujski . While Wiśniowiecki 's portrayal ( as a major secondary character ) in the first part of Henryk Sienkiewicz 's trilogy , With Fire and Sword which describes the history of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Uprising , was rather positive , criticism of his persona intensified , in particular from Sienkiewicz detractors such as Zygmunt Kaczkowski and Olgierd Górka . The 1930s saw a first modern historical work about Wiśniowiecki , by Władysław Tomkiewicz . In the era of the People 's Republic of Poland , the Communist Party 's ideology dictated that all historians present him as an " enemy of the people " , although this began to be relaxed after 1965 . Widacki , analyzing the work of other historians notes that Władysław Czapliński was rather sympathetic to Wiśniowiecki , while Paweł Jasienica was critical of him . Wiśniowiecki has made appearances in more recent media . He was the main subject of one of Jacek Kaczmarski 's 1993 songs Kniazia Jaremy nawrócenie ( The Conversion of Knyaz Jarema ) . Andrzej Seweryn played Jeremi Wiśniowiecki in the 1999 film With Fire and Sword .

= Bassline ( Chris Brown song ) = " Bassline " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown , taken from his fifth studio album Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was written by Andrea Simms , Andrew " Pop " Wansel , Brown , David Johnson , Robert Calloway , Ronald " Flippa " Colson and Warren " Oak " Felder . The song was produced by Pop Wansel and Dayvi Jae . Musically , " Bassline " is a dubstep , electropop and electrohop song , which incorporates elements of reggae . Instrumentation is provided by a wobble bass and synthesizers . The song contains lyrics about Brown telling a woman to leave the nightclub with him . " Bassline " garnered mixed reviews from music critics ; some reviewers noted it as one of the standout tracks on the album , while others criticized the song 's production and lyrics . It also received comparisons to the songs by Kesha and LMFAO . Upon the release of Fortune , " Bassline " debuted at numbers 28 and 122 on the UK R & B Chart and UK Singles Chart , respectively . = = Development and composition = = " Bassline " was written by Andrea Simms , Andrew " Pop " Wansel , Chris Brown , David Johnson , Robert Calloway , Ronald " Flippa " Colson and Warren " Oak " Felder . The song was produced by Pop Wansel and Dayvi Jae . " Bassline " was recorded by Brian Springer with assistance from Iain Findley . The recordings were later mixed by Jaycen Joshua with assistance by Trehy Harris . Musically , " Bassline " is a dubstep , electropop and electrohop song , that incorporates elements of reggae . The song lasts for three minutes and 58 seconds . Instrumentation consists of a wobble bass and synthesizers . Melinda Newman of HitFix compared " Bassline " to the songs by Kesha and LMFAO . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush noted that the lyrics are about Brown trying to " convince a hot girl he spots in the club to come back to his crib " , in which he sings " Hey girl tell me what you talk / Pretty as a picture on the wall / Hey girl you can get it all / Cause I know you like the way the beat go " . Brown also declares , " You heard about my image / But I could give a flying motherfuck who 's offended " . Hayley Avron of Contactmusic.com noted that a robot voice joins Brown in the hook " Girls like my bassline " . Hazel Robinson of California Literary Review magazine noted that the word " bassline " is a metaphor for penis . = = Reception = = " Bassline " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Sam Wilbur of AOL Radio viewed it as " the best example " of dubstep tracks on Fortune , while Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly noted it as one of the album 's best tracks . Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald called the song " irritating " and noted it as " blatant copycat stuff " . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner felt that " Bassline " was " a lazy attempt " from Brown . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times stated that the worst part of the song is the hook . Hazel Robinson of California Literary Review magazine was critical of the production and lyrics , labeling it as " bad " and " dodgy " . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman noted that Brown " clearly feels more emboldened than ever " on " Bassline " . Upon the release of Fortune , due to digital sales , " Bassline " debuted on the UK R & B Chart at number 28 in the issue dated July 14 , 2012 . It also debuted at number 122 on the UK Singles Chart . = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune = = Charts = =

= HMS Black Prince ( 1904 ) = HMS Black Prince was a Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1900s . She was stationed in the Mediterranean when the First World War began and participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . After the German ships reached Ottoman waters , the ship was sent to the Red Sea in mid @-@ August to protect troop convoys arriving from India and to search for German merchant ships . After capturing two ships , Black Prince was transferred to the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and was sunk during the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 , with all hands killed . = = Design and description = = Two armoured cruisers of a new design , Duke of Edinburgh and Black Prince , the latter named for Edward , the Black Prince , were ordered for the Royal Navy as part of the 1902 – 03 Naval Estimates . They were the first ships to be designed for the Royal Navy under the supervision of the new Director of Naval Construction , Sir Philip Watts . The new design was significantly larger than the previous Monmouth and Devonshire @-@ class cruisers , mounting a heavier main armament of six 9 @.@ 2 in ( 234 mm ) guns in single turrets . Black Prince displaced 12 @,@ 590 long tons ( 12 @,@ 790 t ) as built and 13 @,@ 965 long tons ( 14 @,@ 189 t ) fully loaded . The ship had an overall length of 505 feet 6 inches ( 154 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which produced a total of 23 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 20 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 150 long tons ( 2 @,@ 180 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 8 @,@ 130 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 060 km ; 9 @,@ 360 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 789 officers and enlisted men . Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk X guns in single turrets , two on the centreline and two on each beam , giving a broadside of four 9 @.@ 2 in guns . Her secondary armament of four BL 6 @-@ inch Mark XI guns was arranged in single casemates . They were mounted amidships on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . Twenty Vickers QF 3 @-@ pounders were fitted , six on turret roofs and fourteen in the superstructure . The ship also mounted three submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . = = Operational history = = Black Prince was laid down on 3 June 1903 at the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company 's shipyard at Blackwall , London . She was launched on 8 November 1904 and completed on 17 March 1906 . When completed , Black Prince served with the 2nd Squadron until 1907 , the 1st Cruiser Squadron from 1907 – 1908 , the 5th Cruiser Squadron ( as part of the Atlantic Fleet ) from 1908 – 1912 and the Third from 1912 – 1913 . At the beginning of the First World War , Black Prince was one of the four armoured cruisers serving in the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Ernest Charles Thomas Troubridge . She participated in the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau . Following the escape of the two German ships to neutral Turkey , Black Prince and Duke of Edinburgh were sent into the Red Sea to search for German merchant ships , with Black Prince capturing the German ocean liners Südmark and Istria . On 6 November , she was ordered to Gibraltar to join a squadron of French and British ships to search for German warships still at sea off the African coast . This was cancelled on 19 November after the location of the German East Asia Squadron was revealed by survivors of the Battle of Coronel . Black Prince joined the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Keith Arbuthnot . Black Prince was modified in March 1916 as a result of lessons learned at the Battle of Coronel , with the 6 @-@ inch guns removed from their casemates and replaced by six 6 @-@ inch guns mounted individually behind shields between the beam 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets . = = = Loss = = = The ship participated in the Battle of Jutland , where she was sunk with heavy loss of life . The circumstances under which she sank were mysterious for some years after . As the British had lost contact and did not see the ship destroyed , they were unsure as to whether a submarine or surface ship was responsible for sinking Black Prince . During the battle , the 1st Cruiser Squadron was deployed as part of a screening force several miles ahead of the main force of the Grand Fleet , but Black Prince lost contact with the rest of the Squadron as it came into contact with German forces , at about 17 : 42 . Soon after , two other members of the 1st Cruiser Squadron , Defence and Warrior were heavily engaged by German battleships and battlecruisers , with Defence blowing up and Warrior receiving heavy damage , which later caused her to sink . There were no positive sightings of Black Prince by the British fleet after that , although a wireless signal from her was received at 20 : 45 , reporting a submarine sighting . During the night of 31 May – 1 June , the British destroyer Spitfire , badly damaged after colliding with the German battleship Nassau , sighted what appeared to be a German battlecruiser , with two widely spaced funnels , described as being " ... a mass of fire from foremast to mainmast , on deck and between decks . Flames were issuing out of her from every corner . " The mystery ship exploded at about midnight . It was later thought that the burning ship may have been Black Prince , with the two midships funnels having collapsed or been shot away . Recent historians , however , hold to the German account of the ship 's sinking . Black Prince briefly engaged the German battleship Rheinland at about 23 : 35 GMT , scoring two hits with 6 @-@ inch shells . Separated from the rest of the British fleet , Black Prince approached the German lines at approximately midnight . She turned away from the German battleships , but it was too late . The German battleship Thüringen fixed Black Prince in her searchlights and opened fire . Up to five other German ships , including the battleships Nassau , Ostfriesland , and Friedrich der Grosse , joined in the bombardment , with return fire from Black Prince being ineffective . Most of the German ships were between 750 and 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 690 and 1 @,@ 370 m ) of Black Prince — effectively point @-@ blank range for contemporary naval gunnery . The ship was hit by at least twelve heavy shells and several smaller ones , sinking within 15 minutes . There were no survivors from her crew , all 857 being killed . The wrecksite is designated as a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 . = = Popular culture = = In the first episode of Series 4 of the SBS @-@ TV ( Australia ) series Who Do You Think You Are ? , Australian writer @-@ actor @-@ comedian Shaun Micallef discovered that his great @-@ grandfather Giovanni ( John ) Micallef , a steward on Black Prince , was among those killed .

= On the Pulse of Morning = " On the Pulse of Morning " is a poem by African @-@ American writer and poet Maya Angelou that she read at the first inauguration of President Bill Clinton on January 20 , 1993 . With her public recitation , Angelou became the second poet in history to read a poem at a presidential inauguration , and the first African American and woman . ( Robert Frost was the first inaugural poet , at the 1961 inauguration of John F. Kennedy . ) Angelou 's audio recording of the poem won the 1994 Grammy Award in the " Best Spoken Word " category , resulting in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadening her appeal . The poem 's themes are change , inclusion , responsibility , and role of both the President and the citizenry in establishing economic security . Its symbols , references to contemporary issues , and personification of nature has inspired critics to compare " On the Pulse of Morning " with Frost 's inaugural poem and with Clinton 's inaugural address . It has been called Angelou 's " autobiographical poem " , and has received mixed reviews . The popular press praised Clinton 's choice of Angelou as inaugural poet , and her " representiveness " of the American people and its President . Critic Mary Jane Lupton said that " Angelou 's ultimate greatness will be attributed " to the poem , and that Angelou 's " theatrical " performance of it , using skills she learned as an actor and speaker , marked a return to the African @-@ American oral tradition of speakers such as Frederick Douglass , Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. Poetry critics , despite praising Angelou 's recitation and performance , gave mostly negative reviews of the poem . = = Background = = When Angelou wrote and recited " On the Pulse of Morning " , she was already well known as a writer and poet . She had written five of the seven of her series of autobiographies , including the first and most highly acclaimed , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) . Although she was best known for her autobiographies , she was primarily known as a poet rather than an autobiographer . Early in her writing career she began alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Her first volume of poetry Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' Fore I Diiie , published in 1971 shortly after Caged Bird , became a best @-@ seller and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize . As scholar Marcia Ann Gillespie writes , Angelou had " fallen in love with poetry " during her early childhood in Stamps , Arkansas . After her rape at the age of eight , which she depicted in Caged Bird , Angelou memorized and studied great works of literature , including poetry . According to Caged Bird , her friend Mrs. Flowers encouraged her to recite them , which helped bring her out her self @-@ imposed period of muteness caused by her trauma . Angelou was the first poet to read an inaugural poem since Robert Frost read his poem " The Gift Outright " at President John F. Kennedy 's inauguration in 1961 , and the first Black and woman . When it was announced that Angelou would read one of her poems at Clinton 's inauguration , many in the popular press compared her role as inaugural poet with that of Frost 's , especially what critic Zofia Burr called their " representativeness " , or their ability to speak for and to the American people . The press also pointed to the nation 's social progress that a Black woman would " stand in the place of a white man " at his inauguration , and praised Angelou 's involvement as the Clinton administration 's " gesture of inclusion " . Angelou told her friend Oprah Winfrey that the call requesting her to write and recite the poem came from television producer Harry Thomason , who organized the inauguration , shortly after Clinton 's election . Even though she suspected that Clinton made the request because " he understood that I am the kind of person who really does bring people together " , Angelou admitted feeling overwhelmed , and even requested that the audiences attending her speaking engagements pray for her . She followed her same " writing ritual " that she had followed for years and used in writing all of her books and poetry : she rented a hotel room , closeted herself there from the early morning to the afternoon , and wrote on legal pads . After deciding upon the theme " America " , she wrote down everything she could think of about the country , which she then " pushed and squeezed into a poetic form " . Angelou recited the poem on January 20 , 1993 . = = Themes = = " On the Pulse of Morning " shared many of the themes in President Clinton 's inaugural address , which he gave immediately before Angelou read her poem , including change , responsibility , and the President 's and the citizenry 's role in establishing economic security . The symbols in Angelou 's poem ( the tree , the river , and the morning , for example ) paralleled many of the same symbols Clinton used in his speech , and helped to enhance and expand Clinton 's images . Clinton 's address and the poem , according to Hagen , both emphasized unity despite the diversity of American culture . " On the Pulse of Morning " attempted to convey many of the goals of Clinton 's new administration . Burr compared Angelou 's poem with Frost 's , something she claimed the poetry critics who gave " On the Pulse of Morning " negative reviews did not do . Angelou " rewrote " Frost 's poem , from the perspective of personified nature that appeared in both poems . Frost praised American colonization , but Angelou attacked it . The cost of the creation of America was abstract and ambiguous in Frost 's poem , but the personified Tree in Angelou 's poem signified the cultures in America that paid a significant cost to create it . Both Frost and Angelou called for a " break with the past " , but Frost wanted to relive it and Angelou wanted to confront its mistakes . Burr also compared Angelou 's poem with Audre Lorde 's poem " For Each of You " , which has similar themes of looking towards the future , as well as with Walt Whitman 's " Song of Myself " and Langston Hughes ' " The Negro Speaks of Rivers " . According to Hagen , the poem contains a recurring theme in many of Angelou 's other poems and autobiographies , that " we are more alike than unalike " . " On the Pulse of Morning " was full of contemporary references , including toxic waste and pollution . Angelou 's poem was influenced by the African @-@ American oral tradition of spirituals , by poets such as James Weldon Johnson and Langston Hughes , and by modern African poets and folk artists such as Kwesi Brew and Efua Sutherland , which also influenced her autobiographies . = = Critical response and impact = = According to Lupton , " On the Pulse of Morning " is Angelou 's most famous poem . Lupton has argued that " Angelou 's ultimate greatness will be attributed " to the poem , and that Angelou 's " theatrical " performance of it , using skills she learned as an actor and speaker , marked a return to the African @-@ American oral tradition of speakers such as Frederick Douglass , Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. British reporter Kate Kellaway compared Angelou 's appearance as she read the poem at Clinton 's inauguration with the eight @-@ year @-@ old child in Caged Bird , noting that the coats she wore in both occasions were similar : " She looked magnificent , sternly theatrical with an unsmiling bow mouth . She wore a coat with brass buttons , a strange reminder of the eight @-@ year @-@ old Maya Angelou who stood in a courtroom , terrified at the sight of the man who had raped her " . Gillespie stated regarding Kellaway 's observations : " But standing tall on the steps of the Capitol , she was light @-@ years removed from that terrible time , and America was no longer an ' unfriendly place . ' Her poem ' On the Pulse of Morning ' was a soaring call for peace , justice , and harmony . Capturing the hope embodied in the human spirit , it was a solemn and joyful reminder that all things are possible . She wished us ' Good morning ' in her poem , and one felt as if a new day was truly dawning . " Angelou recognized that although " On the Pulse of Morning " was a better " public poem " than a great poem , her goal of conveying the message of unity was accomplished . Poet David Lehman agreed , stating that although it fulfilled its theatrical and political objectives , the poem was " not very memorable " . Poet Sterling D. Plumpp found Angelou 's performance " brilliant " , but was " not as enthusiastic about it as a text " . Burr stated that the negative reviews of Angelou 's poem , like the majority of the reviews about her other poetry , was due to their elitism and narrow views of poetry , which were limited to written forms rather than spoken ones like " On the Pulse of Morning " , which was written to recite aloud and perform . Burr compared the response of literary critics to Angelou 's poem with critics of Frost 's poem : " Frost 's powerful reading served to supplement the poem in the sense of enhancing it , while Angelou 's powerful reading of her poem supplemented it in the sense of making evident its inadequacy and lack . " Angelou 's recitation of " On the Pulse of Morning " resulted in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadened her appeal " across racial , economic , and educational boundaries " . The week after Angelou 's recitation , sales of the paperback version of her books and poetry rose by 300 – 600 percent . Bantam Books had to reprint 400 @,@ 000 copies of all her books to keep up with the demand . Random House , which published Angelou 's hardcover books and published the poem later that year , reported that they sold more of her books in January 1993 than they did in all of 1992 , accounting for a 1200 percent increase . The sixteen @-@ page publication of the poem became a best @-@ seller , and the recording of the poem was awarded a Grammy Award .

= God 's Choice = God 's Choice : The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School is a 1986 book written by Alan Peshkin and published by the University of Chicago Press . It is the product of his late 1970s 18 @-@ month ethnographic study of a 350 @-@ person Christian fundamentalist Baptist school in Illinois . He describes the K – 12 day school 's function as a total institution that educates about a singular truth ( God 's will ) and subordination before God . The final chapter is a comparative analysis of the school and other schools , institutions , and social movements , wherein Peshkin concludes that the school is divisive in American society for promoting intolerance towards religious plurality , the very condition that permits the school 's existence . Reviewers wrote that Peshkin 's account was fair , and praised his decision to let the participants speak for themselves through quotations . They also noted that the book filled a literary lacuna in scholarly understanding of the rapidly expanding and understudied fundamentalist Christian school . = = Summary = = God 's Choice : The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School is a 1986 book written by Alan Peshkin . It is a profile of an Illinois Christian fundamentalist school — its policies , practices , and participants . Peshkin , then Professor of Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , intended his account to be both impartial and " empathetic " . He presents the fundamentalists as disciplined , dedicated , and determined with " formulas for success " opposite " fragmented and defensive " detractors . They believe in " one Truth " — God 's plan — and reject philosophies of multiple truths . A teacher told Peshkin that their job is to prepare students for this " one pattern " of thought . In turn , the community 's constituents do not wish to leave , but appreciate conformity as an end in itself . Peshkin describes the school as a " total institution " : a place where many similar people live by their own formal rules apart from outside society , as based on Erving Goffman 's 1961 essay . Peshkin asserts that this was a natural conclusion from a school " based on absolute truth " . God 's Choice was the third book in his series of studies on school – community relationships . It was published by the University of Chicago Press . In 1978 , Peshkin moved to an Illinois community of 50 @,@ 000 people that he pseudonymically called Hartney , where he stayed and observed for 18 months . He lived in an apartment within the home of a family associated with what he called the Bethany Baptist church . Peshkin studied their 350 @-@ student K – 12 Christian day school , Bethany Baptist Academy ( also a pseudonym ) . The school opened six years prior with 88 students and was one of over one thousand members of the American Association of Christian Schools . The study focuses on the 125 students in the junior – senior high school . After a semester , Peshkin began to interview the community members , and used their quotes to let them " speak for themselves " . The book includes eight portraits of students — four from faith and four " scorners " who " consciously deviate " — as well as student and teacher survey data , displayed in 16 tables . An appendix includes course offerings and a bibliography . Peshkin 's findings show a " total world " where the lessons of religion and education are intertwined into an " interrelated , interdependent " philosophy . The academy 's intent is to make Christian professionals as what Peshkin describes as " a vocational school directed to work in the Lord 's service " . When compared to the work of public schools , the private school 's instructors said both kinds of institutions impose a lifestyle and set of values as a kind of " brainwashing " . Peshkin notes that while students " largely identify with " and uphold the fundamentalist teachings , they permit themselves the option of having " individual interpretations " and minor beliefs . Some students either dissent against the academy 's rules or are regarded as too pious , but most students are moderate . Students take classes to be effective Christian leaders , including " Bible study and ' soul @-@ winning ' , English , speech , drama , and music " , which are seen as important to " read and proclaim the Word " . Academy teachers establish their authority through discipline and teach " the truth " as established by " facts " from the Bible . Bible passages are associated with the subject matter in a process called " integration " . The academy uses science books from Bob Jones University as an alternative to books that promote secular humanism , which is described as " the ' official religion ' of the public school system " . The Bob Jones science books associate the Bible with science , and often comment the relationship between God 's intelligence and the intricacies of nature . Classes like science , social studies , and math are viewed as less important for the goal of making Christian professionals apart from their training to do " everything a sinner can do , better " . Some classes are " memorization and recitation " -focused , reflecting an inelastic view of knowledge , which the academy believes to be fixed as based in biblical inerrancy . Their biggest external influence on curriculum is new books , which may affect how classes are taught , though the content ( " the truth " ) remains the same . In a chapter on teacher selection and training , the task of socializing students with obedience and discipline takes precedence over the task of teaching content . Students are under constant supervision to uphold a pledge to avoid outside activities such as theater , fashion , dances , and certain television shows . They also avoid some activities altogether , such as sexualized contact , drugs , alcohol , and smoking . This pledge is to be upheld at home as well , and students are encouraged to report errancies . Teachers too pledge to prioritize " the pursuit of holiness " over all things in a " born again " activity where they " confess their sins and accept Jesus Christ as their personal savior " . The school is unapologetic in its insistence on " telling the kids what is right " and its according preference for lecture over discussion . Teachers are also afforded the option of corporal punishment , though it is rarely used . The last two chapters feature Peshkin 's commentary on the school in society , its tradeoffs and comparison with other total institutions and larger social movements , like the New Religious Right . He also compares the academy to public and parochial schools , wherein he finds public school students more politically tolerant and acceptant of religious pluralism . Peshkin 's final reflections are written as a " cost @-@ benefit analysis " of these Christian schools in the larger American society . In the last chapter , Peshkin contemplates how his Jewish identity is insulated within a pluralistic and secular society , and how he is fearful of absolutist " imperious , implacable logic " and " zeal for conversion and exclusivism " . He recounted that while the school spoke derogatorily of non @-@ fundamentalists and non @-@ Christians , no one spoke of the American religious plurality that permitted this . In response to the encroaching state , fundamentalists feel that their political conviction should mirror that of their religion . Peshkin views the school as schismatic in a larger society for promoting intolerance towards fellow Americans . He also praised traits of the schools including its community , dedicated teachers , and attractive image . At the time of print , Christian schools like Bethany were outpacing the growth of other schools . In 1989 , Christian schools comprised about 20 % of private school enrollment — around 700 @,@ 000 students . = = Reception = = Reviewers wrote that Peshkin 's account was fair in its presentation , and that his choice to let individuals " speak for themselves " through abundant quotations was a strength . They also noted how the book filled a gap in the field and that his final chapter was too moralistic . R. Scott Appleby ( American Journal of Education ) wrote that Peshkin succeeded at his attempt to be impartial , and that his presentation of fundamentalist culture is made both " understandable " and , in part , " admirable " . He reflected that this Christian pedagogy was closer to indoctrination than education in that it did not develop " critical skills and ... human capacities " in " open @-@ ended " learning but professed a fixed chain of knowledge " from on high " where humans are errant and need authoritarian guidance . Appleby added that fundamentalism blames public schools and its associated state apparatus as both a manufacturer enemy needed to feed its " sense of crisis " and for creating " unsafe " areas unregulated by " Christian truth " . Sociologist Susan Rose " broadens the base " of God 's Choice in her 1988 Keeping Them Out of the Hands of Satan , and Appleby writes that the two books compliment each other 's lacunae . While God 's Choice has an " engaging , sometimes riveting narrative " with vivid characters but little outside information apart from statistics , Keeping Them Out of the Hands of Satan includes extra detail on how fundamentalist groups interact and share a larger societal milieu . For example , Rose explains the difference in " born @-@ again experiences " of evangelicals and fundamentalists , which Peshkin glosses over . In her own review of Peshkin 's book , Rose ( Contemporary Sociology ) praised its " clear and detailed " contribution to the field but wished for more overview material on the Christian School Movement 's rise , proponents , philosophical consistency , and " sociohistorical context " . She wrote that few had studied Christian schools , the " fastest growing sector of private education in the United States " . In commending Peshkin 's even @-@ handedness , she wrote that his forthrightness about declaring his own biases and effort to present participant voices through direct quotation were strong elements , though he described more than he analyzed . Rose felt that the " interesting " final chapters of analysis and comparison with public schools " grounded " the overall ethnography , though she wished for more comparison of the adolescent student experience between the academy and other kinds of American schools . She considers Peshkin 's " discussion of the politics of pluralism " , that Christian schools both add to American religious pluralism while advocating against it , possibly his best contribution . Jean Holm ( The Times Higher Education Supplement ) too noted the fast growth of conservative Christian schools but added that the book was also relevant in Britain , which was experiencing similar growth . She found the first few chapters somewhat repetitive as it expressed the uniformity of the school 's practices . Richard V. Pierard ( Christian Century ) felt that Peshkin wrote with " deeply respect " for the school and its community , but Pierard , himself an evangelical , was " disturbed " by the community 's " indoctrinated " values — " biblical absolutes " that are " part of a conservative program that has been read into Scripture " . Paul F. Parsons ( Christianity Today ) noted that Peshkin found the school successful by traditional terms , with standardized tests , orderly climate , and " fun @-@ loving " students , but lacking free exchange of ideas , as education is seen more as a transfer than a quest , and students do not learn " choice , doubt , suspended judgment , [ or ] dissent " . Parsons affirmed Peshkin 's findings as " remarkably representative " based on his own visits to " Christian schools in 60 cities " , though others are less absolutist . And while Julian McAllister Groves ( Journal of Contemporary Ethnography ) described the text as " beautifully written " and " poetic " , he doubted whether the school 's students were as converted as they said , and felt that Peshkin might have seen more " role distance " and examples of playing along simply for community acceptance had he stayed for lunch and other informal observations .

= Baltimore mayoral election , 1999 = On November 2 , 1999 , the city of Baltimore , Maryland , elected a new mayor , the 47th in the city 's history . Primary elections were held to determine the nominees for the Democratic Party and Republican Party on September 14 . Incumbent mayor Kurt Schmoke , a Democrat , opted not to run for reelection . Martin O 'Malley , a member of the Baltimore City Council , won the election to succeed Schmoke . Because Baltimore 's electorate is overwhelmingly Democratic , whoever won the Democratic primary election was seen as the favorite over the Republican nominee in the general election . Baltimore 's large African American population initially made it seem likely that the next mayor would also be African American . Kweisi Mfume was the preferred candidate of local politicians , but he opted not to run . Though Carl Stokes and Lawrence Bell , members of the City Council , declared for the race , local leaders were underwhelmed with the quality of declared candidates . In 1999 , Baltimore experienced high rates of murder and unemployment , and had a failing city school system . O 'Malley declared his candidacy , focusing his campaign on a " zero tolerance " approach to crime . He received endorsements from many of the city 's African American leaders . After a close race , O 'Malley overtook both Stokes and Bell to win the Democratic nomination , which all but assured him of victory in the general election . He defeated Republican candidate David F. Tufaro in the general election by an overwhelming majority . = = Background = = Kurt Schmoke , the incumbent Mayor of Baltimore , was serving his third term . He announced in December 1998 that he would not run for reelection the following year , the first time an incumbent Baltimore mayor did not run for reelection since 1971 . Schmoke was the first African American mayor in Baltimore 's history . Racial politics had long played a role in Baltimore . As the state of Maryland did not attempt to prevent African Americans from voting through Jim Crow laws , political coalitions often involved African American community leaders . Theodore McKeldin , who served as mayor from 1943 through 1947 and from 1963 through 1967 , was one of the first political leaders to work with African American community leaders . By 1999 , 63 % of Baltimore 's registered voters were African American , and 90 % were registered to the Democratic Party . Baltimore had not elected a Republican mayor since 1963 . As of 1999 , Baltimore experienced 300 murders a year , which was the fourth most in the nation . Unemployment was 9 % , twice the national average . Between 1990 and 1998 , Baltimore saw its population decrease by 12 @.@ 3 % , the second @-@ biggest decrease during that time period in the United States . This decrease led to its work force decreasing by one @-@ sixth . The city saw decreases in heavy @-@ manufacturing by 40 percent , distribution jobs by 35 percent , retail positions by 34 percent , and banking jobs by 28 percent . Also , the state of Maryland had taken over the city 's failing school system in 1996 , which upset African American politicians . State Senator Clarence M. Mitchell , IV called the takeover racist . Baltimore City Council members , including President Lawrence Bell and Martin O 'Malley , had opposed the handling of Baltimore 's high crime rate by Schmoke and Baltimore Police Department ( BPD ) Commissioner Thomas C. Frazier . = = Candidates = = = = = Democrats = = = Bell was considered in February 1999 to be the front @-@ runner in the mayoral race . Other potential candidates included State 's Attorney Patricia Jessamy , former City Councilman Carl Stokes , City Comptroller Joan Pratt , and Joan Carter Conway , a member of the Maryland State Senate . City leaders , including Howard P. Rawlings , a member of the Maryland House of Delegates , and William Donald Schaefer , the Comptroller of Maryland and Schmoke 's predecessor as mayor , feared that none of the potential candidates had the vision to continue the urban renewal that took place under Schmoke and Schaefer . They hoped that Baltimore @-@ native Kweisi Mfume , the president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , would run . Mfume had previously served on the Baltimore City Council and in the United States House of Representatives . Schmoke called the race " his to lose " . However , Mfume lived in nearby Catonsville , Maryland , and did not move into Baltimore until March , which would leave him short of the one year residency requirement . The state legislature passed a law shortening the residency requirement from one year to six months , which was signed into law by Democratic Governor Parris Glendening in April . Bell attempted to have the legislation overturned . The City Council , with Schmoke 's support considered raising the salary of the mayor in April , to make the position more enticing to Mfume . Also , 200 Baltimore citizens , including three former mayors , attempted to draft Mfume into the race . However , Mfume had signed a five @-@ year contract with the NAACP in 1996 . Mfume considered leaving the NAACP to run , but in May , decided to remain with the organization . Stokes announced his candidacy in December 1998 . Bell announced his candidacy two days after Mfume passed on running , in May 1999 , promising to tackle crime and improve public safety . Community leaders who attempted to draft Mfume into the race began to back Stokes . Other declared candidates included Mary Conaway , the City Register of Wills , activists A. Robert Kaufman , Robert Marsili , and Phillip Brown . Jessamy stated that without Mfume in the race , she would consider running , but she opted against getting into the race . A June 1999 poll conducted by Gonzales / Arscott Communications Inc . , a polling firm based in Annapolis , Maryland , showed Schaefer ahead of Bell . Schaefer stated that he had no interest in running , and threw his support behind Bishop Robinson , the former BPD Commissioner . Robinson chose not to run . O 'Malley initially supported Bell 's candidacy . Bell urged O 'Malley to endorse him , and offered him the job of city solicitor in exchange for his support . However , O 'Malley began to distance himself from Bell , not appearing at Bell 's campaign announcement , due to disagreements on several bills debated at the City Council . Bell 's supporters attempted to convince O 'Malley to run for City Council President , but O 'Malley announced his decision to run for mayor in June , becoming the first major candidate in the race who was Caucasian . He began the campaign largely unknown outside of Northeast Baltimore . = = = Republicans = = = On July 1 , David F. Tufaro , a real estate developer and lawyer from Roland Park , Maryland , announced his intention to run for the Republican Party nomination , joining three neighborhood activists who had already declared their intentions to run . Carl Adair , a public school teacher who had run unsuccessfully for the City Council and the Maryland House of Delegates on numerous occasions , was also a candidate for the Republican nomination . Republican Party officials quickly began to back Tufaro , who criticized the Democratic Party by pointing out that Democrats have led Baltimore in its decline . = = Campaign = = Fifteen candidates ended up running in the Democratic primary . The front @-@ runners were considered to be O 'Malley , Bell , and Stokes . Schmoke made no endorsement in the race . O 'Malley and Bell called for " zero tolerance " to all crime , though Stokes felt this policy was biased against minorities . Stokes ran on the issue of education , as he was a former member of the Baltimore school board , in addition to the city council . Stokes vowed to reduce class sizes and reverse the trend of citizens of Baltimore leaving the city to live in nearby suburbs . O 'Malley faced initial difficulties based on race , as a community leader stated that his entrance into the race " created some tension , " and that O 'Malley 's potential victory " would be the worst thing that could happen in this city " and could " tear this city apart . " Some saw his entrance in the race as an attempt to split the African American vote . However , O 'Malley received endorsements from prominent African American politicians in August , including Rawlings , fellow state Delegate Kenneth Montague , and Conway . Rawlings credited O 'Malley 's " track record of empowering black Americans . " He also received an endorsement from Schaefer . Some African Americans charged Rawlings with " stabbing us in the back " over the endorsement . Bell attempted to portray himself as the heir apparent to Schmoke . However , disclosures from a lawsuit revealed Bell 's financial troubles , which included having his car repossessed . Bell lost support after he stated that voters should choose him because " I look like you . " Stokes began to lose support after he was charged with lying about having a college degree , when it was discovered that he did not graduate from Loyola University Maryland , as his campaign literature stated . It was also revealed that Stokes settled an income tax lien . Bell 's supporters rallied outside the offices of The Baltimore Sun , challenging that they were writing negative stories about African American candidates , and giving better treatment to O 'Malley during the campaign . Stokes was able to recover support when he received endorsements from The Baltimore Sun , the Baltimore Afro @-@ American , and the ministerial alliance . Bell led Stokes in a poll conducted early in the race , 33 % to 17 % , before O 'Malley declared his candidacy . By late August , Bell slipped in the polls to third place , with O 'Malley and Stokes tied . Bell and O 'Malley began airing television commercials supporting their campaigns in early August , while Stokes did not begin to air commercials until September . O 'Malley also advertised on the radio . Seven candidates , including Democrats Bell , Stokes , O 'Malley , and Conaway , and Republicans Adair , Tufaro , and Arthur Cuffie Jr . , met for a debate on September 8 . The debate focused on crime , with Bell , Stokes , and O 'Malley making their cases regarding " zero tolerance " , while Adair and Tufaro declared their support for Frazier . = = Results = = = = = Democratic primary = = = The Democratic primary was held on September 14 . Turnout was high ; though the mayoral candidates expected about 100 @,@ 000 voters , about half of Baltimore 's 294 @,@ 000 registered voters voted in the primary elections . O 'Malley won the primary election with more than 50 % of the vote , though he received only 30 % of the African American vote . Bell and Stokes split a significant portion of the city 's black majority , but their combined total was less than O 'Malley . At his victory rally , O 'Malley called the election " a victory for diversity and a victory for inclusiveness " . = = = Republican primary = = = In the September 14 Republican primary , Tufaro received over half of the votes cast . Adair finished in second place . = = = General election = = = Despite the odds he faced in the general election , Tufaro promised to campaign against O 'Malley , not taking defeat as an inevitability . He pointed to Bret Schundler , the mayor of Jersey City , New Jersey , as evidence that a Republican could be elected in a heavily Democratic city . Schundler came to Baltimore to campaign for Tufaro . Regarding public housing , Tufaro called for renovations rather than demolishing vacant buildings , which drew criticism , as Housing Commissioner Daniel P. Henson III pointed out that renovating was more expensive than demolishing . O 'Malley promised to enforce provisions of the Community Reinvestment Act of 1977 , which require banks to invest in poor neighborhoods . Tufaro further proposed a plan for school vouchers and to drug test students , which drew opposition from the Baltimore Teachers Union and from O 'Malley , who favored expanding pre @-@ kindergarten and after @-@ school programs , while making summer school mandatory . When discussing the problem of HIV / AIDS in Baltimore , which disproportionately affects African Americans , both O 'Malley and Tufaro promised to continue the city 's needle exchange program . Tufaro criticized O 'Malley 's zero tolerance policy , suggesting it would lead to increased police brutality towards minorities . He instead proposed continuing Mayor Schmoke 's community policing strategy . Opponents of the zero tolerance policy tried to tie O 'Malley to the Baltimore Police shooting of an African American car theft suspect . WMAR @-@ TV conducted the only poll of the general election with SurveyUSA , which showed O 'Malley leading with 87 % of the vote . On Election Day , O 'Malley easily defeated Tufaro in the general election , receiving over 90 % of the vote . = = Aftermath = = = = = O 'Malley 's political career = = = Following his election , O 'Malley 's first personnel decision was to retain the director of the city 's economic development agency . O 'Malley had his transition team , and had them compile policy drafts by mid @-@ December , so they would be ready to compete for state funds when the Maryland State Legislature reconvened on January 12 , 2000 . He participated in the Newly Elected Mayors Program at the John F. Kennedy School of Government in mid @-@ November . By the beginning of December , he named five deputy mayors and filled most of his cabinet . He finalized his cabinet on December 7 , during his last session as a city councillor . He was sworn in as mayor later that day at the War Memorial Plaza , near Baltimore City Hall . In his first year in office , O 'Malley adopted a statistics @-@ based crime tracking system called CitiStat , modeled after Compstat . The system logged every call for service into a database for analysis . The Washington Post wrote in 2006 that Baltimore 's " homicide rate remains stubbornly high and its public school test scores disappointingly low . But CitiStat has saved an estimated $ 350 million and helped generate the city 's first budget surplus in years . " In 2004 , CitiStat accountability tool won Harvard University 's " Innovations in American Government " award . The system garnered interest from Washington , D.C. Mayor Adrian Fenty , as well as crime officials from the United Kingdom . O 'Malley considered a run for Governor of Maryland in the 2002 election , but decided not to run . He was reelected as Mayor of Baltimore in 2003 , and announced his candidacy for Governor in the 2006 election . The Baltimore Sun endorsed O 'Malley , saying : " When he was first elected mayor in 1999 , the former two @-@ term city councilman inherited a city of rising crime , failing schools , and shrinking economic prospects . He was able to reverse course in all of these areas . " The Washington Post criticized O 'Malley for " not solv [ ing ] the problems of rampant crime and rough schools in Baltimore " , but further said that " he put a dent in them . " . O 'Malley defeated incumbent Governor Bob Ehrlich 53 % -46 % in the November 7 , 2006 , general election . O 'Malley defeated Ehrlich in the 2010 election 56 % -42 % , receiving just over one million votes . O 'Malley was ineligible to run in the 2014 gubernatorial election due to term limits . O 'Malley publicly expressed interest in a presidential run in 2016 on multiple occasions . At a press conference at a National Governors Association meeting , O 'Malley stated he was laying " the framework " for a presidential run . = = = Depiction on The Wire = = = A fictionalized version of the events of this election were presented in third and fourth seasons of The Wire , a drama about crime and politics in Baltimore , which aired in 2004 and 2006 , respectively . Many saw the connection between O 'Malley and the character of Tommy Carcetti , a Caucasian Baltimore City Councillor who is elected mayor in an election against two African American opponents . Carlos Watson of MSNBC once introduced O 'Malley as " one of the real @-@ life inspirations for the mayor of the hit TV show The Wire " , to which O 'Malley responded that he was instead the show 's " antidote " . Show creator David Simon denied that the character of Tommy Carcetti was supposed to be O 'Malley , though he did acknowledge that O 'Malley was " one of several inspirations " for Carcetti . He further stated that while Carcetti was " reflective " of O 'Malley , Carcetti was a composite drawing aspects from other local politicians that he had covered when he worked as a reporter for The Baltimore Sun .

= Arikamedu = Arikamedu is an archaeological site in Southern India , inKakkayanthope , Ariyankuppam Commune , Puducherry . It is 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the capital , Pondicherry of the Indian territory of Puducherry . Sir Mortimer Wheeler 1945 , and Jean @-@ Marie Casal conducted achaeological excavations there in 1947 – 1950 . The site was identified as the port of Podouke , known as an " emporium " in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy . Digs have found Amphorae , Arretine ware , Roman lamps , glassware , glass and stone beads , and gems at the site . Based on these excavations , Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek ( Yavana ) trading post that traded with Rome , starting during the reign of Augustus Caesar , and lasted about two hundred years — from the late first century BCE to the first and second centuries CE . Subsequent investigation by Vimala Begley from 1989 to 1992 modified this assessment , and now place the period of occupation from the 2nd century BCE to the 8th century CE . Significant findings at Arikamedu indlcude numerous Indo @-@ Pacific beads , which facilitated fixing the period of its origin . Red and black ceramics — known as megalithic stones or Pandukal in Tamil meaning " old stones " and used to mark graves — have existed at the site even prior to and during Roman occupation of the site , and also in later periods . = = Location = = Arikamedu is a coastal fishing village , under the Ariankuppam Panchayat , on the southeastern coast of India , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Pondicherry , on the Pondicherry @-@ Cuddalore road ; it was originally a French colonial town . It is located on the bank of the Ariyankuppam River ( for most part of the year the river is considered a lagoon ) , also known as Virampattinam River , which forms the northern outlet of the Gingee River as it joins the Bay of Bengal . As the site is located at the bend of the river it provides protection to sea @-@ going vessels that dock there . The site has been subject to extensive archaeological excavations . The archaeological site is spread over an area of 34 @.@ 57 acres ( 13 @.@ 99 ha ) and has been under the control of the Archaeological Survey of India since 1982 . = = Etymology = = The name Arikamedu , an archaeological usage for the excavated site , originates in a Tamil word that means Mound of Arakan , based on the figurine of an avatar ( incarnation ) of the Jain Tirthankara Mahavira found at the site . It is also linked with Viraiyapattinam or Virampattinam , meaning Port of Virai , a village next to Arikamedu . Virai , according to Sangam literature , was well known as a port and also for its salt pans during the Velir dynasty . Arikamedu @-@ Virampatnam together find mention as Poduke , a major port in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in the first century CE and as Poduke emporion in Ptolemy 's Geographia of mid first century CE . Poduke is a Roman name and is also said to be a corrupted version of the Tamil name Potikai , meaning a " meeting place " , also known for the local Poduvar clan . = = History = = The first mention about Arikamedu was in 1734 , in a communication from the Consul of the Indo @-@ French colony of Pondicherry . It informed the French East India Company that villagers were extracting old bricks from the Virampattinam . The earliest mention of the Arikamedu archaeological site was by Le Gentil of France , who the King of France had assigned to observe notable astronomical occurrences in the world . Gentil , after visiting Arikamedu , confirmed the earlier report of the Consul of the Indo @-@ French colony . In 1765 , when he visited the ruins at the site , he found the people of the village collecting large ancient bricks exposed at the river bank . The villagers told him that they had retrieved the bricks from an old fort of the king the Vira @-@ Raguen . In 1937 , Jouveau Dubreuil , an Indologist , also from France , purchased gem stone antiquities from local children , and also gathered some exposed on the site 's surface . In particular , he found an intaglio carved with the picture of a man . As a numismatist , he identified the intaglio as Augustus Caesar . He also found fine beads and gems . He concluded that these antiquities belonged to the Roman Empire . Dubreuil informed the local Governor of Pondicherry about his find , and called Arikamedu " a true Roman city . " He published a short note about his findings . In the early 1940s , Service des Travaux Publics carried out random excavations . Father Fancheux and Raymand Surleau , who were not qualified archaeologists , carried out the excavations at Arikamedu and sent a few antiquities to Indian museums , and also to the École française d 'Extrême @-@ Orient in Hanoi . Sir R.E.M.Wheeler , the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India , in the 1940s saw a few potsherds of Arikamedu site displayed in the Madras Museum , which he identified as Arrentine ware , an expensive ceramic made until 50 CE in Arizzo , Italy . Thereafter , when he visited the Pondicherry Museum and saw more of the findings from the Arikamedu site , he was impressed and thought that he had found the links between the Classical Mediterranean and Ancient India . Soon thereafter in 1945 , the penultimate year of World War II , he mounted excavations in a scientific manner . He was looking for an archaeological site in India that could establish its cultural link , a datum of the Indian antiquities to the Greco @-@ Roman period , and this quest led him to the Arikamedu site . These excavations also involved Indian archaeologists , who were trained on the site . Wheeler published his findings in 1946 . He noted that , for the local fishermen of the village , the antiquities were strange — as they consisted of lamps , glass items , gemstones , cutlery and crockery , wine containers , etc . He also observed that traders traveled from west coast and from Ceylon , Kolchoi ( Colchi ) and the Ganges area to trade goods such as gems , pearls and spices , and silk . He carried out excavations carefully , so that none of the antiquities were damaged . This was followed by investigations after the war , from 1947 – 1950 by Jean @-@ Marie Casal . His report of excavations was not as fully published as Wheeler 's . His report was not well @-@ known in India , as it was not written in English . However , his important conclusion was that the site belonged to an early megalithic period , as he had located megalithic burials marked by stones , locally known in Tamil as Pandukal close to the site . The excavations led to antiquities of Roman origin such as beads and gems , amphorae ( wine making vats ) with remnants of wine , a Roman stamp , big bricks recovered from an old wall , Arretine ware and so forth . From these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the site was related to a period of trading with Rome , and that it was first established by emperor Augustus . He also noted that this Indo @-@ Roman trade lasted for a period of about 200 years , till 200 CE . Wheeler also found the Chinese celadon , identified to belong to the Song @-@ Yuvan dynasty , and Chola coins from about the eleventh century , but these were rejected as despoiling items or remnants left by brick @-@ robbers . Items Chinese blue @-@ and @-@ white ware were also recovered from the site . Wheeler noted that " rouletted Ware " found at the site ( designated as " Arikamedu Type 1 " in the scientific study under the " Arikamedu Type 10 Project : Mapping Early Historic Networks in South Asia and Beyond " ) was not of an Indian origin , but was from the Mediterranean region . A ceramic sherd , ( " Arikamedu Type 10 ) has also been investigated for its style and spatial distribution . After a gap of several decades , in the early 1980s , Vimala Begley studied the ceramics find of the site and proposed a preliminary version of the chronology of the occupation of the site . At the same time she started researching on the beads , organized a proper sequential display of the artifacts of the site at the Pondicherry Museum , and brought out an information brochure . Begley obtained approvals to carry out excavations at the site in collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Madras ; she and K.V. Raman were the directors of operation from 1989 to 1992 . Steven Sidebothom of the University of Delaware , who had back ground knowledge of Roman Egypt , was in charge of the trenching at the site . Further excavations were done during six working seasons from 1989 to 1992 , which led to a contradictory view that the brick structures and the wells investigated by Wheeler were of poor quality as they were founded on poor sandy foundations . The wood work was also noted to be of poor quality and the houses had no waterproofing . The excavations also lead to a view that Arikamedu 's Roman trading link was more of an inference . The excavations have now established that the trading with Rome extended to a period beyond that assessed by Wheeler ; that trading continued from the second century BCE to the seventh or eighth century CE . The extensive findings of glass and stone beads at the site provided Begley the link to Arikamedu 's history . She identified the beads as Indo @-@ Pacific beads crafted at Arikamedu . Based on the antiquities and structural features from the excavations , Begley and Raman established a revised sequence of six major periods of occupation of the site . Finds of new variety of Roman Amphorae ware also facilitated revision of the dates of occupancy . They have also inferred that the site has been in continuous occupation since at least 2nd or 3rd century BCE to much more recent times . = = Excavations = = The excavated area of the mound was demarcated into two zones on the basis of occupation and elevation . Northern sector of the mound is nearer to the sea coast while the southern sector is farther away from the coast . The ceramic find of crockery and cooking vessels found in the northern sector were indicative of mass feeding of sailors and traders who camped there . Wine stored in amphorae was the principal item imported from the western countries during the later part of the 2nd century BCE . According to Wheeler the finds from the northern and southern part of the mound belong to the period from later part of 1st century BCE to 1st and 2nd centuries CE . Identified structures include : A brick and lime mortar plaster structure of oblong shape 45 metres ( 148 ft ) in length , with a divide wall , used as a storehouse in the southern part Two walled enclosures with ponds and drainage systems in the northern part of the mound that could indicate of dyeing operations that used vats to dye muslin for export Pottery , both local and Mediterranean , such as amphorae and Arrentine ware that belonged to the Terra Sigillata ( stamped pottery ) of 1st century BCE , which went out of use by 50 CE Pink amphorae jars used to store wine or oil with two handles and a yellow slip , found in all layers of excavations Smaller objects include a wheel @-@ turned blackware ceramic , a few terracotta figurines , shell beads , gems , gold , terracotta , iron nails , copper percussion beater , red fragment of a Roman lamp shade , an engraved emblem of emperor Augustus , an ivory handle , and a wooden toy boat . Based on these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek ( Yavana ) trading station . However , recent excavations by Begley have altered this assessment . The buildings in the northern part of the mound indicative urbanization , with people of different ethnic groups — Indian and non @-@ Indian — but it has not been possible to date them in view of the limited depth of excavations . = = Conservation = = An international conference that the Government of Pondicherry and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs held in October 2004 decided to investigate the Arikamedu site jointly for conservation , as its ancient commercial link with the Romans has been established . During this conference , the Government of Pondicherry also decided to propose the site for status as a World Heritage Site of UNESCO . The Archaeological Survey of India also proposed the site for UNESCO Cultural Heritage Site status , under the title Silk Road Sites in India .

= Hurricane Ingrid = Hurricane Ingrid was one of two tropical cyclones , along with Hurricane Manuel , to strike Mexico within a 24 ‑ hour period , the first such occurrence since 1958 . Ingrid was the ninth named storm and second hurricane of the 2013 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed on September 12 in the Gulf of Mexico from a broad disturbance that also spawned Manuel in the eastern Pacific . After initially moving westward toward Veracruz , Ingrid turned northeastward away from the coast . Favorable conditions allowed it to attain hurricane status on September 14 , and the next day Ingrid attained peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Subsequently , increased wind shear weakened the convection as the storm turned more to the northwest and west . On September 16 , Ingrid made landfall just south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico as a strong tropical storm , and dissipated the next day . The combined impacts of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel affected two @-@ thirds of Mexico , killing 192 people and causing $ 75 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 5 @.@ 7 billion USD ) in damage . Most of the effects were due to Manuel , though Ingrid was directly responsible for at least 32 deaths and $ 20 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD ) in damage . The two storms produced 162 billion m3 ( 5 @.@ 7 trillion cu ft ) of water , the equivalent of filling every dam in Mexico . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 511 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) in Tuxpan , Veracruz . The rains caused widespread flooding , damaging at least 14 @,@ 000 houses and hundreds of roads and bridges . In Tamaulipas , where the storm made landfall , the rainfall damaged crops and flooded rivers . The effects of the storm spread into southern Texas , causing high tides and some flooding . After the storm , the Mexican government declared several municipalities as states of emergency . Relief agencies distributed food and aid to the hardest hit areas , although in Tamaulipas , residents had to rely on assistance from the local Gulf Cartel . The names Ingrid and Manuel were both later retired due to their impacts . = = Meteorological history = = On August 28 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa , which moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development . On September 2 , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , developed along the northern portion of the wave , but was eventually absorbed into Tropical Storm Gabrielle north of Puerto Rico . The wave continued westward through the Caribbean Sea into a large area of cyclonic flow at the surface , which extended across Central America into the eastern Pacific . Around September 9 , the broad system developed two areas of disturbed weather – one in the eastern Pacific would become Hurricane Manuel , and the other developing over the northwestern Caribbean . The latter system slowly organized , developing a low pressure area on September 11 . Subsequently , the system moved over the Yucatán Peninsula . Although land interaction prevented immediate development , conditions favored further development in the Bay of Campeche . Early on September 12 , the low emerged into the bay , and at 1800 UTC the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) assessed that Tropical Depression Ten developed about 280 km ( 170 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Veracruz . This was confirmed by a Hurricane Hunters flight indicating the presence of a closed low @-@ level circulation . On September 13 , convection and organization increased and the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Ingrid , while weak steering currents resulted in little movement of the cyclone . Partially due to the presence of nearby Hurricane Manuel in the eastern Pacific basin on the other side of Mexico , significant wind shear existed in the vicinity of Ingrid . Nonetheless , strong convection and intermittent development of an eye allowed for strengthening of the storm on September 14 . Ingrid strengthened into a hurricane – the second of the season – that afternoon . Around that time , the hurricane turned sharply northeastward due to a trough over eastern Mexico and a ridge over the southeastern United States . Additional strengthening took place thereafter , and Ingrid reached a peak intensity of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) early on September 15 while starting to move northward and begin a northwest turn towards the Mexican coastline . Afterward Ingrid reached peak winds , shear increased and began to weaken the hurricane as it approached the Mexican coast . The center became displaced to the edge of the convection , and NHC forecaster Daniel Brown noted that Ingrid " [ did ] not resemble a classic hurricane in satellite pictures . " At around 1115 UTC on September 16 , Ingrid made landfall just south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico , after having weakened into a strong tropical storm with 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) winds . Near landfall , the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) which , after adjusting to surface winds , confirmed the weakening . The storm moved ashore less than 24 hours after Tropical Storm Manuel struck the Pacific coast of Mexico on Michoacán , making it the first time since 1958 that tropical cyclones struck both coasts of the country within one day . Ingrid rapidly weakened into a tropical depression over land , and although convection temporarily reorganized , the circulation dissipated on September 17 . = = Preparations and impact = = Several tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted in anticipation of the storm . Upon the development of Ingrid into a tropical cyclone at 2100 UTC on September 12 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Coatzacoalcos to Nautla , Veracruz . At 1500 UTC on September 13 , the tropical storm warning was extended northward to Cabo Rojo , Veracruz , with a tropical storm watch northward to La Pesca , Tamaulipas . Later , a hurricane warning was issued between Cabo Rojo to La Pesca , with a tropical storm watch to Bahia Algodones , Tamaulipas . Pemex , the oil company operated by the Mexican government , evacuated workers from three platforms in the Gulf of Mexico due to the storm . In Tamaulipas , classes were canceled in 27 municipalities , and all classes were temporarily canceled throughout Veracruz . The threat of the storm caused events for Mexican Independence Day to be canceled . After a restriction on the news in 2010 due to the local drug war , members of a citizen alert system in Tamaulipas used Twitter to notify about flooding , missing people , and the need for assistance . Early in its duration , Ingrid produced tropical storm force winds along the coast of Veracruz . While making landfall , it also brought tropical storm force winds along the northeastern Mexican coast . Sustained winds at La Pesca peaked at 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , with gusts to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . The NHC remarked that Ingrid " likely caused above normal tides " in northeastern Mexico , but there was no data to back up the statement . Interacting with Hurricane Manual on the Pacific coast and the broad cyclonic flow , Ingrid dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Mexico , primarily in Tabasco , Veracruz , and Tamaulipas states . In Tuxpan , Veracruz , rainfall totaled 511 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) over 10 days , while at the Presa Vicente Guerrero dam in Tamaulipas , precipitation reached 502 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) . Surface runoff from the storm spread to the Pacific coast of Mexico , producing flooding in Guerrero in combination with Manuel . The impacts from both storms produced 162 billion m3 ( 5 @.@ 7 trillion cu ft ) of water , the equivalent of filling every dam in the country . The combined effects of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel affected about two @-@ thirds of Mexico . The rains from Ingrid caused flooding and landslides across Mexico , causing many rivers to rise , and isolating towns . In Veracruz alone , the rains flooded 68 rivers , which damaged 121 roads and 31 bridges , including two destroyed bridges . About 14 @,@ 000 houses were damaged to some degree . Heavy rainfall forced 23 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes , 9 @,@ 000 of whom went to emergency shelters , some forced to leave by the Mexican army in high risk areas . Evacuees who did not reside in shelters generally went to the houses of friends and family . Also in Veracruz , flooding killed about 20 @,@ 000 livestock . Along the coast of Tamaulipas , damage occurred from Soto la Marina to La Pesca . The Pánuco River in Tamaulipas rose above its banks , flooding two poor towns along its path and damaging adjacent roads . Also in the state , the storm damaged local sorghum fields . Two people in the state required rescue after their truck was swept away by a river . Throughout Mexico , Ingrid killed 32 people , mostly due to flooding and mudslides . The two storms collectively killed at least 192 people and caused $ 75 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 5 @.@ 7 billion USD ) . Manuel was responsible for majority of the overall effects , although Ingrid still left an estimated $ 20 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD ) in estimated economic losses , according to AON Benfield ; insured damages totaled $ 3 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 230 million USD ) . A total of six fatalities occurred in the states of Hidalgo and Puebla . Three of which were caused after a vehicle was swept off a road , while three other people died after their home was buried by a mudslide ; another death occurred in Hidalgo after a house collapsed on a woman in the town of Tepehuacán de Guerrero . Twelve people died after a landslide smashed a bus in Altotonga , Veracruz , and three people died in Tamaulipas . The fringes of the storm extended into southern Texas , where winds gusted to tropical storm force , and rainfall was around 25 – 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 2 @.@ 95 in ) . Thunderstorms and high tides affected the coastline , with tides reaching 0 @.@ 76 m ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) above normal , causing beaches to close due to flooding . = = Aftermath and retirement = = The twin impacts of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel prompted officials in Mexico to declare a state of emergency in 155 municipalities in Veracruz , Tamaulipas , Chiapas , Oaxaca , Guerrero , and Chihuahua . The nation 's Health Ministry sent medical crews across the country to affected areas in an effort to prevent the spread of disease ; the agency also suggested residents boil their water . Officials opened shelters in Tamaulipas for residents whose houses were damaged , housing about 2 @,@ 000 people in the weeks following the storm . The Mexican food bank sent about 800 tons of food to the hardest @-@ hit parts of the country in Guerrero , Veracruz , and Sinaloa . In addition , the Mexican Red Cross delivered 186 tons of food to Veracruz alone . Volunteers delivered about 600 blankets and various cleaning supplies to the town of Pánuco . Following the storms , the National Civil Protection Coordination received the authority to prevent housing construction in areas at risk for mudslides and flooding ; the law had passed in 2012 , but initially lacked the authority to enforce it . Some residents in Tamaulipas complained at the slow pace of receiving aid . In response , the Gulf Cartel brought relief items to Aldama , with one columnist for El Universal suggesting that this was to gain favor with local residents . Because of the severe damage caused by the storm in Mexico , the name Ingrid was later retired by the World Meteorological Organization , and will never again be used for a North Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with Imelda for the 2019 Atlantic hurricane season . The name Manuel was also retired from the Pacific naming list and was replaced with Mario .

= Typhoon Imbudo = Typhoon Imbudo , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Harurot , was a powerful typhoon that struck the Philippines and southern China in July 2003 . The seventh named storm and fourth typhoon of the season , Imbudo formed on July 15 to the east of the Philippines . The storm moved generally west @-@ northward for much of its duration due to a ridge to the north . Favorable conditions allowed Imbudo to intensify , gradually at first before undergoing rapid deepening on July 19 . After reaching typhoon status , Imbudo strengthened further to peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) on July 20 . The typhoon made landfall on northern Luzon near peak intensity on July 22 , but quickly weakened over land . Once in the South China Sea , Imbudo re @-@ intensified slightly before making its final landfall in southern China near Yangjiang on July 24 , dissipating the next day . In the Philippines , Imbudo was the strongest typhoon in five years , causing widespread flooding and power outages in the Cagayan Valley for weeks . Damage was heaviest in Isabela province near where the storm struck . Most of the banana crop was destroyed , and other crops sustained similar but lesser damage . Imbudo disrupted transportation across much of Luzon . Nationwide , the storm damaged or destroyed 62 @,@ 314 houses , causing P4.7 billion ( PHP , $ 86 million USD ) in damage , mostly in the Cagayan Valley . There were also 64 deaths in the country . In Hong Kong , strong winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform . In China , damage was heaviest in Guangdong where the storm struck . Thousands of trees fell , and 595 @,@ 000 houses were wrecked . Hundreds of canceled flights stranded travelers across the region . In Guangxi , high rainfall increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels . In Guangxi and Guangdong , collectively 20 people were killed , and damage reached about ¥ 4 @.@ 45 billion ( CNY , $ 297 million USD ) . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of Imbudo were from a disorganized area of convection near Chuuk in the open western Pacific in mid @-@ July . With weak wind shear , the system slowly became better organized . On July 15 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression formed . The next day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert ( TCFA ) , noting that outflow had increased due to an upper @-@ level low to the northeast . At 1800 UTC on July 16 , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 09W about 665 km ( 415 mi ) east of Yap . A subtropical ridge near Okinawa steered the nascent depression to the west @-@ northwest for much of its duration . With warm waters and favorable upper @-@ level conditions , the depression quickly organized , and the JMA upgraded it to Tropical Storm Imbudo on July 17 . After becoming a tropical storm , Imbudo passed about 35 km ( 20 mi ) north of Yap . The JMA upgraded Imbudo to a severe tropical storm late on July 18 , around the same time that the JTWC upgraded it to a typhoon . An increase in outflow to the south and to the north from a tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) caused a 36 ‑ hour period of rapid development beginning on July 19 . During that time , the JMA upgraded Imbudo to typhoon status , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories as the storm approached the Philippines , and a 30 km ( 20 mi ) wide eye formed . At 1200 UTC on July 20 , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . At the same time , the JTWC estimated 1 minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , making it a super typhoon . By late on July 20 , the typhoon had developed concentric eyewalls , and the TUTT was moving away , thus diminishing outflow . Imbudo maintained peak winds for about 12 hours , before the innermost eye contracted to a diameter of 11 km ( 7 mi ) in the midst of an eyewall replacement cycle . At 0300 UTC on July 22 , Imbudo struck northern Luzon , with 1 minute winds estimated at 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) by the JTWC . Rapidly weakening over land , Imbudo emerged into the South China Sea about six hours after landfall . The JTWC estimated winds had decreased to 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , although the agency estimated Imbudo quickly re @-@ intensified to a secondary peak of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) in 1 minute winds . Dry air prevented convection from redeveloping significantly , and the eye had become large over open waters . At 0300 UTC on July 24 , Imbudo made its final landfall west of Macau , near Yangjiang , Guangdong . It was the strongest to hit the province since Typhoon Sally in 1996 , striking China with 10 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , as estimated by the JMA . The storm rapidly weakened over land while moving over southern China . Late on July 25 , Imbudo dissipated near the border of China and Vietnam . = = Preparations = = Before Imbudo struck , officials evacuated over 14 @,@ 000 people to at least 60 shelters . Government offices were closed along the typhoon 's path , and schools were closed in the capital , Manila . PAGASA issued a number 4 warning signal , the highest level , for three northern provinces , indicating the imminent threat of a powerful storm . Despite the warning , a post @-@ storm survey in Isabela province indicated that 34 % were unaware of the storm 's arrival , while others believed the typhoon would not be as strong . In Manila , four flights were canceled at Ninoy Aquino International Airport , and the Manila Light Rail Transit System was shut down for two hours . Travel by ship and bus were halted in some areas . On July 22 before the storm struck , the Philippine military was put on red alert , increasing security at the presidential palace . The military stated it was due to the typhoon , although newspapers suggested it was to prevent a coup attempt ; a failed coup ultimately did occur on July 27 in what would become known as the Oakwood mutiny . The Hong Kong Observatory issued a number 8 warning signal , indicating the potential for gale force winds within the territory . At Hong Kong International Airport , at least 100 flights were canceled or delayed . Most ferry and some bus lines were temporarily suspended . The threat of the storm caused 16 flights to be canceled and another 54 delayed at Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport . On Hainan island , 32 canceled flights stranded about 1 @,@ 500 travelers . The threat of the storm forced British Prime Minister Tony Blair to shorten a trip to the territory . The Hong Kong Stock Exchange opened 30 minutes late as a result of the typhoon . On the mainland at Yangjiang , more than 30 @,@ 000 people evacuated ahead of the storm . = = Impact = = = = = Philippines = = = Typhoon Imbudo was the strongest typhoon to strike Luzon since Typhoon Zeb five years prior , and was the fifth storm in eight weeks to affect the country . The typhoon left widespread areas flooded for several days . Cagayan Valley was largely isolated after a bridge was damaged in Ilocos Norte . Damage was heavy in the region , totaling P2.2 billion ( PHP , $ 40 million USD ) , and over 80 @,@ 000 people were displaced by the storm . Damage was heaviest in Isabela , where damage was estimated at P1.9 billion ( PHP , $ 35 million USD ) , mostly to crops and killed livestock . There , winds and rain knocked down trees and caused a province @-@ wide power outage . Most trees less than three years old fell during the high winds . In Isabela province , the banana crop was almost entirely destroyed , and most of the corn and rice crops were heavily damaged . The high damage caused the gross regional product , or overall economy of the Cagayan Valley , to decrease by 0 @.@ 3 % than what would have happened without the typhoon . Power outages affected Metro Manila , and several billboards were damaged in the city , although there was minimal flooding in the capital . Adverse conditions caused the Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 1 to close for two hours , stranding hundreds . High winds knocked over a 12 m ( 40 ft ) tree that killed five on Romblon Island . The rains brought the Magat Dam on Luzon to capacity . Landslides blocked a national highway in Nueva Ecija with debris and fallen trees , which were quickly cleared within a few days . On Mindanao , flash flooding from the outer periphery of the storm affected 18 towns , killing 11 people . In Maguindanao in the southern Philippines , flooding washed away 50 houses , forcing over 2 @,@ 000 people to evacuate . Damage extended as far south as the Western Visayas . Across the Philippines , Imbudo damaged 62 @,@ 314 houses , of which about 20 % were destroyed . Housing damage was estimated at P1.2 billion ( PHP , $ 22 million USD ) , most of which in the Cagayan Valley . Overall damage in the country was estimated at about P4.7 billion ( PHP , $ 86 million USD ) . Of the total , about P1.9 billion ( PHP , $ 35 million USD ) was in agriculture damage . Imbudo killed 64 people in the Philippines , mostly in Cagayan Valley , and injured another 154 . = = = Elsewhere = = = Early in its developmental stages , Imbudo affected portions of Micronesia , particularly Ulithi . There , a weather station measured a peak wind gust of 85 km / h ( 53 mph ) ; winds of similar intensity were reported in Yap . Rainfall from Imbudo in Micronesia peaked at 226 mm ( 8 @.@ 89 in ) over a six @-@ hour period on Yap . The rainfall from the passing tropical cyclone caused $ 75 @,@ 000 in property damage and $ 25 @,@ 000 in agricultural and crop @-@ related damage . Before Imbudo struck mainland China , it passed south of Taiwan , dropping heavy rainfall reaching 137 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) in Taitung County . The outer rainbands reached as far as Okinawa , where 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) was reported . Peak rainfall in Hong Kong was 53 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 11 in ) at Kwai Chung , only a day after Tropical Storm Koni dropped rainfall in the territory , and the highest storm surge was 1 @.@ 13 m ( 3 @.@ 7 ft ) at Tsim Bei Tsui . As the storm passed to the south , Imbudo produced winds of 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) on Cheung Chau , the highest in the Hong Kong territory , although a gust of 164 km / h ( 102 mph ) was observed at Tai Mo Shan . High winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform . The winds knocked down 83 trees , injuring 11 people . Rough waves injured 34 people traveling by boat near Lantau Island . In the territory , ten boats were damaged or sank , and one fishing pier was damaged . At its final landfall in Guangdong , Imbudo produced strong winds , with a peak gust of 200 km / h ( 124 mph ) measured at Shangchuan Island . At Yangjiang , gusts reached 159 km / h ( 99 mph ) , causing eleven boats to sink . There , over 10 @,@ 000 trees fell due to the strong winds , more than half in the city , and 7 @,@ 649 homes were damaged or destroyed . In Zhanjiang , the storm damaged power lines and water pumps , leaving residents without access to water . Imbudo spawned tornadoes in Luoding and Zhanjiang , damaging dozens of houses and killing 6 @,@ 000 chickens . Throughout Guangdong , Imbudo destroyed 595 @,@ 000 houses and caused ¥ 1 @.@ 9 billion ( CNY , $ 230 million USD ) . There were at least eight deaths in the province . In Hainan island to the south of the storm track , rainfall reached 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in Ding 'an County . Imbudo caused flooding in the capital Haikou , and several houses were wrecked . The typhoon affected most of the population , causing an estimated ¥ 55 @.@ 35 million ( CNY , $ 6 @.@ 7 million USD ) in damage . Heavy rainfall spread across southern China , peaking at 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) at Hepu County in Guangxi province , which increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels . The Nanliu River in Bobai County rose to 50 @.@ 21 m ( 164 @.@ 7 ft ) , or 0 @.@ 71 m ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) above flood stage . In Guangxi , 12 people died from storm damage or drowning , and at least 130 livestock were killed . Imbudo destroyed 4 @,@ 950 houses , 3 @,@ 170 of which in the city of Yulin , causing ¥ 499 @.@ 6 million ( CNY , $ 60 @.@ 3 million USD ) in damage in the province . Across southern China , the typhoon damaged over 10 million hectares ( 25 million acres ) of crop fields . = = Aftermath = = Immediately after the storm , the Philippine Air Force were mobilized to help deliver supplies and aid in search and rescue missions . On July 24 , President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo declared that the National Disaster Coordinating Council would provide assistance to citizens affected by the typhoon . The president requested P134 million ( PHP , $ 2 @.@ 5 million USD ) for farmers to buy new seeds , and P35 million ( PHP , $ 650 @,@ 000 USD ) to rebuild the hard @-@ hit Cagayan Valley , where Arroyo visited days after the storm struck . The government ultimately spent about P24 million ( PHP , $ 435 @,@ 000 USD ) in emergency aid for relocating storm victims , search and rescue operations , and assistance . In Mindanao , officials prepared 800 bags of rice and various other food supplies due to the storm . Power and water outages persisted across Luzon for up to three weeks , causing many factories otherwise undamaged to close . In Isabela province , 25 Tzu Chi volunteers provided supplies to 2 @,@ 873 houses . The Philippine government provided rice , sardines , and coffee to many affected houses . Damaged houses were supposed to receive 1 @,@ 000 pesos , although few received the monetary aid . In the town of San Mariano in Isabela province , most farmers incurred more debt and continued their same general farming practice , despite sustaining heavy losses from the storm . In 2004 , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Imbudo and replaced it with Molave . The PAGASA name Harurot was replaced with Hanna for the 2007 season .

= Hurricane Felicia ( 2009 ) = Hurricane Felicia was the third strongest tropical cyclone of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season , as well as the strongest storm to exist in the eastern Pacific at the time since Hurricane Daniel in 2006 . Forming as a tropical depression on August 3 , the storm supported strong thunderstorm activity and quickly organized . It became a tropical storm over the following day , and subsequently underwent rapid deepening to attain hurricane status . Later that afternoon , Felicia featured a well @-@ defined eye as its winds sharply rose to major hurricane @-@ force on the Saffir – Simpson scale . Further strengthening ensued , and Felicia peaked in intensity as a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 935 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) . After reaching this strength , unfavorable conditions , such as wind shear , began to impact the storm while it took on a northwestward path . Henceforth , Felicia slowly weakened for several days ; by August 8 it had been downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane , once again becoming a tropical storm the next day . It retraced westward towards Hawaii on August 10 , all the while decreasing in organization . On August 11 , Felicia weakened to tropical depression status , and soon degenerated into remnant low just prior to passing over the islands . After weakening into a remnant low , Felicia continued to approach the Hawaiian Islands and on August 12 , the system produced copious amounts of rainfall across several islands . The highest total was recorded on Oahu at 14 @.@ 63 in ( 372 mm ) , causing isolated mudslides and flooding . In Maui , the heavy rains helped to alleviate drought conditions and water shortages , significantly increasing the total water across the island 's reservoirs . In addition , river flooding resulted in the closure of one school and large swells produced by the storm resulted in several lifeguard rescues at island beaches . In all , only minor impacts were caused by the remnants of Felicia . = = Meteorological history = = Hurricane Felicia originated from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on July 23 , 2009 . A weak system , the wave was barely identifiable as it tracked westward . By July 26 , the wave entered the Caribbean Sea before crossing Central America and entering the eastern Pacific basin on July 29 . The system remained ill @-@ defined until August 1 , at which time convection began to increase and the wave showed signs of organization . The storm gradually became better organized as it tracked generally towards the west . By August 3 , the system became increasingly organized and around 11 : 00 am PDT ( 1800 UTC ) , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) designated the system as Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E. Convective banding features and poleward outflow were being enhanced by the nearby Tropical Storm Enrique . The main steering component of the depression was an upper @-@ level low located to the north , causing the depression to track generally west before turning northwest after the low weakened . By the early morning hours of August 4 , the NHC upgraded Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E to Tropical Storm Felicia , the seventh named storm of the season . Located within an area of low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures , averaging between 28 and 29 ° C ( 82 and 84 ° F ) , the storm quickly developed , with deep convection persisting around the center of circulation . These conditions were anticipated to persist for at least three days ; however , there was an increased amount of uncertainty due to possible interaction with Tropical Storm Enrique . Several hours later , the storm began to undergo rapid intensification , following the formation of an eye . Around 2 : 00 pm PDT ( 2100 UTC ) , Felicia intensified into a hurricane . Late on August 4 , the intensity of Felicia led to it taking a more northward turn in response to a mid- to upper @-@ level trough off the coast of the Western United States . Early the next morning , the storm continued to intensify and attained Category 3 status with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Maintaining a well @-@ defined eye , Felicia neared Category 4 status and hours later , the storm attained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a pressure of 937 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 67 inHg ) during the evening hours , making it the strongest Pacific storm east of the International Date Line since Hurricane Ioke in 2006 and the strongest in the eastern Pacific basin since Hurricane Daniel of 2006 . Around 5 : 00 pm PDT ( 0000 UTC August 6 ) Felicia reached its peak intensity with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 935 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) . After slightly weakening throughout the day on August 6 , Felicia leveled out with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a 23 mi ( 37 km ) wide eye as the storm developed characteristics of an annular hurricane , which would allow Felicia to maintain a high intensity over marginally warm waters . Early the next day , the structure of the hurricane quickly deteriorated as convection became asymmetric and cloud tops warmed significantly . This marked a quick drop in intensity of the storm to a minimal Category 3 hurricane . Several hours later , the mid @-@ level circulation began to separate from the low @-@ level circulation and the overall size of the storm decreased . By this time , the storm began to take a long @-@ anticipated westward turn towards Hawaii . After briefly re @-@ intensifying on August 7 , Felicia weakened to a Category 1 hurricane early on August 8 . Around 11 : 00 am HST ( 2100 UTC ) , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) took over responsibility of issuing advisories as Felicia crossed longitude 140 ° W. By August 9 , increasing wind shear further weakened the storm , with Felicia being downgraded to a tropical storm early that day . The storm rapidly weakened throughout the day as convection gradually dissipated around the center due to the shear . By the late morning hours , little convective activity remained around the low pressure center of Felicia . A weak cyclone , the storm continued to track towards Hawaii with the only deep convection associated with it being displaced to the northeast of the center . The system slowly weakened before being downgraded to a tropical depression on August 11 as no areas of tropical storm @-@ force winds were found by Hurricane Hunters . Several hours after being downgraded , the CPHC issued its final advisory on Felicia as it degenerated into a remnant low near the Hawaiian Islands . The system dissipated shortly thereafter . = = Preparations = = By August 5 , forecasters were discussing the possibility of the storm impacting Hawaii . Residents were advised to ensure that their disaster kits were fully stocked and ready . Governor Linda Lingle made a speech to the state of Hawaii the same day . She emphasized that the storm was not an imminent threat but that residents should be ready and should know where the nearest emergency shelter is . Since forecasters expected the storm to weaken before it reached the islands , only minor effects — mainly rainfall — were expected . Hawaii County mayor Billy Kenoi was also briefed on the approaching storm and he advised the county to be prepared . Stores reported an influx of shoppers and posted anniversary sales . Blue tarps for roofs were being sold at $ 1 apiece . The American Red Cross also reported that sales of the " water bob " , a water container that can be attached to a bathtub and hold roughly 100 gallons of water , increased significantly . On August 6 , the Red Cross stated that it was deploying a disaster recovery team , led by the director of the agency , to the islands of Hawaii . On August 7 , five Hurricane Hunter planes were dispatched to Hickam Air Force Base to fly missions into the storm . Later that day , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued tropical storm watches for the island of Hawaii , Maui , Kahoolawe , Lanai , and Molokai . On August 9 , the watch was expanded to include Oahu . The watches for the Big Island were later cancelled as the forecast track appeared to drift further north toward Maui County and Oahu . The Red Cross opened shelters throughout the islands on August 10 . Twelve were on the Big Island , seven were on Maui , two on Molokai and one on Lanai . The Honolulu International Airport ensured that eight generators were ready for use in case Felicia caused a power outage at the airport . All tropical storm watches were cancelled at 11 a.m. August 11 as Felicia dissipated to a remnant low . = = Impact = = = = = Oahu = = = In Oahu , areas on the windward side of the island received more than 1 in ( 25 mm ) of rain on August 12 from the remnants of Felicia , causing many roads to become slick . A portion of Kamehameha Highway was shut down around 11 : 00 pm HST when the Waikane Stream overflowed its banks . Flooding near a bridge reached a depth of 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , stranding some residents in their homes . The highway remained closed until around 4 : 00 am HST on August 14 . The rain was also considered helpful in that it helped alleviate drought conditions that had been present for nearly two months . The heaviest rainfall was recorded on Oahu at 14 @.@ 63 in ( 372 mm ) in the Forest National Wildlife Refuge . During a 12 @-@ hour span , a total of 6 @.@ 34 in ( 161 mm ) fell in Waiahole . Some areas recorded rainfall rates up to 1 in / h ( 25 mm / h ) , triggering isolated mudslides . At Sandy Beach , there were two lifeguard rescues and three others were on Makapuʻu as waves up to 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) affected the islands . There were also five assists at Makapuʻu and one at Kailua Beach . Lifeguards issued a total of 1 @,@ 410 verbal warnings about the rough seas to swimmers and surfers during the event . However , winds on the island reached only 15 mph ( 25 km / h ) and gusts peaked at 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) . = = = Other islands = = = On Kauai , the Hanalei River rose above its normal level , leading to the closure of the Hanalei School . Several tree limbs and small trees were blown down across the island . Rainfall on Kauai peaked at 5 @.@ 33 in ( 135 mm ) at Mount Wai 'ale 'ale and on Maui , up to 4 @.@ 05 in ( 103 mm ) fell in Kaupo Gap . On the leeward side of the mountains , rainfall peaked at 1 @.@ 3 in ( 33 mm ) in Kihei , an area that rarely records rainfall in August . Throughout the island , the total amount of water in reservoirs increased to 104 @.@ 5 million gallons ( 395 @.@ 5 million liters ) from 77 @.@ 8 million gallons ( 294 @.@ 5 million liters ) prior to Felicia . Rainfall in some areas was heavy enough at times to reduce visibility to several feet . Streets in these areas were covered with muddy water . Localized heavy rainfall fell on the Big Island , peaking at 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) in Kealakekua . In Wailua Beach , there was one lifeguard rescue that resulted in the swimmer being sent to a local hospital . Three other people were swept away at the mouth of the Wailua River , all of whom were quickly rescued . In Honolulu , runoff from the storm resulted in large amounts of trash and debris along the local beaches . Private contractors were dispatched to the affected coastlines to trap and remove the trash . Officials were forced to close the beaches along Hanauma Bay after swells from Felicia pushed an estimated 2 @,@ 000 Portuguese Man o ' War siphonophorae into the region . The beaches were later re @-@ opened on August 14 .

= Santa @-@ Fe ( Bob Dylan song ) = " Santa @-@ Fe " ( sometimes spelled " Santa Fe " or " Santa Fé " ) is a song that was recorded by Bob Dylan and the Band in the summer or fall of 1967 in the Woodstock area of New York State . It was recorded during the sessions that would in 1975 be released on The Basement Tapes but was not included on that album . These sessions took place in three phases throughout the year , at a trio of houses , and " Santa @-@ Fe " was likely put on tape in the second of these , at a home of some of the Band members , known as Big Pink . The composition , which has been characterized as a " nonsense " song , was copyrighted in 1973 with lyrics that differ noticeably from those on the recording itself . In the decades following this collaboration , the over 100 tracks recorded at these sessions were at different stages obtained by collectors and released on bootlegs . The first batch of these leaked to the public beginning in the late 1960s ; the second in 1986 ; the third , which included " Santa @-@ Fe " , in the early 1990s ; and a fourth batch of Basement Tape tracks became public in 2014 . The song was released officially on the Columbia album The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ( Rare & Unreleased ) 1961 – 1991 . It has been subject to mixed opinions by critics and biographers , with some praising it for its expressiveness , and others regarding it unmemorable , while criticizing its inclusion on The Bootleg Series at the expense of more worthy candidates . = = Background = = = = = Recording near Woodstock = = = In 1965 and 1966 , Dylan was touring with the Hawks — Rick Danko , Garth Hudson , Richard Manuel , Robbie Robertson and Levon Helm , although Helm quit the group in late November or early December 1965 . In July 1966 , Dylan suffered a motorcycle accident and spent several months recuperating at his house in Byrdcliffe , near Woodstock , New York . By spring 1967 , all of the members of the Hawks , except Helm , had joined Dylan in the Woodstock area , with Danko , Manuel and Hudson living in nearby West Saugerties in a house nicknamed Big Pink . Dylan and the four Hawks began recording informal music sessions , first at Dylan 's house in what was known as " the Red Room " , followed by the basement of Big Pink . Earlier on they recorded mostly covers and traditional music , but later moved onto original material written largely by Dylan . In total , over 100 songs and alternate takes were put on tape . Helm returned to the group in October 1967 and performed on some final Woodstock @-@ area collaborations between Dylan and the Hawks , these ones at a different house that some group members had moved to . In the fall of that year , the Hawks , who soon renamed themselves the Band , continued writing and rehearsing songs for their debut album , Music From Big Pink . Dylan biographer Sid Griffin has noted that , because no written records were kept of these 1967 recording sessions , " the world will have to live with the fact that it will never know exactly which Basement Tapes tune was recorded when and where " . Nonetheless , using clues such as the sound quality of different batches of songs , and where they appear on the original reels of tapes , attempts have been made to place the songs into a rough chronology and guess the locations at which they were likely recorded . Biographer Clinton Heylin places " Santa @-@ Fe " in the summer of 1967 at Big Pink . The liner notes of The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 date it in the fall of that year . Griffin lists it among the probable Big Pink recordings , and in a group of songs from around July , but concedes it is also " unlikely [ but ] possible " it came from the Red Room . = = = Circulation of Basement Tape songs = = = In late 1967 , an acetate of fourteen of Dylan 's compositions was made , from which demos circulated among music groups who might be interested in recording some of the songs . Artists including Peter , Paul and Mary , Manfred Mann and the Byrds eventually did . Dylan 's demo tapes were soon heard by music journalists , including Rolling Stone 's Jann Wenner , who wrote a front @-@ page story in that magazine entitled " Dylan 's Basement Tape Should Be Released " . This made the general public hungry to hear the music , and in July 1969 a bootleg called Great White Wonder , which included some of the Big Pink songs , came out . Other Basement Tape bootlegs followed . In 1975 , the Columbia album The Basement Tapes was compiled , mainly by Robertson and engineer Rob Fraboni . Robertson and Fraboni put thirty @-@ five of the songs onto composite reels of tape , and Heylin believes these represented a short list of candidates for the album . " Santa @-@ Fe " was included on these composite reels , but was not ultimately chosen for the album . The Basement Tapes included sixteen Dylan songs recorded at Big Pink in 1967 , as well as eight Band demos from various times and locations between 1967 and 1975 . One Dylan song on the album , " Goin ' to Acapulco " , had not appeared on his 1967 fourteen @-@ song acetate or on bootlegs , and this alerted the world to the possibility that there might be more Basement Tape songs in existence . In 1986 , at least twenty @-@ five previously unknown 1967 songs by Dylan and the Band passed into collectors ' hands by way of a former roadie of the Band 's . In the early 1990s , a third batch of songs , these ones from Garth Hudson 's archives , came to light around the time Columbia was preparing The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ; " Santa @-@ Fe " comes from this group . In his liner notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 , John Bauldie commented on these second and third stages in which groups of Big Pink songs had come to light : " Despite the ... emergence [ in 1986 ] in collectors ' circles of a further couple of hours of Basement Tapes , it seems as though there 's a good deal left unheard . ' Santa @-@ Fe ' is just one example of a batch of previously unsuspected Basement tracks " . By 1992 , the " Santa @-@ Fe " batch of songs had been obtained by bootleggers , and almost all known Dylan Basement Tape songs were assembled onto the 5 @-@ CD bootleg The Genuine Basement Tapes . " Sante @-@ Fe " was also included on the 2014 compilations The Basement Tapes Raw and The Bootleg Series Vol . 11 : The Basement Tapes Complete ; the latter album officially released a fourth batch of previously uncirculating Basement Tape songs . = = Personnel = = The liner notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 list the song 's personnel as Dylan , guitar and vocals ; Robertson , guitar ; Hudson , organ ; Manuel , piano ; Danko , bass ; and Helm , drums . However , Griffin argues that Helm did not arrive in Woodstock until after the song is believed to have been recorded . Furthermore , the drumming sounds to Griffin more like Manuel 's style . Heylin and biographer Greil Marcus similarly do not include " Santa @-@ Fe " among the songs they believe were recorded after Helm 's arrival . Griffin also argues that no organ is audible on the track and proposes the following musician line @-@ up as being more likely : Dylan , acoustic guitar and vocals ; Robertson , electric guitar ; Hudson , piano ; Danko , bass ; Manuel , drums . = = Copyright and lyrics = = Different Basement Tape songs were copyrighted in stages between 1967 and 1975 , with " Santa @-@ Fe " being registered in September 1973 ; still other songs from the sessions were not copyrighted until the 1980s . Researcher Tim Dunn indicates that in the original 1973 copyright the song was registered as " Santa @-@ Fe " with a hyphen , but that some later documents relating to the renewal of the copyright omit the hyphen . The liner notes of The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 print the title as " Santa @-@ Fe " , while Dylan 's official website , Bobdylan.com , spells it without the hyphen but with an accent on the e : " Santa Fé " . Heylin has noted that , as is the case with a number of other of Basement Tape tracks , Dylan 's copyrighted , published " Santa @-@ Fe " lyrics differ from what can be heard on the song . Heylin speculates that the " dramatic reworking " in the later version arose from Dylan 's " 1973 musing in Malibu " , where Dylan had moved to , and that new lines like " build a geodesic dome and sail away " and " My shrimp boat 's in the bay " sound like the work of " someone sitting on the dock of the bay , not up on Meads Mountain [ in Woodstock ] " . Heylin also notes that the website maintained by Olof Björner , Words Fill My Head , contains a transcription of the song as Dylan performed it . The 1973 copyrighted lyrics are printed on Bobdylan.com. In his notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 , Bauldie describes the song as " a typical combination of nonsense and fun , just for the hell of it , really ... " ; author Oliver Trager likewise describes it as a " nonsense " song . Heylin writes that the lyrics " revolve around ' dear , dear , dear , dear , Santa Fe ' — intended to be both a woman 's name and the town in New Mexico . After five verses of rolling said words around , he moves on . " = = Appraisal = = Opinions about the song have been mixed . AllMusic critic Thomas Ward calls it " one of the great good @-@ time songs in Dylan 's canon " . Ward comments that " Dylan sings it as if he is having the time of his life " , adding that " rarely has he sung with such expressiveness " . Anthony Varesi , author of The Bob Dylan Albums , similarly praises the song 's " breadth of feeling " and " unparalleled expressiveness " , noting that " it appears Dylan simply improvised the song on the spot , and the passion within him allows the song to flow forth naturally " . Biographer John Nagowski has described the song as " delightful " , while a New York Times review rates it one of the highlights of Volume 2 of The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 , commenting that it is one of only a couple of mid @-@ 60s songs on the compilation that " live up to their vintage " . Griffin describes it as " catchy but slight " and " a slight if charming little ditty " , but criticizes the decision to include it on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 rather than the " masterpiece " composition " Sign on the Cross " . Heylin concurs , characterizing " Santa @-@ Fe " in 1995 as a " pleasant enough throwaway " but suggesting that " Sign on the Cross " or another 1967 composition , " I 'm Not There " , would have been much better choices ( " I 'm Not There " was eventually released in 2007 on the I 'm Not There soundtrack , and both it and " Sign on the Cross " were included on The Basement Tapes Raw and The Basement Tapes Complete in 2014 ) . By 2009 , Heylin 's opinion had changed little and he writes that " of all the ' missing ' basement @-@ tape originals that appear on that three @-@ CD set , ' Santa Fe ' hardly represented an A @-@ list candidate . Just another discarded ditty , it relies on the usual wordplay and slurred diction to obscure any pretense to a deeper meaning " . Marcus dismisses it as no more than " a riff " , while a review in Stereophile magazine calls it " the most lightweight tune on all three CDs , with indecipherable lyrics " . Author Peter James , referring to Dylan and the Band 's Woodstock output , writes that " many great songs were written and recorded in [ Big Pink 's ] basement in 1967 , unfortunately ' Sante @-@ Fe ' is not one of them . " He goes on to describe the song 's inclusion on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 as " little more than a joke " . = = Cover versions = = The song has been covered by Howard Fishman on his album Performs Bob Dylan & The Band 's The Basement Tapes Live at Joe 's Pub . Fishman played more than sixty songs from Dylan and the Band 's Basement Tape sessions over three nights , of which selected tracks were included on the CD and an accompanying DVD . " Santa @-@ Fe " has also been covered by Steve Gibbons . On November 7 , 2007 at the Beacon Theatre in New York City , J Mascis and the Million Dollar Bashers performed the song at a special concert featuring numerous music artists celebrating the release of Todd Haynes 's film I 'm Not There . Thomas Ward notes that Dylan himself has never played the song live .

= The Secret ( The Office ) = " The Secret " is the thirteenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's nineteenth episode overall . It was written by Lee Eisenberg and Gene Stupnitsky and directed by Dennie Gordon . The episode first aired on January 19 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Tom W. Chick as Gil . The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is forced into spending time with Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) so that Michael will not reveal Jim 's feelings for Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) . Meanwhile , Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) takes a sick day and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) investigates whether he is actually sick . " The Secret " was written in roughly 26 hours and was the fastest episode written for the series at the time . The title for the episode is purposely vague and refers to Jim 's hidden feelings for Pam , Dwight and Angela 's relationship , and Oscar 's homosexuality . The shots at the Hooters restaurant were filmed relatively early in the day , and a majority of the scenes were improvised by Carell . " The Secret " received largely positive reviews from television critics and was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers , ranking as the forty @-@ fourth most @-@ watched television episode of the week . = = Plot = = Out of fear that Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) will tell the others he has feelings for Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) allows Michael to believe that they are best friends , which leads to an awkward lunch at Hooters paid for with a corporate credit card . Michael ultimately reveals Jim 's secret to everyone , forcing Jim to confess his crush to Pam himself , although he tells her that he got over it three years ago . However , Michael later tells her that he learned of the crush during the " booze cruise " which occurred recently , leading her to suspect that Jim is still infatuated . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) " investigates " Oscar Martinez 's ( Oscar Nunez ) claimed sick day from work , learning that the co @-@ worker is actually taking time off to ice @-@ skate . Dwight blackmails Oscar , threatening to reveal his unauthorized leave @-@ taking . He then cuts a deal for Oscar to owe him a favor , and watches a movie with Oscar and Oscar 's " roommate " Gil ( Tom W. Chick ) while completely failing to recognize evidence of Oscar 's homosexuality . = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = " The Secret " was written by Lee Eisenberg and Gene Stupnitsky . The episode was written in roughly 26 hours and was the fastest episode written for the series , at the time . The idea to make the entry the " spring cleaning episode " was " throw [ n ] in at the last minute " because the writers were " desperate " . The subplot was inspired by a friend of Eisenberg 's , who suggested the story after he was forced to undergo spring cleaning at his office . The title for the episode is purposely vague . During the commentary , the cast revealed that there are actually three " secrets " in the episode : Jim 's hidden feelings for Pam , Dwight and Angela 's relationship , and Oscar 's homosexuality . Stupkitsky later joked that there are " actually nine secrets in the episode " . The cold opening – wherein Michael tries to tell a joke where the punch line is " What 's up dog ? " – was inspired by the same prank being pulled on Stupnitsky . The original cold opening for the episode featured Michael playing golf in his office , but it was cut . Jenna Fischer felt that Krasinski 's performance in the episode was " really great " and called " The Secret " her " favorite John Krasinski episode " . Krasinski said that Creed Bratton 's line , " Which one is Pam ? " was his favorite moment " in the entire show , ever " . Fischer , in turn , said that her favorite moment was when Jim confesses that he does not have a crush on her , due to the emotion involved . Fischer later admitted that , after the shot was filmed , she cried because it " broke [ her ] heart " . = = = Filming = = = " The Secret " was directed by Dennie Gordon , who would go on to direct the season two episode " Boys and Girls " . Tom W. Chick portrayed Gil . The cast were particularly impressed with his acting ; Fischer called him a " great casting " choice . Lindsey Stoddart , who plays one of the Hooters waitresses , was an improv acquaintance of Martin 's . The shots at the Hooters restaurant were filmed relatively early in the day , and a majority of the scenes were improvised by Carell . In fact , Carell decided to play the penis game – in which two or more people shout the word " penis " at varying levels in an attempt to out do each other – which Krasinski called " the craziest thing I have experienced . " The scene where Pam and Kelly discuss wedding plans was particularly difficult to shoot all in one scene , due to the amount of activity going on . John Krasinski later noted that he was impressed that the director and cameramen were able to successfully get the shot . The sequence featuring Michael and Jim talking in the break room was made of two composition shots , because Krasinski was laughing " the entire " time . Michael buying Stanley a peach ice tea and telling him that he will " hate it " was entirely improvised . = = = Deleted scenes = = = The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include the cut cold opening of Michael playing with his new putting toy , Dwight expounding on his thoughts on dust bunnies , Michael surveying his " worker bees " , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) finding an unfinished People Magazine crossword puzzle from 1999 in Michael 's office , Michael describing his college fraternity experience , and Michael buying Jim a Hooters T @-@ shirt . = = Cultural references = = Michael attributes the 1981 song " Our Lips Are Sealed " to The Bangles , when it was really sung by The Go @-@ Go 's . Michael and Jim go to Hooters , a company whose waiting staff are primarily young , attractive waitresses usually referred to simply as " Hooter Girls " whose revealing outfits and sex appeal is played up and is a primary component of the company 's image . At the restaurant , Michael makes several breast jokes . Near the end of the episode , Michael makes reference to a nonexistent Cinemax movie called More Secrets of a Call Girl . = = Reception = = " The Secret " originally aired on NBC on the January 19 , 2006 . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers . This marked a slight decrease in viewers from a lead @-@ in episode of " My Name is Earl " , but more than a follow @-@ up episode of " ER " . " The Secret " ranked as the forty @-@ fourth most @-@ watched episode for the week ending January 22 . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A " . Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded the entry a " B " . He wrote that while it was " " a solid episode " it " lacks any of the belly laughs the show frequently elicits . " Michael Sciannamea of AOLTV called the installment " a terrific episode " and wrote that the " Michael Scott [ … ] was at his obnoxious best [ … ] in this episode " . Furthermore , he highly praised the story , noting that " the Jim / Pam scenario has definitely taken a more interesting turn . " During the filming of " The Secret " , the cast of the show discovered that Carell had been nominated for a Golden Globe Award . Fischer later noted that it was " fun that [ ' The Secret ' is ] the episode that airs after his win . "

= Maggie Simpson = Margaret " Maggie " Simpson is a fictional character in the animated television series The Simpsons . She first appeared on television in the Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Maggie was created and designed by cartoonist Matt Groening while he was waiting in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office . She received her first name from Groening 's youngest sister . After appearing on The Tracey Ullman Show for three years , the Simpson family was given their own series on the Fox Broadcasting Company which debuted December 17 , 1989 . Maggie is the youngest child of Marge and Homer , and sister to Bart and Lisa . She is often seen sucking on her red pacifier and , when she walks , she trips over her clothing and falls on her face ( this running gag is used much more in earlier seasons ) . Being an infant , she cannot talk . She is a counterpart to Lisa Simpson . However , she did appear to talk in the first Tracy Ullman short . Therefore , she is the least seen and heard member of the Simpson family . Maggie 's squeaking and occasional speaking parts are currently provided by Nancy Cartwright , but she has also been voiced by guest stars James Earl Jones , Elizabeth Taylor and Jodie Foster , and by series regulars Yeardley Smith and Harry Shearer . Maggie has appeared in various media relating to The Simpsons – including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials and comic books – and has inspired an entire line of merchandise . = = Role in The Simpsons = = The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters do not physically age , and as such the show is assumed to be set in the current year . In several episodes , events have been linked to specific times , though sometimes this timeline has been contradicted in subsequent episodes . Maggie is the youngest child of Marge and Homer , and sister to Bart and Lisa . When Marge became pregnant with Bart , she and Homer got married at a chapel in Las Vegas . To support his impending family , Homer all but demanded a job at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , impressing its owner , Mr Burns , with his aggressive submissiveness . When Marge became pregnant with Lisa , two years later , she and Homer bought their first house . Another six years later , Homer felt financially secure enough to finally quit his job at the Power Plant and take his dream job at Barney 's Bowlarama . However , Marge became pregnant with Maggie , so Homer , once again unable to support his family , was forced to reapply for his old job . By the time Maggie was born , Homer had shown great signs of distress , but he managed to find motivation in the form of his newborn baby girl . During the earlier seasons of the show , Maggie 's equivalent of a hallmark was to trip over her clothing and fall on her face while trying to walk , causing a loud thud on the floor , but this was toned down in the later seasons . She has penchant for her pacifier , on which she is always seen sucking . Maggie has performed a number of feats that suggest she is a baby genius . She has spelled out E = MC ² with her baby blocks , driven Homer 's car , escaped from the Springfield daycare center , and written her name on an Etch A Sketch . Maggie is keenly aware of her surroundings , and can usually be seen imitating the flow of action around her . She shows a high degree of dexterity , and she once hit Homer on the head with a mallet and shot a dart at a photograph of him in imitation of Itchy and Scratchy . Despite her age , Maggie is a formidable marksman , as seen in " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " where she shoots Mr. Burns with a handgun that falls into her hands , and in a more intentional manner during " Poppa 's Got a Brand New Badge " where she is able to non @-@ fatally shoot a group of mobsters in rapid succession with a rifle that she apparently hides in her crib . Maggie is usually frightened and exasperated by Homer 's attempts to bond with her , but has on several occasions stepped in to save Homer 's life : once from drowning , once from being shot by mobsters , once from being kidnapped by a tow truck driver , and once from being shot by Russ Cargill , head of the United States Environmental Protection Agency . = = Character = = = = = Creation = = = Matt Groening first conceived Maggie and the rest of the Simpson family in 1986 in the lobby of James L. Brooks 's office . Groening had been called in to pitch a series of animated shorts for The Tracey Ullman Show , and had intended to present an adaptation of his Life in Hell comic strip . When he realized that animating Life in Hell would require him to rescind publication rights for his life 's work , Groening decided to go in another direction , and hurriedly sketched out his version of a dysfunctional family and named the characters after members of his own family . The baby of the family was named Maggie after Groening 's youngest sister . Maggie then made her debut with the rest of the Simpsons family on April 19 , 1987 in the short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series that would air on the Fox Broadcasting Company . Maggie and the rest of the family remained the main characters on this new show . The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn , because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . Maggie 's physical features are generally not used in other characters ; for example , in the later seasons , no character other than Lisa shares her hairline . While designing Maggie and Lisa , Groening " couldn 't be bothered to even think about girls ' hair styles " . At the time , Groening was primarily drawing in black and white and when designing Lisa and Maggie , he " just gave them this kind of spiky starfish hair style , not thinking that they would eventually be drawn in color " . Groening thought that it would be funny to have a baby character that did not talk and never grew up , but was scripted to show any emotions that the scene required . Maggie 's comedic hallmarks include her tendency to stumble and land on her face while attempting to walk , and a penchant for sucking on her pacifier , the sound of which has become the equivalent of her catchphrase and was originally created by Groening during the Tracey Ullman period . In the early seasons of the show , Maggie would suck her pacifier over other characters ' dialogue , but this was discontinued because the producers found it too distracting . = = = Voice = = = With few exceptions , Maggie never speaks but participates in the events around her , emoting with subtle gestures and facial expressions . Maggie 's first lines were spoken in " Good Night " , the first short to air on The Tracey Ullman Show , after the family falls asleep . On this occasion , Liz Georges provided the voice of Maggie . Although she had previously spoken in fantasies and dream sequences , Maggie 's first word spoken in the normal continuity of the series occurred in " Lisa 's First Word " , when she was voiced by Elizabeth Taylor . Although it was only one word ( " Daddy " ) , Taylor had to record the part numerous times before the producers were satisfied . James Earl Jones voiced Maggie in " Treehouse of Horror V " . Maggie would later have brief dialogue in " Treehouse of Horror IX " , voiced by Harry Shearer , who used his Kang voice . In earlier episodes , Yeardley Smith did many of Maggie 's squeaks , cries , laughs and occasional speaking parts , although in the later seasons her parts are done by Nancy Cartwright ( including a single word spoken during the end credits of The Simpsons Movie ) . Jodie Foster voiced a Howard Roark @-@ inspired Maggie in the season 20 episode " Four Great Women and a Manicure " . In the occasional " Simpsons in the future " -themed episodes ( " Lisa 's Wedding " , " Bart to the Future " , " Future @-@ Drama " , " Holidays of Future Passed " , " Days of Future Future " ) , although an older Maggie is depicted , as a running gag within these episodes she is never shown speaking , so no voice actors have been utilized on these occasions . = = Reception = = Nancy Basile at About.com said her favorite Maggie scenes on The Simpsons are the ones that show her acting more like an adult than a one @-@ year @-@ old . Some of her favorite Maggie scenes include scenes from " Sweet Seymour Skinner 's Baadasssss Song " and " Lady Bouvier 's Lover " where Maggie meets her unibrowed archenemy , Baby Gerald , and the one scene from " Itchy & Scratchy : The Movie " in which Bart is supposed to babysit Maggie , but she escapes and takes Homer 's car for a ride . Basile also added that " whether watching ' The Happy Elves ' or falling down , Maggie is the cutest baby in the Simpson family " . Comedian Ricky Gervais named " And Maggie Makes Three " his second favorite episode of the show and said that the scene in the end where Homer puts up pictures of Maggie over his desk gave him " a lump in the throat thinking about it " . Todd Everett at Variety called the scene in " Lisa 's First Word " where Maggie speaks her first word " quite a heart @-@ melter " . In 2006 , Elizabeth Taylor was named thirteenth on IGN 's " Top 25 Simpsons Guest Appearances " list for her performance as Maggie in " Lisa 's First Word " . James Earl Jones , voice of Maggie in " Treehouse of Horror V " , was named the seventh greatest guest star on the show in the same list . In 2000 , Maggie and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard . = = Merchandising = = Four children 's books , written by Maggie Groening ( after whom Maggie was named ) and illustrated by Matt Groening , entitled Maggie Simpson 's Book of Animals , Maggie Simpson 's Counting Book , Maggie Simpson 's Book of Colors and Shapes and Maggie Simpson 's Alphabet Book were released on September 12 , 1991 . Other merchandise includes dolls , posters , figurines , jigsaw puzzles , and T @-@ shirts . Maggie was made into an action figure as part of the World of Springfield toy line , and was released in the wave one playset " Living Room " , featuring her and Marge in the living room of the Simpsons house . Maggie has appeared in commercials for Burger King , Butterfinger , C.C. Lemon , Domino 's Pizza , Ramada Inn and Subway . Maggie has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons . She is a character in every one of The Simpsons video games , including the most recent , The Simpsons Game . Alongside the television series , Maggie regularly appears in issues of the Simpsons comics , which were first published on November 29 , 1993 and are still issued monthly . Maggie also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood . Maggie starred in the 3D short @-@ film The Longest Daycare , which was shown in theaters before Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 . On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 cent stamps featuring Maggie and the four other members of the Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while the show is still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 . In a USPS poll , Maggie 's stamp was voted the most popular of the five .

= Chasing Vermeer = Chasing Vermeer is a 2004 children 's art mystery novel written by Blue Balliett and illustrated by Brett Helquist . Set in Hyde Park , Chicago near the University of Chicago , the novel follows two children , Calder Pillay and Petra Andalee . After a famous Johannes Vermeer painting is stolen on route to the Art Institute of Chicago , Calder and Petra work together to try to recover it . The thief publishes many advertisements in the newspaper , explaining that he will give the painting back if the community can discover which paintings under Vermeer 's name were really painted by him . This causes Petra , Calder , and the rest of Hyde Park to examine art more closely . Themes of art , chance , coincidence , deception , and problem @-@ solving are apparent . The novel was written for Balliett classroom intended to deal with real @-@ world issues . Balliett values children 's ideas and wrote the book specifically to highlight that . Chasing Vermeer has won several awards , including the Edgar and the Agatha . In 2006 , the sequel entitled The Wright 3 was published , followed by The Calder Game in 2008 , . = = Inspiration and origins = = Chasing Vermeer is Blue Balliett 's first published book . Its original purpose was a book to read to her class for fun . She realized that a mystery about " real " art issues had not been written since E.L. Konigsburg 's From the Mixed @-@ Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler and desired to write what she wished to read . Chasing Vermeer took about five years to complete , as Balliett was also a teacher and parent . She compared writing the book to weaving , as she first wrote mainly about art , but then incorporated the pentominoes and classroom scenes , creating many different levels to read on . She admits that it ended up more complex than she had thought it would be . Balliett used art and blank plates as inspiration for the characters ' names . Calder Pillay is derived from the artist Alexander Calder and Petra Andalee was inspired by the architecture in Petra , Jordan . The names were meant to be different , which Balliett considered " fun for a child . " Balliett felt that she could capture the attention of reluctant readers if they related to characters who enjoyed writing and math . Calder and Petra 's teacher , Ms. Hussey , was inspired by an old name on Nantucket Island and the old @-@ fashioned word hussy . Balliett compares herself to Ms. Hussey , stating that " [ we ] think a lot alike . " Some of Ms. Hussey 's assignments and dialogue even came from Balliett 's classroom . She chose the setting of Hyde Park , Chicago , where she currently lives , because she considered it full of secrets that children could discover . = = Plot summary = = The book begins with a mysterious letter that is delivered to three unknown recipients , two women and one man . The letter tells them they are of great need to the sender , but begs them not to tell the police . Sixth @-@ graders Calder Pillay , who enjoys puzzles and pentominoes , and Petra Andalee , who aspires to be a writer , are classmates at the Middle School in Hyde Park , Chicago . Their young teacher , Ms. Hussey , is very interested in art and teaches them in a creative way . Through her pressing questions , they discover the artist Johannes Vermeer and his paintings , especially A Lady Writing and The Geographer . Petra also finds a used book called Lo ! , written by Charles Fort , at the local Powell 's Books , owned by a man named Mr. Watch . They also meet an elderly neighbor , Mrs. Sharpe , who is also a fan of Vermeer and Fort . Calder receives letters from his best friend Tommy Segovia , who is currently living in New York City with a new stepfather . The children learn that A Lady Writing was traveling from The National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. to Hyde Park . The next day there is a story in the paper of how the painting mysteriously disappeared . A letter from the thief appears in the newspaper , telling the public that he will not give back A Lady Writing until they prove which Vermeer paintings were truly painted by him . This sparks worldwide uproar . Calder and Petra investigate as their friendship grows . Mrs. Sharpe requests police protection and it is revealed that she and Ms. Hussey were two of the three recipients of the thief 's letter . Calder and Petra eventually conclude that the painting is hidden in the local Delia Dell Hall , and they sneak out and find it . They barely escape from the thief , who is later found dead from a massive heart attack on the train by the police . They learn that the man is Xavier Glitts , also knowned as Glitter Man , who was posing as Tommy 's stepfather under the name Fred Steadman . A known art thief , he was asked to steal the painting and sell it for sixty million dollars . The other recipient of the letter is revealed to be Mr. Watch . = = = Code = = = As stated in the preface , there is a code hidden in the paintings throughout the book . This was an idea of Brett Helquist and Balliett 's editor , Tracy Mack . The code involves images of pentominoes and frogs , which is a recurring theme in the book . To decode the code , one must count the number of frogs in every other illustration , as well as find the hidden pentomino . Once these facts are collected , you are to use the same code presented in the story that Calder and Tommy use in their letters in the book . For example , the first code in the book is V : 2 @.@ this means T when decoded with Calder and Tommy 's decoder . When the message is decoded , it spells out " The Lady Lives " . = = Genre = = Chasing Vermeer is classified in the mystery genre , although it was described by Liz Szabla of Scholastic as " a puzzle , wrapped in a mystery , disguised as an adventure , and delivered as a work of art . " Scholastic 's teaching website additionally added suspense due to the surprise ending . = = Themes = = Some of Balliett 's " real @-@ world ideas " in Chasing Vermeer were " Do coincidences mean anything ? " and " What is art and what makes it valuable ? " Balliett says her " central message " is " kids are powerful thinkers , and their ideas are valuable , and that adults don 't have all the answers . " A book by Rita Soltan entitled Reading Raps : A Book Club Guide for Librarians , Kids , and Families analyzed Chasing Vermeer 's themes as follows : Deception and problem solving are central themes in this novel as both the thief and the central adult players use a variety of ways to hide the truth while the children employ a series of mathematical and problem @-@ solving concepts to piece together the clues to the puzzle . In addition , Calder and Petra develop a special friendship and certain respect for the value of art . As the thief gains publicity by challenging the community to figure out which paintings claimed to be Vermeer 's were indeed painted by him , everyone starts to look at the depth in art . Sondra Eklund , who writes a book review blog , noted that the reader was left with the impression to study Vermeer 's paintings and art more closely . In the book , Ms. Hussey challenges her class to the question , " What is art ? " Other themes include chance and coincidence . During Chasing Vermeer , Charles Fort 's book , Lo ! , inspires the children to list and pay attention to coincidences as they realize that they are more than what they seem and explore the concept that they make up one unexplained pattern . Balliett stated that she wanted to convey how coincidences were noticeable and felt meaningful , and how they could matter even if they were unexplainable . = = Audiobook = = The audiobook for Chasing Vermeer , read by Ellen Reilly , was released on November 27 , 2007 from Listening Library . It runs about 4 hours and 47 minutes . AudioFile magazine praised Reilly 's voices and pace , but noted that , " Once the mystery is solved , however , the ending seems tacked on , falling flat . " = = Critical reception = = Chasing Vermeer received generally positive reviews . The New York Times praised the description and mystery . It was also listed as one of their " Notable Books of 2004 " . Kirkus Reviews awarded it a starred review with the consensus that " Art , intrigue , and plenty of twists and turns make this art mystery a great read . " Children 's Literature reviewer Claudia Mills gave generally positive comments , calling the novel " engrossing and engaging " . The website Kidsreads compared the book to classic mysteries such as The Westing Game and said , " Chasing Vermeer deserves a spot alongside many well @-@ loved children 's books . It 's that good . " A reviewer of The Trades website called it " an entertaining read that manages to serve several purposes in one concise novel " and found the characters " unusual yet likable " , but felt that " the disappointing bit of this novel is that the solutions always arrive through a series of disconnected events that just lead the kids to think in certain ways . " Kadon Enterprises , a game puzzle company , reviewed the book , praising the writing style and puzzles . = = = Awards = = = = = Film = = Warner Brothers bought the rights to a film of Chasing Vermeer in June 2004 and Brad Pitt 's production company Plan B Entertainment planned to produce it . P.J. Hogan was slated as director and the novel was adapted by Matt Nix . However , when asked about the film in August 2010 , Balliett answered , " It ’ s been fascinating , watching this whole process , because Plan B did a wonderful job . They went through two screenwriters , and they ’ ve gone through two directors . It ’ s sort of like a house of cards . I have rights again . If they get it all together again , they ’ ll jump on it . But they don ’ t have exclusive rights anymore . "

= Caught Up ( Usher song ) = " Caught Up " is a song by American R & B singer Usher . It was written by Ryan Toby , Andre Harris , Vidal Davis and Jason Boyd , and produced by Dre & Vidal for Usher 's 2004 album Confessions . The song was released as the fifth and final single from the album on November 30 , 2004 . The single peaked at number eight in the United States , the only single released from Confessions without topping the Billboard Hot 100 , and generally below top ten on most charts worldwide . It received positive reviews from contemporary critics . = = Background and release = = Although Usher " didn 't look too far " when starting working on his fourth studio album Confessions and decided to " continue building " with previous producers , he branched out with several musical collaborators . Usher enlisted Philadelphia producers Andre " Dre " Harris and Vidal Davis of Dre & Vidal , along with other musical collaborators . During the sessions , Usher asked them to create a " real up @-@ tempo beat " . When they worked on the track , they partied the whole time which Dre considered a " partly record " . He recalled , " We had some women , some drinks , some music . " After Dre created the beat , they decided to " make sure the mood was inspiring during recording . " They went to club to take a break , and played the song in Usher 's truck while on the way . Usher felt the collaboration was pleasing , seeing other people responded positively to the song . " Caught Up " was the fifth and final single from Confessions . It was released in the United States on November 30 , 2004 as a 12 " single . It was also released in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom on February 21 , 2005 and on March 8 in Germany . The Germany release contains the album version of the song , three of its remixes and the single 's music video . The song impacted US contemporary hit radio on January 11 , 2005 , alongside a remix featuring rapper , Fabolous . = = Reception = = " Caught Up " received positive reviews from contemporary critics . Andrew McGregor of BBC called the song " meaty " and " hip @-@ grinding " . Jon Caramanica of Blender magazine referred to the song like a " Southern marching band performing late- ' 80s R & B " . He characterized Usher 's voice playing like a rhythm instruments . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine complimented Dre and Vidal for producing an old @-@ sounding music without sampling records , calling it " super @-@ tight " alongside " Follow Me " , another song from the album . Andy Kellman of Allmusic complimented the song as one of Usher 's best moments in the album , together with " Burn " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times called it a " thunderous song " from the album , adding that it gave Usher " a chance to do two of the things he does best : strut and pander " . = = Chart performance = = " Caught Up " did not live up to the chart @-@ topping performances of Confessions ' previous four releases . In the United States , the single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy @-@ six . It peaked at number eight for two non @-@ consecutive weeks , fifteen weeks after its release . " Caught Up " was the only single to not top the Hot 100 compared to the album 's four previous releases . The single stayed on the Hot 100 for twenty @-@ seven weeks . Outside the United States , responses from music markets were relatively similar . " Caught Up " debuted and peaked at number nine on the United Kingdom , remaining on the chart for also nine weeks . It reached number ten in the Netherlands , and under top ten on the rest of European countries ; much lesser in Finland where it only stayed for one week compared to other charts , remaining for several weeks . In Australia and New Zealand , the single reached number fifteen and twelve respectively . = = Music video = = The music video for " Caught Up " was directed by Mr. X , who was behind the laser light treatment of Usher 's 2004 video " Yeah ! " . The video shows Usher and friends riding a car while heading to his live performance . On the way , they fist fight after Usher saves a woman from an antagonist . Usher realizes he is supposed to perform , and finally goes to the venue . The video ends with Usher performing the song in front of a large crowd . The music video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live on January 10 , 2005 at number ten . The video remained on the countdown for thirty @-@ four days . = = Track listing = = Germany CD single " Caught Up " ( Album version ) – 3 : 48 " Caught Up " ( Official Remix ) ( featuring Fabolous ) – 4 : 39 " Caught Up " ( Bimbo Jones Remix ) – 3 : 33 " Caught Up " ( Delinquent " Whistle Crew " Re @-@ Fix ) – 7 : 55 " Caught Up " ( Music Video ) – 3 : 49 = = Charts = = = = = Weekly charts = = = = = Certifications = =

= If I Never See Your Face Again = " If I Never See Your Face Again " is a song by American pop rock band Maroon 5 from the June 2008 re @-@ release of the group 's second studio album , It Won 't Be Soon Before Long ( 2007 ) . It was also included on the June 2008 re @-@ release of Rihanna 's album Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . The song was originally included on the standard version of the album without the inclusion of Rihanna . It was written by band members Adam Levine and James Valentine , with production of the song helmed by Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Mike Elizondo , Mark Endert , Mark " Spike " Stent and Maroon 5 . It was released as an Extended Play ( EP ) in Australia on May 22 , 2007 , and as an official single on May 2 , 2008 , in the United States . " If I Never See Your Face Again " was originally intended to be a duet with Janet Jackson and appear on her Discipline album , although label problems interfered . The collaboration with Rihanna later came to fruition when Levine asked her to add her vocal to the remix version , which she accepted . " If I Never See Your Face Again " is a pop and R & B song featuring instrumentation provided by synthesizers and a guitar . The song received a mixed response from music critics , who praised the song 's composition but criticized Levine and Rihanna 's vocal performance . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler and shot on an indoor soundstage in Castaic , California . The concept for the video was " high @-@ end erotica " . = = Background = = " If I Never See Your Face Again " was written by Adam Levine and James Valentine , two of the five band members from Maroon 5 . Production of the song was helmed by Mike Elizondo , Mike Endert , Mike " Spike " Stent , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Maroon 5 . It was recorded by " Spike " Stent at Conway Studios , Hollywood , CA ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , CA and Phantom Studios , Westlake Village , CA . The song was originally intended to be a duet with Janet Jackson and appear on her Discipline album , but due to label problems Rihanna later appeared on the song . The song was included on the standard version of It Won 't Be Soon Before Long without the inclusion of Rihanna , however , Levine stated in an interview with James Montgomery for MTV News whilst on set of the accompanying music video that he wanted to try something different for the album 's re @-@ release . The singer continued , saying that he asked Rihanna to do some " bits and pieces " in the recording studio and that it came together very quickly . Levine stated that if there is " magic " between two artists , then " you don 't even have to think about it . " During the interview , Rihanna confirmed that the song would be the only one to feature a collaboration on her re @-@ release of Good Girl Gone Bad , revealing that she had always wanted to work with the group and was honored when they contacted her . " If I Never See Your Face Again " was released as a single in the United States on May 2 , 2008 . = = Composition = = " If I Never See Your Face Again " is a pop and R & B song , which lasts for 3 : 18 ( 3 minutes , 18 seconds ) . The song was composed using common time in the key of A minor , with a moderate groove of 106 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by synths , and a guitar . A reviewer for IGN noted that " If I Never See Your Face Again " is complete with " slinky synth insinuations , " whilst Jerome Blakeney for BBC wrote that it is a " guitar drenched " and " synth @-@ crunching " song . Alex Fletcher for Digital Spy commented that the song incorporated a " jagged " use of synthesizers . For the most part of the song , Levine sings in his falsetto register , whilst Rihanna adopts " silky tone " . = = Critical reception = = Upon the release of It Won 't Be Soon Before Long , music critics commented on the original version of the song , which does not include guest vocals by Rihanna . Jerome Blakeney for BBC wrote that " If I Never See Your Face Again " , along with another It Won 't Be Soon Before Long track " Makes Me Wonder " , were " monster weapons of mass @-@ marketing aimed at the feet and riding on swathes of string @-@ drenched , synth @-@ crunching disco . " A reviewer for IGN was complimentary of ' If I Never See Your Face Again ' , writing that it is hard to resist listening to the song . The reviewer also noted that Levine appeared to adopt a vocal style reminiscent of techniques employed by Justin Timberlake , writing " Like Justin Timberlake it 's all about the high pitched tenor falsetto and some sinewy grooves . " Bill Lamb for About.com noted that " If I Never See Your Face Again " and " Makes Me Wonder " appeared to be inspired by British jazz funk and acid jazz band Jamiroquai , writing " Any Jamiroquai fan may call foul if they listen to ' If I Never See Your Face Again ' or ' Makes Me Wonder ' . " Sal Cinquemani was critical of the song , labeling it as " nasty . " Alex Fletcher for Digital Spy disapproved of the collaboration between the band and Rihanna , with specific thoughts on Levine and Rihanna 's pairing . Fletcher was critical of their vocal performance , writing that their voices clashed with one another and that " the sexual chemistry radar for the pairing registers at zero . " Fletcher commented about the song further , writing that it should never have left the recording studio . = = = Accolades = = = = = Chart performance = = " If I Never See Your Face Again " achieved moderate chart success on singles charts around the world . It debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 28 June 1 , 2008 , and peaked at number 11 in its sixth week . The song debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 37 on June 9 , 2008 , and peaked at number 21 the following week . In Europe , the song debuted and peaked at number 15 on the Italian Singles Chart on July 17 , 2008 . The song remained on the chart for one week . It debuted on the Dutch Singles Chart at number 35 on June 14 , 2008 , and peaked at number 20 the following week . The song fluctuated between positions in the twenties and seventies for 13 weeks . It debuted on the Danish Singles Chart at number 36 on July 27 , 2008 , and peaked at number 31 in its sixth week . " If I Never See Your Face Again " debuted on the Swiss Singles Chart at number 61 on June 29 , 2008 , and peaked at number 52 the following week , where it remained in its third week . It debuted on the Austrian Singles Chart at number 67 on September 5 , 2008 , and peaked at number 54 the following week . " If I Never See Your Face Again " debuted and peaked on the UK Singles Chart at number 28 on June 14 , 2008 . Over the following two weeks , the song descend down the top @-@ forty , before falling out in its third week . The song made a re @-@ entry on the chart at number 36 on July 7 , 2008 . In the United States , the song peaked at number 51 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on July 26 , 2008 . It peaked at number 10 on the Adult Pop Songs chart ; number 30 on the Pop Songs chart and 21 on the Hot Digital Songs chart . = = Music video = = The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler , and shot on an indoor soundstage in Castaic , California on April 23 , 2008 . The concept for the video was " high @-@ end erotica " . In an interview with James Montgomery for MTV News whilst on set of the music video , Levine provided a summary of what the video would entail , saying : " It 's this kind of ultra @-@ glamorous , photography @-@ based , late- ' 70s / early- ' 80s situation . It 's really stylish and really beautiful ... It 's the most choreographed thing I 've ever done , because usually I just get up there and screw around . But with Rihanna , it 's completely different and so cool . " In response , Rihanna continued to say that " I don 't do a lot of videos where I have so much chemistry with the other artist , and this is only my second duet in a video ... It 's really intense , because you have to work with each other so much . It 's new for me , but I 'm enjoying it . " = = = Synopsis = = = The video begins with the sound of a ticking clock and Levine and Rihanna sitting opposite each other at a table , tapping their hands and staring at one and other . As the songs audio begins to play , band members of Maroon 5 start to play their instruments as Rihanna sits and watches them . The table and band scenes are intercut with each other for the first verse and chorus . For the second verse , Levine and Rihanna appear to argue and try to ignore the other 's advances . Rihanna lays suggestively on a bed while Levine sits on a chair with his head turned in the opposite direction for the bridge . For the final chorus , the pair appear to reconcile , ending with Levine finally giving in to his temptations and walk to the end of the table where Rihanna sits and he caresses her neck causing Rihanna to lean towards him seductively and the two nearly kiss as the video ends . The video was made available to download digitally via iTunes on May 12 , 2008 . = = Formats and track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Recording Recorded at Conway Studios , Hollywood , CA ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , CA ; Phantom Studios , Westlake Village , CA ; House of Blues Studios , Encino , CA and Henson Studios , Hollywood , CA . Mixed at Scream Studios , Miami , FL . Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , Def Jam Recordings . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =

= Yoko Shimomura = Yoko Shimomura ( 下村 陽子 , Shimomura Yōko , born October 19 , 1967 ) is a Japanese video game composer and pianist . Shimomura has worked in the video game industry ever since graduating from the Osaka College of Music in 1988 . From then until 1993 , she worked for Capcom , where she composed wholly or in part the scores for 16 games , including Final Fight and Street Fighter II : The World Warrior . From 1993 until 2002 , Shimomura worked for Square , where she composed for a further eight games . While working for Square , she was best known for her work on the soundtrack for Kingdom Hearts , which was her last game for the company before leaving . Starting with Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga in 2003 , she began working as an active freelancer . Her works have gained a great deal of popularity , and have been performed in multiple video game music concerts , including one , Sinfonia Drammatica , that was focused half on her " greatest hits " album , Drammatica : The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura , and half on the music of a previous concert . Music from several of her games have been published as arranged albums , or as piano scores . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Shimomura was born on October 19 , 1967 , in Hyōgo Prefecture , Japan . She developed an interest for music at a young age , and started taking piano lessons " at the age of four or five " . She began composing her own music by playing the piano randomly and pretending to compose , eventually coming up with her own pieces , the first of which she claims to still remember how to play . Shimomura attended Osaka College of Music , and graduated as a piano major in 1988 . Upon graduation , Shimomura intended to become a piano instructor and was extended a job offer to become a piano teacher at a music store , but as she had been an avid gamer for many years she decided to send some samples of her work to various video game companies that were recruiting at the university . Capcom invited her in for an audition and interview , and she was offered a job there . Her family and instructors were dismayed with her change in focus , as video game music was not well respected , and " they had paid [ her ] tuition for an expensive music school and couldn 't understand why [ she ] would accept such a job " , but Shimomura accepted the job at Capcom anyway . = = = Career = = = While working for Capcom , Shimomura contributed to the soundtracks of over 16 games , including the successful Street Fighter II : The World Warrior , which she composed all but three pieces for . The first soundtrack she worked on at the company was for Samurai Sword in 1988 . Final Fight , in 1989 , was her first work to receive a separate soundtrack album release , on an album of music from several Capcom games . The first soundtrack album to exclusively feature her work came a year later for the soundtrack to Street Fighter II . While she began her tenure at Capcom working on games for video game consoles , by 1990 she had moved to the arcade game division . She was a member of the company 's in @-@ house band Alph Lyla , which played various Capcom game music , including pieces written by Shimomura . She performed live with the group on a few occasions , including playing piano during Alph Lyla 's appearance at the 1992 Game Music Festival . In 1993 , Shimomura left Capcom to join another game company , Square ( now Square Enix ) . She stated that the move was done because she was interested in writing " classical @-@ style " music for fantasy role @-@ playing games . While working for Capcom , she was in the arcade department and was unable to transfer to the console department to work on their role @-@ playing video game series Breath of Fire , although she did contribute one track to the first game in the series . Her first project at the company was the score for the role @-@ playing video game Live A Live in 1994 . While she was working on the score to Super Mario RPG the following year , she was asked to join Noriko Matsueda on the music to the futuristic strategy RPG Front Mission . Although she was overworked doing both scores and it was not the genre that she was interested in , she found herself unable to refuse after her first attempt to do so unexpectedly happened in the presence of the president of Square , Tetsuo Mizuno . These games were followed by Tobal No. 1 , the last score she worked on with another composer for a decade . Over the next few years , she composed the soundtrack to several games , including Parasite Eve and Legend of Mana . Of all her compositions , Shimomura considers the soundtrack to Legend of Mana the one that best expresses herself and the soundtrack remains Shimomura 's personal favourite . Parasite Eve on the PlayStation had the first soundtrack by Shimomura that included a vocal song , as it was the first game she had written for running on a console system that had the sound capability for one . In 2002 she wrote the score for Kingdom Hearts , which she has said is the most " special " soundtrack to her , as well as a turning point in her career ; she named the soundtracks to Street Fighter II and Super Mario RPG as the other two significant points in her life as a composer . Kingdom Hearts was wildly successful , shipping more than four million copies worldwide ; Shimomura 's music was frequently cited as one of the highlights of the game , and the title track has been ranked as the fourth @-@ best role @-@ playing game title track of all time . The soundtrack has led to two albums of piano arrangements . Kingdom Hearts was the last soundtrack that she worked on at Square . After the release of Kingdom Hearts in 2002 , Shimomura left Square for maternity leave , and began work as a freelancer in 2003 . She has built on the work she did while at Square ; since leaving she has composed or is composing music for eleven Kingdom Hearts games and Nintendo 's Mario & Luigi series . She has also worked on many other projects , such as Heroes of Mana and various Premium Arrange albums . On February 10 and 11 , 2014 , Shimomura played piano at a retrospective 25th anniversary concert at Tokyo FM Hall . She performed songs from games such as Kingdom Hearts , Live a Live , and Street Fighter II . During the Beware the Forest 's Mushrooms performance from Super Mario RPG , Shimomura was joined onstage by fellow game composer Yasunori Mitsuda , who played the Irish bouzouki . She is currently working on the scores for Final Fantasy XV and Kingdom Hearts III . = = Legacy = = After composing soundtracks to over 45 different games , Shimomura has become one of the biggest names in video game music composition , and has been described as " the most famous female video game music composer in the world " . In March 2008 , Shimomura 's best works compilation album Drammatica : The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura was released containing her compositions from Kingdom Hearts and other games in a full orchestrated score . It includes music from Final Fantasy XV , Live A Live , Kingdom Hearts , Front Mission , Legend of Mana , and Heroes of Mana ; Shimomura has stated that she chose music that was popular among fans and well @-@ suited for orchestration , but had never been performed by an orchestra . In a 2008 interview with Music4Games regarding the project , Shimomura commented that with the sheet music generated for the project , she would be interested in pursuing a live performance of Drammatica for fans if the opportunity arose . On March 19 , 2009 that wish was realized when it was announced that Arnie Roth would conduct the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra at the concert Sinfonia Drammatica in the Stockholm Concert Hall , which would combine music from the album with performances of Chris Hülsbeck 's Symphonic Shades concert . The concert took place on August 4 , 2009 . On March 27 , 2007 , Shimomura released her first non @-@ video game album , Murmur , an album of vocal songs sung by Chata . Shimomura 's music for Kingdom Hearts made up one fourth of the music of the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009 , which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth . Legend of Mana 's title theme was also performed by the Australian Eminence Symphony Orchestra for its classical gaming music concert A Night in Fantasia 2007 . Music from the original soundtrack of Legend of Mana was arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing . Two compilation books of music from the series have also been published as Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music first and second editions , with the second including Shimomura 's tracks from Legend of Mana . All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . Additionally , piano sheet music from Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II has been published as music books by Yamaha Music Media . Shimomura 's first dedicated concert performance outside Japan was held at the Salle Cortot in Paris on November 7 , 2015 . Later that month , on November 28 , she performed at the El Plaza Condesa in Mexico City . = = Musical style and influences = = Shimomura lists Ludwig van Beethoven , Frédéric Chopin , and Maurice Ravel as some of her influences on her personal website . She has also stated that she has enjoyed " lounge @-@ style jazz " for a long time . Despite these influences and her classical training , the diverse musical styles that she has used throughout her career and sometimes in the same soundtrack include " rock , electronica , oriental , ambient , industrial , pop , symphonic , operatic , chiptune , and more " . She draws inspiration for her songs from things in her life that move her emotionally , which she describes as " a beautiful picture , scenery , tasting something delicious , scents that bring back memories , happy and sad things ... Anything that moves my emotion gives me inspiration " . Shimomura has also stated that she comes up with most of her songs when she is doing something that is " not part of [ her ] daily routine , like traveling . " Although her influences are mostly classical , she has said that in her opinion her " style has changed dramatically over the years , though the passion for music stays the same . " Shimomura has said that she believes that an important part of " the creative process behind music " is to " convey a subtle message , something that comes from your imagination and sticks with the listener , without being overly specific about what it means " , rather than only writing simple themes with obvious messages . Her favorite track that she has ever composed is " Dearly Beloved " from Kingdom Hearts . = = Works = = = = = Video games = = = Composition Arrangement F @-@ 1 Dream ( PC Engine ) ( 1989 ) – original music by Manami Matsumae Buster Bros. ( PC Engine ) ( 1991 ) – original music by Tamayo Kawamoto Super Smash Bros. Brawl ( 2008 ) – arranged " Tetris : Type A " , " Gritzy Desert " , and " King Dedede 's Theme " Little King 's Story ( 2009 ) – arranged Maurice Ravel 's Boléro . Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U ( 2014 ) – arranged " Magicant / Eight Melodies " , " Try , Try Again " , " Route 10 " , and " Ryu Stage " = = = Other = = = G.S.M. 1500 series ~ Sweet Home ( 1989 ) – arranged two tracks Captain Commando -G.S.M. Capcom 5- ( 1992 ) – with Alph Lyla Game Music Festival ~ Super Live ' 92 ~ ( 1992 ) – with Alph Lyla Street Fighter II Collector 's Box ( 1993 ) – with Alph Lyla Parasite Eve Remixes ( 1998 ) – with many others Phantasy Star Online Episode I & II Premium Arrange ( 2004 ) – with many others Dark Chronicle Premium Arrange ( 2004 ) – with many others Dan Doh ! ! ( 2004 ) Best Student Council ( 2005 ) Rogue Galaxy Premium Arrange ( 2006 ) – with many others Murmur ( 2007 ) – original album with lyrics and vocals by Chata Drammatica : The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura ( 2008 ) Mushihimesama Double Arrange Album ( 2009 ) GeOnDan Rare Tracks Ver . 2 @.@ 0 ( 2010 ) – with many others GeOnDan Super Rare Trax : The LAND of RISING SUN ( 2011 ) – with many others GO ! GO ! Buriki Daioh ! ! ( 2012 ) X 'mas Collections II ( 2013 ) – with many others memória ! ~ The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura ( 2014 ) Game Music Prayer II ( 2014 ) – with many others

= Lisa the Simpson = " Lisa the Simpson " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons 's ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 8 , 1998 . In the episode , Lisa fears that she may be genetically predisposed to lose her intelligence after Grandpa tells her of a family gene that can permanently take away intelligence . " Lisa the Simpson " was written by Ned Goldreyer and directed by Susie Dietter . This episode was the final episode with Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein as show runners . It received generally positive reviews from critics , and is considered one of the best episodes of the ninth season . = = Plot = = At Springfield Elementary , Lisa is presented with a brain teaser , which she is unable to solve . Following this incident , Lisa finds herself unable to perform simple tasks . Later , Lisa tells Grampa about her recent cognitive problems . He seems to recognize this , and tells Lisa about the " Simpson Gene " , which apparently causes all members of the Simpson family to gradually lose their intelligence as they get older . Meanwhile , Jasper visits the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart and attempts to empty the freezer containing ice cream in order to freeze himself , with the intention of being defrosted sometime in the distant future . Apu decides to take advantage of this unusual situation for financial gain . The convenience store becomes more profitable as a tourist trap , until the freezer 's cooling system fails , causing Jasper to defrost and walk away . Lisa appears on the TV news program Smartline to tell the citizens of Springfield to treasure their brains . As she does this , Homer decides to prove her wrong , and contacts the entire extended Simpson family to visit . However , when they arrive , Homer realizes they 're also unsuccessful , unintelligent people , which only depresses Lisa further and causes Homer to send them home . However , before they leave , Marge urges Homer to talk to the Simpson women . Reluctantly , he talks to them at her request and he discovers that the women are all successful . Lisa is relieved that she is fine and she will not suffer the " Simpson Gene " , because of her gender . The episode ends with Lisa finally being able to solve the brain teaser she was unable to finish earlier in the episode . = = Production = = This episode was the final episode that was run by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , as it was a carry @-@ over episode from season eight . The episode was written by Ned Goldreyer , and is one of the two episodes he has written on The Simpsons . Susie Dietter , one of the directors of the show , also left the show after this episode , but returned for one episode in season 18 , " Yokel Chords " . As it was the final episode they ran , Oakley and Weinstein wanted to end on a good note , with Weinstein stating that the episode " was meant to embody the humor , depth , and emotions of The Simpsons " . They also wished to have an episode they ran that was based on the background of every character they could do , and believed that this episode came out well . The name of the episode was the center of an argument that Oakley and Goldreyer had , as Oakley had originally wanted to have the episode named " Lisa the Simpson " , although Goldreyer wanted to name it " Suddenly Stupid " , a pun on a show that had been airing at the time called Suddenly Susan . The Simpsons ' family members that showed up took some time to be made , but the staff enjoyed the results . All of the male Simpson family members that showed up were voiced by Dan Castellaneta , the voice of Homer . He had asked for the recording tape to be run for about 20 minutes , so he could do many different voice variations that would fit the different men , but still be close to Homer 's voice . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Lisa the Simpson " finished 19th in ratings for the week of March 2 – 8 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files . IGN 's Todd Gilchrist named the episode as one of his favorites of the ninth season in his review of the DVD boxset . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought well of the episode , saying , " A terrific episode , with a good mix of pathos ( Lisa 's farewell to the Springsonian and her favourite jazz club are inspired ) and fun ( her Homeresque ' woo @-@ hoo ' ) which comes together to make a refreshing and exciting look at Lisa 's life . " Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein greatly enjoyed the episode and thought of it as a great final episode that they ran . On the DVD audio commentary , writer Ned Goldreyer stated , " I think this might have been the best episode ever produced . "

= Stay @-@ at @-@ home dad = A stay @-@ at @-@ home dad ( alternatively , stay at home father , house dad , SAHD , househusband , or house @-@ spouse ) is a father who is the main caregiver of the children and is the homemaker of the household . As families have evolved , the practice of being a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad has become more common , and socially more acceptable . Pre @-@ industrialisation , the family worked together as a unit and was self @-@ sufficient . Beginning with the Industrial Revolution , large @-@ scale production replaced home manufacturing ; this shift , coupled with prevailing norms governing sex or gender roles , dictated that the father become the breadwinner and the mother the caregiver . When affection @-@ based marriages emerged in the 1830s , parents began devoting more attention to children and family relationships became more open . Beginning during World War II , many women entered the workforce out of necessity ; women resumed the caregiver position after the war , but their new @-@ found sense of independence changed the traditional family structure together with cultural shifts leading to the feminist movement and advances in birth control . Some women opted to return to the care giver role . Others chose to pursue careers . When women chose to work outside of the home , alternative childcare became a necessity . If childcare options were too costly , unavailable , or undesirable , the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad became a viable option . The number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads began gradually increasing in the late 20th century , especially in developed Western nations . The recent statistic that Pew Research released , showed a report in June 2014 that found 2 million men to be stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . However , in 2010 , the number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads had reached its highest point of 2 @.@ 2 million . Though the role is subject to many stereotypes , and men may have difficulties accessing parenting benefits , communities , and services targeted at mothers , it became more socially acceptable by the 2000s . The stay @-@ at @-@ home dad was more regularly portrayed in the media by the 2000s , especially in the United States . However , due to traditional family structures and stereotypic expectations , the stay at home father figure is culturally unacceptable in countries such as East Asia and India . = = Evolution of family roles = = = = = Pre @-@ industrialisation = = = In the colonial United States the nuclear family was the most common family form . Typical families consisted of five or more children initially ; because of high infant mortality rates , only a few children survived adolescence . Colonial families existed to serve six main functions : self @-@ sufficient business , school , vocational institute , church , house of correction , and welfare institution . The first African @-@ Americans to reach America were initially brought over as indentured servants , but instead became slaves . By the 19th century , slave trading was a thriving business . Typical slave families consisted of one or two children . Women were primarily the head of the families , either because the fathers had died or had been separated from the family . African @-@ American women experienced what came to be known as the " double day , " a full day of domestic chores plus a full day of work outside the home . = = = Industrialization ( 1800 – 1900 ) = = = The Industrial Revolution led to extensive mechanization , resulting in a shift from home manufacturing to large @-@ scale factory production . As this rapid transition took place , families lost many of their production functions . Instead , family members had to work outside the home to support their families . As a result , husbands and wives began operating in separate spheres of activity . The husband became the " breadwinner " by going out and working , while the wife stayed home and took care of the family . = = = Transition to modern family ( 1900 – present ) = = = The modern family is commonly thought to have originated in the 1830s : courtship became more open , marriages were often based on affection , and parents devoted more attention to children . At the beginning of the 20th century , married couples began to emphasize the importance of sexual attraction and compatibility in their relationships . This led to more intimate and open relationships along with more adolescent freedom . The transition of the family was influenced by the Great Depression , which forced many women into the workplace in order to compensate for lack of financial stability . In 1932 , a federal executive order stated that only one spouse could work for the federal government . This resulted in many women being forced to resign allowing their husbands to continue working . World War II had a significant impact on changing family roles . Because of the draft , workers were scarce in many industries and employers began to fill jobs with women , mainly in nontraditional positions . This increase in working women became one of the few times in history where women were praised for work outside the home . Divorce rates also reached a new high during this period . Not only had many women found a new sense of independence , but cultural shifts were underway , including the rise of feminism and the development of reliable methods of birth control . Such changes caused some women to decide to end their unhappy marriages . The 1950s saw a " baby boom " in America . This period was also called the " Golden ' 50s " . This was credited to families trying to make up lost time after the war . As a result , many families moved to the suburbs instead of residing in the city , the number of two @-@ income families began to increase , and grown children began to remain at home longer because of financial difficulties . Gradually , women began re @-@ entering the workforce . This progression away from the traditional view of the woman as the homemaker led to the creation of the role of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad . = = Increase in popularity in the 21st century = = Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads have been seen in increasing numbers in Western culture , especially in Canada , the UK and the United States since the late 20th century . In developed East Asian nations such as Japan and South Korea , this practice is less common . There are several reasons why some families feel that it would be more beneficial for the father to be the primary caregiver while the mother works outside of the home . The decision to use a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement is most commonly due to economic reasons . At the same time , women are progressing into higher @-@ paying jobs . There are now financial ramifications in deciding whether the mother or father should become the stay @-@ at @-@ home parent . In cases where the woman is the higher @-@ paid parent , it makes more economic sense for her to continue to work while the man takes on the caregiver role . It also makes sense at times the mother 's job offers health benefits for the family whereas the father 's does not . It has also been shown that if the " pregnancy was jointly planned , " the father is more likely to be involved . With the growth of telecommuting , many men are also able to work from home . In this regard , he is contributing financially to the family while also acting as the primary caregiver of the family 's children . Differences in parent 's schedules can also account for some of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . Sometimes the father works odd work shifts while the mother has a typical nine @-@ to @-@ five work schedule . Fixed gender roles began to become less prominent in the Western world starting in the late 20th century , allowing men to make their own choice of career without regard to traditional gender @-@ based roles . Some men who choose this role may do so because they enjoy being an active part of their children 's lives , while in other families , the mother wants to pursue her career . For example , of the 187 participants at Fortune Magazine 's Most Powerful Women in the Business Summit , one third of the women 's husbands were stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . Families vary widely in terms of how household chores are divided . Some retired males who marry a younger woman decide to become stay @-@ at @-@ home dads while their wives work because they want a " second chance " to watch a child grow up in a second or third marriage . Additionally , more career and lifestyle options are accepted and prevalent in Western society . There are also fewer restrictions on what constitutes a family . = = Disadvantages = = Depending on the country or region , a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad might find more or less social support for his decision . In regions where traditional roles prevail , a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad might be shunned by stay @-@ at @-@ home mom 's peer group . In order to find support for their choice , these men have created and joined many support networks . Still , many men struggle to find acceptance within the role of stay @-@ at @-@ home dad despite the many gains that have been made . Many worry about losing business skills and their " professional place in line " . There is a common misconception that stay @-@ at @-@ home dads cannot get a job and therefore must rewrite the typical family roles , forcing the wife into the workforce . Carrying the financial burden and dealing with children 's attachment to the dad can be difficult on a working mother . One 2002 study by the American Heart Association suggested stay @-@ at @-@ home dads may face a higher risk of heart disease . The reasons for the health risk are not specified . The role of stay @-@ at @-@ home dad may be difficult for men who feel as though they had no option . It is hard for these men to adapt from being a financial provider in the family to being a homemaker . Men who willingly choose to become a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad are much more satisfied with their role in the family . = = = For the Father = = = - No longer the “ Money Maker ” in the family , may become an issue due to not being the main support and rock for the family . - Transitioning from the workplace to stay at home role can be challenging . - Pay cut due to some male jobs paying higher than a female job . = = = For the Mother = = = - Missing their children . - Adapting to the workforce role from the stay at home mother role . - Becoming the main source of income for the family and working long hours away from home and family . - Will lose less time with their children and will devote 70 % of their day to work force and 30 % to their children . = = Advantages = = = = = For the child = = = There have been many studies done which suggest the importance of the paternal role in a child 's life and benefits of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad . Children respond differently to males and females at birth . A study conducted by Dr. Kyle D. Pruett found that infants between 7 and 30 months respond more favorably to being picked up by their fathers . Pruett also found that a father 's parenting style is beneficial for a child 's physical , cognitive , emotional and behavioral development . Mothers reassure toddlers when they become frustrated while fathers encourage them to manage their frustration . This helps the children learn to deal with stress and frustration . A long @-@ term study Pruett conducted proved that a father 's active involvement with his children , from birth to adolescence , promotes greater emotional balance , stronger curiosity and a stronger sense of self @-@ assurance in the child . Additional studies show that during the first five years of a child 's life , the father 's role is more influential than the mother 's in how the child learns to manage his or her body , navigate social circumstances , and play . Furthermore , a 1996 study by McGill University found that the " single most important childhood factor in developing empathy is paternal involvement in childcare " . Children that have a strong paternal influence have more nurturing abilities . It has been researched in The Role of the Father in Child Development , that in general , children with stay @-@ at @-@ home dads develop attachments at infancy . The study further concluded that fathers who spent time alone bonding with their children more than twice per week brought up the most compassionate adults . Robert Frank , a professor of child development at Oakton Community College in Illinois , conducted a study comparing households with a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad and households with a stay @-@ at @-@ home mom . His study concluded that women were still able to form a strong bond with their children despite working full @-@ time outside of the home . Also , women working full @-@ time were often more engaged with their children on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis than their male counterparts . His study concluded that in a family with a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement , the maternal and paternal influences are equally strong . This contrasts with the more traditional family structure where the father works outside of the home and the mother stays home with the children . In this type of arrangement , the mother 's influence is extremely strong , whereas the father 's is relatively insignificant . The study found that both parents play an equal role in a child 's development , but the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement is the most beneficial for the child . = = = For the mother = = = The stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement allows the mother to work without having to use a daycare or a nanny . This arrangement prevents the mother from having to deal with the stress of finding acceptable childcare , checking backgrounds , and paying for care . This arrangement also can help ensure that the family 's values are being upheld and instilled in the children . Free from the stress of childcare , the working mother is able to actively pursue their career . This allows for a more relaxed working environment for the mother and allows her to focus on her career . If the mother has a higher paying job , this extra income will allow for savings to be made for the children , these savings could help the mother later on pay for university for the child and / or children . Thus , she can advance her career and provide more money for the family . It puts a sound mind for the mother knowing that the child / children are at a safe place with the father having the same safety and values as the mother . = = = For the father = = = A survey conducted by Minnesota 's Department for Families and Children 's Services shows that men consider child care to be far more important than a paycheck . Of 600 dads surveyed , a majority said their most important role was to " show love and affection " to kids . " Safety and protection " came next , followed by " moral guidance , " " taking time to play , " and " teaching and encouraging . " " Financial care " finished last . Many men are now becoming more involved in their children 's lives , and because of that many men now have a better understanding of what life is like for their child growing up in modern society . Because fathers are immersed in their children 's lives , many of the stereotypically " manly " attitudes and activities historically prescribed for children may be circumscribed due to a more gender @-@ neutral parenting approach that focuses on promoting independence and emotional well being . This allows children , especially male children , to grow up with a greater capacity for empathy and less rigidity in attitudes pertaining to gender roles than would perhaps be the case in more traditionally @-@ structured households . = = Prevalence = = = = = Australia = = = Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads make up a very small portion of the Australian population although this appears to be rapidly changing . In 2003 , 91 % of fathers with children aged under 15 years were employed with 85 % employed full @-@ time . Because of this , there are few role models or resources that can help Australian fathers with the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad role . The Australian Bureau of Statistics show that approximately 7 % of two parents families with children under the age of 14 have a father who is unemployed and a mother who works full time . Stay at home dads in Australia have almost doubled over the past decade from 57 @,@ 900 to 106 @,@ 000 , and expected to increase in the future . Recent sociological studies have shown that men are dedicating more time and support to their children in comparison to the 19th century . The idea of a stay at home dad were far from mainstream , however the rising demand for female work has influenced this statistic to rise . = = = Canada = = = Over a 20 @-@ year period during the late 20th century , there was an increase in the number of women in the workforce in Canada . This shift increased father participation in family tasks that used to primarily be the responsibility of the mother . Beginning in the late 20th century , parental roles began to become less traditional , and the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement began to become more common . The number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads increased by three percent points between 1976 and 1998 , and the average age of a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad in Canada is forty @-@ two . A bill was passed in by the Canadian government in October 1990 which granted paid leave for fathers for the purpose of primary caregiving . = = = East Asia = = = Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads are not prevalent in East Asian countries , which generally have strict traditional gender roles . However , a survey conducted in 2008 in Japan suggested that nearly one third of married men would accept the role . The Japanese government passed a law in April 1992 allowing time off following the birth of a child for both male and female employees . In 1996 , 0 @.@ 16 % of Japanese fathers took time off of work to raise children . In South Korea , about 5 @,@ 000 men were stay @-@ at @-@ home dads in 2007 . Even so , stay @-@ at @-@ home dads face discrimination from stay @-@ at @-@ home mothers , and are often ostracized . = = = = China = = = = Beginning in the 2000s , the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad began to emerge as a role in China , though some remain uncomfortable with the way the role changes traditional family dynamics . Customs in China suggest that men must be the heads of their households . Stereotyping is an issue for stay @-@ at @-@ home dads , who sometimes prefer not to tell others about their family arrangement . Traditional ideas promote criticism of " woman @-@ like " men , and many feel that they would face humiliation and criticism for being stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . Others suppose they would be looked at as having a wife that is " too strong " . = = = = North Korea = = = = Until around 1990 , the North Korean state required every able @-@ bodied male to be employed by some state enterprise . However , some 30 % of married women of working age were allowed to stay at home as full @-@ time housewives ( less than some countries in the same region like South Korean \ Japan and Taiwan , more than Soviet Union \ Mainland China or Nordic countries like Sweden , about the same as Today 's USA ) . ) In the early 1990s , an estimated 600 @,@ 000 @-@ 900 @,@ 000 people perished in the famine , which was largely a product of the North Korean government 's unwillingness to reform the economy , and the old system began to fall apart . In some cases women began by selling household items they could do without or homemade food . Today at least three @-@ quarters of North Korean market vendors are women . A joke making the rounds in Pyongyang goes : ' What do a husband and a pet dog have in common ? ' Answer : ' Neither works nor earns money , but both are cute , stay at home and can scare away burglars.' = = = India = = = The role of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad is not traditional in India , but it is socially accepted in urban areas . According to one sociologist 's study in 2006 , as much as three percent of all urban working fathers in India are stay @-@ at @-@ home dads , and twelve percent of unmarried Indian men would consider being a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad according to a survey conducted by Business Today . One sociologist Sushma Tulzhapurkar called this a shift in Indian society , saying that a decade ago , " it was an unheard concept and not to mention socially unacceptable for men to give up their jobs and remain at home . " However , only 22 @.@ 7 percent of Indian women are part of the labor force , compared to 51 @.@ 6 percent of men ; thus , women are more likely to be caregivers because most do not work outside the home . = = = United Kingdom = = = According to an article by the Daily Mail , the number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads in 2007 had increased by 83 percent since 1993 . According to the same paper , in 2007 , recent figures from the Office for National Statistics showed more than 200 @,@ 000 fathers chose to stay at home and be the primary caregiver for their children . In an interview published in the Radio Times in May 2013 Karren Brady made it plain she " could never be a housewife " . While she maintains a business career in London her husband Paul Peschisolido has the role of house @-@ husband though Brady collaborates in tasks at home to a certain extent . = = = United States = = = In 2008 , an estimated 140 @,@ 000 married fathers worked in the home as their children 's primary caregivers while their wives worked outside of the home to provide for the family . This number is less than the previous two years according to the US Census Bureau . In 2007 , stay @-@ at @-@ home dads made up approximately 2 @.@ 7 % of the nation 's stay @-@ at @-@ home parents . This is triple the percentage from 1997 , and has been consistently higher each year since 2005 . In 2006 , stay @-@ at @-@ home dads were caring for approximately 245 @,@ 000 children ; 63 % of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads had two or more children . These statistics only account for married stay @-@ at @-@ home dads ; there are other children being cared for by single fathers or gay couples . Also , it is difficult to ascertain how many of these stay @-@ at @-@ home dads have accepted the role voluntarily , and how many have been forced into it by the economic crisis of the late 2000s and early 2010s during which a great number of mostly @-@ male blue @-@ collar industries suffered significant losses and many previously employed men entered periods of prolonged unemployment . = = Notable current and former stay @-@ at @-@ home dads = = Jim Abel , American singer @-@ songwriter Billy Ashley , American baseball player Eric Betzig , 2014 Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry Michael Stephen Clark , American columnist Chip Cravaack , American politician Mike Duncan , American podcaster Dan Klass , American actor , comedian and podcaster John Lennon , British musician Rick Moranis , Actor and comedian Alex Vincent , American drummer Mo Willems , American writer , animator , and creator of children 's books

= Tristan ( horse ) = Tristan ( 1878 – 1897 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire . In a career that lasted from the April 1880 to October 1884 , he ran 51 times and won 27 races . A useful performer at two and three years old , he matured into an outstanding horse in his last three seasons , winning important races at distances ranging from six furlongs ( the July Cup ) to two and a half miles ( Ascot Gold Cup ) and defeating three winners of the Epsom Derby . Unusually for a 19th @-@ century racehorse , he was regularly campaigned internationally , winning three consecutive runnings of the Grand Prix de Deauville . Tristan 's success was achieved despite a dangerous and unpredictable temperament : at the height of his success , he was described as " a very vile @-@ tempered animal " . = = Background = = Tristan was a dark chestnut horse standing just under 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) high , bred by Robert St Clair @-@ Erskine , 4th Earl of Rosslyn at the Easton Stud near Great Dunmow in Essex . As a yearling , Tristan was bought by the French owner C. J. Lefevre , who sent the colt to be trained by Tom Jennings at the Phantom House stable at Newmarket , Suffolk . Jennings would later say that Tristan had been mistreated as a yearling before his arrival at Newmarket and this explained his well @-@ known temperament problems . Tristan was ridden in most of his races by George Fordham and came to show a strong and sometimes violent dislike for other jockeys . Tristan ’ s sire Hermit won the Epsom Derby in 1867 and became an outstandingly successful stallion , being Champion Sire for seven successive years . In addition to Tristan , he sired the Derby winners Shotover and St. Blaise , as well as St. Marguerite ( 1000 Guineas ) , Lonely ( Oaks ) , and Thebais ( 1000 Guineas & Oaks ) . Tristan 's dam Thrift was an influential broodmare whose direct descendants included the Australian champion Poseidon , the Kentucky Derby winner George Smith and the Epsom Derby winner Reference Point . = = Racing career = = = = = 1880 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = = Tristan ran nine times in the first half of 1880 , winning four races worth about £ 1 @,@ 900 @.@ beginning his career with a second place in the Lincoln Cup at Lincoln Racecourse . At Epsom in April he won the Westminster Stakes and then finished second of fifteen runners to the filly Angelina in the Hyde Park Plate . On 11 May he won the Breeders ' Plate over five furlongs at York reversing the Epsom form by beating Angelina " cleverly " . At the end of the month Tristan returned to Epsom for the Derby meeting and won the Stanley Stakes , in which his three opponents included the future Grand National winner Voluptuary . At Royal Ascot he finished third to Sir Charles in the New Stakes , the race now known as the Norfolk Stakes . After running on unusually hard ground at Newmarket in July , when he finished unplaced behind Iroquois in the Chesterfield Stakes , he developed leg problems and missed the rest of the season . = = = 1881 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = = At the start of May Tristan finished unplaced behind Peregrine in the 2000 Guineas and two weeks later he ran third in the Payne Stakes . In the Derby he ran prominently for much of the way and turned into the straight in second place before weakening in the closing stages and finishing seventh behind Iroquois . On 12 June he was again tested in the highest class when he was sent to run in the Grand Prix de Paris at Longchamp where he was ridden by Fred Archer . Tristan was beaten a head after a " superb race " with the American colt Foxhall , ridden by George Fordham . The French crowd treated the defeat of Tristan as a home victory and joined the sizable American contingent in the celebrations which were described as “ the wildest ever seen at Longchamp ” . It was only after the intervention of the local police force that Fordham and Archer were able to return to the weighing room . He won a race called the Prix de Deauville ( not to be confused with the Grand Prix de Deauville ) before returning to England . In July he won the six furlong Horseheath Stakes at Newmarket " in a canter " at odds of 2 / 5 and the Singleton Stakes at Goodwood . In August he traveled back to France for his first attempt at the Grand Prix de Deauville and finished third to Castillon . On his return to Britain he finished last of three runners in the Great Yorkshire Stakes over one and three quarter miles at York . In September he was sent to Doncaster where he won a Queen 's Plate before finishing second to Petronel in the Doncaster Cup . At Newmarket in October , Tristan ran third to the two @-@ year @-@ old filly Nellie in the Great Challenge Stakes and was beaten twice more by Foxhall when finishing second to the American colt in the Select Stakes and third in the Cambridgeshire Handicap . In the latter event , Tristan was beaten a head and a neck after being badly hampered in the closing stages . = = = 1882 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = = As a four @-@ year @-@ old in 1882 , Tristan showed much improved form and established himself as one of the leading racehorses in Europe by winning ten times in fourteen starts . He began the year by winning a Queen 's Plate at Newmarket in April and followed up by winning His Majesty 's Plate at Chester in May . At Epsom Downs Racecourse he ran twice at the Derby meeting . In the Epsom Stakes , a handicap race over one and a half miles , Tristan carried top weight of 124 pounds and won by a length and a half from Retreat He then added the Epsom Gold Cup , the race which was the forerunner of the Coronation Cup , in which he successfully conceded twenty @-@ seven pounds to a filly named Isabel . At Royal Ascot in June he ran three times and was unbeaten , showing versatility by winning over three different distances . He took the two mile Gold Vase , beating the previous year 's winner Chippendale by six lengths , the one mile New Biennial Stakes and the one and a half mile Hardwicke Stakes . His performances established him as " one of the best horses in training " . In July he moved down to sprint distances for the July Cup over six furlongs at Newmarket . Conceding at least twelve pounds to his opponents , Tristan won his eighth successive race by taking the lead at half way and winning easily from the two @-@ year @-@ old Royal Stag with Nellie third . In the Goodwood Cup on 27 July Tristan started at odds of 1 / 4 against two moderate opponents , but his winning streak came to an end after his jockey , George Fordham , misjudged the race tactics and allowed a horse named Friday to build up a huge lead which he was unable to make up in the straight . In August he was sent to France again and won the Grand Prix de Deauville from ten opponents . On 12 October he contested the Champion Stakes over ten furlongs at Newmarket . He ran a dead heat with the filly Thebais , winner of the 1881 1000 Guineas and Oaks , with the St Leger winner Dutch Oven in third . Later in the meeting he finished second to the two @-@ year @-@ old Energy in the Great Challenge Stakes . At the end of October , Tristan ran twice at the Newmarket Houghton meeting without reproducing his best form . In the Cambridgeshire Handicap he carried top weight of 130 pounds and finished seventh of the thirty @-@ one runners behind Hackness . On his final start of the year he ran in the Jockey Club Stakes over two and a quarter miles . In a closely contested four way finish he dead @-@ heated for second place with City Arab , a short head behind Chippendale and a neck in front of the mare Corrie Roy . = = = 1883 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = = In April 1883 Tristan won a Queen 's Plate at Epsom and then collected a second Epsom Gold Cup at the Derby meeting on 25 May , winning by three lengths from a field which included the Derby winner Shotover . Between these races he was beaten when attempting to concede three pounds to the unbeaten Irish horse Barcaldine in the Westminster Cup at Kempton . On this occasion he reportedly showed " a good deal of temper " before the race and ran " unkindly " . On 7 June at Royal Ascot he contested the Ascot Gold Cup , the year 's most important staying race . Fordham sent him into the lead a mile from the finish and he won easily by three lengths from Dutch Oven and Wallenstein . On the last day of the Royal meeting he took the lead on the turn into the straight and won by a length and a half from Iroquois and eight others under top weight of 138 pounds to take his second Hardwicke Stakes . His winning time of 2 : 37 was considered exceptionally fast for the date . By this time he was being described as " about the best horse of the day in England " , and " the present champion of the English turf " , although he was also called " a bad horse to ride " . An example of Tristan 's problematic behaviour came on Newmarket Heath that summer when he attacked a horse named Gratin , who was acting as his training companion . Gratin was left lame whilst his rider , whom Tristan also attempted to savage , escaped with a black eye . Another of Tristan 's " victims " was a stable boy , whom he reportedly " shook like a rat " . His poor behaviour was blamed for contributing to his two defeats at Newmarket in July . He returned to Deauville in August to win the Grand Prix again , this time carrying 151 pounds . At Newmarket on 11 October he recorded a repeat victory in the Champion Stakes again , this time taking the race outright from the St Leger winners Ossian and Dutch Oven . For the third successive year he was beaten by a two @-@ year @-@ old in the Great Challenge Stakes , finishing third to the future 1000 Guineas winner Busybody . Tristan 's winning prize money for the year totaled £ 7 @,@ 628 , a record for a five @-@ year @-@ old which enabled Lefevre win the owner 's championship . Tristan 's career earnings had reached £ 19 @,@ 614 by the end of 1883 . = = = 1884 : six @-@ year @-@ old season = = = Tristan remained in training in 1884 by which time his achievements had made his name a " household word " . At Newmarket in spring he ran a public trial against St. Simon a three @-@ year @-@ old colt who was prevented from running in the classics because the death of his owner had invalidated his entries . Tristan attempted to give the younger horse twenty @-@ three pounds and was easily beaten . The two horses met again at Royal Ascot on 10 June when Tristan attempted to defend his status as the country 's best stayer in the Ascot Gold Cup . His temperament came to the fore as he proved difficult to get to the start and when the race began he again proved no match for St. Simon who won by twenty lengths . In his other races at the meeting , Tristan took on St. Gatien and Harvester the colts who had dead @-@ heated in the Epsom Derby . In the two mile Gold Vase he finished third to St Gatien and Corrie Roy , but in the Hardwicke Stakes on the last day of the meeting he won easily from Waterford , with the favourite Harvester a distant third . On 17 August Tristan carried 151 pounds to a third successive victory in the Grand Prix de Deauville . Once again he showed a good deal of temperament before the start but won the race by a short head from Fra Diavolo . In autumn he returned to England to end his racing career at Newmarket . Running in the Champion Stakes for the third time on 9 October he delayed the start for a quarter of an hour by his " display of temper " before dead @-@ heating with the four @-@ year @-@ old Lucerne . He was then retired to stud " covered with honours " and regarded as " one of the most wonderful horses of the time " . = = Stud career = = Lefevre retired Tristan to stand as a stallion in France at his stud near Chamant . In 1891 he was purchased by Caroline , Duchess of Montrose , who returned him to England as a replacement for the recently deceased Isonomy . Three years later he was sold again and exported to Austria @-@ Hungary . In 1897 he died as a result of injuries sustained after dashing his head against the wall of his stable in a fit of temper . Tristan was not a great success as a stallion , but he did sire Canterbury Pilgrim , who won the Epsom Oaks in 1896 and became a highly successful and influential broodmare . Other good winners included Le Nord ( Dewhurst Stakes ) and Le Nicham ( Champion Stakes ) . = = Pedigree = =

= Plunketts Creek ( Loyalsock Creek ) = Plunketts Creek is an approximately 6 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) tributary of Loyalsock Creek in Lycoming and Sullivan counties in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . Two unincorporated villages and a hamlet are on the creek , and its watershed drains 23 @.@ 6 square miles ( 61 km2 ) in parts of five townships . The creek is a part of the Chesapeake Bay drainage basin via Loyalsock Creek and the West Branch Susquehanna and Susquehanna Rivers . Plunketts Creek 's unique name comes from the first owner of the land including the creek 's mouth , and the creek has given its name to two townships ( although one has since changed its name ) . The creek flows southwest and then south through the dissected Allegheny Plateau , through rock from the Mississippian sub @-@ period and Devonian period . Much of the Plunketts Creek valley is composed of various glacial deposits , chiefly alluvium . Although the Plunketts Creek watershed was clear @-@ cut and home to a tannery , sawmills , and a coal mine in the nineteenth century , today it is heavily wooded and known for its high water quality , fishing , and other recreational opportunities . The watershed now includes parts of the Loyalsock State Forest , Pennsylvania State Game Lands , and a State Game Farm for raising pheasant . Tourism , hunting , and fishing have long been important in the region , and its year @-@ round population is increasing much faster than that of either Lycoming or Sullivan County . = = Name = = Plunketts Creek is named for Colonel William Plunkett , a physician , who was the first president judge of Northumberland County after it was formed in 1772 . During conflicts with Native Americans , he treated wounded settlers and fought the natives . Plunkett led a Pennsylvania expedition in the Pennamite @-@ Yankee War to forcibly remove settlers from Connecticut , who had claimed and settled on lands also claimed by Pennsylvania . For his services , Plunkett was granted six tracts of land totaling 1 @,@ 978 acres ( 8 @.@ 00 km2 ) on November 14 , 1776 , although the land was not actually surveyed until September 1783 . Plunkett 's land included the creek 's mouth , so Plunketts Creek was given his name . During the American Revolution , Plunkett did not actively support the revolution and thus was suspected of being sympathetic to the British Empire . He died in 1791 , aged about 100 , and was buried in Northumberland , without a grave marker or monument ( except for the creek that bears his name ) . Lycoming County was formed from Northumberland County in 1795 . When Plunketts Creek Township was formed in Lycoming County in 1838 , the original name proposed was " Plunkett Township " but the lingering suspicions of his British sympathies led to that name being rejected . Naming the township for the creek was an acceptable compromise . Plunketts Creek Township was originally much larger than it is now , and two other townships were formed from parts of it . When Sullivan County was formed from Lycoming County on March 15 , 1847 , Plunketts Creek Township was divided between the counties , with each having a township of the same name . This led to some confusion and in 1856 the citizens of Sullivan County petitioned the state legislature to change the name of their Plunketts Creek Township to Hillsgrove Township , for Hillsgrove , the main village and post office in the township . In 1866 , Cascade Township was formed from parts of Hepburn and Plunketts Creek Townships in Lycoming County . According to Meginness ( 1892 ) , Colonel Plunkett actually spelled his last name " Plunket " , but the current spelling was established " by custom and the courts " . As of 2007 , it is the only stream officially named " Plunketts Creek " on USGS maps of the United States and in the USGS Geographic Names Information System . ( There is a " Plunkett Creek " in Tennessee which has " Plunketts Creek " as an official variant name ) . The possessive apostrophe is not part of the official name of the creek , although records from the 19th century often spell it as " Plunkett 's Creek " . The Native American name for Plunketts Creek is unknown . Two streams in the watershed have given their names to roads in Plunketts Creek Township : Engle Run Drive and Mock Run Road . = = Course = = The source of Plunketts Creek is 1440 ft ( 439 m ) above sea level , northwest of the unincorporated village of Hillsgrove and just south of the Loyalsock State Forest in Hillsgrove Township , Sullivan County . The source is a pond just north of Pennsylvania Route 4010 ( the road between the villages of Proctor and Hillsgrove ) and Plunketts Creek crosses the road twice , then receives two unnamed tributaries on the right bank as it flows generally southwest about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the Lycoming County line . The creek continues southwest as it enters Plunketts Creek Township and receives Reibsan Run on the left bank , 4 @.@ 70 miles ( 7 @.@ 56 km2 ) upstream from the mouth . It next receives Mock Creek at the hamlet of Hoppestown ( 4 @.@ 24 miles ( 6 @.@ 82 km ) from the mouth ) , then Wolf Run ( 2 @.@ 72 miles ( 4 @.@ 38 km ) from the mouth ) , both on the right bank . At the village of Proctor , Plunketts Creek receives King Run ( 1 @.@ 66 miles ( 2 @.@ 67 km ) ) on the right bank , then turns south towards Loyalsock Creek . It flows through the Pennsylvania Game Commission 's Northcentral Game Farm , then receives the unnamed tributary in Coal Mine Hollow on the right bank and Dry Run on the left bank ( 0 @.@ 82 miles ( 1 @.@ 32 km ) and 0 @.@ 17 miles ( 0 @.@ 27 km ) , respectively ) . It finally enters the village of Barbours , where its mouth is on the right bank of Loyalsock Creek at 725 feet ( 221 m ) . Lycoming County is about 130 miles ( 209 km ) northwest of Philadelphia and 165 miles ( 266 km ) east @-@ northeast of Pittsburgh . Although Plunketts Creek is 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) long , the direct distance between the source and the mouth is only 4 @.@ 1 miles ( 6 @.@ 6 km ) . From the mouth of Plunketts Creek it is 19 @.@ 50 miles ( 31 @.@ 38 km2 ) along Loyalsock Creek to its confluence with the West Branch Susquehanna River at Montoursville . The elevation at the source is 1440 feet ( 439 m ) , while the mouth is at an elevation of 725 feet ( 221 m ) . The difference in elevation , 715 feet ( 218 m ) , divided by the length of the creek of 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) gives the average drop in elevation per unit length of creek or relief ratio of 115 @.@ 3 feet / mile ( 21 @.@ 8 m / km ) . For comparison , the relief ratio of Wallis Run ( the next watershed to the southwest ) is 110 @.@ 9 feet / mile ( 21 @.@ 0 m / km ) , while Loyalsock Creek 's is only 28 @.@ 0 feet / mile ( 5 @.@ 33 m / km ) . = = = Floods = = = Plunketts Creek can vary greatly in depth , depending on the season and recent precipitation . Its water level is typically highest ( perhaps 3 feet ( 1 m ) deep ) in spring or for a few days after a heavy rain , and lowest in late summer , when it can shrink to a trickle . While there is no stream gauge on Plunketts Creek , a rough estimate of the creek 's water level may be found from the stream gauge on the Loyalsock Creek bridge in Barbours , just downstream of the mouth . Lycoming County operates this gauge as part of the county @-@ wide flood warning system . It only measures the water height ( not discharge ) , and measured a record gauge height of 34 @.@ 0 feet ( 10 @.@ 4 m ) on September 7 , 2011 . The September 2011 flood was caused by remnants of Tropical Storm Lee , which dumped 11 @.@ 36 inches ( 289 mm ) of rainfall in the nearby village of Shunk in Fox Township in Sullivan County ( just north of the creek 's source ) . The 2011 flooding caused widespread damage in Proctor and Barbours and destroyed a small stone bridge on Wallis Run Road in Proctor over King Run , a tributary of Plunketts Creek . The Barbours Fire Hall became an " emergency relief center offering food , shelter and supplies to victims of the flood " . Further downstream on the Loyalsock , the flooding badly damaged the historic Hillsgrove Covered Bridge , washed out sections of Pennsylvania Route 87 along the creek , and destroyed the Pennsylvania Route 973 and Lycoming Valley Railroad bridges over the creek near and in Montoursville . The previous record flood reached 24 @.@ 9 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) on the Loyalsock flood gauge at Barbours on January 19 – 20 , 1996 . This major flood resulted from heavy rain , snow melt , and ice dams , which caused millions of dollars of damage throughout Lycoming County , and six deaths on Lycoming Creek in and near Williamsport . On Plunketts Creek , the flood heavily damaged and later caused the demolition of Plunketts Creek Bridge No. 3 , a mid @-@ 19th century stone arch bridge listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The flood waters were 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep in Barbours and it was called the village 's " worst flood in history " at the time . = = Geology = = Plunketts Creek is in the southern edge of the dissected Allegheny Plateau , near the Allegheny Front . The underlying bedrock is sandstone and shale , mostly from the Mississippian sub @-@ period , with rock from the Devonian period in the north of the watershed . The northern edge of the Plunketts Creek drainage basin is formed by Burnetts Ridge and Popple Ridge . Plunketts Creek flows along the north side of Camp Mountain and , on turning south at Proctor , forms a water gap between it and Cove Mountain ( to the west ) . The watershed has no oil or conventional natural gas fields . However , a potentially large source of natural gas is the Marcellus shale , which lies 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 0 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 2 km ) below the surface here and stretches from New York through Pennsylvania to Ohio and West Virginia . Estimates of the total natural gas in the black shale from the Devonian period range from 168 to 516 trillion cubic feet ( 4 @.@ 76 to 14 @.@ 6 trillion m3 ) , with at least 10 percent considered recoverable . The Pennsylvania Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey 's " Distribution of Pennsylvania Coals " map shows no major deposits of coal in the Plunketts Creek watershed , and only one deposit nearby in the Loyalsock Creek watershed ( in southern Plunketts Creek Township ) . However , Meginness ( 1892 ) refers to coal mines in Plunketts Creek Township , and there is an unnamed tributary of Plunketts Creek in " Coal Mine Hollow " on the right bank between Dry Run and King Run , so it seems a small coal mine operated there in the past . Much of the Plunketts Creek valley ( and those of its tributaries ) is composed of various glacial deposits . Closer to the mouth , there are large deposits of alluvium , as well as alluvial fan and alluvial terraces . Many of the glacial deposits are associated with the Wisconsin glaciation , with stratified drift and till , as well as outwash present . The alluvium is " 10 feet ( 3 m ) or more thick in the lower reaches of the Plunketts Creek valley " , but only " 6 feet ( 2 m ) thick in headward tributary valleys " . The outwash is described as " stratified sand and gravel that form terrace remnants along the flanks of Loyalsock Creek and Plunketts Creek valleys " . = = Watershed = = The Plunketts Creek watershed drains parts of Cascade , McNett , and Plunketts Creek townships in Lycoming County , and Fox and Hillsgrove Townships in Sullivan County ( with most of the watershed in Plunketts Creek Township ) . The drainage basin area is 23 @.@ 6 square miles ( 61 km2 ) , accounting for 4 @.@ 78 % of the 494 square miles ( 1 @,@ 280 km2 ) Loyalsock Creek watershed . Bear Creek , whose mouth is also within the village of Barbours but on the opposite ( left ) bank , is the nearest major creek at 0 @.@ 52 miles ( 0 @.@ 84 km ) downstream , as measured along Loyalsock Creek . ( It is also known as " Big Bear Creek " as it is the watershed upstream of " Little Bear Creek " . ) The neighboring major watersheds on the same bank are Wallis Run ( 9 @.@ 56 miles ( 15 @.@ 39 km ) downstream ) and Mill Creek ( at the village of Hillsgrove , 9 @.@ 16 miles ( 14 @.@ 74 km ) upstream ) . Pleasant Stream , a tributary of Lycoming Creek , is the watershed to the north . The named tributaries together account for 70 @.@ 6 % of the Plunketts Creek watershed . The largest tributary is Wolf Run , with an area of 7 @.@ 39 square miles ( 19 @.@ 1 km2 ) , accounting for 31 @.@ 3 % of the total . The Wolf Run drainage basin includes both the Noon Branch ( 4 @.@ 26 square miles ( 11 @.@ 03 km2 ) ) and the Brian Branch ( 1 @.@ 60 square miles ( 4 @.@ 14 km2 ) ) . The next largest tributary of Plunketts Creek is King Run with 5 @.@ 56 square miles ( 14 @.@ 4 km2 ) or 23 @.@ 6 % of the watershed . The King Run watershed includes Engle Run , with 2 @.@ 90 square miles ( 7 @.@ 5 km2 ) . The third largest tributary is Dry Run with 1 @.@ 79 square miles ( 4 @.@ 6 km2 ) or 7 @.@ 6 % , followed by the unnamed tributary in Coal Mine Hollow with 1 @.@ 08 square miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km2 ) or 4 @.@ 6 % . All other named tributaries are less than 1 @.@ 00 square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) and account for less than 5 % of the drainage basin individually . Plunketts Creek does not have its own watershed association , but is part of the larger Loyalsock Creek Watershed Association . = = = Water quality = = = The clear @-@ cutting of forests in the 19th century adversely affected the ecology of the Plunketts Creek watershed and its water quality . Polluting industries on the creek and its tributaries then included a coal mine and tannery ( which are long since departed ) . In the autumn of 1897 , three men working with hides at the Proctor tannery were stricken with anthrax , two fatally . Another four deaths originally blamed on pneumonia were suspected of being due to pulmonary anthrax , and some cattle drinking from Plunketts Creek downstream from the tannery were also infected . As late as 1959 , the sludge pile from the tannery was still visible in Proctor , but was not disturbed for fear of anthrax spores . No acid mine drainage is reported in the watershed . As of 1984 , the mean annual precipitation for the Loyalsock Creek watershed ( which Plunketts Creek is part of ) was 42 to 48 inches ( 1067 to 1219 mm ) . Pennsylvania receives the greatest amount of acid rain of any state in the United States . Because Plunketts Creek is in a sandstone and shale mountain region , it has a relatively low capacity to neutralize added acid . This makes it especially vulnerable to increased acidification from acid rain , which poses a threat to the long term health of the plants and animals in the creek . The total alkalinity ( TA ) is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acid , with a larger TA corresponding to a greater capacity . In 2007 , the TA of two subtributaries was known : Engle Run , a 4 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 9 km ) tributary of King Run , had a TA of 5 , and the Noon Branch , a 1 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) tributary of Wolf Run , had a TA of 9 . The 2002 Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) report on " State Forest Waters with Special Protection " rated Plunketts Creek ( from its source to mouth ) and two of it tributaries , Wolf Run and Mock Creek ( from the county line to the mouth ) , as " High Quality @-@ Cold Water Fisheries " . Two subtributaries were rated as " Exceptional Value " streams for fishing : Engle Run and the Noon Branch of Wolf Run . = = = Recreation = = = Meginness ( 1892 ) wrote that " Plunkett 's Creek township , on account of its dashing mountain streams of pure water , has always been a favorite place for trout fishing . " In 2007 , the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission classified both Engle Run and the Noon Branch of Wolf Run as Class A Wild Trout Waters , defined as " streams which support a population of naturally produced trout of sufficient size and abundance to support a long @-@ term and rewarding sport fishery . " Barbours has been popular from early on with " anglers seeking trout in the ' Sock and its tributaries " , as well as with hunters after black bear , white @-@ tailed deer , and wild turkey in the surrounding forests . Besides fishing , the Plunketts Creek watershed contains much of the 6 @,@ 722 acres ( 27 @.@ 20 km2 ) of Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 134 , in both Lycoming and Sullivan counties . Habitat is found there for deer , ruffed grouse , and wild turkey . Hunting , trapping , and fishing are possible with proper licenses on both the state forest and State Game Lands . Camping , hiking , mountain bike and horseback riding , snowmobiling , cross @-@ country skiing , and bird watching are all possible on state forest lands . The southern end of the 27 @.@ 1 mile ( 43 @.@ 6 km ) long Old Loggers Path , a loop hiking trail , runs through the watershed just north of Engle and Wolf Runs . = = History = = = = = Early inhabitants = = = The first recorded inhabitants of the Susquehanna River valley were the Iroquoian speaking Susquehannocks . Their name meant " people of the muddy river " in Algonquian . Decimated by diseases and warfare , they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes by the early 18th century . The lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River Valley were then chiefly occupied by the Munsee phratry of the Lenape ( or Delaware ) , and were under the nominal control of the Five ( later Six ) Nations of the Iroquois . On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired the " New Purchase " from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , opening what are now Lycoming and Sullivan counties to settlement . Initial settlements were on or near the West Branch Susquehanna River , and , as noted , Plunkett did not receive the land including the creek until 1776 , nor was it surveyed until 1783 . It is not clear if Plunkett ever lived on his land : he resided in Northumberland at the time of his death . A squatter named Paulhamus was the first recorded inhabitant of what became Plunketts Creek Township , living there " some time between 1770 and 1776 " . He was reputed to be a deserter from the British Army and left only when he was captured by British soldiers . = = = Lumber and tannery = = = Like all streams in Lycoming and Sullivan Counties , Plunketts Creek served as an area for settlers to establish homesteads , mills , and to a lesser extent , farms . Barbours , the first village on the creek , was founded in 1832 , when John S. Barbour , a Scottish immigrant , built a sawmill opposite the mouth of Plunketts Creek on Loyalsock Creek . Originally known as " Barbour 's Mills " , the village is in a rare area of flat land in the narrow Loyalsock valley and contains the mouths of both Plunketts and Bear Creeks . Barbours became a lumber center which owed " its existence to those forested mountains and the creeks that flow out of them " . John Scaife arrived in 1856 and became a prosperous lumberman and farmer . His family became prominent in Barbours , and in 1997 , his 86 @-@ year @-@ old granddaughter , Virdie Scaife Houser Landon , recalled that in her childhood " every family that had 15 cents to their name had a sawmill for cutting lumber . " By 1878 the village had several blacksmiths , a temperance hotel , its own post office , many sawmills , a school , and a wagon maker . Barbours flourished throughout the rest of the nineteenth century . In 1868 , Proctor was built as a company town in the midst of the timber required for the tannery ( Barbours had initially been considered for the site ) . The second village on Plunketts Creek was originally named " Proctorville " for Thomas E. Proctor of Boston , who produced leather for the soles of shoes there . Proctor was brought to the area by William Stone of Standing Stone Township in Bradford County , who knew the area was " one vast tract of hemlock timber " . The Proctor tannery employed " several hundred " at wages between 50 cents and $ 1 @.@ 75 a day , the employees living in one hundred twenty company houses , each renting for $ 2 a month . Hemlock bark , used in the tanning process , was hauled to the tannery from up to 8 miles ( 13 km ) away in both summer and winter , using wagons and sleds . The hides which were tanned to make leather came from the United States , and as far away as Mexico , Argentina , and China . In 1892 , Proctor had a barber shop , two blacksmiths , cigar stand , I.O.O.F hall , leather shop , news stand , a post office ( established in 1885 ) , a two @-@ room school , two stores , and a wagon shop . Finished sole leather was hauled by horse @-@ drawn wagon south about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to Little Bear Creek , where it was exchanged for " green " hides and other supplies brought north from Montoursville . Plunketts Creek was a source of power in the nineteenth century and " water @-@ powered sawmills , woolen mills , and grist ( grain ) mills lined the ' Sock and Plunketts and Big Bear Creeks " . Although hemlock logs were originally left to rot after their bark was peeled for tanning , with time their lumber was used , among other places in a sawmill on Engle Run north of Proctor . By 1892 there were two steam powered sawmills on Plunketts Creek : one 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) above the mouth , and the other 4 @.@ 0 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) up the creek , near Hoppestown . An extension of the Susquehanna and Eagles Mere Railroad crossed an unnamed tributary of Plunketts Creek near its source in Sullivan County in 1906 , running from the village of Hillsgrove northwest to the lumber boomtown of Masten in Cascade and McNett Townships in Lycoming County . A logging railroad was built by the Central Pennsylvania Lumber Company ( CPL ) in the far northern part of the watershed in the 1920s . It crossed Engle Run twice and ran parallel to Wolf Run , near both their sources . No other railroads crossed or ran along Plunketts Creek . = = = Decline and renewal = = = The lumber boom on Plunketts Creek ended when the virgin timber ran out . By 1898 , the old growth hemlock was exhausted and the Proctor tannery , then owned by the Elk Tanning Company , was closed and dismantled . Lumbering continued in the watershed , but the last logs were floated down Plunketts Creek to the Loyalsock in 1905 . The Susquehanna and Eagles Mere Railroad was abandoned in sections between 1922 and 1930 , as the lumber it was built to transport was depleted . The CPL logging railroad and their Masten sawmills were abandoned in 1930 . Without timber , the populations of Proctor and Barbours declined . The Barbours post office closed in the 1930s and the Proctor post office closed on July 1 , 1953 . Both villages also lost their schools and almost all of their businesses . Proctor celebrated its centennial in 1968 , and a 1970 newspaper article on its thirty @-@ ninth annual " Proctor Homecoming " reunion called it a " near @-@ deserted old tannery town " . In the 1980s , the last store in Barbours closed , and the former hotel ( which had become a hunting club ) was torn down to make way for a new bridge across Loyalsock Creek . Second growth forests have since covered most of the clear @-@ cut land . The beginnings of today 's protected areas were established in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries : Pennsylvania 's state legislature authorized the acquisition of abandoned clear @-@ cut land in 1897 , creating the state forest system . The Game Commission began acquiring property for State Game Lands in 1920 , and established the Northcentral State Game Farm on Plunketts Creek in 1945 to raise wild turkey . It was converted to ringneck pheasant production in 1981 , and , as of 2007 , it is one of four Pennsylvania state game farms producing about 200 @,@ 000 pheasants each year for release on land open to public hunting . The Northcentral State Game Farm is in the Plunketts Creek valley just south of Proctor , and a part of it is on the right bank of Loyalsock Creek downstream of the confluence . The Loyalsock State Game Farm is 13 miles ( 21 km ) downstream on Loyalsock Creek , at the village of Loyalsockville . When a May 2007 fire destroyed a brooder house there just days before 18 @,@ 000 pheasant chicks were due to hatch , the eggs were transferred to the nearby Northcentral State Game Farm without reduction in the production goal . As of 2007 , Proctor has two separate businesses : a general store ( which also sells gasoline ) and a bed and breakfast . The church which used to host the annual " Proctor Homecoming " reunions still stands , but is closed . Barbours has no store or gas station , but does have one church . Barbours is home to the Plunketts Creek Township Volunteer Fire Company and township municipal building ( which houses a small branch library ) . Since 1967 , Barbours has been home to Pneu @-@ Dart , which makes tranquilizer darts and guns for livestock and wildlife capture and control . In 1997 , Pneu @-@ Dart had eight employees . Today much of Plunketts Creek 's watershed is wooded and protected as part of Loyalsock State Forest or Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 134 . Pennsylvania 's state forests and game lands are managed , and small @-@ scale lumbering operations continue in the watershed today . Barbours has one sawmill , in 1997 it had thirty contract loggers and fifteen employees , with $ 1 @.@ 2 million in annual gross sales . Plunketts Creek has been a place for lumber and tourism since its villages were founded . Before the advent of automobiles , the area was quite isolated and the 16 mile ( 26 km ) trip to Montoursville took at least three hours ( today it takes less than half an hour ) . Residents who used to work locally now commute to Williamsport . " Cabin people " have seasonally increased the population for years , but increasing numbers now live there year round . From 1950 to 2000 , the population of Plunketts Creek Township increased 80 @.@ 6 percent from 427 to 771 ( for comparison , in the same period Lycoming County 's population increased by only 18 @.@ 6 percent , while Sullivan County 's declined by 2 @.@ 9 percent ) . Tourists still come too : the opening weekend of the trout season brings more people into the village at the mouth of Plunketts Creek than any other time of the year .

= Richard Cresswell = Richard Paul Wesley Cresswell ( born 20 September 1977 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays for Northern Counties East League Premier Division club Tadcaster Albion . He primarily plays as a striker but can also play as a winger . Cresswell started his career with York City in their youth system , making his first team debut in a Second Division match in 1996 . Having scored 19 goals for York in the 1998 – 99 season he signed for Premier League team Sheffield Wednesday in 1999 . After their relegation the following year he joined Leicester City of the Premier League , but was loaned to First Division side Preston North End in 2001 and played for them in the 2001 First Division play @-@ off Final . He signed for Preston permanently in the summer . He had four full seasons with Preston , scoring a career best 21 goals in the 2004 – 05 season , which culminated in defeat in the 2005 Championship play @-@ off Final . He signed for Championship rivals Leeds United in 2005 . He had a number of knee injuries while with Leeds and following their relegation to League One in 2007 was signed by Stoke City . With Stoke he won promotion to the Premier League as Championship runners @-@ up , with Cresswell scoring 12 goals in the 2007 – 08 season . He spent one full season in the Premier League with Stoke before signing for Championship side Sheffield United on loan in 2009 , before signing permanently in 2010 . United were relegated to League One in 2011 , and Cresswell played in their defeat in the 2012 League One play @-@ off Final . He was made player @-@ coach at the club in 2012 before rejoining his first club York City in 2013 , initially on loan . = = Club career = = = = = York City = = = Cresswell was born in Bridlington , East Riding of Yorkshire to George and Denise ( née Churm ) . He started playing for Bridlington Rangers at the age of eight before joining the York City youth system aged 14 in 1991 . Having been top scorer for the Northern Intermediate League team for three consecutive seasons , he signed a professional contract on 15 November 1995 . Cresswell made his first team debut away to Brentford in a 2 – 0 defeat in the Second Division on 20 January 1996 . He first scored for York with the second goal of a 2 – 2 draw away at Bradford City on 2 March 1996 . This proved to be his only goal in the 1995 – 96 season , in which he made 17 appearances . Having failed to score in 22 appearances for York in the 1996 – 97 season , Cresswell joined Third Division side Mansfield Town on loan on 27 March 1997 , making his debut in a 0 – 0 draw away to Exeter City on 29 March . He scored his first and only goal for Mansfield in a 1 – 0 win away to Rochdale on 5 April 1997 , before finishing the loan with five appearances . He scored four goals in 30 games for York in 1997 – 98 , and during this season he was barracked by a small section of the York support . Cresswell admitted he had not made the impact he had hoped to in the York first team , but ahead of the 1998 – 99 season said " I 've had some stick from a small number of fans , but hopefully I can prove them wrong . I will prove them wrong . This a big season for me . I want to do it for York City . I want to do it for myself . " After a positive start to the season , Cresswell attracted attention from other clubs , with a number of scouts attending matches to watch him play . Manager Alan Little claimed some clubs were making illegal approaches for the player , and that this was having a detrimental effect on his performances . Preston North End manager David Moyes claimed his club had a bid of more than £ 500 @,@ 000 for Cresswell rejected , while York chairman Douglas Craig rejected this , saying a formal offer had not been received from any club . He was York 's top scorer in the 1998 – 99 season with 19 goals from 42 appearances . = = = Sheffield Wednesday = = = He made a move to Premier League side Sheffield Wednesday on a four @-@ year contract on 25 March 1999 , with the £ 950 @,@ 000 fee being the highest received for a York player . On his transfer , Cresswell said : " This move is no disrespect to York , it 's just that I have always wanted to play at a much bigger club and as high as possible " . Manager Danny Wilson described Cresswell as " one for the future " after admitting the player " is not the striker people may perceive as the big one we were chasing " . His debut came in Wednesday 's 2 – 1 home defeat to Coventry City on 3 April 1999 , before scoring his first goal with an 87th @-@ minute winner at home to Liverpool in a 1 – 0 win on 8 May . He finished the 1998 – 99 season with one goal in seven games for Wednesday . Cresswell completed the 1999 – 2000 season with two goals in 25 appearances , having been given few opportunities in the team , as Wednesday were relegated to the First Division . = = = Leicester City = = = Cresswell struggled to establish himself at Wednesday under manager Paul Jewell early in the 2000 – 01 season , before he resumed playing in the Premier League after signing for Leicester City on 1 September 2000 for a fee of £ 750 @,@ 000 . Leicester were managed by Peter Taylor , who previously worked with Cresswell previously in the England under @-@ 21 team . He made his debut in their 1 – 1 draw at home to Red Star Belgrade in the UEFA Cup on 14 September 2000 . He scored once in 13 appearances for Leicester , his goal coming against former club York in a 3 – 0 home win in the FA Cup third round on 6 January 2001 , having failed to establish himself in the team . = = = Preston North End = = = Cresswell joined First Division club Preston North End on loan for the remainder of the 2000 – 01 season on 10 March 2001 and scored five minutes into his debut , a 2 – 0 win at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers on 14 March . He came on as an 82nd minute substitute in their 3 – 0 defeat to Bolton Wanderers in the 2001 First Division play @-@ off Final at the Millennium Stadium on 28 May 2001 . After scoring two goals in 14 appearances he signed for Preston permanently on a four @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 500 @,@ 000 on 14 July 2001 . Cresswell was Preston 's top scorer in his first two permanent seasons with Preston , scoring 15 goals in 44 appearances in 2001 – 02 and scoring 16 in 46 games in 2002 – 03 . He was also named Preston 's Player of the Year for the 2001 – 02 season . He received the first red card of his career in Preston 's 4 – 1 defeat away at Coventry City on 17 March 2004 after he was judged to have kicked out at opponent player Calum Davenport , although both managers later admitted David Healy was the culprit . He scored three goals in 47 appearances in the 2003 – 04 season . Cresswell drew praise from manager Billy Davies during the 2004 – 05 season , " Richard is very capable of that and it is important that we keep creating chances for Cressy as we know that he will put the ball in the back of the net " , although he admitted the team were over reliant on Cresswell 's goals . He enjoyed his best goal return in the 2004 – 05 season , top scoring for Preston with 21 goals in 52 games . This helped Preston reach the 2005 Championship play @-@ off Final , where they were beaten 1 – 0 by West Ham United at the Millennium Stadium . Cresswell played poorly in the first half , but had a number of chances on goal during the second half . = = = Leeds United = = = Cresswell was bought by Championship rivals Leeds United on a four @-@ year contract on 24 August 2005 for a fee of £ 1 @.@ 15 million , after rivals Sheffield United had a £ 1 million bid accepted . After the signing was completed , manager Kevin Blackwell said " To get a player of Cresswell 's quality is amazing " , while Cresswell cited his desire to win automatic promotion with Leeds . He first found the net with two goals in Leeds ' League Cup 2 – 0 away victory against Rotherham United on 20 September 2005 . However , Cresswell suffered knee ligament damage in a match against Derby County eight days later . This injury kept Cresswell out of action for seven weeks , making his return in Leeds ' 1 – 0 defeat away to Wolves on 17 December 2005 , and scoring in his second match back against Coventry City in a 3 – 1 home win on 26 December . Another knee injury picked up during a training session in February 2006 kept him out of the team until he entered Leeds ' 1 – 1 draw with former club Preston in the Championship play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg as a 78th @-@ minute substitute on 5 May 2006 . However , he was sent off in the 2 – 0 win in the second leg , meaning he was suspended for the 2006 Championship play @-@ off Final , which Leeds lost 3 – 0 to Watford at the Millennium Stadium . He finished the 2005 – 06 season with 21 appearances and seven goals . Having damaged his knee ligaments during the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , Cresswell missed the start of the 2006 – 07 season , making his first appearance in Leeds ' 4 – 0 home defeat to Stoke City on 14 October 2006 . However , he sustained a knee injury in November 2006 , after scoring his first goal of the campaign in Leeds ' 3 – 0 home win over Colchester United on 11 November . His return from injury came as a 68th @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 1 victory at home to Crystal Palace on 10 February 2007 . Cresswell scored in successive games against Sheffield Wednesday and Luton Town in March 2007 , but Leeds were eventually relegated to League One . He finished the season with four goals in 23 games . = = = Stoke City = = = Leeds were resigned to losing their senior players after going into administration , with Championship side Stoke City signing Cresswell on a three @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 2 August 2007 , after Hull City had pulled out of a deal after expressing concerns following his medical . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 win at Cardiff City on 11 August 2007 , before scoring in his second appearance with an equaliser during stoppage time of extra time in a 2 – 2 draw away to Rochdale in the League Cup first round on 14 August , although Stoke lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out . He scored the last ever goal at Colchester United 's Layer Road ground in a 1 – 0 win . Cresswell made 46 appearances for Stoke in the 2007 – 08 season , scoring 12 goals , as the club won promotion the Premier League as Championship runners @-@ up . He was regularly used on the left wing by Stoke manager Tony Pulis , even though his natural position is as a striker . He was quoted as saying he enjoyed playing as a winger , saying " I do my best , and I am quite a fit lad so I get through quite a bit of mileage " . During the 2008 – 09 season Cresswell played on the wing and as a striker , featuring in 34 games and scoring one goal . = = = Sheffield United = = = Having struggled for appearances with Stoke since their promotion to the Premier League , Cresswell joined Championship outfit Sheffield United on a three @-@ month loan on 29 September 2009 and made his debut the same day as a 76th @-@ minute substitute against Ipswich Town in a 3 – 3 home draw . Starting the following game he scored a 65th @-@ minute equaliser against Doncaster Rovers in a 1 – 1 draw at home on 3 October 2009 . He joined United permanently on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 5 January 2010 , going on to finish the 2009 – 10 season as top scorer with 14 goals . He was rewarded with a new three @-@ year contract with the club in June 2010 . He scored five goals in 36 games in the 2010 – 11 season as United were relegated to League One . With United now in League One , Cresswell formed a striking partnership with Ched Evans , making 51 appearances and scoring 10 goals in 2011 – 12 . The club failed to achieve promotion however , being beaten 8 – 7 in a penalty shoot @-@ out by Huddersfield Town in the 2012 League One play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium on 26 May 2012 , in which Cresswell was substituted for Chris Porter in the 85th minute . As a result of financial circumstances Cresswell and Nick Montgomery were made available for transfer during August 2012 , with manager Danny Wilson explaining that " They were both fit , they were left out for financial reasons " . Towards the end of the transfer window however United agreed a revised deal to change his role to that of player @-@ coach and as such he would be remaining at Bramall Lane for the foreseeable future . On his return to the side , Cresswell came on as a substitute and scored a header in United 's 5 – 3 victory over Bournemouth on 1 September 2012 . = = = Return to York City = = = Cresswell rejoined his first club York City , playing in League Two , on a one @-@ month loan on 19 March 2013 . He marked his second York debut by scoring a 73rd minute penalty kick on 23 March 2013 away at Torquay United in a 2 – 1 defeat . He played an important role as York fought against relegation , scoring twice in five appearances , before being recalled by new United caretaker manager Chris Morgan on 15 April 2013 . In July 2013 new United manager David Weir stated that Cresswell would be leaving the club , before he signed for York permanently on a one @-@ year contract on 16 July 2013 . His first appearance after signing permanently came in the first game of the 2013 – 14 season , a 1 – 0 home win over Northampton Town on 3 August 2013 . Cresswell retired from playing on 5 December 2013 , as a result of an eye complaint and a knee injury . He made eight appearances for York in the 2013 – 14 season . = = International career = = Cresswell was called up to the England national under @-@ 21 team while with York , making his debut in a 2 – 1 home victory over France in a friendly on 9 February 1999 . He continued to play for the under @-@ 21s after joining Wednesday , and scored his first goal for them in a 3 – 0 home win over Sweden in a 2000 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification match on 4 June 1999 . Cresswell finished his under @-@ 21 career with four caps and one goal . = = Coaching career = = Cresswell returned to York as a commercial , academy and community development consultant in April 2014 , having previously intended to pursue a career in coaching . He took on the position of Head of Football Operations , before being appointed as first team coach to manager Russ Wilcox in March 2015 . In May 2015 , Cresswell resumed his role as Head of Football Operations , while continuing to coach the first team . He took over as caretaker manager on 26 October 2015 after Wilcox 's sacking , and would be assisted by youth team coach Jonathan Greening and goalkeeping coach Andy Leaning . He was in charge for the 1 – 0 away defeat to Crawley Town on 31 October 2015 , before ceasing his caretaker duties upon the appointment of Jackie McNamara as manager on 4 November . Cresswell left York by mutual consent on 16 December 2015 . He resumed his playing career aged 38 when signing for Northern Counties East League Premier Division club Tadcaster Albion on 7 April 2016 . = = Personal life = = Cresswell married Zoe Chapman at Christ Church , Bridlington on 7 June 2003 , with former York City teammate Jonathan Greening being his joint best man . He took part in a 170 mile bike ride during 2012 to raise money for a charity which helps children with Dravet 's syndrome , after his twin nieces were diagnosed with the disorder . = = Career statistics = = As of match played 14 April 2016 . = = Managerial statistics = = As of 4 November 2015 . = = Honours = = Stoke City Football League Championship runner @-@ up : 2007 – 08 Individual Preston North End Player of the Year : 2001 – 02

= Berhtwald = Berhtwald ( also Brihtwald , Beorhtweald , Bertwald , Berthwald , Beorhtwald , or Beretuald ; died 731 ) was the ninth Archbishop of Canterbury in England . Documentary evidence names Berhtwald as abbot at Reculver before his election as archbishop . Berhtwald begins the first continuous series of native @-@ born Archbishops of Canterbury , although there had been previous Anglo @-@ Saxon archbishops , they had not succeeded each other until Berhtwald 's reign . Berhtwald 's period as archbishop coincided with the end of Wilfrid 's long struggle to regain the Bishopric of York , and the two @-@ year delay between Theodore 's death and Berhtwald 's election may have been due to efforts to select Wilfrid for Canterbury . After his election , Berhtwald went to Gaul for consecration and then presided over two councils that attempted to settle the Wilfrid issue , finally succeeding at the second council in 705 . Berhtwald also was the recipient of the first surviving letter close in Western Europe . = = Early life = = Little is known of Berhtwald 's ancestry or his early life , but he was born around the middle of the seventh century . By 679 , he was made abbot of the monastery at Reculver in Kent , and a charter dated May 679 names Berhtwald as abbot . This charter , from Hlothere , King of Kent , is the earliest surviving original Anglo @-@ Saxon charter . = = Election as archbishop = = The see of Canterbury was vacant for two years after the death of Theodore before Berhtwald was elected to the office on 1 July 692 . The long vacancy resulted from the disturbed conditions in the kingdom of Kent at the time , as various kings fought for control . The succession to the kingdom was disputed between rival claimants Oswine and Wihtred , and various outside kings , including Caedwalla and Swaefheard raided and plundered Kent . Eventually , Wihtred secured the throne , around 691 or early 692 , as Bede names Wihtred as King of Kent , along with Swaefheard , at the time of Berhtwald 's election . Swaerfheard , however , is not named as king of Kent after this date . The vacancy may also have occurred because Wilfrid , who was at that point having problems in Northumbria , desired to become Archbishop of Canterbury . A contemporary biographer of Wilfrid , Stephen of Ripon , says that Theodore had wished for Wilfrid to succeed Theodore at Canterbury . Æthelred of Mercia may have supported Wilfrid 's translation to Canterbury also , but despite these desires , the translation did not happen . Berhtwald was consecrated on 29 June 693 , having travelled to France for his consecration as archbishop of Canterbury by Godwin , Archbishop of Lyon . Berhtwald went to the continent for consecration probably because he feared that his election was not supported by all of the kings and bishops . After his consecration , Berhtwald travelled to Rome to obtain the support of Pope Sergius I , who wrote to a number of Anglo @-@ Saxon kings and bishops in support of the archbishop . Two of these letters survive , and their authenticity has been doubted , mainly because they are only preserved as part of the post @-@ Norman Conquest Canterbury @-@ York dispute . Historians have since come to regard the two letters as genuine . Sergius also gave Berhtwald a pallium , the symbol of an archbishop 's authority . = = Archbishop = = Berhtwald appears to have been involved in the governance of the church , establishing the bishopric of Sherborne in Wessex and it was during his tenure that Sussex , the last pagan kingdom in England , was converted to Christianity . He also consecrated the first Bishop of Selsey . During his time in office , King Wihtred of Kent in the Law of Wihtred exempted the church from taxation . Berhtwald was a proponent of his predecessor 's view of the archbishops of Canterbury as primates of the entire island of Britain . Berhtwald co @-@ operated closely with Wihtred in the kingdom , and secured the exemption of the church from taxation under Wihtred 's laws issued in 695 . The law code also dealt with other ecclesiastical matters , including marriage , Sunday observance , and pagan worship . This law code resulted from a royal council that was held at Bearsted . Further privileges for the church were issued in 699 , and may have been composed by Berhtwald before being promulgated . Another privilege , usually referred to as the " Privilege of Wihtred " , is claimed to be a grant from Wihtred to the monasteries of Kent of exemption from non @-@ clerical control . However , this is actually a ninth @-@ century forgery . Much of Berhtwald 's time in office coincided with the efforts of Wilfrid to regain the see of York , and to reverse the division of York into smaller dioceses . Berhtwald was opposed to Wilfrid 's desire to restore some separated bishoprics to the bishopric of York as well as regaining his old see . Wilfrid 's problems had begun during the archbishopric of Berhtwald 's predecessor , Theodore of Tarsus , when Wilfrid had quarreled with the King of Northumbria , Ecgfrith , and was expelled from the north . Theodore had taken the opportunity to divide the large see of York into a number of smaller dioceses , and Wilfrid had appealed to the papacy in Rome . Berhtwald inherited the dispute and presided at the Council of Austerfield in 702 , at which Wilfrid 's biographer relates the story that King Aldfrith of Northumbria , Berhtwald , and the other enemies of Wilfrid conspired to deprive Wilfrid of all his offices and possessions . A more likely story is that Berhtwald managed to secure concessions from the Northumbrians , and tried to broker a compromise . The offer in the end was that Wilfrid would retire to Ripon and cease acting as a bishop . Wilfrid rejected this compromise and once more appealed to the pope . Three years later , at a further Council , it was arranged that Wilfrid should receive the Bishopric of Hexham in place of that of York . This was the Council of Nidd , usually dated to 706 , and it was held in Northumbria . Bede also mentions that Berhtwald consecrated a number of bishops , including Tobias as Bishop of Rochester . One of Berhtwald 's letters has been preserved , sent to Forthhere , Bishop of Sherborne , and asking Forthhere to intercede with Beorwold , the Abbot of Glastonbury , to ransom a slave . Another letter , this one addressed to Berhtwald , from Waldhere , Bishop of London , also survives . The main interest in the second letter is that it is the oldest surviving letter close surviving in Western Europe . This second letter also relates that Waldhere and Berhtwald had attended a synod which can be dated to sometime between 703 and 705 , where the kingdom of Wessex was threatened with excommunication . A charter witnessed by Berhtwald which mentions a supposed 706 council , numbered 54 by Sawyer , is now known to be a fake , although the witness list may be based on a legitimate 8th century charter that no longer survives . Likewise , a charter with Berhtwald as a witness and relating to the 716 Council of Clofesho is also known to be a 9th @-@ century forgery , although again it may have been based on actual documents from the council . = = Death and legacy = = Berhtwald died on 13 January 731 . An epitaph to him in verse survives , and may have been placed over his tomb , which was at Canterbury . Subsequently he was canonised with a feast day of 9 January . Little evidence of extensive cult activity exists , however , and the main evidence for his sainthood is a late medieval entry in a St Augustine 's calendar . Berhtwald is the first of the continuous series of native @-@ born archbishops in England , although there had been two previous Anglo @-@ Saxon archbishops at Canterbury — Deusdedit and Wighard .

= Xenon = Xenon is a chemical element with symbol Xe and atomic number 54 . It is a colorless , dense , odorless noble gas , that occurs in the Earth 's atmosphere in trace amounts . Although generally unreactive , xenon can undergo a few chemical reactions such as the formation of xenon hexafluoroplatinate , the first noble gas compound to be synthesized . Xenon is used in flash lamps and arc lamps , and as a general anesthetic . The first excimer laser design used a xenon dimer molecule ( Xe2 ) as its lasing medium , and the earliest laser designs used xenon flash lamps as pumps . Xenon is also being used to search for hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles and as the propellant for ion thrusters in spacecraft . Naturally occurring xenon consists of eight stable isotopes . There are also over 40 unstable isotopes that undergo radioactive decay . The isotope ratios of xenon are an important tool for studying the early history of the Solar System . Radioactive xenon @-@ 135 is produced by beta decay from iodine @-@ 135 ( which is a product of nuclear fission ) , and it acts as the most significant neutron absorber in nuclear reactors . = = History = = Xenon was discovered in England by the Scottish chemist William Ramsay and English chemist Morris Travers in September 1898 , shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon . They found xenon in the residue left over from evaporating components of liquid air . Ramsay suggested the name xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξένον [ xenon ] , neuter singular form of ξένος [ xenos ] , meaning ' foreign ( er ) ' , ' strange ( r ) ' , or ' guest ' . In 1902 , Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earth 's atmosphere as one part in 20 million . During the 1930s , American engineer Harold Edgerton began exploring strobe light technology for high speed photography . This led him to the invention of the xenon flash lamp , in which light is generated by sending a brief electric current through a tube filled with xenon gas . In 1934 , Edgerton was able to generate flashes as brief as one microsecond with this method . In 1939 , American physician Albert R. Behnke Jr. began exploring the causes of " drunkenness " in deep @-@ sea divers . He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects , and discovered that this caused the divers to perceive a change in depth . From his results , he deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic . Although Russian toxicologist Nikolay V. Lazarev apparently studied xenon anesthesia in 1941 , the first published report confirming xenon anesthesia was in 1946 by American medical researcher John H. Lawrence , who experimented on mice . Xenon was first used as a surgical anesthetic in 1951 by American anesthesiologist Stuart C. Cullen , who successfully operated on two patients . Xenon and the other noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely chemically inert and not able to form compounds . However , while teaching at the University of British Columbia , Neil Bartlett discovered that the gas platinum hexafluoride ( PtF6 ) was a powerful oxidizing agent that could oxidize oxygen gas ( O2 ) to form dioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate ( O2 + [ PtF6 ] − ) . Since O2 and xenon have almost the same first ionization potential , Bartlett realized that platinum hexafluoride might also be able to oxidize xenon . On March 23 , 1962 , he mixed the two gases and produced the first known compound of a noble gas , xenon hexafluoroplatinate . Bartlett thought its composition to be Xe + [ PtF6 ] − , although later work has revealed that it was probably a mixture of various xenon @-@ containing salts . Since then , many other xenon compounds have been discovered , along with some compounds of the noble gases argon , krypton , and radon , including argon fluorohydride ( HArF ) , krypton difluoride ( KrF2 ) , and radon fluoride . By 1971 , more than 80 xenon compounds were known . In November 1999 IBM scientists demonstrated a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms . The program , called IBM in atoms , used a scanning tunneling microscope to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company acronym . It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface . = = Characteristics = = Xenon has atomic number 54 ; that is , its nucleus contains 54 protons . At standard temperature and pressure , pure xenon gas has a density of 5 @.@ 761 kg / m3 , about 4 @.@ 5 times the surface density of the Earth 's atmosphere , 1 @.@ 217 kg / m3 . As a liquid , xenon has a density of up to 3 @.@ 100 g / mL , with the density maximum occurring at the triple point . Notably , liquid xenon has a high polarizability due to its large atomic volume , and thus is an excellent solvent . It can dissolve hydrocarbons , biological molecules , and even water . Under the same conditions , the density of solid xenon , 3 @.@ 640 g / cm3 , is higher than the average density of granite , 2 @.@ 75 g / cm3 . Using gigapascals of pressure , xenon has been forced into a metallic phase . Solid xenon changes from face @-@ centered cubic ( fcc ) to hexagonal close packed ( hcp ) crystal phase under pressure and begins to turn metallic at about 140 GPa , with no noticeable volume change in the hcp phase . It is completely metallic at 155 GPa . When metallized , xenon looks sky blue because it absorbs red light and transmits other visible frequencies . Such behavior is unusual for a metal and is explained by the relatively small widths of the electron bands in metallic xenon . Liquid or solid xenon nanoparticles can be formed at room temperature by implanting Xe + ions into a solid matrix . Many solids have lattice constants smaller than solid Xe . This results in compression of the implanted Xe to pressures that may be sufficient for its liquefaction or solidification . Xenon is a member of the zero @-@ valence elements that are called noble or inert gases . It is inert to most common chemical reactions ( such as combustion , for example ) because the outer valence shell contains eight electrons . This produces a stable , minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound . In a gas @-@ filled tube , xenon emits a blue or lavenderish glow when the gas is excited by electrical discharge . Xenon emits a band of emission lines that span the visual spectrum , but the most intense lines occur in the region of blue light , which produces the coloration . = = Occurrence and production = = Xenon is a trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere , occurring at 87 ± 1 parts per billion ( nL / L ) , or approximately 1 part per 11 @.@ 5 million , and is also found as a component in gases emitted from some mineral springs . Xenon is obtained commercially as a by @-@ product of the separation of air into oxygen and nitrogen . After this separation , generally performed by fractional distillation in a double @-@ column plant , the liquid oxygen produced will contain small quantities of krypton and xenon . By additional fractional distillation steps , the liquid oxygen may be enriched to contain 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 % of a krypton / xenon mixture , which is extracted either via absorption onto silica gel or by distillation . Finally , the krypton / xenon mixture may be separated into krypton and xenon via distillation . Worldwide production of xenon in 1998 was estimated at 5 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 m3 . Because of its low abundance , xenon is much more expensive than the lighter noble gases — approximate prices for the purchase of small quantities in Europe in 1999 were 10 € / L for xenon , 1 € / L for krypton , and 0 @.@ 20 € / L for neon ; the much more plentiful argon costs less than a cent per liter . Within the Solar System , the nucleon fraction of xenon is 1 @.@ 56 × 10 − 8 , for an abundance of approximately one part in 630 thousand of the total mass . Xenon is relatively rare in the Sun 's atmosphere , on Earth , and in asteroids and comets . The planet Jupiter has an unusually high abundance of xenon in its atmosphere ; about 2 @.@ 6 times as much as the Sun . This high abundance remains unexplained and may have been caused by an early and rapid buildup of planetesimals — small , subplanetary bodies — before the presolar disk began to heat up . ( Otherwise , xenon would not have been trapped in the planetesimal ices . ) The problem of the low terrestrial xenon may potentially be explained by covalent bonding of xenon to oxygen within quartz , hence reducing the outgassing of xenon into the atmosphere . Unlike the lower mass noble gases , the normal stellar nucleosynthesis process inside a star does not form xenon . Elements more massive than iron @-@ 56 have a net energy cost to produce through fusion , so there is no energy gain for a star when creating xenon . Instead , xenon is formed during supernova explosions , by the slow neutron capture process ( s @-@ process ) of red giant stars that have exhausted the hydrogen at their cores and entered the asymptotic giant branch , in classical nova explosions and from the radioactive decay of elements such as iodine , uranium and plutonium . = = Isotopes and isotopic studies = = Naturally occurring xenon is made of eight stable isotopes , the most of any element with the exception of tin , which has ten . Xenon and tin are the only elements to have more than seven stable isotopes . The isotopes 124Xe and 134Xe are predicted to undergo double beta decay , but this has never been observed so they are considered to be stable . Besides these stable forms , there are over 40 unstable isotopes that have been studied . The longest lived of these isotopes is 136Xe , which has been observed to undergo double beta decay with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 11 × 1021 yr . 129Xe is produced by beta decay of 129I , which has a half @-@ life of 16 million years , while 131mXe , 133Xe , 133mXe , and 135Xe are some of the fission products of both 235U and 239Pu , and therefore used as indicators of nuclear explosions . Nuclei of two of the stable isotopes of xenon , 129Xe and 131Xe , have non @-@ zero intrinsic angular momenta ( nuclear spins , suitable for nuclear magnetic resonance ) . The nuclear spins can be aligned beyond ordinary polarization levels by means of circularly polarized light and rubidium vapor . The resulting spin polarization of xenon nuclei can surpass 50 % of its maximum possible value , greatly exceeding the thermal equilibrium value dictated by paramagnetic statistics ( typically 0 @.@ 001 % of the maximum value at room temperature , even in the strongest magnets ) . Such non @-@ equilibrium alignment of spins is a temporary condition , and is called hyperpolarization . The process of hyperpolarizing the xenon is called optical pumping ( although the process is different from pumping a laser ) . Because a 129Xe nucleus has a spin of 1 / 2 , and therefore a zero electric quadrupole moment , the 129Xe nucleus does not experience any quadrupolar interactions during collisions with other atoms , and thus its hyperpolarization can be maintained for long periods of time even after the laser beam has been turned off and the alkali vapor removed by condensation on a room @-@ temperature surface . Spin polarization of 129Xe can persist from several seconds for xenon atoms dissolved in blood to several hours in the gas phase and several days in deeply frozen solid xenon . In contrast , 131Xe has a nuclear spin value of 3 ⁄ 2 and a nonzero quadrupole moment , and has t1 relaxation times in the millisecond and second ranges . Some radioactive isotopes of xenon , for example , 133Xe and 135Xe , are produced by neutron irradiation of fissionable material within nuclear reactors . 135Xe is of considerable significance in the operation of nuclear fission reactors . 135Xe has a huge cross section for thermal neutrons , 2 @.@ 6 × 106 barns , so it acts as a neutron absorber or " poison " that can slow or stop the chain reaction after a period of operation . This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the American Manhattan Project for plutonium production . Fortunately the designers had made provisions in the design to increase the reactor 's reactivity ( the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of nuclear fuel ) . 135Xe reactor poisoning played a major role in the Chernobyl disaster . A shutdown or decrease of power of a reactor can result in buildup of 135Xe and getting the reactor into the iodine pit . Under adverse conditions , relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes may be found emanating from nuclear reactors due to the release of fission products from cracked fuel rods , or fissioning of uranium in cooling water . Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes , xenon isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the solar system . The iodine @-@ xenon method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the solar nebula . In 1960 , physicist John H. Reynolds discovered that certain meteorites contained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon @-@ 129 . He inferred that this was a decay product of radioactive iodine @-@ 129 . This isotope is produced slowly by cosmic ray spallation and nuclear fission , but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions . As the half @-@ life of 129I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale , only 16 million years , this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time the meteorites had solidified and trapped the 129I . These two events ( supernova and solidification of gas cloud ) were inferred to have happened during the early history of the Solar System , as the 129I isotope was likely generated before the Solar System was formed , but not long before , and seeded the solar gas cloud with isotopes from a second source . This supernova source may also have caused collapse of the solar gas cloud . In a similar way , xenon isotopic ratios such as 129Xe / 130Xe and 136Xe / 130Xe are also a powerful tool for understanding planetary differentiation and early outgassing . For example , The atmosphere of Mars shows a xenon abundance similar to that of Earth : 0 @.@ 08 parts per million , however Mars shows a higher proportion of 129Xe than the Earth or the Sun . As this isotope is generated by radioactive decay , the result may indicate that Mars lost most of its primordial atmosphere , possibly within the first 100 million years after the planet was formed . In another example , excess 129Xe found in carbon dioxide well gases from New Mexico was believed to be from the decay of mantle @-@ derived gases soon after Earth 's formation . = = Compounds = = After Neil Bartlett 's discovery in 1962 that xenon can form chemical compounds , a large number of xenon compounds have been discovered and described . Almost all known xenon compounds contain the electronegative atoms fluorine or oxygen . = = = Halides = = = Three fluorides are known : XeF 2 , XeF 4 , and XeF 6 . XeF is theorized to be unstable . The fluorides are the starting point for the synthesis of almost all xenon compounds . The solid , crystalline difluoride XeF 2 is formed when a mixture of fluorine and xenon gases is exposed to ultraviolet light . Ordinary daylight is sufficient . Long @-@ term heating of XeF 2 at high temperatures under an NiF 2 catalyst yields XeF 6 . Pyrolysis of XeF 6 in the presence of NaF yields high @-@ purity XeF 4 . The xenon fluorides behave as both fluoride acceptors and fluoride donors , forming salts that contain such cations as XeF + and Xe 2F + 3 , and anions such as XeF − 5 , XeF − 7 , and XeF2 − 8 . The green , paramagnetic Xe + 2 is formed by the reduction of XeF 2 by xenon gas . XeF 2 is also able to form coordination complexes with transition metal ions . Over 30 such complexes have been synthesized and characterized . Whereas the xenon fluorides are well @-@ characterized , the other halides are not known , the only exception being the dichloride , XeCl2 . Xenon dichloride is reported to be an endothermic , colorless , crystalline compound that decomposes into the elements at 80 ° C , formed by the high @-@ frequency irradiation of a mixture of xenon , fluorine , and silicon or carbon tetrachloride . However , doubt has been raised as to whether XeCl 2 is a real compound and not merely a van der Waals molecule consisting of weakly bound Xe atoms and Cl 2 molecules . Theoretical calculations indicate that the linear molecule XeCl 2 is less stable than the van der Waals complex . = = = Oxides and oxohalides = = = Three oxides of xenon are known : xenon trioxide ( XeO 3 ) and xenon tetroxide ( XeO 4 ) , both of which are dangerously explosive and powerful oxidizing agents , and xenon dioxide ( XeO2 ) , which was reported in 2011 with a coordination number of four . XeO2 forms when xenon tetrafluoride is poured over ice . Its crystal structure may allow it to replace silicon in silicate minerals . The XeOO + cation has been identified by infrared spectroscopy in solid argon . Xenon does not react with oxygen directly ; the trioxide is formed by the hydrolysis of XeF 6 : XeF 6 + 3 H 2O → XeO 3 + 6 HF XeO 3 is weakly acidic , dissolving in alkali to form unstable xenate salts containing the HXeO − 4 anion . These unstable salts easily disproportionate into xenon gas and perxenate salts , containing the XeO4 − 6 anion . Barium perxenate , when treated with concentrated sulfuric acid , yields gaseous xenon tetroxide : Ba 2XeO 6 + 2 H 2SO 4 → 2 BaSO 4 + 2 H 2O + XeO 4 To prevent decomposition , the xenon tetroxide thus formed is quickly cooled to form a pale @-@ yellow solid . It explodes above − 35 @.@ 9 ° C into xenon and oxygen gas . A number of xenon oxyfluorides are known , including XeOF 2 , XeOF 4 , XeO 2F 2 , and XeO 3F 2 . XeOF 2 is formed by the reaction of OF 2 with xenon gas at low temperatures . It may also be obtained by the partial hydrolysis of XeF 4 . It disproportionates at − 20 ° C into XeF 2 and XeO 2F 2 . XeOF 4 is formed by the partial hydrolysis of XeF 6 , or the reaction of XeF 6 with sodium perxenate , Na 4XeO 6 . The latter reaction also produces a small amount of XeO 3F 2 . XeOF 4 reacts with CsF to form the XeOF − 5 anion , while XeOF3 reacts with the alkali metal fluorides KF , RbF and CsF to form the XeOF − 4 anion . = = = Other compounds = = = Recently , there has been an interest in xenon compounds where xenon is directly bonded to a less electronegative element than fluorine or oxygen , particularly carbon . Electron @-@ withdrawing groups , such as groups with fluorine substitution , are necessary to stabilize these compounds . Numerous such compounds have been characterized , including : C 6F 5 – Xe + – N ≡ C – CH 3 , where C6F5 is the pentafluorophenyl group . [ C 6F 5 ] 2Xe C 6F 5 – Xe – X , where X is CN , F , or Cl . R – C ≡ C – Xe + , where R is C 2F − 5 or tert @-@ butyl . C 6F 5 – XeF + 2 ( C 6F 5Xe ) 2Cl + Other compounds containing xenon bonded to a less electronegative element include F – Xe – N ( SO 2F ) 2 and F – Xe – BF 2 . The latter is synthesized from dioxygenyl tetrafluoroborate , O 2BF 4 , at − 100 ° C. An unusual ion containing xenon is the tetraxenonogold ( II ) cation , AuXe2 + 4 , which contains Xe – Au bonds . This ion occurs in the compound AuXe 4 ( Sb 2F 11 ) 2 , and is remarkable in having direct chemical bonds between two notoriously unreactive atoms , xenon and gold , with xenon acting as a transition metal ligand . The compound Xe 2Sb 2F 11 contains a Xe – Xe bond , the longest element @-@ element bond known ( 308 @.@ 71 pm = 3 @.@ 0871 Å ) . In 1995 , M. Räsänen and co @-@ workers , scientists at the University of Helsinki in Finland , announced the preparation of xenon dihydride ( HXeH ) , and later xenon hydride @-@ hydroxide ( HXeOH ) , hydroxenoacetylene ( HXeCCH ) , and other Xe @-@ containing molecules . In 2008 , Khriachtchev et al. reported the preparation of HXeOXeH by the photolysis of water within a cryogenic xenon matrix . Deuterated molecules , HXeOD and DXeOH , have also been produced . = = = Clathrates and excimers = = = In addition to compounds where xenon forms a chemical bond , xenon can form clathrates — substances where xenon atoms or pairs are trapped by the crystalline lattice of another compound . One example is xenon hydrate ( Xe • 5 @.@ 75 H2O ) , where xenon atoms occupy vacancies in a lattice of water molecules . This clathrate has a melting point of 24 ° C. The deuterated version of this hydrate has also been produced . Another example is Xe hydride ( Xe ( H2 ) 8 ) , in which xenon pairs ( dimers ) are trapped inside solid hydrogen . Such clathrate hydrates can occur naturally under conditions of high pressure , such as in Lake Vostok underneath the Antarctic ice sheet . Clathrate formation can be used to fractionally distill xenon , argon and krypton . Xenon can also form endohedral fullerene compounds , where a xenon atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule . The xenon atom trapped in the fullerene can be monitored via 129Xe nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) spectroscopy . Using this technique , chemical reactions on the fullerene molecule can be analyzed , due to the sensitivity of the chemical shift of the xenon atom to its environment . However , the xenon atom also has an electronic influence on the reactivity of the fullerene . When xenon atoms are at their ground energy state , they repel each other and will not form a bond . When xenon atoms becomes energized , however , they can form an excimer ( excited dimer ) until the electrons return to the ground state . This entity is formed because the xenon atom tends to fill its outermost electronic shell , and can briefly do this by adding an electron from a neighboring xenon atom . The typical lifetime of a xenon excimer is 1 – 5 ns , and the decay releases photons with wavelengths of about 150 and 173 nm . Xenon can also form excimers with other elements , such as the halogens bromine , chlorine and fluorine . = = Applications = = Although xenon is rare and relatively expensive to extract from the Earth 's atmosphere , it has a number of applications . = = = Illumination and optics = = = = = = = Gas @-@ discharge lamps = = = = Xenon is used in light @-@ emitting devices called xenon flash lamps , which are used in photographic flashes and stroboscopic lamps ; to excite the active medium in lasers which then generate coherent light ; and , occasionally , in bactericidal lamps . The first solid @-@ state laser , invented in 1960 , was pumped by a xenon flash lamp , and lasers used to power inertial confinement fusion are also pumped by xenon flash lamps . Continuous , short @-@ arc , high pressure xenon arc lamps have a color temperature closely approximating noon sunlight and are used in solar simulators . That is , the chromaticity of these lamps closely approximates a heated black body radiator that has a temperature close to that observed from the Sun . After they were first introduced during the 1940s , these lamps began replacing the shorter @-@ lived carbon arc lamps in movie projectors . They are employed in typical 35mm , IMAX and the new digital projectors film projection systems , automotive HID headlights , high @-@ end " tactical " flashlights and other specialized uses . These arc lamps are an excellent source of short wavelength ultraviolet radiation and they have intense emissions in the near infrared , which is used in some night vision systems . The individual cells in a plasma display use a mixture of xenon and neon that is converted into a plasma using electrodes . The interaction of this plasma with the electrodes generates ultraviolet photons , which then excite the phosphor coating on the front of the display . Xenon is used as a " starter gas " in high pressure sodium lamps . It has the lowest thermal conductivity and lowest ionization potential of all the non @-@ radioactive noble gases . As a noble gas , it does not interfere with the chemical reactions occurring in the operating lamp . The low thermal conductivity minimizes thermal losses in the lamp while in the operating state , and the low ionization potential causes the breakdown voltage of the gas to be relatively low in the cold state , which allows the lamp to be more easily started . = = = = Lasers = = = = In 1962 , a group of researchers at Bell Laboratories discovered laser action in xenon , and later found that the laser gain was improved by adding helium to the lasing medium . The first excimer laser used a xenon dimer ( Xe2 ) energized by a beam of electrons to produce stimulated emission at an ultraviolet wavelength of 176 nm . Xenon chloride and xenon fluoride have also been used in excimer ( or , more accurately , exciplex ) lasers . The xenon chloride excimer laser has been employed , for example , in certain dermatological uses . = = = Medical = = = = = = = Anesthesia = = = = Xenon has been used as a general anesthetic . Although it is expensive , anesthesia machines that can deliver xenon are about to appear on the European market , because advances in recovery and recycling of xenon have made it economically viable . Xenon interacts with many different receptors and ion channels and like many theoretically multi @-@ modal inhalation anesthetics these interactions are likely complementary . Xenon is a high @-@ affinity glycine @-@ site NMDA receptor antagonist . However , xenon distinguishes itself from other clinically used NMDA receptor antagonists in its lack of neurotoxicity and its ability to inhibit the neurotoxicity of ketamine and nitrous oxide . Unlike ketamine and nitrous oxide , xenon does not stimulate a dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens . Like nitrous oxide and cyclopropane , xenon activates the two @-@ pore domain potassium channel TREK @-@ 1 . A related channel TASK @-@ 3 also implicated in inhalational anesthetic actions is insensitive to xenon . Xenon inhibits nicotinic acetylcholine α4β2 receptors which contribute to spinally mediated analgesia . Xenon is an effective inhibitor of plasma membrane Ca2 + ATPase . Xenon inhibits Ca2 + ATPase by binding to a hydrophobic pore within the enzyme and preventing the enzyme from assuming active conformations . Xenon is a competitive inhibitor of the serotonin 5 @-@ HT3 receptor . While neither anesthetic nor antinociceptive this activity reduces anesthesia @-@ emergent nausea and vomiting . Xenon has a minimum alveolar concentration ( MAC ) of 72 % at age 40 , making it 44 % more potent than N2O as an anesthetic . Thus it can be used in concentrations with oxygen that have a lower risk of hypoxia . Unlike nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , xenon is not a greenhouse gas and so it is also viewed as environmentally friendly . Xenon vented into the atmosphere is being returned to its original source , so no environmental impact is likely . = = = = Neuroprotectant = = = = Xenon induces robust cardioprotection and neuroprotection through a variety of mechanisms of action . Through its influence on Ca2 + , K + , KATP \ HIF and NMDA antagonism xenon is neuroprotective when administered before , during and after ischemic insults . Xenon is a high affinity antagonist at the NMDA receptor glycine site . Xenon is cardioprotective in ischemia @-@ reperfusion conditions by inducing pharmacologic non @-@ ischemic preconditioning . Xenon is cardioprotective by activating PKC @-@ epsilon & downstream p38 @-@ MAPK . Xenon mimics neuronal ischemic preconditioning by activating ATP sensitive potassium channels . Xenon allosterically reduces ATP mediated channel activation inhibition independently of the sulfonylurea receptor1 subunit , increasing KATP open @-@ channel time and frequency . Xenon upregulates hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha ( HIF1a ) . Xenon gas was added as an ingredient of the ventilation mix for a newborn baby at St. Michael 's Hospital , Bristol , England , whose life chances were otherwise very compromised , and was successful , leading to the authorisation of clinical trials for similar cases . The treatment is done simultaneously with cooling the body temperature to 33 @.@ 5 ° C. = = = = Doping = = = = Inhaling a xenon / oxygen mixture activates production of the transcription factor HIF @-@ 1 @-@ alpha , which leads to increased production of erythropoietin . The latter hormone is known to increase red blood cell production and athletes ' performance . Xenon inhalation has been used for this purpose in Russia since at least 2004 . On August 31 2014 the World Anti Doping Agency ( WADA ) added Xenon ( and Argon ) to the list of prohibited substances and methods , although at this time there is no reliable drug test . = = = = Imaging = = = = Gamma emission from the radioisotope 133Xe of xenon can be used to image the heart , lungs , and brain , for example , by means of single photon emission computed tomography . 133Xe has also been used to measure blood flow . Xenon , particularly hyperpolarized 129Xe , is a useful contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) . In the gas phase , it can be used to image empty space such as cavities in a porous sample or alveoli in lungs . Hyperpolarization renders 129Xe much more detectable via magnetic resonance imaging and has been used for studies of the lungs and other tissues . It can be used , for example , to trace the flow of gases within the lungs . Because xenon is soluble in water and also in hydrophobic solvents , it can be used to image various soft living tissues . = = = NMR spectroscopy = = = Because of the xenon atom 's large , flexible outer electron shell , the NMR spectrum changes in response to surrounding conditions , and can therefore be used as a probe to measure the chemical circumstances around it . For instance xenon dissolved in water , xenon dissolved in hydrophobic solvent , and xenon associated with certain proteins can be distinguished by NMR . Hyperpolarized xenon can be used by surface chemists . Normally , it is difficult to characterize surfaces using NMR , because signals from the surface of a sample will be overwhelmed by signals from the far @-@ more @-@ numerous atomic nuclei in the bulk . However , nuclear spins on solid surfaces can be selectively polarized , by transferring spin polarization to them from hyperpolarized xenon gas . This makes the surface signals strong enough to measure , and distinguishes them from bulk signals . = = = Other = = = In nuclear energy applications , xenon is used in bubble chambers , probes , and in other areas where a high molecular weight and inert nature is desirable . A by @-@ product of nuclear weapon testing is the release of radioactive xenon @-@ 133 and xenon @-@ 135 . The detection of these isotopes is used to monitor compliance with nuclear test ban treaties , as well as to confirm nuclear test explosions by states such as North Korea . Liquid xenon is being used in calorimeters for measurements of gamma rays as well as a medium for detecting hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles , or WIMPs . When a WIMP collides with a xenon nucleus , it is predicted to impart enough energy to cause ionization and scintillation . Liquid xenon is useful for this type of experiment due to its high density which makes dark matter interaction more likely and permits a quiet detector due to self @-@ shielding . Xenon is the preferred propellant for ion propulsion of spacecraft because of its low ionization potential per atomic weight , and its ability to be stored as a liquid at near room temperature ( under high pressure ) yet be easily converted back into a gas to feed the engine . The inert nature of xenon makes it environmentally friendly and less corrosive to an ion engine than other fuels such as mercury or caesium . Xenon was first used for satellite ion engines during the 1970s . It was later employed as a propellant for JPL 's Deep Space 1 probe , Europe 's SMART @-@ 1 spacecraft and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA 's Dawn Spacecraft . Chemically , the perxenate compounds are used as oxidizing agents in analytical chemistry . Xenon difluoride is used as an etchant for silicon , particularly in the production of microelectromechanical systems ( MEMS ) . The anticancer drug 5 @-@ fluorouracil can be produced by reacting xenon difluoride with uracil . Xenon is also used in protein crystallography . Applied at pressures from 0 @.@ 5 to 5 MPa ( 5 to 50 atm ) to a protein crystal , xenon atoms bind in predominantly hydrophobic cavities , often creating a high @-@ quality , isomorphous , heavy @-@ atom derivative , which can be used for solving the phase problem . = = Precautions = = Many oxygen @-@ containing xenon compounds are toxic due to their strong oxidative properties , and explosive due to their tendency to break down into elemental xenon plus diatomic oxygen ( O2 ) , which contains much stronger chemical bonds than the xenon compounds . Xenon gas can be safely kept in normal sealed glass or metal containers at standard temperature and pressure . However , it readily dissolves in most plastics and rubber , and will gradually escape from a container sealed with such materials . Xenon is non @-@ toxic , although it does dissolve in blood and belongs to a select group of substances that penetrate the blood – brain barrier , causing mild to full surgical anesthesia when inhaled in high concentrations with oxygen . At 169 m / s , the speed of sound in xenon gas is lower than that in air due to the lower average speed of the heavy xenon atoms compared to nitrogen and oxygen molecules . Hence , xenon lowers the rate of vibration in the vocal tract when exhaled . This produces a characteristic lowered voice timbre , an effect opposite to the high @-@ timbred voice caused by inhalation of helium . Like helium , xenon does not satisfy the body 's need for oxygen . Xenon is both a simple asphyxiant and an anesthetic more powerful than nitrous oxide ; consequently , many universities no longer allow the voice stunt as a general chemistry demonstration . As xenon is expensive , the gas sulfur hexafluoride , which is similar to xenon in molecular weight ( 146 versus 131 ) , is generally used in this stunt , and is an asphyxiant without being anesthetic . It is possible to safely breathe dense gases such as xenon or sulfur hexafluoride when they are in a mixture of at least 20 % oxygen . Xenon at 80 % concentration along with 20 % oxygen rapidly produces the unconsciousness of general anesthesia ( and has been used for this , as discussed above ) . Breathing mixes gases of different densities very effectively and rapidly so that heavier gases are purged along with the oxygen , and do not accumulate at the bottom of the lungs . There is , however , a danger associated with any heavy gas in large quantities : it may sit invisibly in a container , and if a person enters a container filled with an odorless , colorless gas , they may find themselves breathing it unknowingly . Xenon is rarely used in large enough quantities for this to be a concern , though the potential for danger exists any time a tank or container of xenon is kept in an unventilated space .

= Eva Perón = María Eva Duarte de Perón ( 7 May 1919 – 26 July 1952 ) was the second wife of Argentine President Juan Perón ( 1895 – 1974 ) and served as the First Lady of Argentina from 1946 until her death in 1952 . She is usually referred to as Eva Perón ( Spanish : [ ˈeβa peˈɾon ] ) , or by the affectionate Spanish language diminutive Evita . She was born in the rural village of Los Toldos , in the Pampas , as the youngest of five children . At 15 in 1934 , she moved to the nation 's capital of Buenos Aires to pursue a career as a stage , radio , and film actress . She met Colonel Juan Perón there on 22 January 1944 during a charity event at the Luna Park Stadium to benefit the victims of an earthquake in San Juan , Argentina . The two were married the following year . Juan Perón was elected President of Argentina in 1946 ; during the next 6 years , Eva Perón became powerful within the pro @-@ Peronist trade unions , primarily for speaking on behalf of labor rights . She also ran the Ministries of Labor and Health , founded and ran the charitable Eva Perón Foundation , championed women 's suffrage in Argentina , and founded and ran the nation 's first large @-@ scale female political party , the Female Peronist Party . In 1951 , Eva Perón announced her candidacy for the Peronist nomination for the office of Vice President of Argentina , receiving great support from the Peronist political base , low @-@ income and working @-@ class Argentines who were referred to as descamisados or " shirtless ones " . However , opposition from the nation 's military and bourgeoisie , coupled with her declining health , ultimately forced her to withdraw her candidacy . In 1952 , shortly before her death from cancer at 33 , Eva Perón was given the title of " Spiritual Leader of the Nation " by the Argentine Congress . Eva Perón was given a state funeral upon her death , a prerogative generally reserved for heads of state . Eva Perón has become a part of international popular culture , most famously as the subject of the musical Evita ( 1976 ) . Cristina Álvarez Rodríguez , Evita 's great @-@ niece , claims that Evita has never left the collective consciousness of Argentines . Cristina Fernández de Kirchner , the first elected female President of Argentina , claims that women of her generation owe a debt to Eva for " her example of passion and combativeness " . = = Early life = = = = = Early childhood = = = Eva 's autobiography , La Razón de mi Vida , contains no dates or references to childhood occurrences , and does not list the location of her birth or her name at birth . According to Junín 's civil registry , a birth certificate shows that one María Eva Duarte was born on 7 May 1922 . Her baptismal certificate , however , lists the date of birth as 7 May 1919 under the name Eva María Ibarguren . It is thought that in 1945 the adult Eva Perón created a forgery of her birth certificate for her marriage . Eva Perón spent her childhood in Junín , Buenos Aires province . Her father , Juan Duarte , was descended from French Basque immigrants , meanwhile her mother Juana Ibarguren , was descended from Spanish Basque immigrants . Juan Duarte , a wealthy rancher from nearby Chivilcoy , already had a wife and family there . At that time in rural Argentina , it was not uncommon for a wealthy man to have multiple families . When Eva was a year old , Duarte returned permanently to his legal family , leaving Juana Ibarguren and her children in penury . Ibarguren and her children were forced to move to the poorest area of Junín . Los Toldos was a village in the dusty region of Las Pampas , with a reputation as a desolate place of abject poverty . To support herself and her children , Ibarguren sewed clothes for neighbors . The family was stigmatized by the abandonment of the father and by the illegitimate status of the children under Argentine law , and was consequently somewhat isolated . A desire to expunge this part of her life might have been a motivation for Eva to arrange the destruction of her original birth certificate in 1945 . When Duarte suddenly died and his mistress and their children sought to attend his funeral , there was an unpleasant scene at the church gates . Although Juana and the children were permitted to enter and pay their respects to Duarte , they were promptly directed out of the church . Mrs. Juan Duarte did not want her husband 's mistress and children at the funeral and , as those of the legitimate wife , her orders were respected . = = = Junín = = = Prior to abandoning Juana Ibarguren , Juan Duarte had been her sole means of support . Biographer , John Barnes , writes that after this abandonment , all Duarte left to the family was a document declaring that the children were his , thus enabling them to use the Duarte surname . Soon after , Juana moved her children to a one @-@ room apartment in Junín . To pay the rent on their single @-@ roomed home , mother and daughters took up jobs as cooks in the houses of the local estancias . Eventually , owing to Eva 's older brother 's financial help , the family moved into a bigger house , which they later transformed into a boarding house . During this time , young Eva often participated in school plays and concerts . One of her favorite pastimes was the cinema . Though Eva 's mother apparently had a few plans for Eva , wanting to marry her off to one of the local bachelors , Eva herself dreamed of becoming a famous actress . Eva 's love of acting was reinforced when , in October 1933 , she played a small role in a school play called Arriba estudiantes ( Students Arise ) , which Barnes describes as " an emotional , patriotic , flag @-@ waving melodrama . " After the play , Eva was determined to become an actress . = = = Move to Buenos Aires = = = In her autobiography , she explained that all the people from her own town who had been to the big cities described them as " marvelous places , where nothing was given but wealth " . In 1934 , at the age of 15 , Eva escaped her poverty @-@ stricken village when , according to popular myth , she ran off with a young musician to the nation 's capital of Buenos Aires . The young couple 's relationship would end almost as quickly as it began , but Eva remained in Buenos Aires . She began to pursue jobs on the stage and the radio , and eventually became a film actress . Eva had a series of relationships , and via some of these men she did acquire a number of her modeling appointments . She bleached her natural black hair to blond , a look she would maintain for the duration of her life . It is often reported that Eva traveled to Buenos Aires by train with tango singer Agustín Magaldi . However , biographers Marysa Navarro and Nicholas Fraser maintain that this is unlikely , as there is no record of the married Magaldi performing in Junín in 1934 ( and , even if he had , he usually traveled with his wife ) . Eva 's sisters maintain that Eva traveled to Buenos Aires with their mother . The sisters also claim that Doña Juana accompanied her daughter to an audition at a radio station and arranged for Eva to live with the Bustamante family , who were friends of the Duarte family . While the method of Eva 's escape from her bleak provincial surroundings is debated , she did begin a new life in Buenos Aires . Buenos Aires in the 1930s was known as the " Paris of South America " . The center of the city had many cafés , restaurants , theaters , movie houses , shops and bustling crowds . In direct contrast , the 1930s were also years of great unemployment , poverty and hunger in the capital , and many new arrivals from the interior were forced to live in tenements , boardinghouses and in outlying shanties that became known as villas miserias . Upon arrival in Buenos Aires , Eva Duarte was faced with the difficulties of surviving without formal education or connections . The city was especially overcrowded during this period because of the migrations caused by the Great Depression . On 28 March 1935 , she had her professional debut in the play Mrs. Perez ( la Señora de Pérez ) , at the Comedias Theater . In 1936 , Eva toured nationally with a theater company , worked as a model , and was cast in a few B @-@ grade movie melodramas . In 1942 , Eva experienced some economic stability when a company called Candilejas ( sponsored by a soap manufacturer ) hired her for a daily role in one of their radio dramas called Muy bien , which aired on Radio El Mundo ( World Radio ) , the most important radio station in the country at that time . Later that year , she signed a five @-@ year contract with Radio Belgrano , which assured her a role in a popular historical @-@ drama program called Great Women of History , in which she played Elizabeth I of England , Sarah Bernhardt , and the last Tsarina of Russia . Eventually , Eva Duarte came to co @-@ own the radio company . By 1943 , Eva Duarte was earning five or six thousand pesos a month , making her one of the highest @-@ paid radio actresses in the nation . Pablo Raccioppi , who jointly ran Radio El Mundo with Eva Duarte , is said to have not liked her , but to have noted that she was " thoroughly dependable " . Eva also had a short @-@ lived film career , but none of the films in which she appeared were hugely successful . In one of her last films , La cabalgata del circo ( The Circus Cavalcade ) , Eva played a young country girl who rivaled an older woman , the movie 's star , Libertad Lamarque . As a result of her success with radio dramas and the films , Eva achieved some financial stability . In 1942 , she was able to move into her own apartment in the exclusive neighborhood of Recoleta , on 1567 Calle Posadas . The next year Eva began her career in politics , as one of the founders of the Argentine Radio Syndicate ( ARA ) . = = Early relationship with Juan Perón = = On 15 January 1944 , an earthquake occurred in the town of San Juan , Argentina , killing some 10 @,@ 000 people . In response , Perón , who was then the Secretary of Labour , established a fund to raise money to aid the victims . He devised a plan to have an " artistic festival " as a fundraiser , and invited radio and film actors to participate . After a week of fundraising , all participants met at a gala held at Luna Park Stadium in Buenos Aires to benefit earthquake victims . It was at this gala , on 22 January 1944 , that Eva Duarte first met Colonel Juan Perón . Eva promptly became the colonel 's mistress . Eva referred to the day she met her future husband as her " marvelous day " . Fraser and Navarro write that Juan Perón and Eva left the gala together at around two in the morning . Fraser and Navarro claim that Eva Duarte had no knowledge of or interest in politics prior to meeting Perón . Therefore , she never argued with Perón or any of his inner circle , but merely absorbed what she heard . Juan Perón later claimed in his memoir that he purposefully selected Eva as his pupil , and set out to create in her a " second I. " Fraser and Navarro , however , suggest that Juan Perón allowed Eva Duarte such intimate exposure and knowledge of his inner circle because of his age : he was 48 and she was 24 when they met . He had come to politics late in life , and was therefore free of preconceived ideas of how his political career should be conducted , and he was willing to accept whatever aid she offered him . In May 1944 , it was announced that broadcast performers must organize themselves into a union , and that this union would be the only one permitted to operate in Argentina . Shortly after the union formed , Eva Duarte was elected its president . Fraser and Navarro speculate that Juan Perón made the suggestion that performers create a union , and the other performers likely felt it was good politics to elect his mistress . Shortly after her election as president of the union , Eva Duarte began a daily program called Toward a Better Future , which dramatized in soap opera form the accomplishments of Juan Perón . Often , Perón 's own speeches were played during the program . When she spoke , Eva Duarte spoke in ordinary language as a regular woman who wanted listeners to believe what she herself believed about Juan Perón . = = Rise to power = = = = = Juan Perón 's arrest = = = By early 1945 , a group of Army officers called the GOU for " Grupo de Oficiales Unidos " ( United Officers Group ) , nicknamed " The Colonels " , had gained considerable influence within the Argentine government . President Pedro Pablo Ramírez became wary of Juan Perón 's growing power within the government , but was unable to curb that power . On 24 February 1944 , Ramírez signed his own resignation paper , which Fraser and Navarro claim was drafted by Juan Perón himself . Edelmiro Julián Farrell , a friend of Juan Perón , became President . Juan Perón returned to his job as Labor Minister . Fraser and Navarro claim that , by this point , Perón was the most powerful man in the Argentine government . On 9 October 1945 Juan Perón was arrested by his opponents within the government who feared that due to the strong support of the descamisados , the workers and the poor of the nation , Perón 's popularity might eclipse that of the sitting president . Six days later , between 250 @,@ 000 and 350 @,@ 000 people gathered in front of the Casa Rosada , Argentina 's government house , to demand Juan Perón 's release , and their wish was granted . At 11 pm , Juan Perón stepped on to the balcony of the Casa Rosada and addressed the crowd . Biographer Robert D. Crassweller claims that this moment was very powerful because it was very dramatic and recalled many important aspects of Argentine history . Crassweller writes that Juan Perón enacted the role of a caudillo addressing his people in the tradition of Argentine leaders Rosas and Yrigoyen . Crassweller also claims that the evening contained " mystic overtones " of a " quasi @-@ religious " nature . Eva Perón has often been credited with organizing the rally of thousands that freed Juan Perón from prison on 17 October 1945 . This version of events was popularized in the movie version of the Lloyd Webber musical . Most historians , however , agree that this version of events is unlikely . At the time of Perón 's imprisonment , Eva was still merely an actress . She had no political clout with the various labor unions , and it is claimed that she was not well @-@ liked within Perón 's inner circle , nor was she liked by many within the film and radio business at this point . When Juan Perón was imprisoned , Eva Duarte was suddenly disenfranchised . In reality , the massive rally that freed Perón from prison was organized by the various unions , such as General Labor Confederation , or CGT as they came to be known . To this day , the date of 17 October is something of a holiday for the Justicialist Party in Argentina ( celebrated as Día de la Lealtad , or " Loyalty Day " ) . What would follow was shocking and nearly unheard of . The well connected and politically rising star , Juan Peron , married Eva . Despite Eva 's childhood illegitimacy , and having an uncertain reputation , Peron was in love with Eva , and her loyal devotion to him even while he had been under arrest touched him deeply , and so he married her , providing a respectability she had never known . Eva and Juan were married discreetly in a civil ceremony in Junín on 18 October 1945 and in a church wedding on 9 December 1945 . = = = 1946 Presidential election victory = = = After his release from prison , Juan Perón decided to campaign for the presidency of the nation , which he won in a landslide . Eva campaigned heavily for her husband during his 1946 presidential bid . Using her weekly radio show , she delivered powerful speeches with heavy populist rhetoric urging the poor to align themselves with Perón 's movement . Though she had become wealthy from her radio and modeling success , she highlighted her own humble upbringing as a way of showing solidarity with the impoverished classes . Along with her husband , Eva visited every corner of the country , becoming the first woman in Argentina 's history to appear in public on the campaign trail with her husband . Eva 's appearance alongside her husband often offended the establishment of the wealthy , the military , and those in political life . However , she was very popular with the general public who knew her from her radio and motion picture appearances . It was during this phase of her life that she first encouraged the Argentine population to refer to her not as " Eva Perón " but simply as " Evita " , which is a Spanish diminutive or affectionate nickname roughly equivalent to " Little Eva " or " Evie . " = = European tour = = In 1947 , Eva embarked on a much @-@ publicized " Rainbow Tour " of Europe , meeting with numerous dignitaries and heads of state , such as Francisco Franco and Pope Pius XII . Biographers Fraser and Navarro write that the tour had its genesis in an invitation the Spanish leader had extended to Juan Perón . For political reasons it was decided that Eva , rather than Juan Perón , should make the visit . Fraser and Navarro write that Argentina had only recently emerged from its " wartime quarantine " , thus taking its place in the United Nations and improving relations with the United States . Therefore , a visit to Franco , with António Salazar of Portugal the last remaining west European authoritarian leaders in power , would be diplomatically frowned upon internationally . Fraser and Navarro write that Eva decided that , if Juan Perón would not accept Franco 's invitation for a state visit to Spain , then she would . Advisors then decided that Eva should visit many European countries in addition to Spain . This would make it seem that Eva 's sympathies were not specifically with Franco 's fascist Spain but with all of Europe . The tour was billed not as a political tour but as a non @-@ political " goodwill " tour . Eva was well received in Spain , where she visited the tombs of Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella in the Capilla Real de Granada . Francoist Spain had not recovered from the Spanish Civil War ( the autarkic economy and the UN embargo meant that the country could not feed its people ) . During her visit to Spain , Eva handed out 100 @-@ peseta notes to many poor children she met on her journey . She also received from Franco the highest award given by the Spanish government , the Order of Isabella the Catholic . Eva then visited Rome , where the reception was not as warm as it had been in Spain . Though Pope Pius XII did not give her a Papal decoration , she was allowed the time usually allotted queens and was given a rosary . Her next stop was France , where she was generally well received . She visited the Palace of Versailles , among other sites . She also met with Charles de Gaulle . She promised France two shipments of wheat . While in France , Eva received word that George VI would not receive her when she planned to visit Britain , regardless of what his Foreign Office might advise , and that her visit would not be viewed as a state visit . Fraser and Navarro wrote that Eva regarded the royal family 's refusal to meet her as a snub , and canceled the trip to the United Kingdom . Eva , however , gave " exhaustion " as the official reason for not going on to Britain . Eva also visited Switzerland during her European tour , a visit that has been viewed as the worst part of the trip . According to the book Evita : A Biography by John Barnes , while she traveled down a street with many people crowding her car , someone threw two stones and smashed the windshield . She threw her hands up in shock , but was not injured . Later , while sitting with the Foreign Minister , protesters threw tomatoes at her . The tomatoes hit the Foreign Minister and splattered on Eva 's dress . After these two events , Eva had had enough , and after two months returned to Argentina . Members of the Peronist opposition speculated that the true purpose of the European tour was to deposit funds in a Swiss bank account . " The opposition in Buenos Aires " , write Fraser and Navarro , " assumed that the genuine purpose of the whole European visit was for Eva and her husband to deposit money in Swiss bank accounts , and that the rest had been devised to conceal this . Many wealthy Argentines did this , but there are many more convenient and less conspicuous ways of depositing money in Swiss accounts than meeting the Swiss Foreign Minister and being shown around a watch factory . " Fraser and Navarro conclude , " Was there a Swiss bank account ? It seems unlikely . " During her tour to Europe , Eva Perón was featured in a cover story for Time magazine . The cover 's caption – " Eva Perón : Between two worlds , an Argentine rainbow " – was a reference to the name given to Eva 's European tour , The Rainbow Tour . This was the only time in the periodical 's history that a South American first lady appeared alone on its cover . ( In 1951 , Eva appeared again with Juan Perón . ) However , the 1947 cover story was also the first publication to mention that Eva had been born out of wedlock . In retaliation , the periodical was banned from Argentina for several months . After returning to Argentina from Europe , Evita never again appeared in public with the complicated hairdos of her movie star days . The brilliant gold color became more subdued in tone , and even the style changed , her hair being pulled back severely into a heavy braided chignon . Additionally , her extravagant clothing became more refined after the tour . No longer did she wear the elaborate hats and form @-@ fitting dresses of Argentine designers . Soon she adopted simpler and more fashionable Paris couture and became particularly attached to the fashions of Christian Dior and the jewels of Cartier . In an attempt to cultivate a more serious political persona , Eva began to appear in public wearing conservative though stylish tailleurs ( a business @-@ like combination of skirts and jackets ) , which also were made by Dior and other Paris couture houses . = = Charitable and feminist activities = = = = = Eva Foundation = = = The Sociedad de Beneficencia ( Society of Beneficence ) , a charity group made up of 87 society ladies , was responsible for most charity works in Buenos Aires prior to the election of Juan Perón . Fraser and Navarro write that at one point the Sociedad had been an enlightened institution , caring for orphans and homeless women , but that those days had long since passed by the time of the first term of Juan Perón . In the 1800s , the Sociedad had been supported by private contributions , largely those of the husbands of the society ladies . But by the 1940s , the Sociedad was supported by the government . It had been the tradition of the Sociedad to elect the First Lady of Argentina as president of the charity . But the ladies of the Sociedad did not approve of Eva Perón 's impoverished background , lack of formal education , and former career as an actress . Fraser and Navarro write that the ladies of the Sociedad were afraid that Evita would set a bad example for the orphans , therefore the society ladies did not extend to Evita the position of president of their organization . It has often been said that Evita had the government funding for the Sociedad cut off in retaliation . Fraser and Navarro suggest that this version of events is in dispute , but that the government funding that had previously supported the Sociedad now went to support Evita 's own foundation . The Fundación María Eva Duarte de Perón was created on 8 July 1948 . It was later renamed to , simply , the Eva Perón Foundation . Its funding began with 10 @,@ 000 pesos provided by Evita herself . In The Woman with the Whip , the first English language biography of Eva Perón , author Mary Main writes that no account records were kept for the foundation because it was merely a means of funneling government money into private Swiss bank accounts controlled by the Peróns . Fraser and Navarro , however , counter these claims , writing that Ramón Cereijo , Minister of Finance , kept records , and that the foundation " began as the simplest response to the poverty ( Evita ) encountered each day in her office " and " the appalling backwardness of social services — or charity , as it was still called — in Argentina . " Crassweller writes that the foundation was supported by donations of cash and goods from the Peronist unions and private businesses , and that the Confederación General del Trabajo donated three man @-@ days ( later reduced to two ) of salary for every worker per year . Tax on lottery and movie tickets also helped to support the foundation , as did a levy on casino and revenue from horse races . Crassweller also notes that there were some cases of businesses being pressured to donate to the foundation , with negative repercussions resulting if requests for donations were not met . Within a few years , the foundation had assets in cash and goods in excess of three billion pesos , or over $ 200 million at the exchange rate of the late 1940s . It employed 14 @,@ 000 workers , of whom 6 @,@ 000 were construction workers , and 26 priests . It purchased and distributed annually 400 @,@ 000 pairs of shoes , 500 @,@ 000 sewing machines , 200 @,@ 000 cooking pots . The foundation also gave scholarships , built homes , hospitals , and other charitable institutions . Every aspect of the foundation was under Evita 's supervision . The foundation also built entire communities , such as Evita City , which still exists today . Fraser and Navarro claim that due to the works and health services of the foundation , for the first time in history there was no inequality in Argentine health care . Fraser and Navarro write that it was Evita 's work with the foundation that played a large role in her idealization , even leading some to consider her a saint . Though it was unnecessary from a practical standpoint , Evita set aside many hours per day to meet with the poor who requested help from her foundation . During these meetings with the poor , Evita often kissed the poor and allowed them to kiss her . Evita was even witnessed placing her hands in the suppurated wounds of the sick and poor , touching the leprous , and kissing the syphilitic . Fraser and Navarro write that though Argentina is secular in many respects , it is essentially a Catholic country . Therefore , when Evita kissed the syphilitic and touched the leprous she " ... ceased to be the President 's wife and acquired some of the characteristics of saints depicted in Catholicism . " Poet José María Castiñeira de Dios , a man from a wealthy background , reflected on the times he witnessed Evita meeting with the poor : " I had had a sort of literary perception of the people and the poor and she had given me a Christian one , thus allowing me to become a Christian in the profoundest sense .... " Fraser and Navarro write that toward the end of her life , Evita was working as many as 20 to 22 hours per day in her foundation , often ignoring her husband 's request that she cut back on her workload and take the weekends off . The more she worked with the poor in her foundation , the more she adopted an outraged attitude toward the existence of poverty , saying , " Sometimes I have wished my insults were slaps or lashes . I 've wanted to hit people in the face to make them see , if only for a day , what I see each day I help the people . " Crassweller writes that Evita became fanatical about her work in the foundation and felt on a crusade against the very concept and existence of poverty and social ills . " It is not surprising " , writes Crassweller , " that as her public crusades and her private adorations took on a narrowing intensity after 1946 , they simultaneously veered toward the transcendental . " Crassweller compares Evita to Ignatius Loyola , saying she came to be akin to a one @-@ woman Jesuit Order . = = = Female Peronist Party and women 's suffrage = = = Biographers Fraser and Navarro wrote that Eva Perón has often been credited with gaining the right to vote for Argentine women . While Eva did make radio addresses in support of women 's suffrage and also published articles in her Democracia newspaper asking male Peronists to support women 's right to vote , ultimately the ability to grant to women the right to vote was beyond Eva 's powers . Fraser and Navarro claim that Eva 's actions were limited to supporting a bill introduced by one of her supporters , Eduardo Colom , a bill that was eventually dropped . A new women 's suffrage bill was introduced , which the Senate of Argentina sanctioned on 21 August 1946 . It was necessary to wait more than a year before the House of Representatives sanctioned it on 9 September 1947 . Law 13 @,@ 010 established the equality of political rights between men and women and universal suffrage in Argentina . Finally , Law 13 @,@ 010 was approved unanimously . In a public celebration and ceremony , however , Juan Perón signed the law granting women the right to vote , and then he handed the bill to Eva , symbolically making it hers . Eva Perón then created the Female Peronist Party , the first large female political party in the nation . Navarro and Fraser write that by 1951 , the party had 500 @,@ 000 members and 3 @,@ 600 headquarters across the country . Navarro and Fraser write that while Eva Perón did not consider herself a feminist , her impact on the political life of women was decisive . Thousands of previously apolitical women entered politics because of Eva Perón . They were the first women active in Argentine politics . The combination of female suffrage and the organization of the Female Peronist Party granted Juan Perón a large majority ( sixty @-@ three percent ) of the vote in the 1951 presidential elections . = = 1951 Presidential election = = = = = Vice Presidential nomination = = = In 1951 , Evita set her sights on earning a place on the ballot as candidate for vice @-@ president . This move angered many military leaders who despised Evita and her increasing powers within the government . According to the Argentine Constitution , the Vice President automatically succeeds the President in the event of the President 's death . The possibility of Evita becoming president in the event of Juan Perón 's death was not something the military could accept . She did , however , receive great support from the working class , the unions , and the Peronist Women 's Party . The intensity of the support she drew from these groups is said to have surprised even Juan Perón himself . Fraser and Navarro write that the wide support Evita 's proposed candidacy generated indicated to him that Evita had become as important to members of the Peronist party as Juan Perón himself was . On 22 August 1951 , the unions held a mass rally of two million people called " Cabildo Abierto . " ( The name " Cabildo Abierto " was a reference and tribute to the first local Argentine government of the May Revolution , in 1810 . ) The Peróns addressed the crowd from the balcony of a huge scaffolding set up on the Avenida 9 de Julio , several blocks away from the Casa Rosada , the official government house of Argentina . Overhead were two large portraits of Eva and Juan Perón . It has been claimed that " Cabildo Abierto " was the largest public display of support in history for a female political figure . At the mass rally , the crowd demanded that Evita publicly announce her candidacy as vice president . She pleaded for more time to make her decision . The exchange between Evita and the crowd of two million became , for a time , a genuine and spontaneous dialogue , with the crowd chanting , " ¡ Evita , Vice @-@ Presidente ! " When Evita asked for more time so she could make up her mind , the crowd demanded , " ¡ Ahora , Evita , ahora ! " ( " Now , Evita , now ! " ) . Eventually , they came to a compromise . Evita told the audience that she would announce her decision over the radio a few days later . = = = Declining health = = = Eventually , she declined the invitation to run for vice @-@ president , saying that her only ambition was that — in the large chapter of history that would be written about her husband — the footnotes would mention a woman who brought the " ... hopes and dreams of the people to the president " , a woman who eventually turned those hopes and dreams into " glorious reality . " In Peronist rhetoric , this event has come to be referred to as " The Renunciation " , portraying Evita as having been a selfless woman in line with the Hispanic myth of marianismo . Most biographers , however , postulate that Evita did not so much renounce her ambition , as bow to pressure from her husband , the military , and the Argentine upper class , who preferred that she not enter the race . On 9 January 1950 , Evita fainted in public and underwent surgery three days later . Although it was reported that she had undergone an appendectomy , she was diagnosed with advanced cervical cancer . Fainting continued through 1951 ( including the evening after " Cabildo abierto " ) , with extreme weakness and severe vaginal bleeding . By 1951 , it had become evident that her health was rapidly deteriorating . Although her diagnosis was withheld from her by Juan , she knew she was not well , and a bid for the vice @-@ presidency was not practical . Only a few months after " the Renunciation " , Evita underwent a secret radical hysterectomy in an attempt to eradicate her advanced cervical cancer . In 2011 , a Yale neurosurgeon studied Evita 's skull x @-@ rays and photographic evidence and said that Perón may have been given a prefrontal lobotomy in the last months of her life , " ... to relieve the pain , agitation and anxiety she suffered in the final months of her illness . " = = = Re @-@ election and Spiritual Leader of the Nation = = = On 4 June 1952 , Evita rode with Juan Perón in a parade through Buenos Aires in celebration of his re @-@ election as President of Argentina . Evita was by this point so ill that she was unable to stand without support . Underneath her oversized fur coat was a frame made of plaster and wire that allowed her to stand . She took a triple dose of pain medication before the parade , and took another two doses when she returned home . In a ceremony a few days after Juan Perón 's second inauguration , Evita was given the official title of " Spiritual Leader of the Nation . " = = Death and aftermath = = = = = Death = = = Although Perón had undergone a hysterectomy performed by the American surgeon George T. Pack , the cancer had metastasized and returned rapidly . She was the first Argentine to undergo chemotherapy ( a novel treatment at that time ) . Despite all available treatment , she became emaciated , weighing only 36 kg ( 79 lb ) by June 1952 . Evita died at the age of 33 , at 20 : 25 on Saturday , 26 July 1952 . Radio broadcasts throughout the country were interrupted with the announcement that " The Press Secretary 's Office of the Presidency of the Nation fulfills its very sad duty to inform the people of the Republic that at 20 : 25 hours Mrs. Eva Perón , Spiritual Leader of the Nation , died . " Ordinary activities ceased ; movies stopped playing ; restaurants were closed and patrons were shown to the door . = = = Mourning = = = Immediately after Perón 's death , the government suspended all official activities for two days and ordered all flags flown at half @-@ staff for ten days . It soon became apparent , however , that these measures fell short of reflecting popular grief . The crowd outside of the presidential residence , where Evita died , grew dense , congesting the streets for ten blocks in each direction . The morning after her death , while Evita 's body was being moved to the Ministry of Labour Building , eight people were crushed to death in the throngs . In the following 24 hours , over 2000 people were treated in city hospitals for injuries sustained in the rush to be near Evita as her body was being transported , and thousands more would be treated on the spot . For the following two weeks , lines would stretch for many city blocks with mourners waiting hours to see Evita 's body lie at the Ministry of Labour . The streets of Buenos Aires overflowed with huge piles of flowers . Within a day of Perón 's death , all flower shops in Buenos Aires had run out of stock . Flowers would be flown in from all over the country , and as far away as Chile . Despite the fact that Eva Perón never held a political office , she was eventually given a state funeral usually reserved for a head of state , along with a full Roman Catholic requiem mass . A memorial was held for the Argentine team during the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki due to Eva Perón 's death during those games . On 9 August , Saturday , the body was transferred to the Congress Building for an additional day of public viewing , and a memorial service attended by the entire Argentine legislative body . The next day , after a final Mass , the coffin was laid on a gun carriage pulled by CGT officials . It was followed by Peron , his cabinet , Eva 's family and friends , the delegates and representatives of the Partido Peronista Femenino — then workers , nurses and students of the Eva Peron Foundation . Flowers were thrown from balconies and windows . There were different interpretations of the popular mourning of Eva Perón 's death . Some reporters viewed the mourning as authentic , others saw a public succumbing to another of the " passion plays " of the Peronist regime . Time magazine reported that the Peronist government enforced the observance of a daily period of five minutes of mourning following a daily radio announcement . During Perón 's time , children born to unmarried parents did not have the same legal rights as those born to married parents . Biographer Julie M. Taylor , professor of anthropology at Rice University , has said that Evita was well aware of the pain of being born " illegitimate . " Taylor speculates that Evita 's awareness of this may have influenced her decision to have the law changed so that " illegitimate " children would henceforth be referred to as " natural " children . Upon her death , the Argentine public was told that Evita was only 30 . The discrepancy was meant to dovetail with Evita 's earlier tampering with her birth certificate . After becoming the first lady in 1946 , Evita had her birth records altered to read that she had been born to married parents , and placed her birth date three years forward , making herself younger . = = = Memorial plans = = = Shortly after Evita 's death , Dr. Pedro Ara was approached to embalm the body . Fraser and Navarro write that it is doubtful that Evita ever expressed a wish to be embalmed , and suggest that it was most likely Juan Perón 's decision . Ara was a professor of anatomy who had studied in Vienna and maintained an academic career in Madrid . His work was occasionally referred to as " the art of death . " His highly advanced embalming technique consisted of replacing the corpse 's blood with glycerine , which preserved all organs including the brain and created a lifelike appearance , giving the body the appearance of " artistically rendered sleep . " Ara was known in Buenos Aires society for his work . Among the people he had embalmed was Spanish composer Manuel de Falla . Ara claims that his embalming of Evita 's corpse began on the night of her death and that by the next morning , " the body of Eva Perón was completely and infinitely incorruptible " and suitable for display to the public . In the book Peron and the Enigmas of Argentina , biographer Robert D. Crassweller claims that the English @-@ speaking nations of North America and Europe largely misunderstood Argentina 's response to the death of Perón as well as the ornate funeral she was granted . Crassweller attributes this misunderstanding to the unique cultural makeup of the Peróns and Argentina , saying that the Peróns were of the Hispanic tradition and that their opposition was largely of British ancestry . = = = Disappearance and return of corpse = = = Shortly after Evita 's death , plans were made to construct a memorial in her honour . The monument , which was to be a statue of a man representing the descamisados , was projected to be larger than the Statue of Liberty . Evita 's body was to be stored in the base of the monument and , in the tradition of Lenin 's corpse , to be displayed for the public . While the monument was being constructed , Evita 's embalmed body was displayed in her former office at the CGT building for almost two years . Before the monument to Evita was completed , Juan Perón was overthrown in a military coup , the Revolución Libertadora , in 1955 . Perón hastily fled the country and was unable to make arrangements to secure Evita 's body . Following his flight , a military dictatorship took power . The new authorities removed Evita 's body from display , and its whereabouts were a mystery for 16 years . From 1955 until 1971 , the military dictatorship of Argentina issued a ban on Peronism . It became illegal not only to possess pictures of Juan and Eva Perón in one 's home , but to speak their names . In 1971 , the military revealed that Evita 's body was buried in a crypt in Milan , Italy , under the name " María Maggi . " It appeared that her body had been damaged during its transport and storage , such as compressions to her face and disfigurement of one of her feet due to the body having been left in an upright position . In 1995 , Tomás Eloy Martínez published Santa Evita , a fictionalized work propounding many new stories about the escapades of the corpse . Allegations that her body was the object of inappropriate attentions are derived from his description of an ' emotional necrophilia ' by embalmers , Coronel Koenig and his assistant Arancibia . Many primary and secondary references to his novel have inaccurately stated that her body had been defiled in some way resulting in the widespread belief in this myth . Also included are allegations that many wax copies had been made , that the corpse had been damaged with a hammer , and that one of the wax copies was the object of an officer 's sexual attentions . = = = Final resting place = = = In 1971 , Perón 's body was exhumed and flown to Spain , where Juan Perón maintained the corpse in his home . Juan and his third wife , Isabel , decided to keep the corpse in their dining room on a platform near the table . In 1973 , Juan Perón came out of exile and returned to Argentina , where he became president for the third time . Perón died in office in 1974 . His third wife , Isabel Perón , whom he had married on 15 November 1961 , and who had been elected vice @-@ president , succeeded him . She became the first female president in the Western Hemisphere . Isabel had Eva Perón 's body returned to Argentina and ( briefly ) displayed beside her husband 's . Perón 's body was later buried in the Duarte family tomb in La Recoleta Cemetery , Buenos Aires . The previous removal of Evita 's body was avenged by the Montoneros when they in 1970 stole Pedro Eugenio Aramburu 's corpse , whom they had previously killed . Montoneros then used the captive body of Aramburu to pressure for the repatriation of Evita 's body . Once Evita 's body arrived in Argentina the Montoneros gave up Aramburu 's corpse and abandoned it in a street in Buenos Aires . The Argentine government took elaborate measures to make Perón 's tomb secure . The tomb 's marble floor has a trapdoor that leads to a compartment containing two coffins . Under that compartment is a second trapdoor and a second compartment . That is where Perón 's coffin rests . Biographers Marysa Navarro and Nicholas Fraser write that the claim is often made that her tomb is so secure that it could withstand a nuclear attack . " It reflects a fear " , they write , " a fear that the body will disappear from the tomb and that the woman , or rather the myth of the woman , will reappear . " = = Legacy and criticism = = = = = Argentina and Latin America = = = In all of Latin America , only one other woman has aroused an emotion , devotion and faith comparable to those awakened by the Virgin of Guadalupe . In many homes , the image of Evita is on the wall next to the Virgin . In his essay titled " Latin America " published in The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity , John McManners claims that the appeal and success of Eva Perón are related to Latin American mythology and concepts of divinity . McManners claims that Eva Perón consciously incorporated aspects of the theology of the Virgin and of Mary Magdalene into her public persona . Historian Hubert Herring has described Eva Perón as " Perhaps the shrewdest woman yet to appear in public life in Latin America . " In a 1996 interview , Tomás Eloy Martínez referred to Eva Perón as " the Cinderella of the tango and the Sleeping Beauty of Latin America . " Martínez suggested she has remained an important cultural icon for the same reasons as fellow Argentine Che Guevara : Latin American myths are more resistant than they seem to be . Not even the mass exodus of the Cuban raft people or the rapid decomposition and isolation of Fidel Castro 's regime have eroded the triumphal myth of Che Guevara , which remains alive in the dreams of thousands of young people in Latin America , Africa and Europe . Che as well as Evita symbolize certain naive , but effective , beliefs : the hope for a better world ; a life sacrificed on the altar of the disinherited , the humiliated , the poor of the earth . They are myths which somehow reproduce the image of Christ . Although not a government holiday , the anniversary of Eva Perón 's death is marked by many Argentines each year . Additionally , Eva Perón has been featured on Argentine coins , and a form of Argentine currency called " Evitas " was named in her honor . Ciudad Evita ( Evita City ) , which was established by the Eva Perón Foundation in 1947 , is located just outside Buenos Aires . Cristina Kirchner , the first elected female president in Argentine history , is a Peronist who has occasionally been referred to as " The New Evita . " Kirchner says she does not want to compare herself to Evita , claiming she was a unique phenomenon in Argentine history . Kirchner also says that women of her generation , who came of age in the 1970s during the military dictatorships in Argentina , owe a debt to Evita for offering an example of passion and combativeness . On 26 July 2002 , the 50th anniversary of Eva Perón 's death , a museum opened in her honor called Museo Evita . The museum , created by her great @-@ niece Cristina Alvarez Rodriquez , houses many of Eva Perón 's clothes , portraits , and artistic renderings of her life , and has become a popular tourist attraction . The museum was opened in a building that was once used by the Eva Perón Foundation . In the book Eva Perón : The Myths of a Woman , cultural anthropologist Julie M. Taylor claims that Evita has remained important in Argentina due to the combination of three unique factors : In the images examined , the three elements consistently linked — femininity , mystical or spirituality power , and revolutionary leadership — display an underlying common theme . Identification with any one of these elements puts a person or a group at the margins of established society and at the limits of institutional authority . Anyone who can identify with all three images lays an overwhelming and echoing claim to dominance through forces that recognize no control in society or its rules . Only a woman can embody all three elements of this power . Taylor argues that the fourth factor in Evita 's continued importance in Argentina relates to her status as a dead woman and the power that death holds over the public imagination . Taylor suggests that Evita 's embalmed corpse is analogous to the incorruptibility of various Catholic saints , such as Bernadette Soubirous , and has powerful symbolism within the largely Catholic cultures of Latin America : To some extent her continuing importance and popularity may be attributed not only to her power as a woman but also to the power of the dead . However , a society 's vision of the afterlife may be structured , death by its nature remains a mystery , and , until society formally allays the commotion it causes , a source of disturbance and disorder . Women and the dead — death and womanhood — stand in similar relation to structured social forms : outside public institutions , unlimited by official rules , and beyond formal categories . As a female corpse reiterating the symbolic themes of both woman and martyr , Eva Perón perhaps lays double claim to spiritual leadership . John Balfour was the British ambassador in Argentina during the Perón regime , and describes Evita 's popularity : She was by any standard a very extraordinary woman ; when you think of Argentina and indeed Latin America as a men dominated part of the world , there was this woman who was playing a very great role . And of course she aroused very different feelings in the people with whom she lived . The oligarchs , as she called the well @-@ to @-@ do and privileged people , hated her . They looked upon her as a ruthless woman . The masses of the people on the other hand worshipped her . They looked upon her as a lady bountiful who was dispensing Manna from heaven . In 2011 , two giant murals of Evita were unveiled on the building facades of the current Ministry of Social Development , located on 9 de Julio Avenue . The works were painted by Argentine artist Alejandro Marmo . On 26 July 2012 , to commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of Evita 's death , notes were issued in a value of 100 pesos . The controversial effigy of Julio Argentino Roca was replaced by that of Eva Duarte , making her the first actual woman to be featured on the currency of Argentina . The image in the notes is based on a 1952 design , whose sketch was found in the Mint , made by the engraver Sergio Pilosio with artist Roger Pfund . The printing totals 20 million notes ; it is not clear whether the government will replace the notes that feature Roca and the Desert Campaign . = = = Allegations of fascism = = = Biographers Nicholas Fraser and Marysa Navarro write that Juan Perón 's opponents had from the start accused Perón of being a fascist . Spruille Braden , a diplomat from the United States who was greatly supported by Juan Perón 's opponents , campaigned against Juan Perón 's first candidacy on the platform that Juan Perón was a fascist and a Nazi . Fraser and Navarro also theorize that the perception of the Peróns as fascists was enhanced during Evita 's 1947 European tour during which she was a guest of honor of Francisco Franco . By 1947 , Franco had become politically isolated as one of the few remaining fascists to retain power . Franco , therefore , was in desperate need of a political ally . With nearly a third of Argentina 's population of Spanish descent , it seemed natural for Argentina to have diplomatic relations with Spain . Commenting on the international perception of Evita during her 1947 European tour , Fraser and Navarro write , " It was inevitable that Evita be viewed in a fascist context . Therefore , both Evita and Perón were seen to represent an ideology which had run its course in Europe , only to re @-@ emerge in an exotic , theatrical , even farcical form in a faraway country . " Laurence Levine , the former president of the U.S.-Argentine Chamber of Commerce , writes that in contrast to Nazi ideology , the Peróns were not anti @-@ Semitic . In the book Inside Argentina from Perón to Menem : 1950 – 2000 from an American Point of View , Levine writes : The American government demonstrated no knowledge of Perón 's deep admiration for Italy ( and his distaste for Germany , whose culture he found too rigid ) . Nor did they appreciate that although anti @-@ Semitism existed in Argentina , Perón 's own views and his political associations were not anti @-@ Semitic . They paid no attention to the fact that Perón sought out the Jewish community in Argentina to assist in developing his policies and that one of his most important allies in organizing the industrial sector was José Ber Gelbard , a Jewish immigrant from Poland . Biographer Robert D. Crassweller writes , " Peronism was not fascism " , and " Peronism was not Nazism . " Crassweller also refers to the comments of U.S. Ambassador George S. Messersmith . While visiting Argentina in 1947 , Messersmith made the following statement : " There is not as much social discrimination against Jews here as there is right in New York or in most places at home . " Time Magazine published an article by Tomás Eloy Martínez — Argentine writer , journalist , and former director of the Latin American program at Rutgers University — titled " The Woman Behind the Fantasy : Prostitute , Fascist , Profligate — Eva Peron Was Much Maligned , Mostly Unfairly " . In this article , Martínez writes that the accusations that Eva Perón was a fascist , a Nazi , and a thief had been made against her for decades . He wrote that the allegations were untrue : She was not a fascist — ignorant , perhaps , of what that ideology meant . And she was not greedy . Though she liked jewelry , furs and Dior dresses , she could own as many as she desired without the need to rob others .... In 1964 Jorge Luis Borges stated that ' the mother of that woman [ Evita ] ' was ' the madam of a whorehouse in Junín . ' He repeated the calumny so often that some still believe it or , more commonly , think Evita herself , whose lack of sex appeal is mentioned by all who knew her , apprenticed in that imaginary brothel . Around 1955 the pamphleteer Silvano Santander employed the same strategy to concoct letters in which Evita figures as an accomplice of the Nazis . It is true that ( Juan ) Perón facilitated the entrance of Nazi criminals to Argentina in 1947 and 1948 , thereby hoping to acquire advanced technology developed by the Germans during the war . But Evita played no part . In his 2002 doctoral dissertation at Ohio State University , Lawrence D. Bell writes that the governments that preceded Juan Perón had been anti @-@ Semitic but that his government was not . Juan Perón " eagerly and enthusiastically " attempted to recruit the Jewish community into his government and set up a branch of the Peronist party for Jewish members , known as the Organización Israelita Argentina ( OIA ) . Perón 's government was the first to court the Argentine Jewish community and the first to appoint Jewish citizens to public office . Kevin Passmore writes that the Peronist regime , more than any other in Latin America , has been accused of being fascist . But he says that the Peronist regime was not fascist , and what passed for fascism under Perón never took hold in Latin America . Additionally , because the Peronist regime allowed rival political parties to exist , it cannot be described as totalitarian . = = = International popular culture = = = By the late 20th century , Eva Perón had become the subject of numerous articles , books , stage plays , and musicals , ranging from the biography The Woman with the Whip to a 1981 TV movie called Evita Perón with Faye Dunaway in the title role . The most successful rendering of Eva Perón 's life has been the musical production Evita . The musical began as a concept album co @-@ produced by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber in 1976 , with Julie Covington in the title role . Elaine Paige was later cast in the title role when the concept album was adapted into a musical stage production in London 's West End and won the 1978 Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Musical . In 1980 , Patti LuPone won the Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical for her performance as the title character in the Broadway production . Nicholas Fraser claims that to date " the musical stage production has been performed on every continent except Antarctica and has generated over $ 2 billion in revenue . " As early as 1978 , the musical was considered as the basis for a movie . After a nearly 20 @-@ year production delay , Madonna was cast in the title role for the 1996 film version and won the Golden Globe Award for " Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy . " In response to the American film , and in an alleged attempt to offer a more politically accurate depiction of Evita 's life , an Argentine film company released Eva Perón : The True Story . The Argentine production starred actress Esther Goris in the title role . This movie was the 1996 Argentine submission for the Oscar in the category of " Best Foreign Language Film . " Nicholas Fraser writes that Evita is the perfect popular culture icon for our times because her career foreshadowed what , by the late 20th century , had become common . During Evita 's time it was considered scandalous for a former entertainer to take part in public political life . Her detractors in Argentina had often accused Evita of turning public political life into show business . But by the late 20th century , Fraser claims , the public had become engrossed in the cult of celebrity and public political life had become insignificant . In this regard , Evita was perhaps ahead of her time . Fraser also writes that Evita 's story is appealing to our celebrity @-@ obsessed age because her story confirms one of Hollywood 's oldest clichés , the rags to riches story . Reflecting on Eva Perón 's popularity more than half a century after her death , Alma Guillermoprieto writes that , " Evita 's life has evidently just begun . "

= Halo : Uprising = Halo : Uprising is a four @-@ issue American comic book limited series set in the Halo universe . The series was written by Brian Michael Bendis , illustrated by Alex Maleev , and published by Marvel Comics . Uprising tells a story set between the ending of the 2004 video game Halo 2 and the beginning of its sequel , Halo 3 , as Earth is under attack by a collective of alien races known as the Covenant . The series was intended to be released and concluded before Halo 3 shipped on September 25 , 2007 , but the final issue did not appear until April 2009 . The series was brought together by Ruwan Jayatilleke , Marvel 's Vice President of Development . He attained the license to publish Halo comics , including the single @-@ volume The Halo Graphic Novel , in 2005 . The graphic novel 's critical and commercial success prompted Marvel to announce a new Halo limited series in 2006 with Jayatilleke serving as the series ' editor . Bendis , a long @-@ time Halo fan , was excited about adding to the franchise story . Reception to the series was lukewarm . The series ' artistic style was generally praised . However , the lack of Master Chief @-@ focused action and character development — as well as the delays in publishing — led to average reviews . The series was commercially successful and appeared in the top slot of The New York Times Graphic Books bestsellers list . = = Publication history = = Marvel Vice President of Development Ruwan Jayatilleke contacted game developer Bungie about extending the Halo franchise to comics . Jayatilleke noted that Bungie 's dedication to creating a believable world compelling to both hardcore and casual fans made the series " an attractive fit " for Marvel . In 2005 , Marvel learned that Bungie had already created an original graphic novel , entitled The Halo Graphic Novel , but needed a publisher and distributor . Interested , Brian Michael Bendis and Jayatilleke visited Bungie to take up the offer of publishing the Halo Graphic Novel as well as to discuss the possibility of a tie @-@ in comic book series . The Halo Graphic Novel proved to be a critical and commercial success ; the comic debuted at the number two position on the Diamond Comic Distributors ' sales charts and more than 100 @,@ 000 copies were published . Marvel Comics and Bungie announced the first Halo limited comic series , Halo : Uprising , at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con 2006 . Brian Michael Bendis , writer for the series , said in an interview he was " honored " to add to the Halo lore . He noted that the graphic novel brought " humanity and perspective " to the franchise , something not easily imparted through the games . Bendis described himself as a longtime player of Halo and had " done [ his ] Halo homework " , reading and playing everything Halo . Bendis stated that Bungie was open to the Marvel team exploring lesser @-@ known elements of the Halo universe or even bringing up new ideas , as opposed to sticking to a script or set of preplanned ideas from Bungie or Microsoft . The Philadelphia Daily News suggested that a Halo comic book would attract readers who had never picked up a comic book before . Bendis said that drawing casual gamers to the comics was a major goal for the series . While using established characters meant that Bendis had to cooperate with Bungie and Microsoft , he said he did not feel it was a restriction . " You can get pretty bloated and sloppy with total autonomy all the time . " The Bungie team allowed Bendis to explore lesser known areas of the Halo story , which he enjoyed . Writing the dialogue for the Master Chief , who is faceless and normally silent during gameplay , was a challenge ; Bendis scrapped much of the drafted dialogue to allow Maleev 's work to define the character . Originally , Halo : Uprising 's entire four @-@ issue series was to be published before the September 25 , 2007 , release of Halo 3 . Bendis suggested that the series might be delayed unexpectedly due to the close cooperation between Marvel and Bungie . For unspecified reasons , the release of all issues of Halo : Uprising were pushed back . Issue # 1 's original date of August 15 , 2007 , was pushed back a week to August 22 . Issue # 2 's original date of August 29 was pushed back and released on November 21 . Issue # 3 was originally slated for a September 2007 release but was pushed to a final release date of nearly a year late in August 2008 . The constant revisions of the date became a running forum joke at the fan site Halo.Bungie.Org. Issue # 4 also saw multiple delays , pushed from a scheduled October 31 , 2007 release to March 4 and then March 18 , 2009 . Claude Errera of Halo.Bungie.Org noted that , given the series ' track record and the fact that the issue 's release had been moved more than a dozen times by that time , its appearance in March would be unlikely . In announcing two new Halo comic series from Marvel in February 2009 , Jayatilleke informed IGN that the final issue was in the process of being colored . The final release date for the issue was April 15 . The series was collected into a single volume released in May 2009 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7851 @-@ 3647 @-@ 9 ) . The collected hardcover features a variety of bonus art and " making of " materials . = = Plot = = Uprising 's story begins after the events of Halo 2 , in which the alien collective known as the Covenant discovers the location of Earth and begins a full @-@ scale invasion of their enemy 's homeworld . The supersoldier Master Chief is stowed away aboard an ancient Forerunner ship . On a course set for Earth , he is overwhelmed by a Covenant strike force and rendered unconscious . In the next scene , Colonel James Ackerson is being tortured by Covenant forces on Mars , to whom he betrays the existence of something called " The Key of Osanalan . " Ackerson admits the Key is located in Cleveland , Ohio . In Cleveland , the narrative follows the point of view of a hotel concierge named Ruwan as the city falls under attack by Covenant forces . In the mayhem he meets a woman named Myras Tyla . Tyla remains calm even as Ruwan edges towards all @-@ out panic . The pair are captured and with other residents herded into a sports stadium . The Covenant declare that the humans must give up the location of the Key to save their lives ; Tyla is confused , but Ruwan states he knows exactly what it is . On board the Forerunner ship , the Master Chief is captured and interrogated by Covenant forces , but manages to escape using a concealed weapon . On Earth , Ruwan and Tyla escape detection by the Covenant and appropriate a vehicle in an effort to escape . Ruwan reveals that the Key is in fact a fictional object that he and his brother James Ackerson made up as children ; James told the Covenant about the Key in order to prevent the outright destruction of Cleveland . After fighting Covenant forces , Ruwan and Tyla are rescued by marines and leave the city . The Master Chief attempts to kill the Covenant 's leader , Prophet of Truth , but is discovered as he takes aim ; Truth escapes as the Chief is left to kill the Prophet 's guards and find a way off the ship . Learning that there is no way to change the Forerunner ship 's destination , the Chief jumps to Earth using a piece of the vessel as a heat shield . After informing the UNSC about the true nature of the Key , Ruwan volunteers to " give " the Key to the Covenant . He is captured and brought aboard a Covenant ship . While the Covenant believe he is to be rescued due to a tracker embedded in him , Ruwan reveals he is actually a target . A coilgun takes aim at his position and destroys the ship . Upon learning that the Key is a fake , the Brutes on Mars behead Ackerson . In a relief camp , Tyla writes a song about Ruwan . = = Reception = = Halo : Uprising was a commercial success . The first issue sold out within 24 hours , leading Marvel to reissue the installment . The collected hardcover edition was the best @-@ selling hardcover graphic book for the week ending June 13 , according to The New York Times . Reception to the miniseries varied . Reviewer Kevin Powers for Comics Bulletin and Richard George of IGN praised the action sequences and Maleev 's visuals . The balance between action and story was also positively noted ; Powers said that the first two sequences of the opening issue " masterfully capture the spirit of the game " . On the other hand , IGN 's Jesse Schedeen , reviewing the second issue , stated the series ' appeal was mostly superficial : " try as they might to replicate [ Halo 's ] visceral moments , Bendis and Maleev just can 't replicate the same feeling on the printed page . " Reviewers criticized the lack of Master Chief as a main character , similar to the response to The Halo Graphic Novel ; Schedeen said that " Master Chief is barely a guest star in his own book " , and that he was reduced to blasting aliens for much of the series . Schedeen felt that there was a lack of connections between the Ruwan plot and the Master Chief 's adventures , which was never satisfactorily resolved . The comic 's focus on Ruwan and Myra 's subplot was also seen as a major fault : Comics Bulletin 's Geoff Collins , in a review of the second issue , said that " as a comic book fan I ’ m interested [ in Ruwan and Myra ] , but the Halo fans I know could [ sic ] care less about them . And the story in this issue centers around them . " Schedeen was surprised to find that he only began to care about them in the final issue . The many delays in publishing were a frequent point of frustration as well . Schedeen summed up his reviews by saying that he was hopeful the production teams behind the upcoming Halo books " will learn from the mistakes made here and craft stories that can consistently capture what makes Halo fun . At the very least , let 's hope we don 't have to wait a year between issues anymore " .

= Species ( film ) = Species is a 1995 American science fiction horror thriller film directed by Roger Donaldson and written by Dennis Feldman . It stars Natasha Henstridge , Ben Kingsley , Michael Madsen , Alfred Molina , Forest Whitaker and Marg Helgenberger . In the film , a motley crew of scientists and government agents tries to track down an alien seductress played by Natasha Henstridge before she successfully mates with a human male . Due to her ruthlessness , the alien character was cited as an example of negative treatment of female sexuality and aliens by the Hollywood film industry . The design of Sil was also linked to a chupacabra sighting . The film was conceived by Feldman in 1987 , and was originally pitched as a film treatment in the style of a police procedural , entitled The Message . When The Message failed to attract the studios , Feldman re @-@ wrote it as a spec script , which ultimately led to the making of the film . The extraterrestrial in Species , an alien woman named Sil , was designed by H. R. Giger , also responsible for the beings from the Alien franchise . The effects combined practical models done by Giger collaborator Steve Johnson and XFX , with computer @-@ generated imagery done by Richard Edlund 's Boss Film Studios . Giger felt the film and the character were too similar to Alien , so he pushed for script changes . Most of the principal photography was done in Los Angeles , California , where the film is set . Several scenes were filmed in Utah and at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico . The film was poorly received by critics , but nevertheless turned out to be a box office success , grossing US $ 113 million ( $ 176 million in 2016 dollars ) . It spawned one theatrical sequel ( Species II ) , as well as two direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels ( Species III and Species : The Awakening ) . Species was adapted into a novel by Yvonne Navarro and two comic book series by Dark Horse Comics , one of which was written by Feldman . = = Plot summary = = During the SETI program , Earth 's scientists send out transmissions ( shown to be the Arecibo message ) with information about Earth and its inhabitants , DNA structure , etc . , in hopes of finding life beyond Earth . They then receive transmissions from an alien source on how to create endless fuel effortlessly . Therefore , the scientists assume that this is a friendly alien species . From a second alien transmission , the scientists receive information about an alien DNA along with instructions on how to splice it with human DNA . A government team led by Xavier Fitch ( Ben Kingsley ) goes forward with the genetic experiment attempting to induce a female , under the ( later proved to be mistaken ) assumption that a female would have " more docile and controllable " traits . One of the hundred experimental ova produces a girl named Sil , who looks like a normal human but develops into a 12 @-@ year @-@ old in 3 months . Sil 's violent outbursts during sleep make the scientists consider her a threat . They try to kill her using cyanide gas but she breaks out of her containment cell and escapes . The government assembles a team composed of anthropologist Dr. Stephen Arden ( Alfred Molina ) , molecular biologist Dr. Laura Baker ( Marg Helgenberger ) , " empath " Dan Smithson ( Forest Whitaker ) and mercenary Preston " Press " Lennox ( Michael Madsen ) to track and destroy Sil . Sil matures rapidly into an adult ( Natasha Henstridge ) in her early twenties and makes her way to Los Angeles . Her body strength , regenerative ability and intelligence make tracking her extremely difficult . The scientists fear she may mate with human males and produce offspring that could eliminate the human race . Sil is intent on producing offspring as soon as possible , and kills several people to prevent them from notifying the authorities or simply to use their clothing . Sil first tries to mate with a man she meets at a nightclub ( Anthony Guidera ) , but after sensing that he is diabetic , she rejects him . Unsatisfied , he tries to rape her , prompting her to kill him by puncturing his skull with her tongue . She then tries to mate with John Carey ( Whip Hubley ) , a man she meets after a car accident . They swim in Carey 's pool where Sil forces him to open his swimming trunks in order to mate , but he refuses . This act is interrupted by Preston and Laura . She kills Carey , morphing into her alien form , a bipedal mutant with tentacles on her shoulders and back , and flees naked into a forest without being seen by the team . She pretends to be a rape victim to kidnap a woman ( Marliese K. Schneider ) in order to assume her identity . Sitting in the car near Carey 's home , she hypnotizes Fitch over distance to order the team to search for her in the nightclub . There , she is seen by Dan , prompting a car chase . She fakes her death by crashing the car , which she has previously filled with gasoline containers into a high @-@ voltage transformer , using the kidnapped woman as a stand @-@ in for her own body . After cutting and dyeing her hair , Sil takes an attraction to Preston , having dreamt of him the previous night . After the team celebrates their apparent victory , she stalks them in their hotel , and they do not recognize her . Arden , who is upset at being single , walks into his room to find Sil waiting there . She has intercourse with Arden , then kills him when he realizes who she is . Dan senses that Sil is in the hotel and he alerts Preston , Laura , and the rest of the team . She morphs again and escapes and they follow her into the sewers where Fitch is subsequently killed . Sil gives birth and Dan finds her offspring in a cavern behind the sewers . The child attacks him and he kills it . Sil , angered , attacks the trio and tries to kill Preston and Dan . Preston uses a grenade launcher on her , blowing her head off and killing her . The trio leaves the area . The last scene shows a rat chewing on one of Sil 's severed tentacles ; it starts to mutate into a vicious beast and attacks another rat . = = Cast = = Natasha Henstridge as Sil Michelle Williams as Young Sil Ben Kingsley as Xavier Fitch Michael Madsen as Preston " Press " Lennox Alfred Molina as Dr. Stephen Arden Forest Whitaker as Dan Smithson Marg Helgenberger as Dr. Laura Baker Whip Hubley as John Carey Anthony Guidera as Robbie = = Influence and themes = = Given Sil grows rapidly and kills humans with ease , at a certain point film character Dr. Laura Baker even speculates if she was a biological weapon sent by a species who thought humans were like an intergalactic weed . Feldman declared that he wanted to explore this theme further in the script , as it discussed mankind 's place in the universe and how other civilizations would perceive and relate to humanity , considering that " maybe [ humans are ] not a potential threat , maybe a competitor , maybe a resource . " He also declared that more could be said about Sil 's existentialist doubts , as she does not know her origin or purpose , and only follows her instinct to mate and perpetuate the species . Writing for the Journal of Popular Film & Television , Susan George authored a paper that dealt with the portrayal of procreation in Species , Gattaca and Mimic . George compares the character of Fitch to " an updated Dr. Frankenstein , " and explores the development of Sil 's maternal aspirations , which convert the character into an " archaic mother " figure similar to the xenomorph creature in the Alien series , both of which are , she claims , portrayed negatively . George further states that a recurring theme in science fiction films is a response to " this kind of powerful female sexuality and ' alien @-@ ness ' " in that " the feminine monster must die as Sil does at the end of Species . " Feldman himself considered that an underlying theme regarded " a female arriving and seeking to find a superior mate . " A five @-@ year investigation into accounts of the chupacabra , a well known cryptid , revealed that the original sighting report of the creature in Puerto Rico by Madeline Tolentino may have been inspired by the character Sil . This was detailed in paranormal investigator and skeptic Benjamin Radford 's book Tracking the Chupacabra . According to Virginia Fugarino of Memorial University of Newfoundland writing for the Journal of Folklore Research , Radford found a link between the original eyewitness report and the design of Sil in her alien form , and hypothesized that " [ Species ] , which [ Tolentino ] did see before her sighting , influenced what she believes she saw of the chupacabra . " = = Production = = = = = Writing and development = = = Dennis Feldman had the idea for Species in 1987 , as he worked on another film about an alien invasion , Real Men . Having read an article by Arthur C. Clarke about the insurmountable odds against an extraterrestrial craft ever locating and visiting Earth , given that stellar distances are great , and faster @-@ than @-@ light travel is unlikely , Feldman started to think that it was " unsophisticated for any alien culture to come here in what [ he ] ' d describe as a big tin can . " Thus in turn he considered that the possibility of extraterrestrial contact was through information . Then he detailed that a message would contain instructions from across the void to build something that would talk to men . Instead of a mechanical device , Feldman imagined wetware . The visitor would adapt to Earth 's environment through DNA belonging to Earth 's organisms . Mankind has sent to space transmissions " giving out directions " such as the Arecibo message , which Feldman considered unwary , as they relay information to potential predators from outer space . He pointed out that " in nature , one species would not want a predator to know where it hides . " Therefrom emerged a film treatment called The Message . The original script had more of a police procedural approach , with the alien being created by a " bathtub geneticist " who had just had his project aborted by the government , and a biologist who had worked on the project getting along with a police officer to search for the creature . Eventually Feldman came to believe this concept had some credibility issues , and instead changed the protagonists to a government team . After coining the name " Sil , " Feldman initially thought of forming an acronym , but in the end chose only the three @-@ letter name after learning about the codons of the genetic code , which can be represented in groups of three letters . Sil would originally emerge from a DNA sequence manipulating human DNA , and constantly mutate as she used the human junk DNA to access " all the defenses of the entire animal kingdom that [ humans ] evolved through – including ones that had never developed , plus ones [ Earth 's scientists ] don 't know about that have become extinct . " Among the research Feldman did for the script included going to sessions of UCLA 's Center for the Study of Evolution and the Origin of Life ( CSEOL ) , talking to SETI scientists , and visiting the Salk Institute for Biological Studies to talk with researchers working on the Human Genome Project . The Message was offered to several studios , but was passed up . In 1993 , Feldman reworked his ideas into a spec script . This was sent to producer Frank Mancuso , Jr . , who had hired Feldman to adapt Sidney Kirkpatrick 's A Cast of Killers . The producer got attracted to the creative possibilites as the film offered " the challenge of walking that fine line between believability and pushing something as far as it can go . " Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer got interested on the project , and while Feldman had some initial disagreements on the budget , after considering other studios he signed with MGM . In turn , the now retitled Species attracted director Roger Donaldson , who was attracted to its blend of science fiction and thriller . The script underwent eight different drafts , written over an eight @-@ month period , before Donaldson was content that flaws in the story 's logic had been corrected . At one point another writer , Larry Gross , tried his hand with the script , but ultimately all the work was done by Feldman . Feldman would remain as a co @-@ producer . While the initial Species script suggested a love triangle between Sil and two government team members , the dissatisfaction of the crew eventually led to changes to the ending , which ended up featuring Sil having a baby that would immediately prove dangerous . = = = Design = = = Sil was designed by Swiss artist H. R. Giger , who also created the creatures in the Alien films . Donaldson thought Giger was the best man for the film after reading his compendium Necronomicon , and eventually he and Mancuso flew to Switzerland to meet the artist . What attracted Giger was the opportunity to design " a monster in another way — an aesthetic warrior , also sensual and deadly , like the women look in [ his ] paintings . " While Giger opted to stay in Switzerland to take care of his dying mother instead of flying to Los Angeles to accompany production , he built some puppets in his own studio , and later faxed sketches and airbrush paintings as production went through . The practical models were made by Steve Johnson and his company XFX , which had already worked with Giger 's designs in Poltergeist II . Giger had envisioned more stages of Sil 's transformation , but the film only employed the last one , where she is " transparent outside and black inside — like a glass body but with carbon inside , " with XFX doing the translucent skin based on what they had done for the aliens of The Abyss . Sil 's alien form had both full @-@ body animatronics with replaceable arms , heads and torsos , and a body suit . Richard Edlund 's Boss Film Studios was hired for over 50 shots of computer @-@ generated imagery , which included one of the earliest forms of motion capture effects . Using a two @-@ foot @-@ high ( 60 cm ) electric puppet that had sensors translating its movements to a digital Sil , Boss Films managed to achieve in one day what would have once taken as much as three weeks with practical effects . Giger was unhappy with some elements he found to bear similarity with other movies , particularly the Alien franchise . At one point he sent a fax to Mancuso finding five similarities : a " chestburster " ( as Sil giving birth echoed the infant Alien breaking out of its host 's chest ) , the creature having a punching tongue ( Giger at first wanted Sil 's tongue to be composed of barbed hooks ) , a cocoon , the use of flame throwers , and having Giger as the creature designer . A great point of contention was the ending , which Giger considered derivative from the climaxes from both Alien 3 and Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . The designer felt that horror films frequently held some final confrontation with fire , which he considered old @-@ fashioned and linked to medieval witch trials . He sent some ideas for the climax to the producers , with them accepting to have Sil 's ultimate death occurring by headshot . = = = Filming = = = Filming happened mostly in Los Angeles , including location shooting at Sunset Strip , Silver Lake , Pacific Palisades , the Hollywood Hills and the Biltmore Hotel . Id Club , the nightclub featured in the film , was built within Hollywood 's Pantages Theater , while the hills above Dodger Stadium near Elysian Park were used for the car chase and crash where Sil fakes her death . For the opening scenes in Utah , the Tooele Army Depot dubbed as the outside of the research facility — the interiors were shot at the Rockwell International Corporation laboratory in California — and a Victorian @-@ era train station in Brigham City was part of Sil 's escape . Other locations included the Santa Monica Pier and the Arecibo telescope in Puerto Rico . The most complex sets involved the sewer complex and a tar @-@ filled granite cavern where the ending occurs . Donaldson wanted a maze quality for the sewers , which had traces of realism ( such as tree roots breaking through from the ceiling ) and artistic licenses . Production designer John Muto intentionally designed the sewers wider and taller than real ones , as well as with walkways , but nevertheless aiming for a claustrophobic and realistic atmosphere . The underground tunnels were built out of structural steel , metal rod , plaster and concrete to endure the fire effects , and had its design based on the La Brea Tar Pits , with Muto describing them as " just the sort of place in which a creature from another planet might feel at home . " = = Release and reception = = Species received a wide theatrical release on July 7 , 1995 . Its opening weekend was $ 17 @.@ 1 million , MGM 's biggest opening that far and second in the box office ranking behind Apollo 13 . Budgeted at $ 35 million , the film earned a total of $ 113 million worldwide ( $ 176 million adjusted for inflation ) , including $ 60 million in the United States . The film was released on DVD on March 26 , 1997 , and on VHS on August 3 , 1999 . The original DVD featured a booklet with trivia , production notes and a making @-@ of featurette . On July 25 , 2006 , the film was released on Blu @-@ ray . The film received lukewarm reviews . On Rotten Tomatoes , Species holds an approval of 34 % based on 35 reviews . Roger Ebert gave it 2 out of 4 stars , criticizing the film 's plot and overall lack of intelligence . Cristine James from Boxoffice magazine gave the film 2 out of 5 stars , describing it as " ' Alien ' meets ' V ' meets ' Splash ' meets ' Playboy 's Erotic Fantasies : Forbidden Liaisons , ' diluted into a diffuse , misdirected bore . " James Berardinelli gave the film 2 ½ out of 4 stars , stating that " as long as you don 't stop to think about what 's going on , Species is capable of offering its share of cheap thrills , with a laugh or two thrown in as well . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly found the film lacking in imagination and special effects , also commenting that Alfred Molina " sport [ s ] a haircut that 's scarier than the creature . " Variety 's review of the film described it as a " gripping if not overly original account of an extraterrestrial species attempting to overwhelm our own " and that Ben Kingsley and other lead actors " have only two @-@ dimensional roles to engage them " . The review mentions the similarity between H.R. Giger 's design of Sil and his work on Alien . Scott Weinberg of DVD Talk praised the acting , Feldman 's screenplay and Donaldson 's direction . He concluded by saying that Species makes for " a very good time for the genre fans . " Mick LaSalle , writing for San Francisco Chronicle , was notedly less enthusiastic , quipping that if " Species were a little bit worse , it would have a shot at becoming a camp classic . " Los Angeles Times critic Peter Rainer described Species as " a pretty good Boo ! movie " , finding it an entertaining thriller while unoriginal and with ineffective tonal shifts . = = Related works = = = = = Adaptations = = = Yvonne Navarro co @-@ wrote a novelization based on the original screenplay with Dennis Feldman . The book gives several in @-@ depth details about the characters not seen in the film , such as Sil 's ability to visualize odors and determine harmful substances from edible items by the color . Gas appears black , food appears pink , and an unhealthy potential mate appears to give off green fumes . Other character details include Preston 's background in tracking down AWOL soldiers as well as the process of decoding the alien signal . Although no clues are given as to its origin , it is mentioned that the message was somehow routed through several black holes to mask its point of origin . Dark Horse Comics published a four @-@ issue comic book adapting the film , written by Feldman and penciled by Jon Foster . Dark Horse would also publish a mini @-@ series with an all @-@ new storyline , Species : Human Race , released in 1997 . West End Games released a World of Species sourcebook for its Masterbook role @-@ playing game system . = = = Sequels = = = The first sequel to Species , Species II was released theatrically in April 1998 . The film depicts astronauts on a mission to Mars being attacked by the aliens from Species , and the events that ensue upon their return to Earth . There , Dr. Baker has been working on Eve , a more docile clone of Sil . Madsen and Helgenberger reprised their roles , while Henstridge played Eve . Species II was received by critics worse than the first film , garnering a 9 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes , and Madsen denounced it as a terrible film . The film 's director , Peter Medak , attributed the failure of the film to not picking up the infected rat ending of the original film . Navarro later authored the novelization for Species II which followed the film 's original screenplay with added scenes . The second sequel , Species III followed in 2004 . It premiered on Sci @-@ Fi Channel on November 27 , 2004 with a DVD release on December 7 . The film 's plot starts where Species II ends , revolving around Sunny Mabrey 's character Sara , the daughter of Eve , reared by a doctor played by Robert Knepper . Sara , an alien @-@ human hybrid , seeks other hybrids to mate with . Henstridge cameos at the beginning of the film . Two out of six critics mentioned on Rotten Tomatoes gave it a positive rating , with DVD Talk 's reviewer noting that it is " a more cohesive and sensible flick than [ Species II ] is , but ultimately , it 's just a lot of the same old schtick , " while Film Freak Central called it " amateurish " and " vapid . " A fourth film , Species : The Awakening was filmed in 2007 , following the schedule of Species III of Sci @-@ Fi Channel premiere and subsequent DVD release . None of the actors from the original film returned in this sequel , which instead starred Helena Mattsson as the alien @-@ hybrid seductress .

= John of Brienne = John of Brienne ( c . 1170 – 27 March 1237 ) , also known as John I , was King of Jerusalem from 1210 to 1225 and Latin Emperor of Constantinople from 1229 to 1237 . He was the youngest son of Erard II of Brienne , a wealthy nobleman in Champagne . John , originally destined for an ecclesiastical career , became a knight and owned small estates in Champagne around 1200 . After the death of his brother , Walter III , he ruled the County of Brienne on behalf of his minor nephew Walter IV ( who lived in southern Italy ) . The barons of the Kingdom of Jerusalem proposed that John marry Maria , Queen of Jerusalem . With the consent of Philip II of France and Pope Innocent III , he left France for the Holy Land and married the queen ; the royal couple were crowned in 1210 . After Maria 's death in 1212 John administered the kingdom as regent for their infant daughter , Isabella II ; an influential lord , John of Ibelin , attempted to dethrone him . John was a leader of the Fifth Crusade . Although his claim of supreme command of the crusader army was never unanimously acknowledged , his right to rule Damietta ( in Egypt ) was confirmed shortly after the town fell to the crusaders in 1219 . He claimed the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia on behalf of his second wife , Stephanie of Armenia , in 1220 . After Stephanie and their infant son died that year , John returned to Egypt . The Fifth Crusade ended in failure ( including the recovery of Damietta by the Egyptians ) in 1221 . John was the first king of Jerusalem to visit Europe ( Italy , France , England , León , Castile and Germany ) to seek assistance for the Holy Land . He gave his daughter in marriage to Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in 1225 , and Frederick ended John 's rule of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Although the popes tried to persuade Frederick to restore the kingdom to John , the Jerusalemite barons regarded Frederick as their lawful ruler . John administered papal domains in Tuscany , became the podestà of Perugia and was a commander of Pope Gregory IX 's army during Gregory 's war against Frederick in 1228 and 1229 . He was elected emperor in 1229 as the senior co @-@ ruler ( with Baldwin II ) of the Latin Empire , and was crowned in Constantinople in 1231 . John III Vatatzes , Emperor of Nicaea , and Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria occupied the last Latin territories in Thrace and Asia Minor , besieging Constantinople in early 1235 . John directed the defence of his capital during the months @-@ long siege , with the besiegers withdrawing only after Geoffrey II of Achaea and united fleets from Italian towns defeated their fleet in 1236 . The following year , John died as a Franciscan friar . = = Early life = = John was the youngest of the four sons of Erard II , Count of Brienne , and Agnes of Montfaucon . He seemed " exceedingly old ... about 80 " to the 14 @-@ year @-@ old George Akropolites in 1231 ; if Akropolites ' estimate was correct , John was born around 1150 . However , no other 13th @-@ century authors described John as an old man . His father referred to John 's brothers as " children " in 1177 and mentioned the tutor of John 's oldest brother , Walter III , in 1184 ; this suggests that John 's brothers were born in the late 1160s . Modern historians agree that John was born after 1168 , probably during the 1170s . Although his father destined John for a clerical career , according to the late 13th @-@ century Tales of the Minstrel of Reims he " was unwilling " . Instead , the minstrel continued , John fled to his maternal uncle at the Clairvaux Abbey . Encouraged by his fellows , he became a knight and earned a reputation in tournaments and fights . Although elements of the Tales of the Minstrel of Reims are apparently invented ( for instance , John did not have a maternal uncle in Clairvaux ) , historian Guy Perry wrote that it may have preserved details of John 's life . A church career was not unusual for youngest sons of 12th @-@ century noblemen in France ; however , if his father sent John to a monastery he left before reaching the age of taking monastic vows . John " clearly developed the physique that was necessary to fight well " in his youth , because the 13th @-@ century sources Akropolites and Salimbene di Adam emphasize his physical strength . Erard II joined the Third Crusade and died in the Holy Land in 1191 . His oldest son , Walter III , succeeded him in Brienne . John was first mentioned in an 1192 ( or 1194 ) charter issued by his brother , indicating that he was a prominent figure in Walter 's court . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , John participated in a war against Peter II of Courtenay . Although the Tales of the Minstrel of Reims claimed that he was called " John Lackland " , according to contemporary charters John held Jessains , Onjon , Trannes and two other villages in the County of Champagne around 1200 . In 1201 , Theobald III granted him additional estates in Mâcon , Longsols and elsewhere . After Theobald 's death his widow Blanche of Navarre persuaded John to sell his estate at Mâcon , saying that it was her dowry . Walter III of Brienne died in June 1205 while fighting in southern Italy . His widow Elvira of Sicily gave birth to a posthumous son , Walter IV , who grew up in Italy . John assumed the title of count of Brienne , and began administering the county on his nephew 's behalf in 1205 or 1206 . As a leading vassal of the count of Champagne , John frequented the court of Blanche of Navarre ( who ruled Champagne during her son 's minority ) . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , she loved John " more than any man in the world " ; this annoyed Philip II of France . The two versions of Ernoul 's chronicle tell different stories about John 's ascent to the throne of Jerusalem . According to one version , the leading lords of Jerusalem sent envoys to France in 1208 asking Philip II to select a French nobleman as a husband for their queen Maria . Taking advantage of the opportunity to rid himself of John , Philip II suggested him . In the other version an unnamed knight encouraged the Jerusalemite lords to select John , who accepted their offer with Philip 's consent . John visited Pope Innocent III in Rome . The pope donated 40 @,@ 000 marks for the defence of the Holy Land , stipulating that John could spend the money only with the consent of the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem and the grand masters of the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller . = = King of Jerusalem = = = = = Co @-@ ruler = = = John landed at Acre on 13 September 1210 ; the following day , Patriarch of Jerusalem Albert of Vercelli married him to Queen Maria . John and Maria were crowned in Tyre on 3 October . The truce concluded by Amalric II , King of Jerusalem and the Ayyubid sultan Al @-@ Adil I had ended by John 's arrival . Although Al @-@ Adil was willing to renew it , Jerusalemite lords did not want to sign a new treaty without John 's consent . During John and Maria 's coronation , Al @-@ Adil 's son Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa pillaged the area around Acre but did not attack the city . After returning to Acre , John raided nearby Muslim settlements in retaliation . Although about 300 French knights accompanied him to the Holy Land , no influential noblemen joined him ; they preferred participating in the French Albigensian Crusade or did not see him as sufficiently eminent . John 's cousin , Walter of Montbéliard , joined him only after he was expelled from Cyprus . Montbéliard led a naval expedition to Egypt to plunder the Nile Delta . After most of the French crusaders left the Holy Land , John forged a new truce with Al @-@ Adil by the middle of 1211 and sent envoys to Pope Innocent urging him to preach a new crusade . = = = Conflicts = = = Maria died shortly after giving birth to their daughter , Isabella , in late 1212 . Her death triggered a legal dispute , with John of Ibelin ( who administered Jerusalem before John 's coronation ) questioning the widowed king 's right to rule . The king sent Raoul of Merencourt , Bishop of Sidon , to Rome for assistance from the Holy See . Pope Innocent confirmed John as lawful ruler of the Holy Land in early 1213 , urging the prelates to support him with ecclesiastical sanctions if needed . Most of the Jerusalemite lords remained loyal to the king , acknowledging his right to administer the kingdom on behalf of his infant daughter ; John of Ibelin left the Holy Land and settled in Cyprus . The relationship between John of Brienne and Hugh I of Cyprus was tense . Hugh ordered the imprisonment of John 's supporters in Cyprus , releasing them only at Pope Innocent 's command . During the War of the Antiochene Succession John sided with Bohemond IV of Antioch and the Templars against Raymond @-@ Roupen of Antioch and Leo I , King of Cilician Armenia , who were supported by Hugh and the Hospitallers . However , John sent only 50 knights to fight the Armenians in Antiochia in 1213 . Leo I concluded a peace treaty with the Knights Templar late that year , and he and John reconciled . John married Leo 's oldest daughter , Stephanie ( also known as Rita ) , in 1214 and Stephanie received a dowry of 30 @,@ 000 bezants . Quarrels among John , Leo I , Hugh I and Bohemond IV are documented by Pope Innocent 's letters urging them to reconcile their differences before the Fifth Crusade reached the Holy Land . = = = Fifth Crusade = = = Pope Innocent proclaimed the Fifth Crusade in 1213 , with the " liberation of the Holy Land " ( the reconquest of Jerusalem ) its principal object . The first crusader troops , commanded by Leopold VI of Austria , landed at Acre in early September 1217 . Andrew II of Hungary and his army followed that month , and Hugh I of Cyprus and Bohemond IV of Antioch soon joined the crusaders . However , hundreds of crusaders soon returned to Europe because of a famine following the previous year 's poor harvest . A war council was held in the tent of Andrew II , who considered himself the supreme commander of the crusader army . Other leaders , particularly John , did not acknowledge Andrew 's leadership . The crusaders raided nearby territory ruled by Al @-@ Adil I for food and fodder , forcing the sultan to retreat in November 1217 . In December John besieged the Ayyubid fortress on Mount Tabor , joined only by Bohemond IV of Antioch . He was unable to capture it , which " encouraged the infidel " , according to the contemporary Jacques de Vitry . Andrew II decided to return home , leaving the crusaders ' camp with Hugh I and Bohemond IV in early 1218 . Although military action was suspended after their departure , the crusaders restored fortifications at Caesarea and Atlit . After new troops arrived from the Holy Roman Empire in April , they decided to invade Egypt . They elected John supreme commander , giving him the right to rule the land they would conquer . His leadership was primarily nominal , since he could rarely impose his authority on an army of troops from many countries . The crusaders laid siege to Damietta , on the Nile , in May 1217 . Although they seized a strategically @-@ important tower on a nearby island on 24 August , Al @-@ Kamil ( who had succeeded Al @-@ Adil I in Egypt ) controlled traffic on the Nile . In September , reinforcements commanded by Pope Honorius III 's legate Cardinal Pelagius ( who considered himself the crusade 's supreme commander ) arrived from Italy . Egyptian forces attempted a surprise attack on the crusaders ' camp on 9 October , but John discovered their movements . He and his retinue attacked and annihilated the Egyptian advance guard , hindering the main force . The crusaders built a floating fortress on the Nile near Damietta , but a storm blew it near the Egyptian camp . The Egyptians seized the fortress , killing nearly all of its defenders . Only two soldiers survived the attack ; they were accused of cowardice , and John ordered their execution . Taking advantage of the new Italian troops , Cardinal Pelagius began to intervene in strategic decisions . His debates with John angered their troops . The soldiers broke into the Egyptian camp on 29 August 1219 without an order , but they were soon defeated and nearly annihilated . During the ensuing panic , only the cooperation of John , the Templars , the Hospitallers and the noble crusaders prevented the Egyptians from destroying their camp . In late October , Al @-@ Kamil sent messengers to the crusaders offering to restore Jerusalem , Bethlehem and Nazareth to them if they withdrew from Egypt . Although John and the secular lords were willing to accept the sultan 's offer , Pelagius and the heads of the military orders resisted ; they said that the Moslems could easily recapture the three towns . The crusaders ultimately refused the offer . Al @-@ Kamil tried to send provisions to Damietta across their camp , but his men were captured on 3 November . Two days later , the crusaders stormed into Damietta and seized the town . Pelagius claimed it for the church , but he was forced to acknowledge John 's right to administer it ( at least temporarily ) when John threatened to leave the crusaders ' camp . According to John of Joinville , John seized one @-@ third of Damietta 's spoils ; coins minted there during the following months bore his name . Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa , Sultan of Damascus , invaded the Kingdom of Jerusalem and pillaged Caesarea before the end of 1219 . John 's father @-@ in @-@ law , Leo I of Armenia , died several months before the crusaders seized Damietta . He bequeathed his kingdom to his infant daughter , Isabella . John and Raymond @-@ Roupen of Antioch ( Leo 's nephew ) questioned the will 's legality , each demanding the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia for themselves . In a February 1220 letter , Pope Honorius declared John Leo 's rightful heir . Saying that he wanted to assert his claim to Cilicia , John left Damietta for the Kingdom of Jerusalem around Easter 1220 . Although Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa 's successful campaign the previous year also pressed John to leave Egypt , Jacques de Vitry and other Fifth Crusade chroniclers wrote that he deserted the crusader army . Stephanie died shortly after John 's arrival . Contemporary sources accused John of causing her sudden death , claiming that he severely beat her when he heard that she tried to poison his daughter Isabella . Their only son died a few weeks later , ending John 's claim to Cilicia . Soon after Pope Honorius learned about the deaths of Stephanie and her son , he declared Raymond @-@ Roupen the lawful ruler of Cilicia and threatened John with excommunication if he fought for his late wife 's inheritance . John did not return to the crusaders in Egypt for several months . According to a letter from the prelates in the Holy Land to Philip II of France , lack of funds kept John from leaving his kingdom . Since his nephew Walter IV was approaching the age of majority , John surrendered the County of Brienne in 1221 . During John 's absence from Egypt , Al @-@ Kamil again offered to restore the Holy Land to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in June 1221 ; Pelagius refused him . John returned to Egypt and rejoined the crusade on 6 July 1221 at the command of Pope Honorius . The commanders of the crusader army decided to continue the invasion of Egypt , despite ( according to Philip d 'Aubigny ) John 's strong opposition . The crusaders approached Mansurah , but the Egyptians imposed a blockade on their camp . Outnumbered , Pelagius agreed to an eight @-@ year truce with Al @-@ Kamil in exchange for Damietta on 28 August . John was among the crusade leaders held hostage by Al @-@ Kamil until the crusader army withdrew from Damietta on 8 September . = = = Negotiations = = = After the Fifth Crusade ended " in colossal and irremediable failure " , John returned to his kingdom . Merchants from Genoa and Pisa soon attacked each other in Acre , destoying a significant portion of the town . According to a Genoese chronicle , John supported the Pisans and the Genoese left Acre for Beirut . John was the first king of Jerusalem to visit Europe , and had decided to seek aid from the Christian powers before he returned from Egypt . He also wanted to find a suitable husband for his daughter , to ensure the survival of Christian rule in the Holy Land . John appointed Odo of Montbéliard as a bailli to administer the Kingdom of Jerusalem in his absence . He left for Italy in October 1222 to attend a conference about a new crusade . At John 's request , Pope Honorius declared that all lands conquered during the crusade should be united with the Kingdom of Jerusalem . To plan the military campaign , the pope and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II met at Ferentino in March 1223 ; John attended the meeting . He agreed to give his daughter in marriage to Frederick II after the emperor promised that he would allow John to rule the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the rest of his life . John then went to France , although Philip II was annoyed at being excluded from the decision of Isabella 's marriage . Matilda I , Countess of Nevers , Erard II of Chacenay , Albert , Abbot of Vauluisant and other local potentates asked John to intervene in their conflicts , indicating that he was esteemed in his homeland . John attended the funeral of Philip II at the Basilica of St Denis in July ; Philip bequeathed more than 150 @,@ 000 marks for the defence of the Holy Land . John then visited England , attempting to mediate a peace treaty between England and France after his return to France . He made a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in March 1224 . According to the Latin Chronicle of the Kings of Castile , John went to the Kingdom of León to marry one of the elder daughters of Alfonso IX of León ( Sancha or Dulce ) because Alfonso had promised him the kingdom " along with her " . The marriage could jeopardize the claim of Sancha 's and Dulce 's half @-@ brother , Ferdinand III of Castile , to León . To protect her son 's interests , Ferdinand 's mother Berengaria of Castile decided to give her daughter ( Berengaria of León ) to John in marriage . Although modern historians do not unanimously accept the chronicle 's account of John 's plan to marry Sancha or Dulce , they agree that the queen of France ( Blanche of Castile , Berengaria of Castile 's sister ) played an important role in convincing John to marry her niece . The marriage of John and Berengaria of León was celebrated in Burgos in May 1224 . About three months later , he met Emperor Frederick 's son Henry in Metz and visited Henry 's guardian , Engelbert , Archbishop of Cologne . From Germany John went to southern Italy , where he persuaded Pope Honorius to allow Emperor Frederick to postpone his crusade for two years . Frederick married John 's daughter , Isabella ( who had been crowned queen of Jerusalem ) , on 9 November 1225 . John and Frederick 's relationship became tense . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , John got into a disagreement with his new son @-@ in @-@ law because Frederick seduced a niece of Isabella who was her lady @-@ in @-@ waiting . In the other version of the chronicle John often " chastised and reproved " his son @-@ in @-@ law , who concluded that John wanted to seize the Kingdom of Sicily for his nephew Walter IV of Brienne and tried to murder John ( who fled to Rome ) . Frederick declared that John had lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem when Isabella married him ; he styled himself king of Jerusalem for the first time in December 1225 . Balian of Sidon , Simon of Maugastel , Archbishop of Tyre , and the other Jerusalemite lords who had escorted Isabella to Italy acknowledged Frederick as their lawful king . = = Papal service = = Pope Honorius did not accept Frederick 's unilateral act , and continued to regard John as the rightful king of Jerusalem . In an attempt to take advantage of the revived Lombard League ( an alliance of northern Italian towns ) against Frederick II , John went to Bologna . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , he declined an offer by the Lombard League representatives to elect him their king . Even though this account was fabricated , John remained in Bologna for over six months . The dying Pope Honorius appointed John rector of a Patrimony of Saint Peter in Tuscany ( part of the Papal States ) on 27 January 1227 , and urged Frederick II to restore him to the throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Honorius ' successor , Gregory IX , confirmed John 's position in the Papal States on 5 April and ordered the citizens of Perugia to elect him their podestà . Gregory excommunicated Frederick II on 29 September 1227 , accusing him of breaking his oath to lead a crusade to the Holy Land ; the emperor had dispatched two fleets to Syria , but a plague forced them to return . His wife Isabella died after giving birth to a son , Conrad , in May 1228 . Frederick continued to consider himself king of Jerusalem , in accordance with the precedent set by John during Isabella 's minority . The imperial army invaded the Papal States under the command of Rainald of Urslingen in October 1228 . Although John defeated the invaders in a series of battles , it took a counter @-@ invasion by another papal army in southern Italy to drive Rainald back to Sulmona . John laid a siege before returning to Perugia in early 1229 to conclude negotiations with envoys of the Latin Empire of Constantinople , who were offering him the imperial crown . = = Emperor of Constantinople = = = = = Election = = = The Latin Emperor of Constantinople , Robert I , died in January 1228 . His brother Baldwin II succeeded him , but a regent was needed to rule the Latin Empire since Baldwin was ten years old . Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria was willing to accept the regency , but the barons of the Latin Empire suspected that he wanted to unite the Latin Empire with Bulgaria . They offered the imperial crown instead to John , an ally of the Holy See . After months of negotiation , John and the envoys from the Latin Empire signed a treaty in Perugia which was confirmed by Pope Gregory on 9 April 1229 . John was elected emperor of the Latin Empire for life as senior co @-@ ruler with Baldwin II , who would marry John 's daughter Marie . The treaty also prescribed that although Baldwin would rule the Latin lands in Asia Minor when he was 20 years old , he would become sole emperor only after John 's death . John also stipulated that his sons would inherit Epirus and Macedonia , but the two regions still belonged to Emperor of Thessalonica Theodore Doukas . After signing the treaty , John returned to Sulmona . According to the contemporary Matthew Paris , he allowed his soldiers to plunder nearby monasteries to obtain money . John lifted the siege of Sulmona in early 1229 to join Cardinal Pelagius , who launched a campaign against Capua . Frederick II ( who had crowned himself king of Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre ) returned to Italy , forcing the papal troops to withdraw . John went to France to recruit warriors to accompany him to Constantinople . Pope Gregory did not proclaim John 's expedition to the Latin Empire a crusade , but promised papal privileges granted to crusaders to those who joined him . During his stay in France , John was again an intermediary between local potentates and signed a peace treaty between Louis IX of France and Hugh X of Lusignan . He returned to Italy in late 1230 . John 's envoys signed a treaty with Jacopo Tiepolo , Doge of Venice , who agreed to transport him and his retinue of 500 knights and 5 @,@ 000 commoners to Constantinople in return for John 's confirmation of Venetian possessions and privileges in the Latin Empire . Shortly after John left for Constantinople in August , Pope Gregory acknowledged Frederick II 's claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem . = = = Rule = = = John was crowned emperor in Hagia Sophia in autumn 1231 ; by then , his territory was limited to Constantinople and its vicinity . The Venetians urged him to wage war against John III Vatatzes , Emperor of Nicaea , who supported a rebellion against their rule in Crete . According to Philippe Mouskes ' Rhymed Chronicle , John could make " neither war nor peace " ; because he did not invade the Empire of Nicaea , most French knights who accompanied him to Constantinople returned home after his coronation . To strengthen the Latin Empire 's financial position , Geoffrey II of Achaea ( John 's most powerful vassal ) gave him an annual subsidy of 30 @,@ 000 hyperpyra after his coronation . Taking advantage of John III Vatatzes ' invasion of Rhodes , John launched a military expedition across the Bosphorus against the Empire of Nicaea in 1233 . His three @-@ to @-@ four @-@ month campaign " achieved little , or nothing " ; the Latins only seized Pegai , now Biga in Turkey . With John 's approval , two Franciscan and two Dominican friars wanted to mediate a truce between the Latin Empire and Nicaea in 1234 but it was never signed . In a letter describing their negotiations , the friars described John as a " pauper " abandoned by his mercenaries . John III Vatatzes and Ivan Asen II concluded a treaty dividing the Latin Empire in early 1235 . Vatatzes soon seized the last outposts of the empire in Asia Minor and Gallipoli , and Asen occupied the Latin territories in Thrace . Constantinople was besieged in an effort to persuade the defenders to gather in one place , enabling an invasion elsewhere . Although the besiegers outnumbered the defenders , John repelled all attacks on the town 's walls . Mouskes compared him to Hector , Roland , Ogier the Dane and Judas Maccabeus in his Rhymed Chronicle , emphasizing his bravery . A Venetian fleet forced Vatatzes ' naval forces to withdraw , but after the Venetians departed for home the Greeks and Bulgarians besieged Constantinople again in November 1235 . John sent letters to European monarchs and the pope , pleading for assistance . Since the survival of the Latin Empire was in jeopardy , Pope Gregory urged the crusaders to defend Constantinople instead of the Holy Land . A combined naval force from Venice , Genoa , Pisa and Geoffrey II of Achaea broke through the blockade . Asen soon abandoned his alliance with Vatatzes , who was forced to lift the siege in 1236 . = = = Death = = = According to three 13th @-@ century authors ( Matthew Paris , Salimbene di Adam and Bernard of Besse ) , John became a Franciscan friar before his death . They agree that John 's declining health contributed to his conversion , but Bernard also described a recurring vision of an old man urging the emperor to join the Franciscans . Most 13th @-@ century sources suggest that John died between 19 and 23 March 1237 , the only Latin emperor to die in Constantinople . According to the Tales of the Minstrel of Reims , he was buried in Hagia Sophia . Perry wrote that John , who died as a Franciscan friar , may have been buried in the Franciscan church dedicated to Saint Francis of Assisi which was built in Galata during his reign . In a third theory , proposed by Giuseppe Gerola , a tomb decorated with the Latin Empire coat of arms in Assisi 's Lower Basilica may have been built for John by Walter VI , Count of Brienne . = = Family = = John 's first wife ( Maria the Marquise , born 1191 ) was the only child of Isabella I of Jerusalem and her second husband , Conrad of Montferrat . Maria inherited Jerusalem from her mother in 1205 . John and Maria 's only child , Isabella ( also known as Yolanda ) , was born in late 1212 . Stephanie of Armenia became John 's second wife in 1214 . She was the only daughter of Leo II of Armenia and his first wife , Isabelle ( niece of Sibylle , the third wife of Bohemond III of Antioch ) . Stephanie gave birth to a son in 1220 , but she and her son died that year . John married his third wife , Berengaria of León , in 1224 ; she was born around 1204 to Alfonso IX of León and Berengaria of Castile . John and Berengaria 's first child , Marie , was born in 1224 . Their first son , Alphonse , was born during the late 1220s . Berengaria 's cousin , Louis IX of France , made him Grand Chamberlain of France and he acquired the County of Eu in France with his marriage . John 's second son , Louis , was born around 1230 . His youngest son , John , who was born in the early 1230s , was Grand Butler of France .

= Boise National Forest = Boise National Forest is a federally protected area covering 2 @,@ 203 @,@ 703 acres ( 8 @,@ 918 @.@ 07 km2 ) of the U.S. state of Idaho as part of the national forest system . Created on July 1 , 1908 from part of Sawtooth National Forest , it is managed by the U.S. Forest Service as four units : the Cascade , Emmett , Lowman , and Mountain Home ranger districts . The Idaho Batholith underlays most of Boise National Forest , forming the forest 's Boise , Salmon River , and West mountain ranges ; the forest reaches a maximum elevation of 9 @,@ 730 feet ( 2 @,@ 970 m ) on Steel Mountain . Common land cover includes sagebrush steppe and spruce @-@ fir forests ; there are 9 @,@ 600 miles ( 15 @,@ 400 km ) of streams and rivers and 15 @,@ 400 acres ( 62 km2 ) of lakes and reservoirs . Boise National Forest contains 75 percent of the known populations of Sacajawea 's bitterroot , a flowering plant endemic to Idaho . The Shoshone people occupied the forest before European settlers arrived in the early 1800s . Many of the early settlers were trappers and prospectors before gold was discovered in 1862 . After the 1860s Boise Basin gold rush ended , mining of tungsten , silver , antimony , and gold continued in the forest until the mid @-@ twentieth century . Recreation opportunities and facilities include over 70 campgrounds , whitewater and flatwater boating , cabin rentals , and 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) of trails for hiking , biking , horseback riding , and motorized off @-@ road vehicle use . The Forest Service has an objective to maintain timber , range , water , recreation , and wildlife for multiple use and sustained yield of its resources . = = History = = Archaeological evidence indicates that human habitation in Idaho began towards the end of the last ice age : bone fragments about 10 @,@ 000 years old have been found in Wilson Butte Cave , an inflationary cave on the Snake River Plain believed to have been occupied by indigenous people until as recently as the 17th century . A change of climate around 7000 years ago dried up much of the Great Basin , forcing the Shoshone people northward into the mountainous areas of central Idaho . Most of what is now Boise National Forest was sparsely inhabited by Native Americans , and several archaeological sites , including campsites , rock shelters , burial grounds , and pictographs have been found along rivers in the area . Trappers and fur traders of European descent first arrived in the area in the early 1800s , starting with John Jacob Astor 's Pacific Fur Company in October 1811 . Donald Mackenzie and Francois Payette trapped in the area of Boise National Forest in 1819 . By 1840 the fur trade was coming to an end , but the westward migration on the Oregon Trail , which passed south of the forest , was beginning . The first settlers moved into the mountains in the 1860s after gold was discovered in Idaho , which forced many of the Shoshone out and led to conflicts throughout the state , including the Bannock War in southern Idaho . Prospectors George Grimes and Moses Splawn were the first to discover gold in the forest at the eponymous Grimes Creek on August 2 , 1862 . Subsequent gold discoveries at Rocky Bar in 1863 and Atlanta in 1864 increased the rush of people to Idaho , and in 1863 Idaho City , with a population of 6 @,@ 267 , surpassed Portland , Oregon as the largest city in the Pacific Northwest . The Idaho gold rush was largely over by 1870 , and the population of the Boise Basin fell from 16 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 500 . In 1898 the forest 's first gold dredge was built in Placerville and followed by several others . By 1951 when the last dredges shut down , at least 2 @.@ 3 million ounces ( 65 @.@ 2 million grams ) of gold had been produced from the Boise Basin area . Silver was mined along the Crooked River from 1882 until 1921 , but a silver mine at Silver Mountain proved unsuccessful . Following a shortage of mercury during World War II , mines in the Stibnite area became the country 's largest producer of tungsten and second largest source of mercury . The most important known placer deposit of niobium and tantalum in the United States is located in Bear Valley . From 1953 until 1959 dredges there produced $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( $ 101 million today ) in niobium , tantalum , and uranium . Other minerals mined in the forest include antimony and molybdenum . = = = U.S. Forest Service = = = Boise National Forest was created on July 1 , 1908 from part of Sawtooth National Forest , and originally covered 1 @,@ 147 @,@ 360 acres ( 4 @,@ 643 @.@ 2 km2 ) . The U.S. President was given the authority to establish forest reserves administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior by the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 . With the passage of the Transfer Act of 1905 , forest reserves were transferred to the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the newly created U.S. Forest Service . Present @-@ day Boise National Forest was first protected as part of two forest reserves by proclamations issued by President Theodore Roosevelt : Sawtooth Forest Reserve ( created on May 29 , 1905 and expanded on November 6 , 1906 ) and Payette Forest Reserve ( created on June 3 , 1905 ) . After forest reserves were renamed national forests in 1908 , Boise National Forest was split from Sawtooth National Forest into an independent national forest . On April 1 , 1944 the entirety of what was then Payette National Forest was transferred to Boise National Forest , and simultaneously Weiser and Idaho national forests were combined to reestablish the present @-@ day Payette National Forest , which is to the north of Boise National Forest . In 1933 the Boise Basin Experimental Forest was created on 8 @,@ 740 acres ( 35 @.@ 4 km2 ) of the forest near Idaho City to study the management of ponderosa pine . The Lucky Peak Nursery was established in 1959 to produce trees for planting on burned or logged lands on the national forests of the Intermountain region . After the creation of the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) in 1933 , nine camps and eight subcamps were set up in Boise National Forest , but the number of camps was reduced from 1934 until the program was closed in 1942 . Work conducted by the CCC included fire suppression , fish habitat improvement , and construction of guard houses , fire lookouts , campgrounds , roads , and trails , among other facilities . = = Management = = Boise National Forest is managed by the U.S. Forest Service , an agency within the Department of Agriculture , as five units called ranger districts . The ranger districts are Cascade ( 400 @,@ 000 acres or 1 @,@ 600 square kilometers ) , Emmett ( 350 @,@ 000 acres or 1 @,@ 400 square kilometers ) , Idaho City ( 400 @,@ 000 acres ) , Lowman ( 400 @,@ 000 acres ) , and Mountain Home ( 650 @,@ 000 acres or 2 @,@ 600 square kilometers ) ; each has an office in their respective cities and is managed by a district ranger , while forest headquarters are located in the city of Boise . Congress proclaimed 2 @,@ 648 @,@ 273 acres ( 10 @,@ 717 @.@ 18 km2 ) of Idaho part of Boise National Forest , but the forest manages only 2 @,@ 203 @,@ 703 acres ( 8 @,@ 918 @.@ 07 km2 ) . The proclaimed boundary is set and can only be changed by Congress whereas the administered boundary can be shifted among adjacent national forests without congressional approval . For management ( and from the visitor 's perspective ) the forest 's boundaries are its administered area . = = Geography and geology = = Elevations in the forest range from 2 @,@ 800 feet ( 850 m ) in the North Fork Payette River Canyon to 9 @,@ 730 feet ( 2 @,@ 970 m ) at the top of Steel Mountain , a gain of 6 @,@ 930 feet ( 2 @,@ 110 m ) . The forest contains several subranges of the Rocky Mountains , including the Boise , Salmon River , and West mountain ranges . Much of the forest is underlain by the Idaho Batholith , and the forest is dominated by granitic rock , but intrusions of basalt can be found to the west and other volcanic rocks to the south . North of the South Fork Payette River and east of the North Fork Payette River , the forest is part of the Salmon River Mountains , which extend north and east outside the forest 's boundaries . The South Fork Salmon River Range and the North Fork Range are subranges of the Salmon River Mountains within Boise National Forest . The Boise Mountains cover much of the southern portion of the forest and contain the forest 's highest point , Steel Mountain , but the range 's highest point , Two Point Mountain , lies outside of the forest 's boundary . The Trinity Mountains are a subrange in southeastern part of the Boise Mountains that reach their peak at 9 @,@ 451 feet ( 2 @,@ 881 m ) on Trinity Mountain . The westernmost portion of the forest south and west of Lake Cascade are part of the West Mountains , which reach their highest point at 8 @,@ 320 feet ( 2 @,@ 540 m ) on Snowbank Mountain . The Danskin Mountains are a smaller range on the forest 's southern border that run northwest to southeast . = = = Waterways = = = There are an estimated 9 @,@ 600 miles ( 15 @,@ 400 km ) of perennial and intermittent streams and 15 @,@ 400 acres ( 62 km2 ) of lakes and reservoirs in the forest . The Forest Service provides access to and recreation opportunities at the seven reservoirs it borders , although it does not own or manage them . There are numerous natural lakes in the forest , most of which are tarns created by alpine glaciers during the Pleistocene . The largest , Warm Lake , is 26 miles ( 42 km ) east of Cascade in Valley County ; many of the smaller lakes are in the Trinity and West mountains . Annual water yield on the forest is estimated at 4 @.@ 1 million acre @-@ feet ( 5 @.@ 1 × 109 m3 ) . The southern portion of the forest is drained by the Boise River , the central and western portions by the Payette River , northeastern portion by the Salmon River , and far western portions of the Emmett Ranger District by the Weiser River . All four rivers are tributaries of the Snake River , which itself is a tributary of the Columbia River in the Pacific basin . = = Climate = = Daily high temperatures range from 9 to 29 ° F ( − 13 to − 2 ° C ) in winter to 80 to 90 ° F ( 27 to 32 ° C ) in summer , while lower elevations can experience conditions over 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Idaho 's mountain ranges can block Arctic air in the winter , but when cold air masses do enter the area , they sometimes stagnate in the Snake and Salmon river valleys , causing very cold temperatures to persist . Summer and fall are generally dry , while intense short @-@ duration thunderstorms can occur in late spring and early summer as atmospheric moisture interacts with warm temperatures and steep topography via orographic lifting . During winter , warm , moist air from the Pacific Ocean often brings rain at lower elevations in addition to snowfall throughout the forest . The influence of these Pacific maritime air masses increases as latitude increases in the forest . Average annual snowfall ranges from 55 inches ( 140 cm ) in drier areas and at lower elevations to 70 inches ( 180 cm ) in wetter locations and higher elevations . The growing season within the forest ranges from over 150 days in lower elevations to less than 30 days in alpine areas . = = Natural resources = = Boise National Forest is within the Idaho Batholith ecoregion , which is a level III ecoregion in the larger level I Northwestern Forested Mountains . In addition to species listed or proposed for listing as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act , the Forest Service maintains an independent listing of sensitive species for which it is directed to " develop and implement management practices to ensure that species do not become threatened or endangered because of Forest Service actions . " As of February 2013 there were 27 species in Boise National Forest listed as sensitive species : 6 mammals , 1 amphibian , 1 fish , 13 birds , and 6 plants . = = = Flora = = = An estimated 76 percent of Boise National Forest is forest , which according to the Forest Service is considered land capable of supporting trees on at least 50 percent of its area . The forests are primarily coniferous evergreens , dominated by Douglas fir and ponderosa and lodgepole pines at lower elevations and Engelmann spruce , subalpine fir , and whitebark pine at higher elevations . Grand fir and western larch ( a coniferous deciduous tree ) grow in the northern part of the forest where there are moister conditions . Quaking aspen , a broadleaf deciduous tree , grows both in stands among conifers and in monotypic stands throughout the forest at elevations above 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . Non @-@ forested areas occupy 23 percent of the forest , primarily on south @-@ facing slopes , lower elevations in the forest 's southern latitudes , or high @-@ elevation areas and are dominated by grasses , forbs , or shrubs . Sacajawea 's bitterroot is a plant species endemic to central Idaho , including parts of Boise National Forest , being found nowhere else in the world . Only about two dozen populations of the plant are known to exist , and three @-@ quarters of these are in Boise National Forest . It is usually found at elevations ranging from 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 9 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) above sea level and produces white flowers shortly after snowmelt . Boise National Forest is directed by the U.S. Forest Service to " control the establishment , spread , or invasion of non @-@ indigenous plant species in otherwise healthy native vegetative ecosystems . " The forest 's plan addresses the need to control invasive plants , and management efforts include chemical , mechanical , and biological control methods . Invasive plants that are of particular concern in Boise National Forest include spotted knapweed , yellow star @-@ thistle , rush skeletonweed , and leafy spurge , among others . = = = Vegetation communities = = = The warmest , driest forested areas occur on south @-@ facing slopes from 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) to 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) . Due to the occurrence of frequent non @-@ lethal fires , ponderosa pine dominates these forests alongside Douglas fir . The understory consists of bluebunch wheatgrass , Idaho fescue , mountain snowberry , and bitterbrush in drier areas and elk sedge , pinegrass , white spirea , mallow ninebark , and common snowberry at higher elevations . In cool , moist areas ranging from 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 6 @,@ 800 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , Douglas fir is predominant . Lodgepole pine and quaking aspen may be found alongside Douglas fir in cooler areas , both moist and dry , but particularly where frost pockets form . Understories in this forest type are dominated by mountain maple , mountain ash , and blue huckleberry in moister areas and white spirea , common snowberry , elk sedge , and pinegrass in drier areas . Between 3 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) and 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) in the moist northern parts of the forest , grand fir is predominant and western larch is one of the first trees to become established during ecological succession following disturbances , whereas understories consist of mountain maple , mountain ash , blue huckleberry , and mallow ninebark . Subalpine fir dominates from 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 7 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) along with mountain maple , serviceberry , Scouler 's willow , Sitka alder , menziesia , Utah honeysuckle , and mountain ash . Lodgepole pine dominates in cold , dry areas from 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) to 9 @,@ 200 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) . The understory in lodgepole pine forests can be sparse but includes grasses , forbs , huckleberries , and grouse whortleberry , although fires in these forests are typically lethal to trees and understories alike . At the highest elevations , forests consist of subalpine fir alongside whitebark pine and Engelmann spruce . Grasses and forbs tolerant to freezing throughout the growing season occupy the understory . Sagebrush typically dominates drier , non @-@ forested areas at lower elevations . Species that commonly occur with sagebrush include Sandberg bluegrass , wild onion , milk vetches , bluebunch wheatgrass , bitterbrush , gray horsebrush , green rabbitbrush , and others . In riparian areas below 5 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) , trees such as black cottonwood , narrowleaf cottonwood , thinleaf alder , water birch , and mountain maple grow with shrubs including chokeberry and willows . Riparian areas in largely treeless habitats such as sagebrush steppe primarily consist of willows along with thinleaf alder , chokecherry , mountain maple , shrubby cinquefoil , fireweed , saxifrage , and grasses . = = = Fauna = = = Habitats in Boise National Forest support nearly 300 terrestrial vertebrate species and 28 fish species . The most common large animals are mule deer and elk , but other mammals present include moose , black bears , pronghorn , mountain lions , coyote , bobcat , yellow @-@ bellied marmot , beaver , and gray wolves . Gray wolves are top predators that were reintroduced amidst controversy to central Idaho in the mid @-@ 1990s to restore ecosystem stability . The wolves have since expanded their range and established packs in most of Boise National Forest . Wolves and mountain lions are the forest 's top large mammal predators and have no predators of their own except humans . Most of the forest 's native mammal species are present in the forest , with the exception of grizzly bears , which have become locally extinct , and plans for their reintroduction to central Idaho have been proposed since the 1990s but have not progressed . Of the 28 fish species present in the forest , 11 are not native and have been introduced by humans . Rainbow trout , chinook salmon , westslope cutthroat trout , bull trout , and mountain whitefish are all native to some of the forest 's waterways , while brook trout are a common invasive species that compete with the forest 's salmonids . The forest 's management indicator species is bull trout because they are sensitive to habitat changes and depend on specific habitat conditions . Sockeye salmon are native to the Salmon River watershed in the northern part of the forest , but dam construction on the Columbia and Snake rivers has hampered the migration of this anadromous fish and caused its population to collapse . Warm Lake supports the forest 's only native population of Kokanee salmon , the resident ( non @-@ migratory ) form of sockeye salmon . However , due to introductions by humans , Anderson Ranch , Arrowrock , Lucky Peak , and Deadwood reservoirs now support populations of Kokanee salmon . To provide additional recreational fishing opportunities , the Idaho Department of Fish and Game stocks several of the forest 's waterways with rainbow trout , while reservoirs are also stocked with Kokanee or chinook salmon and Lake Cascade is stocked with coho salmon and steelhead , the anadromous form of rainbow trout . Over 270 bird species have been observed in central Idaho , including 36 accidental species – those that are not normally found in the region but have been observed on at least one occasion . Golden eagles and greater sage @-@ grouse can be found over sagebrush steppe , whereas bald eagles can be seen along rivers . The Forest Service has listed northern goshawks , flammulated owls , and white @-@ headed woodpeckers as a sensitive species in the forest . The few amphibians present in the forest include the Rocky Mountain tailed frog , long @-@ toed salamander , and Columbia spotted frog , which has been listed as a sensitive species . Common snakes include bullsnakes , garter snakes , and rubber boas . = = = Fire ecology = = = Boise National Forest 's 2010 forest plan recognizes that fire and other disturbances play important roles in maintaining the character and function of ecosystems . However , previous management strategies ( as recently as the 1990 forest plan ) treated fire as an undesirable process , and the Organic Act of 1897 explicitly stated that forests were to be protected from destruction by fire . In historic conditions fires naturally occurred on the landscape ; the suppression of fires allowed dead trees to accumulate in excess of historic levels and land cover types to change , such as a shift to higher shrub and tree densities . An estimated 14 percent of the land in Boise National Forest has been affected by fires since the early 1990s , and about 10 percent of the land capable of timber production was burned so severely that land cover shifted from forest to grass and shrubland ( as of 2010 ) . Between 2004 and 2013 an average of 74 @,@ 325 acres ( 300 @.@ 78 km2 ) were burned by fires per year with a maximum of 346 @,@ 500 acres ( 1 @,@ 402 km2 ) in 2007 and a minimum of 152 acres ( 0 @.@ 62 km2 ) in 2008 . For example , in 2012 there were 26 fires started by people and 109 started by lightning , which together burned a total of 152 @,@ 000 acres ( 620 km2 ) . The Trinity Ridge Fire alone burned 146 @,@ 800 acres ( 594 km2 ) over two months , although it was not confined to Boise National Forest lands . The revised 2010 forest plan recognized the need to develop plans to manage wildfires at the wildland – urban interface , use prescribed fire as a tool to manage ecosystem health , and meet air quality requirements set by the Clean Air Act . The forest operates a fire management plan under federal fire policy that gives fire personnel direction for responding to unintended ignitions . Occasionally , area closures and restrictions on use , such as prohibition of campfires , are implemented to aid in wildfire prevention . Following severe fires , area closures may be put in place to protect the public from risks such as falling trees and landslides . Proactive fire management strategies include prescribed burns and mechanical reduction of fuel levels . For instance , in 2014 Boise National Forest planned to conduct 7 @,@ 919 acres ( 32 @.@ 05 km2 ) of prescribed burns and 155 acres ( 0 @.@ 63 km2 ) of mechanical treatment . The forest seasonally maintains staff at seven fire lookout towers , while six others remain unstaffed . = = Recreation = = There are over 70 campgrounds in Boise National Forest and groups of more developed recreation facilities at the Trinity Mountains , Warm Lake , and Deadwood and Sage Hen reservoirs . As in most national forests , the majority of the land in Boise National Forest is open to dispersed camping ( outside of developed campgrounds ) . One of the forest 's fire lookouts , Deadwood Lookout , is now available as a cabin for the public to rent , among other sites . Bicycles are allowed on forest roads and on more than 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) of multiple @-@ use trails , whereas over 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of trails are open to motorized recreation . The Danskin Mountains Off @-@ Highway Vehicle Trail System contains 150 miles ( 240 km ) of motorcycle and ATV trails on 60 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 @,@ 000 ha ) of land that is generally open from April through November . The forest 's Trinity Mountain Recreation Area includes the highest drivable ( 4 @-@ wheel drive recommended ) road in Idaho , which ascends to the Trinity Mountain Lookout at an elevation of over 9 @,@ 400 feet ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) . In 2013 revenues from recreation and special use fees amounted to $ 454 @,@ 635 , while expenses totaled US $ 352 @,@ 550 ; the difference is allocated to the following season 's startup costs . = = = Waterways = = = Rivers in Boise National Forest offer the opportunity for rafting and kayaking through rapids up to class four , with the most difficult sections on the South Fork and main stems of the Payette River . Numerous developed boat launch sites provide access to rivers for whitewater enthusiasts , and Dagger Falls is the primary launching site for visitors to the Middle Fork of the Salmon River and Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness . Motorized boating is permitted on Anderson Ranch Reservoir , Deadwood Reservoir , and Warm Lake . = = = Winter activities = = = During winter , visitors to the forest can participate in activities including snowmobiling , snowshoeing , and downhill and cross @-@ country skiing . The Bogus Basin ski area is located within the forest north of Boise and has 7 chairlifts and 53 runs on 2 @,@ 600 acres ( 11 km2 ) of skiable terrain . There are 137 miles ( 220 km ) of groomed snowmobile trails in the Garden Valley system in the Emmett Ranger District and several Mongolian @-@ style yurts available for rental in winter . = = = Scenic roads = = = Boise National Forest is home to three of Idaho 's scenic byways , all of which are paved highways accessible to roadworthy vehicles . The Payette River Scenic Byway is an 80 @-@ mile ( 130 km ) route between Eagle and McCall on Idaho State Highway 55 . The route follows the Payette River between McCall and Horseshoe Bend , but the majority of the highway does not pass through Boise National Forest ; only a small portion north of Horseshoe Bend is in the Emmett Ranger District . Over half of the 35 @-@ mile ( 56 km ) Wildlife Canyon Scenic Byway , which travels between highway 55 and Lowman , passes through the forest , parallels the South Fork of the Payette River , and is signed as the Banks @-@ Lowman Road . The Ponderosa Pine Scenic Byway is a 130 @-@ mile ( 210 km ) road between Stanley and Boise following Idaho State Highway 21 . This route passes over Arrowrock Reservoir and through Idaho City and Lowman , where it connects with the Wildlife Canyon Byway . North and east of Lowman the byway partially follows the South Fork of the Payette River before ascending to the 7 @,@ 037 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 145 m ) Banner Creek Summit at the forest 's boundary with Salmon @-@ Challis National Forest .

= Pokiri = Pokiri ( English : Rogue ) is a 2006 Indian Telugu @-@ language action film , written and directed by Puri Jagannadh . The film was produced by Jagannadh and Manjula Ghattamaneni by their respective production companies Vaishno Academy and Indira Productions . The film stars Mahesh Babu and Ileana D 'Cruz ; Prakash Raj , Nassar and Sayaji Shinde appear in prominent roles . The plot revolves around the life of an undercover police officer , Krishna Manohar , who infiltrates a mafia gang headed by a Dubai @-@ based don Ali Bhai , under the pseudonym Pandu . Made on a budget of around ₹ 100 — 120 million , the film 's principal photography commenced in November 2005 and lasted until April 2006 . Most of the film was shot in and around Hyderabad and Chennai , except for a song which was shot at the province of Phuket in Thailand and the city of Bangkok . Shyam K. Naidu was the film 's cinematographer , and it was edited by Marthand K. Venkatesh . The soundtrack and background score were composed by Mani Sharma . Pokiri was released on 28 April 2006 , to positive critical feedback , and collected a distributor 's share of ₹ 420 million . The film grossed ₹ 660 million worldwide and remained the highest @-@ grossing Telugu film for three years , until it was surpassed by Magadheera in 2009 . The film was also one of the fourteen southern Indian films to be screened at the International Indian Film Academy Awards ( IIFA ) Film festival in 2006 . The film won four Nandi Awards and two Filmfare Awards . The film 's success catapulted D 'Cruz into stardom and brought recognition to Jagannadh as a writer and director . The film was remade into Tamil as Pokkiri in 2007 by Prabhu Deva with Vijay and Asin portraying the lead roles . Deva remade the film into Hindi as Wanted in 2009 with Salman Khan and Ayesha Takia portraying the lead roles . In 2010 , the film was again remade in Kannada as Porki by M. V. Sridhar with Darshan and Pranitha Subhash portraying the lead roles . = = Plot = = In Hyderabad , two rival mafia gangs headed by Dubai @-@ based don Ali Bhai , and Narayana resort to criminal activities such as extortion , murder , and coercion for various reasons . The new commissioner of police , Sayyad Mohammad Pasha Qadri , focuses on making the city a better place by working at arresting all of them . Pandu , a remorseless gangster living in Hyderabad along with his friends , is hired by Narayana and attacks Ali Bhai 's henchmen . He later joins Ali Bhai 's gang for monetary reasons . He falls in love with Shruti , an aerobics teacher , who rejects his advances . Shruti lives with her widowed mother and brother and her neighbour Brahmi , a software engineer , who pesters her to marry him . A corrupt police officer named Pasupathy , who works for Ali Bhai , is attracted to Shruti . He is determined to make her his mistress , undeterred by Shruti 's multiple rejections . After Pandu kills a henchman of Narayana , he is confronted by Pasupathy and is able to prevent Shruti from being molested . She meets him the next day to thank him , and Pandu introduces himself as a self @-@ employed person who undertakes any activity for money . They develop unspoken romantic feelings for each other angering Pasupathy . Shruti 's employer , Suryanarayana , suggests that she marry the man she loves . To repel Pasupathy 's advances , she meets Pandu and proposes to him . After an attack by Narayana 's henchmen , who are murdered by Pandu , he reveals that he is a gangster and suggests that she might want to rethink her proposal . After Shruti distances herself from Pandu , Pasupathy frames her with a mock sexual assault by a few gangsters unbeknownst to her family and the other villagers . He intends this act to ruin her life and subsequently force her to be his mistress . Learning this , Pandu confronts Pasupathy and warns him that he will face dire consequences if he is found guilty of being involved . Ali Bhai visits Hyderabad and assassinates Narayana . He meets Pandu to discuss the murder of a minister by blowing up a balloon . Pandu rejects this as it would involve killing innocents . At the same time as they are arguing , Qadri arrests Ali Bhai and tortures him . Ali Bhai 's henchmen retaliate by filming Qadri 's daughter as she is enticed into sexual activity by the minister 's son , and release it to the media . They also kidnap her , forcing the police to release Ali Bhai . At the same time , Pandu manages to catch the gangsters who pretended to rape Shruti and she reconciles with him . Qadri 's daughter is sedated and reveals that an undercover police officer , whose father 's name is Suryanarayana , had infiltrated the gang for some time . Ali Bhai kills Suryanarayana 's son Ajay , assuming he is the informant . However , Suryanarayana reveals that Ajay was his adopted son , and that Pandu is actually Krishna Manohar I. P. S. , his biological son , who had infiltrated his gang at Qadri 's direction . Suryanarayana is killed and Manohar forces Pasupathy to kill Ali Bhai before he initiates his plan to set off bombs across Hyderabad . Manohar kills Ali Bhai 's henchmen one by one at Binny Mills . Ali Bhai offers Pasupathy a hefty sum to kill Manohar but his attempt fails . In a final confrontation , Manohar kills Ali Bhai by slitting his throat . Qadri 's daughter is saved and when Pasupathy tries to backstab Manohar , he is shot dead by the latter who then says , " Okkasari commit ayitte , naa maata nene vinanu " ( English : Once I commit myself , I 'll never back off ) . = = Cast = = = = Production = = = = = Origin = = = In 2004 , after Andhrawala ' s commercial failure , its director Puri Jagannadh planned a film titled Sri Krishnudu from Surabhi Company starring Chiranjeevi in the lead role . He later decided that explaining the story to Chiranjeevi , talking him into accepting the role , and filming the movie , would be a long , tiring process . He chose instead to revive the script of Uttam Singh S / O Suryanarayana which he had written during the production of Badri ( 2000 ) . He approached Pawan Kalyan to play the lead role , but he declined it . Later , he approached Ravi Teja who agreed to play the lead ; Nagendra Babu was to produce the film . However , Teja was approached by Cheran , an award winning director , to remake the 2004 Tamil film Autograph in Telugu . Teja was eager to be involved in the remake as he liked the original very much . As a result , the production Uttam Singh S / O Suryanarayana was temporarily shelved . Jagannadh meanwhile directed and produced 143 ( 2004 ) . Teja had backed out of participating in it citing scheduling conflicts with other existing commitments . Jagannadh wanted to experiment by casting Sonu Sood in the lead role but this too failed to materialise . On 3 November 2004 , Jagannadh met Mahesh Babu at the Taj Hotel in Hyderbad to outline the film 's plot . It told the story of Uttam Singh , an undercover police officer , infiltrating a mafia gang as a criminal , with the intention of killing its kingpin . Mahesh liked the script but suggested Jagannadh tweak the script 's backdrop to suit the Telugu @-@ speaking peoples ' sensibilities . Jagannadh agreed and also replaced the existing title with Pokiri . Mahesh wanted the film 's production to begin in 2005 allowing him to complete his current commitments . While he waited for Mahesh , Jagannadh directed Akkineni Nagarjuna in Super ( 2005 ) . While reworking the script , Jagannadh took inspiration from Marana Mrudangam ( 1988 ) and State Rowdy ( 1989 ) . Pokiri was produced jointly by Jagannadh and Manjula Ghattamaneni 's production companies , Vaishno Academy and Indira Productions respectively , on a budget of ₹ 100 — 120 million . = = = Cast and crew = = = For Pokiri , Mahesh sported a longer hair style than in his previous films and shed five kilograms of weight . He used a new wardrobe and the same pair of shoes throughout the film . Jagannadh wanted to cast Ayesha Takia as the female lead . Due to a last minute change , the makers opted to replace Takia and considered several actresses including Deepika Padukone . Jagannadh approached Parvati Melton to play the female lead . She declined the offer because , at that time , her parents were against her decision to become an actress . He also approached Kangana Ranaut who could not accept the role because of scheduling conflicts with the filming of her scenes in Gangster ( 2006 ) . After seeing stills of Ileana D 'Cruz in her Telugu debut Devadasu ( 2006 ) , Jagannadh signed her as the female lead since he needed a girl who looked like a teenager to play the role of the aerobics teacher . Prakash Raj and Ashish Vidyarthi were cast as the film 's primary antagonists . Raj played a mafia kingpin and Vidyarthi played a corrupt police officer , a villain 's role he finds more fun to play than that of a hero . Sayaji Shinde and Nassar played the two other principal characters in the film . Jyothi Rana played the role of the mafia kingpin 's moll , marking her debut in Telugu cinema . Isai and Subbaraju portrayed negative roles as well , with the former also making his debut in Telugu cinema . Ali played the role of a beggar and shared screen @-@ space with Brahmanandam and Venu Madhav . Jagannadh added this trio to the film to provide situational humour . Master Bharath played the role of D 'Cruz 's brother . Mumaith Khan performed an item number in the film . Jagannadh wrote the film 's story , screenplay and dialogue with Meher Ramesh assisting him as script associate . Though having worked with Chakri many times in the past , at Mahesh 's suggestion , Jagannadh instead chose Mani Sharma to compose the film 's music . Shyam K. Naidu was the film 's cinematographer and Marthand K. Venkatesh its editor . Chinna and Krishna were the film 's art director and executive producer respectively . = = = Filming = = = Pokiri was shot predominantly in and around Hyderabad , especially in the Annapurna Studios , the aluminium factory near Gachibowli , Gayathri Hills and the Golconda Fort in 100 working days , from November 2005 to April 2006 . Most of the scenes were shot in a single take though it took time for Mahesh to adjust to Jagannadh 's style of filmmaking . Chennai @-@ based stylist Chaitanya Rao designed the costume styling for Mahesh and D 'Cruz . By late February 2006 , eighty percent of the film shoot had been completed with the film 's climax and two songs remaining . This made it Mahesh 's fastest shot Telugu film with him in the lead role . The song " Gala Gala " was shot in the province of Phuket in Thailand , and the city of Bangkok . Prior to the filming of the song " Jagadame " , Shyam K. Naidu was busy on the set of Munna ( 2007 ) and was unable to shoot it so cinematographer K. V. Guhan , who had worked on Mahesh 's Athadu ( 2005 ) , was recruited instead . The film 's climax sequences were shot in March 2006 at the defunct Binny Mills located in Chennai under the supervision of FEFSI Vijayan . He suggested that Jagannadh include a scene where Prakash Raj fails to hear anything for a while after he is hit by Mahesh during the climax sequence . Mahesh stated in an interview that he had to shoot the film 's climax and two songs continuously for thirty @-@ eight days , adding that he had to visit a hospital to be treated for shoulder pain . During the shooting of an underwater sequence , a few electrical lights were used . The electricians changed the lines , creating a short circuit which resulted in the death of one of the unit members . Mahesh had gotten out of the pool two seconds before the accident happened which he termed a " miracle " . = = Music = = The official soundtrack of Pokiri was composed by Mani Sharma , with lyrics written by Bhakarabhatla , Kandikonda and Viswa . Jagannadh wanted Sharma to compose six songs , with two duets between the lead pair , three solo numbers by the male lead , and an item number . During the shoot of Sivamani ( 2003 ) , Jagannadh listened to the song " Listen to the Falling Rain " which sounded like the song " Gala Gala Parutunna Godarila " from the Telugu film Gowri ( 1974 ) . He later came to learn that the latter song was inspired by the former , and he decided to reuse the same tune with modernised instruments and different lyrics . Sharma was accused of copying the tune of the song " Jaleo " composed by Ricky Martin for the song " Devuda " sung by Naveen . The film 's soundtrack , marketed by Aditya Music , was released on 4 April 2006 , at Hotel Viceroy in Hyderabad with Mahesh 's father Krishna attending the event as the guest of honour . Sify called the soundtrack a peppy one and chose " Gala Gala " as the pick of the album . IndiaGlitz called it a " run of the mill " album that lacks freshness . The reviewer chose " Devuda " , " Gala Gala " and " Ippatikinka " as the picks of the album , rating each 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Cinegoer rated the soundtrack 3 out of 5 stars and stated : " The first time you hear Pokiri , the sound of it is good ; it doesn 't start to grow on you after a while , but a few of the numbers are hummable and ring in your ears " , calling it a " mixed bag for Mani Sharma " . The reviewer chose " Dole Dole " and " Gala Gala " as the picks of the album , rating each 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . = = Release and reception = = Pokiri was scheduled for a worldwide release on 21 April 2006 . Due to delays in post @-@ production activities , the film 's release was postponed to 28 April 2006 , clashing with the release of Bangaram and Veerabhadra . The film received an ' A ' ( Adults only ) certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification for containing obscene sequences and excessive violence . Dil Raju 's Sri Venkateswara Creations , Mallikharjuna films and Great India films acquired the theatrical distribution rights of Nizam , Ceded and overseas regions respectively . Pokiri was one of the fourteen southern Indian films that were screened at the IIFA film festival 2006 held at the Dubai International Convention Centre in Dubai , United Arab Emirates . = = = Critical reception = = = Reviewing the film , The Hindu wrote : " An out and out action flick , one can see the director 's thirst to cash in on the audience craze for such films . Nevertheless it 's Mahesh Babu 's show all the way . " Regarding Mahesh 's performance in the film , Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu wrote : " Mahesh 's understated performance in Pokiri allows him to effortlessly reclaim the title of a star , overshadowing more questionable recent career choices " . Sify stated that Pokiri was designed as a : " mass masala extravaganza which satisfies the undemanding viewers " . The reviewer added that Mahesh 's screen presence works to the advantage of the film . Rediff stated : " Sporting a new , rugged look , ' Prince ' Mahesh Babu has stolen the show . He carries the film on his shoulders , consolidating his winning streak after last year 's Athadu . Another highlight of the film is its well @-@ choreographed action sequences ( if you can digest the violence ) , which give it a slick look . " IndiaGlitz gave a positive review stating : " In Pokiri , the hero is introduced to us a ruthless baddie , part of the huge underbelly of mafia . By the time we come to the denouement , there is much twist and turn . If you like some racy action , fun , glamour and love , then Pokiri would be your kind of film . " = = = Box office = = = According to Sify , Pokiri took an " extraordinary " opening across the globe and was able to cash in on the four @-@ day weekend holiday . Pokiri was released in a single screen , the Jayaprada theatre in Chennai , where 98 @.@ 5 % of seats were sold putting it in second place in the city 's box office chart , which Sify called an " awesome " feat . The film completed a fifty @-@ day run on 17 June 2006 , in nearly 300 centres and had earned US $ 350 @,@ 000 to become the highest grossing Telugu film in the United States . By July 2006 , the film had earned approximately ₹ 350 — 400 million and become the highest grossing Telugu film of all time . The film earned ₹ 120 million in the Nizam region alone , breaking the previous record set in the region by Indra ( 2002 ) and earned approximately ₹ 25 million at the United States box office . The film completed a 100 @-@ day run in 200 centres and a 175 @-@ day run in 63 centres . The film completed a 200 @-@ day run in 15 centres , and a 365 @-@ day run at a theatre in Kurnool , becoming the first Telugu film to do so in the last two and a half decades . The film was screened in Bhagiratha theatre , Kurnool for 500 days at the rate of four shows per day and collected a share of ₹ 6 million . In its lifetime , Pokiri grossed ₹ 660 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 420 million at the global box office . It held that position until 2009 when Magadheera pushed it to second place after its nine @-@ day run . = = = Awards = = = = = Remakes = = The film has been remade in various languages across India . The film was remade into Tamil as Pokkiri by Prabhu Deva featuring Vijay and Asin in the lead roles , and marked Deva 's debut as a director of Tamil cinema . Deva remade the film into Hindi as Wanted in 2009 featuring Salman Khan and Ayesha Takia . Wanted became the second highest grossing Hindi film of all time at that point . Pokiri was remade into Kannada as Porki in 2010 by M. D. Sridhar featuring Darshan and Pranitha Subhash in the lead roles . = = Legacy = = Pokiri 's success elevated Mahesh to super @-@ stardom and brought recognition to Jagannadh as a writer and director . The sequences featuring Brahmanandam as a software engineer , the comedy track of Ali and Brahmanandam , Mahesh asking D 'Cruz to give him upma at the railway station were acclaimed . The fashion trend of wearing doctor sleeves increased in Andhra Pradesh after Mahesh sported them and they continue to influence fashion even today . After the film 's release , many films were released subsequently that had titles bordering on cuss words including Jagannadh 's next film Desamuduru ( 2006 ) . Mahesh revealed that he became confused after the film 's success : It was such a huge hit , that if someone came to me with a script , I would approach the result of the film before approaching the character . I only wanted to act in movies that were like Pokiri , I think that was a mistake . It all got to me and I felt that I needed a break from films itself . Initially , I wanted just a seven @-@ month break . I signed Khaleja after nine months , but it just kept getting delayed and the break ended up becoming a two @-@ year @-@ long holiday . But I didn 't freak out ... I relaxed for the first time in life . Pokiri was D 'Cruz 's breakthrough film in Telugu . In June 2006 , Trade analyst Sridhar Pillai said that the Andhra Pradesh trade felt that her glamour , screen presence , and on @-@ screen chemistry with Mahesh worked to the film 's advantage . Pillai called her the " new pin @-@ up girl of Telugu cinema " . Talking about being typecast after her success in Ye Maaya Chesave ( 2010 ) as its female lead , Samantha Ruth Prabhu cited the example of D 'Cruz being typecast in similar roles after the success of Pokiri saying that it had become mandatory for her to wear a bikini in every film since . Pokiri was parodied by several films . In Desamuduru , the character Gudumba Shankar , a saint played by Ali , is seen imitating Mahesh 's mannerism from the song " Dole Dole " . Brahmanandam 's introduction scene in the film Jalsa ( 2008 ) is a spoof of Mahesh 's introduction as a police in Pokiri . The same sequence was spoofed in the films Sudigadu ( 2012 ) where the protagonist is named Shiva Manohar I. P. S. , and also in Race Gurram ( 2014 ) . In Dookudu ( 2011 ) , Mahesh is briefly seen as a film director who makes Prithviraj and M. S. Narayana recite the dialogue " Evvadu Kodithe Dimma Thirigi mind block aipodhdho , vaade Pandugaadu " from Pokiri . The protagonist in Eega ( 2012 ) , a fly , imitates Mahesh 's mannerisms from the song " Jagadame " after injuring the antagonist played by Sudeep .

= 2008 Bahrain Grand Prix = The 2008 Bahrain Grand Prix ( formally the V Gulf Air Bahrain Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 6 April 2008 at the Bahrain International Circuit , in Sakhir , Bahrain . It was the third race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 57 @-@ lap race was won by Felipe Massa for the Ferrari team . Kimi Räikkönen was second in the other Ferrari , and BMW Sauber driver Robert Kubica was third . The race began with Kubica in pole position alongside Massa ; Lewis Hamilton , the eventual Drivers ' Champion , started from third , alongside Räikkönen . Kubica was passed by Massa into the first corner , and then by Räikkönen on the third lap . The Ferraris dominated at the front of the race , leading to their one @-@ two finish . Hamilton had a slow start after almost stalling on the grid , and dropped back to ninth . The McLaren driver ran into the back of Fernando Alonso 's Renault a lap later , breaking off the McLaren 's front wing and dropping Hamilton to the back of the field . Kubica 's strong finish promoted BMW Sauber to the lead in the Constructors ' Championship , after BMW driver Nick Heidfeld finished fourth . Ferrari and McLaren trailed , one and two points behind , respectively . Räikkönen took the lead in the Drivers ' Championship , with 19 points , three points ahead of Heidfeld and five ahead of Hamilton , Kubica and Kovalainen , with 15 races remaining in the season . = = Report = = = = = Background = = = The Grand Prix was contested by 22 drivers , in 11 teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , McLaren @-@ Mercedes , Renault , Honda , Force India , BMW Sauber , Toyota , Red Bull Racing , Williams , Toro Rosso and Super Aguri . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre compounds to the race ; the softer of the two marked by a single white stripe down one of the grooves . Prior to the race , McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers ' Championship with 14 points , and Ferrari driver Kimi Räikkönen was second with 11 points . Behind Hamilton and Räikkönen in the Drivers ' Championship , Nick Heidfeld was third , also with 11 points , in a BMW Sauber , and Hamilton 's McLaren teammate Heikki Kovalainen was fourth with 10 points . Heidfeld 's teammate Robert Kubica was fifth with eight points . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren – Mercedes were leading with 24 points , five points ahead of BMW Sauber . Ferrari were third with 11 points . Ferrari dominated the previous round in Malaysia , where Felipe Massa had claimed pole position , and led his teammate Räikkönen in second place through the opening stages of the race , before spinning off and retiring midway through . Räikkönen went on to win the race , and expressed his optimism about Bahrain : " I have finished third in three successive Grands Prix in Bahrain . Time and again something has gone wrong . Sakhir is one of those circuits where I really want to win . Finally . " In the opening two races , Massa came under fire from the press for two errors that left him without points : a collision with Red Bull driver David Coulthard in Australia and his spin at Malaysia . Massa promised that the first two races would not be indicative of the rest of the season : " It was not the start to the season that I wanted , but there are still 16 races to go and 160 points up for grabs . In the next few races I plan to get back all the points I have lost in the opening two rounds . " Hamilton won the opening race in Australia , but managed to finish only fifth after a qualifying penalty and a botched pit stop in Malaysia . The season began well for Kubica , as he qualified second in Australia and finished second in Malaysia . Kubica predicted his team could maintain their momentum into the third race : " I 'm confident that we can be very competitive here as well . " A week before the start of the Grand Prix weekend , the News of the World alleged that Max Mosley , the president of Formula One 's governing body , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , had engaged in sexual acts with five prostitutes . While Mosley denied the allegations , he cancelled his scheduled appearance at the Bahrain Grand Prix . Several teams condemned Mosley 's alleged actions and asked for his resignation , and while for a time the controversy threatened to overshadow the race , Mosley eventually retained his position and successfully sued the News of the World for the report . = = = Practice and qualifying = = = Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and a third on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . The Ferraris outpaced the other teams in the first session on a dusty track surrounded by the sand dune desert of Sakhir . Massa 's time of 1 : 32 @.@ 233 was quicker than Räikkönen 's , who was slowed down by an early excursion across the sand , requiring a pit stop . Nico Rosberg of Williams , Hamilton , McLaren driver Heikki Kovalainen , Williams driver Kazuki Nakajima and Kubica rounded out the top seven . In the second session , Hamilton lost control of his car and slid sideways into a wall . Hamilton emerged unharmed from the collision , but his McLaren suffered significant damage . Except for the crash , the second session ended like the first : once again , Massa led Räikkönen to Ferrari one @-@ two , ahead of Kovalainen , Hamilton and Kubica . The third session was again held on a dusty track , where Rosberg was quickest with a time of 1 : 32 @.@ 521 . Massa took second , ahead of Red Bull driver Mark Webber , Toyota driver Jarno Trulli , David Coulthard of Red Bull , Nakajima and Kubica . Räikkönen was ninth quickest , and Hamilton 18th . The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for 20 minutes , and cars that finished the session 17th position or lower were eliminated from qualifying . The second part of the qualifying session lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 16 . The final part of the qualifying session determined the positions from first to tenth , and decided pole position . Cars which failed to make the final session could refuel before the race , so ran lighter in those sessions . Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race , and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions . Kubica clinched the first pole position of his career with a time of 1 : 33 @.@ 096 . Massa qualified less than 0 @.@ 03 seconds behind the BMW and joined Kubica on the front row of the grid . Hamilton took third place , using his team 's spare chassis ; Räikkönen was next quickest , and despite being critical of his car 's set @-@ up was confident in its racing ability . Kovalainen would line up fifth on the grid alongside Heidfeld , who had trouble maximising performance from his tyres . Trulli took seventh place , ahead of Rosberg and Honda driver Jenson Button . Renault driver Fernando Alonso was the last driver to make the third session ; Webber missed out on the top ten by 0 @.@ 009 seconds and would start the race in 11th position . Button 's teammate Rubens Barrichello took 12th place after a gearbox problem interrupted his second session laps , ahead of Timo Glock of Toyota , Nelson Piquet of Renault and Toro Rosso driver Sébastien Bourdais . Nakajima was the slowest of the second session drivers , and took 16th . Coulthard qualified 17th , ahead of Giancarlo Fisichella of Force India . Toro Rosso driver Sebastian Vettel took 19th , and blamed his set @-@ up : " I felt it was more a case of the car driving me than me driving the car . " Fisichella 's teammate Adrian Sutil qualified 20th , ahead of Anthony Davidson of Super Aguri . Davidson 's teammate Takuma Sato spun out and crashed into the barriers . Sato 's accident damaged his rear wing and suspension and left him unable to continue in the session . = = = Race = = = The weather and conditions on the grid were before dry for the race . The air temperature was 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) with signs of a breeze which could blow sand onto the track and impede the cars ' grip . Massa got the best start of the frontrunners off the line , as he passed Kubica into the first corner to take the lead . Hamilton 's poor start caused his anti @-@ stall system to kick in , and he was passed by six drivers to fall back to ninth . Räikkönen benefited from Hamilton 's start by moving up to third , ahead of Kovalainen , Trulli and Heidfeld . As Massa extended his lead at the front of the race , Hamilton , who trailed Alonso , collided with the back of the Renault , knocking the McLaren 's front wing off the car . Suffering handling difficulties , Hamilton returned to the pit @-@ lane for a new nose section , and rejoined in 18th place . Räikkönen took second place when he passed Kubica on lap three ; Heidfeld took fourth when he passed Trulli and Kovalainen in separate manoeuvres . Further down the field , Vettel retired from the race on the first lap after twice colliding with other cars ; Button , Sutil and Coulthard pitted to repair early damage . By lap 10 , Massa had opened his lead over Räikkönen to 4 @.@ 4 seconds , ahead of Kubica , Heidfeld , Kovalainen and Trulli . Kubica was the first of the frontrunners to pit , on lap 17 . Räikkönen and Trulli followed on lap 20 ; Massa pitted from the lead one lap later . Following the first round of pit stops , the gap between the Ferraris was 5 @.@ 4 seconds , however by lap 31 Räikkönen had closed to within four seconds of his teammate . Massa held a 3 @.@ 6 second lead over Räikkönen when the two Ferraris pitted for the final time on laps 39 and 38 , respectively , and Massa retained his lead into the final stint . Kubica pitted on lap 41 , Heidfeld on lap 45 , and Kovalainen on lap 47 . Coulthard and Button collided on lap 18 when Button attempted to pass the Red Bull on the inside at turn eight ; the Honda lost its front wing and retired a lap later after two pit stops . Hamilton continued his climb back through the field ; he moved from 18th , passing Piquet , Davidson , Sutil and Bourdais in separate manoeuvres , to sit in 14th by the time he pitted on lap 31 . Piquet retired on lap 42 with transmission failure , requiring a gearbox change before the next race . Massa took his first win of the season when he crossed the line at the end of the 57th lap , 3 @.@ 3 seconds ahead of the second @-@ placed Räikkönen . Kubica took third , ahead of his teammate Heidfeld , and Kovalainen , who set the fastest lap of the race on lap 49 , with a time of 1 : 33 @.@ 193 , despite being slower than the frontrunners for much of the race . Trulli , Webber , Glock and Alonso rounded out the top ten , after Glock 's Toyota held off a quick Alonso late in the race . Barrichello and Fisichella finished strongly , ahead of Hamilton , who managed only 13th . Nakajima , Bourdais , Davidson and Sato took the next four places ; Coulthard and Sutil finished last on track after their respective crashes demoted them to the back of the field . Vettel , Button and Piquet were the three retirements from the race . = = = Post @-@ race = = = The top three finishers appeared on the podium and in the subsequent press conference , where Massa appeared relieved : " For sure the race was pretty difficult because I didn 't want to make any mistakes . I didn 't push as much either , just tried to bring the car home and just controlling the pace as well . " Massa said that he struggled with grip early , owing to oil in the middle sector of the course . Räikkönen 's second place promoted him to the lead in the Drivers ' Championship , and he expressed his optimism about future races : The whole weekend has been pretty difficult , one of those things when we cannot really get the car right ... We are leading the Championship which is the main thing and we know that we have the speed once we get everything right . The race was quite difficult but anyhow I am happy with second . Kubica said that his poor start was due to wheelspin off the line , and the presence of oil on the track impeded the performance of his car , leading to Räikkönen 's pass : " But anyway I think it was a good result : third and fourth for the team and leading the Constructors ' Championship , so it was good weekend . " Hamilton accepted responsibility for his near stall on the grid : " I hadn 't hit the switch early enough and therefore we were not in the launch map and went straight into anti @-@ stall , and when everyone else was in their launch mode , I wasn 't . " Renault dismissed suggestions that Alonso had brake tested Hamilton in the incident that led to the McLaren 's wing breaking off . Pat Symonds , Renault 's head of engineering , said his team 's telemetry indicated Alonso was on full throttle down the straight , and had not touched the brakes : " I think all I can say from our side is that there is no blame attributable to Fernando , which is what some of the speculation might be . " McLaren F1 CEO Martin Whitmarsh said that Hamilton 's front wing had broken seconds before the impact , and that the resulting downforce reduction had sucked Hamilton into Alonso 's slipstream faster than expected . However , photos indicate that the front wing on the McLaren could have broken even earlier when Hamilton nudged a car ( believed to be Alonso ) on the opening lap . The later incident left Alonso with damage to the back of the car , impairing his attempts to pass Glock late in the race . Räikkönen 's second @-@ placed finish gave him a three @-@ point lead over Heidfeld in the Drivers ' Championship , with 19 points , ahead of Hamilton , Kubica and Kovalainen , each with 14 points . BMW Sauber 's strong performance gave them the lead in the Constructors ' Championship , with 30 points , ahead of Ferrari with 29 points and McLaren with 28 points . = = Classification = = = = = Qualifying = = = = = = Race = = = = = Championship standings after the race = = Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .

= Kalyanasundara = Kalyanasundara ( कल ् याणसुन ् दर , literally " beautiful marriage " ) , also spelt as Kalyansundar and Kalyana Sundara , and known as Kalyanasundara @-@ murti ( " icon of the beautiful marriage " ) , Vaivahika @-@ murti ( वैवाहिक @-@ मूर ् ति , " nuptial icon " ) and Panigrahana @-@ murti ( पाणिंग ् रहण @-@ मूर ् ति ) ( " icon related to panigrahana ritual " ) , is the iconographical depiction of the wedding of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati . The couple are often depicted performing the panigrahana ( " accepting the hand " ) ritual of a Hindu wedding , where the groom accepts the bride by taking her right hand in his . The couple , depicted in the centre , are accompanied by a host of divinities and other celestial beings . The god Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi are often pictured as giving away the bride to Shiva . The god Brahma is shown as the officiating priest . The Kalyanasundara icon is not the object of popular worship and is usually used only in the celebrations of the divine marriage in annual temple festivals . However , Kalyanasundara scenes are found across India in caves , sculptures and on temple walls . = = Legend = = Various Hindu scriptures narrate the story of the union of Shiva and Parvati , with some variation . After the death of his first wife Sati , Shiva withdrew from society and engrossed himself in deep mediation . Taking advantage of the situation , the asura ( demon ) king Tarakasura secured from the god Brahma the boon that he could be killed only by the son of Shiva . Believing himself effectively immortal , Tarakasura terrorized the beings of the universe and defeated the gods . Meanwhile , Parvati , the reincarnation of Sati , was born to Himavan , the god of the Himalayas and his wife the apsara Mena . She underwent severe austerities to compel Shiva to marry her . The gods , desperate to hasten the birth of Shiva 's son , sent Kamadeva , the god of love , to disturb Shiva 's meditation . Though Shiva was awakened , Kamadeva was burnt up by Shiva 's fury . Implored by the other gods to marry , Shiva agreed , but decided to test Parvati 's devotion first . The Saptarishi ( the seven sages ) approached Parvati and mocked Shiva to dissuade her ; however Parvati remained resolute . Then Shiva himself , disguised as an old ascetic , visited Parvati and vilified himself in her presence . As an angry Parvati was about to leave , Shiva revealed his true form to her and promised to marry her , pleased with her love and devotion . The couple married and produced a son , Kartikeya , who subsequently slew Tarakasura . = = Iconography = = = = = Textual descriptions = = = The Agamic texts like the Amsumadbhedagama , the Uttara @-@ kamaikagama and the Purva @-@ Karanagama prescribe the iconography of the Kalyanasunadara icon . A young four @-@ armed Shiva and a beautiful two @-@ armed Parvati should be the central figures , performing the panigrahana ( " accepting the hand " ) ritual of a Hindu wedding , where the groom accepts the bride by taking her right hand in his . Shiva stands in tribhanga posture , with one of his legs straight and firmly on the ground and the other one slightly bent . Shiva wears a jata @-@ mukuta ( a headdress formed of piled , matted hair ) on his head , adorned with a crescent moon . He wears serpents as earrings , as a waist band and as a necklace . Various gold ornaments adorn his body . His back hands carry a parashu ( axe ) and a mriga ( deer ) . His front left hand makes the varada mudra ( " blessing @-@ giving gesture " ) and his front right hand is stretched ahead to receive the hand of the bride . A dark @-@ complexioned Parvati , adorned in silk and gold finery , stands to the left of Shiva , blushing with her head bent slightly as she extends her right arm to hold Shiva 's right hand . She holds a nilotpala ( blue lotus ) in her left arm . The god Vishnu and his consorts Lakshmi and Bhudevi should be represented as taking the place of Parvati 's parents in the ceremony . The four @-@ armed Vishnu should be shown in the background in between Shiva and Parvati ; in one of his front hands is a golden pot from which he pours water over the hands of the couple , symbolizing giving away the bride to the groom . He holds his usual attributes , the sudarshana chakra ( discus ) and a shankha ( conch ) , in his back arms . Vishnu 's wives , dressed in royal finery , stand behind Parvati and hold her waist , symbolizing the handing over . The four @-@ headed god Brahma should be shown seated on the ground in the foreground officiating as the wedding priest and making offerings to the homa ( sacred fire ) in the kunda ( fire @-@ altar ) . The four @-@ armed god holds a sruka and sruva ( sacrificial ladle and spoon ) in his front arms and a kamandalu ( water @-@ pot ) and akshamala ( rosary ) in his back arms . The presence of the fire also indicates another important ritual of the Hindu wedding , saptapadi ( " seven steps " ) where the bride and groom go around the fire seven times . The figure of Shiva should be tallest , followed by that of Vishnu , Parvati and Vishnu 's wives . Various deities like the eight guardians of the directions , the eight Vasus , the seven Matrika goddesses , celestial beings such as Yakshas and Gandharvas , sages and siddhas may be depicted standing with folded arms in the background . = = = Depictions = = = The complete scene of the wedding is not always depicted . Sometimes , only the principal participants are shown . Chola bronzes featuring only Shiva and Parvati as described in the wedding scene are found . South Indian sculptures , like those from Madurai , feature only the couple and Vishnu . In this configuration , Parvati is depicted in the centre with Vishnu on the left giving away her hand to Shiva on the right . Sometimes as in the Elephanta Caves , Parvati 's biological father Himavan , instead of Vishnu , is depicted giving away his daughter to Shiva . Other deviations from the texts may appear in the attributes held by the divine couple . Parvati may hold a mirror , instead of the lotus . Shiva may be shown holding the trishula ( trident ) and damaru ( drum ) in his back hands . Regional variations in iconography may also occur . In Bengal , Shiva holds a karttari ( knife ) , the ceremonial weapon that a Hindu groom from Bengal is expected to carry in a wedding . Various wedding guests are depicted in the scene . Shiva 's attendant ganas enjoy the festivities ; playing drums or dancing . The vahanas ( vehicles ) of the couple , Shiva 's bull Nandi and Parvati 's lion , are sometimes pictured in the scene . In vertical panel depictions , the celestial guests are often shown flying over Shiva and Parvati . While the gods are pictured flying on their respective vahanas ( e.g. Indra on his elephant , Agni on a ram ) and with their consorts ; semi @-@ divine beings like Vidyadharas fly without vehicles . An anachronism found in a few Kalyanasundara scenes is the presence of the yet @-@ unborn children of Shiva and Parvati , Ganesha and Kartikkeya . Examples of this anachronism are found at the Rameshvara Cave of Ellora , and in a 9th @-@ century sculpture from Uttar Pradesh now housed in Los Angeles County Museum of Art . = = Worship = = Though Kalyanasundara icons are found across India in caves , sculptures and temple walls , no sect is centred on their worship . The icon is a popular feature on temple gopurams ( temple towers ) . In South Indian Shiva temples like those in Tiruvenkadu and Chidambaram , the bronze Kalyanasundara images of Shiva and Parvati are used in annual temple festivals to commemorate the divine union . Special halls are reserved for the annual ceremonial wedding of the deities . The Kalyanasundara bronzes are used only in this festival and kept unused the rest of the year . At the Meenakshi Amman Temple , women worship the Kalyanasundara sculpture to find husbands . Kalyanasundara is worshipped in Thirumanancheri as god of Marriages . The idols of Lord shiva in the form of Kalyanasundara and Parvathi is worshipped by the unmarried men and women for early marriage . There are also people who have completed the marriages come here to complete rituals .

= SS El Sol = SS El Sol was a cargo ship built in 1910 for the Morgan Line , a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Company . During World War I , she was known as USAT El Sol in service with the United States Army and as USS El Sol ( ID @-@ 4505 ) in service with the United States Navy . At the end of war , she reverted to her original name of SS El Sol . SS El Sol was one of four sister ships that carried cargo and a limited number of passengers for the Morgan Line . She was acquired by the U.S. Army after the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , and converted to carry horses and mules to France . In August 1918 , the ship was transferred to the U.S. Navy and continued transporting animals through the end of the war . El Sol returned to the Morgan Line in 1919 and sailed with them until March 1927 , when she sank in New York Harbor after colliding with Sac City of the American Diamond Line . A portion of the ship 's cargo was salvaged but the ship was scrapped later in the year . = = Early career = = SS El Sol was a cargo and passenger steamship launched on 11 May 1910 by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. of Newport News , Virginia ( yard no . 130 ) , and delivered to the Atlantic division of the Morgan Line on 20 August 1910 . She was the first of four sister ships ; the other three being El Mundo , El Oriente , and El Occidente . El Sol was 6 @,@ 008 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was 430 feet 1 inch ( 131 @.@ 09 m ) long by 53 feet 1 inch ( 16 @.@ 18 m ) abeam , and made 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) . The vessel sailed for the Morgan Line , the brand name of the Southern Pacific Steamship Company ( a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Railroad ) , which employed her to carry cargo and a limited number of passengers between New York ; New Orleans , the eastern terminus of the Southern Pacific line ; and Galveston , Texas . = = World War I = = After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , El Sol was requisitioned by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) on behalf of the United States Army , who designated her as an animal transport ship . Although there is no information about the specific conversion of El Sol , for other ships this typically meant that any second- or third @-@ class passenger accommodations had to be ripped out and replaced with ramps and stalls for the horses and mules carried . Sources do not reveal all of El Sol 's movements , but it is known that she departed on her second trip to France from Newport News on 10 February 1918 . Carrying 650 animals , El Sol headed to New York to join in a convoy with fellow Army transport Pastores , and U.S. Navy troop transports Covington , DeKalb , Manchuria , George Washington , President Grant , and Susquehanna . The convoy was escorted by Huntington when it departed from New York on 18 February , and arrived at Saint @-@ Nazaire on 4 March . Ten animals on board El Sol died or were destroyed during the crossing . The next recorded activity of El Sol was on 3 August , when she was transferred from the Army to the U.S. Navy and commissioned the same day with Lieutenant Commander G. Anderson , USNRF , in command . El Sol was assigned to the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) and continued to carry animals and supplies for the U.S. Army . By August , each animal transport ship had a transport veterinarian and a permanent veterinary detachment to care for the animals while on board the ship . El Sol had also been joined by two of her sister ships , El Oriente and El Occidente in animal transport duty . She next departed Newport News on 23 August 1918 with 520 horses and mules on board . Upon arrival at Saint @-@ Nazaire on 19 September , El Sol delivered her complete load of animals ; none had died during the passage . After returning to the U.S. , El Sol departed again on 30 October with another 620 animals on board . Docking in Bordeaux on 13 November — two days after the Armistice — she again delivered her full load of animals . El Sol made two more roundtrips for the NOTS over the next five months . While returning to the United States from her last NOTS sailing in late March 1919 , El Sol responded to distress calls from Scranton , a Navy troop transport which had a damaged rudder and was disabled . El Sol came to the aid of the stricken ship , which was 900 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km ) east of New York , to attempt to take her under tow . During the day on 28 March , Scranton attempted to run a towline to El Sol by sending a launch in the rolling seas , but it capsized , killing three men . Ultimately , El Sol stood by Scranton for over 40 hours until minesweeper Penguin arrived and took Scranton under tow . At the conclusion of her last NOTS voyage on 3 April , El Sol was converted to a troop transport and assigned to the Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force on 15 April . El Sol returned 2 @,@ 714 healthy and wounded American servicemen from France in two voyages . Decommissioned on 18 September , El Sol was returned to the Morgan Line soon after . = = Postwar civilian service = = El Sol resumed cargo service with the Morgan Line , where she had 8 years of uneventful operation . On 11 March 1927 , however , El Sol was inbound to New York with a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cargo of pig iron , copper , and bales of cotton . When a heavy fog settled over New York Harbor , Captain Charles H. Knowles ordered his ship to anchor until the fog cleared . As El Sol was being maneuvered into position at about 07 : 45 , the American Diamond Line ship Sac City hit a glancing blow to El Sol , bounced off and then struck El Sol a second time , ripping through El Sol 's plating . Sac City 's bow had some slight damage , but El Sol sank quickly in about 60 feet ( 18 m ) of water about a half @-@ mile ( 800 m ) south of the Statue of Liberty . Out of El Sol 's crew of 45 men , 44 were rescued ; the ship 's carpenter , who could not swim , was last seen clutching the ship 's rail as it went below the surface . El Sol settled on the bottom at a 45 ° angle with only the tops of her masts protruding above the surface ; the Morgan Line house flag — a blue house flag with a red M inside a white star — still fluttered in the breeze . Even though the sunken vessel was not considered a hazard to navigation , in another fog two days later a Staten Island Ferryboat nearly hit El Sol 's wreck . In a hearings before the United States Steamboat Inspection Service , Captain Knowles of El Sol and the captain of Sac City were both cleared of wrongdoing in the collision , and the blame was laid on the heavy fog . On 31 July , The New York Times reported on the cargo salvage operations still underway on the wreck of El Sol . In three months of continuous operations , the salvage company reported that about 35 % of the sunken ship 's cargo had been recovered . The hulk of El Sol was scrapped later in 1927 .

= Hoover Dam = Hoover Dam , once known as Boulder Dam , is a concrete arch @-@ gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River , on the border between the U.S. states of Nevada and Arizona . It was constructed between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression and was dedicated on September 30 , 1935 , by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Its construction was the result of a massive effort involving thousands of workers , and cost over one hundred lives . The dam was controversially named after President Herbert Hoover . Since about 1900 , the Black Canyon and nearby Boulder Canyon had been investigated for their potential to support a dam that would control floods , provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power . In 1928 , Congress authorized the project . The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies , Inc . , which began construction on the dam in early 1931 . Such a large concrete structure had never been built before , and some of the techniques were unproven . The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties . Nevertheless , Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on March 1 , 1936 , more than two years ahead of schedule . Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead , the largest reservoir in the United States by volume . The dam is located near Boulder City , Nevada , a municipality originally constructed for workers on the construction project , about 30 mi ( 48 km ) southeast of Las Vegas , Nevada . The dam 's generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada , Arizona , and California . Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction ; nearly a million people tour the dam each year . The heavily travelled U.S. 93 ran along the dam 's crest until October 2010 , when the Hoover Dam Bypass opened . = = Background = = = = = Search for resources = = = As the United States developed the Southwest , the Colorado River was seen as a potential source of irrigation water . An initial attempt at diverting the river for irrigation purposes occurred in the late 1890s , when land speculator William Beatty built the Alamo Canal just north of the Mexican border ; the canal dipped into Mexico before running to a desolate area Beatty named the Imperial Valley . Though water from the Imperial Canal allowed for the widespread settlement of the valley , the canal proved expensive to maintain . After a catastrophic breach that caused the Colorado River to fill the Salton Sea , the Southern Pacific Railroad spent $ 3 million in 1906 – 07 to stabilize the waterway , an amount it hoped vainly would be reimbursed by the Federal Government . Even after the waterway was stabilized , it proved unsatisfactory because of constant disputes with landowners on the Mexican side of the border . As the technology of electric power transmission improved , the Lower Colorado was considered for its hydroelectric @-@ power potential . In 1902 , the Edison Electric Company of Los Angeles surveyed the river in the hope of building a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) rock dam which could generate 10 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . However , at the time , the limit of transmission of electric power was 80 miles ( 130 km ) , and there were few customers ( mostly mines ) within that limit . Edison allowed land options it held on the river to lapse — including an option for what became the site of Hoover Dam . In the following years , the Bureau of Reclamation ( BOR ) , known as the Reclamation Service at the time , also considered the Lower Colorado as the site for a dam . Service chief Arthur Powell Davis proposed using dynamite to collapse the walls of Boulder Canyon , 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of the eventual dam site , into the river . The river would carry off the smaller pieces of debris , and a dam would be built incorporating the remaining rubble . In 1922 , after considering it for several years , the Reclamation Service finally rejected the proposal , citing doubts about the unproven technique and questions as to whether it would in fact save money . = = = Planning and agreements = = = In 1922 , the Reclamation Service presented a report calling for the development of a dam on the Colorado River for flood control and electric power generation . The report was principally authored by Davis , and was called the Fall @-@ Davis report after Interior Secretary Albert Fall . The Fall @-@ Davis report cited use of the Colorado River as a federal concern , because the river 's basin covered several states , and the river eventually entered Mexico . Though the Fall @-@ Davis report called for a dam " at or near Boulder Canyon " , the Reclamation Service ( which was renamed the Bureau of Reclamation the following year ) found that canyon unsuitable . One potential site at Boulder Canyon was bisected by a geologic fault ; two others were so narrow there was no space for a construction camp at the bottom of the canyon or for a spillway . The Service investigated Black Canyon and found it ideal ; a railway could be laid from the railhead in Las Vegas to the top of the dam site . Despite the site change , the dam project was referred to as the " Boulder Canyon Project " . With little guidance on water allocation from the Supreme Court , proponents of the dam feared endless litigation . A Colorado attorney proposed that the seven states which fell within the river 's basin ( California , Nevada , Arizona , Utah , New Mexico , Colorado and Wyoming ) form an interstate compact , with the approval of Congress . Such compacts were authorized by Article I of the United States Constitution but had never been concluded among more than two states . In 1922 , representatives of seven states met with then @-@ Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover . Initial talks produced no result , but when the Supreme Court handed down the Wyoming v. Colorado decision undermining the claims of the upstream states , they became anxious to reach an agreement . The resulting Colorado River Compact was signed on November 24 , 1922 . Legislation to authorize the dam was introduced repeatedly by Representative Phil Swing ( R @-@ Calif . ) and Senator Hiram Johnson ( R @-@ Calif . ) , but representatives from other parts of the country considered the project as hugely expensive and one that would mostly benefit California . The 1927 Mississippi flood made Midwestern and Southern congressmen and senators more sympathetic toward the dam project . On March 12 , 1928 , the failure of the St. Francis Dam , constructed by the city of Los Angeles , caused a disastrous flood that killed up to 600 people . As that dam was a curved @-@ gravity type , similar in design to the arch @-@ gravity as was proposed for the Black Canyon dam , opponents claimed that the Black Canyon dam 's safety could not be guaranteed . Congress authorized a board of engineers to review plans for the proposed dam . The Colorado River Board found the project feasible , but warned that should the dam fail , every downstream Colorado River community would be destroyed , and that the river might change course and empty into the Salton Sea . The Board cautioned : " To avoid such possibilities , the proposed dam should be constructed on conservative if not ultra @-@ conservative lines . " On December 21 , 1928 President Coolidge signed the bill authorizing the dam . The Boulder Canyon Project Act appropriated $ 165 million for the Hoover Dam along with the downstream Imperial Dam and All @-@ American Canal , a replacement for Beatty 's canal entirely on the U.S. side of the border . It also permitted the compact to go into effect when at least six of the seven states approved it . This occurred on March 6 , 1929 with Utah 's ratification ; Arizona did not approve it until 1944 . = = = Design , preparation and contracting = = = Even before Congress approved the Boulder Canyon Project , the Bureau of Reclamation was considering what kind of dam should be used . Officials eventually decided on a massive concrete arch @-@ gravity dam , the design of which was overseen by the Bureau 's chief design engineer John L. Savage . The monolithic dam would be thick at the bottom and thin near the top , and would present a convex face towards the water above the dam . The curving arch of the dam would transmit the water 's force into the abutments , in this case the rock walls of the canyon . The wedge @-@ shaped dam would be 660 ft ( 200 m ) thick at the bottom , narrowing to 45 ft ( 14 m ) at the top , leaving room for a highway connecting Nevada and Arizona . On January 10 , 1931 , the Bureau made the bid documents available to interested parties , at five dollars a copy . The government was to provide the materials ; but the contractor was to prepare the site and build the dam . The dam was described in minute detail , covering 100 pages of text and 76 drawings . A $ 2 million bid bond was to accompany each bid ; the winner would have to post a $ 5 million performance bond . The contractor had seven years to build the dam , or penalties would ensue . The Wattis Brothers , heads of the Utah Construction Company , were interested in bidding on the project , but lacked the money for the performance bond . They lacked sufficient resources even in combination with their longtime partners , Morrison @-@ Knudsen , which employed the nation 's leading dam builder , Frank Crowe . They formed a joint venture to bid for the project with Pacific Bridge Company of Portland , Oregon ; Henry J. Kaiser & W. A. Bechtel Company of San Francisco ; MacDonald & Kahn Ltd. of Los Angeles ; and the J.F. Shea Company of Portland , Oregon . The joint venture was called Six Companies , Inc. as Bechtel and Kaiser were considered one company for purposes of 6 in the name . The name was descriptive and was an inside joke among the San Franciscans in the bid , where " Six Companies " was also a Chinese benevolent association in the city . There were three valid bids , and Six Companies ' bid of $ 48 @,@ 890 @,@ 955 was the lowest , within $ 24 @,@ 000 of the confidential government estimate of what the dam would cost to build , and five million dollars less than the next @-@ lowest bid . The city of Las Vegas had lobbied hard to be the headquarters for the dam construction , closing its many speakeasies when the decision maker , Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur came to town . Instead , Wilbur announced in early 1930 that a model city was to be built in the desert near the dam site . This town became known as Boulder City , Nevada . Construction of a rail line joining Las Vegas and the dam site began in September 1930 . = = Construction = = = = = Labor force = = = Soon after the dam was authorized , increasing numbers of unemployed people converged on southern Nevada . Las Vegas , then a small city of some 5 @,@ 000 , saw between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 unemployed descend on it . A government camp was established for surveyors and other personnel near the dam site ; this soon became surrounded by a squatters ' camp . Known as McKeeversville , the camp was home to men hoping for work on the project , together with their families . Another camp , on the flats along the Colorado River , was officially called Williamsville , but was known to its inhabitants as " Ragtown " . When construction began , Six Companies hired large numbers of workers , with more than 3 @,@ 000 on the payroll by 1932 and with employment peaking at 5 @,@ 251 in July 1934 . " Mongolian " ( Chinese ) labor was prevented by the construction contract , while the number of blacks employed by Six Companies never exceeded thirty , mostly lowest @-@ pay @-@ scale laborers in a segregated crew , who were issued separate water buckets . As part of the contract , Six Companies , Inc. was to build Boulder City to house the workers . The original timetable called for Boulder City to be built before the dam project began , but President Hoover ordered work on the dam to begin in March 1931 rather than in October . The company built bunkhouses , attached to the canyon wall , to house 480 single men at what became known as River Camp . Workers with families were left to provide their own accommodations until Boulder City could be completed , and many lived in Ragtown . The site of Hoover Dam endures extremely hot weather , and the summer of 1931 was especially torrid , with the daytime high averaging 119 @.@ 9 ° F ( 48 @.@ 8 ° C ) . Sixteen workers and other riverbank residents died of heat prostration between June 25 and July 26 , 1931 . The Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW or " Wobblies " ) , though much @-@ reduced from their heyday as militant labor organizers in the early years of the century , hoped to unionize the Six Companies workers by capitalizing on their discontent . They sent eleven organizers , several of whom were arrested by Las Vegas police . On August 7 , 1931 , the company cut wages for all tunnel workers . Although the workers sent away the organizers , not wanting to be associated with the " Wobblies " , they formed a committee to represent them with the company . The committee drew up a list of demands that evening and presented them to Crowe the following morning . He was noncommittal . The workers hoped that Crowe , the general superintendent of the job , would be sympathetic ; instead he gave a scathing interview to a newspaper , describing the workers as " malcontents " . On the morning of the 9th , Crowe met with the committee and told them that management refused their demands , was stopping all work , and was laying off the entire work force , except for a few office workers and carpenters . The workers were given until 5 p.m. to vacate the premises . Concerned that a violent confrontation was imminent , most workers took their paychecks and left for Las Vegas to await developments . Two days later , the remainder were talked into leaving by law enforcement . On August 13 , the company began hiring workers again , and two days later , the strike was called off . While the workers received none of their demands , the company guaranteed there would be no further reductions in wages . Living conditions began to improve as the first residents moved into Boulder City in late 1931 . A second labor action took place in July 1935 , as construction on the dam wound down . When a Six Companies manager altered working times to force workers to take lunch on their own time , workers responded with a strike . Emboldened by Crowe 's reversal of the lunch decree , workers raised their demands to include a $ 1 @-@ per @-@ day raise . The company agreed to ask the Federal government to supplement the pay , but no money was forthcoming from Washington . The strike ended . = = = River diversion = = = Before the dam could be built , the Colorado River needed to be diverted away from the construction site . To accomplish this , four diversion tunnels were driven through the canyon walls , two on the Nevada side and two on the Arizona side . These tunnels were 56 ft ( 17 m ) in diameter . Their combined length was nearly 16 @,@ 000 ft , or more than 3 miles ( 5 km ) . The contract required these tunnels to be completed by October 1 , 1933 , with a $ 3 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ day fine to be assessed for any delay . To meet the deadline , Six Companies had to complete work by early 1933 , since only in late fall and winter was the water level in the river low enough to safely divert . Tunneling began at the lower portals of the Nevada tunnels in May 1931 . Shortly afterward , work began on two similar tunnels in the Arizona canyon wall . In March 1932 , work began on lining the tunnels with concrete . First the base , or invert , was poured . Gantry cranes , running on rails through the entire length of each tunnel were used to place the concrete . The sidewalls were poured next . Movable sections of steel forms were used for the sidewalls . Finally , using pneumatic guns , the overheads were filled in . The concrete lining is 3 feet ( 1 m ) thick , reducing the finished tunnel diameter to 50 ft ( 15 m ) . The river was diverted into the two Arizona tunnels on November 13 , 1932 ; the Nevada tunnels were kept in reserve for high water . This was done by exploding a temporary cofferdam protecting the Arizona tunnels while at the same time dumping rubble into the river until its natural course was blocked . Following the completion of the dam , the entrances to the two outer diversion tunnels were sealed at the opening and halfway through the tunnels with large concrete plugs . The downstream halves of the tunnels following the inner plugs are now the main bodies of the spillway tunnels . The inner diversion tunnels were plugged at approximately one @-@ third of their length , beyond which they now carry steel pipes connecting the intake towers to the power plant and outlet works . The inner tunnels ' outlets are equipped with gates that can be closed to drain the tunnels for maintenance . = = = Groundworks , rock clearance and grout curtain = = = To protect the construction site from the Colorado River and to facilitate the river 's diversion , two cofferdams were constructed . Work on the upper cofferdam began in September 1932 , even though the river had not yet been diverted . The cofferdams were designed to protect against the possibility of the river flooding a site at which two thousand men might be at work , and their specifications were covered in the bid documents in nearly as much detail as the dam itself . The upper cofferdam was 96 ft ( 29 m ) high , and 750 feet ( 230 m ) thick at its base , as thicker than the dam itself . It contained 650 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material . When the cofferdams were in place and the construction site was drained of water , excavation for the dam foundation began . For the dam to rest on solid rock , it was necessary to remove accumulated erosion soils and other loose materials in the riverbed until sound bedrock was reached . Work on the foundation excavations was completed in June 1933 . During this excavation , approximately 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cu yd ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material was removed . Since the dam was an arch @-@ gravity type , the side @-@ walls of the canyon would bear the force of the impounded lake . Therefore , the side @-@ walls were excavated too , to reach virgin rock as weathered rock might provide pathways for water seepage . The men who removed this rock were called " high scalers " . While suspended from the top of the canyon with ropes , the high @-@ scalers climbed down the canyon walls and removed the loose rock with jackhammers and dynamite . Falling objects were the most common cause of death on the dam site ; the high scalers ' work thus helped ensure worker safety . One high scaler was able to save life in a more direct manner : when a government inspector lost his grip on a safety line and began tumbling down a slope towards almost certain death , a high scaler was able to intercept him and pull him into the air . The construction site had , even then , become a magnet for tourists ; the high scalers were prime attractions and showed off for the watchers . The high scalers received considerable media attention , with one worker dubbed the " Human Pendulum " for swinging co @-@ workers ( and , at other times , cases of dynamite ) across the canyon . To protect themselves against falling objects , some high scalers took cloth hats and dipped them in tar , allowing them to harden . When workers wearing such headgear were struck hard enough to inflict broken jaws , they sustained no skull damage , Six Companies ordered thousands of what initially were called " hard boiled hats " ( later " hard hats " ) and strongly encouraged their use . The cleared , underlying rock foundation of the dam site was reinforced with grout , called a grout curtain . Holes were driven into the walls and base of the canyon , as deep as 150 feet ( 46 m ) into the rock , and any cavities encountered were to be filled with grout . This was done to stabilize the rock , to prevent water from seeping past the dam through the canyon rock , and to limit " uplift " — upward pressure from water seeping under the dam . The workers were under severe time constraints due to the beginning of the concrete pour , and when they encountered hot springs or cavities too large to readily fill , they moved on without resolving the problem . A total of 58 of the 393 holes were incompletely filled . After the dam was completed and the lake began to fill , large numbers of significant leaks into the dam caused the Bureau of Reclamation to look into the situation . It found that the work had been incompletely done , and was based on less than a full understanding of the canyon 's geology . New holes were drilled from inspection galleries inside the dam into the surrounding bedrock . It took nine years ( 1938 – 47 ) under relative secrecy to complete the supplemental grout curtain . = = = Concrete = = = The first concrete was poured into the dam on June 6 , 1933 , 18 months ahead of schedule . Since concrete heats and contracts as it cures , the potential for uneven cooling and contraction of the concrete posed a serious problem . Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam was built in a single continuous pour , the concrete would take 125 years to cool and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble . Instead , the ground where the dam was to rise was marked with rectangles , and concrete blocks in columns were poured , some as large as 50 ft square ( 15 m ) and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high . Each five @-@ foot form contained a series of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) steel pipes through which first cool river water , then later ice @-@ cold water from a refrigeration plant was run . When an individual block had cured and had stopped contracting , the pipes were filled with grout . Grout was also used to fill the hairline spaces between columns , which were grooved to increase the strength of the joins . The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets 7 feet high ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) and almost 7 feet in diameter ; Crowe was awarded two patents for their design . These buckets , which weighed 20 short tons ( 18 t ) when full , were filled at two massive concrete plants on the Nevada side , and were delivered to the site in special railcars . The buckets were then suspended from aerial cableways , which were used to deliver the bucket to a specific column . As the required grade of aggregate in the concrete differed depending on placement in the dam ( from pea @-@ sized gravel to 9 @-@ inch or 23 cm stones ) , it was vital that the bucket be maneuvered to the proper column . When the bottom of the bucket opened up , disgorging 8 cu yd ( 6 @.@ 1 m3 ) of concrete , a team of men worked it throughout the form . Although there are myths that men were caught in the pour and are entombed in the dam to this day , each bucket only deepened the concrete in a form by an inch , and Six Companies engineers would not have permitted a flaw caused by the presence of a human body . A total of 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 480 @,@ 000 m3 ) of concrete was used in the dam before concrete pouring ceased on May 29 , 1935 . In addition , 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 cu yd ( 850 @,@ 000 m3 ) were used in the power plant and other works . More than 582 miles ( 937 km ) of cooling pipes were placed within the concrete . Overall , there is enough concrete in the dam to pave a two @-@ lane highway from San Francisco to New York . Concrete cores were removed from the dam for testing in 1995 ; they showed that " Hoover Dam 's concrete has continued to slowly gain strength " and the dam is composed of a " durable concrete having a compressive strength exceeding the range typically found in normal mass concrete " . Hoover Dam concrete is not subject to alkali – silica reaction ( ASR ) as the Hoover Dam builders happened to use nonreactive aggregate , unlike that at downstream Parker Dam , where ASR has caused measurable deterioration . = = = Dedication and completion = = = With most work finished on the dam itself ( the powerhouse remained uncompleted ) , a formal dedication ceremony was arranged for September 30 , 1935 , to coincide with a western tour being made by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The morning of the dedication , it was moved forward three hours from 2 p.m. Pacific time to 11 a.m. ; this was done because Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes had reserved a radio slot for the President for 2 p.m. but officials did not realize until the day of the ceremony that the slot was for 2 p.m. Eastern Time . Despite the change in the ceremony time , and temperatures of 102 ° F ( 39 ° C ) , 10 @,@ 000 people were present for the President 's speech in which he avoided mentioning the name of former President Hoover , who was not invited to the ceremony . To mark the occasion , a three @-@ cent stamp was issued by the United States Post Office Department — bearing the name " Boulder Dam " , the official name of the dam between 1933 and 1947 . After the ceremony , Roosevelt made the first visit by any American president to Las Vegas . Most work had been completed by the dedication , and Six Companies negotiated with the government through late 1935 and early 1936 to settle all claims and arrange for the formal transfer of the dam to the Federal Government . The parties came to an agreement and on March 1 , 1936 , Secretary Ickes formally accepted the dam on behalf of the government . Six Companies was not required to complete work on one item , a concrete plug for one of the bypass tunnels , as the tunnel had to be used to take in irrigation water until the powerhouse went into operation . = = = Construction deaths = = = There were 112 deaths associated with the construction of the dam . The first was J. G. Tierney , a surveyor who drowned on December 20 , 1922 , while looking for an ideal spot for the dam . Ninety @-@ six of the deaths occurred during construction at the site . Of the 112 fatalities , 91 were Six Companies employees , three were BOR employees , and one was a visitor to the site , with the remainder employees of various contractors not part of Six Companies . Not included in the official fatalities number were deaths that were recorded as pneumonia . Workers alleged that this diagnosis was a cover for death from carbon monoxide poisoning , brought on by the use of gasoline @-@ fueled vehicles in the diversion tunnels , and a classification used by Six Companies to avoid paying compensation claims . The site 's diversion tunnels frequently reached 140 ° F ( 60 ° C ) , enveloped in thick plumes of vehicle exhaust gases . A total of 42 workers were recorded as having died from pneumonia ; none were listed as having died from carbon monoxide poisoning . No deaths of non @-@ workers from pneumonia were recorded in Boulder City during the construction period . = = = Architectural style = = = The initial plans for the facade of the dam , the power plant , the outlet tunnels and ornaments clashed with the modern look of an arch dam . The Bureau of Reclamation , more concerned with the dam 's functionality , adorned it with a Gothic @-@ inspired balustrade and eagle statues . This initial design was criticized by many as being too plain and unremarkable for a project of such immense scale , so Los Angeles @-@ based architect Gordon B. Kaufmann , then the supervising architect to the Bureau of Reclamation , was brought in to redesign the exteriors . Kaufmann greatly streamlined the design , and applied an elegant Art Deco style to the entire project . He designed sculptured turrets rising seamlessly from the dam face and clock faces on the intake towers set for the time in Nevada and Arizona — the two states are in different time zones , but as Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time , the clocks display the same time for more than half the year . At Kaufmann 's request , Denver artist Allen Tupper True was hired to handle the design and decoration of the walls and floors of the new dam . True 's design scheme incorporated motifs of the Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the region . Although some initially were opposed to these designs , True was given the go @-@ ahead and was officially appointed consulting artist . With the assistance of the National Laboratory of Anthropology , True researched authentic decorative motifs from Indian sand paintings , textiles , baskets and ceramics . The images and colors are based on Native American visions of rain , lightning , water , clouds , and local animals — lizards , serpents , birds — and on the Southwestern landscape of stepped mesas . In these works , which are integrated into the walkways and interior halls of the dam , True also reflected on the machinery of the operation , making the symbolic patterns appear both ancient and modern . With the agreement of Kaufmann and the engineers , True also devised an innovative color @-@ coding for the pipes and machinery , which was implemented throughout all BOR projects . True 's consulting artist job lasted through 1942 ; it was extended so he could complete design work for the Parker , Shasta and Grand Coulee dams and power plants . True 's work on the Hoover Dam was humorously referred to in a poem published in The New Yorker , part of which read , " lose the spark , and justify the dream ; but also worthy of remark will be the color scheme " . Complementing Kaufmann and True 's work , the Norwegian @-@ born , naturalized American sculptor Oskar J.W. Hansen designed many of the sculptures on and around the dam . His works include the monument of dedication plaza , a plaque to memorialize the workers killed and the bas @-@ reliefs on the elevator towers . In his words , Hansen wanted his work to express " the immutable calm of intellectual resolution , and the enormous power of trained physical strength , equally enthroned in placid triumph of scientific accomplishment " , because " [ t ] he building of Hoover Dam belongs to the sagas of the daring . " Hansen 's dedication plaza , on the Nevada abutment , contains a sculpture of two winged figures flanking a flagpole . Surrounding the base of the monument is a terrazzo floor embedded with a " star map " . The map depicts the Northern Hemisphere sky at the moment of President Roosevelt 's dedication of the dam . This is intended to help future astronomers , if necessary , calculate the exact date of dedication . The 30 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) bronze figures , dubbed " Winged Figures of the Republic " , were each formed in a continuous pour . To put such large bronzes into place without marring the highly polished bronze surface , they were placed on ice and guided into position as the ice melted . Hansen 's bas @-@ relief on the Nevada elevator tower depicts the benefits of the dam : flood control , navigation , irrigation , water storage , and power . The bas @-@ relief on the Arizona elevator depicts , in his words , " the visages of those Indian tribes who have inhabited mountains and plains from ages distant . " = = Operation = = = = = Power plant and water demands = = = Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments . A U @-@ shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam , its excavation was completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933 . Filling of Lake Mead began February 1 , 1935 , even before the last of the concrete was poured that May . The powerhouse was one of the projects uncompleted at the time of the formal dedication on September 30 , 1935 — a crew of 500 men remained to finish it and other structures . To make the powerhouse roof bombproof , it was constructed of layers of concrete , rock , and steel with a total thickness of about 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) , topped with layers of sand and tar . In the latter half of 1936 , water levels in Lake Mead were high enough to permit power generation , and the first three Allis Chalmers built Francis turbine @-@ generators , all on the Nevada side , began operating . In March 1937 , one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August . By September 1939 , four more generators were operating , and the dam 's power plant became the largest hydroelectricity facility in the world . The final generator was not placed in service until 1961 , bringing the maximum generating capacity to 1 @,@ 345 megawatts at the time . Original plans called for 16 large generators , eight on each side of the river , but two smaller generators were installed instead of one large one on the Arizona side for a total of 17 . The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality , before the dam 's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable . The present contracts for the sale of electricity expire in 2017 . Before water from Lake Mead reaches the turbines , it enters the intake towers and then four gradually narrowing penstocks which funnel the water down towards the powerhouse . The intakes provide a maximum hydraulic head ( water pressure ) of 590 ft ( 180 m ) as the water reaches a speed of about 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The entire flow of the Colorado River passes through the turbines . The spillways and outlet works ( jet @-@ flow gates ) are rarely used . The jet @-@ flow gates , located in concrete structures 180 feet ( 55 m ) above the river , and also at the outlets of the inner diversion tunnels at river level , may be used to divert water around the dam in emergency or flood conditions , but have never done so , and in practice are only used to drain water from the penstocks for maintenance . Following an uprating project from 1986 to 1993 , the total gross power rating for the plant , including two 2 @.@ 4 megawatt Pelton turbine @-@ generators that power Hoover Dam 's own operations is a maximum capacity of 2080 megawatts . The annual generation of Hoover Dam varies . The maximum net generation was 10 @.@ 348 TWh in 1984 , and the minimum since 1940 was 2 @.@ 648 TWh in 1956 . The average power generated was 4 @.@ 2 TWh / year for 1947 @-@ 2008 . In 2015 , the dam generated 3 @.@ 6 TWh . To lower the minimum power pool elevation from 1 @,@ 050 to 950 feet ( 320 to 290 m ) , five wide @-@ head turbines , designed to work efficiently with less flow , will be online by 2017 . Due to lack of water , the dam mostly provides power only during periods of peak demand . Control of water was the primary concern in the building of the dam . Power generation has allowed the dam project to be self @-@ sustaining : proceeds from the sale of power repaid the 50 @-@ year construction loan , and those revenues also finance the multimillion @-@ dollar yearly maintenance budget . Power is generated in step with and only with the release of water in response to downstream water demands . Lake Mead and downstream releases from the dam also provide water for both municipal and irrigation uses . Water released from the Hoover Dam eventually reaches several canals . The Colorado River Aqueduct and Central Arizona Project branch off Lake Havasu while the All @-@ American Canal is supplied by the Imperial Dam . In total , water from the Lake Mead serves 18 million people in Arizona , Nevada and California and supplies the irrigation of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 @,@ 000 ha ) of land . = = = = Power distribution = = = = Electricity from the dam 's powerhouse was originally sold pursuant to a fifty @-@ year contract , authorized by Congress in 1934 , which ran from 1937 to 1987 . In 1984 , Congress passed a new statute which set power allocations from the dam from 1987 to 2017 . The powerhouse was run under the original authorization by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and Southern California Edison ; in 1987 , the Bureau of Reclamation assumed control . In 2011 , Congress enacted legislation extending the current contracts until 2067 , after setting aside 5 % of Hoover Dam 's power for sale to Native American tribes , electric cooperatives , and other entities . The new arrangement will begin in 2017 . The Bureau of Reclamation reports that the energy generated is allocated as follows : = = = Spillways = = = The dam is protected against over @-@ topping by two spillways . The spillway entrances are located behind each dam abutment , running roughly parallel to the canyon walls . The spillway entrance arrangement forms a classic side @-@ flow weir with each spillway containing four 100 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 30 m ) and 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) steel @-@ drum gates . Each gate weighs 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 kg ) and can be operated manually or automatically . Gates are raised and lowered depending on water levels in the reservoir and flood conditions . The gates are unable to entirely prevent water from entering the spillways but are able to maintain an extra 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) of lake level . Water flowing over the spillways drops dramatically into 600 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 180 m ) , 50 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 15 m ) spillway tunnels before connecting to the outer diversion tunnels , and reentering the main river channel below the dam . This complex spillway entrance arrangement combined with the approximate 700 @-@ foot ( 210 m ) elevation drop from the top of the reservoir to the river below was a difficult engineering problem and posed numerous design challenges . Each spillway 's capacity of 200 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 700 m3 / s ) was empirically verified in post @-@ construction tests in 1941 . The large spillway tunnels have been used only twice , for testing in 1941 and because of flooding in 1983 . During both times , when inspecting the tunnels after the spillways were used , engineers found major damage to the concrete linings and underlying rock . The 1941 damage was attributed to a slight misalignment of the tunnel invert ( or base ) , which caused cavitation , a phenomenon in fast @-@ flowing liquids in which vapor bubbles collapse with explosive force . In response to this finding , the tunnels were patched with special heavy @-@ duty concrete and the surface of the concrete was polished mirror @-@ smooth . The spillways were modified in 1947 by adding flip buckets , which both slow the water and decrease the spillway 's effective capacity , in an attempt to eliminate conditions thought to have contributed to the 1941 damage . The 1983 damage , also due to cavitation , led to the installation of aerators in the spillways . Tests at Grand Coulee Dam showed that the technique worked , in principle . = = = Roadway and tourism = = = There are two lanes for automobile traffic across the top of the dam , which formerly served as the Colorado River crossing for U.S. Route 93 . In the wake of the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks , authorities expressed security concerns and the Hoover Dam Bypass project was expedited . Pending the completion of the bypass , restricted traffic was permitted over Hoover Dam . Some types of vehicles were inspected prior to crossing the dam while semi @-@ trailer trucks , buses carrying luggage , and enclosed @-@ box trucks over 40 ft ( 12 m ) long were not allowed on the dam at all , and were diverted to U.S. Route 95 or Nevada State Routes 163 / 68 . The four @-@ lane Hoover Dam Bypass opened on October 19 , 2010 . It includes a composite steel and concrete arch bridge , the Mike O 'Callaghan – Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge , 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) downstream from the dam . With the opening of the bypass , through traffic is no longer allowed across Hoover Dam , dam visitors are allowed to use the existing roadway to approach from the Nevada side and cross to parking lots and other facilities on the Arizona side . Hoover Dam opened for tours in 1937 after its completion , but following Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , it was closed to the public when the United States entered World War II , during which only authorized traffic , in convoys , was permitted . After the war , it reopened September 2 , 1945 , and by 1953 , annual attendance had risen to 448 @,@ 081 . The dam closed on November 25 , 1963 and March 31 , 1969 , days of mourning in remembrance of Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower . In 1995 , a new visitors ' center was built , and the following year , visits exceeded one million for the first time . The dam closed again to the public on September 11 , 2001 ; modified tours were resumed in December and a new " Discovery Tour " was added the following year . Today , nearly a million people per year take the tours of the dam offered by the Bureau of Reclamation . Increased security concerns by the government have led to most of the interior structure being inaccessible to tourists . As a result , few of True 's decorations can now be seen by visitors . = = Environmental impact = = The changes in water flow and use caused by Hoover Dam 's construction and operation have had a large impact on the Colorado River Delta . The construction of the dam has been credited as causing the decline of this estuarine ecosystem . For six years after the construction of the dam , while Lake Mead filled , virtually no water reached the mouth of the river . The delta 's estuary , which once had a freshwater @-@ saltwater mixing zone stretching 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of the river 's mouth , was turned into an inverse estuary where the level of salinity was higher close to the river 's mouth . The Colorado River had experienced natural flooding before the construction of the Hoover Dam . The dam eliminated the natural flooding , which threatened many species adapted to the flooding , including both plants and animals . The construction of the dam devastated the populations of native fish in the river downstream from the dam . Four species of fish native to the Colorado River , the Bonytail chub , Colorado pikeminnow , Humpback chub , and Razorback sucker , are listed as endangered . = = Naming controversy = = During the years of lobbying leading up to the passage of legislation authorizing the dam in 1928 , the press generally referred to the dam as " Boulder Dam " or as " Boulder Canyon Dam " , even though the proposed site had shifted to Black Canyon . The Boulder Canyon Project Act of 1928 ( BCPA ) never mentioned a proposed name or title for the dam . The BCPA merely allows the government to " construct , operate , and maintain a dam and incidental works in the main stream of the Colorado River at Black Canyon or Boulder Canyon " . When Secretary Wilbur spoke at the ceremony starting the building of the railway between Las Vegas and the dam site on September 17 , 1930 , he named the dam " Hoover Dam " , citing a tradition of naming dams after Presidents , though none had been so honored during their terms of office . Wilbur justified his choice on the ground that Hoover was " the great engineer whose vision and persistence ... has done so much to make [ the dam ] possible " . One writer complained in response that " the Great Engineer had quickly drained , ditched , and dammed the country . " After Hoover 's election defeat in 1932 and the accession of the Roosevelt administration , Secretary Ickes ordered on May 13 , 1933 that the dam be referred to as " Boulder Dam " . Ickes stated that Wilbur had been imprudent in naming the dam after a sitting president , that Congress had never ratified his choice , and that it had long been referred to as Boulder Dam . Unknown to the general public , Attorney General Homer Cummings informed Ickes that Congress had indeed used the name " Hoover Dam " in five different bills appropriating money for construction of the dam . The official status this conferred to the name " Hoover Dam " had been noted on the floor of the House of Representatives by Congressman Edward T. Taylor of Colorado on December 12 , 1930 , but was likewise ignored by Ickes . When Ickes spoke at the dedication ceremony on September 30 , 1935 , he was determined , as he recorded in his diary , " to try to nail down for good and all the name Boulder Dam . " At one point in the speech , he spoke the words " Boulder Dam " five times within thirty seconds . Further , he suggested that if the dam were to be named after any one person , it should be for California Senator Hiram Johnson , a lead sponsor of the authorizing legislation . Roosevelt also referred to the dam as Boulder Dam , and the Republican @-@ leaning Los Angeles Times , which at the time of Ickes ' name change had run an editorial cartoon showing Ickes ineffectively chipping away at an enormous sign " HOOVER DAM , " reran it showing Roosevelt reinforcing Ickes , but having no greater success . In the following years , the name " Boulder Dam " failed to fully take hold , with many Americans using both names interchangeably and mapmakers divided as to which name should be printed . Memories of the Great Depression faded , and Hoover to some extent rehabilitated himself through good works during and after World War II . In 1947 , a bill passed both Houses of Congress unanimously restoring the name " Hoover Dam . " Ickes , who was by then a private citizen , opposed the change , stating , " I didn 't know Hoover was that small a man to take credit for something he had nothing to do with . "

= Tropical Storm Abby ( 1964 ) = Tropical Storm Abby was an exceptionally small tropical cyclone that had minor effects across Southeast Texas in early August 1964 . Forming as a tropical depression out of a trough south of Louisiana on August 5 , the system moved generally westward . It was not until August 7 that the system began to organize . That day , an eye rapidly formed within the system and it became a tropical storm just 60 mi ( 95 km ) southeast of Galveston , Texas . Soon thereafter , a weather reconnaissance plane reported a barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) at the storm 's center . Around 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) , the newly named Abby attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . It subsequently made landfall near Matagorda , Texas four hours later . Once onshore gradual weakening ensued , though a brief period of re @-@ organization delayed its dissipation . Abby degenerated into an area of showers on August 8 southwest of San Antonio , Texas . Prior to Abby 's landfall in Texas , gale warnings were issued for the coast and residents on Matagorda Island were evacuated . Overall , the storm 's impacts were limited due to its small size . Only two structures sustained damage in Matagorda , one being destroyed by a possible tornado , and the remaining effects resulted from flooding in Jackson and Victoria Counties . Total damage from the storm was estimated at $ 750 @,@ 000 with the majority stemming from crops . = = Meteorological history = = On August 5 , 1964 , a weak trough emerged from Florida over the northeastern Gulf of Mexico . According to the Atlantic hurricane database ( referred to as HURDAT ) , the system developed into a tropical depression by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) that day , with its center located roughly 160 mi ( 260 km ) south @-@ southeast of the Mississippi River Delta . Moving generally west , the system exhibited no signs of further development as it neared the Texas coastline . However , on August 7 , radar images from Brownsville , Galveston , Lake Charles , and Victoria showed an abrupt increase in organization . During the afternoon hours , banding features consolidated around a developing eye and weather reconnaissance planes were dispatched to the system . Forecasters initially mistook the eye as a hook echo @-@ type feature at the end of a squall line . It is estimated that the depression became a tropical storm by 12 : 00 UTC ( 7 : 00 a.m. CDT ) , roughly 60 mi ( 95 km ) southeast of Galveston , Texas . Operationally , the system was not even monitored as a depression this time , with the classification and naming of Tropical Storm Abby occurring at 16 : 00 UTC ( 11 : 00 a.m. CDT ) on August 7 . Abby was an unusually small storm , with its entire circulation being far less than 100 mi ( 160 km ) in diameter . Around 16 : 00 UTC ( 11 : 00 a.m. CDT ) on August 7 , reconnaissance measured a central barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) within Abby , the lowest in relation to the system . They also reported peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) in squalls , which would rank as a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . These winds were seen to be an overestimate by forecasters and discarded , however . The system attained its maximum winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) and subsequently made landfall just northeast of Matagorda , Texas at 22 : 00 UTC ( 5 : 00 p.m. CDT ) . Irvin Velbrecht , a forecaster at the Weather Bureau ( now known as the National Weather Service ) in Galveston , described the storm as a " perfectly miniature hurricane . " Despite moving onshore , Abby 's core continued to organize and it developed a closed eyewall roughly three hours later . Thereafter the storm began to gradually weaken , passing over Edna around 02 : 00 UTC on August 8 ( 9 : 00 p.m. CDT on August 7 ) . Weakening to a depression hours later , Abby ultimately degenerated into an area of showers and dissipated southwest of San Antonio by 12 : 00 UTC ( 7 : 00 a.m. CDT ) . = = Preparations and impact = = Owing to the abrupt nature of Abby 's development on August 7 , residents had little time to prepare for the storm . According to Irvin Velbrecht , " in the absence of aircraft reconnaissance and radar information , two reasonably new tools in storm detection , Abby could well have formed and approached the shore before knowledge of a tropical storm was gained . " Gale warnings were raised from Galveston to San Antonio immediately following the storm 's formation and were kept in place through the morning of August 8 . Evacuation orders were issued for Matagorda Island and most complied , with some deciding to remain at their homes . Personnel at Matagorda Island Air Force Base were evacuated to Victoria . Red Cross facilities were readied and public shelters were opened in the area . At the mouth of the Colorado River , seagoing vessels were tied down with extra rope . Within the Weather Bureau , members of the Galveston office were the first to notice the system and relayed to the other offices in the area to attune their radars to follow the system . Abby 's small size resulted in its effects being limited to areas within the immediate track . Sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) with gusts to 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) were measured by the Army Corps of Engineers in Matagorda . Near the town , a possible tornado unroofed a barn and tossed the structure 225 ft ( 69 m ) ; this building previously had withstood the effects of Hurricane Carla in 1961 . Winds estimated at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tore part of the roof off a fishing warehouse in Matagorda itself . Along the coast , tides ranged from 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal from Matagorda to Freeport . Four men and five dogs required rescue after their vessel became stranded on the Colorado River . Heavy rains accompanied the system across Texas . Most areas along the immediate track received at least 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) of rain , with a peak value of 6 @.@ 14 in ( 156 mm ) recorded at the Victoria International Airport . The hardest hit areas were in Jackson and Victoria counties where the heaviest rains fell . In these areas , flooding and strong winds damaged the cotton and rice crops ; however , effects of the rice crop were more limited due to losses from earlier storms as well as ongoing harvesting . Some flooding also took place across the Atascosa River watershed , but no damage resulted . Overall , property damage was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 while agricultural losses reached $ 600 @,@ 000 .

= 7 Independent Company ( Rhodesia ) = 7 Independent Company ( 7 Indep Coy ; French : 7ème Compagnie indépendante ) was a short @-@ lived company of francophone volunteers in the Rhodesian Army during the Rhodesian Bush War . Numbering about 200 men at its peak , it was unique in the history of the Rhodesian Army as an exclusively expatriate unit . It existed between November 1977 and May 1978 as a company in the 1st Battalion , the Rhodesia Regiment , and served two counter @-@ insurgency tours on Operation Hurricane in north @-@ eastern Rhodesia ( today Zimbabwe ) . During the Bush War , the Rhodesian Army augmented its ranks with foreign volunteers , who were accepted into regular regiments with the same pay and conditions of service as locals . Most foreign recruits enlisted in the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) , which launched an overseas recruitment programme in 1974 , but required successful applicants to speak good English . The Army attempted to alleviate the strain on its troops during late 1977 by recruiting French @-@ speakers as well , and formed a designated company in the Rhodesia Regiment for them . The regiment already had six independent companies , so the francophone unit became 7 Independent Company . The company 's men , a mixture of former French paratroopers , ex @-@ Foreign Legionnaires and young adventurers , had trouble from the start integrating with the Rhodesian forces , and became unsettled by the respective ranks they were given in the Rhodesian Army . In an attempt to raise their morale and create a strong esprit de corps , the Army issued them beret insignias backed with the French tricolour and allowed them to raise the flag of France alongside that of Rhodesia each morning . Apparently under the impression that they had signed up as highly paid mercenaries , many of the French troopers returned home after their first bush trip , unhappy to have received no more money than a regular Rhodesian soldier . On operations their performance was generally below par , but the Frenchmen were involved in some successful actions during February and early March 1978 . Their oppressive treatment of the black villagers they encountered made them very unpopular in the operational area . The Rhodesians quickly deemed the experiment a failure and following a series of disasters for the company during the latter part of its second tour , including two friendly fire incidents and several fatalities , it was disbanded in May 1978 . Forces led by one of its members , Bob Denard , later that month executed a coup d 'état in the Comoros with French , Rhodesian and South African governmental support . = = Background = = Following a dispute with the British government regarding terms for the granting of full independence , the predominantly white minority government of the self @-@ governing colony of Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) , led by Ian Smith , unilaterally declared independence on 11 November 1965 . Britain and the United Nations refused to recognise this and each imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesia . Meanwhile , the country 's two most prominent communist @-@ backed black nationalist groups , the Zimbabwe African National Union and the Zimbabwe African People 's Union , mobilised their respective guerrilla armies , the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) , for what they called the " Second Chimurenga " , with the goal of overthrowing the government and introducing black majority rule . The Rhodesian Bush War was the result , beginning in earnest on 21 December 1972 when ZANLA attacked Altena and Whistlefield Farms near Centenary in the country 's north @-@ east . The Rhodesian Security Forces launched Operation Hurricane in response and fought back strongly , reducing the number of guerrillas active within the country to under 300 by December 1974 . In the period October – November 1974 , they killed more nationalist fighters than in the previous two years combined . However , a South African @-@ brokered ceasefire , which the security forces respected and the insurgents ignored , helped the nationalists to win back ground . By 1977 there were 2 @,@ 500 guerrillas operating in Rhodesia , with several times that number in training abroad . The Rhodesian Army , though mostly made up of local men , also included some foreign volunteers , who were integrated into regular units under the same salary and conditions of service . Almost all of the foreigners served in the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) , a heliborne commando battalion with a glamorous international reputation . The RLI initiated a major overseas recruitment drive in 1974 , targeting potential volunteers from Europe , Oceania and the Americas , and requiring successful applicants to speak good English . This campaign was bearing considerable fruit by May 1976 , when the RLI 's largest ever intake included more foreign volunteers than any before , and the enlisting of men from overseas into the RLI would increase yet further . By 1977 – 78 there were around 1 @,@ 500 foreigners in the Rhodesian forces . However , the Rhodesian Army remained stretched and low on manpower . = = Formation and training = = The idea for a francophone unit came from a French national , François Cramer , who had business interests and connections in Rhodesia . He proposed it to Major @-@ General Sandy MacLean , then the Rhodesian Army 's second @-@ in @-@ command , while they were visiting France together . MacLean relayed the idea to the General Staff in Salisbury , which decided in late 1977 to form a " French battalion " to alleviate the strain on its regular units . A Rhodesian officer of French extraction , Cyril Bernard , warned his superiors strongly against the scheme , but was ultimately himself sent to France to start the project . On the way he stopped in Zurich , Switzerland , where MacLean gave him final approval for the operation and a budget of US $ 30 @,@ 000 . They resolved to recruit mainly in Paris and Lyon . Bernard then entered France and renewed old connections from the French military academy at Saint @-@ Cyr . Recruitment was carried out by a former French paratrooper , Roger Bruni , operating from an apartment on Rue Bachaumont in central Paris . Advertisements , placed in newspapers such as France Soir , offered " a job with a future abroad ... minimum age 22 , former non @-@ commissioned officers preferred " . The body of men eventually assembled varied widely in terms of age , background and experience , but was based largely around ex @-@ paratroopers and former Foreign Legionnaires . The average age was about 25 . French @-@ speaking veterans of an assortment of African and Middle Eastern conflicts spanning the previous two decades successfully applied , but past service did not prove a necessity ; some of the men accepted had no military experience . Most of them spoke English only at a basic level if at all . Once signed up , each man was instructed to travel to Switzerland , where appropriate visas were swiftly procured from the South African Embassy . In early November 1977 , the French recruits flew from Zurich to Johannesburg on a South African Airways liner , then to Salisbury by Air Rhodesia . Already in Rhodesia waiting for the men were their leaders : Major Roland de l 'Assomption , an ex @-@ officer of the French Army 's crack 11th Shock Parachute Regiment , and a former officer of the Gabonese President Omar Bongo 's guard ; and Major Mario La Viola , once a non @-@ commissioned officer in the Foreign Legion 's 2nd Parachute Regiment . Beneath them were the Antillean Captain Toumi , who became the first black officer in the regular Rhodesian Army as the unit 's second @-@ in @-@ command , and " Colonel " Bob Denard , an infamous French soldier of fortune nicknamed le chien de guerre — " the dog of war " . According to an anonymous veteran of the unit , it mostly comprised recently discharged servicemen from the French forces who were having trouble adapting to civilian life . " They didn 't know how to do anything else , only how to jump with a parachute and obey orders , " he explained , " and they liked that kind of thing . " Others , he said , were members of the political far right who had joined up " to kill commies and blacks " , and some were criminals hoping to escape the attention of the French police . Each signed on for two years . The French @-@ speaking unit was placed in the Rhodesia Regiment ( RR ) as an " independent company " . The RR already had six of these ( made up of Rhodesians ) , so the Frenchmen became 7 Independent Company . The Rhodesian Army sought to forge a strong esprit de corps among the new recruits , and to this end extended them several sentimental allowances : for example , morale amongst the Frenchmen rose when they were informed that the Rhodesian insignia on their berets would be backed with the French tricolour . In a similar vein , their request for permission to raise the flag of France alongside that of Rhodesia outside their headquarters each morning was approved . French @-@ speaking men already in the army were attached to the unit to act as interpreters and assist with coordination and tactical instruction . Some of these were Mauritians , who by virtue of their upbringing spoke both English and French at a native @-@ like level . The company itself , which numbered about 200 men , was assigned headquarters near Salisbury at Cranborne Barracks , the home of the Rhodesian Light Infantry . It was organised in the same manner as a standard Rhodesian independent company , the only exception being its exclusively francophone personnel . Spirits were high during the unit 's brief training period as the men enjoyed playing sports , observing the country scenery and experiencing the night @-@ life of the nearby capital . They were not adequately trained , receiving only a basic medical examination , a few days ' fitness training and a cursory explanation of proper conduct in the bush . They expressed surprise when instructed to paint stripes of camouflage green on their weapons and combat boots in the Rhodesian fashion , having never before heard of such a practice . The first dent to morale came after about a week when the volunteers were first issued ranks in the Rhodesian Army . In the eyes of some of the French @-@ speaking soldiers , the ranks assigned appeared to have been chosen almost at random by their superiors , and did not reflect their actual respective levels of training , ability and experience . Some men who considered themselves to have been overlooked began to have problems with discipline . The brazen attitude of most of the company 's soldiers jarred strongly with that of their Rhodesian commanders , who had high standards regarding presentation and dress which many of the Frenchmen had little inclination to meet . = = Service = = = = = First bush trip = = = The francophone company was first deployed out of its barracks in late November 1977 , when it was sent to Bindura , about 88 kilometres ( 55 mi ) north @-@ east from Salisbury , for a few days in the bush on Operation Hurricane , the Army 's operational area which covered Rhodesia 's north @-@ east against guerrilla activity . After this passed without major incident , the Frenchmen were despatched to Rusambo , a camp in the Chimanda Tribal Trust Lands , near Rushinga , about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) north @-@ east from the capital and less than 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the border with Mozambique . Most insurgents in this area belonged to ZANLA . A company of men from the Territorial Force was already stationed at Rusambo , advised by a team of intelligence officers . " Sticks " of four men ( three FN FAL riflemen and an MAG gunner ) would be sent out into the bush from Rusambo for periods of up to two weeks , equipped with a radio to communicate with the base . Their task while in action was to seek out guerrillas by means of patrolling , ambushing and operating observation and listening posts . Once a group of insurgents was spotted , the stick leader would report their positions ; Rusambo would then alert the Army and request a Fireforce . If Fireforce were available , it would arrive and engage the cadres ; if not , the stick in the field would have to handle the situation itself . At first , men from 7 Independent Company were sent out in sticks mixed with the Territorials , but problems soon arose regarding proper regimen and the language barrier . When the Frenchmen were then sent out alone , their Land Rovers prominently flying the French flag , the issue of language was resolved , but that of indiscipline remained . Though discretion was paramount if they were to observe enemy movements covertly and effectively , the men of 7 Independent Company were found to have difficulty maintaining this and sometimes made careless mistakes which risked revealing their presence . Moreover , when investigations were made of local kraals , marked tension soon arose between the Frenchmen and the local black population ; the soldiers ' ignorance of English or Shona made it very difficult for discussions to take place and , according to other Rhodesian units who came into contact with them , the French soldiers took out their frustration on the villagers , often using excessive force in their attempted interrogations . Nyamahoboko Police Station received a report of a 7 Independent Company man raping a young tribeswoman in a dense thicket , but did not act on it . According to one history of the Rhodesia Regiment , " it was indicated that the Frenchmen had received instruction that all black people were to be regarded as terrorists " . The Rhodesian Army quickly deemed the French experiment a failure . It reassigned 7 Independent Company in late November to Marymount Mission , a small settlement to the east of Rusambo where there was a minor police station . The number of patrols they would embark on was reduced . Two of the company 's vehicles were ambushed by cadres between Marymount and Rusambo on 6 January 1978 , resulting in two men being injured , one fatally so . A week later another truck was surprised on the same bush road , resulting in one death and three serious casualties . The company was brought back from the bush four days later for rest and recuperation ( R & R ) in Salisbury . = = = Strike = = = During their 15 @-@ day rest periods the company 's men congregated around the Belgian @-@ owned Elizabeth Hotel , in the centre of the city at the corner of Causeway and Manica Road . Many of them became seriously disaffected when they first received their salary from the Rhodesian Army . Having apparently been misled about wages of up to R $ 1 @,@ 000 per month ( ₣ 7 @,@ 000 ) by the French recruiters , they were surprised to find that their basic monthly pay was actually R $ 245 ( ₣ 1 @,@ 800 ) , the same as a regular Rhodesian soldier . Moreover , some were upset that they had been paid in Rhodesian dollars , which because of the country 's international isolation could not easily be exchanged for foreign currencies . Although it was not as much as they had been expecting , one disenchanted veteran of the unit afterwards admitted that the tax @-@ exempt R $ 245 wage , which came with a $ 10 special @-@ unit supplement , was still more than enough money for them to live comfortably in Salisbury during their time off . The pay dispute split the unit . About two thirds went on strike , saying they would not return to action unless the Army upped their wages and paid them in foreign currency . Meanwhile , some of the more contented Frenchmen made steps to remain permanently , buying cars and having their wives join them in Salisbury . The Army detained the strike 's ringleaders for insubordination . With neither side willing to budge — the Army refused to give the strikers extra pay or special treatment , saying this would contravene Rhodesia 's policy not to engage mercenaries — the disaffected men were repatriated to France at their own request . The Rhodesian Army considered disbanding the unit altogether , but persevered when Major de l 'Assomption convinced his superiors that his remaining men were still loyal and eager to continue serving . = = = Second bush trip ; dissolution = = = Starting on 11 February 1978 , 7 Independent Company spent half a week at Mount Darwin , where there was a major Army base . The company acquitted themselves well during this time , but one of their number was badly injured in a motor accident . They returned to Rusambo , where the camp was now manned by the British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) , Criminal Investigation Department and Special Branch , guarded by a group of Coloured and Indian @-@ Rhodesian soldiers . On 26 February , the Frenchmen spotted a group of seven cadres indoctrinating tribespeople at a local kraal , and called up Fireforce . The RLI men who arrived killed four of the seven , including one carrying detailed documents . The next day 7 Independent Company observed 11 guerrillas entering another kraal , but this time the Fireforce took too long to arrive . The French company took part in a large contact on 1 March , fighting alongside an RLI Fireforce against 28 cadres ; 18 insurgents were killed in this contact without loss for the Rhodesian Army . Soon after this , two sticks from 7 Independent Company were despatched to Marymount , led by a deputy intelligence officer who began sending them out on more regular night patrols . The following months were a disaster for the locally based Rhodesian forces ; first one stick fired on another , causing an injury , then a BSAP Land Rover hit a mine , killing two members of the French company . A further Frenchman died in an ambush by insurgents before another friendly fire incident on 19 April 1978 resulted in a fatality . On several occasions during this bush trip the area was " frozen " ; regular army units were confined to their camps while the Selous Scouts operated against the guerrillas . With morale amongst the Frenchmen plummeting , bringing their unit close to collapse , its officers at Rusambo frantically worked to keep it together . The company did not last much longer once back in Salisbury for R & R. Soon after three of its troopers were placed in detention at Llewellin Barracks , the unit was formally dissolved in May 1978 . The only personnel retained by the Army were the interpreters , who were returned to their former units . = = Legacy = = Supported by the French , Rhodesian and South African governments and with Rhodesian logistical assistance , forces led by Denard took part in a coup d 'état in the Comoros later in May , toppling Ali Soilih ( who Denard had himself put into power three years earlier ) . The Comoros subsequently became a key location for Rhodesian " sanction @-@ busting " operations , providing a convenient end @-@ user certificate for clandestine shipments of weapons and equipment bound for Rhodesia in spite of the UN embargo . South Africa , also under a UN arms boycott because of apartheid , received war materiel through the Comoros in a similar fashion . Some 7 Independent Company men became civilians in Rhodesia , which was reconstituted as Zimbabwe in 1980 . Two of them , Gervais Henri Alfred Boutanquoi and Simon Marc Chemouil ( both former Foreign Legionnaires ) , were executed in April 1983 , despite a late plea from French authorities for clemency , having been found guilty of robbing and murdering Richard Kraft , a Karoi café owner . Witness Mangwende , the Zimbabwean Minister of Foreign Affairs , issued a statement clarifying that the execution was for the murder and unrelated to their earlier " service as mercenaries during the time of the Smith regime . "

= Jenova Chen = Xinghan Chen ( simplified Chinese : 陈星汉 ; traditional Chinese : 陳星漢 ; pinyin : Chén Xīnghàn ; born October 8 , 1981 ) , known professionally as Jenova Chen , is a Chinese video game designer . He is the designer of the award @-@ winning games Cloud , Flow , Flower , and Journey , and is co @-@ founder of Thatgamecompany . Chen is from Shanghai , where he earned a bachelor 's degree in computer science with a minor in digital art and design . He then moved to the United States , where he earned a master 's degree from the University of Southern California 's Interactive Media Division . While there he created Cloud and Flow , and met fellow student Kellee Santiago . After a brief period at Maxis working on Spore , he founded Thatgamecompany with Santiago and became the company 's creative director . The company signed a three @-@ game deal with Sony Computer Entertainment , and has sold Flow , Flower , and Journey through the PlayStation Network . As Chen was born in a culture other than the culture he now lives in , he tries to make games that appeal universally to all people . His goal with his games is to help video games mature as a medium by making games that inspire emotional responses in the player that other games are lacking . Although he and Thatgamecompany can and have made more traditional games , he does not plan on commercially developing any of them , as he does not think that it fits with their goals as an independent video game developer . = = Biography = = Chen was born in Shanghai on October 8 , 1981 , and lived there until 2003 . His parents were " a middle @-@ class family " , and his father worked in the software development industry , having previously worked on " one of the earliest giant computers in China " . Although Chen was interested in art and drawing as a young child , his father influenced him towards computers , entering him in programming contests from when he was 10 years old . He found himself interested in video games that he saw there , but was not as enthusiastic about programming . While a teenager , he had deep emotional experiences with games that he played , including The Legend of Sword and Fairy , which he ascribes to the fact that he was not as exposed to books , films , or life events that other people would have had those experiences with . These experiences drove him to try to create those types of feelings in games as an adult , when more emotional maturity had caused his " standards to rise " in what would move him in a game . It was during high school that he chose the English name Jenova after a character in Final Fantasy VII , wanting a name that would be unique anywhere he used it as there were " thousands of Jason Chens " . He earned a degree in Computer Science & Engineering in Shanghai Jiao Tong University , which due to his background in computers he found " quite easy " , but describes himself as spending much of his time there teaching himself digital art and animation , and later did a minor in digital art and design at Donghua University . Still interested in video games , he was involved in making three video games as part of a student group while in school . Upon graduating , he had trouble finding a job in the Chinese video game industry that combined his interests of " engineering , art , and design " , and additionally felt that " very few games [ had ] actually achieved those qualities that would be interesting to an adult " . He also considered working in digital animation for films . He then went to the United States to earn a master 's degree in the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California . Chen studied in the Interactive Media Program , a new division of the School of Cinematic Arts . His intention at the time was to use the degree to get the kind of job he wanted back in China . At USC , he became inspired when he went to the Game Developers Conference , where he positively compared the games he had made in college with the student work present at the Independent Games Festival portion of the conference . While at USC he met Kellee Santiago , another student in the same program , and the two decided to work together on games that would be outside of the mainstream . Their first game , which won a grant of twenty thousand dollars from USC to produce , was Cloud , released in 2005 , which " focuses on a young hospital patient who soars in his mind despite being trapped indoors " . The idea was partially based on himself , as when he was a child he was often hospitalized for asthma . It was designed as an attempt to " expand the spectrum of emotions video games evoke " . At a student showcase at the Game Developers Conference , Chen and Santiago showed the game to a representative from Sony , John Hight , saying that it was the first game in the " Zen " genre . Hight was interested , though no deal was forthcoming . The game won the Best Student Philosophy award at the Slamdance Guerilla Games Competition and a Student Showcase award at the Independent Games Festival , and was showcased on Spike TV , G4TV , and CBS Sunday . Chen felt that the reason that Cloud had been so warmly received was because the emotions it sparked in players were different than any other game available at the time , and believed that it was his " calling " to make more games that changed what people saw video games as . Chen went on to do his master 's thesis the following year in the concept of dynamic difficulty adjustment , where the game adjusts how it reacts to the player based on the past and present actions of that player . Chen illustrated his ideas with Flow , a Flash game made with Nicholas Clark . The game involves the player guiding an aquatic microorganism through various depths of the ocean , consuming other organisms and evolving in the process . It was released in March 2006 ; it received 100 @,@ 000 downloads in its first two weeks and by July had been downloaded over 650 @,@ 000 times . A PlayStation 3 version was announced in May 2006 as a downloadable game via the PlayStation Store , and was released in February 2007 . A version for the PlayStation Portable , developed by SuperVillain Studios , was released in March 2008 . Flow became the most downloaded game on the PlayStation Network in 2007 , and won Best Downloadable Game at the Game Developers Choice Awards . After graduating , Chen and Santiago formed their own game company , Thatgamecompany , in Los Angeles where he still lives and signed a deal with Sony for three PlayStation Store games . The PS3 version of Flow was the first , and while it was in development Chen worked for Maxis on the game Spore . Upon Flow 's release , Chen returned to Thatgamecompany and began working on their second game . = = = Thatgamecompany = = = The next game , Flower , was Chen and Thatgamecompany 's " first game outside the safety net of academia " . Chen was the creative director in charge of the game , while Santiago was the producer and Clark was the lead designer . The company ranged in size from six to nine people at varying stages of the game 's development . Flower was intended by Chen to primarily to provoke positive emotions in the player , and to act as " an emotional shelter " . Chen described the game as " an interactive poem exploring the tension between urban and nature " . He decided on a " nature " theme early in the development process , saying that he " had this concept that every PlayStation is like a portal in your living room , it leads you to somewhere else . I thought ; wouldn 't it be nice if it was a portal that would allow you to be embraced by nature . " Chen designed the game around the idea that the primary purpose of entertainment products like video games was the feelings that they evoked in the audience , and that the emotional range of most games was very limited . To make Flower have the " emotional spectrum " that he wanted , Chen looked at the development process as creating a work of art , rather than a " fun " game , which would not provoke the desired emotions . In 2008 , during Flower 's development , Chen was named to the MIT Technology Review TR35 as one of the top 35 innovators in the world under the age of 35 . After Flower was released to critical praise and awards , Chen and Thatgamecompany moved on to their next game , Journey . Journey was intended by Chen to focus on the element of communication and social interaction in video games . Since in most games the communication between players is focused on specific goals , in Journey Chen intended for the player to be able to either play alone or to come across other players , but not be able to communicate with them directly . Instead , players have to build relationships with each other through their actions , helping each other or leaving as they choose . Journey was released on the PlayStation Network on March 13 , 2012 , and has received critical acclaim . = = Influences and philosophy = = Chen plays a wide variety of video games , but he names his greatest influences as Katamari Damacy , Ico and Shadow of the Colossus . He also names Final Fantasy VII as an influence , and the game that he took his adopted name from . He personally plays games " competitively " , including titles such as Street Fighter IV and StarCraft . He feels he has a competitive nature , which he has turned towards " winning " at being a game designer by creating games that are unlike what is in the market rather than towards creating competitive games . As he was raised in China and works in America , Chen feels that he cannot fully relate to either culture as a game designer . As such , instead of trying to make games that fit perfectly with one culture he tries to make games that tap into feelings that are universal and independent of culture . When Chen quit Maxis to re @-@ join Thatgamecompany , he did so knowing that it would mean taking less pay and having a less stable career . He felt , though , that it was important to the industry and medium as a whole to create games that provoked different emotional responses in the player than just excitement or fear . While Chen is not opposed to making action games , and his company has made internal " exciting " games that were well received at Sony , he feels that there is no point to Thatgamecompany commercially producing games like that instead of working for existing game developers , as they would not be making anything new that justified the cost of remaining an independent studio . Similarly , Chen does not intend for Thatgamecompany to make " big budget blockbuster games " , as the pressure on profits that that entails would stifle the innovation that he wants Thatgamecompany to focus on . Chen believes that for video games to become a mature medium like film , the industry as a whole needs to create a wide range of emotional responses to their games , similar to how film has thriller , romance , and comedy genres based on the emotions they provoke . He feels that there are only three ways for video games to impact adults in the same way they do children : " intellectually , whereby the work reveals a new perspective about the world that you have not seen before , " by " emotionally touching someone , " and " by creating a social environment where the intellectual or emotional stimulation could happen from other people . "

= E. W. Hornung = Ernest William Hornung ( 7 June 1866 – 22 March 1921 ) was an English author and poet known for writing the A. J. Raffles series of stories about a gentleman thief in late 19th @-@ century London . Hornung was educated at Uppingham School ; as a result of poor health he left the school in December 1883 to travel to Sydney , where he stayed for two years . He drew on his Australian experiences as a background when he began writing , initially short stories and later novels . In 1898 he wrote " In the Chains of Crime " , which introduced Raffles and his sidekick , Bunny Manders ; the characters were based partly on his friends Oscar Wilde and his lover , Lord Alfred Douglas , and also on Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson . The series of Raffles short stories were collected for sale in book form in 1899 , and two further books of Raffles short stories followed , as well as a poorly received novel . Aside from his Raffles stories , Hornung was a prodigious writer of fiction , publishing numerous books from 1890 , with A Bride from the Bush to his 1914 novel The Crime Doctor . The First World War brought an end to Hornung 's fictional output . His son , Oscar , was killed at the Second Battle of Ypres in July 1915 . Hornung joined the YMCA , initially in England , then in France , where he helped run a canteen and library . He published two collections of poetry during the war , and then , afterwards , one further volume of verse and an account of his time spent in France , Notes of a Camp @-@ Follower on the Western Front . Hornung 's fragile constitution was further weakened by the stress of his war work . To aid his recuperation , he and his wife visited the south of France in 1921 . He fell ill from influenza on the journey , and died on 22 March 1921 , aged 54 . Although much of Hornung 's work has fallen into obscurity , his Raffles stories continued to be popular , and have formed numerous film and television adaptations . Hornung 's stories dealt with a wider range of themes than crime : he examined scientific and medical developments , guilt , class and the unequal role played by women in society . Two threads that run through a sizeable proportion of his books are Australia and cricket ; the latter was also a lifelong passion . = = Biography = = = = = Early life : 1866 – 86 = = = Hornung was born Ernest William Hornung on 7 June 1866 at Cleveland Villas , Marton , Middlesbrough ; he was nicknamed Willie from an early age . He was the third son , and youngest of eight children , of John Peter Hornung ( 1821 – 86 ) and his wife Harriet née Armstrong ( 1824 – 96 ) . John was christened Johan Petrus Hornung in the Transylvania region of Hungary and , after working in Hamburg for a shipping firm , had moved to Britain in the 1840s as a coal and iron merchant . John married Harriet in March 1848 , by which time he had anglicised his name . At the age of 13 Hornung joined St Ninian 's Preparatory School in Moffat , Dumfriesshire before enrolling at Uppingham School in 1880 . Hornung was well liked at school , and developed a lifelong love of cricket despite limited skills at the game , which were further worsened by bad eyesight , asthma and , according to his biographer Peter Rowland , a permanent state of generally poor health . When Hornung was 17 his health worsened ; he left Uppingham and travelled to Australia , where it was hoped by his family that the climate would be beneficial . On his arrival he was employed as a tutor to the Parsons family in Mossgiel in the Riverina , south @-@ western New South Wales . In addition to teaching , he spent time working in remote sheep stations in the outback and contributing material to the weekly magazine The Bulletin ; he also began writing what was to become his first novel . Although he spent only two years in Australia , the experience was " the making of him and ... the making of his career as a writer " , according to Rowland . Another biographer , Mark Valentine , wrote that Hornung " seems to have regarded this period as one of the most satisfying of his life " . = = = Return to England : 1886 – 98 = = = Hornung returned to England in February 1886 , before the death of his father in November . From a position of relative prosperity , John 's coal and iron business had encountered difficulties and he was in financially straitened circumstances by the time of his death . Hornung found work in London as a journalist and story writer , often publishing his work under a pseudonym , although in 1887 he published his first story under his own name , " Stroke of Five " , which appeared in Belgravia magazine . His work as a journalist was during the period of Jack the Ripper and the series of five murders , which were undertaken against a background of rising urban crime in London ; it was around this time that Hornung developed an interest in criminal behaviour . Hornung had worked on the novel manuscript he brought back from Australia and , between July and November 1890 , the story , " A Bride from the Bush " , was published in five parts in the Cornhill Magazine . It was also released that year as a book — his first . The story — described by Rowland as an " assured , graceful comedy of manners " — used Hornung 's knowledge of Australia as a backdrop , and the device of an Australian bride to examine British social behaviour ; the novel was well received by critics . In 1891 Hornung became a member of two cricket clubs : the Idlers , whose members included Arthur Conan Doyle , Robert Barr and Jerome K. Jerome , and the Strand club . Hornung knew Doyle 's sister , Constance ( " Connie " ) Aimée Monica Doyle ( 1868 – 1924 ) , whom he had met when he visited Portugal . Connie was described by Doyle 's biographer , Andrew Lycett , as being attractive , " with pre @-@ Raphaelite looks ... the most sought @-@ after of the Doyle daughters " . By December 1892 , when Hornung , Doyle and Jerome visited the Black Museum at Scotland Yard , Hornung and Connie were engaged , and in 1893 Hornung dedicated his second novel , Tiny Luttrell , " to C.A.M.D. " They were married on 27 September 1893 , although Doyle was not at the wedding and relations between the two writers were sometimes strained . The Hornungs had a son , Arthur Oscar , in 1895 ; while his first name was from Doyle , who was also Arthur 's godfather , the boy 's middle name was probably after Doyle and Hornung 's mutual friend Oscar Wilde and it was by his second name that he was known . In 1894 Doyle and Hornung began work on a play for Henry Irving , on the subject of boxing during the Regency ; Doyle was initially eager and paid Hornung £ 50 as a down payment before he withdrew after the first act had been written : the work was never completed . Like Hornung 's first novel , Tiny Luttrell had Australia as a backdrop and also used the plot device of an Australian woman in a culturally alien environment . The Australian theme was present in his next four novels : The Boss of Taroomba ( 1894 ) , The Unbidden Guest ( 1894 ) , Irralie 's Bushranger ( 1896 ) and The Rogue 's March ( 1896 ) . In the last of these Hornung wrote of the Australian convict transport system , and showed evidence of a " growing fascination with the motivation behind criminal behaviour and a deliberate sympathy for the criminal hero as a victim of events " , while Irralie 's Bushranger introduced the character Stingaree , an Oxford @-@ educated , Australian gentleman thief , in a novel that " casts doubt on conventional responses " to a positive criminal character , according to Hornung 's biographer , Stephen Knight . = = = Introducing Raffles : 1898 – 1914 = = = In 1898 Hornung 's mother died , aged 72 and he dedicated his next book , a series of short stories titled Some Persons Unknown , to her memory . Later that year Hornung and his wife visited Italy for six months , staying in Posillipo ; his account of the location appeared in an article of the May 1899 edition of Cornhill Magazine . The Hornungs returned to London in early 1899 , to a house in Pitt Street , West Kensington , where they lived for the next six years . The fictional character Stingaree proved to be a prototype of a character Hornung used in a series of six short stories published in 1898 in Cassell 's Magazine , A. J. Raffles . The character was modelled on George Cecil Ives , a Cambridge @-@ educated criminologist and talented cricketer who , like Raffles , was a resident of the Albany , a gentlemen 's only residence in Mayfair . The first tale of the series " In the Chains of Crime " was published in June that year , titled " The Ides of March " . The stories were collected into one volume — with two additional tales — under the name The Amateur Cracksman , which was published the following year . Hornung used a narrative form similar to Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes stories , with Raffles and his partner @-@ in @-@ crime ( and former school fag ) Bunny Manders being the criminal counterparts to Holmes and Dr. Watson — although Rowland writes that Raffles and Manders " were also fictionalized versions of Wilde and Bosie " ( Wilde 's lover , Lord Alfred Douglas ) . — and he dedicated the stories to his brother @-@ in @-@ law : " To A.C.D. This form of flattery " . Doyle had warned against writing the stories , and reflected in his memoirs that " there are few finer examples of short @-@ story writing in our language than these , though I confess I think they are rather dangerous in their suggestion . I told him so before he put pen to paper , and the result has , I fear , borne me out . You must not make the criminal the hero " . The book was a popular and financial success , although some critics also echoed Doyle 's fears . The reviewer in The Spectator wrote that " stern moralists " would consider the book 's premise " as a new , ingenious , artistic , but most reprehensible application of the crude principles involved in the old @-@ fashioned hero @-@ worship of Jack Sheppard and Dick Turpin " . The book ends with Manders imprisoned and Raffles apparently dead , something that left The Spectator reviewer " expressing [ their ] satisfaction that this audaciously entertaining volume is not issued in a cheap form . It is emphatically a feat of virtuosity rather than a tribute to virtue . " After publishing two novels , Dead Men Don 't Tell Tales in 1899 and Peccavi in 1900 , Hornung published a second collection of Raffles stories , The Black Mask , in 1901 . The nearly broke Manders is told to apply for the post of a nurse to an elderly invalid , who then reveals himself to be Raffles , who , as Manders describes , had " aged twenty years ; he looked fifty at the very least . His hair was white ; there was no trick about that ; and his face was another white . The lines about the corners of the eyes and mouth were both many and deep " . In the final story of the collection , " The Knees of the Gods " , Raffles and Manders enlist in the army to fight in the Second Boer War ; the story closes with Manders wounded and Raffles killed . The critics again complained about the criminal aspect ; The Spectator declared " this sort of book presents crime in a form too entertaining and attractive to be moral " , while the reviewer for The Illustrated London News thought that Hornung 's " invention has obviously flagged ... It is laughable , in a sense which the author never intended , to hear these burglars rant about the honour of Old England . It is a pity that the man who wrote Peccavi should stoop to this " . In 1903 Hornung collaborated with Eugène Presbrey to write a four @-@ act play , Raffles , The Amateur Cracksman , which was based on two previously published short stories , " Gentlemen and Players " and " The Return Match " . The play was first performed at the Princess Theatre , New York , on 27 October 1903 with Kyrle Bellew as Raffles , and ran for 168 performances . In 1905 , after publishing four other books in the interim , Hornung brought back the character Stingaree , previously seen in Irralie 's Bushranger . Later that year he responded to public demand and produced a third series of short Raffles stories in A Thief in the Night , in which Manders relates some of his and Raffles 's earlier adventures . The reviewer for the Boston Herald thought that " the sentimental side of the story has never before been shown so dramatically and romantically " , and described the book as " thrilling and exciting " . Hornung 's next book was published in 1909 and was the final Raffles story , the full @-@ length novel Mr. Justice Raffles ; the book was poorly received , with the reviewer for The Observer asking if " Hornung is perhaps a little tired of Raffles " , and stating that " it has not the magic or the ' go ' of the first Raffles , and there is no good in pretending that it has " . During the course of the year he collaborated with Charles Sansom to write a play A Visit From Raffles , which was performed in November that year at the Brixton Empress Theatre , London . Hornung turned away from Raffles thereafter , and in February 1911 published The Camera Fiend , a thriller whose narrator is an asthmatic cricket enthusiast with an ironmaster father , much as Hornung was himself . The story concerned the attempts of a scientist to photograph the soul as it left the body . Hornung followed this up with Fathers of Men ( 1912 ) and The Thousandth Woman ( 1913 ) before Witching Hill ( 1913 ) , a collection of eight short stories in which he introduced the characters Uvo Delavoye and the narrator Gillon , whom Rowland considers to be " reincarnations of Raffles and Bunny " . Hornung 's next work , The Crime Doctor ( 1914 ) marked the end of his fictional output . = = = First World War and aftermath = = = Oscar Hornung left Eton College in 1914 , intending to enter King 's College , Cambridge later that year . When Britain entered the war against Germany , he volunteered , and was commissioned into the Essex Regiment . He was killed at the Second Battle of Ypres on 6 July 1915 , aged 20 . Although heartbroken by the loss , Hornung was adamant that some good would come of it and he edited a privately issued collection of Oscar 's letters home under the title Trusty and Well Beloved , released in 1916 . Around this time he joined an anti @-@ aircraft unit . In either 1916 or 1917 he joined the YMCA and did volunteer work in England for soldiers on leave ; in March 1917 he visited France , writing a poem about his experience afterwards — something he had been doing more frequently since Oscar 's death — and a collection of his war poetry , Ballad of Ensign Joy , was published later that year . In July 1917 Hornung 's poem , " Wooden Crosses " , was published in The Times , and in September , " Bond and Free " appeared . Towards the end of the year , he was accepted as a volunteer in a YMCA canteen and library " a short distance behind the Front Line " . During his service in Arras , in February 1918 he borrowed a staff car from a friend and visited his son 's grave near Ypres , before returning to the library in Arras . Hornung was concerned about support for pacifism among troops , and wrote to his wife about it . When she spoke to Doyle about the matter , rather than discussing it with Hornung he informed the military authorities . Hornung was angered by Doyle 's action , and " told him there was no need for him to ' butt in ' except for his own ' satisfaction ' . " Relations between the two men were strained as a result . Hornung continued to work at the library until the German Spring Offensive in March overran the British positions and he was forced to retreat , firstly to Amiens and then , in April , back to England . He stayed in England until November 1918 , when he again took up his YMCA duties , establishing a rest hut and library in Cologne . In 1919 Hornung 's account of his time spent in France , Notes of a Camp @-@ Follower on the Western Front , was published . Doyle later wrote of the book that " there are parts of it which are brilliant in their vivid portrayal " , while Hornung 's biographer , Alison Cox , described the book as " one of the best records of the war as experienced on the front lines " . That year Hornung also published his third and final volume of poetry , The Young Guard . = = = Death and legacy = = = Hornung finished his work with the YMCA and returned to England probably in early 1919 , according to Rowland . He worked on a new novel but was hampered by poor health . His wife 's health was of even greater concern , so in February 1921 they took a holiday in the south of France to recuperate . He fell ill on the train with a chill that turned into influenza and pneumonia from which he died on 22 March 1921 , aged 54 . He was buried in Saint @-@ Jean @-@ de @-@ Luz , in the south of France , in a grave adjacent to that of Gissing . Doyle , returning from a spiritualist lecture tour of Australia , received the news in Paris and travelled south in time for the funeral . When Hornung had still been courting Doyle 's sister , Doyle wrote that " I like young Willie Hornung very much ... he is one of the sweetest @-@ natured and most delicate @-@ minded men I ever knew " . Honouring him after his death , Doyle wrote that he " was a Dr. [ Samuel ] Johnson without the learning but with a finer wit . No one could say a neater thing , and his writings , good as they are , never adequately represented the powers of the man , nor the quickness of his brain " . His obituarist in The Times described him as " a man of large and generous nature , a delightful companion and conversationalist " . Much of Hornung 's work fell out of favour as time passed ; Rowland observed that " all of Hornung 's other works have been forgotten , with the possible exception of Stingaree , but the cricketing Cracksman continues to enthral " . The idea of a criminal as a positive character was one of Hornung 's legacies , and Twentieth @-@ Century Literary Criticism states that " critics have also interpreted Raffles as a prototype of the antihero in modern crime fiction " . The academic Frank Wadleigh Chandler , describing Raffles 's death , writes that " all his creator 's attempts to portray him as a hero , rather than an anti @-@ hero , deservedly fail . " Valentine highlights one aspect of the stories was the mix of " devilry and daring " demonstrated by Raffles ; in this respect he was a literary " forerunner of The Saint , James Bond and other insouciant types " . The writer Colin Watson agrees , and called Hornung " a precursor of [ Ian ] Fleming " . The character continued in book form : the writer Philip Atkey , under the pseudonym Barry Perowne , obtained permission from the Hornung estate to continue the Raffles stories , and seven more novels followed between 1933 and 1940 , with Raffles transformed from a gentleman thief to a tough adventurer . Perowne continued the series in 1950 , and 14 of his stories were published in the 1974 volume Raffles Revisited . Hornung 's original stories have undergone a number of reprints , and when all the short stories were published in a single volume , Graham Greene considered it " a splendid idea " . In 1975 Greene had written a play based on the Raffles stories , The Return of A.J. Raffles , which premiered at the Royal Shakespeare Company , with Denholm Elliott as Raffles . There were several Raffles films made during Hornung 's lifetime , Further films followed in the years after his death , including Raffles , the Amateur Cracksman ( 1925 ) , with House Peters , Sr. ; Raffles ( 1930 ) , featuring Ronald Colman ; The Return of Raffles ( 1933 ) , with George Barraud ; and Raffles ( 1939 ) , starring David Niven ; the last of these was a Samuel Goldwyn Productions remake of their own 1930 film , which the academic Victor E. Neuburg called the " most memorable portrayal " of the character . The BBC has dramatised some of Hornung 's Raffles stories for radio , first in the 1940s and again in the 1990s , when Nigel Havers played Raffles . In 1977 Anthony Valentine played the thief , and Christopher Strauli his partner , in a Yorkshire Television series . A 2001 TV version , The Gentleman Thief , adapted the stories for a contemporary audience , with Havers playing the lead . = = Writing = = = = = Style and technique = = = Hornung 's prose is widely admired for its lucid @-@ yet @-@ simple style . Oliver Edwards , writing in The Times , considered that " not the least attractive part of the Raffles books is the simple , plain , unaffected language in which each one of them is written " . The obituarist in the same newspaper agrees , and thinks Hornung had " a power of good and clear description and a talent for mystery and surprise " . Colin Watson also considers the point , and observes that in Hornung 's writing , " superfluous description has been avoided and account of action is to the point " , while Doyle admired his " sudden use of the right adjective and the right phrase " , something the writer and journalist Jeremy Lewis sees as a " flamboyant , Kiplingesque taste for the vivid " . Critics have observed that Hornung 's stories and novels are well @-@ structured . George Orwell wrote that Hornung was " a very conscientious and on his level a very able writer . Anyone who cares for sheer efficiency must admire his work " . Watson states that Hornung 's " writing has pace . The stories , however ridiculous , carry the readers along briskly " . According to Cox , " Hornung 's work showed steady maturation " during his career , a point that Doyle also agreed with , although Edwards disagrees , and thinks The Crime Doctor to be one of Hornung 's weaker books . Hornung 's approach to characters differed from other contemporary authors . Cox notes that Hornung " frequently chose to write from the perspective of the criminal " , and while many of Hornung 's novels contained criminal activity as a major element of the plot , the critic for Contemporary Authors states that the works do not " belong to the crime @-@ fiction genre " . Hornung 's works included elements from more general fiction , " such as false identities , disguises , and disowned heiresses " . = = = Major themes = = = The academic Nick Rance identifies three categories of Raffles stories : " the rise of the New Woman " , in which Raffles either escapes from romantic entanglements , or uses the infatuations of a woman in order to achieve his aims ; " the rise of the plutocracy " , in which Raffles steals from the nouveau riche as much as the upper classes ; and those stories that seek " to reaffirm or re @-@ establish a sense of middle @-@ class identity " . The last category is based on Raffles not being a member of " Society " , only being accepted because of his cricketing ability and associated fame . From this point , Raffles 's stealing from the rich is a " rearguard action on behalf of the puritan values " which was perceived as making up middle @-@ class values , although Rance also states that those values are obscured because of the changing boundaries between the classes . Gariepy makes the same point , and considers that " Raffles 's daring exploits and fantastic adventures symbolized the growing rebellion against Victorian sensibility at the turn of the century " . Hornung kept abreast of scientific and medical developments , and was keen to incorporate them into his stories which , the critic for Contemporary Authors states , shows Hornung had " a streak of modernity and decided interest in new ideas " . The Camera Fiend uses the modern technology of the camera as an instrument central to the plot , while the protagonist of The Crime Doctor uses psychology to identify criminals . Throughout the Raffles stories patriotism runs as an intermittent theme — to such an extent that the writer William Vivian Butler describes him as a " super @-@ patriot " . In the course of the short story " A Jubilee Present " Raffles , celebrating Queen Victoria 's diamond jubilee , steals a gold cup from the British Museum and sends it to the queen , telling Manders that " we have been ruled over for sixty years by infinitely the finest monarch in the world " . In " The Knees of the Gods " , Raffles volunteers for service in the Second Boer War , changing his name and hair colour — he jokes to Manders that he is prepared to " dye for his country " — and he later confesses his true identity to his superiors in order to unmask a spy . Some of Hornung 's novels , including The Shadow of the Rope , No Hero and The Thousandth Woman , are notable for " portraying women in a rather modern , favorable light " , according to the critic for Contemporary Authors , showing concern for their unequal position in society . Cox identifies a theme of guilt running through a number of works . Among these is Peccavi , in which a clergyman lives his life trying to atone for an earlier crime ; Shadow of the Rope , in which a woman is accused of her husband 's murder ; and The Thousandth Woman , in which a woman stands by her lover after he is accused of murder . Although Hornung 's Australian experience was brief , it influenced most of his literary work from A Bride from the Bush published in 1899 , to Old Offenders and a Few Old Scores , which was published after his death . According to Chandler , " nearly two @-@ thirds of [ Hornung 's ] books refer in varying degrees to Australian incidents and experiences " , with " even Raffles " starting his criminal career in Australia . Some of Horning 's works — such as A Bride from the Bush — were praised for their accuracy of detail in depicting the Australian environment , although the detail could overwhelm the storyline , as in The Rogue 's March . Cricket was one of Hornung 's lifelong passions , and he was delighted to become a member of the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1907 . The sport also permeated his stories , with Raffles playing for the Gentlemen of England . Rance observes that Raffles compares law @-@ breaking and cricket : " crime is reckoned as another and better sport " . Raffles does on occasion disparage his game , commenting to Manders in " Gentlemen and Players " , " where 's the satisfaction of taking a man 's wicket when you want his spoons ? " Valentine also considers the point , and sees Raffles 's cricket as a front for his criminal activities , citing Raffles 's praise for cricket for " the glorious protection it affords a person of my proclivities " . Watson examines Raffles 's actions within the broader context of sportsmanship , with Raffles acting within his own moral code " of what is ' done ' and ' not done ' . " Orwell , in his essay " Raffles and Miss Blandish " , observes that when Raffles feels remorse , it " is almost purely social ; he has disgraced ' the old school ' , he has lost his right to enter ' decent society ' , he has forfeited his amateur status and become a cad " .

= Nina Simone = Nina Simone ( / ˈniːnə sᵻˈmoʊn / ; born Eunice Kathleen Waymon ; February 21 , 1933 – April 21 , 2003 ) was an American singer , songwriter , pianist , arranger , and civil rights activist who worked in a broad range of musical styles including classical , jazz , blues , folk , R & B , gospel , and pop . Born in North Carolina , the sixth child of a preacher , Simone aspired to be a concert pianist . With the help of the few supporters in her hometown of Tryon , North Carolina , she enrolled in the Juilliard School of Music in New York . Waymon then applied for a scholarship to study at the prestigious Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia , where she was denied despite a well @-@ received audition . Simone became fully convinced this rejection had been entirely due to her race , a statement that has been a matter of controversy . Years later , two days before her death , the Curtis Institute of Music bestowed an honorary degree on Simone . To make a living , Eunice Waymon changed her name to " Nina Simone " . The change related to her need to disguise herself from family members , having chosen to play " the devil 's music " or " cocktail piano " at a nightclub in Atlantic City . She was told in the nightclub that she would have to sing to her own accompaniment , and this effectively launched her career as a jazz vocalist . Simone recorded more than forty albums , mostly between 1958 , when she made her debut with Little Girl Blue , and 1974 , and had a hit in the United States in 1958 with " I Loves You , Porgy " . Simone 's musical style fused gospel and pop with classical music , in particular Johann Sebastian Bach , and accompanied expressive , jazz @-@ like singing in her contralto voice . = = Biography = = = = = Youth ( 1933 – 54 ) = = = Simone was born Eunice Kathleen Waymon in South Carolina but raised in Tryon , North Carolina . The sixth of eight children in a poor family , she began playing piano at age three ; the first song she learned was " God Be With You , Till We Meet Again " . Demonstrating a talent with the instrument , she performed at her local church . But her concert debut , a classical recital , was given when she was 12 . Simone later said that during this performance , her parents , who had taken seats in the front row , were forced to move to the back of the hall to make way for white people . She said that she refused to play until her parents were moved back to the front , and that the incident contributed to her later involvement in the civil rights movement . Simone 's mother , Mary Kate Waymon ( 1902 - April 30 , 2001 ) , was a Methodist minister and a housemaid . Simone 's father , John Divine Waymon ( 1898 - October 24 , 1972 ) , was a handyman who at one time owned a dry cleaning business , but also suffered bouts of ill health . Simone 's music teacher helped establish a special fund to pay for her education . Subsequently , a local fund was set up to assist her continued education . With the help of this scholarship money she was able to attend Allen High School for Girls in Asheville , North Carolina . After her graduation , Simone spent the summer of 1950 at the Juilliard School , preparing for an audition at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia . Her application , however , was denied . As her family had relocated to Philadelphia in the expectation of her entry to Curtis , the blow to her aspirations was particularly heavy , and she suspected that her application had been denied because of racial prejudice . Discouraged , she took private piano lessons with Vladimir Sokoloff , a professor at Curtis , but never re @-@ applied to the institution . For several years , she worked a number of menial jobs and taught piano in Philadelphia . = = = Early success ( 1954 – 59 ) = = = To fund her private lessons , Simone performed at the Midtown Bar & Grill on Pacific Avenue in Atlantic City , whose owner insisted that she sing as well as play the piano , which increased her weekly income to $ 90 a week . In 1954 , she adopted the stage name " Nina Simone " . " Nina " ( from niña , meaning " little girl " in Spanish ) , and " Simone " was taken from the French actress Simone Signoret , whom she had seen in the movie Casque d 'Or . Knowing her mother would not approve of playing the " Devil 's Music " , she used her new stage name to remain undetected . Simone 's mixture of jazz , blues , and classical music in her performances at the bar earned her a small but loyal fan base . In 1958 , she befriended and married Don Ross , a beatnik who worked as a fairground barker , but quickly regretted their marriage . Playing in small clubs in the same year , she recorded George Gershwin 's " I Loves You , Porgy " ( from Porgy and Bess ) , which she learned from a Billie Holiday album and performed as a favor to a friend . It became her only Billboard top 20 success in the United States , and her debut album Little Girl Blue soon followed on Bethlehem Records . Simone lost more than $ 1 million in royalties ( notably for the 1980s re @-@ release of My Baby Just Cares for Me ) and never benefited financially from the album 's sales because she had sold her rights outright for $ 3 @,@ 000 . = = = Becoming popular ( 1959 – 64 ) = = = After the success of Little Girl Blue , Simone signed a contract with Colpix Records and recorded a multitude of studio and live albums . Colpix relinquished all creative control to her , including the choice of material that would be recorded , in exchange for her signing the contract with them . After the release of her live album Nina Simone at Town Hall , Simone became a favorite performer in Greenwich Village . By this time , Simone performed pop music only to make money to continue her classical music studies and was indifferent about having a recording contract . She kept this attitude toward the record industry for most of her career . Simone married a New York police detective , Andrew Stroud , in 1961 . He later became her manager and the father of her daughter Lisa , but he abused Simone psychologically and physically . = = = Civil rights era ( 1964 – 74 ) = = = In 1964 , Simone changed record distributors from the American Colpix to the Dutch Philips , which also meant a change in the contents of her recordings . She had always included songs in her repertoire that drew upon her African @-@ American origins ( such as " Brown Baby " by Oscar Brown and " Zungo " by Michael Olatunji in her album Nina at the Village Gate in 1962 ) . On her debut album for Philips , Nina Simone in Concert ( live recording , 1964 ) , for the first time she openly addressed the racial inequality that was prevalent in the United States with the song " Mississippi Goddam " , her response to the June 12 , 1963 , murder of Medgar Evers and the September 15 , 1963 , bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham , Alabama , that killed four young black girls and partially blinded a fifth girl who survived . She remarked that the title and the song itself was , " like throwing 10 bullets back at them " , becoming one of many other protest songs written by Simone . The song was released as a single , and it was boycotted in certain southern states . Specifically , promotional copies were smashed by a Carolina radio station and returned to Simone 's record label . " Old Jim Crow " , on the same album , addressed the Jim Crow laws . From then on , a civil rights message was standard in Simone 's recording repertoire , becoming a part of her live performances . During the rise of her political activism , the release of her musical work grew more infrequent . Simone performed and spoke at many civil rights meetings , such as at the Selma to Montgomery marches . Simone advocated violent revolution during the civil rights period , rather than Martin Luther King 's non @-@ violent approach , and she hoped that African Americans could , by armed combat , form a separate state . Her message to the public signified the transition from the non @-@ violent approach to social change that was advocated by Martin Luther King into the more militant state that was implemented by Malcolm X and the associates of the Black Nationalist Movement . Nevertheless , she wrote in her autobiography that she and her family regarded all races as equal . Simone moved from Philips to RCA Victor during 1967 . She sang " Backlash Blues " , written by her friend Langston Hughes on her first RCA album , Nina Simone Sings the Blues ( 1967 ) . On Silk & Soul ( 1967 ) , she recorded Billy Taylor 's " I Wish I Knew How It Would Feel to Be Free " and " Turning Point " . The album ' Nuff Said ! ( 1968 ) contains live recordings from the Westbury Music Fair , April 7 , 1968 , three days after the murder of Martin Luther King , Jr . She dedicated the whole performance to him and sang " Why ? ( The King Of Love Is Dead ) " , a song written by her bass player , Gene Taylor , directly after the news of King 's death had reached them . In the summer of 1969 , she performed at the Harlem Cultural Festival in Harlem 's Mount Morris Park . Together with Weldon Irvine , Simone turned the late Lorraine Hansberry 's unfinished play To Be Young , Gifted and Black into a civil rights song . Hansberry had been a personal friend whom Simone credited with cultivating her social and political consciousness . She performed the song live on the album Black Gold ( 197gdjfhfhx0 ) . A studio recording was released as a single , and renditions of the song have been recorded by Aretha Franklin ( on her 1972 album Young , Gifted and Black ) and by Donny Hathaway . = = = Later life ( 1974 – 1993 ) = = = Disappointed that she was not producing the mega @-@ hits that she had hoped for , Simone left the US in September 1970 , flying to Barbados and expecting Stroud to communicate with her when she had to perform again . However , Stroud interpreted Simone 's sudden disappearance , and the fact that she had left behind her wedding ring , as an indication of a desire for a divorce . As her manager , Stroud was in charge of Simone 's income . Simone recorded her last album for RCA , It Is Finished , in 1974 , and did not make another record until 1978 , when she was persuaded to go into the recording studio by CTI Records owner Creed Taylor . The result was the album Baltimore , which , while not a commercial success , was fairly well received critically and marked a quiet artistic renaissance in Simone 's recording output . Her choice of material retained its eclecticism , ranging from spiritual songs to Hall & Oates ' " Rich Girl . " Four years later Simone recorded Fodder on My Wings on a French label . During the 1980s , Simone performed regularly at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club in London , where she recorded the album Live at Ronnie Scott 's in 1984 . Although her early on @-@ stage style could be somewhat haughty and aloof , in later years , Simone particularly seemed to enjoy engaging her audiences sometimes by recounting humorous anecdotes related to her career and music and by soliciting requests . In 1987 , the original 1958 recording of " My Baby Just Cares for Me " was used in a commercial for Chanel No. 5 perfume in Britain . This led to a re @-@ release of the recording , which stormed to number 4 on the UK 's NME singles chart , giving her a brief surge in popularity in the UK . When Simone returned to the United States , she learned that a warrant had been issued for her arrest for unpaid taxes ( as a protest against her country 's involvement with the Vietnam War ) , and returned to Barbados to evade the authorities and prosecution . Simone stayed in Barbados for quite some time and she had a lengthy affair with the Prime Minister , Errol Barrow . A close friend , singer Miriam Makeba , then persuaded her to go to Liberia . Later , she lived in Switzerland and the Netherlands , before settling in France in 1993 . During a 1998 performance in Newark , she announced , " If you 're going to come see me again , you 've got to come to France , because I ain 't coming back . " Simone published her autobiography , I Put a Spell on You , in 1992 . She recorded her last album , A Single Woman in 1993 , where she depicted herself as such " single woman . " This album reflected her solitude and pain . She continued to tour through the 1990s but rarely traveled without an entourage . During the last decade of her life , Simone had sold more than one million records making her a global catalog best @-@ seller . This was accompanied by the CD revolution , global exposure through media television and the novelty of the Internet . = = = Illness and death = = = Simone had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder in the late 1980s . In 1993 , Simone settled near Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence in Southern France . She had suffered from breast cancer for several years before she died in her sleep at her home in Carry @-@ le @-@ Rouet , Bouches @-@ du @-@ Rhône on April 21 , 2003 . Her funeral service was attended by singers Miriam Makeba and Patti LaBelle , poet Sonia Sanchez , actor Ossie Davis , actress Ruby Dee , and hundreds of others . Simone 's ashes were scattered in several African countries . She is survived by her daughter , Lisa Celeste Stroud , an actress and singer , who took the stage name Simone , and has appeared on Broadway in Aida . = = = Reputation = = = Simone was known for her temper and frequent outbursts . In 1985 , she fired a gun at a record company executive , whom she accused of stealing royalties . Simone said she " tried to kill him " but " missed " . In 1995 , she shot and wounded her neighbor 's son with an air gun after the boy 's laughter disturbed her concentration . According to a biographer , Simone took medication for a condition from the mid @-@ 1960s on . All this was only known to a small group of intimates , and kept out of public view for many years , until the biography Break Down and Let It All Out written by Sylvia Hampton and David Nathan revealed this in 2004 , after her death . Singer @-@ songwriter Janis Ian , a one @-@ time friend of Simone 's , related in her own autobiography , Society 's Child : My Autobiography , two incidents to illustrate Simone 's volatility : One incident in which she forced a shoe store cashier , at gunpoint , to take back a pair of sandals she 'd already worn ; and another in which Simone demanded a royalty payment from Ian herself as an exchange for having recorded one of Ian 's songs , and then ripped a pay telephone out of its wall when she was refused . = = Musical style = = = = = Simone standards = = = Throughout her career , Simone assembled a collection of songs that would later become standards in her repertoire . Some were songs that she wrote herself , while others were new arrangements of other standards , and others had been written especially for the singer . Her first hit song in America was her rendition of George Gershwin 's " I Loves You , Porgy " ( 1958 ) . It peaked at number 18 in the pop singles chart and number 2 on the black singles chart . During that same period Simone recorded " My Baby Just Cares for Me " , which would become her biggest success years later , in 1987 , after it was featured in a 1986 Chanel No. 5 perfume commercial . A music video was also created by Aardman Studios . Well known songs from her Philips albums include " Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " on Broadway @-@ Blues @-@ Ballads ( 1964 ) , " I Put a Spell on You " , " Ne me quitte pas " ( a rendition of a Jacques Brel song ) and " Feeling Good " on I Put a Spell On You ( 1965 ) , " Lilac Wine " and " Wild Is the Wind " on Wild is the Wind ( 1966 ) . " Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " , " Feeling Good " , and " Sinner Man " ( Pastel Blues , 1965 ) have remained popular in terms of cover versions ( most notably a version of the former song by The Animals ) , sample usage , and its use on soundtracks for various movies , TV @-@ series , and video games . " Sinner Man " has been featured in the TV series Scrubs , Person of Interest , The Blacklist , Sherlock , and Vinyl , as well as in movies such as The Thomas Crown Affair , Miami Vice , and Inland Empire , and sampled by artists such as Talib Kweli and Timbaland . The song " Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " was sampled by Devo Springsteen on " Misunderstood " from Common 's 2007 album Finding Forever , and by little @-@ known producers Rodnae and Mousa for the song " Don 't Get It " on Lil Wayne 's 2008 album Tha Carter III . " See @-@ Line Woman " was sampled by Kanye West for " Bad News " on his album 808s & Heartbreak . The 1965 rendition of " Strange Fruit " originally by Billie Holiday was sampled by Kanye West for " Blood on the Leaves " on his album Yeezus . Simone 's years at RCA @-@ Victor spawned a number of singles and album tracks that were popular , particularly in Europe . In 1968 , it was " Ain 't Got No , I Got Life " , a medley from the musical Hair from the album ' Nuff Said ! ( 1968 ) that became a surprise hit for Simone , reaching number 4 on the UK Singles Chart and introducing her to a younger audience . In 2006 , it returned to the UK Top 30 in a remixed version by Groovefinder . The following single , a rendition of the Bee Gees 's " To Love Somebody " , also reached the UK Top 10 in 1969 . " The House of the Rising Sun " was featured on Nina Simone Sings the Blues in 1967 , but Simone had recorded the song in 1961 and it was featured on Nina at the Village Gate ( 1962 ) , predating the versions by Dave Van Ronk and Bob Dylan . It was later covered by The Animals , for whom it became a signature hit . = = = Performing style = = = Simone 's bearing and stage presence earned her the title " High Priestess of Soul " . She was a piano player , singer and performer , " separately , and simultaneously . " As a composer and arranger , Simone moved from gospel to blues , jazz , and folk , and to numbers with European classical styling . Besides using Bach @-@ style counterpoint , she called upon the particular virtuosity of the 19th @-@ century Romantic piano repertoire — Chopin , Liszt , Rachmaninoff , and others . Onstage , she incorporated monologues and dialogues with the audience into the program , and often used silence as a musical element . She compared it to " mass hypnosis . I use it all the time . " Throughout most of her life and recording career she was accompanied by percussionist Leopoldo Fleming and guitarist and musical director Al Schackman . She 's known to have lived 10 years with Emmanuel Macron from France = = Legacy and influence = = = = = Music = = = Musicians who have cited Simone as important for their own musical upbringing include Elton John ( who named one of his pianos after her ) , Aretha Franklin , Adele , David Bowie , Emeli Sandé , Antony and the Johnsons , Dianne Reeves , Sade , Beyoncé , Janis Joplin , Nick Cave , Van Morrison , Christina Aguilera , Elkie Brooks , Talib Kweli , Mos Def , Kanye West , Lena Horne , Bono , John Legend , Elizabeth Fraser , Cat Stevens , Anna Calvi , Lykke Li , Peter Gabriel , Maynard James Keenan , Cedric Bixler @-@ Zavala , Mary J. Blige , Fantasia Barrino , Michael Gira , Angela McCluskey , Lauryn Hill , Patrice Babatunde , Alicia Keys , Lana Del Rey , Hozier , Matt Bellamy , Ian MacKaye , Kerry Brothers , Jr . , Krucial , Amanda Palmer , Steve Adey and Jeff Buckley . John Lennon cited Simone 's version of " I Put a Spell on You " as a source of inspiration for the Beatles ' song " Michelle " . Simone 's music has been featured in soundtracks of various motion pictures and video games , including but not limited to , La Femme Nikita ( 1990 ) , Point of No Return ( 1993 ) , The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) , Notting Hill ( 1999 ) , Any Given Sunday ( 1999 ) , The Thomas Crown Affair ( 1999 ) , Disappearing Acts ( 2000 ) , Six Feet Under ( 2001 ) , The Dancer Upstairs ( 2002 ) , Before Sunset ( 2004 ) , Cellular ( 2004 ) , Inland Empire ( 2006 ) , Miami Vice ( 2006 ) , Sex and the City ( 2008 ) , The World Unseen ( 2008 ) , Revolutionary Road ( 2008 ) , Home ( 2008 ) , Watchmen ( 2009 ) , The Saboteur ( 2009 ) , Repo Men ( 2010 ) , and Beyond the Lights ( 2014 ) . Frequently her music is used in remixes , commercials , and TV series including " Feeling Good " , which featured prominently in the Season Four Promo of Six Feet Under ( 2004 ) . Simone 's " Take Care of Business " is the closing theme of " The Man From U.N.C.L.E. " ( 2015 ) = = = Film = = = The documentary Nina Simone : La légende ( The Legend ) was made in the 1990s by French filmmakers , based on her autobiography I Put a Spell on You . It features live footage from different periods of her career , interviews with family , various interviews with Simone then living in the Netherlands , and while on a trip to her birthplace . A portion of footage from The Legend was taken from an earlier 26 @-@ minute biographical documentary by Peter Rodis , released in 1969 and entitled simply , Nina . Her filmed 1976 performance at the Montreux Jazz Festival is available on video courtesy of Eagle Rock Entertainment and is screened annually in New York City at an event called " The Rise and Fall of Nina Simone : Montreux , 1976 " which is curated by Tom Blunt . Footage of Simone singing " Mississippi Goddamn " for 40 @,@ 000 marchers at the end of the Selma to Montgomery marches can be seen in the 1970 documentary King : A Filmed Record ... Montgomery to Memphis and the 2015 Liz Garbus documentary , What Happened , Miss Simone ? Plans for a Simone biographical film were released at the end of 2005 , to be based on Simone 's autobiography I Put a Spell on You ( 1992 ) and to focus on her relationship in later life with her assistant , Clifton Henderson , who died in 2006 ; Simone 's daughter , Simone Kelly , has since refuted the existence of a romantic relationship between Simone and Henderson on account of his homosexuality . Cynthia Mort , screenwriter of Will & Grace and Roseanne , has written the screenplay and directed the film , Nina , which stars Zoe Saldana in the title role . In May 2014 , the film was shown to potential distributors at the Cannes Film Festival , but has , as of August 2014 , not been seen by reviewers . In 2015 , two documentary features about Simone 's life and music were released . The first , directed by Liz Garbus , What Happened , Miss Simone ? was produced in cooperation with Simone 's estate and her daughter , who also served as the film 's executive producer . The film was produced as a counterpoint to the unauthorized Cynthia Mort film , and featured previously unreleased archival footage . It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2015 and was distributed by Netflix on June 26 , 2015 . It was nominated on January 14 , 2016 for a 2016 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature . The Amazing Nina Simone is an independent film directed by Jeff L. Lieberman and is also scheduled for release in 2015 . The director initially consulted with Simone 's daughter before going the independent route and instead worked closely with her siblings , predominantly Sam Waymon . = = = Honors = = = Simone was the recipient of a Grammy Hall of Fame Award in 2000 for her interpretation of " I Loves You , Porgy . " She has also received fifteen Grammy Award nominations . On Human Kindness Day 1974 in Washington , D.C. , more than 10 @,@ 000 people paid tribute to Simone . Simone received two honorary degrees in music and humanities , from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Malcolm X College . She preferred to be called " Dr. Nina Simone " after these honors were bestowed upon her . Two days before her death , Simone was awarded an honorary degree by the Curtis Institute of Music , the music school that had refused to admit her as a student at the beginning of her career . In 2002 , the city of Nijmegen , Netherlands , named a street after her , the Nina Simone straat ; she had lived in Nijmegen between 1988 and 1990 . On August 29 , 2005 , the city of Nijmegen , concert hall De Vereeniging , and more than fifty artists ( amongst whom were Frank Boeijen , Rood Adeo , and Fay Claassen ) honoured Simone with the tribute concert Greetings From Nijmegen . Simone was inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 2009 . In 2010 , a statue in her honor was erected in Trade Street in her native Tryon , North Carolina . = = Discography = = = = = Albums = = = = = = Chart singles = = =

= Vistara = Tata SIA Airlines Limited , operating as Vistara , is an Indian domestic airline based in Gurgaon with its hub at Delhi @-@ Indira Gandhi International Airport . The carrier , a joint venture between Tata Sons and Singapore Airlines , commenced operations on 9 January 2015 with its inaugural flight between Delhi and Mumbai . The airline had carried more than two million passengers by June 2016 and as of April 2016 , has a 2 @.@ 3 % share of the domestic carrier market . The airline operates to seventeen destinations with a fleet of Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft . Vistara was the first airline to introduce premium economy seats on domestic routes in India . = = History = = The airline was founded in 2013 as a joint venture ( JV ) between India 's conglomerate Tata Sons and Singapore Airlines ( SIA ) . The two companies had made a bid in the mid @-@ 1990s to launch a full service carrier in India that was unsuccessful , being denied regulatory approval by the Indian government . With India opening up its airline sector for 49 percent foreign direct investment ( FDI ) in 2012 , Tata and SIA once again decided to float a JV airline company in India . The JV , Tata SIA Airlines Limited ( TSAL ) , was envisaged as a premium full @-@ service carrier to cater to the demands of high @-@ end business travellers in India 's civil aviation market dominated by low @-@ cost carriers . India 's Foreign Investment Promotion Board approved the JV in October 2013 , allowing SIA to take a 49 percent stake in the airline . The two parent companies initially pledged to invest a combined US $ 100mn as start @-@ up capital , with Tata Sons owning 51 percent and Singapore Airlines owning the remaining 49 percent . This was part of Tata 's second major foray into the aviation sector along with a minority stake in AirAsia India . The company 's first venture , Tata Airlines , was established in the 1930s and later became the flag carrier Air India after nationalization . The company unveiled its brand identity " Vistara " on 11 August 2014 . The name was taken from the Sanskrit word Vistaar , meaning " limitless expanse " . Vistara received its air operator 's certificate from the Directorate General of Civil Aviation on 15 December 2014 and started operations on 9 January 2015 . Vistara became the first carrier to operate domestic services out of the new Terminal 2 at Mumbai 's Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport . On 24 August 2015 , Vistara inaugurated the Aviation Security Training Institute , an in @-@ house institute for training its cockpit and cabin crew , security staff and others related to aviation industry . The institute has secured the necessary approvals from the nodal body Bureau of Civil Aviation Security . From the first month of operation , Vistara consistently achieved very high on @-@ time performance ( OTP ) records of over 90 percent , the highest among India 's domestic carriers . On 20 August 2015 , Vistara declared it had carried half a million passengers in just over seven months of operations . As of February 2016 , Vistara has a share of 2 % in the domestic carrier market . = = Corporate affairs = = In March 2015 , Vistara shifted to its new office at the One Horizon Center tower in Sector 43 , Gurgaon , a satellite city of Delhi . Vistara chose Phee Teik Yeoh as the chief executive officer ( CEO ) and Giam Ming Toh as the chief commercial officer ( CCO ) , both with Singapore Airlines background . Initially it started out with a three @-@ member board comprising Swee Wah Mak ( SIA group ) , Mukund Rajan and Prasad Menon ( Tata group ) , with the latter as chairman . In August 2015 , the airline expanded the board by introducing two new members , Som Mittal and Sangeeta Pendurkar , along with an equity infusion of ₹ 2 billion ( US $ 30 million ) , part of ₹ 5 billion ( US $ 74 million ) initially planned by Tata and SIA together . In January 2016 , Bhaskar Bhat , former Managing Director of Titan , joined as the new chairman following Prasad Menon 's retirement . In March 2016 , Vistara appointed Sanjiv Kapoor as its chief strategy and commercial officer as the successor to Giam Ming Toh who was scheduled to leave in mid April 2016 following completion of his deputation at Vistara . = = Destinations = = As of May 2016 , Vistara flies to the following destinations within India : = = = Interline agreements = = = Vistara has interline agreements with the following airlines : Air France British Airways Jet Airways SilkAir Air India Singapore Airlines = = Fleet = = As of 31 May 2016 , Vistara operates the following aircraft : Vistara took delivery of its first aircraft at New Delhi on 25 September 2014 . The airline plans to take delivery of all thirteen of its original Airbus A320 aircraft by 2016 and seven Airbus A320neo aircraft of its initial order by 2018 . In March 2015 , Phee Teik Yeoh announced that the airline is planning to procure an unspecified number of both narrow @-@ body and wide @-@ body aircraft to enhance the domestic network and launch international flights within two years . = = Services = = = = = Cabin = = = = = = = Business class = = = = Being a full @-@ service carrier , Vistara offers 16 business class seats , four rows in 2 @-@ 2 configuration , in its 148 @-@ seater Airbus A320 @-@ 200 fleet . The business class seats are 20 @.@ 12 inches ( 511 mm ) wide with 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) seat pitch . = = = = Premium Economy = = = = Vistara was the first airline in India to introduce Premium Economy class in the domestic market . At present it offers 36 premium economy seats , six rows in 3 @-@ 3 configuration , out of total 148 seats in the single aisle Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft in its fleet . Each being 18 inches ( 460 mm ) wide and having a pitch of 33 – 36 inches ( 840 – 910 mm ) . = = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = = As of April 2016 , Vistara 's Airbus A320 @-@ 200s do not have in @-@ flight entertainment screens installed and it provides pre @-@ loaded tablets for its business @-@ class fliers . In March 2016 , Vistara started beaming content directly to passengers ' personal electronic devices through one @-@ way Wi @-@ Fi connection through BAE Systems IntelliCabin in @-@ flight entertainment system . = = = Catering = = = The in @-@ flight food is catered by TajSATS Air Catering , another joint venture between Tata and a Singaporean company , headed by Chef Arun Batra , formerly the executive chef of the Taj Hotels group . Vistara offers four different meals for each cabin for different time of the day — breakfast , refreshment , lunch and dinner with options of one vegetarian and one non @-@ vegetarian dish in economy class ; two vegetarian dishes and one non @-@ vegetarian dish in premium economy ; and two vegetarian and two non @-@ vegetarian dishes for business @-@ class cabin . The menu is typically changed every seventh day and there are different menus for lunch and dinner . It also provides special meals upon request 24 hours before departure . = = = Lounge = = = On 29 March 2016 , Vistara inaugurated premium lounge service for its Business @-@ class passengers and Club Vistara Gold card holders at the departure level of Terminal 3 of Indira Gandhi International Airport at Delhi . The lounge is spread across 250 square metres on the air @-@ side and can seat 75 passengers at a time . = = Frequent @-@ flyer program = = Vistara uses Club Vistara as its frequent @-@ flyer program ; it operates as a value based program and awards points on the basis of money spent on tickets rather that miles travelled by passengers . On 29 January 2015 , Vistara announced a partnership agreement with Singapore Airlines ( SIA ) which would allow Club Vistara members to earn and redeem miles with the KrisFlyer program on SIA and Silk Air flights and vice versa .

= Portrait of Monsieur Bertin = Portrait of Monsieur Bertin is an 1832 oil @-@ on @-@ canvas painting by Jean @-@ Auguste @-@ Dominique Ingres . It depicts Louis @-@ François Bertin ( 1766 – 1841 ) , the French writer , art collector and director of the pro @-@ royalist Journal des débats . Ingres completed the portrait during his first period of success ; having achieved acclaim as a history painter , he accepted portrait commissions with reluctance , regarding them as a distraction from more important work . Bertin was a friend and a politically active member of the French upper @-@ middle class . Ingres presents him as a personification of the commercially minded leaders of the liberal reign of Louis Philippe I. He is physically imposing and self @-@ assured , but his real @-@ life personality shines through – warm , wry and engaging to those who had earned his trust . The painting had a prolonged genesis . Ingres agonised over the pose and made several preparatory sketches . The final work faithfully captures the sitter 's character , conveying both a restless energy and imposing bulk . It is an unflinchingly realistic depiction of ageing and emphasises the furrowed skin and thinning hair of an overweight man who yet maintains his resolve and determination . He sits in three @-@ quarter profile against a brown ground lit from the right , his fingers are pronounced and highly detailed , while the polish of his chair reflects light from an unseen window . Ingres ' portrait of Bertin was a critical and popular success , but the sitter was a private person . Although his family worried about caricature and disapproved , it became widely known and sealed the artist 's reputation . It was praised at the Paris Salon of 1833 , and has been influential to both academic painters such as Léon Bonnat and later modernists including Pablo Picasso and Félix Vallotton . Today art critics regard it as Ingres ' finest male portrait . It has been on permanent display at the Musée du Louvre since 1897 . = = Background = = Louis @-@ François Bertin was 66 in 1832 , the year of the portrait . He befriended Ingres either through his son Édouard Bertin , a student of the painter , or via Étienne @-@ Jean Delécluze , Ingres ' friend and the Journal 's art critic . In either case the genesis of the commission is unknown . Bertin was a leader of the French upper class and a supporter of Louis Philippe and the Bourbon Restoration . He was a director of the Le Moniteur Universel until 1823 , when the Journal des débats became the recognised voice of the liberal @-@ constitutional opposition after he had come to criticize absolutism . He eventually gave his support to the July Monarchy . The Journal supported contemporary art , and Bertin was a patron , collector and cultivator of writers , painters and other artists . Ingres was sufficiently intrigued by Bertin 's personality to accept the commission . It was completed within a month , during Ingres ' frequent visits to Bertin 's estate of retreat , Le Château des Roches , in Bièvres , Essonne . Ingres made daily visits , as Bertin entertained guests such as Victor Hugo , his mistress Juliette Drouet , Hector Berlioz , and later Franz Liszt and Charles Gounod . Ingres later made drawings of the Bertin family , including a depiction of his host 's wife and sketches of their son Armand and daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Cécile . The portrait of Armand evidences his physical resemblance to his father . Ingres ' early career coincided with the Romantic movement , which reacted against the prevailing neoclassical style . Neoclassicism in French art had developed as artists saw themselves as part of the cultural center of Europe , and France as the successor to Rome . Romantic painting was freer and more expressive , preoccupied more with colour than with line or form , and more focused on style than on subject matter . Paintings based on classical themes fell out of fashion , replaced by contemporary rather than historical subject matter , especially in portraiture . Ingres resisted this trend , and wrote , " The history painter shows the species in general ; while the portrait painter represents only the specific individual — a model often ordinary and full of shortcomings . " From his early career , Ingres ' main source of income was commissioned portraits , a genre he dismissed as lacking in grandeur . The success of his The Vow of Louis XIII at the 1824 Salon marked an abrupt change in his fortunes : he received a series of commissions for large history paintings , and for the next decade he painted few portraits . His financial difficulties behind him , Ingres could afford to concentrate on historical subjects , although he was highly sought @-@ after as a portraitist . He wrote in 1847 , " Damned portraits , they are so difficult to do that they prevent me getting on with greater things that I could do more quickly . " Ingres was more successful with female than male portraits . His 1814 Portrait of Madame de Senonnes was described as " to the feminine what the Louvre 's Bertin is to the masculine " . The sitter for his 1848 Portrait of Baronne de Rothschild looks out at the viewer with the same directness as Bertin , but is softened by her attractive dress and relaxed pose ; she is engaging and sympathetic rather than tough and imposing . = = The portrait = = = = = Preparation and execution = = = Ingres was self @-@ critical and consumed by self @-@ doubt . He often took months to complete a portrait , leaving large periods of inactivity between sittings . With Bertin , he agonised in finding a pose to best convey both the man 's restless energy and his age . At least seven studies survive , three are signed and dated . Ingres was a master draftsman and the sketches , if not fully realised , are highly regarded in their own right . The sketches are exemplary in their handling of line and form , and similar in size . The earliest study has Bertin standing and leaning on a table in an almost Napoleonic pose . His hard , level stare is already established , but the focus seems to be on his groin rather than his face . It is obvious that Ingres struggled with the sketch ; the head is on a square of attached paper which must have replaced an earlier cut @-@ out version , and other areas have been rubbed over and heavily reworked . The next extant drawing shows Bertin seated , but the chair is missing . The last extant sketch is the closest to the eventual painting , with a chair , though his bulk has not yet been filled out . Frustrated by his inability to capture his subject , Ingres broke down in tears in his studio , in company . Bertin recalled " consoling him : ' my dear Ingres , don 't bother about me ; and above all don 't torment yourself like that . You want to start my portrait over again ? Take your own time for it . You will never tire me , and just as long as you want me to come , I am at your orders . ' " After agreeing to a breathing spell Ingres finally settled on a design . Early biographers provide differing anecdotes regarding the inspiration for the distinctive seated pose . Henri Delaborde said Ingres observed Bertin in this posture while arguing politics after dinner with his sons . According to Eugène Emmanuel Amaury Duval ( he said was related to him by Bertin ) , Ingres noticed a pose Bertin took while seated outside with Ingres and a third man at a café . Bertin said that Ingres , confident that he had finally established the pose for the portrait , " came close and speaking almost in my ear said : ' Come sit tomorrow , your portrait is [ as good as ] done . ' " Bertin 's final pose reverses the usual relationship between the two men . The artist becomes the cool , detached observer ; Bertin , usually calm and reasoned , is now restless and impatient , mirroring Ingres ' irritation at spending time on portraiture . = = = Description = = = Bertin is presented as strong , energetic and warm @-@ hearted . His hair is grey verging on white , his fingers spread across his knees . Bertin 's fingers were described in 1959 by artist Henry de Waroquier as " crab @-@ like claws ... emerging from the tenebrous caverns that are the sleeves of his coat . " The bulk of his body is compacted in a tight black jacket , black trousers and brown satin waistcoat , with a starched white shirt and cravat revealing his open neck . He wears a gold watch and a pair of glasses in his right pocket . In the view of art historian Robert Rosenblum , his " nearly ferocious presence " is accentuated by the tightly constrained space . The chair and clothes appear too small to contain him . His coiled , stubby fingers rest on his thighs , barely protruding from the sleeves of his jacket , while his neck cannot be seen above his narrow starched white collar . The painting is composed in monochrome , muted colours ; predominately blacks , greys and browns . The exceptions are the whites of his collar and sleeves , the reds in the cushion and the light reflecting on the leather of the arm @-@ chair . In 19th @-@ century art , vivid colour was associated with femininity and emotion ; male portraiture tended towards muted shades and monochrome . Bertin leans slightly forward , boldly staring at the viewer in a manner that is both imposing and paternal . He seems engaged , and poised to speak , his body fully towards the viewer and his expression etched with certainty . Influenced by Nicolas Poussin 's 1650 Self @-@ Portrait with Allegory of Painting , Ingres minutely details the veins and wrinkles of his face . Bertin is in three @-@ quarter profile , against a gold – brown background lit from the right . He rests on a curved @-@ back mahogany chair , the arms of which reflect light falling from the upper left of the pictorial space . Ingres seems to have adapted elements of the approach and technique of Hans Holbein 's 1527 Portrait of William Warham , now in the Louvre . Neither artist placed much emphasis on colour , preferring dark or cool tones . The Warham portrait seems to have informed the indicators of Bertin 's aging and the emphasis on his fingers . Jacques @-@ Louis David also explored hyper @-@ realism in his depictions of Cooper Penrose ( 1802 ) and Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès ( 1817 ) . In the later painting , David shows tiny glints of light reflecting on the sitter 's chair and painstakingly details " every wayward curl of [ Sieyès ' ] closely cropped auburn hair . " The Greek meander pattern at the foot of the wall is unusually close to the picture plane , confining the sitter . The wall is painted in gold , adding to the sense of a monumental portrait of a modern icon . The details of Bertin 's face are highly symmetrical . His eyes are heavily lidded , circled by oppositely positioned twists of his white collar , the winds of his hair , eyebrows and eyelids . His mouth turns downwards at the left and upwards to the right . This dual expression is intended to show his duality and complex personality : he is a hard @-@ nosed businessman , and a patron of the arts . The reflection of a window can be seen in the rim of Bertin 's chair . It is barely discernible , but adds spatial depth . The Portrait of Pope Leo X ( c . 1519 ) by Raphael , a source for the Bertin portrait , also features a window reflection of the pommel on the pope 's chair . The painting is signed J.Ingres Pinxit 1832 in capitals at the top left , and L.F. Bertin , also in capitals , at the upper right . The frame is the original , and thought to have been designed by Ingres himself . It shows animals around a sinuous and richly carved grapevine . Art historians Paul Mitchell and Lynn Roberts note that the design follows an old French tradition of placing austere male portraits within " exuberantly carved " frames . The frame closely resembles that of Raphael 's c . 1514 – 15 Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione , a painting that influenced Ingres , especially in colour and tone . = = Reception = = Monsieur Bertin was exhibited at the 1833 Salon alongside his 1807 Portrait of Mme Devauçay . It met with near universal praise to become his most successful artwork to that point . It sealed his reputation as a portraitist , reaching far enough into public consciousness to become a standard for newspaper political satires . Today it is considered his greatest portrait . Ingres viewed all this as a mixed blessing , remarking that " since my portraits of Bertin and Molé , everybody wants portraits . There are six that I 've turned down , or am avoiding , because I can 't stand them . " Before the official exhibition , Ingres displayed the painting in his studio for friends and pupils . Most were lavish in their praise , although Louis Lacuria confided to a friend that he feared people might " find the colouring a bit dreary " . He proved correct ; at the Salon , critics praised the draftsmanship , but some felt the portrait exemplified Ingres ' weakness as a colourist . It was routinely faulted for its " purplish tone " — which the ageing of the oil medium has transformed over time to warm greys and browns . Bertin 's wife Louis @-@ Marie reportedly did not like the painting ; his daughter , Louise , thought it transformed her father from a " great lord " to a " fat farmer " . Given the standings of the two men , the painting was received in both social and political terms . A number of writers mentioned Bertin 's eventful career , in tones that were , according to art historian Andrew Carrington Shelton , either " bitingly sarcastic [ or ] fawningly reverential " . There were many satirical reproductions and pointed editorials in the following years . Aware of Bertin 's support of the July Monarchy , writers at the La Gazette de France viewed the portrait as the epitome of the " opportunism and cynicism " of the new regime . Their anonymous critic excitedly wondered " what bitter irony it expresses , what hardened skepticism , sarcasm and ... pronounced cynicism " . Several critics mentioned Bertin 's hands . Twentieth @-@ century art historian Albert Boime described them as " powerful , vulturine ... grasping his thighs in a gesture ... projecting ... enormous strength controlled " . Some contemporary critics were not so kind . The photographer and critic Félix Tournachon was harshly critical , and disparaged what he saw as a " fantastical bundle of flesh ... under which , instead of bones and muscles , there can only be intestines – this flatulent hand , the rumbling of which I can hear ! " Bertin 's hands made a different impression on the critic F. de Lagenevais , who remarked : " A mediocre artist would have modified them , he would have replaced those swollen joints with the cylindrical fingers of the first handy model ; but by this single alteration he would have changed the expression of the whole personality ... the energetic and mighty nature " . The work 's realism attracted a large amount of commentary when it was first exhibited . Some saw it as an affront to Romanticism , others said that its small details not only showed an acute likeness , but built a psychological profile of the sitter . Art historian Geraldine Pelles sees Bertin as " at once intense , suspicious , and aggressive " . She notes that there is a certain amount of projection of the artist 's personality and recalls Théophile Silvestre 's description of Ingres ; " There he was squarely seated in an armchair , motionless as an Egyptian god carved of granite , his hands stretched wide over parallel knees , his torso stiff , his head haughty " . Some compared it to Balthasar Denner , a German realist painter influenced by Jan van Eyck . Denner , in the words of Ingres scholar Robert Rosenblum , " specialised in recording every last line on the faces of aged men and women , and even reflections of windows in their eyes . " The comparison was made by Ingres ' admirers and detractors alike . In 1833 , Louis de Maynard of the Collège @-@ lycée Ampère , writing in the influential L 'Europe littéraire , dismissed Denner as a weak painter concerned with hyperrealistic " curiosities " , and said that both he and Ingres fell short of the " sublime productions of Ingres ' self @-@ proclaimed hero , Raphael . " The following year Ingres sought to capitalise on the success of his Bertin portrait . He showed his ambitious history painting The Martyrdom of Saint Symphorian at the 1834 Salon , but it was harshly criticised ; even Ingres ' admirers offered only faint praise . Offended and frustrated , Ingres declared he would disown the Salon , abandon his residence in Paris for Rome , and relinquish all current positions , ending his role in public life . This petulance was not to last . Bertin bequeathed the portrait to his daughter Louise ( 1805 – 77 ) on his death . She passed it to her niece Marie @-@ Louise @-@ Sophie Bertin ( 1836 – 93 ) wife of Jules Bapst , a later director of the Journal des débats . They bequeathed it to their niece Cécile Bapst , its last private owner . In 1897 Cécile sold it to the Musée du Louvre for 80 @,@ 000 francs . = = Legacy = = The Bertin portrait has been hugely influential . At first it served as a model for depictions of energetic and intellectual 19th @-@ century men , and later as a more universal type . Several 1890s works closely echo its form and motifs . Jean @-@ Joseph Benjamin @-@ Constant 's monochrome and severe 1896 Portrait of Alfred Chauchard is heavily indebted , while Léon Bonnat 's stern 1892 portrait of the aging Ernest Renan has been described as a " direct citation " of Ingres ' portrait . Its influence can be seen in the dismissive stare and overwhelming physical presence of the sitter in Pablo Picasso 's 1906 Portrait of Gertrude Stein . Picasso admired Ingres and referred to him throughout his career . His invoking of Bertin can be read as a humorous reference to , according to Robert Rosenblum , " Stein 's ponderous bulk and sexual preference " . Stein does not possess Bertin 's ironic stare , but is similarly dressed in black , and leans forward in an imposing manner , the painting emphasising her " massive , monumental presence " . In 1907 the Swiss artist Félix Vallotton depicted Stein , in response to Picasso , making an even more direct reference to Ingres ' portrait , prompting Édouard Vuillard to exclaim , " That 's Madame Bertin ! " The influence continued through the 20th century . Gerald Kelly recalled Bertin when painting his restless and confined series of portraits of Ralph Vaughan Williams in 1952 – 61 . In 1975 Marcel Broodthaers produced a series of nine black and white photographs on board based on Ingres ' portraits of Bertin and Mademoiselle Caroline Rivière .

= Harajuku Lovers Tour = The Harajuku Lovers Tour was the first solo concert tour of American recording artist Gwen Stefani . The tour began through October to November 2005 , to support of her debut studio album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) . Although Stefani embarked on multiple tours with her band No Doubt , she initially opted not to participate in a tour to promote her album , an attitude that the singer eventually abandoned due to the commercial success of Love . Angel . Music . Baby . The Harajuku Lovers Tour consisted of only one leg , which encompassed a three @-@ month @-@ long series of performances that visited cities throughout the United States and Canada . Stefani recruited hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas , rapper M.I.A. , and singer Ciara to accompany her as opening acts for her endeavors . The tour produced varying responses from contemporary critics , who despite praising Stefani 's vocals , were critical of other aspects of the show such as its musical material . According to Billboard , the tour grossed $ 22 million from 37 concerts , from which 20 sold @-@ out . A video album , titled Harajuku Lovers Live , was released in DVD format in conjunction with her 2006 album The Sweet Escape and features the singer performing at the Honda Center in Anaheim , California , Stefani 's birthplace . = = Background = = Stefani announced a tour to support her first solo studio album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) on June 27 , 2005 , giving details of sixteen dates from October 16 to November 10 . The announcement on June 27 also included the fact that hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas , who are also signed to Interscope Records , would be the opening act for all the announced dates except November 3 . The group , who were backing their album Monkey Business , ended up touring with Stefani until November 14 . On August 8 , it was announced that singer @-@ songwriter and rapper M.I.A. would take over as the opening act from November 16 to November 25 , although it wasn 't until August 17 that the extra dates from November 11 to November 25 were officially added to the tour . M.I.A. toured with Stefani , backing her album Arular , until December 1 . On September 29 , the final set of dates , November 26 to December 21 , were added to the tour and it was announced that the third and final opening act for Stefani 's tour would be singer Ciara , backing her album Goodies , from December 3 to December 21 . Stefani initially did not intend to tour to support the album , responding " What tour ? " to a question from MTV News in December 2004 regarding a possible tour . She later mentioned several times that she had not originally intended to tour in support of the album , referring to her " illegal tour " and apologizing for her breaking her promise not to tour on stage at the Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul , Minnesota on November 14 and admitting " I just wanted to make a record . I didn 't want to tour , I was too tired , then you guys kept buying the record , and I had to come out and see you guys " on stage at Winnipeg on November 16 . In a September interview with MTV News , Stefani said of the tour : " I 'm looking forward to it , it 's going to be unbelievable . [ ... ] I would love to try to roll a little bit of ' Orange County Girl ' in there . We 'll see . Anything can happen in rehearsals . I don 't even know how long the show can be right now . " = = Concert synopsis = = Stefani opened the show with the song " Harajuku Girls " , an ode to Harajuku , the fashion district of Tokyo , Japan . She appeared on stage wearing a tiara and baby doll outfit , sitting in the red velvet and gold throne from the cover of Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and surrounded by her backing dancers , also called the Harajuku Girls , while video images of Harajuku itself played on screens behind her . Her second song was the first single from the album , " What You Waiting For ? " , which she began as a ballad before bringing it up to its usual pace . Stefani and the Harajuku Girls then left the stage to change into one @-@ piece bathing suits while her band continued to play , before returning to perform " The Real Thing " . A group of four breakdancers came on stage to perform while Stefani left the stage again to change into a black @-@ and @-@ white leather tracksuit . For the next song , the album 's sixth single " Crash " , the audience were then divided into male and female halves and , as images of a car hood bouncing to the beat were broadcast , each half took turns to sing the lyric " back it up , back it up " . Stefani then performed the fourth single from the album , " Luxurious " . Stefani changed outfits again into a pair of black hot pants to perform " Rich Girl " , the album 's second single , while walking along a catwalk into the crowd and giving fans high @-@ fives . She then sang " Danger Zone " and " Long Way to Go " , both intimate songs , before performing two new songs back @-@ to @-@ back : " Wind It Up " , which would become the first single from her second album The Sweet Escape , and " Orange County Girl " . " Wind It Up " was performed with a carnival vibe and " Orange County Girl " was accompanied by a video montage of childhood photos of Stefani and images of items mentioned in the song . She changed into a silver sequinned cocktail dress for the fourth single from her first album , " Cool " . In early performances of the show , Stefani 's next song was " Hollaback Girl " , the album 's third and best @-@ selling single , performed in a drumming costume and singing with the audience . This was followed by an encore of " Serious " and " Bubble Pop Electric " , for which Stefani was brought out in a stretcher by the Harajuku Girls . However , in later performances , " Hollaback Girl " was saved for the encore and preceded by the two other songs . = = Critical response = = Critics were divided with the Harajuku Lovers Tour . Patrick MacDonald of the Seattle Times , while applauding Stefani 's song @-@ writing efforts and the show 's " frothy fun " antics , reprimanded the singer 's dancing and limited material , given that she performed only twelve songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and two from The Sweet Escape but none from previous work with her band No Doubt . In regards to the musical selection , MacDonald concluded that half the songs are " eminently forgettable " , a view echoed by Winnipeg Sun columnist Rob Williams , who described some of the album tracks as " filler " . Despite these objections , Williams issued her MTS Center performance a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars . " But sometimes the music didn 't matter when there was as much eye candy as Stefani provided " , opined the Winnipeg Sun writer . " She is an extremely striking figure and the choreography , light show , backup dancers and frequent costume changes all added to the spectacle , which ended up being more style than substance . " Mike Ross of the Edmonton Sun was impressed with Stefani 's ability to engage the audience , a quality that earned her the description of the " effervescent hostess " from the journalist . In his four star review for the concert , he commended the " swell " music and " amazing " choreography ; " It also had merit as a choreographic tour @-@ de @-@ force — thanks in large part to a quartet each of talented dancing geisha girls and B @-@ boys " , remarked Ross . Stefani 's different outfits and set pieces also won praise . " So you could have enjoyed last night 's concert as a fashion show . Or a music video , sure " , Ross concluded . Although she called Stefani the " new princess of pop " and praised the singer 's charismatic presence during the show , Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun felt that the concert was " definitely of the lightweight variety in the music department " and noted that , although Stefani models herself after Madonna , she is " no real threat " . She gave the concert three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . MTV 's Corey Moss compared Stefani 's performance to Madonna with regard to " the eight costume changes to the dancers to the theatrics to , hell , even the music itself " and avouched that she sounded completely different from how she did with No Doubt . Moss asserted that the No Doubt lead vocalist was the " most captivating thing onstage " with her " confident strut and dead @-@ on vocals " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times admired the " glamour and groove " antics of the show and how Stefani " flaunt [ ed ] the perks of stardom " . He praised her music , describing the album as " a smart [ record ] , with honed rhythm tracks that flit from funk to pop , electronics to rock " , although calling most tracks " superficial " , being about " style " , " success " , " shopping " and " sex " . Jim Harrison of SoundSpike affirmed that the Harajuku Lovers Tour lacked a strong musical setlist , and also felt that Stefani 's stage presence was absent . He stated that she " doesn 't have many songs that translate well in a live setting " from her album Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and suggested that she should have included songs by No Doubt for " much @-@ needed shots of adrenaline " for the audience , who were , according to Harrison , " figuratively sitting on their hands and literally yawning four songs into the set " . Harrison felt that Stefani seemed truly " lost on stage without a band " , ultimately describing her performance as " [ lacking in ] energy " , " lukewarm " and seemingly " on autopilot " . Furthermore , the SoundSpike writer thought that her performance was akin to that of fellow American recording artist Britney Spears , which was " utterly unsuitable for both the song selection and her style " . However , he did praise the rendition of " Hollaback Girl " , calling it " great " and " Gwen being all Gwen can be " , and called the breakdancing " pretty cool " . = = Broadcast and recordings = = Stefani 's performance in late November 2005 in her home town of Anaheim , California was recorded and released on DVD as a video album Harajuku Lovers Live . It was released on December 5 , 2006 , the same release date as Stefani 's second album , The Sweet Escape . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller . The concert features performances of all twelve songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and two new songs from her second studio album , The Sweet Escape , as well as interviews with the musicians and dancers and a documentary of tour preparation . The DVD received similar mixed reviews to the concerts themselves . Reviewers praised Stefani 's musical performances and stage presence , but criticizing the lack of material and the long costume changes . The DVD was certified gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association and platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . = = Opening acts = = The Black Eyed Peas ( October 16 – November 14 ) M.I.A. ( November 16 – December 1 ) Ciara ( December 3 – December 21 ) = = Set list = = = = Tour dates = =

= Laborintus II ( 2012 recording ) = Laborintus II is a 2012 album by Belgian orchestra Ictus Ensemble , vocal group Nederlands Kamerkoor and American vocalist Mike Patton . It is a recording of the 1965 work of the same name by Italian composer Luciano Berio , which featured lyrics taken from fellow Italian Edoardo Sanguineti 's 1956 poem Laborintus . The performance was recorded live at the 2010 Holland Festival . Berio 's composition employs elements of jazz and electronic music , and Sanguineti 's libretto borrows ideas from the works of Dante Alighieri , T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound as well as using his own original work . Berio named " memory , death and usury " as the work 's main concerns , believing these themes to be present in Dante 's work . Released on July 10 , 2012 , the album debuted at number 23 on the American Billboard Classic Albums chart . It has received mixed reviews from critics , most of whom highlighted its challenging and free @-@ form composition . = = Production = = Laborintus II is a recording of the 1965 composition of the same name by Luciano Berio , who wrote it for the 700th anniversary of Dante Alighieri 's birth . The libretto was provided by Edoardo Sanguineti , who included elements of his 1956 poem Laborintus in it . AllMusic 's Thom Jurek described the original poem as speaking of " the timelessness of love and mourning , while acting as a critique of the commoditization of all things " . In addition to Sanguineti 's own poetry — itself based on themes found in Dante 's Divina Commedia , Convivio and La Vita Nuova — the work uses excerpts from the Bible and the writings of poets T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound . Musically , Laborintus II incorporates elements of jazz and electronic music while sometimes evoking the style of Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi . Berio described the main structure of Laborintus II as a " catalogue , in its medieval meaning " ( exemplified by the Etymologies of Isodore of Seville ) , using Dante 's themes of " memory , death and usury " . Members of the Dutch choir Nederlands Kamerkoor , which performed in the recording , have also cited usury as a key theme in the work , describing the composition as " an indictment against the practice " . Of the form , Berio wrote : " Individual words and sentences are sometimes to be regarded as autonomous entities , and sometimes to be perceived as part of the sound structure as a whole . " The instrumentation of Laborintus II was written as an " extension " of the vocal material ; its electronic section is likewise an extension of the instrumental music . Berio used car tyres and a blow @-@ up doll on stage in a performance of the work at the Holland Festival in 1973 . The album was recorded live at the Holland Festival on June 18 , 2010 , in the Muziekgebouw aan ' t IJ . The work was performed by Mike Patton and the Belgian Ictus Ensemble conducted by Georges @-@ Elie Octors . Solos were performed by Ictus Ensemble clarinetist Dirk Descheemaeker , trumpeter Loïc Dumoulin , trombonist Michel Massot , double bass player Géry Cambier , and percussionists Michael Weilacher and Gerrit Nulens . Nederlands Kamerkoor provided the choral accompaniments . The album marks only the third recording of the composition to have been released since it was first broadcast on French radio by Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française . Patton has said of the work , " I can listen to Berio and Nono as easily as I can to Morricone but like all modern music of Italy , it is unfortunately marginalized ... Maybe because of the language barrier , maybe because it ’ s not easily understood . Berio , who was teaching in California when he wrote this piece , was listening to jazz , pop and folk music and incorporated all of it in his works without prejudice . " = = Composition = = Laborintus II combines orchestral , choral and spoken elements throughout its three parts . Patton 's spoken narration is delivered in Italian , although taped samples feature Sanguineti speaking in English . From a whisper to a shout , the words carry a variety of emotional tones as the work progresses . The choral parts respond to the narration both with unified chanting and with disjointed arguing , the latter serving to increase the tension . They are accompanied by three female vocalists whose voices range from soprano singing to " cooing " and " howling " . The music incorporates elements of jazz and 20th @-@ century avant @-@ garde . The instruments in the orchestra frequently interrupt both each other and the female voices , and some sections of the composition seem as though they are improvised . Laborintus II makes use of both traditional percussion instruments and electronic sounds , and their interplay serves to " erect musical and textural architectures , then disassemble them quickly " . Max Feldman has compared the style to that of Raymond Scott . The first part of the composition features the three female voices creating a " mournful " tone while the orchestra plays recurring musical passages . The second part is a discordant crescendo , as Patton 's narration becomes increasingly shouted and the orchestral accompaniment more " hyperactive " . The third and final part returns to a calmer tone , focussing on drums and jazz woodwind instruments . = = Track listing = = All lyrics written by Edoardo Sanguineti , all music composed by Luciano Berio . = = Personnel = = = = Release and reception = = Laborintus II was released on July 10 , 2012 , through Patton 's record label Ipecac Recordings . In the United States , the album debuted on the Billboard Classic Albums chart at number 23 ; it spent one week on the chart . The album received mixed reviews from critics . Review aggregation website Metacritic awarded it an average score of 58 out of 100 , based on eight reviews . Writing for The A.V. Club , Chris Mincher rated the album B − , calling it " challenging , uncompromising , and bordering on inaccessible " . Mincher felt that the album was abstract and difficult but contained " hidden payoffs " to reward repeated hearings . He called Patton 's arrangements " haunting " and " wraithlike " . AllRovi 's Thom Jurek rated the album 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , describing the recording as " a very nearly dazzling endeavor that rewards patience mightily " . Jurek felt that , as an album , Laborintus II was difficult to grasp at first , by virtue of being a recording of theatrical music , but he praised the performance of Ictus Ensemble , writing of their " bracing freshness and mischievous glee " . Eli Kleman of Sputnikmusic rated it 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , finding it " fascinating if not unwieldy " . He felt that Laborintus II was perhaps Patton 's most ambitious album to date , but noted that the musician has previously produced similarly avant @-@ garde records in the past . Kleman described the composition as " somber , beautiful , and ominous , but always affecting " . Max Feldman of PopMatters awarded Laborintus II a rating of seven out of ten , finding Berio 's composition " challenging " and " exhausting " . He noted the work 's free jazz elements , comparing it to the 1970 Miles Davis album Bitches Brew . Feldman felt that the music " constantly emphasises its own unpredictability " . Consequence of Sound 's Carson O 'Shoney rated the album three stars out of five , calling it " unlike anything else you ’ ve ever heard " . O 'Shoney felt that the music might need more than one hearing to appreciate it , adding that it " runs the gauntlet from quiet , jazzy atmospherics to brazen , unsettling primal noise " . A review for Q magazine described Laborintus II as " tedious " , finding the album disorienting . Spin 's Christopher R. Weingarten rated it 7 out of 10 , calling it an " orchestra / tape collision crisper " .

= Residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations = The residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations is the official residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations . As of 2016 it was located in a suite of rooms on the 42nd floor of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in New York City leased by the U.S. Department of State . Described in press reports as " palatial " , the establishment of the current residence in 1947 marked the first time in history that an ambassadorial residence had been located in a hotel . = = History = = = = = Background = = = Beginning in 1947 , shortly after the siting of the United Nations secretariat in New York , the U.S. State Department took a long @-@ term lease for occupancy of a suite of rooms by the U.S. ambassador at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria , a luxury hotel constructed in 1931 . The establishment of the ambassador 's residence at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria made it the first hotel in history to house an ambassadorial residence . In 1960 , a townhouse at Sutton Place , originally constructed by J.P. Morgan in 1921 , was donated to the U.S. government by then owner Arthur Houghton with the intention it be used as a new ambassadorial residence . However , ambassador Adlai Stevenson II determined the home was not to his liking and the residence continued at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria . ( The Sutton Place townhouse was subsequently re @-@ gifted by the United States to the United Nations and currently serves as the official residence of the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations . ) In 1978 , Ebony reported that Andrew Young and his family explored the possibility of moving out of the suite at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria and into a house instead . Young , who was the first ambassador to live in the suite with " young children " , stated that " [ t ] he Waldorf is very nice , and its convenient , but I just have problems trying to bring up a small child in a hotel . " However , the search ultimately " became a media issue " and Young elected to stay in the suite . Nevertheless , he opined that " [ p ] eople tried to make it seem like I was saying that the Waldorf wasn 't good enough for us " . As of 1999 , the State Department was paying $ 360 @,@ 000 per year to lease the suite on a rolling basis ; the lease is renewed every ten years with an optional one or two year short @-@ term extension . In 2015 , it was announced the State Department would no longer permit staff to be housed at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria , due to security concerns arising from the recent purchase of the property by Chinese business interests . Whether the decision would impact the status of the residence was not made clear , however , as of March 2016 the hotel was still being occupied by the U.S. ambassador . = = = Notable residents = = = Madeleine Albright , George H. W. Bush , John Bolton , Adlai Stevenson II , Samantha Power , and Bill Richardson are among notable former residents of the suite . During his tenure as ambassador , Richard Holbrooke elected not to occupy the 42nd floor apartment , choosing instead to live in his private Manhattan home . In his place , the residence was temporarily occupied by Holbrooke 's assistant , then 27 @-@ year old Randolph Eddy . According to reports , Holbrooke and his wife , journalist Kati Marton , would throw " glittery parties " in the suite " where pols and foreign ministers mixed with the likes of Robert De Niro and Sarah Jessica Parker . " As of July 2014 , Power lived in the suite with her husband , Harvard Law School professor Cass Sunstein , and their two young children . = = Design = = The suite is located on " the very top floor " of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . Described in press accounts as " palatial , " the residence is decorated with , among other items , a Jim Dine painting , an Alexander Calder mobile , and a grand piano , and features " twinkling city views " of the New York skyline . The front door to the suite is framed by a golden eagle . It is located on the opposite side of the corridor from the " royal suite " , so @-@ called as it was long used by the Duke of Windsor as his unofficial New York City residence . As of 1971 , the interior of the suite was sectioned into nine rooms , including five bedrooms and a living room with a 48 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) tall ceiling , which was used to " host large official receptions . " Dorothy Bush Koch noted that the apartment was designed with " high ceilings , handsome old woodwork , working fireplaces , and big windows with beautiful views of New York City . "

= K @-@ 22 ( Kansas highway ) = K @-@ 22 is a 3 @.@ 087 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 968 km ) highway in the U.S. state of Kansas . Located entirely within Washington County , the route runs from U.S. Route 36 ( US @-@ 36 ) north to the city limit of Haddam . A previous designation of the route existed in the 1930s from Wichita to Topeka , but was deprecated . The current alignment was designated in the 1940s . = = Route description = = K @-@ 22 begins at an intersection with US @-@ 36 , known as 17th Road . The route continues south as Deer Road toward Vining . From this intersection , K @-@ 22 heads north along Deer Road through a grassland area to an intersection with 18th Road . The route then crosses the Mulberry Creek and runs near it until it reaches Haddam . The roadway then crosses Mill Creek before meeting its northern terminus at the south city limit of Haddam near an intersection with Main Street . Deer Road continues north toward the Nebraska state line , but does not cross it . The route is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) , who is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state . As part of this role , KDOT regularly surveys traffic on their highways . These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic , which is the number of vehicles that use a highway during an average day of the year . In 2010 , KDOT calculated that a total of 205 vehicles used the road daily , including 45 trucks . No part of the highway has been listed as part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's defence , mobility , and economy . = = History = = The first designation for K @-@ 22 was established by 1927 and ran from US @-@ 54 near Liberal to US @-@ 36 near Halford . During this time , most of the route was a dirt road , except for a portion near Garden City , which was paved . This routing was relinquished by 1932 . By 1933 , a new routing was created , and the road instead began in Wichita , headed east along US @-@ 54 to Eureka and north to Emporia . From Emporia , the route turned northeast toward Scranton and north into Topeka . This designation was decommissioned between January and July 1938 . The current designation of K @-@ 22 was established in 1941 . No alignment changes have taken place since then . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Washington County .

= Tropical Storm Jose ( 2005 ) = Tropical Storm Jose was a short @-@ lived tropical storm which made landfall in central Mexico during August 2005 . Jose was the tenth named storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and the fourth of six tropical cyclones ( three hurricanes and three tropical storms ) to make landfall in Mexico in that year . Tropical Storm Jose formed in the Bay of Campeche on August 22 and made landfall in the Mexican state of Veracruz the next day . It retained tropical characteristics for less than one day before dissipating , but still brought heavy levels of rainfall to the region . Mudslides caused by the rainfall killed eight people , six of those directly , and caused $ 45 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage . = = Meteorological history = = Tropical Storm Jose was first identified as a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 8 , 2005 . On August 13 , the system spawned Tropical Depression Ten over the central Atlantic ; the wave itself continued westward , entering the Caribbean on August 17 . Slight development took place as the system moved over the Yucatán Peninsula ; however , by the time it entered the Bay of Campeche on August 21 , little convection was associated with the system . The following morning , convection exploded under highly favorable divergence from an upper @-@ level anticyclonic flow . According to readings from the QuikSCAT satellite , a well @-@ defined low pressure center developed by 1200 UTC , prompting the National Hurricane Center to classify the system as Tropical Depression Eleven . At this time , the depression was situated roughly 110 mi ( 175 km ) east of Veracruz , Mexico . Situated over very warm waters and within an area of low wind shear , the depression was able to quickly organize ; however , due to its proximity to land , the NHC noted , " the system does not have very long ... to take advantage of these favorable conditions . " Located to the south of a mid @-@ level ridge , the depression tracked just north of due west and kept this motion through the remainder of its existence . The depression rapidly intensified as it moved to the west , becoming Tropical Storm Jose just six hours later . The global model guidance initially failed to resolve the storm 's track well , with some models indicating that it would stall offshore . Jose continued to strengthen as it moved towards the coast and made landfall in the state of Veracruz early on August 23 with winds reaching a peak of 60 mph ( 90 km / h ) . As Jose made its landfall an eye was beginning to form , although the storm was still well short of hurricane intensity . Tropical Storm Jose quickly weakened after landfall and dissipated that afternoon in the mountains of central Mexico only 24 hours after forming . = = Preparations and Impact = = As Tropical Storm Jose formed so close to shore there was a lead time of less than 9 hours on the tropical storm warning for the Veracruz coastline . The area covered by the warning issued on August 22 was extended southwards as Jose intensified , before being canceled soon after landfall on August 23 . The advisories issued by the National Hurricane Center emphasized that rainfall from Jose was the primary threat . Tropical Storm Jose was responsible for damaging crops , highways and homes ; flooding districts in several cities in the state of Veracruz , and the evacuation of 80 @,@ 000 people to shelters . The government of that state estimated the damages caused by the storm to be approximately $ 45 million ( 2005 USD ) . Approximately 120 municipalities were affected by the torrential rain , but the majority of the damage was concentrated to eight of them : Martínez de la Torre , Misantla , Nautla , San Rafael , Vega de la Torre , Actopan , Cardel and Úrsulo Galván . Damage to the highway infrastructure was estimated at $ 33 million ( 2005 USD ) . It was also reported that the storm damaged at least 16 @,@ 000 homes and about 250 square kilometers ( 60 thousand acres ) of land used for cattle . In addition over 420 square kilometers ( 103 thousand acres ) of various crops , including sugarcane , corn and bananas , were flooded . Many boats were also lost as a result of Jose . 90 active medical brigades were sent to the region to reduce the risk of infections amongst the affected population . Jose was responsible for six direct casualties . One of these deaths was the result of a mud slide that killed a man was in Xalapa , Veracruz . The other five deaths were also due to mudslides in Oaxaca .

= Norsk Spisevognselskap = Norsk Spisevognselskap A / S , often abbreviated NSS or shortened to Spisevognselskapet , was a Norwegian state enterprise which operated restaurant carriages on Norwegian trains and restaurants at railway stations and railway hotels . The company was established in December 1918 , and started a catering service in 1919 . Originally owned by the Norwegian Trunk Railway , it was acquired by the state in 1926 . Meals served in the restaurant carriages were relatively expensive , although they were available to all passengers . In the 1950s , the company began using serving trolleys on trains . In January 1975 , NSS merged with the convenience @-@ store chain Narvesen Kioskkompani into a new company called Narvesen – Spisevognselskapet . This enterprise was partly owned by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) and Fritt Ord , before it merged with the Reitan Group and was delisted from the Oslo Stock Exchange . = = Background = = From the 1854 establishment of railways in Norway to 1909 , no dining service was offered aboard trains ; passengers were allowed to bring food with them . Train stations also lacked dining facilities . The first dining service was started by restaurateur Carl Christiansen . He established the restaurant at Drammen Station , and in 1907 was asked by NSB to establish a dining service aboard the express trains on the Bergen Line , which would open in 1909 . After investigating similar operations in England and Germany , he ordered two carriages from Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk . These were to be paid for by the state , but the Parliament of Norway delayed the grants after a long debate regarding the suitability of restaurant carriages on trains . The plans were opposed by the teetotaler faction of Parliament , but there was a majority in favor of dining service . To get the carriages in time , Christiansen personally guaranteed the production cost in case a state grant was not allocated . After the parliamentary decision , the cost of the carriages was refunded by NSB . In 1910 , when President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt visited Oslo to receive the Nobel Peace Prize , several restaurant carriages were ordered solely for the occasion . Two years later , restaurant carriages were put in regular service on the Østfold Line . = = Early days = = In 1916 , the executive board of the state railways wanted to centralise the operation of restaurant carriages and the most important station restaurants in Norway under one management . The board stated that they wanted to minimise the conflict of interest between the railway company and the dining @-@ car operator . They also saw centralising operations as a way to allocate a larger share of the revenue to the railway company , and to ensure a high quality of service on new lines . At that time the Sørland Line and Dovre Line were in the planning stages , and the NSB intended to introduce dining services on these when they opened . Oslo East Station and its restaurant were operated by the private Norwegian Trunk Railway . In an agreement signed on 18 September 1918 both railway companies agreed that a new restaurant operator would be controlled by the Norwegian Trunk Railway , but this company had to abide by the NSB 's decision of how many restaurant carriages to operate on any line . This model was inspired by Sweden , where a separate dining company had been established ; this company paid the railway company part of its revenue and a fixed fee per restaurant carriage . The Swedish model involved including the operation of station restaurants at locations where the restaurant carriages would have depots . On 21 December 1918 , A.S Norsk Spisevognselskap was established with a share capital of 200 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . It had 20 shares ; 17 were owned by the Trunk Railway , and one by each of three directors : Waldemar Stoud Platou , Gotfred Furuholmen and Christian Emil Stoud Platou — the former representing the Trunk Railway and the latter being director @-@ general of the NSB . In January 1919 , Waldemar Platou was appointed chair and Christiansen managing director . The company took over Christiansen 's four restaurant carriages and the restaurant at Oslo Ø on 1 April 1919 . On 2 February 1926 , Parliament voted to nationalise the Trunk Railway . During the debate , the organisation of Spisevognselskapet was criticised ; with the nationalisation , the state became the sole owner of Spisevognselskapet . On 31 March 1927 , the Ministry of Labour recommended that the company remain a state @-@ owned limited company ; the minority in parliament wanted a state enterprise . During the 1930s , Sigurd Astrup was managing director of Norsk Spisevognselskap . In 1948 , Erling Mossige was appointed managing director of the company . He was succeeded by Knut Tvedt in 1960 . The company had 75 employees in 1919 , and 591 in 1949 . = = Restaurant carriages = = The restaurant carriages of the NSS were open to everyone , but dining was so expensive that only passengers travelling in first class used the service . Usually , three or four dishes were offered in the restaurant carriages . A four @-@ course dinner cost five Norwegian kroner in the 1920s , which was expensive at the time . Warm dishes , such as soups and sauces , were usually prepared at a small stove in the restaurant carriage 's kitchen . On busy days , prepared steaks were delivered from rail depots . The kitchens were staffed by two maids and one attendant . Blocks of ice were often used instead of refrigerators . With the opening of the Dovre Line , Spisevognselskapet established dining @-@ car service on 25 June 1921 . In 1921 a train ride from Kristiania to Trondheim lasted approximately 15 hours , and the average waiting time at each station was between 10 and 15 minutes . On 1 July 1925 dining service was introduced on the Valdres Line , from 1 July 1926 on the Brevik Line , from May 1934 on the Nordland Line and from 15 May 1936 on the Røros Line . In 1948 210 @,@ 000 meals were served on board , in addition to sandwiches and drinks . The company also offered a light breakfast on night trains on the Kongsvinger , Østfold and Dovre lines . During the Second World War , dining @-@ car service was discontinued . After the war trains faced competition from aviation and automobiles , and serving trolleys were installed on Norwegian trains . In 1965 cart service on trains was centralised and standardised ; food service was faster , and prices were lowered . During the 1970s cafeteria cars were used , where passengers could serve themselves . = = Restaurants = = NSS derived most of its revenue from the operation of restaurants at railway stations ; in 1939 , this amounted to 80 % . Initially , the company operated the restaurant at Oslo Ø ; from 1921 , it also took over operation of the restaurants at Oslo West Station , Hamar , Koppang , Opdal and Elverum . The following year , four more restaurants were added : Støren , Myrdal , Dokka and Hell . NSS also established its first kiosk , at Bergen Station . In 1923 , the company was allowed to take over all restaurants in the railway districts of Oslo and Hamar ; by 1925 , it had taken over operation of the restaurants at Lillehammer , Hønefoss , Jessheim , Kornsjø , Halden , Ski , Eidsvoll , Otta , Dombås , Åndalsnes , Kongsvinger , Trondheim , Rena , Roa , Ringebu , Bjorli and Finse . After this NSS decided not to obtain many additional restaurants , as it did not see value in such a strategy . From 1930 through 1934 the company took over restaurants at Ål , Jaren , Lillestrøm and Tønsberg , along with dining service on the steamship Skibladner , which ran on Mjøsa . During the first half of the 1940s it again acquired new restaurants , including the one at Kristiansand Station . In 1940 and 1941 the company made a solid profit , but lack of food from 1942 onwards transformed the profit to a loss . During the late 1940s NSS also took over the restaurants at Drammen and Sarpsborg , as well as the one at Oslo Airport , Fornebu . = = Hotels = = In 1919 the Norwegian Trunk Railway operated one hotel , which was built as part of Eidsvoll Station . Operation of the 20 @-@ room hotel was taken over by Spisevognselskapet on 14 October 1924 . NSB was at the time building the Dovre Line between Oslo and Trondheim , and was considering establishing hotels where the line passed through Dovrefjell . Both Hjerkinn and Fokkstua were considered , but these areas were served by other operators . Instead , Spisevognselskapet established the Oppdal Tourist Hotel adjacent to Oppdal Station and it opened on 28 June 1924 . The 60 @-@ bed hotel had a floor area of 605 square metres ( 6 @,@ 510 sq ft ) and was marketed as a tourist destination , with bobsleigh and curling during the winter and tennis and croquet in summer . The hotel was closed for part of 1929 , because the municipality would not allow it to serve alcoholic beverages . In Oslo , the company had its offices and workings spread around town . The main depot was at the East Station ; the head office was at Fred . Olsens gate 21 from 1919 to 1921 , at Kongens gate 29 until 1932 , and at Tollbodgaten 24 until 1938 . Management wanted to centralise both a new depot and administrative offices at a single location close to the railway station , preferably co @-@ located with a hotel . In 1936 work began on a hotel at Jernbanetorget , but the project was cancelled . The proposed hotel would have had 100 rooms across the street from Oslo Ø . However , the plans were blocked by Parliament ( which was opposed to the state railway operating hotels ) . Instead , the administration moved into Nylandsveien 10 , in a new building built on a lot owned by NSB . In Bergen the company established Hotel Terminus Bergen along with other investors , but the hotel failed to make money . In the late 1940s the company bought Grand Hotell Bellevue in Ålesund , and later operated Saltfjellet Tourist Hotel for a short period . In 1952 , Oslo Municipality 's Viking Hotel was completed , and Spisevognselskapet was selected as the operator . It remained the hotel 's operator until 1976 when the government sold it to Eiendomsinvest , which outbid Spisevognselskapet by several million krone . = = Dissolution = = Narvesen had an exclusive agreement with NSB to operate newsagent 's shops at all railway stations , except in stations with restaurants , which were operated by Spisevognselskapet . Narvesen had a near @-@ monopoly on newsagents in Norway , and rented facilities in many public places . The owners of Narvesen intended to create a foundation to obtain the company ; when plans for this started in 1972 , they had difficulties finding a way to transfer shares to the foundation without having to pay tax on the transaction . However , the tax laws permitted a tax @-@ free transaction if it was part of a restructuring . A merger with Spisevognselskapet would be considered a restructuring , and in 1974 Fritt Ord was established to take over Narvesen 's owners ' share of the company . The agreement between Narvesen and NSB was made in July 1974 ; in December it was passed by Parliament , although the Conservative Party and Progress Party voted against the merger . A.S Narvesen – Spisevognselskapet was established on 1 January 1975 . Fritt Ord owned 50 % of the new company and NSB 41 % . It assumed the Narvesen name in 1979 . By the late 1980s , the company had sold all its hotel operations . The merged company retained the obligation to operate dining services on the trains , which throughout the 1980s necessitated considerable subsidies from NSB . In 1988 , NSB decided to organize the operation of the dining services through tendered contracts ; the first contract ( from 1990 through 1995 ) was won by TogService , a Narvesen subsidiary . The owners had an agreement that neither could sell without the approval of the other . In 1995 NSB sold its shares with Fritt Ord 's approval , and the company was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange . In 1999 , Fritt Ord reduced its stock share in Narvesen from 51 % to 34 % . In the fall of 2000 , Fritt Ord accepted a proposal to merge Narvesen with the Reitan Group . The merged company was named ReitanNarvesen ; Fritt Ord held 16 @.@ 2 % of its shares . In November 2001 Fritt Ord sold its shares of ReitanNarvesen , which was renamed Reitan Handel and delisted from the Oslo Stock Exchange .

= The Actor 's Children = The Actor 's Children is a 1910 American silent short drama written by Lloyd Lonergan and produced by the Thanhouser Company in New Rochelle , New York . The film features Orilla Smith , Yale Boss , Frank Hall Crane and Nicholas Jordan . The production was not the first film subject by the company , but it was the first to be released . Both Barry O 'Neil and Lloyd B. Carleton have been credited as the director of the production . Edwin Thanhouser stated that 19 copies of the film were produced and distributed to dealers . The film begins with two unemployed parents obtaining employment in an upcoming theater production . Shortly after returning home , the landlady shows up and demands the rent , but can not collect . She gives them one week , but the theater production does not manifest and the parents again search for work . While they are out , the landlady finds a tenant and puts the children out on the street . They end up dancing for an organ grinder and are saved by a theater manager who puts them on his vaudeville bill . The parents come into a fortune and are reunited by their children at the theater . The film was met with positive reviews and some criticism for its acting and scenario , but the industry had reasons to encourage the success of Edwin Thanhouser 's company . A print of the film exists , but it was the subject of nitrate deterioration . = = Plot = = The plot of the film was best convened through a published synopsis in trade which introduced the names of the cast and the backstory . Eugenie Freeman and Paul Temple , marry and have two children , a boy and a girl . The parents have been unemployed , but the film starts with the parents finding work in an upcoming production at a theater . As they return home , they are interrupted by the landlady , Mrs. O 'Brien , who demands the rent . The landlady does not car about the family 's misfortune and is upset when she cannot collect . She provides one week for the Temple family to pay up . The production is postponed and the parents are out looking for work when a prospective tenant appears . Mrs. O 'Brien shows him the room and he is interested , but does not know what to do with the children . Mrs. O 'Brien puts the children out onto the street where they dance to the music played by an organ grinder . The organ grinder earns more money from their dancing and he entices the children to return to his hovel and teaches them to dance . The organ grinder instructs them to dance for money . The children are rescued by a theater manager and finds them a place in the theater program . In the meantime , the parents have searched for their children and suddenly come into a fortune when a relative bequeaths a large sum of money to them . The parents search for their children in large gatherings and find their children dancing on the vaudeville bill from their theater box . The family is reunited and the film concludes . = = Cast = = Frank H. Crane as the actor ( adult male lead ) Orilla Smith as the actor 's daughter ( little girl ) Yale Boss as the actor 's son ( little boy ) Nicholas Jordan as a comedian = = Production = = The script for the production was written by Lloyd F. Lonergan , who employed the deus ex machina dramatic technique in the conclusion of the plot . In film , this is the sudden inheritance and parents finding their children in the theater . The two children , Orilla Smith and Yale Boss , were child actors with prior film experience and did not have any further known connection to the Thanhouser Company after the production . The cameraman , Blair Smith , used a camera rented by the Columbia Phonograph Company and had its inventor , Joseph Bianchi , assist in the camera 's operation and use . The director of has both been credited to Barry O 'Neil and Lloyd B. Carleton in numerous trade sources . Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser Company , but this film was not the Thanhouser Company 's first subject . Instead , it was The Mad Hermit produced in autumn 1909 and shelved until August 9 , 1910 . The exact order of the productions is not known , but a work titled Aunt Nancy Telegraphs was filmed in December 1909 and never released . Certain parts of The Actor 's Children were produced in the last week of February 1910 . The director of the film is not known , but two possibles exist . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company until moving to the Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . The confusion between the directing credits stems from the industry practice of not crediting the film directors , even in studio news releases . Q. David Bowers says that the attribution of these early directors often comes from a collection of contemporary publications or interviews . = = Release = = The single reel drama , approximately 1000 ft , was released on March 15 , 1910 by the Thanhouser Company . In later years , Edwin Thanhouser recalled that 19 copies of the film were produced and sent out to dealers throughout the United States . Of these 19 copies produced , ten were returned , some with letters of interest in future Thanhouser productions . The film was viewed across the United States with advertisements for showings in Pennsylvania , Wisconsin , Kansas , and Washington = = Reception and impact = = The Actor 's Children was released with enthusiasm and positive reviews in trade publications . The Moving Picture World reviews would be favorable and without much criticism , even calling the acting convincing . A more honest review in The New York Dramatic Mirror was written by a reviewer who was pleased with the production , but offered criticism about the production 's weaker aspects . The reviewer found there to be too much emphasis on the unimportant parts and a lack of emotion from the actors , and the child actors performance was faulted by repeatedly looking at the camera . Critical reception of the film may not have been entirely neutral for a number of reasons . Edwin Thanhouser was a well @-@ liked gentleman who had many friends in the Patents Company that likely wanted him to succeed . Furthermore , writers in the magazines hoped that Independents would succeed and challenge the Patents Company 's stranglehold on the industry . Also , film critics and reviewers of the era would balance the negativity of even the worst films with some favorable aspects . Even without any ulterior motives , the film may have been worthy of a favorable review . The release managed to survive against considerable odds , but the surviving print is not without severe faults . The surviving print has considerable nitrate deterioration and very poor picture quality in certain parts . This film survives in the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences film archives .

= The Stolen Eagle = " The Stolen Eagle " is the series premiere of the British @-@ American historical drama television series Rome . Written by series creator Bruno Heller and directed by Michael Apted , the episode first aired in the United States on Home Box Office ( HBO ) on August 28 , 2005 , and on the BBC in the United Kingdom and Ireland on November 2 . Rome was given a budget of $ 100 million , making it the largest amount both networks had ever spent on a series . Heller centered the series ' narrative on the perspectives of two common soldiers , similar to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern from Shakespeare 's Hamlet . Apted shot the episode at Cinecittà , the Roman studio where the epic films Ben @-@ Hur and Cleopatra were filmed . On the set , realism and authenticity were emphasized more than grandiosity , with depictions of a cosmopolitan city of all social classes . As the wars in Gaul come to an end , Julius Caesar ( Ciarán Hinds ) is faced with both triumph and tribulation . On the heels of his victory comes news of his daughter 's death . Awarded with the adulation of the people , he also garners the enmity of politicians in Rome , including Pompey the Great ( Kenneth Cranham ) . In Rome , Pompey must balance honor and politics as he is urged to betray his former friend . Meanwhile , Caesar 's niece Atia of the Julii ( Polly Walker ) tries to steer her family on the dangerous path between the growing divisions of power . In the Gallic countryside , two unlikely allies ( Kevin McKidd and Ray Stevenson ) journey to reclaim the stolen standard of the Roman legion . HBO described its marketing strategy as " its largest , most aggressive for a new series , " and media outlets estimated its cost at $ 10 million . On its first broadcast , an estimated 3 @.@ 8 million US viewers watched the episode . On its first airing in the UK and Ireland , it secured an estimated audience of 6 @.@ 6 million people . Critical reception was largely mixed , with several reviewers writing that the episode suffered from slow storytelling . " The Stolen Eagle " garnered four major awards , including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects and the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series . = = Plot = = During the Siege of Alesia in 52 BC , Centurion Lucius Vorenus of the 13th Legion commands his men as Gallic warriors fall on his line . In contrast to the Gauls ' chaotic charge , the Roman files fight with precision , until one drunk legionary , Titus Pullo , breaks ranks and charges into the crowd of Gauls . Vorenus angrily orders him back into formation , but Pullo hits him . Later , the assembled soldiers watch as Pullo is flogged and condemned to death for his disorderly conduct . The day after , Vercingetorix , " King of the Gauls " , is brought before Julius Caesar and made to surrender , ending the eight @-@ year @-@ long Gallic Wars . Caesar 's niece , Atia of the Julii , orders her son Octavian to deliver a horse she has purchased straight to Caesar in Gaul to ensure that he remembers them above all other well @-@ wishers . Caesar himself receives news that his daughter , married to his friend Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus with whom he shares power in Rome , has died in childbirth along with her stillborn daughter . A blood tie broken between them , Caesar orders a new wife be found for Pompey . In the Roman Senate , Cato the Younger moves that Caesar be stripped of his command and recalled to Rome to answer charges of misusing his office and illegal warmongering . Pompey , as sole Consul present , vetoes the motion , insisting in trusting Caesar . At the theater that night , Scipio introduces his daughter Cornelia Metella to Pompey as a prospective wife , while Cato warns him that he must ally against Caesar before it is too late . Pompey again asserts that Caesar means no harm , although privately , he is troubled by Caesar 's rising prestige and power and gives orders to one of his slaves who is leaving on a trip to Gaul . At night in the encampment of the 13th Legion , the Aquila ( Eagle Standard ) is stolen by brigands . To avoid a potentially disastrous drop in morale , Mark Antony orders Vorenus to retrieve it . As Vorenus feels the mission is doomed to failure , he has the condemned Pullo released from the stockade to assist him . In camp , Caesar welcomes Marcus Junius Brutus , his unofficial stepson whose mother is Caesar 's lover , Servilia of the Junii . Later , at a party hosted by Servilia , Brutus confides to Pompey that the loss of the eagle has made Caesar unusually vulnerable as his men are on the brink of mutiny . On the road to Caesar 's camp in Gaul , Octavian is taken captive by brigands . For Caesar 's request , Atia instructs her daughter Octavia to marry Pompey by first divorcing her husband Glabius , despite Octavia 's protests that they are deeply in love . Atia then presents Octavia to Pompey at a party and offers her for premarital relations , which Pompey takes advantage of . Vorenus and Pullo set off in search of the eagle , encountering and rescuing Octavian from his captors . Octavian thanks them and promises that they will be rewarded . Vorenus and Pullo discover Pompey 's slave with the eagle hiding in the bandit cart and kill him , realizing the bandits were hired by Pompey . A politically astute Octavian explains that their mission is only a gesture , since the theft of the eagle is actually a blessing in disguise to Caesar . Civil war between Caesar and Pompey is inevitable , but Caesar needs Pompey to make the first move so as not to appear the aggressor ; Pompey is likely to do that if he believes Caesar 's soldiers are on the verge of desertion . The trio returns in triumph to camp , where a surprised yet grateful Caesar takes the eagle back and more than adequate proof of Pompey 's hostility . He sends Pompey the head of his slave and informs him of his next move , to winter the 13th Legion at Ravenna on the Italian border , in preparation for pressing his rights to the Consulship . Pompey breaks all ties with Caesar and takes Cornelia as his wife . Octavia , humiliated at being used by Pompey and heartbroken over her pointless divorce , says she wants him dead . = = Production = = = = = Conception and writing = = = " The Stolen Eagle " was written by executive producer and co @-@ creator Bruno Heller and directed by Michael Apted , who also directed the following two episodes . Heller said the era of the Roman Empire was " pivotal in Western history . If things hadn 't turned out the way they did at that particular point , the world that we live in now would be very different . " He decided to tell the story of the series from the perspectives of two common soldiers , Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo . According to Heller , " They are the only two ordinary soldiers mentioned by Caesar in his book , so the idea was to do a sort of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern take . I essentially took the seed of that idea to try to tell a big historical epic , but from the street level , the everyman 's point of view . " The episode title is a reference to the standard of the Roman legion , a symbol that represents the legion 's unity . While the storyline detailing its theft was based on fiction , Heller believed that it showed how Caesar could turn " misfortune into opportunity . He was always one step ahead of his enemies . " Certain characters were changed from their traditional images ; for instance , while Brutus has been portrayed as the noblest Roman , Heller and historical consultant Jonathan Stamp thought it would be interesting to have him forced into his later role through his ancestry . Alluding to the fact that Brutus ' great great great grandfather " drove the last king out of Rome " , Stamp said that " his family history was pushing him in one direction , his emotions in another . " = = = Casting = = = The producers cast relatively unknown British actors for the series . Scottish actress Lindsay Duncan , who was cast as Servilia , believed that she and other UK actors " can do old , can do classic , and you believe it . " She also said that because of long distances , American actors or those of other nationalities were avoided : " Transporting actors from [ Los Angeles ] to Rome on a regular basis does not look good for the budget . We 're quite cheap . " Stamp described Servilia as " the great love of [ Julius ] Caesar 's life , his mistress and by all counts the only woman he truly loved . " Irish actor Ciarán Hinds was cast as Caesar . Hinds first thought it was " silly " to be offered the part , but then " you think it 's quite an honour to be chosen to play it . And then you think , ' Oh shit I 've got to do it ' , and then , well , ' I suppose someone has to do it ! ' " Heller had believed that Hinds would make " a great Caesar " for a long time , and considered the series " extremely lucky " for being able to cast him . Scottish actor Kevin McKidd , who had never appeared in a television series that necessitated over twelve months of filming , was cast as Lucius Vorenus , one of the lead characters . McKidd said , " What was different about this show is you get 14 months to really get into every nook and cranny of the character , in a way you don 't get a chance to explore when you do a movie or a theater play . Initially , it was a terrifying prospect . But once you got over that , you realize what a great opportunity it was . " Heller described his character as " very much a Roman of the Old School , a stoic man devoted to duty and religion and the legion . " Ray Stevenson played Titus Pullo , a soldier who befriends Vorenus . McKidd said that " they 're kind of thrown together by fate , by chance , but somewhere along the line they start to stick ... [ They ] keep finding themselves accidentally at the epicenter of tumultuous events and immense change , so they 're kind of clinging to each other . " Caesar 's niece , Atia , was portrayed by actress Polly Walker . According to Heller , while most auditioning actresses assumed that the character was the series ' villainess , Walker made " [ Atia ] bigger than life but completely real ... She could read the phone book with that kind of brio and joy . " Rather than a villain , Heller wrote her to be " a real life force . Everything she 's doing is for the good of her family , her children . No matter how evil it gets , it 's always for good reason . " Walker was pleased with her " very complex character . I found it exciting to play such massive emotions and deal with such interesting , to say the least , situations . I saw it as a huge challenge , and I have huge admiration for this character . A lot of people might consider her to be sort of evil or bad , but I think she 's wonderful . She 's just a survivor , doing what she 's got to do . " = = = Filming = = = The series was given a budget of $ 100 million ( £ 58 million ) , the largest both HBO and the BBC had ever devoted to a series . The season was filmed between March 2004 and July 2005 , at locations in or around Rome , and on a set considered " to be the biggest and most expensive ever built for television . " It was built at Cinecittà , where the epic films Ben @-@ Hur ( 1959 ) and Cleopatra ( 1963 ) had been filmed . Production designer Joseph Bennett built a set that emphasized authenticity and realism rather than grandiosity . He said , People think of Rome as white and cold and beautiful , powerful but distant . But based on the research , I don 't think it was like that at all . If you go to Pompeii , you 're struck by how garish it is , even now . The temples and sculptures were all brightly painted . Rome was like Pompeii , but much bigger . And Rome was so noisy it was impossible to sleep . It was like hell . Think of it as a combination of New York and Calcutta , with insane wealth and insane poverty . It was pretty extreme . The series begins with opening credits that depict traditional Roman myths , such as Romulus and Remus , the city 's foundation mythos . For inspiration , visual effects and design company A52 explored museums , read the script and researched Roman history . They created the opening sequence entirely in @-@ house . VFX artist Kirk Balden said of production , " On many projects , you start off with storyboards and everyone has a good idea of what it 's going to look like when it 's completed . This project was very experimental right to the very end . The tone of it is pretty much unlike anything we 've done and most of what any of us here have seen . There 's a lot there that creatively sets the stage for the series . " Heller was responsible for writing the episode 's voice @-@ over , despite his dislike of the task . He said that despite it being his " 400th version , " he was " still not happy with it . " He believed that an early scene in which cart distributes spoils in front of Pompey represented the first real sense of how the series would depict city life . He said , " I think this is the first time that we get sense of the version of Rome that the show is pushing , " which was a very different version than viewers may have been used to . To him , Rome was " colorful and painted " and cosmopolitan . A later scene featuring Cicero the Younger in the Senate proved difficult to film because of the large number of Italian extras who did not speak English . In the DVD audio commentary , he said that " this is one of those scenes where you need really great assistant directors , because all of these Italian extras who have no idea whatsoever what [ Cicero 's ] saying , so to keep them interested and focused and concentrated on what 's going on is a real trick . " Anachronistic stirrups were used to ensure the safety of the actors , though the crew attempted to conceal or camouflage them for historical authenticity , as they were not then used by the Roman cavalry . Extras playing soldiers attended a boot camp under the guidance of a former Royal Marine . Those actors portraying legionnaires learned to fight by thrusting , not slashing their weapons . Artisans reportedly handmade four thousand costumes using authentic period materials such as cotton , linen , wool and silk , all of which were hand @-@ dyed on set . Pullo was originally written to be a poor horse rider , a reflection that " Romans were notoriously bad horsemen , " according to Heller . However , Stevenson turned out to be " probably the best horseman on the show , " so they rewrote this characteristic because bad horsemanship is difficult to fake . James Madigan , the visual effects supervisor , approached the series as a feature film , observing that " every aspect of the production took meticulous care with every detail , the costumes , the set dressing , the acting , and the attention to historical fact . As you worked on it , you really got the feeling that Rome was going to look like something we had never seen on TV before , so our vfx approach very much wanted to respect that . " Madigan attempted to seamlessly mesh the visual effects with the physical sets and depend less on CGI . A friend told Madigan that after seeing the pilot , " he didn ’ t see any vfx shots , even though there are dozens of shots throughout episode 1 . That means we did our job well . " = = Marketing = = HBO said its marketing plan for the series was , " its largest , most aggressive push for a new series " . The channel broadcast the first three episodes seven days a week at various times during the day . Non @-@ subscribers could preview the first two episodes during the first week of September 2005 . HBO implemented an outdoor marketing campaign in major cities and produced movie @-@ style trailers which preceded a number of films in cinemas . Entertainment Weekly , Vanity Fair , Time , and GQ published full @-@ size articles about the series . The History Channel broadcast five nights of documentaries featuring the Roman Empire , which were hosted by Stevenson , McKidd , and Varma , a collaboration which was the first of its kind between the two networks . David Baldwin , the executive vice president of program planning , said , " This is a huge series for us . We wanted to give it every opportunity to be seen by as many people as possible . " Media outlets estimated that the entire marketing campaign cost HBO $ 10 million , the most the network had spent on marketing a series to that point . Commentators viewed the success of Rome as crucial for the network , especially after the past mixed reception of Carnivàle and K @-@ Street . In July 2005 , James Hibberd of Television Week wrote that Rome was viewed " as the network 's best shot for adding another literate , must @-@ see drama to its schedule " . Writing for the same publication , Tom Shales said that HBO " has made such a fuss over Rome , and the network itself has put such painful pressure on the show ( and its producers ) to make a hefty impact , that it 'll be scorned like a leper if it fails to make a truly gigantic splash . " = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " The Stolen Eagle " was first broadcast on August 28 , 2005 in the United States on HBO and in Canada on The Movie Network and Movie Central . An estimated 3 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode , less than the series premieres of Carnivale and Deadwood but consistent with the series finale of Six Feet Under . In the UK and Ireland , the premiere was broadcast on BBC 2 on November 2 , 2005 . According to The Independent , more than 6 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode . = = = Critical reception = = = " The Stolen Eagle " received generally mixed reviews from television critics , many of whom criticized its slow pace . Mark A. Perigard of The Boston Herald wrote , " Less perverse than I , Claudius , more entertaining than American Broadcasting Company 's ( ABC ) toga twister Empire , " Rome " gets off to an uneven start . " Terry Morrow of the Dayton Daily News criticized the premiere , writing that " the opener , like most pilots , is so bogged down with introducing faces and setting up the story that it turns into a long and tedious journey . " Morrow also said the episode suffered from lacking one " standout , signature character " , though he believed that the " flaws in Rome should clear up in time , given HBO 's knack for winning dramas . It 's an epic story , and one worth savoring if you can muddle through the demands of slow storytelling in the beginning . " The Scotsman 's Robert McNeil thought that the premiere was " shocking , but also rather slow , as characters are established . Maybe it 'll get better . In the meantime , to paraphrase Roger McGough , I came , I saw , I concurred with those who say : Rome wasn 't built in an hour . " Similarly opinionated was The Cincinnati Post 's Rick Bird , who said that like other HBO series , Rome " takes a while to get going . After the first episode you will mostly be confused with a dizzying array of characters , intrigue and subplots . Hang in there . By the second episode things take shape and one should be hooked by episode three with this steamy romp through antiquity and its lusty intrigue . " Bird found some positive elements ; the episode , he said , was " enhanced by marvelous filmmaking including elaborate sets and costumes . Small @-@ screen film art has rarely painted such a realistic picture of ancient Rome . " Paul English of The Daily Record wrote that " Rome is visually dazzling , full of vim and tantalizingly seductive , " adding that " McKidd 's growling turn as Ceasar 's [ sic ] footsoldier Lucius Vorenus will undoubtedly propel him into the US major league . " Writing for the Los Angeles Daily News , David Kronke failed to find the series very remarkable , writing that " notwithstanding some lurid sex and gruesome violence , [ it is ] as conventional as anything the network has ever done . Sword @-@ and @-@ sandals epics have become familiar Hollywood staples ... and those expecting something that takes up where the legendarily decadent BBC / PBS series I , Claudius left off may be in for something of a disappointment . " Television Without Pity graded the episode with a B. Some viewers criticized the graphic nudity seen in the pilot , especially in the US . Heller commented , " Romans didn 't have our body shame and fear of sexuality . I think that is part of the modern fascination with that world . There was a lack of shame about those things , that we had to portray with a lack of shame in order to make it work . " = = = Accolades = = =

= Roxas ( Kingdom Hearts ) = Roxas ( Japanese : ロクサス , Hepburn : Rokusasu ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's video game franchise Kingdom Hearts . First revealed during the final scenes of the 2004 title Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , Roxas is a " Nobody " , a being created when the series ' main character Sora briefly loses his heart during the first game of the series . Kingdom Hearts II reveals that Roxas is a member of Organization XIII , a group of Nobodies who needed Roxas as he could wield the Keyblade , a weapon that allows him to capture hearts . As a member of the organization , Roxas bears the title " Key of Destiny " ( めぐりあう鍵 , Meguriau Kagi , lit . " Serendipitous Key " ) . He is also the protagonist of the video game Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , which revolves around his origins . In the Japanese games , Roxas is voiced by Kōki Uchiyama , while Jesse McCartney takes the role in the English versions . Since his first cameo in the series , director Tetsuya Nomura has stated that Roxas is an important character to the series , and that in order to explain his back story in more detail than done in Kingdom Hearts II , Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days was created . Since his introduction in Kingdom Hearts II , Roxas has received positive critical response from video game publications with most of them focusing on his development in 358 / 2 Days . Various types of merchandising have been released based on his character . = = Characteristics = = Roxas is depicted as a spiky blond @-@ haired teenager with blue eyes . As a civilian he wears a white jacket along with a black jacket and white trousers . As a member of Organization XIII , Roxas wears a black coat that covers most of his body including his hood along with the other members . His weapon is the Keyblade known as Kingdom Key ( キングダムチェーン , Kingudamu Chēn , Kingdom Chain ) , resembling a classic skeleton key , with a long silver keychain extending from the hilt , and a Mickey Mouse token on the end of the keychain , but the player is able to modify it during Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days using different keychains . Roxas also becomes able to dual @-@ wield Keyblades after leaving the Organization , and exclusively uses the Oathkeeper ( 約束のお守り , Yakusoku no Omamori , lit . " Oath 's Charm " ) , whose shaft displays two hearts , and its handle bears two angel wings , and the Oblivion ( 過ぎ去りし思い出 , Sugisarishi Omoide , lit . " Passing Memories " ) . Roxas ' personality significantly changes across the series due to the fact that when first introduced , he appears with fake memories that make him believe he is a common teenager and spends most of his time with his friends . When learning that he is Sora 's Nobody and remembering his past , Roxas gives up his existence so that Sora could continue existing , but still expresses happiness for his fate . During his time in the Organization , Roxas develops a calmed personality based on the experiences he has as a result of having no memories of a previous life unlike other Nobodies . = = Appearances = = Roxas ' first appearances were cameos in " Another Side , Another Story " , a bonus trailer found in Kingdom Hearts , and in the ending of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . In Kingdom Hearts II , Roxas is introduced as a boy living in a digital replica of a city called Twilight Town . Unaware of the virtual nature of the city , Roxas begins to dream about the adventures of Sora , the series ' protagonist . He later encounters Axel , a member of Organization XIII who was given orders to rescue him , and Naminé , a Nobody who tells him he is Sora 's other half . Shortly after meeting , Ansem the Wise , the creator of the virtual world , Roxas learns the nature of Twilight Town as well as that Ansem erased his memory , and implanted false ones to make Roxas unaware of his past and then make him merge with Sora . Ansem leads Roxas to an old mansion where once reaching an asleep Sora , Roxas rejoins with him , allowing Sora to wake up . Sora later learns that Roxas is his Nobody , created during the events of the first game after Sora briefly turned into a Heartless . Xemnas brought Roxas to Organization XIII as he could wield the Keyblade , a weapon which would help them to capture hearts . Roxas later betrayed the Organization and encountered one of Sora 's friends , Riku , who captured him to help Sora wake up . Roxas makes two appearances near the end of the game . The first is in a mental battle with Sora depicted as a cut @-@ scene , and the second is with Naminé , who has merged with her other self , Kairi . In the re @-@ released version of the title , Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , Roxas ' fight against Sora was expanded , making him a boss character . The battle was meant to be interactive in Kingdom Hearts II , but time constraints imposed from creating fights for the other Organization XIII members prevented inclusion . With the opportunity to include the fight , Nomura 's team worked hard to make it entertaining for players . Additional scenes regarding Roxas ' past were added to the game to add to the mystery around him . Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , a prequel to Kingdom Hearts II , reveals Roxas ' life with Organization XIII . Unlike the other Organization members , Roxas lacks memories of his previous life . During Roxas ' time in the Organization , he is placed under Axel 's watch , and the two become friends . After Axel is sent to Castle Oblivion , Roxas is entrusted with Xion , another Keyblade wielder , whom he befriends . Roxas reacts to Sora 's memory restoration and starts questioning why he uses the Keyblade and doubt the Organization 's motives . When he discovers that Xion is a replica of Sora created by Xemnas , Roxas is compelled to defect from Organization XIII to find answers and meet Sora . After doing so , he encounters Xion , who tries to attack and absorb him so that she would become the " real " Sora ; however , the fight ends with Xion 's defeat who entruts Roxas to free the hearts the Organization captured . The death of his friend , coupled with full knowledge of how deranged Xemnas truly is , inspires Roxas to defeat Xemnas and release the hearts he and Xion captured for the Organization . On his way , Roxas is confronted by Riku who knocks him unconscious in order to help Ansem and Naminé wake up Sora . A virtual representation of Roxas appears as a boss character in the mobile phone game Kingdom Hearts coded , in which he confronts a virtual representation of Sora , he later appears in the ending as one of the people connected to Sora 's heart who may have a chance at returning one day . He makes a cameo appearance at the end of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , where he is shown with Xion and Axel eating sea @-@ salt ice cream in Twilight Town , as well as in Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance where Roxas contacts both Axel and Sora through dreams . He also appears in Shiro Amano 's manga and Tomoko Kanemaki 's novels , which reprise his role in the video games . The book Kingdom Hearts : Another Report includes a novel called Roxas – Somewhere in Time that retells Roxas ' days in the Organization with the exception of his befriending Xion . = = Creation and development = = After Roxas first made a cameo at the end of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , the director of the series , Tetsuya Nomura , was questioned about the character . However , he refrained from revealing too much detail about him and stated that he would become an important , playable character for the franchise . The developers wrote Roxas ' story in Kingdom Hearts II to add mixed feelings to the game in a short time frame . After receiving a positive fan response regarding Roxas ' sad scenario , Nomura concluded that it was well executed . He also stated that Roxas ' merging with Sora in the game was one of his most memorable scenes from the series . Nomura later commented that Roxas was one of the first characters created for Organization XIII , and was always intended to be the 13th member . The meaning of Roxas ' name was meant to be revealed in a scene in Kingdom Hearts II that shows the letters in the word " Sora " rearranged with the " X " added to expand the connection between the characters . This scene , however , was omitted as Nomura found it difficult to implement time @-@ wise . Since his debut in Kingdom Hearts II , Roxas has been voiced by Kōki Uchiyama in Japanese and by Jesse McCartney in the English versions . After Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix was released , Nomura wanted to expand Roxas ' role in the series to explain the events between his birth and his disappearance from Organization XIII . For Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , the staff thought that Roxas ' role as a member of the group would be a suitable theme for the plot . Roxas was chosen as the game 's protagonist as the staff thought that having a main character besides Sora would help to introduce gamers to the series ' first Nintendo DS title . Co @-@ director Tomohiro Hasegawa explained that Roxas ' height was originally lower and as the game continued development , the staff decided to increase it . Nomura desired to portray Roxas ' activities different from Sora 's . In Sora 's games , he is on a journey around the worlds , while Roxas always returns to Organization XIII after each mission . The staff constructed Roxas ' interactions with the Disney characters to be different from Sora 's as the Organization was meant to be secret in the game 's story . Nomura told the writers that he wanted Roxas to learn something from each of his missions or just to have something to think about . Nomura later clarified that Roxas ' personality was different from the one portrayed in Kingdom Hearts II as he does not actively attempt to come into contact with other characters . With Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , Nomura wanted to reveal why Roxas left Organization XIII . Although Nomura found it to be a sad story it , he considered Zack Fair 's ending in Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII more tragic . His last words in the game were also Nomura 's most significant ones from the title as he wanted it to connect to Kingdom Hearts II 's first scene , which is actually the same scene . Uchiyama expressed sadness when the game ended development as he would not play the character for a long time . Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix 's secret ending features a character named Ventus that bears a striking resemblance to Roxas . Nomura commented that , despite how similar they are , Roxas and Ventus are not the same character . Additionally , he stated that by playing Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , players will be able to distinguish Roxas from Ventus . In another interview , Nomura implied both characters are related , specifically to Sora , but he wanted fans to imagine reasons for such connection . The Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Ultimania clarified the connection , stating that Roxas and Ventus look alike because Ventus ' heart entered Sora 's body and Roxas ' birth allowed Ventus ' heart to reside in Roxas . This also confirms the mystery about Roxas having a heart in contrast to other Nobodies which allows him to express emotions despite his lack of memories from a past , something that Nobodies use to show emotions . = = Reception = = Roxas has been featured in various types of merchandising published by Square Enix . An action figure was released as part of the Play Arts action figures series . Other items sold include plush , keychains and replicas of his necklace . Roxas ' character has received a positive critical response by both fans and video game publications . During February 2010 , Roxas was twenty @-@ eighth in a Famitsu poll featuring the most popular video game characters from Japan . In another poll , Roxas was voted as the second most popular Kingdom Hearts character with his fight against Sora ranked as the best scene from the series . His fighting sequences from the first game 's secret ending were labelled by GameSpy as one of the best video game cinematic moments . While reviewing Kingdom Hearts II Jeff Haynes of IGN said that Roxas was a " likable kid " . Ron Fahey of Eurogamer took a similar stance , calling him a " likeable enough young chap who just happens to be troubled by memories and visions of people he doesn 't even know " . His playable position in the game was regarded as a transitional arc , being used to introduce the gameplay to players that are new to the franchise . Cavin Smith from PSXextreme also called Roxas a likable character and stated that the revelation regarding his existence in Kingdom Hearts II is " a shocker of a revelation for any RPG ! " The New York Times liked the fact that the player controls Roxas in Kingdom Hearts II 's introduction instead of the protagonist Sora , avoiding the continuation of Sora 's search for his friends . Additionally , he found the switch from Roxas ' story to Sora 's after a few hours " a little jarring " . Andrew Reiner from Game Informer emphasizes his role as a " troubled boy " , calling his story arc " an amazing chain of events " , particularly noting that the revelation of his nature as a Nobody creates a " devilish yet remarkable plot twist " which may impact the player in a way that he " may not want Sora back " . On the other hand , UGO Networks commented that due to the game 's initial focus on Roxas , gamers would have to wait until playing as Sora to experience the most exciting parts of the title . Before Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days was released , 1UP.com featured Roxas at the top of their " Why You Should Care About Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days " feature , calling him " The darling of fanfiction and doujinshi writers everywhere " , and commenting on what he does during his only year within Organization XIII . Roxas ' role as protagonist was labelled by G4TV as an attempt to " satiate the ravenous fanboy " due to the explanation from his background . While reviewing 358 / 2 Days , PALGN 's Adam Ghiggino praised Roxas ' development during the title , expressing that even gamers who did not like his character in Kingdom Hearts II would care about him as " he evolves from a self @-@ described ' zombie ' to a strong @-@ willed and interesting character " . Ghiggino especially noted his relation with Xion and Axel , which he found charming despite the fact that they repeatedly meet at the top of a clock tower in a large number scenes . A similar response was made by Game Informer , who commented that although such scenes were " dull " , Roxas ' relation with Xion and Axel was appealing and the game 's ending would make up for such moments . GamesRadar also commented that Roxas " starts off like a zombie , but rapidly develops a personality " during the title and joked about the numerous times he eats ice cream . His growth in the game was also labelled as one of the most enjoyable elements from the title . IGN agreed , calling Roxas ' friendship " heart @-@ aching " . On the other hand , 1UP.com mentioned that although Roxas ' relationship with Xion and Axel is appealing , some of his first missions feel like " lonely , sad affairs " . His maneuvers in the game were praised by GameSpot for being easy to learn despite how complex they look , while IGN liked the variation between all of them . Due to his resemblance with Ventus , video game publications initially thought that Roxas would be one of the protagonists from Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep . However , when it was revealed that the two were different , publications still discussed how similar they were and if there was a connection between them .

= Back to Tennessee ( song ) = " Back to Tennessee " is a country rock song by American singer @-@ songwriter and actor Billy Ray Cyrus . It released as the second single from Cyrus ' eleventh studio album of the same name on February 2 , 2009 by Lyric Street Records . Cyrus drafted the song after learning that Hannah Montana : The Movie , a film he would star in , would be set in Tennessee . The song , developed with the aid of co @-@ songwriters Tamara Dunn and Matthew Wilder , includes country rock elements while describing Cyrus ' longing to return to the South , where he grew up , after spending several years in Los Angeles . " Back to Tennessee " was featured in both Hannah Montana : The Movie and its soundtrack . " Back to Tennessee " was well received by critics , though some felt it took the album 's message too literally . It was a moderate commercial achievement for Cyrus and charted within the top fifty of the Billboard magazine chart Hot Country Songs . The song 's music video was directed by Declan Whitebloom and features scenes of Cyrus at a beach inter cut with clips of Hannah Montana : The Movie . The song was performed in several venues . = = Development = = Cyrus moved to Los Angeles to star on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana in 2006 . Cyrus 's character , Robby Ray Stewart , is a former country singer and the father of Miley Stewart , a popstar played by Miley Cyrus , Cyrus ' real life daughter . The television series became a worldwide hit and the basis for Hannah Montana : The Movie , a feature film released in 2009 . Cyrus first read the script for Hannah Montana : The Movie while in Malibu in early 2008 . The film 's plot features the Stewarts leaving Hollywood for a summer and returning to Tennessee , their home state , to reconnect with their southern roots . Having grown up in Kentucky , Cyrus was excited to learn the film would be set in the country and fought for it to be filmed on location . " They were gonna film it in a different state [ but ] I just knew that Tennessee had all the facilities , the man power , and the ability to make this film great , " said Cyrus . In addition , Cyrus believed that " in real life , Miley and [ he ] needed to come back home " , saying , " It was important for us to come back to where we are from and remember who we are . " Once filming in Tennessee was settled , Cyrus was " overcome with a very positive emotion of coming back home " and wrote " Back to Tennessee " with the aid of songwriters Tamara Dunn and Matthew Wilder . Cyrus recorded " Back to Tennessee " for the film Hannah Montana : The Movie , in which his character performs the song at a fundraiser to save the meadows near his hometown from development . Cyrus says the song is " part of the cornerstone " of the film because it reflects the film 's theme of escaping the fast @-@ paced , glitzy world of Hollywood in search of a simpler country lifestyle . Cyrus commented , " It 's about remembering , you know , where you come from . It 's always important to be aware of where you 're at and always be looking to where you wanna go , but most importantly don 't forget where you come from . That 's ' Back to Tennessee ' is all about [ ... ] With me , I always try to keep it real with the music , you know . Line by line you listen to the song and you know that I 'm walking the walk and talking the talk . It 's what this song 's all about . It definitely comes from the heart . " = = Composition = = " Back to Tennessee " is one of the more rock music influenced tracks on Back to Tennessee . It is set in common time with a country rock tempo of 120 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of C major . The song has the following chord progression , C — C7 — C. Cyrus said of the lyrics , " If you download " Back to Tennessee " and listen to the whole song , you 'll hear exactly how I felt after four years of Hannah Montana , and living in Los Angeles and giving up my previous life and existence and who I am and where I come from . You 'll hear a guy who 's immersed in music , and my love and desire and need to go back home . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times interpreted the song as an apology " both to [ Cyrus 's ] teenage self and , by extension , to the daughter under his wing . " Both Caramanica and Alison Stewart of The Washington Post took interest in the lines , " Great big town / So full of users " . Caramanica said the line recognized that " fame is illusory " and " talk [ ed ] about some of his daughter ’ s famous friends " , while Stewart interpreted the line as a description of Hollywood life in general . = = Critical reception = = The song received generally positive reviews from critics . Shelly Fabian of About.com said , " There 's a special quality to this single that might be able to help people get past ' that one song ' from Billy Ray Cyrus 's past and realize there 's so much more to the man than something from two decades ago . " While reviewing the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack , Heather Phares of Allmusic said the song " fits in smoothly with an acoustic version of Rascal Flatts ' witty ' Backwards ' " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said , " His hard @-@ won insight is the next best thing to a good swaddle . " Allison Stewart of The Washington Post described " Back to Tennessee " as a " fusillade of strident twang rock track " . She added that the song was " eager " and that it explained " Country as Country Can Be " . Yahoo ! Music thought the song was followed Back to Tennessee 's message " too literally " . The song was included on the short list for Best Original Song at the 82nd Academy Awards , but failed to achieve a nomination . = = Chart performance = = In the United States , " Back to Tennessee " failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 , the country 's main singles chart , but charted on the country @-@ genre chart . In the week ending March 7 , 2009 , " Back to Tennessee " debuted at number fifty @-@ nine on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs . " The Climb " , by Cyrus ' daughter , Miley Cyrus , debuted at number forty @-@ eight the same week , the first time a father and daughter had separate charting songs on the chart since Johnny Cash and Rosanne Cash charted in 1990 with " Silver Stallion " and " One Step over the Line " , respectively . On the week ending April 25 , 2009 , the song reached its peak at number forty @-@ seven on the chart . = = Music video = = The music video for " Back to Tennessee " was directed by Declan Whitebloom and premiered on March 12 , 2009 on CMT . It was partially shot in Malibu , California , where Cyrus wrote the song . Like the song , the video represents Cyrus ' desire to return home . Cyrus explained , " When I see the video for ' Back to Tennessee , ' there 's a lot of emotion there . It 's a combination between the Hannah Montana movie and going back to the actual spot where I wrote the song . I wrote the song in Malibu , and we went back to Malibu to film the video . I had never done a video exactly where I wrote the song . Then we take my little blue truck from the movie and travel back across the country . Again , it becomes a very articulate picture of what that song 's about . It 's everything a video is supposed to be . " Cyrus 's " little blue truck " is the blue 1990 Ford Ranger that he drove in the film , which was transported to California to be used in the video . The video prominently features clips of Hannah Montana : The Movie , particularly the scene in which Cyrus performs " Back to Tennessee " . Cyrus 's backup band in that performance includes part of Taylor Swift 's band , Bucky Covington , and Marcel . About the video as a whole , Cyrus said , " I hope when people , you know , watch the video . I hope that they can feel what this song is about . I hope they can relate to that in their life and their world . " The video commences with the Hannah Montana : The Movie performance , in which Cyrus and his backup band perform atop a stage in a crowded barn . The video then switches to its principal setting , which features Cyrus on a beach at sunset . Cyrus is seen in a black T @-@ shirt tossing rocks at the ocean and looking at a picture of a blond woman . The woman is portrayed by Melora Hardin , who plays Lorelai , Robby Ray 's love interest in Hannah Montana : The Movie . As the video progresses , Cyrus is also seen with the blue Ford Ranger , either driving it or leaning against it while playing an acoustic guitar . The video also includes clips of Lorelai , Robby Ray , Miley Stewart , and Miley Stewart 's love interest , Travis Body . The video ends with Cyrus , looking down , walking next to the seashore . = = Live performances = = Cyrus performed " Back to Tennessee " as part of the AOL Sessions on April 13 , 2009 . He also performed the song and several others in a London Apple Store on April 24 , 2009 . The set , along with some songs by Miley , were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as an extended play titled iTunes Live from London . On August 1 , 2009 , Cyrus performed the song at the 2009 Hannity Freedom Concert , a concert supporting the Freedom Alliance Scholarship Fund .

= M @-@ 108 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 108 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway followed Nicolet Street , although some maps also labeled it as the Mackinaw Highway . The road was on the boundary between Emmet and Cheboygan counties . The original M @-@ 108 designation dated back to 1928 . This version was transferred to local control in 1957 , but revived later under a different routing in 1960 . On April 29 , 2010 , the Petoskey News @-@ Review reported that the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) will rebuild the roadway in preparation to transfer it back to local control once again . MDOT and local officials signed memoranda of understanding , completing the transfer of the roadway on December 9 , 2010 . = = Route description = = The 1 @.@ 069 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 720 km ) long route connected two interchanges off Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) on the south side of Mackinaw City with a tourist welcome center . The southern terminus was at a partial interchange with I @-@ 75 ( exit 337 ) just south of Mackinaw City on the boundary between Emmet and Cheboygan counties . This interchange is about two miles ( 3 km ) north of the northern terminus of US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) . M @-@ 108 followed Nicolet Street north from I @-@ 75 into the Village of Mackinaw City past the Thunder Falls Water Park and some local motels to an intersection with US 23 . North of the US 23 intersection is the Michigan Welcome Center and other tourist amenities on the west side of the street . State maintenance ends at the intersection with the off @-@ ramp from northbound I @-@ 75 exit 338 . = = History = = In 1928 , the first M @-@ 108 designation was commissioned along a rare three @-@ legged route connecting the State Highway Ferry Docks with the Fort Michilimackinac State Historic Park and US 31 . At one point while traveling westbound on M @-@ 108 , motorists could turn right onto northbound M @-@ 108 or left onto southbound M @-@ 108 . In preparation for the opening of the Mackinac Bridge , the Michigan State Highway Department transferred all of M @-@ 108 to local control in late 1957 , decommissioning the designation at the same time . In 1960 , the current M @-@ 108 was commissioned along the current routing . On April 29 , 2010 , MDOT announced plans to transfer M @-@ 108 in its entirety to the Village of Mackinaw City and Emmet County . In preparation for this transfer , MDOT repaved , widened and reconstructed the roadway . While rebuilding the section of the highway between US 23 and the northern terminus , the Welcome Center was closed . Plans had this section to be completed , and the center to bed reopened , for Memorial Day weekend , with the remainder of construction to be completed in August . Following the transfer to local control , M @-@ 108 ceased to be a state highway and the designation was decommissioned . Previous news reports stated that the roadway was too small to merit highway status under federal guidelines . The transfer was completed on December 9 , 2010 when MDOT and local officials signed memoranda of understanding to affect the transfer . The section within the Village of Mackinaw City was transferred to the village , and the remainder to Emmet County . = = Major intersections = = The entire highway was on the Emmet – Cheboygan county line .

= Blackwyche = Blackwyche is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game for the Commodore 64 in 1985 . The game is the third instalment of the Pendragon series and is a sequel to Entombed . In the game , aristocrat adventurer Sir Arthur Pendragon is trapped on board a haunted galleon and must free the soul of its captain . The game is presented in a 3D isometric format . The Pendragon series was created and designed by brothers Dave and Bob Thomas , with Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper otherwise being uninvolved in development . The game 's setting and graphics were heavily inspired by HMS Victory and the surrounding city of Portsmouth . The game was met with mixed reviews upon release . Critics were divided over the game 's graphics and re @-@ usage of sprites , but criticised the game for its vast similarities to its predecessors . It was followed by a final instalment to the series , Dragon Skulle , which was released later in 1985 . = = Gameplay = = The game is presented in a isometric format and is set on board a haunted galleon named the Blackwyche . Sir Arthur Pendragon 's main objective is to free the soul of its former captain , Richard Cavendish . Pendragon can utilise various weapons such as knives , daggers and a magic sword to defend himself from enemy skeletons . The player begins the game with full energy and it will slightly deplete every time the player is hit by an enemy . If Pendragon completely runs out of energy , a large skeletal hand will drag the player off @-@ screen , thus killing him . Various segments of maps are scattered around the galleon , which will form a complete view of the game 's overworld once all the segments are picked up . Other scattered items in the game include keys for locked doors , gunpowder to fire cannons and pieces of jewellery , the latter having no additional use other than adding to the player 's score . = = Development = = Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play The Game , they began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . The company was known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " ; one team would work on graphics while the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or programming . The Pendragon series was created by brothers Dave and Robert ( Bob ) Thomas , rather than Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper . Dave Thomas began his career in 1983 when he started producing multiple games for the Atari 400 , including moderate @-@ sellers such as Warlok , which later won him GB £ 5 @,@ 000 in a competition from Calisto Software . Although he began working for the company in producing video games , he later quit due to the strain of his daily , 68 mi ( 109 km ) commute . Shortly after quitting Calisto Software , Dave Thomas started work on The Staff of Karnath , the first instalment of what would become the Pendragon series . Bob Thomas was a trained technical illustrator for the Ministry of Defence and had experience with designing interiors for the Royal Navy . According to Dave Thomas , the setting of Blackwyche was heavily inspired by the HMS Victory and the surrounding naval city of Portsmouth . The name of " Sir Arthur Pendragon " was copied from the character of the Black Prince Pendragon from Jack the Giant Killer . The graphics of the game were designed by Bob Thomas , whereas the code was written by Dave Thomas . The Thomas brothers decided to show their progress of the game to Tim and Chris Stamper for evaluation , despite feeling embarrassed due to their workspace being inside their parents ' attic . Impressed by the game , the Stamper brothers commissioned an entire series to be released for the Commodore 64 . Dave Thomas recalled that every game they produced was met with little interference from Ultimate ; once a game was complete , it would be sent to quality assessment and subsequently published for release . = = Reception = = The game received mixed reviews upon release . A reviewer of CVG thought the graphics were identical to its predecessor , Entombed , and criticised the low detail of the player @-@ character , Sir Arthur Pendragon . Eugene Lacey of Commodore User praised the graphics , stating that they were smoother and slightly more detailed , despite acknowledging that they appeared similar to its predecessor . Stuart Cooke of Your Commodore thought the graphics were too " repetitive " and stated that he had trouble determining which section of the game he was on due to the similarities of all the colours . Reviewers of Zzap ! 64 criticised the graphics , stating the sprites to be " awful " , and animation as " crummy " with little or no range of colouring . The sprite of Sir Arthur Pendragon was frequently criticised by reviewers of Zzap ! 64 , with one reviewer expressing frustration on why Ultimate continued to re @-@ use the same sprites in their games . Another reviewer condemned the 3D animation , stating that it appeared out of proportion and " frustrating " . Tony Hetherington of Computer Gamer similarly criticised the graphics , owing to the " duplicated landscapes " and identical usage of colours , concluding that it was a disappointing game . Lacey heralded the gameplay to be " purely addicting " and considered Blackwyche to the best of the series . Harding opinionated the game to be " miles better " than its predecessor , whereas Cooke thought the gameplay was repetitive , owing to its number of locations . Reviewers of Zzap ! 64 criticised the overall gameplay , stating that the puzzles were poor , unchallenging and often gave them the sense of " deja @-@ vu " with its similarities to its predecessors . One reviewer of the same magazine considered the game to be a poor attempt at an arcade @-@ adventure game , stating that the ideas were poorly implemented . Hetherington concluded that Blackwyche was a disappointment for an Ultimate game , considering their previous hit titles such as Atic Atac and Knight Lore .

= Hoyt Wilhelm = James Hoyt Wilhelm ( July 26 , 1922 – August 23 , 2002 ) , nicknamed " Old Sarge " , was an American Major League Baseball ( MLB ) pitcher with the New York Giants , St. Louis Cardinals , Cleveland Indians , Baltimore Orioles , Chicago White Sox , California Angels , Atlanta Braves , Chicago Cubs , and Los Angeles Dodgers between 1952 and 1972 . He is a member of the Baseball Hall of Fame . After growing up in North Carolina and fighting in World War II , Wilhelm spent several years in the minor leagues before starting his MLB career . He was best known for his knuckleball , which enabled him to have great longevity . He appeared occasionally as a starting pitcher , but he pitched mainly as a specialist relief man , a role in which he won 124 games , still the record for relief pitchers . He was the first pitcher to reach 200 saves and the first to appear in 1 @,@ 000 games . Wilhelm , who did not enter the major leagues until his late twenties , pitched until he was nearly 50 years old . Wilhelm retired with one of the lowest career earned run averages in baseball history . After retiring as a player in the early 1970s , he held coaching roles with the New York Yankees and Atlanta Braves for many years . He was a longtime resident of Sarasota , Florida , where he died in a nursing home of heart failure in 2002 . = = Early life = = Wilhelm was one of eleven children born to poor tenant farmers John and Ethel ( née Stanley ) Wilhelm in Huntersville , North Carolina . He played baseball at Cornelius High School in Cornelius , North Carolina . There , he began experimenting with a knuckleball after reading about pitcher Dutch Leonard . He felt that , because he could not throw fast , honing a knuckleball offered him his best shot at success . He used a tennis ball to practice . Wilhelm made his professional debut with the Mooresville Moors of the Class @-@ D North Carolina State League in 1942 . He served in the United States Army in the European Theater during World War II . Wilhelm participated in the Battle of the Bulge , where he was wounded , earning the Purple Heart for his actions . He played his entire career with a piece of shrapnel lodged in his back as a result of this injury . He rose to the rank of staff sergeant . Wilhem was nicknamed " Old Sarge " because of his service in the military . He returned to the Moors in 1946 , following his military service . Over the 1946 and 1947 seasons , Wilhelm earned 41 wins with Mooresville . He later recalled being dropped from a Class D minor league team and having the manager tell him to forget about the knuckleball , but he persisted with it . The Boston Braves purchased Wilhelm from Mooresville in 1947 . On November 20 , 1947 , Wilhelm was drafted by the New York Giants from the Braves in the 1947 minor league draft . Wilhelm 's first assignment in the Giants organization was in Class B with the 1948 Knoxville Smokies , for whom he registered 13 wins and 9 losses . He spent a few games that season with the Class A Jacksonville Tars of the South Atlantic League . Wilhelm returned to Jacksonville in 1949 , earning a 17 – 12 win @-@ loss record and a 2 @.@ 66 earned run average ( ERA ) . With the Class AAA Minneapolis Millers in 1950 , Wilhelm was the starting pitcher in 25 of his 35 games pitched , registering a 15 – 11 record with a 4 @.@ 95 ERA . His ERA came down to 3 @.@ 94 in 1951 with Minneapolis , but his record finished at 11 – 14 . Wilhelm had been used in a similar role that season , mostly starting games but also making eleven relief appearances . = = Major league career = = = = = Early years = = = Though Wilhelm was primarily a starting pitcher in the minor leagues , he had been called up to a Giants team whose strong starting pitchers had led them to a National League ( NL ) pennant the year before . Giants manager Leo Durocher did not think that Wilhelm 's knuckleball approach would be effective for more than a few innings at a time . He assigned Wilhelm to the team 's bullpen . Wilhelm made his MLB debut with the Giants on April 18 , 1952 at age 29 , giving up a hit and two walks while only recording one out . On April 23 , 1952 , in his second game with the New York Giants , Wilhelm batted for the first time in the majors . Facing rookie Dick Hoover of the Boston Braves , Wilhelm hit a home run over the short right @-@ field fence at the Polo Grounds . Although he went to bat a total of 432 times in his career , he never hit another home run . Pitching exclusively in relief , Wilhelm led the NL with a 2 @.@ 43 ERA in his rookie year . He won 15 games and lost three . Wilhelm finished in the top ten in Most Valuable Player Award voting that season , becoming the first relief pitcher to finish that high . He finished second in the Rookie of the Year Award voting . Wilhelm made 69 relief appearances in 1953 , his win @-@ loss record decreased to 7 – 8 and he issued 77 walks against 71 strikeouts . Wilhelm was named to the NL All @-@ Star team that year , but he did not play in the game because team manager Charlie Dressen did not think that any of the catchers could handle his knuckleball . The Giants renewed Wilhelm 's contract in February 1954 . In 1954 , Wilhelm was a key piece of the pitching staff that led the 1954 Giants to a world championship . He pitched 111 innings , finishing with a 12 – 4 record and a 2 @.@ 10 ERA . During one of Wilhelm 's appearances that season , catcher Ray Katt committed four passed balls in one inning to set the major league record ; the record has subsequently been tied twice . When Stan Musial set a record by hitting five home runs in a doubleheader that year , Wilhelm was pitching in the second game and gave up two of the home runs . The 1954 World Series represented Wilhelm 's only career postseason play . He pitched 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings over two games , earning a save in the third game . The team won the World Series in a four @-@ game sweep . Wilhelm 's ERA increased to 3 @.@ 93 over 59 games and 103 innings pitched in 1955 , but he managed a 4 – 1 record . He finished the 1956 season with a 4 – 9 record and a 3 @.@ 83 ERA in 89 1 ⁄ 3 innings . Sportswriter Bob Driscoll later attributed Wilhelm 's difficulties in the mid @-@ 1950s to the decline in the career of Giants catcher Wes Westrum , writing that baseball was " a game of inches , and for Hoyt , Wes had been that inch in the right direction . " = = = Middle career = = = On February 26 , 1957 , Wilhelm was traded by the Giants to the St. Louis Cardinals for Whitey Lockman . At the time of the trade , St. Louis manager Fred Hutchinson described Wilhelm as the type of pitcher who " makes us a definite pennant threat ... He 'll help us where we need help the most . " In 40 games with the Cardinals that season , he earned 11 saves but finished with a 1 – 4 record and his highest ERA to that point in his career ( 4 @.@ 25 ) . The Cardinals placed him on waivers in September and he was claimed by the Cleveland Indians , who used him in two games that year . In 1958 , Cleveland manager Bobby Bragan used Wilhelm occasionally as a starter . Although he had a 2 @.@ 49 ERA , none of the Indians ' catchers could handle Wilhelm 's knuckleball . General manager Frank Lane , alarmed at the large number of passed balls , allowed the Baltimore Orioles to select Wilhelm off waivers on August 23 , 1958 . In Baltimore , Wilhelm lived near the home of third baseman Brooks Robinson and their families became close friends . On September 20 of that year , Wilhelm no @-@ hit the eventual World Champion New York Yankees 1 @-@ 0 at Memorial Stadium , in only his ninth career start . He allowed two baserunners on walks and struck out eight . The no @-@ hitter had been threatened at one point in the ninth inning when Hank Bauer bunted along the baseline , but Robinson allowed the ball to roll and it veered foul . The no @-@ hitter was the first in the franchise 's Baltimore history ; the Orioles had moved from St. Louis after the 1953 season . Orioles catchers had difficulty catching the Wilhelm knuckleball again in 1959 and they set an MLB record with 49 passed balls . During one April game , catcher Gus Triandos had four passed balls while catching for Wilhelm and he described the game as " the roughest day I ever put in during my life . " Author Bill James has written that Wilhelm and Triandos " established the principle that a knuckleball pitcher and a big , slow catcher make an awful combination . " Triandos once said , " Heaven is a place where no one throws a knuckleball . " Despite the passed balls , Wilhelm won the American League ERA title with a 2 @.@ 19 ERA . During the 1960 season , Orioles manager Paul Richards devised a larger mitt so his catchers could handle the knuckleball . Richards was well equipped with starting pitchers during that year . By the middle of the season , he said that eight of his pitchers could serve as starters . Wilhelm started 11 of the 41 games in which he appeared . He earned an 11 – 8 record , a 3 @.@ 31 ERA and seven saves . He only started one game the following year , but he was an All @-@ Star , registered 18 saves and had a 2 @.@ 30 ERA . In 1962 , Wilhelm had his fourth All @-@ Star season , finishing with a 7 – 10 record , a 1 @.@ 94 ERA and 15 saves . On January 14 , 1963 , Wilhelm was traded by the Orioles with Ron Hansen , Dave Nicholson and Pete Ward to the Chicago White Sox for Luis Aparicio and Al Smith . Early in that season , White Sox manager Al López said that Wilhelm had improved his pitching staff by 40 percent . He said that Wilhelm was " worth more than a 20 @-@ game winner , and he works with so little effort that he probably can last as long as Satchel Paige . " He registered 21 saves and a 2 @.@ 64 ERA . In 1964 , Wilhelm finished with career highs in both saves ( 27 ) and games pitched ( 73 ) . His ERA decreased to 1 @.@ 99 that season ; it remained less than 2 @.@ 00 through the 1968 season . In 1965 , Wilhelm contributed to another passed balls record when Chicago catcher J. C. Martin allowed 33 of them in one season . That total set a modern single @-@ season baseball record for the category . Wilhelm 's career @-@ low ERA ( 1 @.@ 31 ) came in 1967 , when he earned an 8 – 3 record for the White Sox with 12 saves . In the 1968 season , Wilhelm was getting close to breaking the all @-@ time games pitched record belonging to Cy Young ( 906 games ) . Chicago manager Eddie Stanky began to think about using Wilhelm as a starting pitcher for game number 907 . However , the White Sox fired Stanky before the record came up . Wilhelm later broke the record as a relief pitcher . He also set MLB records for consecutive errorless games by a pitcher , career victories in relief , games finished and innings pitched in relief . Despite Wilhelm 's success , the White Sox , who had won at least 83 games per season in the 1960s , performed poorly . They finished 1968 with a 67 – 95 record . Wilhelm was noted during this period for his mentoring of relief pitcher Wilbur Wood , who came to the 1967 White Sox in a trade . Wood sometimes threw a knuckleball upon his arrival in Chicago , but Wilhelm encouraged him to throw it full @-@ time . By 1968 , Wood won 13 games , saved 16 games and earned a 1 @.@ 87 ERA . He credited Wilhelm with helping him to master the knuckleball , as the White Sox coaches did not know much about how to throw it . Between 1968 and 1970 , Wood pitched in more games ( 241 ) than any other pitcher and more innings ( 400 1 ⁄ 3 ) than any other relief pitcher . After the 1968 season , MLB expanded and an expansion draft was conducted in which the new teams could select certain players from the established teams . The White Sox left Wilhelm unprotected , possibly because they did not believe that teams would have interest in a much older pitcher . On October 15 , 1968 , Wilhelm was chosen in the expansion draft by the Kansas City Royals as the 49th pick . That offseason , he was traded by the Royals to the California Angels for Ed Kirkpatrick and Dennis Paepke . = = = Later career = = = In 44 games pitched for the 1969 California Angels , Wilhelm had a 2 @.@ 47 ERA , ten saves and a 5 – 7 record . On September 8 , 1969 , Wilhelm was traded by the Angels with Bob Priddy to the Atlanta Braves for Clint Compton and Mickey Rivers . He finished the 1969 season by pitching eight games for the Braves , earning four saves and recording a 0 @.@ 73 ERA over 12 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Wilhelm spent most of the 1970 season with the Braves , pitching in 50 games for the team and earning ten saves . On September 21 , 1970 , Wilhelm was selected off waivers by the Chicago Cubs , for whom he appeared in three games . He was traded back by the Cubs to the Braves for Hal Breeden after the season . As the Cubs acquired Wilhelm late in the season to bolster their playoff contention , which was a source of controversy , Commissioner Bowie Kuhn investigated the transaction . In December , Kuhn ruled that he did not find evidence of impropriety associated with the transactions that sent Wilhelm to the Cubs and quickly back to the Braves . Wilhelm was released by the Braves on June 29 , 1971 , having pitched in three games for that year 's Braves . He signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers on July 10 , 1971 . He appeared in nine MLB games for the Dodgers , giving up two earned runs in 17 2 ⁄ 3 innings . He also pitched in eight games that season for the team 's Class AAA minor league affiliate , the Spokane Indians . He started six of those games and registered a 3 @.@ 89 ERA . He pitched in 16 games for the Dodgers in 1972 , registering a 4 @.@ 62 ERA over 25 innings . The Dodgers released him on July 21 , 1972 . He never appeared in another game . At the time of his retirement , Wilhelm had pitched in a then @-@ MLB record 1 @,@ 070 games . He is recognized as the first pitcher to have saved 200 games in his career , and the first pitcher to appear in 1 @,@ 000 games . He is also one of the oldest players to have pitched in the major leagues ; his final appearance was 16 days short of his 50th birthday . Wilhelm retired with the lowest career earned run average of any major league hurler after 1927 ( Walter Johnson ) who pitched more than 2 @,@ 000 innings . = = Later life = = After his retirement as a player , Wilhelm managed two minor league teams in the Atlanta Braves system for single seasons . He led the 1973 Greenwood Braves of the Western Carolinas League to a 61 – 66 record , then had a 33 – 33 record with the 1975 Kingsport Braves of the Appalachian League . He also worked as a minor league pitching coach for the New York Yankees for 22 years . As a coach , Wilhelm said that he did not teach pitchers the knuckleball , believing that people had to be born with a knack for throwing it . He sometimes worked individually with major league players who wanted to improve their knuckleballs , including Joe Niekro . The Yankees gave Wilhelm permission to work with Mickey Lolich in 1979 even though Lolich pitched for the San Diego Padres . Wilhelm was on the ballot for the Baseball Hall of Fame for eight years before he was elected . After Wilhelm failed to garner enough votes for induction in 1983 , sportswriter Jim Murray criticized the voters , saying that while Wilhelm never had the look of a baseball player , he was " the best player in history at what he does . " He fell short by 13 votes in 1984 . Wilhelm was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1985 . At his induction ceremony , he said that he had achieved all three of his initial major league goals : appearing in a World Series , being named to an All @-@ Star team , and throwing a no @-@ hitter . He and his wife Peggy lived in Sarasota , Florida . They raised three children together : Patti , Pam , and Jim . Wilhelm died of heart failure in a Sarasota nursing home in 2002 . = = Legacy = = Wilhelm was known as a " relief ace " and his teams used him in a new way that became a trend . Rather than bringing in a relief pitcher only when the starting pitcher had begun to struggle , teams increasingly called upon their relief pitchers toward the end of any close game . Wilhelm was the first relief pitcher elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame . He is also remembered as one of the most successful and " probably the most famous ' old ' player in history . " Although , due largely to his military service , he did not debut in the major leagues until he was already 29 years old , Wilhelm nonetheless managed to appear in 21 major league seasons . He earned the nickname " Old Folks " while he still had more than a decade left in his playing career . He was the oldest player in Major League Baseball for each of his final seven seasons . Former teammate Moose Skowron commented on Wilhelm 's key pitch , saying , " Hoyt was a good guy , and he threw the best knuckleball I ever saw . You never knew what Hoyt 's pitch would do . I don 't think he did either . " Baseball executive Roland Hemond agreed , saying , " Wilhelm 's knuckleball did more than anyone else 's ... There was so much action on it . " Before Wilhelm , the knuckleball was primarily mixed in to older pitchers ' repertoires at the end of their careers to offset their slowing fastballs and reduce stress on their arms , thereby extending their careers . Wilhelm broke with tradition when he began throwing the pitch as a teenager and on nearly every pitch . The New York Times linked his knuckleball with that of modern pitcher R.A. Dickey , as Wilhelm taught pitcher Charlie Hough the knuckleball in 1971 and Hough taught it to Dickey while coaching with the Texas Rangers .

= Politics of Croatia = The politics of Croatia are defined by a parliamentary , representative democratic republic framework , where the Prime Minister of Croatia is the head of government in a multi @-@ party system . Executive power is exercised by the Government and the President of Croatia . Legislative power is vested in the Croatian Parliament ( Croatian : Sabor ) . The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature . The parliament adopted the current Constitution of Croatia on 22 December 1990 and decided to declare independence from Yugoslavia . The declaration of independence came into effect on 8 October 1991 . The constitution has since been amended several times . The first modern parties in the country developed in the middle of the 19th century , and their agenda and appeal changed , reflecting major social changes , such as the breakup of Austria @-@ Hungary , the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , dictatorship and social upheavals in the kingdom , World War II , the establishment of Communist rule and the breakup of the SFR Yugoslavia . The President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik / ica Republike ) is the head of state and the commander in chief of the Croatian armed forces and is directly elected to serve a five @-@ year term . The government ( Croatian : Vlada ) , the main executive power of Croatia , is headed by the prime minister , who has four deputy prime ministers , three of whom also serve as government ministers . Seventeen ministers are in charge of particular activities . The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget , executing the laws , and guiding the foreign and internal policies . The parliament is a unicameral legislative body . The number of Sabor representatives ranges from 100 to 160 ; they are elected by popular vote to serve four @-@ year terms . The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution and laws ; adoption of the government budget , declarations of war and peace , defining national boundaries , calling referenda and elections , appointments and relief of officers , supervising the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor , and granting of amnesties . The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular presidential and parliamentary elections , and the election of county prefects and assemblies , and city and municipal mayors and councils . Croatia has a three @-@ tiered , independent judicial system governed by the Constitution of Croatia and national legislation enacted by the Sabor . The Supreme Court ( Croatian : Vrhovni sud ) is the highest court of appeal in Croatia . There are other specialised courts in Croatia — commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court , misdemeanour courts , the Superior Misdemeanour ( criminal ) Court , the Administrative Court and the Croatian Constitutional Court ( Croatian : Ustavni sud ) . The State Attorney 's Office represents the state in legal proceedings . = = Legal framework = = Croatia is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic . Following the collapse of the ruling Communist League , Croatia adopted a new constitution in 1990 – which replaced the 1974 constitution adopted by the Socialist Republic of Croatia – and organised its first multi @-@ party elections . While the 1990 constitution remains in force , it has been amended four times since its adoption — in 1997 , 2000 , 2001 and 2010 . Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991 , which led to the breakup of Yugoslavia . Croatia 's status as a country was internationally recognised by the United Nations in 1992 . Under its 1990 constitution , Croatia operated a semi @-@ presidential system until 2000 when it switched to a parliamentary system . Government powers in Croatia are divided into legislative , executive and judiciary powers . The legal system of Croatia is civil law and , along with the institutional framework , is strongly influenced by the legal heritage of Austria @-@ Hungary . By the time EU accession negotiations were completed on 30 June 2010 , Croatian legislation was fully harmonised with the Community acquis . = = Executive = = The President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik / ica Republike ) is the head of state ; he or she is directly elected and serves a five @-@ year term . The president is the commander in chief of the armed forces , has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor ( Parliament ) through a simple majority vote , and has some influence on foreign policy . The most recent presidential election was held on 10 January 2010 and was won by Ivo Josipović . He took the oath of office on 18 February 2010 . The constitution limits holders of the presidential office to a maximum of two terms and prevents the president from being a member of any political party . Consequently , the president @-@ elect withdraws from party membership before inauguration . President Josipović did so on 15 February 2010 . The government ( Croatian : Vlada ) , the main executive power of Croatia , is headed by the prime minister who has four deputies , three of whom also serve as government ministers. there are seventeen other ministers who are appointed by the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor ; these are in charge of particular sectors of activity . As of 23 December 2011 , the Deputy Prime Ministers are Radimir Čačić , Neven Mimica , Branko Grčić , and Milanka Opačić . Government ministers are from the Social Democratic Party of Croatia ( SDP ) , and the Croatian People 's Party - Liberal Democrats ( HNS ) and Istrian Democratic Assembly ( IDS ) . The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget , executing the laws , and guiding the country 's foreign and domestic policies . The government 's official residence is at Banski dvori . As of 23 December 2011 , the prime minister is Zoran Milanović . = = Legislature = = The Parliament of Croatia ( Croatian : Sabor ) is a unicameral legislative body . A second chamber , the Chamber of Counties ( Croatian : Županijski dom ) , was set up in 1993 pursuant to the 1990 Constitution . The Chamber of Counties was originally composed of three deputies from each of the twenty counties and the city of Zagreb . However , as it had no practical power over the Chamber of Representatives , it was abolished in 2001 and its powers were transferred to the county governments . The number of Sabor representatives can vary from 100 to 160 ; they are all elected by popular vote and serve four @-@ year terms . 140 members are elected in multi @-@ seat constituencies , up to six members are chosen by proportional representation to represent Croatians living abroad and five members represent ethnic and national communities or minorities . The two largest political parties in Croatia are the SDP and the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) . The last parliamentary election was held on 4 December 2011 in Croatia and on 3 and 4 December 2011 abroad . The Sabor meets in public sessions in two periods ; the first from 15 January to 30 June , and the second from 15 September to 15 December . Extra sessions can be called by the President of the Republic , by the president of the parliament or by the government . The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution , enactment of laws , adoption of the state budget , declarations of war and peace , alteration of the country 's boundaries , calling and conducting referenda and elections , appointments and relief of office , supervising the work of the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor , and granting amnesty . Decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the Chamber is present , except in cases of constitutional issues . = = Elections = = The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular elections for the office of the President of the Republic , parliamentary , county prefects , county assemblies , city and municipal mayors and city and municipal councils . The President of the Republic is elected to a five @-@ year term by a direct vote of all citizens of Croatia . A majority vote is required to win . A runoff election round is held in cases where no candidate secures the majority in the first round of voting . The presidential elections are regulated by the constitution and dedicated legislation ; the latter defines technical details , appeals and similar issues . 140 members of parliament are elected to a four @-@ year term in ten multi @-@ seat constituencies , which are defined on the basis of the existing county borders , with amendments to achieve a uniform number of eligible voters in each constituency to within 5 % . Citizens of Croatia living abroad are counted in an eleventh constituency ; however , its number of seats was not fixed for the last parliamentary election . It was instead calculated based on numbers of votes cast in the ten constituencies in Croatia and the votes cast in the eleventh constituency . In the 2007 parliamentary election the eleventh constituency elected five MPs . Constitutional changes first applied in the 2011 parliamentary election have abolished this scheme and permanently assigned three MPs to the eleventh constituency . Additionally , eight members of parliament are elected by voters belonging to twenty @-@ two recognised minorities in Croatia : the Serb minority elects three MPs , Hungarians and Italians elect one MP each , Czech and Slovak minorities elect one MP jointly , while all other minorities elect two more MPs to the parliament . The Standard D 'Hondt formula is applied to the vote , with a 5 % election threshold . The last parliamentary election , held in 2011 , elected 151 MPs . The county prefects and city and municipal mayors are elected to four @-@ year terms by majority of votes cast within applicable local government units . A runoff election is held if no candidate achieves a majority in the first round of voting . Members of county , city , and municipal councils are elected to four @-@ year terms through proportional representation ; the entire local government unit forms a single constituency . The number of council members is defined by the councils themselves based on applicable legislation . Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national minorities are represented in the council as required by the constitution . If the minorities are not represented , further members , who belong to the minorities and who have not been elected through the proportional representation system , are selected from electoral candidate lists and added to the council . = = = Latest presidential election = = = = = = Latest parliamentary election = = = = = Judiciary = = Croatia has a three @-@ tiered , independent judicial system governed by the constitution and national legislation enacted by the Sabor . The Supreme Court ( Croatian : Vrhovni sud ) is the highest court of appeal in Croatia ; its hearings are open and judgments are made publicly , except in cases where the privacy of the accused is to be protected . Judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council and judicial office is permanent until seventy years of age . The president of the Supreme Court is elected for a four @-@ year term by the Croatian Parliament at the proposal of the President of the Republic . As of 2011 , the president of the Supreme Court is Branko Hrvatin . The Supreme Court has civil and criminal departments . The lower two levels of the three @-@ tiered judiciary consist of county courts and municipal courts . There are fifteen county courts and sixty @-@ seven municipal courts in the country . There are other specialised courts in Croatia ; commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court , misdemeanour courts that try trivial offences such as traffic violations , the Superior Misdemeanour Court , the Administrative Court and the Croatian Constitutional Court ( Croatian : Ustavni sud ) . The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding compliance of legislation with the constitution , repeals unconstitutional legislation , reports any breaches of provisions of the constitution to the government and the parliament , declares the speaker of the parliament acting president upon petition from the government in the event the country 's president becomes incapacitated , issues consent for commencement of criminal procedures against or arrest of the president , and hears appeals against decisions of the National Judicial Council . The court consists of thirteen judges elected by members of the parliament for an eight @-@ year term . The president of the Constitutional Court is elected by the court judges for a four @-@ year term . As of June 2012 , the president of the Constitutional Court is Jasna Omejec . The National Judicial Council ( Croatian : Državno Sudbeno Vijeće ) consists of eleven members , specifically seven judges , two university professors of law and two parliament members , nominated and elected by the Parliament for four @-@ year terms , and may serve no more than two terms . It appoints all judges and court presidents , except in case of the Supreme Court . As of January 2015 , the president of the National Judicial Council is Ranko Marijan , who is also a Supreme Court judge . The State Attorney 's Office represents the state in legal procedures . As of August 2012 , Mladen Bajić is the General State Attorney , and there are twenty @-@ three deputies in the central office and lower @-@ ranking State Attorneys at fifteen county and thirty @-@ three municipal State Attorney 's Offices . The General State Attorney is appointed by the parliament . A special State Attorney 's Office dedicated to combatting corruption and organised crime , USKOK , was set up in late 2001 . = = Local government = = Croatia was first subdivided into counties ( Croatian : županija ) in the Middle Ages . The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and the subsequent recapture of the same territory , and changes to the political status of Dalmatia , Dubrovnik and Istria . The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s , when the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively . After 1945 under Communist rule , Croatia , as a constituent part of Yugoslavia , abolished these earlier divisions and introduced municipalities , subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities . Counties , significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre @-@ 1920s subdivisions , were reintroduced in 1992 legislation . In 1918 , the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar , Gospić , Ogulin , Požega , Vukovar , Varaždin , Osijek and Zagreb ; the 1992 legislation established fifteen counties in the same territory . Since the counties were re @-@ established in 1992 , Croatia is divided into twenty counties and the capital city of Zagreb , the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time . In some instances , the boundaries of the counties have been changed , with the latest revision taking place in 2006 . The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities . The county prefects , city and municipal mayors are elected to four @-@ year terms by a majority of votes cast within applicable local government units . If no candidate achieves a majority in the first round , a runoff election is held . Members of county , city and municipal councils are elected to four @-@ year terms , through proportional representation with the entire local government unit as a single constituency . The number of members of the councils is defined by the councils themselves , based on applicable legislation . Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national ethnic minorities are represented on the council as required by the constitution . Further members who belong to the minorities may be added to the council in no candidate of that minority has been elected through the proportional representation system . Election silence , as in all other types of elections in Croatia , when campaigning is forbidden , is enforced the day before the election and continues until 19 : 00 hours on the election day when the polling stations close and exit polls may be announced . Six nationwide local elections have been held in Croatia since 1990 , the most recent being the 2009 local elections to elect county prefects and councils , and city and municipal councils and mayors . In 2009 , the HDZ @-@ led coalitions won a majority or plurality in fifteen county councils and thirteen county prefect elections . SDP @-@ led coalitions won a majority or plurality in five county councils , including the city of Zagreb council , and the remaining county council election was won by IDS @-@ SDP coalition . The SDP won four county prefect elections and the city of Zagreb mayoral election , the HSS won three county prefect elections , and the HNS and the HDSSB won a single county prefect election each . = = History = = = = = Within Austria @-@ Hungary = = = Events of 1848 in Europe and the Austrian Empire brought dramatic changes to Croatian society and politics , provoking the Croatian national revival that strongly influenced and significantly shaped political and social events in Croatia . At the time , the Sabor and Ban Josip Jelačić advocated the severance of ties with the Kingdom of Hungary , emphasising links to other South Slavic lands within the empire . Several prominent Croatian political figures emerged , such as Ante Starčević , Eugen Kvaternik , Franjo Rački and Josip Juraj Strossmayer . A period of neo @-@ absolutism was followed by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement , which granted limited independence to Croatia . This was compounded by Croatian claims of uninterrupted statehood since the early Middle Ages as a basis for a modern state . Two political parties that evolved in the 1860s and contributed significantly to the sentiment were the Party of Rights , led by Starčević and Kvaternik , and the People 's Party , led by Janko Drašković , Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski , Josip Juraj Strossmayer and Ivan Mažuranić . They were opposed by the National Constitutional Party , which was in power for most of the period between the 1860s and the 1918 , and advocated closer ties between Croatia and Hungary . Other significant parties formed in the era were the Serb People 's Independent Party , which later formed the Croat @-@ Serb Coalition with the Party of Rights and other Croat and Serb parties . The Coalition ruled Croatia between 1903 and 1918 . The leaders of the Coalition were Frano Supilo and Svetozar Pribićević . The Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) , established in 1904 and led by Stjepan Radić , advocated Croatian autonomy but achieved only moderate gains by 1918 . In Dalmatia , the two major parties were the People 's Party – a branch of the People 's Party active in Croatia @-@ Slavonia – and the Autonomist Party , advocating maintaining autonomy of Dalmatia , opposite to the People 's Party demands for unification of Croatia @-@ Slavonia and Dalmatia . The Autonomist Party , most notably led by Antonio Bajamonti , was also linked to Italian irredentism . By 1900 , the Party of Rights had made considerable gains in Dalmatia . The Autonomists won the first three elections , but all elections since 1870 were won by the People 's Party . In the period 1861 – 1918 there were seventeen elections in the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia and ten in the Kingdom of Dalmatia . = = = First and Second Yugoslavia = = = After the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , the HSS established itself as the most popular Croatian political party and was very popular despite efforts to ban it . The 1921 constitution defined the kingdom as a unitary state and abolished the historical administrative divisions , which effectively ended Croatian autonomy ; the constitution was opposed by HSS . The political situation deteriorated further as Stjepan Radić of the HSS was assassinated in the Yugoslav Parliament in 1928 , leading to the dictatorship of King Alexander in January 1929 . The HSS , now led by Vladko Maček , continued to advocate the federalisation of Yugoslavia , resulting in the Cvetković – Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia . The Yugoslav government retained control of defence , internal security , foreign affairs , trade , and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown @-@ appointed Ban . This arrangement was soon made obsolete with the beginning of World War II , when the Independent State of Croatia , which banned all political opposition , was established . Since then , the HSS continues to operate abroad . In the 1945 election , the Communists were unopposed because the other parties abstained . Once in power , the Communists introduced a single @-@ party political system , in which the Communist Party of Yugoslavia was the ruling party and the Communist Party of Croatia was its branch . In 1971 , the Croatian national movement , which sought greater civil rights and the decentralisation of the Yugoslav economy , culminated in the Croatian Spring , which was suppressed by the Yugoslav leadership . In January 1990 , the Communist Party fragmented along national lines ; the Croatian faction demanded a looser federation . = = = Modern Croatia = = = In 1989 , the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia decided to tolerate political parties in response to growing demands to allow political activities outside the Communist party . The first political party founded in Croatia since the beginning of the Communist rule was the Croatian Social Liberal Party ( HSLS ) , established on 20 May 1989 , followed by the Croatian Democratic Union on 17 June 1989 . In December 1989 , Ivica Račan became the head of the reformed Communist party . At the same time , the party cancelled political trials , released political prisoners and endorsed a multi @-@ party political system . The Civil Organisations Act was formally amended to allow political parties on 11 January 1990 , legalising the parties that were already founded . By the time of the first round of the first multi @-@ party elections , held on 22 April 1990 , there were 33 registered parties . The most relevant parties and coalitions were the League of Communists of Croatia – Party of Democratic Changes ( the renamed Communist party ) , the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) , and the Coalition of People 's Accord ( KNS ) , which included the HSLS led by Dražen Budiša , and the HSS , which resumed operating in Croatia in December 1989 . The runoff election was held on 6 May 1990 . The HDZ , led by Franjo Tuđman , won ahead of the reformed Communists and the KNS . The KNS , led by Savka Dabčević @-@ Kučar and Miko Tripalo – who had led the Croatian Spring – soon splintered into individual parties . The HDZ maintained a parliamentary majority until the 2000 parliamentary election , when it was defeated by the Social Democratic Party of Croatia ( SDP ) , led by Račan . Franjo Gregurić , of the HDZ , was appointed prime minister to head a national unity government in July 1991 as the Croatian War of Independence escalated in intensity . His appointment lasted until August 1992 . During his term , Croatia 's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia took effect on 8 October 1991 . The HDZ returned to power in the 2003 parliamentary election , while the SDP remained the largest opposition party . Franjo Tuđman won the presidential elections in 1992 and 1997 . During his terms , the Constitution of Croatia , adopted in 1990 , provided for a semi @-@ presidential system . After Tuđman 's death in 1999 , the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government . Stjepan Mesić won two consecutive terms in 2000 and 2005 on a Croatian People 's Party ( HNS ) ticket . Ivo Josipović , an SDP candidate , won the presidential elections in December 2009 and January 2010 . Kolinda Grabar @-@ Kitarović defeated Josipović in the January 2015 election run @-@ off , becoming the first female president of Croatia .

= Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal = Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal ( born Wesley Cook April 24 , 1954 ) is a convicted murderer who was sentenced to death in 1982 for the 1981 murder of Philadelphia police officer Daniel Faulkner . His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment without parole . Abu @-@ Jamal became involved in black nationalism in his youth and was a member of the Black Panther Party until October 1970 , after which he became a radio journalist , eventually becoming president of the Philadelphia Association of Black Journalists . On December 9 , 1981 , Faulkner was fatally shot while conducting a routine traffic stop of Abu @-@ Jamal 's brother , William Cook . Abu @-@ Jamal was found at the scene with a bullet wound from Faulkner 's gun and his own discharged revolver beside him . He was arrested and charged with Faulkner 's murder . Prosecution witnesses identified Abu @-@ Jamal as the shooter and two testified that he had confessed to shooting Faulkner . A jury convicted Abu @-@ Jamal on all counts and sentenced him to death . He spent the next 30 years on death row . After a succession of all possible appeals by Abu @-@ Jamal were exhausted , his conviction was upheld but his death sentence vacated . He was resentenced to life in prison without parole . District Attorney Seth Williams later stated that no further appeals would be filed in pursuit of the death penalty . Activists , celebrities , and liberal groups have criticized the fairness of Abu @-@ Jamal 's trial , professed his innocence , and opposed his death sentence . The Faulkner family , public authorities , police organizations , and conservative groups have maintained that Abu @-@ Jamal 's trial was fair , his guilt undeniable , and his death sentence appropriate . Once described as " perhaps the world 's best known death @-@ row inmate " by The New York Times , during his imprisonment Abu @-@ Jamal has published books and commentaries on social and political issues , including Live from Death Row ( 1995 ) . = = Early life and activism = = Abu @-@ Jamal was given the name Mumia in 1968 by his high school teacher , a Kenyan instructing a class on African cultures in which students took African classroom names . According to Abu @-@ Jamal , ' Mumia ' means " Prince " and was the name of Kenyan anti @-@ colonial African nationalists who fought against the British before Kenyan independence . He adopted the surname Abu @-@ Jamal ( " father of Jamal " in Arabic ) after the birth of his son Jamal on July 18 , 1971 . His first marriage at age 19 , to Jamal 's mother , Biba , was short @-@ lived . Their daughter , Lateefa , was born shortly after the wedding . Abu @-@ Jamal married his second wife , Marilyn ( known as " Peachie " ) , in 1977 . Their son , Mazi , was born in early 1978 . By 1981 , Abu @-@ Jamal was living with his third and current wife , Wadiya . = = = Involvement with the Black Panthers = = = In his own writings , Abu @-@ Jamal describes his adolescent experience of being " kicked ... into the Black Panther Party " after suffering a beating from " white racists " and a policeman for his efforts to disrupt a George Wallace for President rally in 1968 . From the age of 14 , he helped form the Philadelphia branch of the Black Panther Party with Defense Captain Reggie Schell , and other Panthers , taking appointment , in his own words , as the chapter 's " Lieutenant of Information " , exercising a responsibility for writing information and news communications . In one of the interviews he gave at the time he quoted Mao Zedong , saying that " political power grows out of the barrel of a gun " . That same year , he dropped out of Benjamin Franklin High School and took up residence in the branch 's headquarters . He spent late 1969 in New York City and early 1970 in Oakland , living and working with BPP colleagues in those cities . He was a party member from May 1969 until October 1970 and was subject to Federal Bureau of Investigation COINTELPRO surveillance , with which the Philadelphia police cooperated , from then until about 1974 . = = = Education and journalism career = = = After returning to his old high school after his departure from the Panthers , Abu @-@ Jamal was suspended for distributing literature calling for " black revolutionary student power " . He also led unsuccessful protests to change the school name to Malcolm X High . After attaining his GED , he studied briefly at Goddard College in rural Vermont . By 1975 he was pursuing a vocation in radio newscasting , first at Temple University 's WRTI and then at commercial enterprises . In 1975 , he was employed at radio station WHAT and he became host of a weekly feature program of WCAU @-@ FM in 1978 . He was also employed for brief periods at radio station WPEN , and became active in the local chapter of the Marijuana Users Association of America . From 1979 he worked at National Public Radio @-@ affiliate ( NPR ) WUHY until 1981 when he was asked to submit his resignation after a dispute about the requirements of objective focus in his presentation of news . As a radio journalist he earned the moniker " the voice of the voiceless " and was renowned for identifying with and giving exposure to the MOVE anarcho @-@ primitivist commune in Philadelphia 's Powelton Village neighborhood , including reportage of the 1979 – 80 trial of certain of its members ( the " MOVE Nine " ) convicted of the murder of police officer James Ramp . During his broadcasting career , his high @-@ profile interviews included Julius Erving , Bob Marley and Alex Haley , and he was elected president of the Philadelphia Association of Black Journalists . At the time of Daniel Faulkner 's murder , Abu @-@ Jamal was working as a taxicab driver in Philadelphia two nights a week to supplement his income . He had been working part @-@ time as a reporter for WDAS , then an African @-@ American @-@ oriented and minority @-@ owned radio station . = = Arrest for murder and trial = = At 3 : 55 am on December 9 , 1981 , in Philadelphia , close to the intersection at 13th and Locust Streets , Philadelphia Police Department officer Daniel Faulkner conducted a traffic stop on a vehicle belonging to William Cook , Abu @-@ Jamal 's younger brother . During the traffic stop , Abu @-@ Jamal 's taxi was parked across the street . He ran across the street towards Cook 's car , where Faulkner was shot from behind and then in the face . Abu @-@ Jamal was shot by Faulkner in the stomach . Faulkner died at the scene from the gunshot to his head . Police arrived and arrested Abu @-@ Jamal , who was found wearing a shoulder holster . His revolver , which had five spent cartridges , was beside him . Abu @-@ Jamal was taken directly from the scene of the shooting to Thomas Jefferson University Hospital , where he received treatment for his wound . Abu @-@ Jamal was charged with the first @-@ degree murder of Officer Faulkner . The case went to trial in June 1982 in Philadelphia . Judge Albert F. Sabo initially agreed to Abu @-@ Jamal 's request to represent himself , with criminal defense attorney Anthony Jackson acting as his legal advisor . During the first day of the trial , Sabo warned Abu @-@ Jamal that he would forfeit his legal right to self @-@ representation if he kept being intentionally disruptive in a fashion that was unbecoming under the law . Due to Abu @-@ Jamal 's continued disruptive behavior , Sabo ruled that Abu @-@ Jamal forfeited his right to self @-@ representation . = = = Prosecution case at trial = = = The prosecution presented four witnesses to the court . Robert Chobert , a cab driver who testified he was parked behind Faulkner , identified Abu @-@ Jamal as the shooter . Cynthia White , a prostitute , testified that Abu @-@ Jamal emerged from a nearby parking lot and shot Faulkner . Michael Scanlan , a motorist , testified that from two car lengths away , he saw a man , matching Abu @-@ Jamal 's description , run across the street from a parking lot and shoot Faulkner . Albert Magilton , a pedestrian who did not see the actual murder , testified to witnessing Faulkner pull over Cook 's car . At the point of seeing Abu @-@ Jamal start to cross the street toward them from the parking lot , Magilton turned away and lost sight of what happened next . The prosecution also presented two witnesses who were at the hospital after the shootings . Hospital security guard Priscilla Durham and police officer Garry Bell testified that Abu @-@ Jamal confessed in the hospital by saying , " I shot the motherfucker , and I hope the motherfucker dies . " A .38 caliber Charter Arms revolver , belonging to Abu @-@ Jamal , with five spent cartridges was retrieved beside him at the scene . He was wearing a shoulder holster , and Anthony Paul , the Supervisor of the Philadelphia Police Department 's firearms identification unit , testified at trial that the cartridge cases and rifling characteristics of the weapon were consistent with bullet fragments taken from Faulkner 's body . Tests to confirm that Abu @-@ Jamal had handled and fired the weapon were not performed , as contact with arresting police and other surfaces at the scene could have compromised the forensic value of such tests . = = = Defense case at trial = = = The defense maintained that Abu @-@ Jamal was innocent and that the prosecution witnesses were unreliable . The defense presented nine character witnesses , including poet Sonia Sanchez , who testified that Abu @-@ Jamal was " viewed by the black community as a creative , articulate , peaceful , genial man " . Another defense witness , Dessie Hightower , testified that he saw a man running along the street shortly after the shooting although he did not see the actual shooting itself . His testimony contributed to the development of a " running man theory " , based on the possibility that a " running man " may have been the actual shooter . Veronica Jones also testified for the defense , but she did not see anyone running . Other potential defense witnesses refused to appear in court . Abu @-@ Jamal did not testify in his own defense . Nor did his brother , William Cook , who told investigators at the crime scene : " I ain 't got nothing to do with this . " = = = Verdict and sentence = = = The jury delivered a unanimous guilty verdict after three hours of deliberations . In the sentencing phase of the trial , Abu @-@ Jamal read to the jury from a prepared statement . He was then cross @-@ examined about issues relevant to the assessment of his character by Joseph McGill , the prosecuting attorney . In his statement Abu @-@ Jamal criticized his attorney as a " legal trained lawyer " who was imposed on him against his will and who " knew he was inadequate to the task and chose to follow the directions of this black @-@ robed conspirator , Albert Sabo , even if it meant ignoring my directions " . He claimed that his rights had been " deceitfully stolen " from him by Sabo , particularly focusing on the denial of his request to receive defense assistance from non @-@ attorney John Africa and being prevented from proceeding pro se . He quoted remarks of John Africa , and said : Does it matter whether a white man is charged with killing a black man or a black man is charged with killing a white man ? As for justice when the prosecutor represents the Commonwealth the Judge represents the Commonwealth and the court @-@ appointed lawyer is paid and supported by the Commonwealth , who follows the wishes of the defendant , the man charged with the crime ? If the court @-@ appointed lawyer ignores , or goes against the wishes of the man he is charged with representing , whose wishes does he follow ? Who does he truly represent or work for ? ... I am innocent of these charges that I have been charged of and convicted of and despite the connivance of Sabo , McGill and Jackson to deny me my so @-@ called rights to represent myself , to assistance of my choice , to personally select a jury who is totally of my peers , to cross @-@ examine witnesses , and to make both opening and closing arguments , I am still innocent of these charges . Abu @-@ Jamal was subsequently sentenced to death by the unanimous decision of the jury . = = Appeals and review = = = = = State appeals = = = Direct appeal of his conviction was considered and denied by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania on March 6 , 1989 , subsequently denying rehearing . The Supreme Court of the United States denied his petition for writ of certiorari on October 1 , 1990 , and denied his petition for rehearing twice up to June 10 , 1991 . On June 1 , 1995 , his death warrant was signed by Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge . Its execution was suspended while Abu @-@ Jamal pursued state post @-@ conviction review . At the post @-@ conviction review hearings , new witnesses were called . William " Dales " Singletary testified that he saw the shooting and that the gunman was the passenger in Cook 's car . Singletary 's account contained discrepancies which rendered it " not credible " in the opinion of the court . William Harmon , a convicted fraudster , testified that Faulkner 's murderer fled in a car which pulled up at the crime scene , and could not have been Abu @-@ Jamal . However , Robert Harkins testified that he had witnessed a man stand over Faulkner as the latter lay wounded on the ground , who shot him point @-@ blank in the face and then " walked and sat down on the curb " . The six judges of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania ruled unanimously that all issues raised by Abu @-@ Jamal , including the claim of ineffective assistance of counsel , were without merit . The Supreme Court of the United States denied a petition for certiorari against that decision on October 4 , 1999 , enabling Ridge to sign a second death warrant on October 13 , 1999 . Its execution in turn was stayed as Abu @-@ Jamal commenced his pursuit of federal habeas corpus review . In 1999 , Arnold Beverly claimed that he and an unnamed assailant , not Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal , shot Daniel Faulkner as part of a contract killing because Faulkner was interfering with graft and payoff to corrupt police . The Beverly affidavit became an item of division for Mumia 's defense team , as some thought it usable and others rejected Beverly 's story as " not credible " . Private investigator George Newman claimed in 2001 that Chobert had recanted his testimony . Commentators also noted that police and news photographs of the crime scene did not show Chobert 's taxi , and that Cynthia White , the only witness at the trial to testify to seeing the taxi , had previously provided crime scene descriptions that omitted it . Cynthia White was declared to be dead by the state of New Jersey in 1992 although Pamela Jenkins claimed that she saw White alive as late as 1997 . Mumia supporters often claim that White was a police informant and that she falsified her testimony against Abu @-@ Jamal . Priscilla Durham 's step @-@ brother , Kenneth Pate , who was imprisoned with Abu @-@ Jamal on other charges , has since claimed that Durham admitted to not hearing the hospital confession . The hospital doctors stated that Abu @-@ Jamal was " on the verge of fainting " when brought in and they did not overhear a confession . In 2008 , the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania rejected a further request from Abu @-@ Jamal for a hearing into claims that the trial witnesses perjured themselves on the grounds that he had waited too long before filing the appeal . On March 26 , 2012 the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania rejected his most recent appeal for retrial asserted on the basis that a 2009 report by the National Academy of Science demonstrated that forensic evidence put by the prosecution and accepted into evidence in the original trial was unreliable . It was reported to be the former death row inmate 's last legal appeal . = = = Federal ruling directing resentencing = = = Abu @-@ Jamal did not make any public statements about Faulkner 's murder until May 2001 . In his version of events , he claimed that he was sitting in his cab across the street when he heard shouting , then saw a police vehicle , then heard the sound of gunshots . Upon seeing his brother appearing disoriented across the street , Abu @-@ Jamal ran to him from the parking lot and was shot by a police officer . The driver originally stopped by police officer Faulkner , Abu @-@ Jamal 's brother William Cook , did not testify or make any statement until April 29 , 2001 , when he claimed that he had not seen who had shot Faulkner . Judge William H. Yohn Jr. of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania upheld the conviction but vacated the sentence of death on December 18 , 2001 , citing irregularities in the original process of sentencing . Particularly , ... the jury instructions and verdict sheet in this case involved an unreasonable application of federal law . The charge and verdict form created a reasonable likelihood that the jury believed it was precluded from considering any mitigating circumstance that had not been found unanimously to exist . He ordered the State of Pennsylvania to commence new sentencing proceedings within 180 days and ruled that it was unconstitutional to require that a jury 's finding of circumstances mitigating against determining a sentence of death be unanimous . Eliot Grossman and Marlene Kamish , attorneys for Abu @-@ Jamal , criticized the ruling on the grounds that it denied the possibility of a trial de novo at which they could introduce evidence that their client had been framed . Prosecutors also criticized the ruling ; Officer Faulkner 's widow Maureen described Abu @-@ Jamal as a " remorseless , hate @-@ filled killer " who would " be permitted to enjoy the pleasures that come from simply being alive " on the basis of the judgment . Both parties appealed . = = = Federal appeal = = = On December 6 , 2005 , the Third Circuit Court admitted four issues for appeal of the ruling of the District Court : in relation to sentencing , whether the jury verdict form had been flawed and the judge 's instructions to the jury had been confusing ; in relation to conviction and sentencing , whether racial bias in jury selection existed to an extent tending to produce an inherently biased jury and therefore an unfair trial ( the Batson claim ) ; in relation to conviction , whether the prosecutor improperly attempted to reduce jurors ' sense of responsibility by telling them that a guilty verdict would be subsequently vetted and subject to appeal ; and in relation to post @-@ conviction review hearings in 1995 – 6 , whether the presiding judge , who had also presided at the trial , demonstrated unacceptable bias in his conduct . The Third Circuit Court heard oral arguments in the appeals on May 17 , 2007 , at the United States Courthouse in Philadelphia . The appeal panel consisted of Chief Judge Anthony Joseph Scirica , Judge Thomas Ambro , and Judge Robert Cowen . The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania sought to reinstate the sentence of death , on the basis that Yohn 's ruling was flawed , as he should have deferred to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court which had already ruled on the issue of sentencing , and the Batson claim was invalid because Abu @-@ Jamal made no complaints during the original jury selection . Although Abu @-@ Jamal 's jury was racially mixed with 2 blacks and 10 whites at the time of his unanimous conviction , his counsel told the Third Circuit Court that Abu @-@ Jamal did not get a fair trial because the jury was racially biased , misinformed , the judge was a racist , and noted that the prosecution used eleven out of fourteen peremptory challenges to eliminate prospective black jurors . Terri Maurer @-@ Carter , a former Philadelphia court stenographer claimed in a 2001 affidavit nearly 20 years after the trial that she overheard Judge Sabo say " Yeah , and I 'm going to help them fry the nigger " in the course of a conversation with three people present regarding Abu @-@ Jamal 's case . Sabo denied having made any such comment . On March 27 , 2008 , the three @-@ judge panel issued a majority 2 – 1 opinion upholding Yohn 's 2001 opinion but rejecting the bias and Batson claims , with Judge Ambro dissenting on the Batson issue . On July 22 , 2008 , Abu @-@ Jamal 's formal petition seeking reconsideration of the decision by the full Third Circuit panel of 12 judges was denied . On April 6 , 2009 , the United States Supreme Court also refused to hear Abu @-@ Jamal 's appeal , allowing his conviction to stand . On January 19 , 2010 , the Supreme Court ordered the appeals court to reconsider its decision to rescind the death penalty , with the same three @-@ judge panel convening in Philadelphia on November 9 , 2010 , to hear oral argument . On April 26 , 2011 , the Third Circuit Court of Appeals reaffirmed its prior decision to vacate the death sentence on the grounds that the jury instructions and verdict form were ambiguous and confusing . The Supreme Court declined to hear the case in October . = = = Death penalty dropped = = = On December 7 , 2011 , District Attorney of Philadelphia R. Seth Williams announced that prosecutors , with the support of the victim 's family , would no longer seek the death penalty for Abu @-@ Jamal . Faulkner had indicated she did not wish to relive the trauma of another trial , and that it would be extremely difficult to present the case against Abu @-@ Jamal again , after the passage of 30 years and the deaths of several key witnesses . Williams , the prosecutor , said that Abu @-@ Jamal will spend the rest of his life in prison without the possibility of parole , a sentence that was reaffirmed by the Superior Court of Pennsylvania on July 9 , 2013 . After the press conference , Maureen Faulkner made an emotional statement harshly condemning Abu @-@ Jamal : I would like to say that I believe the lowest dimension of hell has been reserved for child molesters and unrepentant murderers , like Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal . After thirty years of waiting , the time remaining before Abu @-@ Jamal stands before his ultimate judge . It doesn 't seem so far off as it once did when I was younger . I look forward to that day so I can finally close the chapter of my life and live with the gratification and assurance that Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal will finally receive the punishment he deserves , for all eternity . = = Life as a prisoner = = In 1991 Abu @-@ Jamal published an essay in the Yale Law Journal , on the death penalty and his death row experience . In May 1994 , Abu @-@ Jamal was engaged by National Public Radio 's All Things Considered program to deliver a series of monthly three @-@ minute commentaries on crime and punishment . The broadcast plans and commercial arrangement were canceled following condemnations from , among others , the Fraternal Order of Police and US Senator Bob Dole ( Kansas Republican Party ) . Abu @-@ Jamal sued NPR for not airing his work , but a federal judge dismissed the suit . The commentaries later appeared in print in May 1995 as part of Live from Death Row . In 1999 , he was invited to record a keynote address for the graduating class at The Evergreen State College . The event was protested by some . In 2000 , he recorded a commencement address for Antioch College . The now defunct New College of California School of Law presented him with an honorary degree " for his struggle to resist the death penalty " . On October 5 , 2014 , he gave the commencement speech at Goddard College , via playback of a recording . As before , the choice of Abu @-@ Jamal was controversial . With occasional interruptions due to prison disciplinary actions , Abu @-@ Jamal has for many years been a regular commentator on an online broadcast , sponsored by Prison Radio , as well as a regular columnist for Junge Welt , a Marxist newspaper in Germany . In 1995 , he was punished with solitary confinement for engaging in entrepreneurship contrary to prison regulations . Subsequent to the airing of the 1996 HBO documentary Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal : A Case For Reasonable Doubt ? , which included footage from visitation interviews conducted with him , the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections acted to ban outsiders from using any recording equipment in state prisons . In litigation before the US Court of Appeals in 1998 he successfully established his right to write for financial gain in prison . The same litigation also established that the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections had illegally opened his mail in an attempt to establish whether he was writing for financial gain . When , for a brief time in August 1999 , he began delivering his radio commentaries live on the Pacifica Network 's Democracy Now ! weekday radio newsmagazine , prison staff severed the connecting wires of his telephone from their mounting in mid @-@ performance . He was later allowed to resume his broadcasts , and hundreds of his broadcasts have been aired on Pacifica Radio . His publications include Death Blossoms : Reflections from a Prisoner of Conscience , in which he explores religious themes , All Things Censored , a political critique examining issues of crime and punishment , Live From Death Row , a diary of life on Pennsylvania 's death row , and We Want Freedom : A Life in the Black Panther Party , which is a history of the Black Panthers drawing on autobiographical material . At the end of January 2012 he was released into general prison population at State Correctional Institution – Mahanoy . He went into diabetic shock on March 30 , 2015 and has been diagnosed with active Hepatitis C. In August 2015 his attorneys filed suit in the US District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania upon the allegation that he has not received appropriate medical care for his health conditions . = = Popular support and opposition = = Labor unions , politicians , advocates , educators , the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund , and human rights advocacy organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have expressed concern about the impartiality of the trial of Abu @-@ Jamal , though Amnesty International neither takes a position on the guilt or innocence of Abu @-@ Jamal nor classifies him as a political prisoner . They are opposed by the family of Daniel Faulkner , the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , the City of Philadelphia , Republican politicians , and the Fraternal Order of Police . In August 1999 , the Fraternal Order of Police called for an economic boycott against all individuals and organizations that support Abu @-@ Jamal . Abu @-@ Jamal has been made an honorary citizen of about 25 cities around the world , including Montreal , Palermo , and Paris . In 2001 , he received the sixth biennial Erich Mühsam Prize , named after an anarcho @-@ communist essayist , which recognizes activism in line with that of its namesake . In October 2002 , he was made an honorary member of the German political organization Society of People Persecuted by the Nazi Regime – Federation of Anti @-@ Fascists ( VVN @-@ BdA ) which Germany 's Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution has considered to be influenced by left @-@ wing extremism . On April 29 , 2006 , a newly paved road in the Parisian suburb of Saint @-@ Denis was named Rue Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal in his honor . In protest of the street @-@ naming , US Congressman Michael Fitzpatrick and Senator Rick Santorum , both members of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania , introduced resolutions in both Houses of Congress condemning the decision . The House of Representatives voted 368 – 31 in favor of Fitzpatrick 's resolution . In December 2006 , the 25th anniversary of the murder , the executive committee of the Republican Party for the 59th Ward of the City of Philadelphia — covering approximately Germantown , Philadelphia — filed two criminal complaints in the French legal system against the city of Paris and the city of Saint @-@ Denis , accusing the municipalities of " glorifying " Abu @-@ Jamal and alleging the offense " apology or denial of crime " in respect of their actions . In 2007 , the widow of Officer Faulkner coauthored a book with Philadelphia radio journalist Michael Smerconish entitled Murdered by Mumia : A Life Sentence of Pain , Loss , and Injustice . The book was part memoir of Faulkner 's widow , part discussion in which they chronicled Abu @-@ Jamal 's trial and discussed evidence for his conviction , and part discussion on supporting the death penalty . J. Patrick O 'Connor , editor and publisher of crimemagazine.com , argues in his book The Framing of Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal that the preponderance of evidence establishes that it was not Abu @-@ Jamal but a passenger in Abu @-@ Jamal 's brother 's car , Kenneth Freeman , who killed Faulkner , and that the Philadelphia Police Department and District Attorney 's Office framed Abu @-@ Jamal . His book was criticized in the American Thinker as " replete with selective use of testimony , distortions , unsubstantiated charges , and a theory that has failed Abu @-@ Jamal in the past . " In 2009 , Radio host Rush Limbaugh professed no doubt about Abu @-@ Jamal 's guilt , calling him a " notorious Philadelphia murderer " . In early 2014 , President Barack Obama nominated Debo P. Adegbile , a former lawyer for the NAACP who worked on Abu @-@ Jamal 's case , to head the civil rights division of the Justice Department , but the nomination was rejected by the U.S. Senate on a bipartisan basis because of Adegbile 's prior public support of Abu @-@ Jamal . In April 10 , 2015 Marylin Zuniga , a teacher at Forest Street Elementary School in Orange , New Jersey , was suspended without pay after asking her students to write letters to Abu @-@ Jamal , who fell ill in prison due to complications from diabetes , without approval from the school or parents . Some parents and police leaders denounced her actions . On the other hand , community members , parents , teachers , and professors expressed their support and condemned Zuniga 's suspension . Scholars and educators nationwide including Noam Chomsky , Chris Hedges and Cornel West among others signed a letter calling for her immediate reinstatement . On May 13 , 2015 The Orange Preparatory Academy board voted to dismiss Marylin Zuniga after hearing from her and several of her supporters . = = Written works = = Writing on the Wall : Selected Prison Writings of Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal City Lights Publishers ( 2015 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0872866751 The Classroom and the Cell : Conversations on Black Life in America Third World Press ( 2011 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0883783375 Jailhouse Lawyers : Prisoners Defending Prisoners V. The U.S.A City Lights Publishers ( 2009 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0872864696 We Want Freedom : A Life In The Black Panther Party South End Press ( 2008 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0896087187 Faith Of Our Fathers : An Examination Of The Spiritual Life Of African And African @-@ American People Africa World Pr ( 2003 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1592210190 All Things Censored Seven Stories Press ( 2000 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1583220221 Death Blossoms : Reflections From A Prisoner Of Conscience Plough Publishing House ( 1997 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0874860863 Live from Death Row Harper Perennial ( 1996 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0380727667

= Brandon Minor = Brandon Ricardo Minor ( born July 24 , 1988 ) is a former American football running back . He was signed by the Bears as an undrafted free agent in 2010 , but after being released during the final cuts , he has been on the New Orleans Saints and Indianapolis Colts practice squads in 2010 . He played college football at Michigan . At Michigan , he finished second on the team in rushing as a freshman and a sophomore and led the team in rushing as a junior and a senior . As a junior , he was an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection by the coaches . He had previously been ranked as the number one high school football fullback in the nation , according to Rivals.com. He spent his first two years at Michigan serving as one of the primary backups to Mike Hart . In his third year , he emerged from a field of five runners who were vying to replace Hart , including two true freshmen , as the leading rusher and scorer . He has shared starting responsibilities in his junior and senior seasons . He entered his senior season on the watch lists for the Doak Walker Award and the Maxwell Award . ESPN.com ranked him as the 22nd best player and third best running back in the Big Ten Conference before the season started . Following two seasons spent on various inactive NFL rosters , he became a defendant in a drug possession case . He is scheduled to face his charges in court in January 2012 . = = Youth career = = Minor grew up as a Michigan Wolverines fan . His mother , Julie Gilliam , has pictures of him at age six wearing a Michigan uniform . At age nine , Minor wrote the university to inquire about becoming a Michigan football player . Every year he and his mother watched the Michigan - Ohio State game and rooted for Michigan . = = = High school = = = Minor inherited the Varina High School starting varsity team role as a sophomore in 2003 , and he gained 209 rushing yards in his first start . That season , he helped his team reach the Virginia Central Region , Division 6 championship ( the qualifying game for the Virginia High School League state semifinals ) . He concluded the regular season as an All @-@ District first @-@ team selection and after the playoffs was selected as a second @-@ team all @-@ region choice . During the season he rushed for 1 @,@ 750 yards and 22 touchdowns for the 10 – 2 ( 7 – 0 ) Varina Blue Devils . Minor also played varsity basketball as a sophomore . During the season , he once made seven three @-@ point field goals in a game . As a junior , when Varina 's former Capital District offensive player of the year Army Spc . Clarence Adams III died serving the 91st Engineer Battalion , 1st Cavalry Division in Baghdad , Iraq , Minor gave up his number 3 to wear Adams ' # 33 as a tribute . In the District championship game , he rushed for 239 yards on 27 carries , including four touchdown runs . In the subsequent Central Region , Division 6 semifinals , he set a Central Region playoff record by rushing for 296 yards , but his undefeated top @-@ ranked team was upset . He concluded the season as both a first @-@ team all @-@ district and all @-@ Metro Region selection after compiling 2 @,@ 091 yards rushing and scoring 32 rushing touchdowns ( plus 2 receiving touchdowns ) . He was also selected to the Group AAA Virginia High School Football Coaches Association all @-@ state second @-@ team by the coaches . Entering his senior season , he was ranked as the sixth best senior football player in Virginia by TechSideline.com. The Roanoke Times described him as " one of the top five recruits in the state " at the time of his August 2005 visit to see the first day of Virginia Tech Hokies football practice . At the time , he was considering Miami , Michigan , Florida , Virginia Tech , Tennessee , LSU and Ohio State . However , he started the season on crutches , due to a torn hip flexor . He returned to the lineup for the team 's final regular season game and rushed for 174 yards on 28 carries . Davon Morgan , his cousin , who now plays strong safety for Virginia Tech , was the team 's quarterback . Despite missing most of the season , he was still honored as an all @-@ district and all @-@ region selection . His three @-@ year career totals were 4 @,@ 259 yards and 64 touchdowns . As a graduating senior he was the number one ranked high school football fullback in the nation , according to rivals.com. Following his senior season , he scored the only touchdown in the East @-@ West Virginia High School Coaches Association All @-@ star game . = = College career = = = = = Lloyd Carr era = = = In January 2006 , Minor selected the University of Michigan . Although he did not enroll in the 2006 Summer semester , he reported to Michigan on June 16 for strength and conditioning training . Minor and fellow freshman Carlos Brown were behind three returning running backs ( Mike Hart , Kevin Grady and senior Jerome Jackson ) on the depth chart entering the season . Minor was considered the less heralded than Brown , who was regarded as the fastest player on the team . On opening day , only Hart and Grady had more carries than Minor , in part because Jackson , who entered his senior season with 505 career rushing yards , did not dress . In his first carry as a Wolverine , he rushed for 24 yards against the Vanderbilt Commodores during the September 2 season opening game . Nonetheless , the depth chart was not very clear behind Hart . By late September , Minor was clearly third on the depth chart and it seemed that Brown might be redshirted . When Hart left the game due to injury against Michigan State on October 7 , Minor scored his first touchdown on a 40 @-@ yard run . He had his first 100 @-@ yard game on November 4 , when he rushed for 108 yards on 12 carries , including a 40 @-@ yard touchdown run in a 34 – 26 win against Ball State . As true freshman member of the 2006 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor rushed for a total of 238 yards on 42 carries , which was second on the team to Hart . During April 2007 , Grady tore his anterior cruciate ligament and was lost for the season . In August , Brown broke his hand . It appeared Minor was seriously injured on October 13 when he was carted off the field and left the stadium wearing a protective boot on crutches . However , he recovered and for the next two weeks he and Brown combined to replace the injured Hart . He had his second 100 @-@ yard game and first 150 @-@ yard game on October 27 of that season during the 34 – 10 Little Brown Jug game victory against the Minnesota Golden Gophers when he rushed for 157 yards on 21 carries , including a 46 @-@ yard run and one touchdown . Although Hart returned to play in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State on November 3 , he left the game early and Minor started the second half . Hart missed the next game on November 10 , but Brown and Minor had poor performances . In all three of Hart 's full game absences , Brown was the starter . As a sophomore on the 2007 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor improved his rushing totals to 385 yards on 90 carries , which was again second on the team to Hart . = = = Rich Rodriguez era = = = In 2008 Rich Rodriguez replaced Lloyd Carr as head coach . In the spring , Brown broke his finger weightlifting and Grady was still trying to get healthy . In early August , it appeared that juniors Brown and Minor would vie for the starting job because fourth @-@ year junior Grady was under suspension related to driving while intoxicated charges . However , in camp it became apparent very quickly that true freshmen Sam McGuffie and Michael Shaw , would have a significant role in the newly installed spread option offense . With both Brown and Minor nursing injuries , McGuffie was tentatively penciled into the starting position on the depth chart . As a junior member of the 2008 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor became the team leader in rushing . However , he only started four games , while McGuffie started 6 , Brown started 1 and Shaw started 1 . McGuffie was the starter until he lost the job to Minor . Minor gave way to Shaw ( November 8 ) and Brown ( November 15 ) as the starter due to his injuries . Minor totalled 533 yards on 103 carries . He had nine rushing touchdowns and added two as a receiver . Of these eleven touchdowns , seven came in a three @-@ week span that included a 117 @-@ yard two @-@ touchdown rushing effort against Penn State on October 18 and a 155 @-@ yard three @-@ touchdown rushing effort against Purdue on November 1 . Sandwiched between these efforts , Minor scored on a 19 @-@ yard reception to compliment his 55 yards and a rushing touchdown in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State on October 25 . The Penn State game was Minor 's first career start . During Minor 's junior year , he played with a wrist injury that impaired his ability to hold the football with his right arm and his ability to stiffarm opponents . He was impaired by a variety of injuries throughout the season . At the conclusion of the 2008 Big Ten Conference football season , Minor was chosen as an honorable mention all @-@ conference selection by the coaches . McGuffie transferred to the Rice Owls after the season . As a senior member of the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor was named to a pair of watch lists : ( Doak Walker Award and Maxwell Award ) . He was also selected by ESPN as the 22nd best player and 3rd best running back ( behind Evan Royster and John Clay ) in the Big Ten Conference before the season started . Minor missed the first game of the season due to a high ankle sprain . In the second game , which was the 2009 Michigan – Notre Dame rivalry game , he rushed for 106 yards and a touchdown on 16 carries during the 38 – 34 victory over Notre Dame . The ankle sprain hampered him much of the season and caused him to miss the October 17 game against Delaware State . He had a season @-@ high 154 @-@ yard , 3 @-@ touchdown effort against Purdue on November 7 . A shoulder injury kept him out of the last game of the season against Ohio State . Over the course of his collegiate career , he accumulated 20 rushing touchdowns and 1 @,@ 658 yards . The torn rotator cuff also kept him from participating in the January 23 , 2010 East – West Shrine Game . = = Professional career = = = = = 2010 = = = Minor signed as an undrafted free agent with the Chicago Bears on April 24 , 2010 , after going undrafted in the 2010 NFL Draft . He was released on September 1 . He then signed with the New Orleans Saints to their practice squad . However , Minor was back with the Bears before being released at the beginning of October and signed by the Indianapolis Colts . Minor was released by the Colts in October . In November , Minor tried out for the Green Bay Packers before ending the season as a member of the Denver Broncos ' practice squad . = = = 2011 = = = On September 4 , 2011 , the Broncos placed Minor on injured reserve . They waived him on October 10 . In November 2011 , he was " charged with possession of marijuana with intent to distribute " by the Virginia Commonwealth University police department following a traffic stop . He is scheduled for a traffic court appearance on January 18 .

= Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood = " Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 18 , 1993 . In the episode , Bart , intoxicated from an all @-@ syrup squishee , mistakenly joins the Junior Campers , a Boy Scout @-@ style organization that 's not affiliated with the Boy Scouts of America . After finding advantages to being a member , Bart gets taken in by the group and eventually goes rafting on a father @-@ son outing with Homer . The episode was written by Dan McGrath and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . Ernest Borgnine guest starred in the episode as himself . He recorded his lines at the Village Recorder in West Los Angeles . The episode makes cultural references to the films My Dinner with Andre , The Terminator , On the Town , Crocodile Dundee , Deliverance , Friday the 13th , and Boyz n the Hood ( in the title ) as well as the song " Sugar , Sugar " by The Archies . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 0 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . = = Plot = = After being forced to leave the amusement arcade for being out of money , Bart and Milhouse find $ 20 that Homer lost and order a Super Squishee made entirely out of syrup from Apu at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . With their senses reeling from the high sugar content of the drink , they spend the rest of the money on a night out in town . The next morning , Bart wakes up with a hangover and realizes that in the revelry of the night before he joined the Junior Campers , a Boy Scout @-@ style organization that is not affiliated with the Boy Scouts of America . Although Bart initially intends to drop out of the group as soon as possible , he decides to attend a meeting to avoid a pop quiz at school . Bart dislikes the first meeting , but when he finds out that he gets to have a pocket knife , he decides to keep attending . After a while , Bart starts to enjoy being a member of the Junior Campers , which Homer mocks him relentlessly for . Next , a father @-@ son rafting trip is to be held , so Bart has to bring Homer . Homer does not enjoy the experience , especially when he learns that he and Bart have to share a raft with Ned Flanders and his son , Rod . Due to Homer losing the map after making it into a makeshift hat , they accidentally take the wrong turn and find themselves lost at sea . They stay stranded with no food or water for several days , as no rescue is forthcoming ; the Springfield Police Department refuses to search for them because the Coast Guard boat they were using is out of refreshments . After several other failed attempts at being rescued or finding food , the raft springs a leak after Homer accidentally drops a pocket knife he was intending to gift to Bart. All seems lost , but then Homer smells his way to a Krusty Burger on an off @-@ shore oil rig . They are saved , and Bart is proud of his father . Meanwhile , the other Junior Campers , led by Ernest Borgnine , take the correct route , ironically they end up in an even worse position : after finding themselves trapped in a dark , tangled swamp ( while being hunted by mountain men ) , they are attacked by a bear that Borgnine tries but fails to fight off ( due to Homer stealing his Swiss Army Knife ) , and they finally flee to an abandoned summer camp . At the camp , they start singing songs , but are soon attacked by an unseen figure lurking in the woods , and their fates are left unknown . = = Production = = " Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood " was written by Dan McGrath and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . The episode was recorded at the Village Recorder in West Los Angeles . Ernest Borgnine guest starred in the episode as himself . The staff liked his work on the films Marty and From Here to Eternity , so they asked him to do a guest appearance on the show . Borgnine felt he could not say no to the offer because his grandchildren were fans of the show . In the final scene of the episode , Borgnine plays a guitar and sings campfire songs with the children . Borgnine was a guitar player in real life , so he brought his own guitar with him to the recording studio . Borgnine apologized because he felt that he was not being able to sing very well , but Nancy Cartwright , who provides the voice of Bart , thought his voice " added to the authenticity of his character " . The Simpsons 's creator Matt Groening thought the recording sessions with Borgnine were " so much fun " . Hank Azaria , who provides the voice of Apu , commented that Borgnine " had no idea what the hell he was doing . He 's a good actor , and he read his lines just fine , but he had no idea what the show was , no idea what we were doing . " In her book My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy , Cartwright comments that she was a fan of Borgnine 's performance in Marty . She writes that the film had " changed [ her ] forever " , and that it made her " realize that actors have the power through their work to inspire and enlighten others . " She recalls that when Borgnine arrived for the recording session , she " lost all coolness " and ran up to him and exclaimed " ohmygod , Marty ! " = = Cultural references = = When Bart and Milhouse visit the local video arcade at the beginning of the episode , Martin Prince is seen playing an arcade game based on the 1981 film My Dinner with Andre . Other games at the arcade include a game based on the 1984 film The Terminator . The " Springfield , Springfield " number performed by Bart and Milhouse on their night out in town is a reference to the musical number " New York , New York " from the film On the Town , starring Gene Kelly and Frank Sinatra . During a scene in which Hans Moleman and Moe fight with knives , Hans tells Moe , " You call that a knife ? This is a knife ! " , a reference to a line from the 1986 film Crocodile Dundee . Ernest Borgnine introduces himself a la Troy McClure to the Junior Campers by recalling his role in From Here to Eternity , a film which modern children are unlikely to have seen . During a hallucination , Homer imagines himself singing the song " Sugar , Sugar " by The Archies while dancing with lollipops and ice cream cones . While on the raft , Homer misquotes lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner when he says " Water , water everywhere / Let 's all have a drink . The scene in which Borgnine and the other rafters drift through a dark forest watched by mountain men is a reference to a scene in the 1972 film Deliverance , and the scene features the music from the film 's " Dueling Banjos " scene . The unseen person or creature that attacks Borgnine at the end of the episode is implied to be Jason Voorhees from the Friday the 13th film series . = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast , " Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood " finished 35th in the ratings for the week of November 15 to November 21 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 0 , translating to 12 @.@ 3 million households . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A terrific episode , with Homer so stupid it isn 't true , yet still saving the day . Seeing Ned Flanders get it wrong is great , but the show @-@ stealer is a toss @-@ up between Borgnine 's great self @-@ deprecating role , the ironic seagull , and the dolphins . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson called it a " brilliant episode from start to finish " . He commented that " We see what an amazing amount of goods and services one can purchase in Springfield with only $ 20 , and we get a fun spoof of scouting . Add to that terrific rivalry moments between Bart and Homer and the show excels . " Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict called the plot of the episode " typically inspired " , and gave it a grade of A. Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 5 out of 5 . TV DVD Reviews 's Kay Daly wrote : " And just when you think the Simpsons ' creators have taken parody as far as it can go , they air an episode like this . The writers cram the 22 @-@ minute episode with allusions to movie genres including disaster movies , Broadway musicals , adventure @-@ suspense and classic teen horror . " Adam Suraf of Dunkirkma.net named it one of his ten favorite episodes of the show . He called the musical sequence a " classic " . Rick Porter of Zap 2 It wrote in that he was not a " fan " of the episode 's second half : " Despite the presence of Borgnine , Homer is a little too aggressively stupid for my taste " . He thought the first part was " absolutely brilliant " , though . Kurt M. Koenigsberger analyzed a scene from the episode in his piece " Commodity Culture and Its Discontents " , published in the compilation work Leaving Springfield : The Simpsons and the Possibility of Oppositional Culture edited by John Alberti . He commented that The Simpsons ' literary and cultural awareness extends to the " conventions of its own medium " in this episode . Bart criticizes an Itchy & Scratchy episode because Itchy stakes down Scratchy 's appendages and props his belly to form a tent with faulty knots . With Homer looking on from the couch , Lisa reminds Bart that cartoons do not simply reproduce reality , a point hammered on as a second Homer meanders past the living @-@ room window . Koenigsberger said that " this moment and many others like it reveal a strong sense of self @-@ awareness within the show , an awareness especially characteristic of high modernism . " In the United Kingdom , when the 300th episode was shown , Sky 1 held a Golden D 'ohnuts evening , in which viewers voted for their favourite episodes to win in each category . This episode won the category of : Best School Jinx .

= Last Exit on Brooklyn = The Last Exit on Brooklyn was a Seattle University District coffeehouse established in 1967 by Irv Cisski . It is known for its part in the history of Seattle 's counterculture , for its pioneering role in establishing Seattle 's coffee culture , and as a former chess venue frequented by several master players . = = History = = The Last Exit on Brooklyn opened on June 30 , 1967 at 3930 Brooklyn Avenue NE near the University of Washington campus in a small light @-@ industrial building leased from the University . It was one of the pioneer espresso bars in Seattle , adding an espresso machine shortly after Café Allegro opened the first in 1975 . The Last Exit was known for its original espresso concoction named the Caffè Medici – " a doppio poured over chocolate syrup and orange peel with whipped cream on top " . Described in 1985 as " America 's second oldest , continuously running coffeehouse " , it was also known for its inexpensive food and as a venue for folk music and bohemian conversation . The Last Exit was also notable as a popular destination for Seattle 's amateur and professional Go and chess players including Peter Biyiasas , Viktors Pupols , and Yasser Seirawan , who wrote of the venue , " Those first chess lessons soon led me to the legendary Last Exit on Brooklyn coffee house , a chess haven where an unlikely bunch of unusual people congregates to do battle . " Interviewed by Sports Illustrated in 1981 , Seirawan described the Last Exit as " Scrabble players , backgammon players , chess and game hustling ... This became my home . This was to become my family . " When interviewed by Mary Lasher of Chess Life in 1985 , owner Irv Cisski said , " So what if games @-@ people turn away business . They add flavor . Chess and Go are assets to a coffeehouse . " The Last Exit was the subject of a 1987 retrospective in The Seattle Times in which Cisski described his intent to " create a haven where students and the benign crazies " were welcome and where " everyone felt equal and there were no sacred cows " . It was later described by Seattle writer and journalist Knute Berger as one of Seattle 's great ' 60s landmarks , a gathering place for UW students , radicals , poets , nut jobs , chess masters , teens , intellectuals , workers , musicians , artists , beatniks , and hippies ... I remember the din , the open @-@ mike music , cigarette smoke , impromptu poetry readings , the arguments of lefties , libertarians , crackpots , and cultists . You could hear the rhythm and roar of the counterculture as it lived and breathed . Cisski died on August 25 , 1992 . In 1993 the University repossessed the building occupied by the coffeehouse , and the Last Exit 's new owners moved it to upper University Way . The Last Exit on Brooklyn closed in 2000 . The space the original Last Exit once occupied now houses staff members from the University of Washington 's Human Resources Department . = = In popular culture = = The Last Exit was included in Clark Humphrey 's 2006 book of historical photographs , Vanishing Seattle . Descriptions of the interior and atmosphere of the Last Exit appear in Kristin Hannah 's 2008 novel , Firefly Lane , in David Guterson 's 2008 novel , The Other , and in Marjorie Kowalski Cole 's 2012 The City Beneath the Snow : Stories .

= Laurence Olivier = Laurence Kerr Olivier , Baron Olivier , OM ( / ˈlɒrəns kɜːr ɒˈlɪvieɪ / ; 22 May 1907 – 11 July 1989 ) was an English actor who , along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud , dominated the British stage of the mid @-@ 20th century . He also worked in films throughout his career , playing more than fifty cinema roles . Late in his career , he had considerable success in television roles . His family had no theatrical connections , but Olivier 's father , a clergyman , decided that his son should become an actor . After attending a drama school in London , Olivier learned his craft in a succession of acting jobs during the late 1920s . In 1930 he had his first important West End success in Noël Coward 's Private Lives , and he appeared in his first film . In 1935 he played in a celebrated production of Romeo and Juliet alongside Gielgud and Peggy Ashcroft , and by the end of the decade he was an established star . In the 1940s , together with Richardson and John Burrell , Olivier was the co @-@ director of the Old Vic , building it into a highly respected company . There his most celebrated roles included Shakespeare 's Richard III and Sophocles 's Oedipus . In the 1950s Olivier was an independent actor @-@ manager , but his stage career was in the doldrums until he joined the avant garde English Stage Company in 1957 to play the title role in The Entertainer , a part he later played on film . From 1963 to 1973 he was the founding director of Britain 's National Theatre , running a resident company that fostered many future stars . His own parts there included the title role in Othello ( 1964 ) and Shylock in The Merchant of Venice ( 1970 ) . Among Olivier 's films are Wuthering Heights ( 1939 ) , Rebecca ( 1940 ) , and a trilogy of Shakespeare films as actor @-@ director : Henry V ( 1944 ) , Hamlet ( 1948 ) , and Richard III ( 1955 ) . His later films included Sleuth ( 1972 ) , Marathon Man ( 1976 ) , and The Boys from Brazil ( 1978 ) . His television appearances included an adaptation of The Moon and Sixpence ( 1960 ) , Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 1973 ) , Love Among the Ruins ( 1975 ) , Cat on a Hot Tin Roof ( 1976 ) , Brideshead Revisited ( 1981 ) and King Lear ( 1983 ) . Olivier 's honours included a knighthood ( 1947 ) , a life peerage ( 1970 ) and the Order of Merit ( 1981 ) . For his on @-@ screen work he received four Academy Awards , two British Academy Film Awards , five Emmy Awards and three Golden Globe Awards . The National Theatre 's largest auditorium is named in his honour , and he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards , given annually by the Society of London Theatre . He was married three times , to the actresses Jill Esmond from 1930 to 1940 , Vivien Leigh from 1940 to 1960 , and Joan Plowright from 1961 until his death . = = Life and career = = = = = Family background and early life ( 1907 – 24 ) = = = Olivier was born in Dorking , Surrey , the youngest of the three children of the Revd Gerard Kerr Olivier ( 1869 – 1939 ) and his wife Agnes Louise , née Crookenden ( 1871 – 1920 ) . Their elder children were Sybille ( 1901 – 89 ) and Gerard Dacres " Dickie " ( 1904 – 58 ) . His great @-@ great @-@ grandfather was of French Huguenot descent , and Olivier came from a long line of Protestant clergymen . Gerard Olivier had begun a career as a schoolmaster , but in his thirties he discovered a strong religious vocation and was ordained as a priest of the Church of England . He practised extremely high church , Ritualist Christianity and liked to be addressed as " Father Olivier " . This made him unacceptable to most Anglican congregations , and the only church posts he was offered were temporary , usually deputising for regular incumbents in their absence . This meant a nomadic existence , and for Laurence 's first few years , he never lived in one place long enough to make friends . In 1912 , when Olivier was five , his father secured a permanent appointment as assistant priest at St Saviour 's , Pimlico . He held the post for six years , and a stable family life was at last possible . Olivier was devoted to his mother , but not to his father , whom he found a cold and remote parent . Nevertheless , he learned a great deal of the art of performing from him . As a young man Gerard Olivier had considered a stage career and was a dramatic and effective preacher . Olivier wrote that his father knew " when to drop the voice , when to bellow about the perils of hellfire , when to slip in a gag , when suddenly to wax sentimental ... The quick changes of mood and manner absorbed me , and I have never forgotten them . " In 1916 , after attending a series of preparatory schools , Olivier passed the singing examination for admission to the choir school of All Saints , Margaret Street , in central London . His elder brother was already a pupil , and Olivier gradually settled in , though he felt himself to be something of an outsider . The church 's style of worship was ( and remains ) Anglo @-@ Catholic , with emphasis on ritual , vestments and incense . The theatricality of the services appealed to Olivier , and the vicar encouraged the students to develop a taste for secular as well as religious drama . In a school production of Julius Caesar in 1917 , the ten @-@ year @-@ old Olivier 's performance as Brutus impressed an audience that included Lady Tree , the young Sybil Thorndike , and Ellen Terry , who wrote in her diary , " The small boy who played Brutus is already a great actor . " He later won praise in other schoolboy productions , as Maria in Twelfth Night ( 1918 ) and Katherine in The Taming of the Shrew ( 1922 ) . From All Saints , Olivier went on to St Edward 's School , Oxford , from 1920 to 1924 . He made little mark until his final year , when he played Puck in the school 's production of A Midsummer Night 's Dream ; his performance was a tour de force that won him popularity among his fellow pupils . In January 1924 , his brother left England to work in India as a rubber planter . Olivier missed him greatly and asked his father how soon he could follow . He recalled in his memoirs that his father replied , " Don 't be such a fool , you 're not going to India , you 're going on the stage . " = = = Early acting career ( 1924 – 29 ) = = = In 1924 Gerard Olivier , a habitually frugal man , told his son that not only must he gain admission to the Central School of Speech Training and Dramatic Art , but he must also gain a scholarship with a bursary to cover his tuition fees and living expenses . Olivier 's sister had been a student there and was a favourite of Elsie Fogerty , the founder and principal of the school . Olivier later speculated that it was on the strength of this that Fogerty agreed to award him the bursary . One of Olivier 's contemporaries at the school was Peggy Ashcroft , who observed he was " rather uncouth in that his sleeves were too short and his hair stood on end but he was intensely lively and great fun " . By his own admission , he was not a very conscientious student , but Fogerty liked him and later said that he and Ashcroft stood out among her many pupils . On leaving the school after a year , Olivier gained work with small touring companies before being taken on in 1925 by Sybil Thorndike and her husband , Lewis Casson , as a bit @-@ part player , understudy and assistant stage manager for their London company . He modelled his performing style on that of Gerald du Maurier , of whom he said , " He seemed to mutter on stage but had such perfect technique . When I started I was so busy doing a du Maurier that no one ever heard a word I said . The Shakespearean actors one saw were terrible hams like Frank Benson . " His concern to speak naturally and avoid what he called " singing " Shakespeare 's verse was the cause of much frustration in his early career , with critics regularly decrying his delivery . In 1926 , on Thorndike 's recommendation , Olivier joined the Birmingham Repertory Company . His biographer Michael Billington describes the Birmingham company as " Olivier 's university " , where in his second year he was given the chance to play a wide range of important roles , including Tony Lumpkin in She Stoops to Conquer , the title role in Uncle Vanya , and Parolles in All 's Well That Ends Well . Billington adds that the engagement led to " a lifelong friendship with his fellow actor Ralph Richardson that was to have a decisive effect on the British theatre . " While playing the juvenile lead in Bird in Hand at the Royalty Theatre in June 1928 , Olivier began a relationship with Jill Esmond , the daughter of the actors Henry V. Esmond and Eva Moore . Olivier later recounted that he thought " she would most certainly do excellent well for a wife ... I wasn 't likely to do any better at my age and with my undistinguished track @-@ record , so I promptly fell in love with her . " In 1928 Olivier created the role of Stanhope in R. C. Sherriff 's Journey 's End , in which he scored a great success at its single Sunday night premiere . He was offered the part in the West End production the following year , but turned it down in favour of the more glamorous role of Beau Geste in a stage adaptation of P. C. Wren 's 1929 novel of the same name . Journey 's End became a long @-@ running success ; Beau Geste failed . The Manchester Guardian commented , " Mr. Laurence Olivier did his best as Beau , but he deserves and will get better parts . Mr. Olivier is going to make a big name for himself " . For the rest of 1929 Olivier appeared in seven plays , all of which were short @-@ lived . Billington ascribes this failure rate to poor choices by Olivier rather than mere bad luck . = = = Rising star ( 1930 – 35 ) = = = In 1930 , with his impending marriage in mind , Olivier earned some extra money with small roles in two films . In April he travelled to Berlin to film the English @-@ language version of The Temporary Widow , a crime comedy with Lilian Harvey , and in May he spent four nights working on another comedy , Too Many Crooks . During work on the latter film , for which he was paid £ 60 , he met Laurence Evans , who became his personal manager . Olivier did not enjoy working in film , which he dismissed as " this anaemic little medium which could not stand great acting " , but financially it was much more rewarding than his theatre work . Olivier and Esmond married on 25 July 1930 at All Saints , Margaret Street , although within weeks both realised they had erred . Olivier later recorded that the marriage was " a pretty crass mistake . I insisted on getting married from a pathetic mixture of religious and animal promptings . ... She had admitted to me that she was in love elsewhere and could never love me as completely as I would wish " . Olivier later recounted that following the wedding he did not keep a diary for ten years and never followed religious practices again , although he considered those facts to be " mere coincidence " , unconnected to the nuptials . In 1930 Noël Coward cast Olivier as Victor Prynne in his new play Private Lives , which opened at the new Phoenix Theatre in London in September . Coward and Gertrude Lawrence played the lead roles , Elyot Chase and Amanda Prynne . Victor is a secondary character , along with Sybil Chase ; the author called them " extra puppets , lightly wooden ninepins , only to be repeatedly knocked down and stood up again " . To make them credible spouses for Amanda and Elyot , Coward was determined that two outstandingly attractive performers should play the parts . Olivier played Victor in the West End and then on Broadway ; Adrianne Allen was Sybil in London , but could not go to New York , where the part was taken by Esmond . In addition to giving the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Olivier his first successful West End role , Coward became something of a mentor . In the late 1960s Olivier told Sheridan Morley : He gave me a sense of balance , of right and wrong . He would make me read ; I never used to read anything at all . I remember he said , " Right , my boy , Wuthering Heights , Of Human Bondage and The Old Wives ' Tale by Arnold Bennett . That 'll do , those are three of the best . Read them " . I did . ... Noël also did a priceless thing , he taught me not to giggle on the stage . Once already I 'd been fired for doing it , and I was very nearly sacked from the Birmingham Rep. for the same reason . Noël cured me ; by trying to make me laugh outrageously , he taught me how not to give in to it . My great triumph came in New York when one night I managed to break Noël up on the stage without giggling myself . " In 1931 RKO Pictures offered Olivier a two @-@ film contract at $ 1 @,@ 000 a week ; he discussed the possibility with Coward , who , irked , told Olivier " You 've no artistic integrity , that 's your trouble ; this is how you cheapen yourself . " He accepted and moved to Hollywood , despite some misgivings . His first film was the drama Friends and Lovers , in a supporting role , before RKO loaned him to Fox Studios for his first film lead , a British journalist in a Russia under martial law in The Yellow Passport , alongside Elissa Landi and Lionel Barrymore . The cultural historian Jeffrey Richards describes Olivier 's look as an attempt by Fox Studios to produce a likeness of Ronald Colman , and Colman 's moustache , voice and manner are " perfectly reproduced " . Olivier returned to RKO to complete his contract with the 1932 drama Westward Passage , which was a commercial failure . Olivier 's initial foray into American films had not provided the breakthrough he hoped for ; disillusioned with Hollywood , he returned to London , where he appeared in two British films , Perfect Understanding with Gloria Swanson and No Funny Business — in which Esmond also appeared . He was tempted back to Hollywood in 1933 to appear opposite Greta Garbo in Queen Christina , but was replaced after two weeks of filming because of a lack of chemistry between the two . Olivier 's stage roles in 1934 included Bothwell in Gordon Daviot 's Queen of Scots , which was only a moderate success for him and for the play , but led to an important engagement for the same management ( Bronson Albery ) shortly afterwards . In the interim he had a great success playing a thinly disguised version of the American actor John Barrymore in Edna Furber 's Theatre Royal . His success was vitiated by his breaking an ankle two months into the run , in one of the athletic , acrobatic stunts with which he liked to enliven his performances . In 1935 , under Albery 's management , John Gielgud staged Romeo and Juliet at the New Theatre , co @-@ starring with Peggy Ashcroft , Edith Evans and Olivier . Gielgud had seen Olivier in Queen of Scots , spotted his potential , and now gave him a major step up in his career . For the first weeks of the run Gielgud played Mercutio and Olivier played Romeo , after which they exchanged roles . The production broke all box @-@ office records for the play , running for 189 performances . Olivier was enraged at the notices after the first night , which praised the virility of his performance but fiercely criticised his speaking of Shakespeare 's verse , contrasting it with his co @-@ star 's mastery of the poetry . The friendship between the two men was prickly , on Olivier 's side , for the rest of his life . = = = Old Vic and Vivien Leigh ( 1936 – 38 ) = = = In May 1936 Olivier and Richardson jointly directed and starred in a new piece by J. B. Priestley , Bees on the Boatdeck . Both actors won excellent notices , but the play , an allegory of Britain 's decay , did not attract the public and closed after four weeks . Later in the same year Olivier accepted an invitation to join the Old Vic company . The theatre , in an unfashionable location south of the Thames , had offered inexpensive tickets for opera and drama under its proprietor Lilian Baylis since 1912 . Her drama company specialised in the plays of Shakespeare , and many leading actors had taken very large cuts in their pay to develop their Shakespearean techniques there . Gielgud had been in the company from 1929 to 1931 , and Richardson from 1930 to 1932 . Among the actors whom Olivier joined in late 1936 were Edith Evans , Ruth Gordon , Alec Guinness and Michael Redgrave . In January 1937 he took the title role in an uncut version of Hamlet , in which once again his delivery of the verse was unfavourably compared with that of Gielgud , who had played the role on the same stage seven years previously to enormous acclaim . The Observer 's Ivor Brown praised Olivier 's " magnetism and muscularity " but missed " the kind of pathos so richly established by Mr Gielgud " . The reviewer in The Times found the performance " full of vitality " , but at times " too light ... the character slips from Mr Olivier 's grasp " . After Hamlet , the company presented Twelfth Night in what the director , Tyrone Guthrie , summed up as " a baddish , immature production of mine , with Olivier outrageously amusing as Sir Toby and a very young Alec Guinness outrageous and more amusing as Sir Andrew " . Henry V was the next play , presented in May to mark the Coronation of George VI . A pacifist , as he then was , Olivier was as reluctant to play the warrior king as Guthrie was to direct the piece , but the production was a success , and Baylis had to extend the run from four to eight weeks . Following Olivier 's success in Shakespearean stage productions , he made his first foray into Shakespeare on film in 1936 , as Orlando in As You Like It , directed by Paul Czinner , " a charming if lightweight production " , according to Michael Brooke of the British Film Institute 's ( BFI 's ) Screenonline . The following year Olivier appeared alongside Vivien Leigh in the historical drama Fire Over England . He had first met Leigh briefly at the Savoy Grill and then again when she visited him during the run of Romeo and Juliet , probably early in 1936 , and the two had begun an affair sometime that year . Of the relationship , Olivier later said that " I couldn 't help myself with Vivien . No man could . I hated myself for cheating on Jill , but then I had cheated before , but this was something different . This wasn 't just out of lust . This was love that I really didn 't ask for but was drawn into . " While his relationship with Leigh continued he conducted an affair with the actress Ann Todd , and possibly had a homosexual fling with the actor Henry Ainley , according to the biographer Michael Munn . In June 1937 the Old Vic company took up an invitation to perform Hamlet in the courtyard of the castle at Elsinore , where Shakespeare located the play . Olivier secured the casting of Leigh to replace Cherry Cottrell as Ophelia . Because of torrential rain the performance had to be moved from the castle courtyard to the ballroom of a local hotel , but the tradition of playing Hamlet at Elsinore was established , and Olivier was followed by , among others , Gielgud ( 1939 ) , Redgrave ( 1950 ) , Richard Burton ( 1954 ) , Derek Jacobi ( 1979 ) , Kenneth Branagh ( 1988 ) and Jude Law ( 2009 ) . Back in London , the company staged Macbeth , with Olivier in the title role . The stylised production by Michel Saint @-@ Denis was not well liked , but Olivier had some good notices among the bad . On returning from Denmark , Olivier and Leigh told their respective spouses about the affair and that their marriages were over ; Esmond moved out of the marital house and in with her mother . After Olivier and Leigh made a tour of Europe in mid 1937 they returned to separate film projects — A Yank at Oxford for her and The Divorce of Lady X for him — and moved into a property together in Iver , Buckinghamshire . Olivier returned to the Old Vic for a second season in 1938 . For Othello he played Iago , with Richardson in the title role . Guthrie wanted to experiment with the theory that Iago 's villainy is driven by suppressed homosexual love for Othello . Olivier was willing to co @-@ operate , but Richardson was not ; audiences and most critics failed to spot the supposed motivation of Olivier 's Iago , and Richardson 's Othello seemed underpowered . After that comparative failure , the company had a success with Coriolanus starring Olivier in the title role . The notices were laudatory , mentioning him alongside great predecessors such as Edmund Kean , William Macready and Henry Irving . The actor Robert Speaight described it as " Olivier 's first incontestably great performance " . This was Olivier 's last appearance on a London stage for six years . = = = Hollywood and the Second World War ( 1939 – 43 ) = = = In 1938 Olivier joined Richardson to film the spy thriller Q Planes , released the following year . Frank Nugent , the critic for The New York Times , thought Olivier was " not quite so good " as Richardson , but was " quite acceptable " . In late 1938 , lured by a salary of $ 50 @,@ 000 , the actor travelled to Hollywood to take the part of Heathcliff in the 1939 film Wuthering Heights , alongside Merle Oberon and David Niven . In less than a month Leigh had joined him , explaining that her trip was " partially because Larry 's there and partially because I intend to get the part of Scarlett O 'Hara " — the role in Gone with the Wind in which she was eventually cast . Olivier did not enjoy making Wuthering Heights , and his approach to film acting , combined with a dislike for Oberon , led to tensions on set . The director , William Wyler , was a hard taskmaster , and Olivier learned to remove what Billington described as " the carapace of theatricality " to which he was prone , replacing it with " a palpable reality " . The resulting film was a commercial and critical success that earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor , and created his screen reputation . Caroline Lejeune , writing for The Observer , considered that " Olivier 's dark , moody face , abrupt style , and a certain fine arrogance towards the world in his playing are just right " in the role , while the reviewer for The Times wrote that Olivier " is a good embodiment of Heathcliff ... impressive enough on a more human plane , speaking his lines with real distinction , and always both romantic and alive . " After returning to London briefly in mid @-@ 1939 , the couple returned to America , Leigh to film the final takes for Gone with the Wind , and Olivier to prepare for filming of Alfred Hitchcock 's Rebecca — although the couple had hoped to appear in it together . Instead , Joan Fontaine was selected for the role of Mrs de Winter , as the producer David O. Selznick thought that not only was she more suitable for the role , but that it was best to keep Olivier and Leigh apart until their divorces came through . Olivier followed Rebecca with Pride and Prejudice , in the role of Mr. Darcy . To his disappointment Elizabeth Bennet was played by Greer Garson rather than Leigh . He received good reviews for both films and showed a more confident screen presence than he had in his early work . In January 1940 Olivier and Esmond were granted their divorce . In February , following another request from Leigh , her husband also applied for their marriage to be terminated . On stage , Olivier and Leigh starred in Romeo and Juliet on Broadway . It was an extravagant production , but a commercial failure . In The New York Times Brooks Atkinson praised the scenery but not the acting : " Although Miss Leigh and Mr Olivier are handsome young people they hardly act their parts at all . " The couple had invested almost all their savings in the project , and its failure was a grave financial blow . They were married in August 1940 , at the San Ysidro Ranch in Santa Barbara . The war in Europe had been under way for a year and was going badly for Britain . After his wedding Olivier wanted to help the war effort . He telephoned Duff Cooper , the Minister of Information under Winston Churchill , hoping to get a position in Cooper 's department . Cooper advised him to remain where he was and speak to the film director Alexander Korda , who was based in the US at Churchill 's behest , with connections to British Intelligence . Korda — with Churchill 's support and involvement — directed That Hamilton Woman , with Olivier as Horatio Nelson and Leigh in the title role . Korda saw that the relationship between the couple was strained . Olivier was tiring of Leigh 's suffocating adulation , and she was drinking to excess . The film , in which the threat of Napoleon paralleled that of Hitler , was seen by critics as " bad history but good British propaganda " , according to the BFI . Olivier 's life was under threat from the Nazis and pro @-@ German sympathisers . The studio owners were concerned enough that Samuel Goldwyn and Cecil B. DeMille both provided support and security to ensure his safety . On the completion of filming , Olivier and Leigh returned to Britain . He had spent the previous year learning to fly and had completed nearly 250 hours by the time he left America . He intended to join the Royal Air Force but instead made another propaganda film , 49th Parallel , narrated short pieces for the Ministry of Information , and joined the Fleet Air Arm because Richardson was already in the service . Richardson had gained a reputation for crashing aircraft , which Olivier rapidly eclipsed . Olivier and Leigh settled in a cottage just outside RAF Worthy Down , where he was stationed with a training squadron ; Noël Coward visited the couple and thought Olivier looked unhappy . Olivier spent much of his time taking part in broadcasts and making speeches to build morale , and in 1942 he was invited to make another propaganda film , The Demi @-@ Paradise , in which he played a Soviet engineer who helps improve British @-@ Russian relationships . In 1943 , at the behest of the Ministry of Information , Olivier began working on Henry V. Originally he had no intention of taking the directorial duties , but ended up directing and producing , in addition to taking the title role . He was assisted by an Italian internee , Filippo Del Giudice , who had been released to produce propaganda for the Allied cause . The decision was made to film the battle scenes in neutral Eire , where it was easier to find the 650 extras . John Betjeman , the press attaché at the British embassy in Dublin , played a key liaison role with the Irish government in making suitable arrangements . The film was released in November 1944 . Brooke , writing for the BFI , considers that it " came too late in the Second World War to be a call to arms as such , but formed a powerful reminder of what Britain was defending . " The music for the film was written by William Walton , " a score that ranks with the best in film music " , according to the music critic Michael Kennedy . Walton also provided the music for Olivier 's next two Shakespearean adaptations , Hamlet ( 1948 ) and Richard III ( 1955 ) . Henry V was warmly received by critics . The reviewer for The Manchester Guardian wrote that the film combined " new art hand @-@ in @-@ hand with old genius , and both superbly of one mind " , in a film that worked " triumphantly " . The critic for The Times considered that Olivier " plays Henry on a high , heroic note and never is there danger of a crack " , in a film described as " a triumph of film craft " . There were Oscar nominations for the film , including Best Picture and Best Actor , but it won none and Olivier was instead presented with a " Special Award " . He was unimpressed , and later commented that " this was my first absolute fob @-@ off , and I regarded it as such . " = = = Co @-@ directing the Old Vic ( 1944 – 47 ) = = = Throughout the war Tyrone Guthrie had striven to keep the Old Vic company going , even after German bombing in 1942 left the theatre a near @-@ ruin . A small troupe toured the provinces , with Sybil Thorndike at its head . By 1944 , with the tide of the war turning , Guthrie felt it time to re @-@ establish the company in a London base and invited Richardson to head it . Richardson made it a condition of accepting that he should share the acting and management in a triumvirate . Initially he proposed Gielgud and Olivier as his colleagues , but the former declined , saying , " It would be a disaster , you would have to spend your whole time as referee between Larry and me . " It was finally agreed that the third member would be the stage director John Burrell . The Old Vic governors approached the Royal Navy to secure the release of Richardson and Olivier ; the Sea Lords consented , with , as Olivier put it , " a speediness and lack of reluctance which was positively hurtful . " The triumvirate secured the New Theatre for their first season and recruited a company . Thorndike was joined by , among others , Harcourt Williams , Joyce Redman and Margaret Leighton . It was agreed to open with a repertory of four plays : Peer Gynt , Arms and the Man , Richard III and Uncle Vanya . Olivier 's roles were the Button Moulder , Sergius , Richard and Astrov ; Richardson played Peer , Bluntschli , Richmond and Vanya . The first three productions met with acclaim from reviewers and audiences ; Uncle Vanya had a mixed reception , although The Times thought Olivier 's Astrov " a most distinguished portrait " and Richardson 's Vanya " the perfect compound of absurdity and pathos " . In Richard III , according to Billington , Olivier 's triumph was absolute : " so much so that it became his most frequently imitated performance and one whose supremacy went unchallenged until Antony Sher played the role forty years later " . In 1945 the company toured Germany , where they were seen by many thousands of Allied servicemen ; they also appeared at the Comédie @-@ Française theatre in Paris , the first foreign company to be given that honour . The critic Harold Hobson wrote that Richardson and Olivier quickly " made the Old Vic the most famous theatre in the Anglo @-@ Saxon world . " The second season , in 1945 , featured two double bills . The first consisted of Henry IV , Parts 1 and 2 . Olivier played the warrior Hotspur in the first and the doddering Justice Shallow in the second . He received good notices , but by general consent the production belonged to Richardson as Falstaff . In the second double bill it was Olivier who dominated , in the title roles of Oedipus Rex and The Critic . In the two one @-@ act plays his switch from searing tragedy and horror in the first half to farcical comedy in the second impressed most critics and audience members , though a minority felt that the transformation from Sophocles 's bloodily blinded hero to Sheridan 's vain and ludicrous Mr Puff " smacked of a quick @-@ change turn in a music hall " . After the London season the company played both the double bills and Uncle Vanya in a six @-@ week run on Broadway . The third , and final , London season under the triumvirate was in 1946 – 47 . Olivier played King Lear , and Richardson took the title role in Cyrano de Bergerac . Olivier would have preferred the roles to be reversed , but Richardson did not wish to attempt Lear . Olivier 's Lear received good but not outstanding reviews . In his scenes of decline and madness towards the end of the play some critics found him less moving than his finest predecessors in the role . The influential critic James Agate suggested that Olivier used his dazzling stage technique to disguise a lack of feeling , a charge that the actor strongly rejected , but which was often made throughout his later career . During the run of Cyrano , Richardson was knighted , to Olivier 's undisguised envy . The younger man received the accolade six months later , by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered . The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors , Lord Esher . He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it . He was encouraged by Guthrie , who , having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier , had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame . In January 1947 Olivier began working on his second film as a director , Hamlet ( 1948 ) , in which he also took the lead role . The original play was heavily cut to focus on the relationships , rather than the political intrigue . The film became a critical and commercial success in Britain and abroad , although Lejeune , in The Observer , considered it " less effective than [ Olivier 's ] stage work . ... He speaks the lines nobly , and with the caress of one who loves them , but he nullifies his own thesis by never , for a moment , leaving the impression of a man who cannot make up his own mind ; here , you feel rather , is an actor @-@ producer @-@ director who , in every circumstance , knows exactly what he wants , and gets it " . Campbell Dixon , the critic for The Daily Telegraph thought the film " brilliant ... one of the masterpieces of the stage has been made into one of the greatest of films . " Hamlet became the first non @-@ American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture , while Olivier won the Award for Best Actor . In 1948 Olivier led the Old Vic company on a six @-@ month tour of Australia and New Zealand . He played Richard III , Sir Peter Teazle in Sheridan 's The School for Scandal and Antrobus in Thornton Wilder 's The Skin of Our Teeth , appearing alongside Leigh in the latter two plays . While Olivier was on the Australian tour and Richardson was in Hollywood , Esher terminated the contracts of the three directors , who were said to have " resigned " . Melvyn Bragg in a 1984 study of Olivier , and John Miller in the authorised biography of Richardson , both comment that Esher 's action put back the establishment of a National Theatre for at least a decade . Looking back in 1971 , Bernard Levin wrote that the Old Vic company of 1944 to 1948 " was probably the most illustrious that has ever been assembled in this country " . The Times said that the triumvirate 's years were the greatest in the Old Vic 's history ; as The Guardian put it , " the governors summarily sacked them in the interests of a more mediocre company spirit " . = = = Post @-@ war ( 1948 – 51 ) = = = By the end of Australian tour , both Leigh and Olivier were exhausted and ill , and he told a journalist , " You may not know it , but you are talking to a couple of walking corpses . " Later he would comment that he " lost Vivien " in Australia , a reference to Leigh 's affair with the Australian actor Peter Finch , whom the couple met during the tour . Shortly afterwards Finch moved to London , where Olivier auditioned him and put him under a long @-@ term contract with Laurence Olivier Productions . Finch and Leigh 's affair continued on and off for several years . Although it was common knowledge that the Old Vic triumvirate had been dismissed , they refused to be drawn on the matter in public , and Olivier even arranged to play a final London season with the company in 1949 , as Richard III , Sir Peter Teazle , and Chorus in his own production of Anouilh 's Antigone with Leigh in the title role . After that , he was free to embark on a new career as an actor @-@ manager . In partnership with Binkie Beaumont he staged the English premiere of Tennessee Williams 's A Streetcar Named Desire , with Leigh in the central role of Blanche DuBois . The play was condemned by most critics , but the production was a considerable commercial success , and led to Leigh 's casting as Blanche in the 1951 film version . Gielgud , who was a devoted friend of Leigh 's , doubted whether Olivier was wise to let her play the demanding role of the mentally unstable heroine : " [ Blanche ] was so very like her , in a way . It must have been a most dreadful strain to do it night after night . She would be shaking and white and quite distraught at the end of it . " The production company set up by Olivier took a lease on the St James 's Theatre . In January 1950 he produced , directed and starred in Christopher Fry 's verse play Venus Observed . The production was popular , despite poor reviews , but the expensive production did little to help the finances of Laurence Olivier Productions . After a series of box @-@ office failures , the company balanced its books in 1951 with productions of Shaw 's Caesar and Cleopatra and Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra which the Oliviers played in London and then took to Broadway . Olivier was thought by some critics to be under par in both his roles , and some suspected him of playing deliberately below his usual strength so that Leigh might appear his equal . Olivier dismissed the suggestion , regarding it as an insult to his integrity as an actor . In the view of the critic and biographer W. A. Darlington , he was simply miscast both as Caesar and Antony , finding the former boring and the latter weak . Darlington comments , " Olivier , in his middle forties when he should have been displaying his powers at their very peak , seemed to have lost interest in his own acting " . Over the next four years Olivier spent much of his time working as a producer , presenting plays rather than directing or acting in them . His presentations at the St James 's included seasons by Ruggero Ruggeri 's company giving two Pirandello plays in Italian , followed by a visit from the Comédie @-@ Française playing works by Molière , Racine , Marivaux and Musset in French . Darlington considers a 1951 production of Othello starring Orson Welles as the pick of Olivier 's productions at the theatre . = = = Independent actor @-@ manager ( 1952 – 54 ) = = = While Leigh made Streetcar in 1951 , Olivier joined her in Hollywood to film Carrie , based on the controversial novel Sister Carrie ; although the film was plagued by troubles , Olivier received warm reviews and a BAFTA nomination . Olivier began to notice a change in Leigh 's behaviour , and he later recounted that " I would find Vivien sitting on the corner of the bed , wringing her hands and sobbing , in a state of grave distress ; I would naturally try desperately to give her some comfort , but for some time she would be inconsolable . " After a holiday with Coward in Jamaica , she seemed to have recovered , but Olivier later recorded , " I am sure that ... [ the doctors ] must have taken some pains to tell me what was wrong with my wife ; that her disease was called manic depression and what that meant — a possibly permanent cyclical to @-@ and @-@ fro between the depths of depression and wild , uncontrollable mania . He also recounted the years of problems he had experienced because of Leigh 's illness , writing , " throughout her possession by that uncannily evil monster , manic depression , with its deadly ever @-@ tightening spirals , she retained her own individual canniness — an ability to disguise her true mental condition from almost all except me , for whom she could hardly be expected to take the trouble . " In January 1953 Leigh travelled to Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) to film Elephant Walk with Peter Finch . Shortly after filming started she suffered a breakdown , and returned to Britain where , between periods of incoherence , she told Olivier that she was in love with Finch , and had been having an affair with him ; she gradually recovered over a period of several months . As a result of the breakdown , many of the Oliviers ' friends learned of her problems . Niven said she had been " quite , quite mad " , and in his diary , Coward expressed the view that " things had been bad and getting worse since 1948 or thereabouts . " For the Coronation season of 1953 , Olivier and Leigh starred in the West End in Terence Rattigan 's Ruritanian comedy , The Sleeping Prince . It ran for eight months but was widely regarded as a minor contribution to the season , in which other productions included Gielgud in Venice Preserv 'd , Coward in The Apple Cart and Ashcroft and Redgrave in Antony and Cleopatra . Olivier directed his third Shakespeare film in September 1954 , Richard III ( 1955 ) , which he co @-@ produced with Korda . The presence of four theatrical knights in the one film — Olivier was joined by Cedric Hardwicke , Gielgud and Richardson — led an American reviewer to dub it " An @-@ All @-@ Sir @-@ Cast " . The critic for The Manchester Guardian described the film as a " bold and successful achievement " , but it was not a box @-@ office success , which accounted for Olivier 's subsequent failure to raise the funds for a planned film of Macbeth . He won a BAFTA award for the role and was nominated for the Best Actor Academy Award , which Yul Brynner won . = = = Last years with Leigh ( 1955 – 56 ) = = = In 1955 Olivier and Leigh were invited to play leading roles in three plays at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre , Stratford . They began with Twelfth Night , directed by Gielgud , with Olivier as Malvolio and Leigh as Viola . Rehearsals were difficult , with Olivier determined to play his conception of the role despite the director 's view that it was vulgar . Gielgud later commented : Somehow the production did not work . Olivier was set on playing Malvolio in his own particular rather extravagant way . He was extremely moving at the end , but he played the earlier scenes like a Jewish hairdresser , with a lisp and an extraordinary accent , and he insisted on falling backwards off a bench in the garden scene , though I begged him not to do it . ... But then Malvolio is a very difficult part . The next production was Macbeth . Reviewers were lukewarm about the direction by Glen Byam Shaw and the designs by Roger Furse , but Olivier 's performance in the title role attracted superlatives . To J. C. Trewin , Olivier 's was " the finest Macbeth of our day " ; to Darlington it was " the best Macbeth of our time " . Leigh 's Lady Macbeth received mixed but generally polite notices , although to the end of his life Olivier believed it to have been the best Lady Macbeth he ever saw . In their third production of the 1955 Stratford season , Olivier played the title role in Titus Andronicus , with Leigh as Lavinia . Her notices in the part were damning , but the production by Peter Brook and Olivier 's performance as Titus received the greatest ovation in Stratford history from the first @-@ night audience , and the critics hailed the production as a landmark in post @-@ war British theatre . Olivier and Brook revived the production for a continental tour in June 1957 ; its final performance , which closed the old Stoll Theatre in London , was the last time Leigh and Olivier acted together . Leigh became pregnant in 1956 and withdrew from the production of Coward 's comedy South Sea Bubble . The day after her final performance in the play she miscarried and entered a period of depression that lasted for months . The same year Olivier decided to direct and produce a film version of The Sleeping Prince , retitled The Prince and the Showgirl . Instead of appearing with Leigh , he cast Marilyn Monroe as the showgirl . Although the filming was challenging because of Monroe 's behaviour , the film was appreciated by the critics . = = = Royal Court and Chichester ( 1957 – 63 ) = = = During the production of The Prince and the Showgirl , Olivier , Monroe and her husband , the American playwright Arthur Miller , went to see the English Stage Company 's production of John Osborne 's Look Back in Anger at the Royal Court . Olivier had seen the play earlier in the run and disliked it , but Miller was convinced that Osborne had talent , and Olivier reconsidered . He was ready for a change of direction ; in 1981 he wrote : I had reached a stage in my life that I was getting profoundly sick of — not just tired — sick . Consequently the public were , likely enough , beginning to agree with me . My rhythm of work had become a bit deadly : a classical or semi @-@ classical film ; a play or two at Stratford , or a nine @-@ month run in the West End , etc etc . I was going mad , desperately searching for something suddenly fresh and thrillingly exciting . What I felt to be my image was boring me to death . Osborne was already at work on a new play , The Entertainer , an allegory of Britain 's post @-@ colonial decline , centred on a seedy variety comedian , Archie Rice . Having read the first act — all that was completed by then — Olivier asked to be cast in the part . He had for years maintained that he might easily have been a third @-@ rate comedian called " Larry Oliver " , and would sometimes play the character at parties . Behind Archie 's brazen façade there is a deep desolation , and Olivier caught both aspects , switching , in the words of the biographer Anthony Holden , " from a gleefully tacky comic routine to moments of the most wrenching pathos " . Tony Richardson 's production for the English Stage Company transferred from the Royal Court to the Palace Theatre in September 1957 ; after that it toured and returned to the Palace . The role of Archie 's daughter Jean was taken by three actresses during the various runs . The second of them was Joan Plowright , with whom Olivier began a relationship that endured for the rest of his life . Olivier said that playing Archie " made me feel like a modern actor again " . In finding an avant @-@ garde play that suited him , he was , as Osborne remarked , far ahead of Gielgud and Ralph Richardson , who did not successfully follow his lead for more than a decade . Their first substantial successes in works by any of Osborne 's generation were Alan Bennett 's Forty Years On ( Gielgud in 1968 ) and David Storey 's Home ( Richardson and Gielgud in 1970 ) . Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his supporting role in 1959 's The Devil 's Disciple . The same year , after a gap of two decades , Olivier returned to the role of Coriolanus , in a Stratford production directed by the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Peter Hall . Olivier 's performance received strong praise from the critics for its fierce athleticism combined with an emotional vulnerability . In 1960 he made his second appearance for the Royal Court company in Ionesco 's absurdist play Rhinoceros . The production was chiefly remarkable for the star 's quarrels with the director , Orson Welles , who according to the biographer Francis Beckett suffered the " appalling treatment " that Olivier had inflicted on Gielgud at Stratford five years earlier . Olivier again ignored his director and undermined his authority . In 1960 and 1961 Olivier appeared in Anouilh 's Becket on Broadway , first in the title role , with Anthony Quinn as the king , and later exchanging roles with his co @-@ star . Two films featuring Olivier were released in 1960 . The first — filmed in 1959 — was Spartacus , in which he portrayed the Roman general , Marcus Licinius Crassus . His second was The Entertainer , shot while he was appearing in Coriolanus ; the film was well received by the critics , but not as warmly as the stage show had been . The reviewer for The Guardian thought the performances were good , and wrote that Olivier " on the screen as on the stage , achieves the tour de force of bringing Archie Rice ... to life " . For his performance , Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor . He also made an adaptation of The Moon and Sixpence in 1960 , winning an Emmy Award . The Oliviers ' marriage was disintegrating during the late 1950s . While directing Charlton Heston in the 1960 play The Tumbler , Olivier divulged that " Vivien is several thousand miles away , trembling on the edge of a cliff , even when she 's sitting quietly in her own drawing room " , at a time when she was threatening suicide . In May 1960 divorce proceedings started ; Leigh reported the fact to the press and informed reporters of Olivier 's relationship with Plowright . The decree nisi was issued in December 1960 , which enabled him to marry Plowright in March 1961 . A son , Richard , was born in December 1961 ; two daughters followed , Tamsin Agnes Margaret — born in January 1963 — and Julie @-@ Kate , born in July 1966 . In 1961 Olivier accepted the directorship of a new theatrical venture , the Chichester Festival . For the opening season in 1962 he directed two neglected 17th @-@ century English plays , John Fletcher 's 1638 comedy The Chances and John Ford 's 1633 tragedy The Broken Heart , followed by Uncle Vanya . The company he recruited was forty strong and included Thorndike , Casson , Redgrave , Athene Seyler , John Neville and Plowright . The first two plays were politely received ; the Chekhov production attracted rapturous notices . The Times commented , " It is doubtful if the Moscow Arts Theatre itself could improve on this production . " The second Chichester season the following year consisted of a revival of Uncle Vanya and two new productions — Shaw 's Saint Joan and John Arden 's The Workhouse Donkey . In 1963 Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his leading role as a schoolteacher accused of sexually molesting a student in the film Term of Trial . = = = National Theatre = = = = = = = 1963 – 68 = = = = At around the time the Chichester Festival opened , plans for the creation of the National Theatre were coming to fruition . The British government agreed to release funds for a new building on the South Bank of the Thames . Lord Chandos was appointed chairman of the National Theatre Board in 1962 , and in August Olivier accepted its invitation to be the company 's first director . As his assistants , he recruited the directors John Dexter and William Gaskill , with Kenneth Tynan as literary adviser or " dramaturge " . Pending the construction of the new theatre , the company was based at the Old Vic . With the agreement of both organisations , Olivier remained in overall charge of the Chichester Festival during the first three seasons of the National ; he used the festivals of 1964 and 1965 to give preliminary runs to plays he hoped to stage at the Old Vic . The opening production of the National Theatre was Hamlet in October 1963 , starring Peter O 'Toole and directed by Olivier . O 'Toole was a guest star , one of occasional exceptions to Olivier 's policy of casting productions from a regular company . Among those who made a mark during Olivier 's directorship were Michael Gambon , Maggie Smith , Alan Bates , Derek Jacobi and Anthony Hopkins . It was widely remarked that Olivier seemed reluctant to recruit his peers to perform with his company . Evans , Gielgud and Paul Scofield guested only briefly , and Ashcroft and Richardson never appeared at the National during Olivier 's time . Robert Stephens , a member of the company , observed , " Olivier 's one great fault was a paranoid jealousy of anyone who he thought was a rival " . In his decade in charge of the National , Olivier acted in thirteen plays and directed eight . Several of the roles he played were minor characters , including a crazed butler in Feydeau 's A Flea in Her Ear and a pompous solicitor in Maugham 's Home and Beauty ; the vulgar soldier Captain Brazen in Farquhar 's 1706 comedy The Recruiting Officer was a larger role but not the leading one . Apart from his Astrov in the Uncle Vanya , familiar from Chichester , his first leading role for the National was Othello , directed by Dexter in 1964 . The production was a box @-@ office success and was revived regularly over the next five seasons . His performance divided opinion . Most of the reviewers and theatrical colleagues praised it highly ; Franco Zeffirelli called it " an anthology of everything that has been discovered about acting in the past three centuries . " Dissenting voices included The Sunday Telegraph , which called it " the kind of bad acting of which only a great actor is capable ... near the frontiers of self @-@ parody " ; the director Jonathan Miller thought it " a condescending view of an Afro Caribbean person " . The burden of playing this demanding part at the same time as managing the new company and planning for the move to the new theatre took its toll on Olivier . To add to his load , he felt obliged to take over as Solness in The Master Builder when the ailing Redgrave withdrew from the role in November 1964 . For the first time Olivier began to suffer from stage fright , which plagued him for several years . The National Theatre production of Othello was released as a film in 1965 , which earned four Academy Award nominations , including another for Best Actor for Olivier . During the following year Olivier concentrated on management , directing one production ( The Crucible ) , taking the comic role of the foppish Tattle in Congreve 's Love for Love , and making one film , Bunny Lake is Missing , in which he and Coward were on the same bill for the first time since Private Lives . In 1966 , his one play as director was Juno and the Paycock . The Times commented that the production " restores one 's faith in the work as a masterpiece " . In the same year Olivier portrayed the Mahdi , opposite Heston as General Gordon , in the film Khartoum . In 1967 Olivier was caught in the middle of a confrontation between Chandos and Tynan over the latter 's proposal to stage Rolf Hochhuth 's Soldiers . As the play speculatively depicted Churchill as complicit in the assassination of the Polish prime minister Władysław Sikorski , Chandos regarded it as indefensible . At his urging the board unanimously vetoed the production . Tynan considered resigning over this interference with the management 's artistic freedom , but Olivier himself stayed firmly in place , and Tynan also remained . At about this time Olivier began a long struggle against a succession of illnesses . He was treated for prostate cancer and , during rehearsals for his production of Chekhov 's Three Sisters he was hospitalised with pneumonia . He recovered enough to take the heavy role of Edgar in Strindberg 's The Dance of Death , the finest of all his performances other than in Shakespeare , in Gielgud 's view . = = = = 1968 – 74 = = = = Olivier had intended to step down from the directorship of the National Theatre at the end of his first five @-@ year contract , having , he hoped , led the company into its new building . By 1968 because of bureaucratic delays construction work had not even begun , and he agreed to serve for a second five @-@ year term . His next major role , and his last appearance in a Shakespeare play , was as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice , his first appearance in the work . He had intended Guinness or Scofield to play Shylock , but stepped in when neither was available . The production by Jonathan Miller , and Olivier 's performance , attracted a wide range of responses . Two different critics reviewed it for The Guardian : one wrote " this is not a role which stretches him , or for which he will be particularly remembered " ; the other commented that the performance " ranks as one of his greatest achievements , involving his whole range " . In 1969 Olivier appeared in two war films , portraying military leaders . He played Field Marshal French in the First World War film Oh ! What a Lovely War , for which he won another BAFTA award , followed by Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding in Battle of Britain . In June 1970 he became the first actor to be created a peer for services to the theatre . Although he initially declined the honour , Harold Wilson , the incumbent prime minister , wrote to him , then invited him and Plowright to dinner , and persuaded him to accept . After this Olivier played three more stage roles : James Tyrone in Eugene O 'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 1971 – 72 ) , Antonio in Eduardo de Filippo 's Saturday , Sunday , Monday and John Tagg in Trevor Griffiths 's The Party ( both 1973 – 74 ) . Among the roles he hoped to play , but could not because of ill @-@ health , was Nathan Detroit in the musical Guys and Dolls . In 1972 he took leave of absence from the National to star opposite Michael Caine in Joseph L. Mankiewicz 's film of Anthony Shaffer 's Sleuth , which The Illustrated London News considered to be " Olivier at his twinkling , eye @-@ rolling best " ; both he and Caine were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor , losing to Marlon Brando in The Godfather . The last two stage plays Olivier directed were Jean Giradoux 's Amphitryon ( 1971 ) and Priestley 's Eden End ( 1974 ) . By the time of Eden End , he was no longer director of the National Theatre ; Peter Hall took over on 1 November 1973 . The succession was tactlessly handled by the board , and Olivier felt that he had been eased out — although he had declared his intention to go — and that he had not been properly consulted about the choice of successor . The largest of the three theatres within the National 's new building was named in his honour , but his only appearance on the stage of the Olivier Theatre was at its official opening by the Queen in October 1976 , when he made a speech of welcome , which Hall privately described as the most successful part of the evening . = = = Later years ( 1975 – 89 ) = = = Olivier spent the last fifteen years of his life in securing his finances and dealing with worsening health , which included thrombosis and dermatomyositis , a degenerative muscle disorder . Professionally , and to secure financial security , he made a series of advertisements for Polaroid cameras in 1972 , although he stipulated that they must never be shown in Britain ; he also took a number of cameo film roles , which were in " often undistinguished films " , according to Billington . Olivier 's move from leading parts to supporting and cameo roles came about because his poor health meant he could not get the necessary long insurance for larger parts , with only short engagements in films available . Olivier 's dermatomyositis meant he spent the last three months of 1974 in hospital , and he spent early 1975 slowly recovering and regaining his strength . When strong enough , he was contacted by the director John Schlesinger , who offered him the role of a Nazi torturer in the 1976 film Marathon Man . Olivier shaved his pate and wore oversized glasses to enlarge the look of his eyes , in a role that the critic David Robinson , writing for The Times , thought was " strongly played " , adding that Olivier was " always at his best in roles that call for him to be seedy or nasty or both " . Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role , and won the Golden Globe of the same category . In the mid @-@ 1970s Olivier became increasingly involved in television work , a medium of which he was initially dismissive . In 1973 he provided the narration for a 26 @-@ episode documentary , The World at War , which chronicled the events of the Second World War , and won a second Emmy Award for Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 1973 ) . In 1975 he won another Emmy for Love Among the Ruins . The following year he appeared in adaptations of Tennessee Williams 's Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Harold Pinter 's The Collection . In 1978 he appeared in the film The Boys from Brazil , playing the role of Ezra Lieberman , an ageing Nazi hunter ; he received his eleventh Academy Award nomination . Although he did not win the Oscar , he was presented with an Honorary Award for his lifetime achievement . Olivier continued working in film into the 1980s , with roles in The Jazz Singer ( 1980 ) , Inchon ( 1981 ) , The Bounty ( 1984 ) and Wild Geese II ( 1985 ) . He continued to work in television ; in 1981 he appeared as Lord Marchmain in Brideshead Revisited , winning another Emmy , and the following year he received his tenth and last BAFTA nomination in the television adaptation of John Mortimer 's stage play A Voyage Round My Father . In 1983 he played his last Shakespearean role as Lear in King Lear , for Granada Television , earning his fifth Emmy . He thought the role of Lear much less demanding than other tragic Shakespearean heroes : " No , Lear is easy . He 's like all of us , really : he 's just a stupid old fart . " When the production was first shown on American television , the critic Steve Vineberg wrote : Olivier seems to have thrown away technique this time — his is a breathtakingly pure Lear . In his final speech , over Cordelia 's lifeless body , he brings us so close to Lear 's sorrow that we can hardly bear to watch , because we have seen the last Shakespearean hero Laurence Olivier will ever play . But what a finale ! In this most sublime of plays , our greatest actor has given an indelible performance . Perhaps it would be most appropriate to express simple gratitude . The same year he also appeared in a cameo alongside Gielgud and Richardson in Wagner , with Burton in the title role ; his final screen appearance was as an old , wheelchair @-@ bound soldier in Derek Jarman 's 1989 film War Requiem . After being ill for the last twenty @-@ two years of his life , Olivier died of renal failure on 11 July 1989 at his home near Steyning , West Sussex . His cremation was held three days later , before a funeral in Poets ' Corner of Westminster Abbey in October that year . = = Awards , honours and memorials = = In 1947 Olivier was appointed a Knight Bachelor , and in 1970 he was given a life peerage ; the Order of Merit was conferred on him in 1981 . He also received honours from foreign governments . In 1949 he was made Commander of the Order of the Dannebrog by the Danish government ; the French appointed him Officier , Legion of Honour , in 1953 ; the Italian government created him Grande Ufficiale , Order of Merit of the Italian Republic , in 1953 ; and in 1971 he was granted the Order of Yugoslav Flag with Golden Wreath . From academic and other institutions , Olivier received honorary doctorates from the university of Tufts , Massachusetts ( 1946 ) , Oxford ( 1957 ) and Edinburgh ( 1964 ) . He was also awarded the Danish Sonning Prize in 1966 , the Gold Medallion of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters , History and Antiquities in 1968 ; and the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1976 . For his work in films , Olivier received four Academy Awards : an honorary award for Henry V ( 1947 ) , a Best Actor award and one as producer for Hamlet ( 1948 ) , and a second honorary award in 1979 to recognise his lifetime of contribution to the art of film . He was nominated for nine other acting Oscars and one each for production and direction . He also won two British Academy Film Awards out of ten nominations , five Emmy Awards out of nine nominations , and three Golden Globe Awards out of six nominations . He was nominated once for a Tony Award ( for best actor , as Archie Rice ) but did not win . In February 1960 , for his contribution to the film industry , Olivier was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame , with a star at 6319 Hollywood Boulevard ; he is included in the American Theater Hall of Fame . In 1977 Olivier was awarded a British Film Institute Fellowship . In addition to the naming of the National Theatre 's largest auditorium in Olivier 's honour , he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards , bestowed annually since 1984 by the Society of West End Theatre . In 1991 Gielgud unveiled a memorial stone commemorating Olivier in Poets ' Corner at Westminster Abbey . In 2007 , the centenary of Olivier 's birth , a life @-@ sized statue of him was unveiled on the South Bank , outside the National Theatre ; the same year the BFI held a retrospective season of his film work . = = Technique and reputation = = Olivier 's acting technique was minutely crafted , and he was known for changing his appearance considerably from role to role . By his own admission , he was addicted to extravagant make @-@ up , and unlike Richardson and Gielgud , he excelled at different voices and accents . His own description of his technique was " working from the outside in " ; he said , " I can never act as myself , I have to have a pillow up my jumper , a false nose or a moustache or wig ... I cannot come on looking like me and be someone else . " Rattigan described how at rehearsals Olivier " built his performance slowly and with immense application from a mass of tiny details " . This attention to detail had its critics : Agate remarked , " When I look at a watch it is to see the time and not to admire the mechanism . I want an actor to tell me Lear 's time of day and Olivier doesn 't . He bids me watch the wheels go round . " Tynan remarked to Olivier , " you aren 't really a contemplative or philosophical actor " ; Olivier was known for the strenuous physicality of his performances in some roles . He told Tynan this was because he was influenced as a young man by Douglas Fairbanks , Ramon Navarro and John Barrymore in films , and Barrymore on stage as Hamlet : " tremendously athletic . I admired that greatly , all of us did . ... One thought of oneself , idiotically , skinny as I was , as a sort of Tarzan . " According to Morley , Gielgud was widely considered " the best actor in the world from the neck up and Olivier from the neck down . " Olivier described the contrast thus : " I 've always thought that we were the reverses of the same coin ... the top half John , all spirituality , all beauty , all abstract things ; and myself as all earth , blood , humanity . " Together with Richardson and Gielgud , Olivier was internationally recognised as one of the " great trinity of theatrical knights " who dominated the British stage during the middle and later decades of the 20th century . In an obituary tribute in The Times , Bernard Levin wrote , " What we have lost with Laurence Olivier is glory . He reflected it in his greatest roles ; indeed he walked clad in it — you could practically see it glowing around him like a nimbus . ... no one will ever play the roles he played as he played them ; no one will replace the splendour that he gave his native land with his genius . " Billington commented : [ Olivier ] elevated the art of acting in the twentieth century ... principally by the overwhelming force of his example . Like Garrick , Kean , and Irving before him , he lent glamour and excitement to acting so that , in any theatre in the world , an Olivier night raised the level of expectation and sent spectators out into the darkness a little more aware of themselves and having experienced a transcendent touch of ecstasy . That , in the end , was the true measure of his greatness . After Olivier 's death , Gielgud reflected , " He followed in the theatrical tradition of Kean and Irving . He respected tradition in the theatre , but he also took great delight in breaking tradition , which is what made him so unique . He was gifted , brilliant , and one of the great controversial figures of our time in theatre , which is a virtue and not a vice at all . " Olivier said in 1963 that he believed he was born to be an actor , but his colleague Peter Ustinov disagreed ; he commented that although Olivier 's great contemporaries were clearly predestined for the stage , " Larry could have been a notable ambassador , a considerable minister , a redoubtable cleric . At his worst , he would have acted the parts more ably than they are usually lived . " The director David Ayliff agreed that acting did not come instinctively to Olivier as it did to his great rivals . He observed , " Ralph was a natural actor , he couldn 't stop being a perfect actor ; Olivier did it through sheer hard work and determination . " The American actor William Redfield had a similar view : Ironically enough , Laurence Olivier is less gifted than Marlon Brando . He is even less gifted than Richard Burton , Paul Scofield , Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud . But he is still the definitive actor of the twentieth century . Why ? Because he wanted to be . His achievements are due to dedication , scholarship , practice , determination and courage . He is the bravest actor of our time . In comparing Olivier and the other leading actors of his generation , Ustinov wrote , " It is of course vain to talk of who is and who is not the greatest actor . There is simply no such thing as a greatest actor , or painter or composer " . Nonetheless , some colleagues , particularly film actors such as Spencer Tracy , Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall , came to regard Olivier as the finest of his peers . Peter Hall , though acknowledging Olivier as the head of the theatrical profession , thought Richardson the greater actor . Others , such as the critic Michael Coveney , awarded the palm to Gielgud . Olivier 's claim to theatrical greatness lay not only in his acting , but as , in Hall 's words , " the supreme man of the theatre of our time " , pioneering Britain 's National Theatre . As Bragg identified , " no one doubts that the National is perhaps his most enduring monument " . = = Stage roles and filmography = =

= Freakum Dress = " Freakum Dress " is a song by American singer and songwriter Beyoncé from her second solo studio album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . It was written by Beyoncé , Rich Harrison , and Makeba Riddick . " Freakum Dress " is similar to songs that Destiny 's Child used to record in the 1990s . The song is complete with whistles , cymbal dominated scatter rhythms and a beat , which is augmented by hi @-@ hats and plinking keyboard pulses . In the song , Beyoncé advises women who have partners with straying eyes to put on alluring dresses and grind on other guys in dance clubs , to regain their affections . " Freakum Dress " was generally well received by music critics who complimented Beyoncé 's vocals as well as the assertiveness with which she delivers the lyrics . Many of them also noted that the beat of song melds very well with the vocal arrangement and the instruments used . The music video for the song was directed by Ray Kay , with co @-@ direction from Beyoncé , for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album ( 2007 ) . It features Beyoncé dancing with women of different ages , races , and sizes . Thirty metallic dresses were designed by Tina Knowles and were used in the production . Beyoncé explained that the main reason behind shooting a video for the song was to show what a " freakum dress " looks like . The song was part of the set lists during Beyoncé 's worldwide tours The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) and I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . Later , in 2012 , the song was performed during her revue Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live . = = Recording and conception = = " Freakum Dress " was conceived at Sony Music Studios , in New York City , when Beyoncé enlisted Harris to co @-@ produce for her album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . She and Harrison had previously collaborated on her 2003 single " Crazy in Love " . She arranged for Harrison , Sean Garrett and Rodney Jerkins to be given individual rooms at the studio . In this way , Beyoncé fostered " healthy competition " between the producers by going into each of their rooms and commenting on the " great beats " the others were creating . Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel noted that " Freakum Dress " and " Suga Mama " ( 2006 ) , Harrison 's other contribution to B 'Day " fall short of originality but mimic the Chi Lites [ sic ] percussion section [ of " Crazy in Love " ] yet again " , adding , " Harrison is like the Indiana Jones of soul , constantly pulling out forgotten gems of the past for sampling [ ... ] You can 't help but think : Thank God someone wrote music in the past that can be repurposed now . " Harrison wrote " Freakum dress to demonstrate how a sassy sartorial item that can help recharge to a relationship " , with Beyoncé and Makeba Riddick also contributing In an interview with USA Today , Beyoncé talked about the content " Freakum Dress " , stating that an outfit which reminds of the best moments in a couple 's life , is a necessity for every woman 's wardrobe . In June 2006 , Beyoncé invited Tamara Coniff of Billboard to a New York recording studio . There she premiered several songs from the album including " Ring the Alarm " ( 2006 ) and " Freakum Dress " , both were cited as possible second singles although in the end it was actually " Ring the Alarm " that became B 'Day 's second single . Beyoncé told Coniff that " Freakum Dress " was one of her favorite songs ever . = = Music and theme = = According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , " Freakum Dress " is a moderate R & B song pacing in common time , written in the key of F major . The verses alternate from the chords of F ♯ and C. The track also draws from the hip hop , funk , and dance @-@ pop genres . Mike Joseph of PopMatters observed that the song shows influences by 1970s funk music , and contains limited elements of 1980s go @-@ go . According to Phil Harrison of Timeout , " Freakum Dress " consists of a steady " long crescendo , welding galloping beats and a steamrolling two @-@ note riff " , accompanied by several genres of music , which he qualified as " multi @-@ tracked " . Spence D. of IGN Music noted that the song consists of frequent whistles as well as crashing cymbal dominated scatter rhythms and a beat which fits the " powerful , loud , confident lines " in which Beyoncé asks for the attention of her man , and urges women to have a beautiful dress to spice up their sexual life . " Freakum Dress " opens with a spoken introduction . Throughout the song , Beyoncé sings her lines in an assertive manner on melding shattering hi @-@ hats " and plinking keyboard pulses . According to Joseph , " Freakum Dress " is thematically similar to " Bills , Bills , Bills " ( 1999 ) and " Say My Name " ( 2000 ) , from the Destiny 's Child era . Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times noted that " Freakum Dress " celebrates showing off . Jon Pareles of The New York Times viewed the concept of the song as not merely having a nice wardrobe to entice men , but it also serves as " a means of self @-@ assertion . " In the song , the female protagonist pulls out her best dress to remind her potentially wandering mate of what he is leaving at home . Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly added that Beyoncé also seemingly gives professional advice to women on how to hold a man 's attention in a long @-@ term relationship . She sings : " I think I 'm ready / Been locked up in the house way too long / It 's time to get it , [ be ] cause once again he 's out doing wrong [ ... ] Wear very skimpy clothes ... " . Joseph commented that in the song , Beyoncé is capable of wearing anything to keep her man by her side rather than dumping him . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe added that after having skirted her best dress , Beyoncé eyes other guys in dance clubs to make her own man jealous , in the hope of regaining his attention but she also makes sure that he really pays when he does her wrong . Beyoncé later refers to her " freakum dress " in " Jealous " , a track from her fifth studio album Beyoncé ( 2013 ) . = = Reception = = The song received mostly positive reviews . Phil Harrison of Timeout called " Freakum Dress " a magnificent production thanks to its vocal arrangements and commented that its beat can " drive the boys crazy . " Brian Hiatt of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that even though " Freakum Dress " is less harmonically and melodically produced than " Crazy In Love " ( 2003 ) and songs from the Destiny 's Child era , it remains a good track due to its highly energetic beat . Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music called the track " discordant " and " menacing " while Jon Pareles of The New York Times called it " overwrought " . On a separate review , Jon Pareles said that the song will remain as one of Beyoncé most memorable tracks thanks to its streak of rage which is " perfectly groomed but unmistakable " . Bill Lamb of About.com chose " Freakum Dress " as one of the three best songs on the entire record , and called it a powerful , emotionally intensive and energetic track . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian called the song a " lighthearted crunk spree " that reminds girls of the significance of having a nice dress in their wardrobe . Mike Joseph of PopMatters complimented the overall concept of the song but noted that the lyrics do not " radiate " enough warmth . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine jokingly said that Beyoncé has added the term " Freakum Dress " " to the pop lexicon . " Elysa Gardner of USA Today said that " self @-@ assurance is evident on a tune on B 'Day called ' Freakum Dress ' " while another review by the staff members of the same magazine complimented the songs sexual imagery stating : " When Ms. Bootylicious [ Beyoncé ] sings of squeezing that jelly into a ' Freakum Dress ' , the imagination runs wilder than any video would . Darryl Sterdan , writing for the Canadian website Jam ! , complimented the song 's " bashing beat and irresistible chorus " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic described " Freakum dress " as a " blaring and marching " track . Calling " Freakum Dress " one of the best dance track that Beyoncé has ever sung , Norman Mayers of Prefix Magazine chose it as one of the standout songs of the album . While reviewing B 'Day , Chuck Arnold of People magazine wrote , " ' ladies ' anthem ' Freakum Dress ' finds Beyoncé working all her bootylicious powers over some slamming funk " . " Freakum Dress " reached number twenty @-@ five on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart issue dated September 9 , 2007 . The same day , it also charted on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles at number sixteen . = = Music video = = = = = Concept and filming = = = The music video was co @-@ directed by Ray Kay and Beyoncé for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album , which was released the same month : it was one of eight videos shot in two weeks for the album . The choreography was done by Danielle Polanco and Jonte ' Moaning , who used a 1980 ’ s retro set . Beyoncé explained the concept of the video at MTV : " It 's probably the most flamboyant video , and the metallic dresses are so beautiful , they added so much color . I had to do a video for this song . Everyone wanted to know what a ' freakum dress ' was , and you can 't really explain it , you have to see it . Everyone has their own version , so we had so many women — of different races , sizes , shapes , ages — because we all have those dresses we pull out when we need to shut it down . " After two weeks of shooting , Beyoncé decided to call her mother Tina . The latter designed thirty dresses for the video , with eight of them for her daughter . Due to limited time , certain dress were sewed on the spot in approximately ten minutes each by taking fabric from one dress , making a slit in it , draping it and putting a belt on it . The glasses that Beyoncé wears in the video were borrowed from her make @-@ up artist , Francesca Tolot . The video was finished in about eighteen hours of filming and it features Ebony Haith from America 's Next Top Model , Cycle 1 . Throughout the video , Beyoncé can be seen fixing her hair in a neon mirror and is surrounded by neon @-@ constructed doors , catwalks and podiums . It premiered on BET 's 106 & Park and on American Music Channel , among others , before the release of the video anthology . = = = Synopsis and reception = = = The video begins with Beyoncé dancing in front of a target before moving to her putting on blush and lipstick next to two other men in a room full of neon framed mirrors . The men then pull a dress onto her and as the chorus begins , she walks by several women dancing on neon boxes before beginning to do a dance routine with them . As the chorus ends , she is shown surrounded by several men in a dark room and dancing in front of barcode @-@ like walls . The video then moves to her walking down a neon catwalk . As the bridge starts , she begins doing a fierce dance routine , while constantly switching dresses . A scene is then shown with her dancers pretending to be paparazzi swarming her with microphones , before ending with Beyoncé whipping her hair in front of the target . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave a negative review for the video , describing it as " sloppily edited " . He further commented that it " plays out like a cheap fashion show for House of Deréon instead of the couture @-@ as @-@ weapons anthem it should be " . = = Live performances = = Although Beyoncé did not perform " Freakum Dress " in any televised appearances , the song was part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan , where she directly started the song with the line : " Stop , I ain ’ t ready yet — wait , let me fix my hair ... " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the performance , stating : " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes [ ... ] " . Tonya Turner of The Courier @-@ Mail reported that tracks like " Freakum Dress " , " moved fans to screams of endearment " . David Schmeichel of Jam ! wrote that Beyoncé performed a " ballsy " version of the song . Anthony Venutolo of New Jersey On @-@ Line wrote that Beyoncé " boiled over " during the performance of the song . It was included as the third track on Beyoncé 's live album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) . It was also part of the set list on the I Am ... World Tour . When Beyoncé performed the song in Sunrise , Florida on June 29 , 2009 , she was wearing a glittery gold leotard . As she sang , animated graphics of turntables , faders and other club equipment were projected behind Beyoncé , her dancers and musicians . Beyoncé was accompanied by her two drummers , two keyboardists , a percussionist , a horn section , three imposing backup vocalists called the Mamas and a lead guitarist , Bibi McGill . During the performance , she bent backwards at her guitarist 's feet . Jonathon Moran of The Sunday Telegraph praised Beyoncé 's dancing during the performance of the song on the I Am ... World Tour . " Freakum Dress " was included as the fourth track on the deluxe edition of I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . According to Andy Kellman of Allmusic , the performance has a " hard rock overhaul " . In May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed " Freakum Dress " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . While singing the song , Beyoncé was wearing a black dress and performed a " strut @-@ heavy footwork " . Dan DeLuca from The Philadelphia Inquirer noted that " her rock moves on songs like ' Freakum Dress , ' which find her facing off with a leather @-@ jacketed lead guitarist , tend to be of the screaming @-@ solo @-@ played @-@ on @-@ a @-@ Flying Vee variety . " Ben Ratliff of The New York Times mentioned " Freakum Dress " in the " almost continuous high point " of the concert . Jim Farber of Daily News wrote that " The first , and last parts of the show stressed the steeliest Beyoncé , told in bold songs " like " Freakum Dress " . Brad Wete , writing for Complex noted that Beyoncé was " wagging her bootyliciousness at the audience " while performing the song . The performance of " Freakum Dress " was included on the live album Live in Atlantic City ( 2013 ) which was filmed during the revue . In 2013 the song was a part of the set list during The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . = = Usage in media = = On June 24 , 2009 , American actress Cameron Diaz danced to " Freakum Dress " during the show It 's On with Alexa Chung . Competitors lip synced along to " Freakum Dress " in the fifth episode of the first season of RuPaul 's Drag Race . Jazmine Sullivan references the song in her song " Mascara " . = = Chart performance = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits are taken from B 'Day liner notes . Vocals : Beyoncé Knowles Writing : Beyoncé Knowles , Rich Harrison , Makeba , Angela Beyincé Producing : Rich Harrison , Beyoncé Knowles Recording : Jim Caruana Assisted by : Rob Kinelski and Jamie Rosenberg Mixing : Jason Goldstein & Rich Harrison Assisted by : Steve Tolle

= Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruiser = The Derfflinger class was a class of three battlecruisers ( German : Schlachtkreuzer ) of the Imperial German Navy . The ships were ordered for the 1912 – 13 Naval Building Program of the German Imperial Navy as a reply to the Royal Navy 's three new Lion @-@ class battlecruisers that had been launched a few years earlier . The preceding Moltke class and the incrementally improved Seydlitz represented the end of the evolution of Germany 's first generation of battlecruisers . The Derfflinger class had considerable improvements , including a larger primary armament , all of which was mounted on the centerline , eliminating the restricted arc of the amidships turret . The ships were also larger than the preceding classes . The Derfflinger class used a similar propulsion system , and as a result of the increased displacement were slightly slower . The class comprised three ships : Derfflinger , Lützow , and Hindenburg . All three of the ships saw active service with the High Seas Fleet during World War I. Derfflinger was commissioned shortly after the outbreak of war , and was present at most of the naval actions in the North Sea , including the battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland . Lützow was commissioned in August 1915 , and only participated in the raid on Yarmouth before being sunk at Jutland . Hindenburg was commissioned into the fleet in May 1917 , and saw no major action . Derfflinger and Hindenburg were interned at Scapa Flow following the armistice in November 1918 . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , who was in command of the interned High Seas Fleet , ordered the ships to be scuttled in an attempt to prevent their possible seizure by the Royal Navy . = = Design = = The Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruisers were a result of the fourth and final Naval Law , which was passed in 1912 . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz used public outcry over the British involvement in the Agadir Crisis of 1911 to pressure the Reichstag into appropriating additional funds to the Navy . The Fourth Naval Law secured funding for three new dreadnoughts , two light cruisers , and an extra 15 @,@ 000 officers and men in the Navy for 1912 . The three dreadnoughts secured in the bill became Derfflinger , Lützow , and Hindenburg . Design work on the first two ships began in October 1910 and continued until June 1911 ; Hindenburg was built to a slightly modified design , which was created between May and October 1912 . When design work began , the navy department was asked to submit new requirements to fix deficiencies found in the preceding battlecruiser classes , which primarily covered propulsion systems and the main armament . Previous battlecruisers used a four shaft arrangement for their engines ; reducing the number to three would allow the new ships to equip a diesel engine on the central shaft . This would substantially increase the cruising range , and would ease the transfer of fuel and reduce the number of crew needed to operate the ships ' machinery . The navy department also argued for an increase in the main battery guns , from 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) guns to 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) weapons . This was because the latest British battleships had thicker main belt armor , up to 300 millimeters ( 12 in ) . Since the German battlecruisers were intended to fight in the line of battle , their armament needed to be sufficiently powerful to penetrate the armor of their British opponents . Weight increases were managed by reducing the number of guns , from 10 to 8 — the increase in gun caliber added only 36 tons to the ships ' displacement . Tirpitz argued against the increase in gun caliber , for he thought the 28 cm gun was powerful enough . A new construction technique was employed to save weight . Previous battlecruisers were built with a combination of transverse and longitudinal steel frames ; the Derfflinger @-@ class ships dispensed with the transverse frames and used only the longitudinal ones . This enabled the ship to retain structural strength and a lower weight . As with all preceding capital ships , the outer hull spaces between the hull wall and the torpedo bulkhead were used for coal storage . On 1 September 1910 , the design board chose the 30 @.@ 5 cm , to be mounted in four twin turrets on the centerline of the ship . The armor layout was kept the same as in Seydlitz . In the meantime , pressure from the British public and media had forced the British Parliament to step up ship building . Kaiser Wilhelm II requested that the build time for the new battlecruisers be reduced to two years each , as opposed to three years . This proved unfeasible , because neither the armor or armament firms could supply the necessary materials according to an expedited schedule . = = = General characteristics = = = Derfflinger and Lützow were 210 m ( 689 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline and 210 @.@ 40 m ( 690 ft 3 in ) long overall . Hindenburg was slightly longer , at 212 @.@ 50 m ( 697 ft 2 in ) at the waterline and 212 @.@ 80 m ( 698 ft 2 in ) overall . All three ships had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) , and a draft of between 9 @.@ 20 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) forward and 9 @.@ 57 m ( 31 ft 5 in ) aft . The first two ships were designed to displace 26 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 200 long tons ) with a standard load , and up to 31 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 30 @,@ 700 long tons ) at combat weight . Hindenburg displaced slightly more , at 26 @,@ 947 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 521 long tons ) standard and 31 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 31 @,@ 000 long tons ) fully laden . The ships ' hulls were constructed from longitudinal steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted . Derfflinger 's hull contained 16 watertight compartments , though Lützow and Hindenburg had an additional seventeenth compartment . All three ships had a double bottom that ran for 65 % of the length of the hull . This was a decrease from preceding German battlecruisers , which had a double bottom for at least 75 % of the hull . The ships were regarded as excellent sea boats by the German navy . The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were described as having had gentle motion , though they were " wet " at the casemate deck . The ships lost up to 65 % speed with the twin rudders hard over , and heeled up to 11 degrees . This was greater than any of the preceding battlecruiser designs , and as a result , anti @-@ roll tanks were fitted to Derfflinger . The three ships had a metacentric height of 2 @.@ 60 m ( 8 ft 6 in ) . The standard crew for one of the vessels was 44 officers and 1 @,@ 068 men ; when serving as the flagship for the I Scouting Group , the ships carried an additional 14 officers and 62 men . The Derfflingers carried smaller craft , including one picket boat , three barges , two launches , two yawls , and two dinghies . = = = Machinery = = = By the time construction work on Derfflinger began , it was determined that the diesel engine was not ready for use . Instead , the plan to use a three @-@ shaft system was abandoned and the ships reverted to the standard four @-@ shaft arrangement . Each of the three ships were equipped with two sets of marine @-@ type turbines ; each set drove a pair of 3 @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 90 m ( 12 ft 10 in ) in diameter on Derfflinger and Lützow and 4 m ( 13 ft 1 in ) in diameter on Hindenburg . Each set consisted of a high- and low @-@ pressure turbine — the high @-@ pressure machines drove the outer shafts while the low @-@ pressure turbines turned the inner pair . Steam was supplied to the turbines from 14 coal @-@ fired marine @-@ type double boilers and eight oil @-@ fired marine @-@ type double @-@ ended boilers . Each ship was equipped with a pair of turbo @-@ electric generators and a pair of diesel @-@ electric generators that provided a total of 1 @,@ 660 kilowatts at 220 volts . Each ship was equipped with two rudders . The engines for first two ships were designed to provide 62 @,@ 138 shaft horsepower ( 46 @,@ 336 kW ) , at 280 revolutions per minute . This would have given the two ships a top speed of 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) . During trials , Derfflinger 's engines achieved 75 @,@ 586 shp ( 56 @,@ 364 kW ) , but a top speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) . Lützow 's engines reached 79 @,@ 880 shp ( 59 @,@ 570 kW ) and a top speed of 26 @.@ 4 knots ( 48 @.@ 9 km / h ; 30 @.@ 4 mph ) . Hindenburg 's power plant was rated at 71 @,@ 015 shp ( 52 @,@ 956 kW ) at 290 rpm , for a top speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . On trials she reached 94 @,@ 467 shp ( 70 @,@ 444 kW ) and 26 @.@ 6 knots ( 49 @.@ 3 km / h ; 30 @.@ 6 mph ) . Derfflinger could carry 3 @,@ 500 t ( 3 @,@ 400 long tons ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ) of oil ; at a cruising speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , she had a range of 5 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 400 km ; 6 @,@ 400 mi ) . Lützow carried 3 @,@ 700 t ( 3 @,@ 600 long tons ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 tons of oil , though she had no advantage in range over her sister Derfflinger . Hindenburg also stored 3 @,@ 700 tons of coal , as well as 1 @,@ 200 t ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of oil ; her range at 14 knots was rated at 6 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 300 km ; 7 @,@ 000 mi ) . = = = Armament = = = The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were armed with eight 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) SK L / 50 guns in four twin gun turrets , two forward of the main superstructure in a superfiring pair and two to the rear of the ship , in a similar arrangement . The guns were housed in Drh.L C / 1912 mounts on the first two ships , and in Drh.L C / 1913 mounts on Hindenburg . The turrets were trained with electric motors , while the guns were elevated hydraulically , up to 13 @.@ 5 degrees . The guns fired 405 @.@ 5 @-@ kilogram ( 894 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shells at a muzzle velocity of 855 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 805 ft / s ) . At 13 @.@ 5 degrees , the shells could hit targets out to 18 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 yd ) . The turrets were modified in 1916 to increase the elevation maximum to 16 degrees . This correspondingly increased the range to 20 @,@ 400 m ( 22 @,@ 300 yd ) . The ships carried 720 shells , or 90 per gun ; each gun was supplied with 65 armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells and 25 semi @-@ AP shells for use against targets with less armor protection . The 30 @.@ 5 cm gun had a rate of fire of between 2 – 3 shells per minute , and was expected to fire 200 shells before replacement was necessary . The guns were also capable of firing 405 @.@ 9 kg ( 894 @.@ 8 lb ) high explosive shells . The shells were loaded with two RP C / 12 propellant charges : a main charge in a brass cartridge that weighed 91 kg ( 201 lb ) and a fore charge in a silk bag that weighed 34 @.@ 5 kg ( 76 lb ) . The propellant magazines were located underneath the shell rooms for the two forward turrets as well as the rear superfiring turret ; the arrangement was reversed for the rearmost turret . The ships were designed to carry fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns , mounted in casemates along the superstructure . Because Derfflinger had to be fitted with anti @-@ roll tanks , two of the casemated guns had to be removed , to allow enough room in the hull . Lützow and Hindenburg were equipped with the designed number of guns . Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds , and had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 800 yd ) , though this was later extended to 16 @,@ 800 m ( 18 @,@ 400 yd ) . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of five to seven rounds per minute . The shells were 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 99 @.@ 8 lb ) , and were loaded with a 13 @.@ 7 kg ( 31 @.@ 2 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . The guns were expected to fire around 1 @,@ 400 shells before they needed to be replaced . The three ships carried a variety of 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns in several configurations . The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were initially equipped with eight of these weapons , all in single mounts ; four were placed in the forward superstructure and four in the aft superstructure . The ships also carried four 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns , which were emplaced around the forward funnel , with the exception of Lützow , which carried the Flak guns around the rear funnel . After 1916 , the four 8 @.@ 8 cm guns in the forward superstructure were removed . The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C / 13 mountings , which allowed depression to − 10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees . These guns fired 9 kg ( 19 @.@ 8 lb ) shells , and had an effective ceiling of 9 @,@ 150 m ( 30 @,@ 019 ft 8 in ) at 70 degrees . The ships were also armed with submerged torpedo tubes in their hulls . Derfflinger was equipped with four 50 cm tubes ; the later ships were armed with more powerful 60 cm weapons . The tubes were arranged with one in the bow , one in the stern , and two on the broadside . Derfflinger 's 50 cm torpedoes were the G7 type , 7 @.@ 02 m ( 276 in ) long and armed with a 195 kg ( 430 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedo had a range of 4 @,@ 000 m ( 4 @,@ 370 yd ) when set at a speed of 37 knots , and up to 9 @,@ 300 m ( 10 @,@ 170 yd ) at 27 knots . The 60 cm torpedoes were the H8 type , which were 8 m long and carried a 210 kg ( 463 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedoes had a range of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 550 yd ) when set at a speed of 36 knots ; at a reduced speed of 30 knots , the range increased significantly to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 15 @,@ 310 yd ) . = = = Armor = = = The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor , as was the standard for German warships of the period . They had an armor belt that was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick in the central citadel of the ship , where the most important parts of the ship were . This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces . The belt was reduced in less critical areas , to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) forward and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The belt tapered down to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) at the bow , though the stern was not protected by armor at all . A 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull , several meters behind the main belt . The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm thick in less important areas , to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship . The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor : the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The rear conning tower was less well armored ; its sides were only 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick and the roof was covered with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate . The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored : the turret sides were 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick and the roofs were 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . On Hindenburg , the thickness of the turret roofs was increased to 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The 15 cm guns had 150 mm @-@ worth of armor plating in the casemates ; the guns themselves had 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick shields to protect their crews from shell splinters . = = Construction = = Of the three ships in its class , only Derfflinger was ordered as an addition to the fleet , under the provisional name " K " . The other two ships were to intended to replace obsolete vessels ; Lützow was ordered as Ersatz Kaiserin Augusta for the elderly protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta and the contract for Hindenburg was issued under the provisional name Ersatz Hertha , to replace the protected cruiser Hertha . Derfflinger was constructed at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg under construction number 213 . She was the least expensive of the three ships , at a cost of 56 million gold marks . The ship was ready to be launched on 14 June 1913 , but during the ceremony , one of the wooden sledges upon which the hull rested became jammed . It took until 12 July for her to enter the water . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 September 1914 , shortly after the outbreak of World War I. Lützow was built at the Schichau dockyard in Danzig under construction number 885 , at the cost of 58 million gold marks . The ship was launched on 29 November 1913 , and after lengthy trials , commissioned on 8 August 1915 . Hindenburg , the final member of the class , was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven , under construction number 34 . The ship was built at a cost of 59 million gold marks , the most expensive of the three vessels . She was launched on 1 August 1915 and commissioned on 10 May 1917 . = = Units = = = = = SMS Derfflinger = = = Named after Georg von Derfflinger , a German field marshal during the Thirty Years ' War , Derfflinger was commissioned on 1 September 1914 . A dockyard crew transferred the ship from Hamburg to Kiel , via the Skagen . The ship was assigned to the I Scouting Group at the end of October . Damage to the ship 's turbines sustained during trials prevented the ship from seeing active service until 16 November . On 15 December , the ship took part in the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby . She was also present during the battle of Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915 . The ship was hit once by a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shell from one of the British battlecruisers ; in response , she heavily damaged HMS Lion . Repair work was completed by 16 February , but Derfflinger 's starboard turbine was accidentally damaged on 28 June , and the ship was again in the dockyard until August . On 24 April 1916 , Derfflinger took part in the bombardment of Yarmouth . On 31 May , Derfflinger was heavily engaged during the Battle of Jutland , as the second ship in the German battlecruiser line . She sustained 21 major hits during the battle , but dealt considerable damage to the British battlecruiser force as well . At 16 : 26 , HMS Queen Mary sank after a magazine explosion that tore the ship apart ; she had been targeted with a hail of heavy @-@ caliber gunfire from Derfflinger and Seydlitz . Two hours later , at 18 : 30 , HMS Invincible suffered a similar fate , though Derfflinger was assisted by her sister Lützow . During the engagement , Derfflinger had both of her rear turrets knocked out by British gunfire . Her crew suffered 157 men killed and 26 wounded , which was the highest casualty figure for any German ship not sunk . The resilience of the vessel earned her the nickname " Iron Dog " from her British adversaries . Repair work lasted until 15 October , during which the ship had her pole mast removed and replaced with a tripod mast . The ship conducted training operations until November , at which point she returned to active duty with the fleet . Following the German capitulation in November 1918 , Derfflinger was interned with a significant portion of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow . On 21 June 1919 , with the guard ships of the Royal Navy out on maneuvers , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered that the fleet be scuttled . The resulting scuttling of the German fleet saw some 66 vessels of various types sunk . Among those was Derfflinger , which sank at 14 : 45 . The ship was raised in 1939 to be broken up for scrap metal , but the outbreak of World War II intervened . The ship , which remained capsized , was anchored off the island of Risa until 1946 , at which point she was sent to Faslane Port , where she was broken up . The ship 's bell was delivered to the German Federal Navy on 30 August 1965 . = = = SMS Lützow = = = Lützow was named after Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow , a Prussian lieutenant @-@ general who fought during the Napoleonic Wars . The ship was commissioned on 8 August 1915 , and then underwent trials . On 25 October , while still running sea trials , Lützow 's port low pressure turbine were severely damaged . She was sent to Kiel for repairs , which lasted until late January 1916 . The ship went on additional trials that lasted until 19 February . Lützow was by then fully operational , and assigned to the I Scouting Group on 20 March 1916 . She took part in two fleet advances , on 25 March and 21 – 22 April , without any major incidents . The following day , on 23 April , Lützow , along with her sister Derfflinger and the battlecruisers Seydlitz , Moltke , and Von der Tann , bombarded Yarmouth . While en route to the target , Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper 's flagship Seydlitz was heavily damaged by mines . As a result , Lützow was transferred to the role of squadron flagship . During the operation , the German battlecruisers encountered British light forces , and a running battle ensued . Lützow engaged the light cruiser HMS Conquest and hit her several times . At the Battle of Jutland , she was the first ship in the German line , and Hipper 's flagship , and drew fire from the British battlecruisers which included hits below her waterline . Shortly after the start of the battlecruiser action , Lützow hit her opponent Lion several times ; one hit knocked out Lion 's " Q " turret , and the resulting magazine fire nearly destroyed the ship . Shortly after 19 : 00 , the armored cruisers Defence and Warrior inadvertently ran into the German line ; Lützow opened fire immediately , followed by several German dreadnoughts . In a hail of shells , Defence 's ammunition magazines detonated and the ship was sunk . At around the same time , the fresh battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron engaged their German opposites . Between 19 : 26 and 19 : 34 , Lützow sustained four 12 @-@ inch shell hits in her bow from the British battlecruisers ; these eventually proved to be fatal . Despite this , at 19 : 30 , the combined fire of Lützow and her sister Derfflinger destroyed the battlecruiser Invincible . By 20 : 15 , Lützow had been hit five more times , including hits on her two forward turrets . By 22 : 15 , Lützow had shipped nearly 2 @,@ 400 tons of water , and the ship was dangerously down by the bows . After midnight , attempts were made to steer the ship in reverse . This failed when the bow became submerged enough to bring the stern out of the water ; by 02 : 20 , the screws and both rudders were coming out of the water and the ship was no longer able to steer . The order to abandon ship was given , and at 02 : 47 , Lützow was sunk by the torpedo boat G38 . The ship was lost because the flooding in the bow could not be controlled ; the forward pump system failed and the central system could not keep up with the rising water . The crew was picked up by four torpedo boats that had been escorting the crippled battlecruiser ; during the battle the ship suffered 116 men killed . = = = SMS Hindenburg = = = Hindenburg was the last battlecruiser completed for the Imperial German Navy , and as such had a very short career . She was commissioned 10 May 1917 , and was fully operational by 20 October 1917 , too late to see any major action in World War I. On 17 November Hindenburg and Moltke , along with the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group , were acting as distant support for German minesweepers off the German coast when they were attacked by British battlecruisers . The raid was brief ; by the time Hindenburg and Moltke arrived on the scene , the British ships had broken off the attack and withdrawn . Six days later , Hindenburg replaced Seydlitz as flagship of the I Scouting Group . On 23 April 1918 , the ship took part in an abortive fleet advance into the North Sea that attempted to intercept an Allied convoy . Moltke sustained mechanical damage while en route , and as a result , Vice Admiral Hipper decided to cancel the operation . On 11 August , Hipper was promoted to Admiral and given command of the entire High Seas Fleet . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter replaced Hipper as the commander of the I Scouting Group ; he raised his flag on Hindenburg the following day . Hindenburg was interned at Scapa Flow , along with her sister Derfflinger and the rest of the German battlecruisers . She was scuttled on 21 June 1919 , and sank at 17 : 00 . Several unsuccessful attempts to raise her were made ; on 23 July 1930 the ship was finally raised . From 1930 to 1932 she was scrapped at Rosyth . Her bell was presented to the German Federal Navy on 28 May 1959 .

= O 'Brien @-@ class destroyer = The O 'Brien class of destroyers was a class of six ships designed by and built for the United States Navy shortly before the United States entered World War I. The O 'Brien class was the third of five classes of destroyers that were known as the " thousand tonners " , because they were the first U.S. destroyers over 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) displacement . The design of what became the O 'Brien class was the result of discussions between the General Board of the United States Navy and the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance . What resulted was a design that was an incremental development of the Aylwin class , which itself was similar to the first of the thousand tonners , the Cassin class ( which displaced about a third more than the preceding Paulding class ) . The key difference in the O 'Brien class was the increase in torpedo size , going up to 21 inches ( 533 mm ) from the preceding classes ' 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedoes . The ships had a median displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) , were just over 305 feet ( 93 m ) in length , and had a beam of about 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) . All of the ships had two direct @-@ drive steam turbines and a combination of other engines for cruising at speeds less than 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . All of the ships were designed for a maximum speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) . As built , they were armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns and had four twin 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes with a load of eight torpedoes , but all were later equipped with depth charges . The ships were built by four private American shipyards — Bath Iron Works , Fore River Shipbuilding Company , New York Shipbuilding Corporation , and William Cramp and Sons — and were laid down between September and November 1913 ; launched between April 1914 and February 1915 ; and commissioned into the U.S. Navy between June 1914 and August 1915 . All six ships operated in the Atlantic or Caribbean until the U.S. entrance into World War I in April 1917 , when all six were sent overseas to Queenstown , Ireland , for convoy escort duties . Several of the ships rescued passengers and crew from ships sunk by U @-@ boats , and several had encounters with U @-@ boats themselves ; Nicholson helped sink U @-@ 58 in November 1917 , the first U @-@ boat sunk by the U.S. Navy . All six members of the class had returned to the United States in January 1919 and were decommissioned by June 1922 . In 1924 , two of the six — Ericsson and McDougal — were commissioned into the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . They were returned to U.S. Navy custody in 1932 and 1933 , respectively . All six ships had been sold for scrapping by June 1936 . = = Background = = For the 1913 fiscal year , the General Board of the United States Navy determined that six destroyers would be authorized . The design for Destroyers No. 51 through No. 56 — what became the O 'Brien class , was to closely follow the design of the Cassin and Aylwin classes from fiscal year 1912 . The chief of the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance ( BuOrd ) suggested that the new destroyers be equipped with ten torpedo tubes and urged that the new 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo be adopted . The General Board agreed in principle , adopting the 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , but eliminated BuOrd 's proposed centerline torpedo tubes and keeping the number of tubes at eight , the same as the Cassin and Aylwin classes . The additional weight of the larger torpedoes , 5 long tons ( 5 @.@ 1 t ) of top weight , was offset by reducing the planned two aft @-@ facing guns to a single one . This gave the class four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , which , again , matched the battery of the Cassin and Aylwin classes . The design for the O 'Brien class was approved on 20 August 1912 , and authorized by Congress on 4 March 1913 . = = Design = = As built , the O 'Brien @-@ class ships were 305 feet 5 inches ( 93 @.@ 09 m ) in length ( overall ) , were 31 feet 2 inches ( 9 @.@ 50 m ) abeam , and had a standard draft of 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) . The hull shape featured the distinctive high forecastle typical of U.S. destroyer classes since the 1908 – 09 Smith class , the first destroyers designed to be truly ocean @-@ going vessels . The ships displaced between 1 @,@ 020 and 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 040 and 1 @,@ 110 t ) with a median of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) . The ships were equipped with two propeller shafts and two direct @-@ drive , Zoelly steam turbines fed by four White @-@ Forster boilers . The power plant of the ships generated 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) which drive the ships to the design speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) . Because of inherent inefficiency of turbines at low speeds , all of the ships were equipped with supplemental cruising engines for travel at speeds under 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . All except Cushing were equipped with supplemental triple @-@ expansion reciprocating engines : O 'Brien , Nicholson , and Winslow each had a pair of reciprocating engines for cruising ; McDougal and Ericsson were outfitted with only one . Instead of reciprocating engines , Cushing was equipped with a pair of geared steam turbines for cruising . The main battery of the O 'Brien class consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) . The O 'Brien ships were also equipped with four twin 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , for a total load of eight Mark 8 torpedoes . Although the General Board had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien class , they were not originally outfitted with the weapons ; the later Sampson class was the first American destroyer class so armed . Likewise , there is no record of any of the O 'Brien ships being outfitted with mine @-@ laying apparatus . During World War I , most American destroyers were used in anti @-@ submarine warfare roles , and were equipped with depth charges and delivery systems , such as Y @-@ guns and depth charge racks . O 'Brien @-@ class ships were equipped with depth charges during the war , but no specific mentions of the types of depth charges used or delivery system are recorded in secondary sources . = = = Comparisons with other " thousand tonners " = = = The " thousand tonners " were the 26 United States Navy destroyers of five classes — Cassin , Aylwin , O 'Brien , Tucker , and Sampson — so named because they were the first U.S. Navy destroyers to have displacements greater than 1 @,@ 000 long tons . The Cassin class , the first of the thousand tonners , displaced about a third more than the preceding Paulding class . The introduction of the thousand tonners led to the Pauldings and other older , smaller displacement destroyers of previous classes to be dismissively called " flivvers " , a nickname also commonly applied to the Ford Model T. The O 'Brien class was the third of the five classes of " thousand tonners " . The earlier Cassin- ( DD @-@ 43 to DD @-@ 46 ) and Aylwin @-@ class ( DD @-@ 47 to DD @-@ 50 ) ships were about the same length as the O 'Brien ships and all had median displacements in the range of 1 @,@ 020 – 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 040 – 1 @,@ 070 t ) ; the later Tucker- ( DD @-@ 57 to DD @-@ 62 ) and Sampson @-@ class ( DD @-@ 63 to DD @-@ 68 ) ships were about 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) longer and had median displacements of 1 @,@ 090 – 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 – 1 @,@ 120 t ) . All five classes were armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , but the torpedo size and complement varied . All were equipped with four twin torpedo tubes loaded with eight torpedoes except for the Sampsons ( which had four triple tubes carrying twelve torpedoes ) , but the Cassin and Aylwin classes were armed with 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedoes . The O 'Brien ships were the first armed with the new21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) Mark 8 torpedoes ; the Tucker and Sampson ships also used the 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . The Sampsons were the only group originally equipped with anti @-@ aircraft guns , a pair of 1 @-@ pounder ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) guns with a caliber of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) . = = Construction = = The construction of the six O 'Brien @-@ class ships was allocated to four U.S. shipbuilders . William Cramp constructed a trio of O 'Brien destroyers , while the Fore River Shipbuilding Company , Bath Iron Works , and New York Shipbuilding Corporation built one ship each . The keels for all six ships were laid down between July and November 1913 , with McDougal being the first and Ericsson the last . All were launched between April 1915 and January 1915 , with McDougal again being the first and Winslow being the last . McDougal was commissioned in June 1914 , two months after her launch ; the rest were commissioned between April and August 1915 , with Cushing the final ship to enter service . The cost of each ship for hull and machinery was $ 790 @,@ 000 . = = Ships in class = = All six members of the class served in the Atlantic or Caribbean throughout their U.S. Navy careers . In October 1916 , with the United States still neutral in World War I , five of the six class members ( all except Nicholson ) were among the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five ships torpedoed by German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket . After the United States entered the war in April 1917 , all six class members were sent overseas to Queenstown , Ireland , for convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine duties . McDougal was in the first group of six American destroyers that arrived at Queenstown on 4 May ; Ericsson and Winslow followed in the second group , which arrived thirteen days later , and Cushing , Nicholson , and O 'Brien in the third group , a week after that . Several of the ships had encounters with U @-@ boats during the war : Nicholson , working with Fanning in November 1917 , helped to sink U @-@ 58 , which was the first U @-@ boat sunk by the U.S. Navy ; earlier , in June , O 'Brien had depth @-@ charged U @-@ 16 and was thought by the British Admiralty to have seriously damaged the U @-@ boat , but post @-@ war analysis of records showed that U @-@ 16 survived the attack and returned safely to port . All six ships returned to the United States in January 1919 and served in various roles over the next two years . Cushing was decommissioned in August 1920 , followed by Nicholson and McDougal in May 1922 , and the remaining three in the following month . In June 1924 , two of the six ships — Ericsson and McDougal — were reactivated for service with the United States Coast Guard 's " Rum Patrol " . Ericsson was returned to the U.S. Navy in May 1932 , and McDougal in June 1933 ; both were sold for scrapping in 1934 . O 'Brien was sold for scrapping in 1935 , and the remaining three in June 1936 . = = = USS O 'Brien ( DD @-@ 51 ) = = = USS O 'Brien ( Destroyer No. 51 / DD @-@ 51 ) was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in September 1913 and launched in July 1914 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of Jeremiah O 'Brien and his five brothers , Gideon , John , William , Dennis , and Joseph who , together on the sloop Unity , captured a British warship during the American Revolutionary War . After O 'Brien 's May 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , O 'Brien was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . After returning to the United States in January 1919 , O 'Brien returned to European waters in May to serve as one of the picket ships for the NC @-@ type seaplanes in the first aerial crossing of the Atlantic . O 'Brien was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in March 1935 sold for scrapping in April . = = = USS Nicholson ( DD @-@ 52 ) = = = USS Nicholson ( Destroyer No. 52 / DD @-@ 52 ) was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in September 1913 and launched in August 1914 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of five members of the Nicholson family who gave distinguished service in the American Revolutionary War , the War of 1812 , and the American Civil War : brothers James , Samuel , and John Nicholson ; William Nicholson , son of John ; and James W. Nicholson , grandson of Samuel . After Nicholson 's April 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Nicholson was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . In October 1917 , Nicholson steamed to the rescue of SS J. L. Luckenbach , driving off German submarine U @-@ 62 , which had shelled the American cargo ship for over three hours . In November , Nicholson and another U.S. destroyer , Fanning , were responsible for sinking German submarine U @-@ 58 , the first submarine taken by U.S. forces during the war . In September 1918 , Nicholson helped drive off U @-@ 82 after that U @-@ boat had torpedoed the American troopship Mount Vernon off the coast of France . Upon returning to the United States after the war , Nicholson was placed in reduced commission in November 1919 . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in May 1922 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 sold for scrapping in June . = = = USS Winslow ( DD @-@ 53 ) = = = USS Winslow ( Destroyer No. 53 / DD @-@ 53 ) was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in October 1913 and launched in February 1915 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of John Ancrum Winslow , a U.S. Navy officer notable for sinking the Confederate commerce raider CSS Alabama during the American Civil War . After Winslow 's August 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Winslow was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . Winslow made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft . Upon returning to the United States after the war , Winslow was placed in reduced commission in December 1919 . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . In November she dropped her name to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 53 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 sold for scrapping in June . = = = USS McDougal ( DD @-@ 54 ) = = = USS McDougal ( Destroyer No. 54 / DD @-@ 54 ) was laid down by Bath Iron Works of Bath , Maine , in July 1913 and launched in April 1914 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of David Stockton McDougal , a U.S. Navy officer notable for his leadership during an 1863 battle off Japan while in command of Wyoming . After McDougal 's June 1914 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 , and carried 6 crewmen from a sunken Dutch cargo ship to Newport , Rhode Island . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , McDougal was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , McDougal made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of ships sunk by the German craft . After a collision with a British cargo ship in February 1918 , McDougal was under repair until mid @-@ July , and afterwards , operated out of Brest , France . Upon returning to the United States after the war , McDougal conducted operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until August 1919 , when she was placed in reserve , still in commission . After a brief stint of operations in mid 1921 , she was placed in reserve until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia in May 1922 . In June 1924 , Ericsson was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC McDougal ( CG @-@ 6 ) until May 1933 , when she was returned to the Navy . In November she dropped her name to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 54 . She was struck for the Naval Vessel Register in July 1934 sold for scrapping in August . = = = USS Cushing ( DD @-@ 55 ) = = = USS Cushing ( Destroyer No. 55 / DD @-@ 55 ) was laid down by the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy , Massachusetts , in September 1913 and launched in January 1915 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of William B. Cushing , a U.S. Navy officer best known for sinking the Confederate ironclad warship CSS Albemarle during the American Civil War . After Cushing 's August 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Cushing was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . Cushing made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft . Upon returning to the United States after the war , Cushing was placed in reserve in reduced commission . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in August 1920 . She was struck for the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 and was sold for scrapping in June . = = = USS Ericsson ( DD @-@ 56 ) = = = USS Ericsson ( Destroyer No. 56 / DD @-@ 56 ) was laid down by the New York Shipbuilding of Camden , New Jersey , in November 1913 and launched in August of the following year . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of John Ericsson , the Swedish @-@ born builder of the ironclad warship USS Monitor during the American Civil War . After Ericsson 's May 1916 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 , and carried 81 passengers from a sunken British ocean liner to Newport , Rhode Island . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Ericsson was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Ericsson made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft . Upon returning to the United State after the war , Ericsson conducted operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until August 1919 , when she was placed in reserve , still in commission . After a brief stint of operations in mid 1921 , she was placed in reserve until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . In June 1924 , Ericsson was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC Ericsson ( CG @-@ 5 ) until May 1932 , when she was returned to the Navy . She was sold for scrap in August 1934 .

= Who Am I ( Casting Crowns song ) = " Who Am I " is a song recorded by Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Written by Mark Hall and produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman , it was released on February 22 , 2004 , as the second single from the band 's 2003 self @-@ titled debut album . A pop rock and adult contemporary ballad , the song is based around the piano and utilizes orchestral sounds . Lyrically , the song is centered on worshiping God . The song received positive reviews from music critics upon its release , with several regarding it as one of the best songs on their debut album . " Who Am I " received the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 36th GMA Dove Awards , and it was also nominated for Worship Song of the Year . It achieved success on Christian radio , topping the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts as well as simultaneously peaking atop the Radio & Records Christian AC , Christian CHR , and INSPO charts . It has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying sales of over 500 @,@ 000 digital downloads . Casting Crowns has performed the song in concert as well as at special events , and re @-@ recorded the song in 2013 for their acoustic album The Acoustic Sessions : Volume One . = = Background and composition = = According to Casting Crowns ' lead singer Mark Hall , the idea for " Who Am I " came while he was driving home with his wife and children one night . Hall , who was having personal worship time during the drive , recounts that he wondered " Who am I to think I can just call up to God whenever I want , from the middle of nowhere , and expect Him to hear me ? " Hall says " immediately I started thinking I 'm a new creation , I 'm more than a conqueror ... I 'm [ also ] grass , that is rises up and is gone in a day " . In an interview , he commented that " me being a conqueror is true , but at the same time I need to understand that my life is a vapor , and me being able to even pray to [ God ] is because of what he 's done for me " . " Who Am I " was produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman . It was recorded at Glow In The Dark Studio in Decatur , Georgia and Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee , and it was engineered by Matt Goldman and Sam Hewitt . " Who Am I " is a song with a length of five minutes and thirty @-@ five seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , it is in set common time in the key of B major and has a tempo of 66 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G ♯ 3 to the high note of F ♯ 3 . " Who Am I " has been described as a pop rock and adult contemporary ballad . Based around the piano and featuring orchestral sounds , it begins slowly before building up into a musical crescendo . Lyrically , the song is centered in praising God , relating a theme of nothingness without Christ . = = Reception = = " Who Am I " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Andy Argyrakis of CCM Magazine described the song as a " standout " from the album . Tom Lennie of Cross Rhythms noted it as one of the best songs from their debut album . In 2007 , Andree Farias of Christianity Today described it as one of the many Casting Crowns songs that have become " beloved anthems of the Christian faith " . In 2013 , Roger Gelwicks described it as an " AC radio favorite " but felt it was " dated " . At the 36th GMA Dove Awards , " Who Am I " won the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ; It was also nominated for Worship Song of the Year . " Who Am I " was released to Christian adult contemporary , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational radio on January 22 , 2004 as the second single from the band 's debut album . It spent six weeks atop the Billboard Christian Songs songs chart and two weeks atop the Hot Christian AC chart . It also simultaneously topped the Radio & Records Christian AC , Christian CHR , and INSPO charts . In July 26 , 2011 , it was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying sales of over 500 @,@ 000 digital downloads . = = Live performances and other uses = = On October 5 , 2003 at the band 's church in Atlanta , Casting Crowns performed " Who Am I " . This performance was included on their 2004 live album Live from Atlanta . The band performed the song on May 6 , 2004 at the Nationally Broadcast Concert of Prayer event , held at Daytona International Speedway in front of nearly 10 @,@ 000 people ; the band 's performance , along with the rest of those participating in the three @-@ hour event , was simulcast nationally on television , radio , and the internet . The band performed the song on October 27 , 2004 at the Pontiac Silverdome in Detroit , Michigan as part of a Bush @-@ Cheney ' 04 campaign rally . The event was attended by around 20 @,@ 000 people . At a concert at the Giant Center in Hershey , Pennsylvania held on April 1 , 2005 , Casting Crowns performed it as the third song on their set list . On July 10 , 2005 at a concert at Seaholm High School in Ypsilanti , Michigan , Casting Crowns performed it as their third song in their set list . At a concert at Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford , New Jersey , Casting Crowns performed an acoustic version of the song . At a concert on November 12 , 2005 in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania 's Stabler Arena , Casting Crowns performed the song as the thirteenth song in their set . The band performed the song at a February 5 , 2010 concert at the Sprint Center in Kansas City , Missouri . In 2009 , the band was invited to perform in North Korea at the 2009 Spring Friendship Art Festival ; the band 's set list at the festival included a Korean @-@ language version of " Who Am I " . " Who Am I " was included on the 2004 compilation album WOW Hits 2005 , the 2006 compilation album WOW Worship : Aqua , and the 2008 compilation album WOW Essentials , as well as the band 's 2004 live album Live from Atlanta . The band re @-@ recorded the song for their 2013 acoustic album The Acoustic Sessions : Volume One ; unlike the original , which featured Mark Hall on lead vocals , the acoustic version features Megan Garrett on lead vocals . = = Credits and personnel = = Credits taken from Allmusic . = = Charts = = = = = Certifications = = = = = Release and radio history = =

= We 'll Always Have Paris ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) = " We 'll Always Have Paris " is the 24th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , first aired on May 2 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The story and script were both created by Deborah Dean Davis and Hannah Louise Shearer , and the episode was directed by Robert Becker . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , the crew respond to a distress call from Dr. Paul Manheim ( Rod Loomis ) . While the crew must deal with the results of Manheim 's haywire experiments with time , Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) must deal with his former love Jenice ( Michelle Phillips ) , who is also Manheim 's wife . The story of the episode was influenced by the film Casablanca , and was affected by the timing of the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike . Because of the strike , the script was written in five days and it was only when it was filmed that it was discovered to be incomplete . Shearer was not happy with the result and felt that the on @-@ screen chemistry of Stewart and Phillips was lacking . Reviews of the episode have been mixed , with one reviewer summing it up by saying " there ’ s nothing I can point to at this episode and say is wrong , but it ’ s one of the more forgettable episodes . " = = Plot = = The Enterprise , along with other ships in the sector , experience a localized time @-@ distortion , and soon after receive a distress @-@ call from Dr. Paul Manheim in a nearby system . Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) recalls that Manheim was ejected from the Federation Science Institute for conducting unauthorized experiments . They find the distress signal coming from a facility on a planetoid surrounded by a force @-@ field . When they make contact with the facility , a woman requests help to save her husband , Dr. Manheim , and lowers the shields . The two are brought aboard and while Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) tends to Dr. Manheim , who is having convulsions , Picard discovers his wife is Jenice , Picard 's former love from before he decided to join Starfleet . Jenice warns that her husband was working privately in his laboratory , but that she didn 't know what he was working on . She also alerts the crew to numerous security protocols that he has installed at the facilities . As the crew prepares to send an away @-@ team to investigate the laboratory , they experience more time distortions , described by Data ( Brent Spiner ) as " Manheim effects " . In one instance Picard , Riker and Data enter a turbolift only to see their past selves conversing outside of the lift . The crew find that they cannot complete a transporter beam to the facility due to the instabilities . Dr. Manheim recovers long enough to explain that he was doing experiments involving time , gravity , and funnels to other universes , and suspects his last experiment is running out @-@ of @-@ hand . Manheim explains that he is trapped between two dimensions and Data determines that the experiment must be shut down during a time fluctuation or else it will simply grow larger . Manheim provides the crew with the correct coordinates to beam down to avoid the security fields . Picard admits to Jenice that he worried about losing her again after he left her in Paris , and vows to correct Dr. Manheim 's experiment . As he is affected less by the distortions , Data is sent down alone and disables the remaining security measures before entering Manheim 's laboratory . He finds a column of energy emanating from a dimensional matrix , the source of the time distortions . Data , though briefly affected by the time distortions , is able to add anti @-@ matter to the matrix , causing the matrix to stabilize and halt the time distortions . Dr. Manheim fully recovers , and he and Jenice thank Picard and the crew for their help . Picard and Jenice use the holodeck to recreate one more encounter at a Paris café , before she returns with her husband to the planet . = = Production = = " We 'll Always Have Paris " is named in reference to the Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman film Casablanca . As well as the title of the episode and the love triangle in the story , the Blue Parrot Café from the film is directly mentioned by Captain Picard . Casablanca was also the basis for the earlier Star Trek : The Original Series novel The Entropy Effect , and would be so again in the Deep Space Nine episode " Profit and Loss " . The story was originally pitched by Hannah Louise Shearer and Deborah Dean Davis , who were also given the job of developing the script . The writing of the episode suffered from the timing of the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike , with Shearer and Dean Davis completing the script in five days . The premise of the story was a combination of their idea of a story " about a professor whose work wasn 't appreciated and had to go off on his own " and that of Maurice Hurley who wanted a story with a time anomaly . The final draft was dated 22 February and featured numerous differences from the filmed version , including Jenice being called Laura , a number of different interactions for the crew , and Riker , Worf and Data all being involved in shutting down Manheim 's equipment . The script was finalised a week before the episode was filmed , but the writers strike caused further issues when it was discovered during filming that the scene where Data was to fix the time distortions hadn 't been completed . Robert Legato and Rick Berman spent forty minutes on the telephone with Shearer during the strike . While she refused to write the lines during the strike , Berman suggested dialogue and Shearer would give opinions with Legato taking down handwritten notes . Legato decided on the directing notes himself , and used a whip pan shot instead of an effects shot to film the three Datas as director Robert Becker had never used effects shots previously . Shearer wasn 't happy with the final result , saying " we were writing the most romantic episode in the world " but that " it was toned down 75 % " . Shearer later complained of a lack of chemistry between Michelle Phillips and Patrick Stewart , which Phillips blamed on the conflicted nature of the character in that she was committed to her husband but also wanted to see Picard once more . Phillips , a Star Trek fan , is better known for being a member of the 1960s group The Mamas & the Papas . Rod Loomis ' previous science fiction outing was in Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure as Sigmund Freud , and Lance Spellerberg would later return in " The Icarus Factor " where his transporter chief gained the name Ensign Herbert . The image of 24th century Paris was a matte painting which was re @-@ used in Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country where it was hung outside the office of the Federation president . = = Reception = = " We 'll Always Have Paris " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing May 5 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 9 @.@ 7 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the same ratings received as the previous episode , " Skin of Evil " . Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode on behalf of TrekNation in September 2007 , comparing certain elements of the episode to Casablanca and the series finale " All Good Things ... " . These included the ending where time distortions caused Data to be replicated three time in " We 'll Always Have Paris " compared to the similar situation with three Picards in " All Good Things ... " . Overall she thought that the episode was better than she recalled previously . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " described the episode as too simple , especially the ending which he said was " they give Data a canister , which he sticks into a hall of mirrors ; problem solved " . Zack Handlen , reviewing the episode for The A.V. Club in May 2010 , said that he enjoyed the " time blips " in the episode , but that he wasn 't a fan of the romance between Jenice and Picard . He also felt that there wasn 't much follow up on Manheim 's experiments and that he seemed to be left to cause a more serious accident in the future . Keith DeCandido watched the episode for Tor.com in July 2011 . He thought that Michele Phillips was " incredibly radiant " , and said , " there ’ s nothing I can point to at this episode and say is wrong , but it ’ s one of the more forgettable episodes " , giving it a score of four out of ten . = = Home media release = = The first home media release of " We 'll Always Have Paris " was on VHS cassette was on July 1 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and was released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .

= Burn = A burn is a type of injury to skin , or other tissues , caused by heat , cold , electricity , chemicals , friction , or radiation . Most burns are due to heat from hot liquids , solids , or fire . Among women in many areas of the world the risk is related to the use of open cooking fires or unsafe cook stoves . Alcoholism and smoking are other risk factors . Burns can also occur as a result of self harm or violence between people . Burns that affect only the superficial skin layers are known as superficial or first @-@ degree burns . They appear red without blisters and pain typically lasts around three days . When the injury extends into some of the underlying skin layer , it is a partial @-@ thickness or second @-@ degree burn . Blisters are frequently present and they are often very painful . Healing can require up to eight weeks and scarring may occur . In a full @-@ thickness or third @-@ degree burn , the injury extends to all layers of the skin . Often there is no pain and the burn area is stiff . Healing typically does not occur on its own . A fourth @-@ degree burn additionally involves injury to deeper tissues , such as muscle , tendons , or bone . The burn is often black and frequently leads to loss of the burned part . Burns are generally preventable . Treatment depends on the severity of the burn . Superficial burns may be managed with little more than simple pain medication , while major burns may require prolonged treatment in specialized burn centers . Cooling with tap water may help pain and decrease damage ; however , prolonged cooling may result in low body temperature . Partial @-@ thickness burns may require cleaning with soap and water , followed by dressings . It is not clear how to manage blisters , but it is probably reasonable to leave them intact if small and drain them if large . Full @-@ thickness burns usually require surgical treatments , such as skin grafting . Extensive burns often require large amounts of intravenous fluid , due to capillary fluid leakage and tissue swelling . The most common complications of burns involve infection . Tetanus toxoid should be given if not up to date . In 2013 , fire and heat resulted in 35 million injuries . This resulted in about 2 @.@ 9 million hospitalizations and 238 @,@ 000 dying . Most deaths due to burns occur in the developing world , particularly in Southeast Asia . While large burns can be fatal , treatments developed since 1960 have improved outcomes , especially in children and young adults . In the United States , approximately 96 % of those admitted to a burn center survive their injuries . Burns occur at similar frequencies in men and women . The long @-@ term outcome is related to the size of burn and the age of the person affected . = = Signs and symptoms = = The characteristics of a burn depend upon its depth . Superficial burns cause pain lasting two or three days , followed by peeling of the skin over the next few days . Individuals suffering from more severe burns may indicate discomfort or complain of feeling pressure rather than pain . Full @-@ thickness burns may be entirely insensitive to light touch or puncture . While superficial burns are typically red in color , severe burns may be pink , white or black . Burns around the mouth or singed hair inside the nose may indicate that burns to the airways have occurred , but these findings are not definitive . More worrisome signs include : shortness of breath , hoarseness , and stridor or wheezing . Itchiness is common during the healing process , occurring in up to 90 % of adults and nearly all children . Numbness or tingling may persist for a prolonged period of time after an electrical injury . Burns may also produce emotional and psychological distress . = = Cause = = Burns are caused by a variety of external sources classified as thermal ( heat @-@ related ) , chemical , electrical , and radiation . In the United States , the most common causes of burns are : fire or flame ( 44 % ) , scalds ( 33 % ) , hot objects ( 9 % ) , electricity ( 4 % ) , and chemicals ( 3 % ) . Most ( 69 % ) burn injuries occur at home or at work ( 9 % ) , and most are accidental , with 2 % due to assault by another , and 1 @-@ 2 % resulting from a suicide attempt . These sources can cause inhalation injury to the airway and / or lungs , occurring in about 6 % . Burn injuries occur more commonly among the poor . Smoking is a risk factor , although alcohol use is not . Fire @-@ related burns are generally more common in colder climates . Specific risk factors in the developing world include cooking with open fires or on the floor as well as developmental disabilities in children and chronic diseases in adults . = = = Thermal = = = In the United States , fire and hot liquids are the most common causes of burns . Of house fires that result in death , smoking causes 25 % and heating devices cause 22 % . Almost half of injuries are due to efforts to fight a fire . Scalding is caused by hot liquids or gases and most commonly occurs from exposure to hot drinks , high temperature tap water in baths or showers , hot cooking oil , or steam . Scald injuries are most common in children under the age of five and , in the United States and Australia , this population makes up about two @-@ thirds of all burns . Contact with hot objects is the cause of about 20 @-@ 30 % of burns in children . Generally , scalds are first- or second @-@ degree burns , but third @-@ degree burns may also result , especially with prolonged contact . Fireworks are a common cause of burns during holiday seasons in many countries . This is a particular risk for adolescent males . = = = Chemical = = = Chemicals cause from 2 to 11 % of all burns and contribute to as many as 30 % of burn @-@ related deaths . Chemical burns can be caused by over 25 @,@ 000 substances , most of which are either a strong base ( 55 % ) or a strong acid ( 26 % ) . Most chemical burn deaths are secondary to ingestion . Common agents include : sulfuric acid as found in toilet cleaners , sodium hypochlorite as found in bleach , and halogenated hydrocarbons as found in paint remover , among others . Hydrofluoric acid can cause particularly deep burns that may not become symptomatic until some time after exposure . Formic acid may cause the breakdown of significant numbers of red blood cells . = = = Electrical = = = Electrical burns or injuries are classified as high voltage ( greater than or equal to 1000 volts ) , low voltage ( less than 1000 volts ) , or as flash burns secondary to an electric arc . The most common causes of electrical burns in children are electrical cords ( 60 % ) followed by electrical outlets ( 14 % ) . Lightning may also result in electrical burns . Risk factors for being struck include involvement in outdoor activities such as mountain climbing , golf and field sports , and working outside . Mortality from a lightning strike is about 10 % . While electrical injuries primarily result in burns , they may also cause fractures or dislocations secondary to blunt force trauma or muscle contractions . In high voltage injuries , most damage may occur internally and thus the extent of the injury cannot be judged by examination of the skin alone . Contact with either low voltage or high voltage may produce cardiac arrhythmias or cardiac arrest . = = = Radiation = = = Radiation burns may be caused by protracted exposure to ultraviolet light ( such as from the sun , tanning booths or arc welding ) or from ionizing radiation ( such as from radiation therapy , X @-@ rays or radioactive fallout ) . Sun exposure is the most common cause of radiation burns and the most common cause of superficial burns overall . There is significant variation in how easily people sunburn based on their skin type . Skin effects from ionizing radiation depend on the amount of exposure to the area , with hair loss seen after 3 Gy , redness seen after 10 Gy , wet skin peeling after 20 Gy , and necrosis after 30 Gy . Redness , if it occurs , may not appear until some time after exposure . Radiation burns are treated the same as other burns . Microwave burns occur via thermal heating caused by the microwaves . While exposures as short as two seconds may cause injury , overall this is an uncommon occurrence . = = = Non accidental = = = In those hospitalized from scalds or fire burns , 3 – 10 % are from assault . Reasons include : child abuse , personal disputes , spousal abuse , elder abuse , and business disputes . An immersion injury or immersion scald may indicate child abuse . It is created when an extremity or the lower body ( buttock or perineum ) is held under the surface of hot water . It typically produces a sharp upper border and is often symmetrical . Other high @-@ risk signs of potential abuse include : circumferential burns , the absence of splash marks , a burn of uniform depth , and association with other signs of neglect or abuse . Bride burning , a form of domestic violence , occurs in some cultures , such as India where women have been burned in revenge for what the husband or his family consider an inadequate dowry . In Pakistan , acid burns represent 13 % of intentional burns , and are frequently related to domestic violence . Self @-@ immolation ( setting oneself on fire ) is also used as a form of protest in various parts of the world . = = Pathophysiology = = At temperatures greater than 44 ° C ( 111 ° F ) , proteins begin losing their three @-@ dimensional shape and start breaking down . This results in cell and tissue damage . Many of the direct health effects of a burn are secondary to disruption in the normal functioning of the skin . They include disruption of the skin 's sensation , ability to prevent water loss through evaporation , and ability to control body temperature . Disruption of cell membranes causes cells to lose potassium to the spaces outside the cell and to take up water and sodium . In large burns ( over 30 % of the total body surface area ) , there is a significant inflammatory response . This results in increased leakage of fluid from the capillaries , and subsequent tissue edema . This causes overall blood volume loss , with the remaining blood suffering significant plasma loss , making the blood more concentrated . Poor blood flow to organs such as the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract may result in renal failure and stomach ulcers . Increased levels of catecholamines and cortisol can cause a hypermetabolic state that can last for years . This is associated with increased cardiac output , metabolism , a fast heart rate , and poor immune function . = = Diagnosis = = Burns can be classified by depth , mechanism of injury , extent , and associated injuries . The most commonly used classification is based on the depth of injury . The depth of a burn is usually determined via examination , although a biopsy may also be used . It may be difficult to accurately determine the depth of a burn on a single examination and repeated examinations over a few days may be necessary . In those who have a headache or are dizzy and have a fire @-@ related burn , carbon monoxide poisoning should be considered . Cyanide poisoning should also be considered . = = = Size = = = The size of a burn is measured as a percentage of total body surface area ( TBSA ) affected by partial thickness or full thickness burns . First @-@ degree burns that are only red in color and are not blistering are not included in this estimation . Most burns ( 70 % ) involve less than 10 % of the TBSA . There are a number of methods to determine the TBSA , including the Wallace rule of nines , Lund and Browder chart , and estimations based on a person 's palm size . The rule of nines is easy to remember but only accurate in people over 16 years of age . More accurate estimates can be made using Lund and Browder charts , which take into account the different proportions of body parts in adults and children . The size of a person 's handprint ( including the palm and fingers ) is approximately 1 % of their TBSA . = = = Severity = = = To determine the need for referral to a specialized burn unit , the American Burn Association devised a classification system . Under this system , burns can be classified as major , moderate and minor . This is assessed based on a number of factors , including total body surface area affected , the involvement of specific anatomical zones , the age of the person , and associated injuries . Minor burns can typically be managed at home , moderate burns are often managed in hospital , and major burns are managed by a burn center . = = Prevention = = Historically , about half of all burns were deemed preventable . Burn prevention programs have significantly decreased rates of serious burns . Preventive measures include : limiting hot water temperatures , smoke alarms , sprinkler systems , proper construction of buildings , and fire @-@ resistant clothing . Experts recommend setting water heaters below 48 @.@ 8 ° C ( 119 @.@ 8 ° F ) . Other measures to prevent scalds include using a thermometer to measure bath water temperatures , and splash guards on stoves . While the effect of the regulation of fireworks is unclear , there is tentative evidence of benefit with recommendations including the limitation of the sale of fireworks to children . = = Management = = Resuscitation begins with the assessment and stabilization of the person 's airway , breathing and circulation . If inhalation injury is suspected , early intubation may be required . This is followed by care of the burn wound itself . People with extensive burns may be wrapped in clean sheets until they arrive at a hospital . As burn wounds are prone to infection , a tetanus booster shot should be given if an individual has not been immunized within the last five years . In the United States , 95 % of burns that present to the emergency department are treated and discharged ; 5 % require hospital admission . With major burns , early feeding is important . Hyperbaric oxygenation may be useful in addition to traditional treatments . = = = Intravenous fluids = = = In those with poor tissue perfusion , boluses of isotonic crystalloid solution should be given . In children with more than 10 @-@ 20 % TBSA burns , and adults with more than 15 % TBSA burns , formal fluid resuscitation and monitoring should follow . This should be begun pre @-@ hospital if possible in those with burns greater than 25 % TBSA . The Parkland formula can help determine the volume of intravenous fluids required over the first 24 hours . The formula is based on the affected individual 's TBSA and weight . Half of the fluid is administered over the first 8 hours , and the remainder over the following 16 hours . The time is calculated from when the burn occurred , and not from the time that fluid resuscitation began . Children require additional maintenance fluid that includes glucose . Additionally , those with inhalation injuries require more fluid . While inadequate fluid resuscitation may cause problems , over @-@ resuscitation can also be detrimental . The formulas are only a guide , with infusions ideally tailored to a urinary output of > 30 mL / h in adults or > 1mL / kg in children and mean arterial pressure greater than 60 mmHg . While lactated Ringer 's solution is often used , there is no evidence that it is superior to normal saline . Crystalloid fluids appear just as good as colloid fluids , and as colloids are more expensive they are not recommended . Blood transfusions are rarely required . They are typically only recommended when the hemoglobin level falls below 60 @-@ 80 g / L ( 6 @-@ 8 g / dL ) due to the associated risk of complications . Intravenous catheters may be placed through burned skin if needed or intraosseous infusions may be used . = = = Wound care = = = Early cooling ( within 30 minutes of the burn ) reduces burn depth and pain , but care must be taken as over @-@ cooling can result in hypothermia . It should be performed with cool water 10 – 25 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 – 77 @.@ 0 ° F ) and not ice water as the latter can cause further injury . Chemical burns may require extensive irrigation . Cleaning with soap and water , removal of dead tissue , and application of dressings are important aspects of wound care . If intact blisters are present , it is not clear what should be done with them . Some tentative evidence supports leaving them intact . Second @-@ degree burns should be re @-@ evaluated after two days . In the management of first and second @-@ degree burns , little quality evidence exists to determine which dressing type to use . It is reasonable to manage first @-@ degree burns without dressings . While topical antibiotics are often recommended , there is little evidence to support their use . Silver sulfadiazine ( a type of antibiotic ) is not recommended as it potentially prolongs healing time . There is insufficient evidence to support the use of dressings containing silver or negative @-@ pressure wound therapy . = = = Medications = = = Burns can be very painful and a number of different options may be used for pain management . These include simple analgesics ( such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen ) and opioids such as morphine . Benzodiazepines may be used in addition to analgesics to help with anxiety . During the healing process , antihistamines , massage , or transcutaneous nerve stimulation may be used to aid with itching . Antihistamines , however , are only effective for this purpose in 20 % of people . There is tentative evidence supporting the use of gabapentin and its use may be reasonable in those who do not improve with antihistamines . Intravenous lidocaine requires more study before it can be recommended for pain . Intravenous antibiotics are recommended before surgery for those with extensive burns ( > 60 % TBSA ) . As of 2008 , guidelines do not recommend their general use due to concerns regarding antibiotic resistance and the increased risk of fungal infections . Tentative evidence , however , shows that they may improve survival rates in those with large and severe burns . Erythropoietin has not been found effective to prevent or treat anemia in burn cases . In burns caused by hydrofluoric acid , calcium gluconate is a specific antidote and may be used intravenously and / or topically . Recombinant human growth hormone ( rhGH ) in those with burns that involve more than 40 % of their body appears to speed healing without affecting the risk of death . = = = Surgery = = = Wounds requiring surgical closure with skin grafts or flaps ( typically anything more than a small full thickness burn ) should be dealt with as early as possible . Circumferential burns of the limbs or chest may need urgent surgical release of the skin , known as an escharotomy . This is done to treat or prevent problems with distal circulation , or ventilation . It is uncertain if it is useful for neck or digit burns . Fasciotomies may be required for electrical burns . = = = Alternative medicine = = = Honey has been used since ancient times to aid wound healing and may be beneficial in first- and second @-@ degree burns . There is tentative evidence that honey helps heal partial thickness burns . The evidence for aloe vera is of poor quality . While it might be beneficial in reducing pain , and a review from 2007 found tentative evidence of improved healing times a subsequent review from 2012 did not find improved healing over silver sulfadiazine . There were only three randomized controlled trials for the use of plants for burns , two for aloe vera and one for oatmeal . There is little evidence that vitamin E helps with keloids or scarring . Butter is not recommended . In low income countries , burns are treated up to one @-@ third of the time with traditional medicine , which may include applications of eggs , mud , leaves or cow dung . Surgical management is limited in some cases due to insufficient financial resources and availability . There are a number of other methods that may be used in addition to medications to reduce procedural pain and anxiety including : virtual reality therapy , hypnosis , and behavioral approaches such as distraction techniques . = = Prognosis = = The prognosis is worse in those with larger burns , those who are older , and those who are females . The presence of a smoke inhalation injury , other significant injuries such as long bone fractures , and serious co @-@ morbidities ( e.g. heart disease , diabetes , psychiatric illness , and suicidal intent ) also influence prognosis . On average , of those admitted to United States burn centers , 4 % die , with the outcome for individuals dependent on the extent of the burn injury . For example , admittees with burn areas less than 10 % TBSA had a mortality rate of less than 1 % , while admittees with over 90 % TBSA had a mortality rate of 85 % . In Afghanistan , people with more than 60 % TBSA burns rarely survive . The Baux score has historically been used to determine prognosis of major burns . However , with improved care , it is no longer very accurate . The score is determined by adding the size of the burn ( % TBSA ) to the age of the person , and taking that to be more or less equal to the risk of death . Burns in 2013 resulted in 1 @.@ 2 million years lived with disability and 12 @.@ 3 million disability adjusted life years . = = = Complications = = = A number of complications may occur , with infections being the most common . In order of frequency , potential complications include : pneumonia , cellulitis , urinary tract infections and respiratory failure . Risk factors for infection include : burns of more than 30 % TBSA , full @-@ thickness burns , extremes of age ( young or old ) , or burns involving the legs or perineum . Pneumonia occurs particularly commonly in those with inhalation injuries . Anemia secondary to full thickness burns of greater than 10 % TBSA is common . Electrical burns may lead to compartment syndrome or rhabdomyolysis due to muscle breakdown . Blood clotting in the veins of the legs is estimated to occur in 6 to 25 % of people . The hypermetabolic state that may persist for years after a major burn can result in a decrease in bone density and a loss of muscle mass . Keloids may form subsequent to a burn , particularly in those who are young and dark skinned . Following a burn , children may have significant psychological trauma and experience post @-@ traumatic stress disorder . Scarring may also result in a disturbance in body image . In the developing world , significant burns may result in social isolation , extreme poverty and child abandonment . = = Epidemiology = = In 2013 fire and heat resulted in 35 million injuries . This resulted in about 2 @.@ 9 million hospitalizations and 238 @,@ 000 dying . This is down from 300 @,@ 000 deaths in 1990 . This makes it the 4th leading cause of injuries after motor vehicle collisions , falls , and violence . About 90 % of burns occur in the developing world . This has been attributed partly to overcrowding and an unsafe cooking situation . Overall , nearly 60 % of fatal burns occur in Southeast Asia with a rate of 11 @.@ 6 per 100 @,@ 000 . The number of fatal burns has increased from 280 @,@ 000 in 1990 to 338 @,@ 000 in 2010 . In the developed world , adult males have twice the mortality as females from burns . This is most probably due to their higher risk occupations and greater risk @-@ taking activities . In many countries in the developing world , however , females have twice the risk of males . This is often related to accidents in the kitchen or domestic violence . In children , deaths from burns occur at more than ten times the rate in the developing than the developed world . Overall , in children it is one of the top fifteen leading causes of death . From the 1980s to 2004 , many countries have seen both a decrease in the rates of fatal burns and in burns generally . = = = Developed countries = = = An estimated 500 @,@ 000 burn injuries receive medical treatment yearly in the United States . They resulted in about 3 @,@ 300 deaths in 2008 . Most burns ( 70 % ) and deaths from burns occur in males . The highest incidence of fire burns occurs in those 18 – 35 years old , while the highest incidence of scalds occurs in children less than five years old and adults over 65 . Electrical burns result in about 1 @,@ 000 deaths per year . Lightning results in the death of about 60 people a year . In Europe , intentional burns occur most commonly in middle aged men . = = = Developing countries = = = In India , about 700 @,@ 000 to 800 @,@ 000 people per year sustain significant burns , though very few are looked after in specialist burn units . The highest rates occur in women 16 – 35 years of age . Part of this high rate is related to unsafe kitchens and loose @-@ fitting clothing typical to India . It is estimated that one @-@ third of all burns in India are due to clothing catching fire from open flames . Intentional burns are also a common cause and occur at high rates in young women , secondary to domestic violence and self @-@ harm . = = History = = Cave paintings from more than 3 @,@ 500 years ago document burns and their management . The earliest Egyptian records on treating burns describes dressings prepared with milk from mothers of baby boys , and the 1500 BCE Edwin Smith Papyrus describes treatments using honey and the salve of resin . Many other treatments have been used over the ages , including the use of tea leaves by the Chinese documented to 600 BCE , pig fat and vinegar by Hippocrates documented to 400 BCE , and wine and myrrh by Celsus documented to 100 CE . French barber @-@ surgeon Ambroise Paré was the first to describe different degrees of burns in the 1500s . Guillaume Dupuytren expanded these degrees into six different severities in 1832 . The first hospital to treat burns opened in 1843 in London , England and the development of modern burn care began in the late 1800s and early 1900s . During World War I , Henry D. Dakin and Alexis Carrel developed standards for the cleaning and disinfecting of burns and wounds using sodium hypochlorite solutions , which significantly reduced mortality . In the 1940s , the importance of early excision and skin grafting was acknowledged , and around the same time , fluid resuscitation and formulas to guide it were developed . In the 1970s , researchers demonstrated the significance of the hypermetabolic state that follows large burns .

= Tropical Storm Brenda ( 1960 ) = Tropical Storm Brenda was the second named storm of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 28 , and after moving ashore over the Florida Peninsula , it attained tropical storm status . Brenda accelerated northeast along the U.S. East Coast , ultimately peaking as a moderate storm with winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) before crossing the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England ; it dissipated on July 31 over southern Canada . The storm inflicted moderate damage in Florida , the worst since Hurricane Easy of 1950 , and dropped heavy rainfall as far north as New York City . Total damage is estimated at US $ 5 million , and only indirect deaths are blamed on the cyclone . = = Meteorological history = = A weak low @-@ pressure area that organized in the northeast Gulf of Mexico began to intensify on July 28 , while located west of the Tampa Bay . Early in its life , the system had a broad circulation with primarily light winds , similar to that of a subtropical storm . The storm is estimated to have become a tropical depression earlier the previous day as it moved toward the northeast . It made landfall along the Florida coast near Cross City and continued inland , gradually accelerating . It likely attained tropical storm status at around 1200 UTC on July 28 while its center was situated west of Tampa . The cyclone was named Brenda after reconnaissance aircraft confirmed that it had reached tropical storm strength . Brenda tracked northward , hugging the Georgia and South Carolina coasts before moving inland over North Carolina . It attained its peak winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) in the late evening of July 29 , while situated south of Wilmington . Several hours later , the storm emerged over the Chesapeake Bay moving northeast at about 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) . Brenda crossed the Delmarva Peninsula and rapidly tracked into southern New Jersey . The storm crossed the state and eventually made another landfall on Long Island before making yet another landfall in coastal Connecticut . At around 0000 UTC on July 31 , Brenda moved into Massachusetts . Shortly thereafter , it lost its tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . It dissipated by August 1 over southern Canada . Because Brenda was in the vicinity of land for most of its course , it was not able to intensify beyond tropical storm status . = = Preparations and impact = = In advance of the storm , tropical storm advisories and wind warnings were issued from Florida to Maine . Rainfall from Tropical Storm Brenda affected at least 16 states . The heaviest precipitation fell in western Florida near Tampa , east of the storm 's center ; the Tampa International Airport recorded 14 @.@ 57 in ( 370 mm ) of rainfall . Extensive flooding occurred in the west @-@ central Florida Peninsula . Wind gusts exceeded 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and the storm produced 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high waves along the coast , leading to considerable erosion . However , storm tides were not severe . Around the Naples area , Brenda 's effects were primarily light , although small boat and dock facilities and roads sustained some damage . A private seawall at Clearwater was breached in two places by the cyclone . Brenda was considered the worst storm to strike the area since Hurricane Easy in 1950 . While no casualties are directly blamed on the storm , at least one traffic @-@ related death took place . According to an American Red Cross Disaster Service report encompassing eight Florida counties , 11 houses sustained significant damage , while 567 suffered more minor damage . Around 590 families were affected overall . Total monetary damage is placed at near $ 5 million . Tides along the Outer Banks of North Carolina were generally reported at 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above @-@ normal . In and around Wilmington , the storm caused minor damage to roofs and windows of some beachfront structures . Power was temporarily interrupted due to fallen tree limbs . Heavy rainfall caused flooding on streams and rivers , and in some areas the precipitation helped to end a serious drought . Some boats were swamped , and the winds ripped the roof off a cottage at Long Beach . The heavy rain and high tides flooded tobacco fields . Moderate rains extended northward into the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , with lighter totals reported farther north in New York . At New York City , 4 @.@ 79 in ( 122 mm ) of precipitation fell , beating the one @-@ day July record of 3 @.@ 80 in ( 97 mm ) set in 1872 . The heavy rains flooded parts of LaGuardia Airport . Elsewhere , reports of 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) were common throughout New Jersey , Delaware , Maryland and Virginia . High winds also affected portions of the northeastern United States , gusting to 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) across southern New England . Tides often ran 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above @-@ normal throughout the region . The storm caused travel delays and ran several ships aground , but otherwise inflicted little serious damage . The storm forced the cancellation of two American League baseball games and the postponement of several other sporting events .

= Stanley Price Weir = Brigadier General Stanley Price Weir , DSO , VD , JP ( 23 April 1866 – 14 November 1944 ) was a public servant and Australian Army officer . During World War I , he commanded the 10th Battalion of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) during the landing at Anzac Cove and the subsequent Gallipoli Campaign , and during the Battles of Pozières and Mouquet Farm in France . Weir returned to Australia at his own request in late 1916 at the age of 50 , and in 1917 he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and was mentioned in dispatches for his performance at Pozières and Mouquet Farm . He went on to become the first South Australian Public Service Commissioner . He was given an honorary promotion to brigadier general on his retirement from the Australian Military Forces in 1921 . Weir was retired as public service commissioner in 1931 . In retirement he contributed to various benevolent and charitable organisations , and died in 1944 . = = Early life = = Weir was born in Norwood , South Australia , on 23 April 1866 , a son of Alfred Weir and Susannah Mary ( née Price ) . His father was a carpenter , who had emigrated to South Australia from Aberdeen , Scotland , in 1839 , two years after the colony was founded . Weir attended Moore 's School , the Norwood Public School , and Pulteney Street Grammar School . In 1879 , at the age of 13 , he joined the Surveyor General 's Department as an office assistant . He assisted the surveyor who pegged out the land at the rear of Government House , Adelaide , for the Torrens Parade Ground , and was later promoted to clerk . On 14 May 1890 , he married Rosa Wadham at the Christian Chapel , Norwood . He rose through the department to be appointed Survey Storekeeper , Custodian of Plans and Custodian of Government Motor Cars , on 1 July 1911 . He was appointed a justice of the peace on 10 September 1914 . = = Early military service = = Weir enlisted in the part @-@ time South Australian Volunteer Military Force in March 1885 , joining the 1st Battalion , Adelaide Rifles , as a private . By 1890 , he had been promoted to colour sergeant . He was commissioned as a lieutenant in the 3rd Battalion , Adelaide Rifles , on 19 March 1890 , and was promoted to captain on 25 May 1893 . When the South African War broke out he volunteered for service with the South Australian Bushmen 's Corps , but mounted officers were preferred , and he was not selected . On 1 July 1903 , the Adelaide Rifles became the 10th Infantry Regiment of the Commonwealth Military Forces , and Weir was appointed adjutant . He was promoted to major on 1 January 1904 , and appointed as regimental second @-@ in @-@ command . He was awarded the Long Service and Good Conduct Medal in 1905 , and the Volunteer Officers ' Decoration in 1908 . On 22 June 1908 , Weir was promoted to lieutenant colonel and appointed the commanding officer of the 10th Infantry Regiment . On 1 January 1912 , he was transferred to the unattached list but this only lasted until 1 July , when the universal training scheme was introduced . He was soon appointed to command the 19th Infantry Brigade , and on 9 September 1913 he was promoted to colonel . = = World War I = = On 12 August 1914 , Weir received a telegram from Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan , the designated commander of the 3rd Brigade , offering him the command of the 10th Battalion . Weir promptly accepted , and on 17 August was appointed as a lieutenant colonel in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , making him the first South Australian to be commissioned in the AIF . He retained his rank of colonel in the part @-@ time forces in an honorary capacity . = = = Gallipoli = = = Weir assembled and trained his battalion at the Morphettville Racecourse , then embarked with them on the transport Ascanius on 20 October 1914 as the first convoy of Australian troops departed for overseas service . On arrival in Fremantle , six companies of the 11th Battalion were embarked on the transport , and Weir was appointed Officer Commanding Troops for the voyage . The troops began disembarking at Alexandria on 6 December 1914 , and were entrained for Cairo , where they began to set up camp at Mena . The Australian Official War Historian , Charles Bean , described Weir as being " somewhat above average in years " for a battalion commander . Following the Allied decision to land a force on the Gallipoli Peninsula , the 3rd Brigade was selected as the covering force for the landing at Anzac Cove . The 10th Battalion embarked for the Greek island of Lemnos in the northern Aegean Sea on 1 March 1915 , and after further training on Lemnos , the battalion was one of the first two battalions ashore on the morning of 25 April 1915 . During the landing , when the boats carrying the lead elements of the battalion were around 40 yards ( 37 m ) from shore , according to Bean , Weir observed to another officer in his boat that everything was silent , but soon after Ottoman troops began firing at the landing force . Weir landed with the scout platoon , and urged both his men and those of the 9th Battalion to immediately begin climbing the cliffs that overlooked the beach . Weir , along with " B " and " C " Companies of the battalion , reached what later became known as " Plugge 's Plateau " . Heavy fighting followed the initial landing and , within five days , half of Weir 's battalion had been killed or wounded . The Australian and New Zealand advance inland from Anzac Cove was subsequently checked by the defending Ottoman forces and was eventually contained in a small beachhead inside a series of ridges that ranged around the cove . Weir was the only commanding officer from the 3rd Brigade to go forward of the first ridge , and a ridge running off the 400 Plateau subsequently became known as " Weir Ridge " . As stalemate set in , Weir continued to command his battalion throughout the early stages of the campaign until 25 August , when he was appointed acting brigadier general and placed in command of the 3rd Brigade . On 11 September , he became ill and was evacuated to Malta , where he was admitted to hospital . He was subsequently evacuated to the United Kingdom , where he convalesced until January 1916 , when he was appointed commandant of the Australian reinforcement camp at Weymouth , Dorset . = = = Western Front = = = Weir 's health had not completely recovered by the time he embarked for Egypt , and he rejoined his battalion on 4 March 1916 . After his departure , the 10th had fought through the remainder of the campaign before being withdrawn along with the rest of the Allied force in December 1915 . The battalion was subsequently moved back to Egypt . In mid @-@ 1916 , the bulk of the AIF was transferred to the Western Front , and Weir led the 10th Battalion through July and August 1916 during the Battles of Pozières and Mouquet Farm . At Pozières , the battalion suffered 350 casualties in four days . By the time of the battle , Weir was the only original battalion commander remaining in the 1st Australian Division , and had turned 50 years of age . On 23 August , immediately after Mouquet Farm , Weir was again appointed acting commander of the 3rd Brigade . Exhausted , on 7 September 1916 he asked to be relieved , and his request was granted . He returned to Australia on 23 September 1916 , and his AIF appointment was terminated on 14 December . In the Australian official history of the war , Bean observed that despite his age , Weir " took his battalion into the front line , commanded it there throughout its first battle , and remained longer in the field than almost any of the senior militia officers who had left with the original force " . = = Post @-@ war military service = = After his AIF appointment was terminated , Weir resumed his service in the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) . In 1917 , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and the Russian Empire Order of St. Anne , 2nd Class , with Swords , and was mentioned in dispatches for his performance at Pozières and Mouquet Farm . From 1917 to 1920 , he was aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Governor @-@ General of Australia , Sir Ronald Craufurd Munro Ferguson . Weir retired from the CMF as an honorary brigadier general in March 1921 , his last appointment being as commander of the 20th Infantry Brigade . He was only the second South Australia @-@ born officer to reach the rank of brigadier general . On 31 March 1921 , Weir was appointed Honorary Colonel of the 10th Battalion , a position he held for many years . = = Later life = = Weir had two significant advantages in his return to a civilian career . Firstly , he was repatriated well before most servicemen and , secondly , South Australia had implemented a policy of preferment of returned servicemen for government employment . These circumstances helped him gain appointment as the first South Australian Public Service Commissioner in 1916 . Weir was not suited to this role , being unable to navigate the competing personal and political agendas of senior public servants and politicians , and was soon sidelined . In 1925 , legislative changes made it possible for the government to replace Weir , and this took place in 1930 . In the last year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half before his retirement in 1931 , Weir was the chairman of both the Central Board of Health and the Public Relief Board , excelling at the latter . On 8 June 1923 , after many years of poor health , Weir 's wife Rosa died . He married Lydia Maria Schrapel in 1926 . Weir led an active retirement , contributing to several religious , charitable and welfare organisations and activities . These included the Norwood and Maylands Churches of Christ , Benevolent and Stranger 's Friend Society , the Our Boys Institute ( OBI ) , the Masonic Lodge , Cheer Up Society , and YMCA . At various times he served as President of the Commonwealth Club , the Churches of Christ Union , the St. Peters Sub @-@ Branch of the Returned and Services League , and the Cheer Up Society . Weir wrote the foreword for the history of the 10th Battalion , titled The Fighting 10th : A South Australian Centenary Souvenir of the 10th Battalion , AIF 1914 – 1919 , which was written by a former member of the battalion , Cecil Lock , and published in 1936 . In 1943 , Weir was badly injured in a car accident while returning from an OBI camp at Victor Harbor . It was believed that his injuries in the accident contributed to his death on 14 November 1944 . Weir was survived by his wife Lydia , and his son Lionel and daughter Beryl from his first marriage . His brother , Harrison Weir , was the State Government Printer . Weir was buried in West Terrace Cemetery . = = Awards = = Weir received the following honours and awards : Long Service and Good Conduct Medal in 1905 Volunteer Officers ' Decoration on 11 April 1908 Distinguished Service Order on 1 January 1917 Mentioned in despatches on 4 January 1917 Order of St. Anne , 2nd Class , with Swords ( Russian Empire ) on 15 February 1917 King George V Silver Jubilee Medal on 6 May 1935 = = Promotions = = Weir 's military career commenced in March 1885 , when he enlisted as a private . He quickly rose to the rank of colour sergeant before being commissioned in 1890 . He rose from private to brigadier general over a career spanning 36 years . His officer promotion dates were : Lieutenant on 19 March 1890 Captain on 25 May 1893 Major on 1 January 1904 Lieutenant colonel on 22 June 1908 Colonel on 9 September 1913 Lieutenant colonel ( AIF ) on 17 August 1914 Brigadier general ( honorary ) on 17 March 1921

= Chapter 1 ( House of Cards ) = " Chapter 1 " ( sometimes " Episode 101 " ) is the pilot episode of the American political thriller drama television series House of Cards and is the first episode of the first season . It premiered on February 1 , 2013 , when it was released along with the rest of the first season on the American streaming service Netflix . This episode became the first web television webisode to earn Primetime Emmy Awards and nominations . " Chapter 1 " was written by series developer Beau Willimon and directed by executive producer David Fincher . The episode also earned 3 other Emmy nominations as well as WGA : Episodic Drama and DGA – Drama Series nominations . Frank Underwood ( Kevin Spacey ) is an ambitious Democratic congressman and the House Majority Whip . Underwood helped ensure the election of President Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) , who promised to appoint Underwood as Secretary of State . However , before Walker is sworn in , Chief of Staff Linda Vasquez ( Sakina Jaffrey ) announces that the president will not honor the agreement and will instead nominate Senator Michael Kern . Furious at Walker 's betrayal , Underwood and his wife Claire ( Robin Wright ) , an environmental activist , make a pact to destroy Kern . When Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) makes her resources available , she becomes one of their pawns . The episode was well received by most television critics . They praised the production values of the series as well as the performances of the lead actors . = = Plot = = South Carolina Congressman Frank Underwood ( Kevin Spacey ) , the Democratic Majority Whip , leaves his house in Washington , D.C. after hearing his neighbors ’ dog get hit by a car . As he comforts the mortally @-@ wounded dog , he looks into the camera and says “ Moments like this require someone who will act , who will do the unpleasant thing , the necessary thing , ” before calmly proceeding to strangle it . This introduces both his habit of breaking the fourth wall to narrate , and his cold and vicious nature . Frank and his wife , Claire ( Robin Wright ) , go on to attend a New Year ’ s Eve party in honor of the new President @-@ elect , Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) , a fellow Democrat and winner of the 2012 election . Frank confesses to the viewer that he does not like Walker , but saw his political potential early on and ingratiated himself to him , putting himself in line to be nominated as Walker ’ s Secretary of State after 22 years in Congress . Frank meets with Walker 's Chief of Staff , Linda Vasquez ( Sakina Jaffrey ) , whom Frank recommended for the job . She reveals that she and Walker have decided to rescind their promise to nominate him as Secretary of State because they want him to remain in Congress and use his political expertise to get the President @-@ elect ’ s education reform agenda passed . Frank is initially incensed , but when Linda asks if he will continue to be an ally to the future President he says that he will . Linda reveals that Senator Michael Kern ( Kevin Kilner ) has been chosen for the position instead . Despite his statement to the contrary , Frank feels personally betrayed and , with Claire ’ s encouragement , begins to formulate a plot for revenge , which he shares with his Chief of Staff , Doug Stamper ( Michael Kelly ) . Mrs. Underwood , meanwhile , is forced to downsize the non @-@ profit organization she manages , the Clean Water Initiative , which had been promised a large donation upon her husband ’ s confirmation as Secretary , without which the organization is forced to substantially curtail its budget . On a whim , Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , a young reporter for the Washington Herald who is stuck covering trivial “ human interest ” stories , pays a late @-@ night visit to Frank at his home . She offers to be Frank ’ s undercover mouthpiece in the press in exchange for the elevated profile that she would gain from breaking substantive stories . Meanwhile , Peter Russo ( Corey Stoll ) , a young , inexperienced congressman from Philadelphia , is arrested for drunk driving . Stamper finds out about the arrest and immediately contacts the D.C. police commissioner , offering Underwood ’ s support for his mayoral campaign in exchange for releasing Russo and completely covering up the incident . Russo is picked up from jail by his secretary and romantic partner , Christina Gallagher ( Kristen Connolly ) . He lies to her , telling her that he was alone when he was arrested when , in fact , there was a prostitute in the car ( Rachel Brosnahan ) . Frank meets with Congressman Donald Blythe ( Reed Birney ) , a committed progressive liberal who has long pushed for education reform , with whom the Walker administration wants to work on a bill . Frank dismisses his proposal as too ambitious and asks him to rewrite it . Frank secretly passes a copy of Blythe ’ s proposal to Zoe . He then meets with Senator Catherine Durant ( Jayne Atkinson ) and suggests that she ought to consider seeking the nomination for Secretary of State . He also privately confronts Congressman Russo about his arrest and checkered history of substance abuse and soliciting prostitutes , and demands Russo ’ s loyalty in exchange for making the incident disappear . Zoe takes the draft of the education bill to the Herald ’ s political editor , Lucas Goodwin ( Sebastian Arcelus ) , and its chief editor , Tom Hammerschmidt ( Boris McGiver ) , who gives her the lead on the story over the more experienced chief political correspondent Janine Skorsky ( Constance Zimmer ) . The episode ends the morning after Walker ’ s inauguration , with Frank visiting his favorite restaurant , Freddy ’ s BBQ Joint , for breakfast . On the front page of the Washington Herald is Zoe ’ s story about Blythe ’ s “ far left ” education plan . = = Production = = The episode was directed by David Fincher and was written by Beau Willimon , who has served as an aide to Charles Schumer , Howard Dean and Hillary Clinton . Independent studio Media Rights Capital purchased the rights to House of Cards , with the intent on creating a series . Netflix agreed to contribute an undisclosed fixed fee to production costs in March 2011 . As he was completing his work on The Curious Case of Benjamin Button , Fincher was introduced to the original miniseries by his agent and sought to develop a series with Eric Roth . House of Cards was pitched to several cable networks , including HBO , AMC and Showtime . Netflix , interested in launching their own original programming , outbid the networks , picking the series up for 26 episodes , totaling two seasons . Netflix was the only bidder that was interested in purchasing the rights without seeing a completed pilot . Thus , the show was not forced into manipulating story arcs introduced in the pilot to create artificial cliffhangers . = = = Casting = = = Fincher stated that every main cast member was their first choice . In the first read through , he said " I want everybody here to know that you represent our first choice — each actor here represents our first choice for these characters . So do not fuck this up . " Spacey , whose last regular television role was in the series Wiseguy , responded positively to the script . He then played Richard III , which Fincher said was " great training " . Spacey supported the decision to release all of the episodes at once , believing that this type of release pattern will be increasingly common with television shows . He said , " When I ask my friends what they did with their weekend , they say , ' Oh , I stayed in and watched three seasons of Breaking Bad ' or it 's two seasons of Game of Thrones " . He was officially cast on March 18 , 2011 . Robin Wright was approached by Fincher to star in the series when they worked together in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo . She was cast as Claire Underwood in June 2011 . Kate Mara was cast as Zoe Barnes in early February 2012 . Mara 's sister , Rooney Mara , worked with Fincher in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo , and when Kate Mara read the part of Zoe , she " fell in love with the character " and asked her sister to " put in a word for me with Fincher " . The next month , she got a call for an audition . = = = Cast = = = In order billed in the episode opening credits : = = = Filming = = = While Netflix had ventured into original programming by greenlighting foreign shows that were new to United States audiences with shows such as Lilyhammer , House of Cards represented the first show made for Netflix . Filming for the first season began in January 2012 in Harford County , Maryland . " Chapter 1 " sets the tone for the environs of the series . According to David Carr the political environs have such " marbleness " that it belies the clandestine nature of political activities , including those of Underwood who says he is there to " clear the pipes and keep the sludge moving " . The fictional newspaper , The Washington Herald , is set with " brutal " lighting and drab furniture , in part because it was filmed at the real life Baltimore Sun offices . Carr uses several pejorative adjectives to describe Barnes ' apartment including sad , grubby , dirty , dreary and humble but note that this implies that the digital revolution is dominated by people " on laptops who have no furniture " . Similarly , Underwood and his associates are nattily clad , Barnes shows a lack of fashion recognition . = = = Release = = = The episode was broadcast online by Netflix on February 1 , 2013 as part of the simultaneous release of all 13 episodes of season 1 of the series . The debut date was a weekend when there was little competition on television other than Super Bowl XLVII and a new episode of Downton Abbey on PBS . Netflix broadcast " Chapter 1 " and " Chapter 2 " to critics several days in advance of the release . = = Reception = = = = = Reviews = = = The episode received positive reviews from critics . Elements of the opening scene were lauded . Matt Roush of TV Guide praised Spacey 's self introduction as a Machiavellian politician in which he says " I have no patience for useless things . " Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert noted that " the first two episodes were expertly directed by David Fincher " and Spacey 's harmonious cadence such as those used in the first scene of this episode " makes even his character ’ s mercy killing of an injured dog — which he does by hand — seem a little less brutal . " Not only is Underwood described as Machiavellian , one critic from The New York Times notes that his belief in the omnipresence of dirt expressed as " Nobody ’ s a Boy Scout , not even a Boy Scout " harkens back to Willie Stark in All the King 's Men who said " There 's always something " . Time television critic James Poniewozik , notes that by the end of the first episode Frank establishes that his metaphor of choice is meat because both literally and figuratively it is his preference . He may begin a day with a celebratory rack of ribs , because " I ’ m feelin ’ hungry today ! " , but also he describes life with meat metaphors : he describes the White House Chief of Staff with grudging admiration : " She ’ s as tough as a two @-@ dollar steak . " ; he plans to destroy an enemy the way " you devour a whale . One bite at a time . " ; and he endures a tedious weekly meeting with House leaders , he tells us , by " [ imagining ] their lightly salted faces frying in a skillet . " Poniewozik notes that all of this comes from a character whose name , Underwood is a reference to the hallmark deviled ham of the William Underwood Company . Roush also notes that the first two weeks show how Claire " runs a charity with a brutally iron fist " . While Frank is Machiavellian , Claire presents a woman urging on her husband 's assertion of power in the image of Lady Macbeth . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post describes her as an ice @-@ queen wife . She encourages his vices while noting her disapproval of his weakness saying " My husband doesn ’ t apologize ... even to me . " Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal describes what she sees of their relationship in the first two episodes as pivotal to the show 's success : " Benign though they may seem — and their harmless air is what makes the Underwoods so effective as political plotters — this is a power couple with the same malignant chemistry as pairs of serial killers , where each needs the other in order to become lethal " . Gilbert also notes that Mara 's surprising naivete is a welcome respite against a backdrop of a " terminally jaded " cast . As the show begins , aspiring journalist Zoe Barnes is desperate to rise from covering the " Fairfax County Council " beat to covering " ' what 's behind the veil ' of power in the Capitol hallways . " Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times notes that by the end of the first episode , Mara 's Barnes is among the cadre of Frank 's accomplices . After she pleads for a relationship with him by promising to earn his trust and not " ask any questions " , Frank uses her fiendishly . However , Ashley Parker of The New York Times considers her unfathomably aggressive and too overt , transactional and sexual . Parker points out that Barnes ' statement " I protect your identity , I print what you tell me , and I 'll never ask any questions " almost discredits itself . The Washington Post 's Stuever has many complaints about the show including the fact that it is about Washington , DC , but filmed in Baltimore . He also complains about its entrance into the television landscape littered with " more fictitious administrations than anyone can keep track of " . He says that perspective will affect your perception of the show . Those not already inundated with " Type A personalities inside the Beltway " in their daily lives may be drawn to the show . However , it is not likely a show that will serve well those who spend a lot of time with the issues that the show deals with . After viewing the first two episodes , Stuever also finds fault with the use of breaking the fourth wall , describing it as " the show 's unwise narrative trope " . The Wall Street Journal 's Smith defends the fourth wall as an " artifice that generally works well here to loosen our bearings " . Ryan McGee of The A.V. Club notes Russo seems to employ vices without restraint , which is a respite from the other exacting characters in the episode and a makes him a sort of metaphor for the show . McGee also notes that the episode includes " establishing shots within Zoe ’ s apartment that offer up almost everything you need to know about her current position in life " . = = = Accolades = = = On July 18 , 2013 , House of Cards ( along with Netflix 's other web series ' Arrested Development and Hemlock Grove ) earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2013 . Among House of Cards ' nine nominations , " Chapter 1 " received four nominations for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards and 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards becoming the first webisode ( online @-@ only episode ) of a television series to receive a major Primetime Emmy Award nomination : Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for David Fincher . This episode also received several Creative Arts Emmy Award nominations , including Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series , Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series , and Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Original Dramatic ) . Although the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series is not a category that formally recognizes an episode , Spacey submitted " Chapter 1 " for consideration due to his nomination . On September 15 , at the Creative Arts Emmy Award presentation , " Chapter 1 " and Eigil Bryld earned the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series , making " Chapter 1 " the first ever Emmy @-@ awarded webisode . Then on September 22 , David Fincher won Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for directing the pilot episode " Chapter 1 " , bringing the series to a total of three wins and marking the first ever win for a webisode at the Primetime Emmy award ceremony . None of the Emmy awards were considered to be in major categories , however .

= Alice in Chains = Alice in Chains is an American rock band formed in Seattle , Washington , in 1987 by guitarist and songwriter Jerry Cantrell and original lead vocalist Layne Staley . The initial lineup was rounded out by drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr , who was replaced in 1993 by Mike Inez . Although widely associated with grunge music , the band 's sound incorporates heavy metal elements . Since its formation , Alice in Chains has released five studio albums , three EPs , two live albums , four compilations , and two DVDs . The band is known for its distinctive vocal style , which often included the harmonized vocals of Staley and Cantrell ( and later William DuVall ) . Alice in Chains rose to international fame as part of the grunge movement of the early 1990s , along with other Seattle bands such as Nirvana , Pearl Jam , and Soundgarden . The band was one of the most successful music acts of the 1990s , selling over 20 million albums worldwide , and over 14 million in the US alone . In 1992 the band 's second album , Dirt , was released to critical acclaim and was certified quadruple platinum . Their third album , Alice in Chains , was released in 1995 and has been certified double platinum . It achieved No. 1 position on the Billboard 200 chart . The band has had 14 top ten songs on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and nine Grammy Award nominations . Although never officially disbanding , Alice in Chains was plagued by extended inactivity from 1996 onwards due to Staley 's substance abuse , which resulted in his death in 2002 . The band reunited in 2005 for a live benefit show , performing with a number of guest vocalists . They toured in 2006 , with William DuVall taking over as lead vocalist full @-@ time . The new line @-@ up released the band 's fourth studio album , Black Gives Way to Blue , in 2009 . The album received gold certification by the RIAA . In 2013 , the band released The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , its fifth studio album . The band has toured extensively and released several videos in support of these albums . Alice in Chains is currently working on their sixth studio album . = = History = = = = = Formation and early years ( 1984 – 89 ) = = = Before the formation of Alice in Chains , then @-@ drummer Layne Staley landed his first gig as a vocalist when he auditioned to sing for a local glam metal band known as Sleze after receiving some encouragement from his stepbrother Ken Elmer . Other members of this group at that time were guitarists Johnny Bacolas and Zoli Semanate , drummer James Bergstrom , and bassist Byron Hansen . This band went through several lineup changes culminating with Nick Pollock as their sole guitarist and Bacolas switching to bass before discussions arose about changing their name to Alice in Chains . This was prompted by a conversation that Bacolas had with a singer from another band about backstage passes . Due to concerns over the reference to female bondage , the group ultimately chose to spell it differently as Alice N ' Chains to allay any parental concerns , though Staley 's mother Nancy McCallum has said she was still not happy with this name at first . Staley met guitarist Jerry Cantrell while working with Alice N ' Chains at Music Bank rehearsal studios . The two struggling musicians became roommates , living in a rehearsal space they shared . Alice N ' Chains soon disbanded , and Staley joined a funk band that also required a guitarist at the time . Staley asked Cantrell to join as a sideman . Cantrell agreed on condition that Staley join Cantrell 's band , which at the time included drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr . Eventually the funk project broke up , and in 1987 Staley joined Cantrell 's band on a full @-@ time basis , playing in clubs around the Pacific Northwest , often stretching 15 minutes of material into a 45 @-@ minute set . The band played a couple of gigs , calling themselves different monikers , including Diamond Lie , the name of Cantrell 's previous band , before eventually adopting the name that Staley 's previous band had initially flirted with , Alice in Chains . Local promoter Randy Hauser became aware of the band at a concert and offered to pay for demo recordings . However , one day before the band was due to record at the Music Bank studio in Washington , police shut down the studio during the biggest cannabis raid in the history of the state . The final demo , completed in 1988 , was named The Treehouse Tapes and found its way to the music managers Kelly Curtis and Susan Silver , who also managed the Seattle @-@ based band Soundgarden . Curtis and Silver passed the demo on to Columbia Records ' A & R representative Nick Terzo , who set up an appointment with label president Don Ienner . Based on The Treehouse Tapes , Ienner signed Alice in Chains to Columbia in 1989 . The band also recorded another untitled demo over a three @-@ month period in 1989 . This recording can be found on the bootleg release Sweet Alice . = = = Facelift and Sap ( 1990 – 92 ) = = = Alice in Chains soon became a top priority of the label , which released the band 's first official recording in July 1990 , a promotional EP called We Die Young . The EP 's lead single , " We Die Young " , became a hit on metal radio . After its success , the label rushed Alice in Chains ' debut album into production with producer Dave Jerden . Cantrell stated the album was intended to have a " moody aura " that was a " direct result of the brooding atmosphere and feel of Seattle " . The resulting album , Facelift , was released on August 21 , 1990 , peaking at number 42 in the summer of 1991 on the Billboard 200 chart . Facelift was not an instant success , selling under 40 @,@ 000 copies in the first six months of release , until MTV added " Man in the Box " to regular daytime rotation . The single hit number 18 on the Mainstream rock charts , with the album 's follow up single , " Sea of Sorrow " , reaching number 27 , and in six weeks Facelift sold 400 @,@ 000 copies in the US . The album was a critical success , with Steve Huey of AllMusic citing Facelift as " one of the most important records in establishing an audience for grunge and alternative rock among hard rock and heavy metal listeners . " Facelift was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) by the end of 1990 , while the band continued to hone its audience , opening for such artists as Iggy Pop , Van Halen , Poison , and Extreme . In early 1991 , Alice in Chains landed the opening slot for the Clash of the Titans tour with Anthrax , Megadeth , and Slayer , exposing the band to a wide metal audience but receiving mainly poor reception . Alice in Chains was nominated for a Best Hard Rock Performance Grammy Award in 1992 for " Man in the Box " but lost to Van Halen for their 1991 album For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge . Following the tour , Alice in Chains entered the studio to record demos for its next album , but ended up recording five acoustic songs instead . While in the studio , drummer Sean Kinney had a dream about " making an EP called Sap " . The band decided " not to mess with fate " , and on March 21 , 1992 , Alice in Chains released their second EP , Sap . The EP was released while Nirvana 's Nevermind was at the top of the Billboard 200 charts , resulting in a rising popularity of Seattle @-@ based bands , and of the term " grunge music " . Sap was certified gold within two weeks . The EP features guest vocals by Ann Wilson from the band Heart , who joined Staley and Cantrell for the choruses of " Brother " , " Am I Inside " , and " Love Song " . The EP also features Mark Arm of Mudhoney and Chris Cornell of Soundgarden , who appeared together on the song " Right Turn " , credited to " Alice Mudgarden " in the liner notes . In 1992 , Alice in Chains appeared in the Cameron Crowe film Singles , performing as a " bar band " . The band also contributed the song " Would ? " to the film 's soundtrack , whose video received an award for Best Video from a Film at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards . = = = Dirt ( 1992 – 93 ) = = = In March 1992 , the band returned to the studio . With new songs written primarily on the road , the material has an overall darker feel than Facelift , with six of the album 's thirteen songs dealing with the subject of addiction . " We did a lot of soul searching on this album . There 's a lot of intense feelings . " Cantrell said , " We deal with our daily demons through music . All of the poison that builds up during the day we cleanse when we play " . On September 29 , 1992 , Alice in Chains released its second album , Dirt . The album peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 and since its release has been certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA , making Dirt the band 's highest selling album to date . The album was a critical success , with Steve Huey of Allmusic praising the album as a " major artistic statement , and the closest they ever came to recording a flat @-@ out masterpiece " . Chris Gill of Guitar World called Dirt " huge and foreboding , yet eerie and intimate " , and " sublimely dark and brutally honest " . Dirt spawned five top 30 singles , " Would ? " , " Rooster " , " Them Bones " , " Angry Chair " , and " Down in a Hole " , and remained on the charts for nearly two years . Alice in Chains was added as openers to Ozzy Osbourne 's No More Tears tour . Days before the tour began , Layne Staley broke his foot in an ATV accident , forcing him to use crutches on stage . Starr left the band shortly after the Rock in Rio concert in January of 1993 and was replaced by former Ozzy Osbourne bassist Mike Inez . In 1993 , the band recorded two songs with Inez , " What the Hell Have I " and " A Little Bitter " , for the Last Action Hero soundtrack . During the summer of 1993 , Alice in Chains toured with the alternative music festival Lollapalooza , their last major tour with Staley . = = = Jar of Flies ( 1993 – 94 ) = = = Following Alice in Chains ' extensive 1993 world tour , Staley said the band " just wanted to go into the studio for a few days with our acoustic guitars and see what happened " . " We never really planned on the music we made at that time to be released . But the record label heard it and they really liked it . For us , it was just the experience of four guys getting together in the studio and making some music . " Columbia Records released Alice in Chains ' second acoustic @-@ based EP , Jar of Flies , on January 25 , 1994 . Written and recorded in one week , Jar of Flies debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , becoming the first ever EP — and first Alice in Chains release — to top the charts . Paul Evans of Rolling Stone called the EP " darkly gorgeous " , and Steve Huey stated " Jar of Flies is a low @-@ key stunner , achingly gorgeous and harrowingly sorrowful all at once " . Jar of Flies features Alice in Chains ' first number @-@ one single on the Mainstream Rock charts , " No Excuses " . The second single , " I Stay Away " , reached number ten on the Mainstream rock charts , while the final single " Don 't Follow " , reached number 25 . After the release of Jar of Flies , Staley entered rehab for heroin addiction . The band was scheduled to tour during the summer of 1994 with Metallica , Suicidal Tendencies , Danzig , and Fight , as well as a slot during Woodstock 94 , but while in rehearsal for the tour , Staley began using heroin again . Staley 's condition prompted the other band members to cancel all scheduled dates one day before the start of the tour , putting the band on hiatus . Alice in Chains was replaced by Candlebox on the tour . = = = Alice in Chains ( 1995 – 96 ) = = = While Alice in Chains was inactive during 1995 , Staley joined the " grunge supergroup " Mad Season , which also featured Pearl Jam guitarist Mike McCready , bassist John Baker Saunders from The Walkabouts , and Screaming Trees drummer Barrett Martin . Mad Season released one album , Above , for which Staley provided lead vocals and the album artwork . The album spawned a number @-@ two single , " River of Deceit " , as well as a home video release of Live at the Moore . In April 1995 , Alice in Chains entered Bad Animals Studio in Seattle with producer Toby Wright , who had previously worked with Corrosion of Conformity and Slayer . While in the studio , an inferior version of the song " Grind " was leaked to radio , and received major airplay . On October 6 , 1995 , the band released the studio version of the song to radio via satellite uplink . On November 7 , 1995 , Columbia Records released the eponymous album , Alice in Chains , which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and has since been certified double platinum . Of the album 's four singles , " Grind " , " Again " , " Over Now " , and " Heaven Beside You " , three feature Cantrell on lead vocals . Jon Wiederhorn of Rolling Stone called the album " liberating and enlightening , the songs achieve a startling , staggering and palpable impact . " The song " Got Me Wrong " unexpectedly charted three years after its release on the Sap EP . The song was re @-@ released as a single on the soundtrack for the independent film Clerks in 1995 , reaching number seven on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . The band opted not to tour in support of Alice in Chains , adding to the rumors of drug abuse . Alice in Chains resurfaced on April 10 , 1996 , to perform their first concert in two and a half years for MTV Unplugged , a program featuring all @-@ acoustic set lists . The performance featured some of the band 's highest charting singles , including " Down in a Hole " , " Heaven Beside You " , " No Excuses " and " Would ? " , and introduced a new song , " Killer Is Me " . The show marked Alice in Chains ' only appearance as a five @-@ piece band , adding second guitarist Scott Olson . A live album of the performance was released in July 1996 , debuting at number three on the Billboard 200 , and was accompanied by a home video release , both of which received platinum certification by the RIAA . Alice in Chains performed four shows supporting the reunited original Kiss lineup on their 1996 / 97 Alive / Worldwide Tour , including the final live appearance of Layne Staley on July 3 , 1996 , in Kansas City , Missouri . Shortly after the show , Staley was found unresponsive after he overdosed on heroin and was taken to the hospital . Although he recovered , the band was forced to go on hiatus . = = = Hiatus and the death of Layne Staley ( 1996 – 2002 ) = = = Although Alice in Chains never officially disbanded , Staley became a recluse , rarely leaving his Seattle condominium following the death of his ex @-@ fiancée Demri Parrott due to infective endocarditis . " Drugs worked for me for years " , Staley told Rolling Stone in 1996 , " and now they 're turning against me ... now I 'm walking through hell " . Unable to continue with new Alice in Chains material , Cantrell released his first solo album , Boggy Depot , in 1998 , also featuring Sean Kinney and Mike Inez . In 1998 , Staley reunited with Alice in Chains to record two new songs , " Get Born Again " and " Died " . Originally intended for Cantrell 's second solo album , the songs were reworked by Alice in Chains and were released in the fall of 1999 on the box set , Music Bank . The set contains 48 songs , including rarities , demos , and previously released album tracks and singles . The band also released a 15 @-@ track compilation titled Nothing Safe : Best of the Box , serving as a sampler for Music Bank , as well as the band 's first compilation album ; a live album , simply titled Live , released on December 5 , 2000 ; and a second compilation , titled Greatest Hits in 2001 . By 2002 , Cantrell had finished work on his second solo album , Degradation Trip . Written in 1998 , the album 's lyrical content focused heavily on what Cantrell regarded as the demise of Alice in Chains , which still remained evident as the album approached its June 2002 release . However , in March that year , Cantrell commented , " We 're all still around , so it 's possible [ Alice in Chains ] could all do something someday , and I fully hope someday we will . " After a decade of battling drug addiction , Layne Staley was found dead in his condominium on April 19 , 2002 , two weeks after his actual death . His mother and stepfather became alarmed when accountants noticed that money was no longer being withdrawn from his accounts . With assistance from the police , they broke into his condo and made the discovery . An autopsy revealed Staley had died from a mixture of heroin and cocaine . His friends speculate that in addition to drugs , he may have contracted an illness that his body could not fight off , due to a compromised immune system . In his last interview , given months before his death , Staley admitted , " I know I 'm near death , I did crack and heroin for years . I never wanted to end my life this way . " Cantrell dedicated his 2002 solo album , released two months after Staley 's death , to his memory . = = = Reunion shows ( 2005 – 08 ) = = = In 2005 , Jerry Cantrell , Mike Inez , and Sean Kinney reunited to perform a benefit concert in Seattle for victims of the tsunami disaster that struck South Asia in 2004 . The band featured Damageplan vocalist Pat Lachman , as well as other special guests including Maynard James Keenan of Tool and Ann Wilson of Heart . On March 10 , 2006 , the surviving members performed at VH1 's Decades Rock Live concert , honoring fellow Seattle musicians Ann and Nancy Wilson of Heart . They played " Would ? " with vocalist Phil Anselmo of Pantera and Down and bass player Duff McKagan of Guns N ' Roses and Velvet Revolver , then they played " Rooster " with Comes with the Fall vocalist William DuVall and Ann Wilson . The band followed the concert with a short United States club tour , several festival dates in Europe , and a brief tour in Japan . To coincide with the band 's reunion , Sony Music released the long @-@ delayed third Alice in Chains compilation , The Essential Alice in Chains , a double album that includes 28 songs . DuVall joined Alice in Chains as lead singer during the band 's reunion concerts . Duff McKagan again joined the band for the reunion tour , playing rhythm guitar on selected songs . Before the tour , Kinney mentioned in an interview that he would be interested in writing new material , but not as Alice in Chains . However , AliceinChains.com reported that the band had begun writing new material , with DuVall on lead vocals . = = = Black Gives Way to Blue ( 2008 – 10 ) = = = Blabbermouth.net reported in September 2008 that Alice in Chains would enter the studio that October to begin recording a new album for a summer 2009 release . In October 2008 , Alice in Chains began recording its fourth studio album at the Foo Fighters ' Studio 606 in Los Angeles with producer Nick Raskulinecz . At the Revolver Golden God Awards , Jerry Cantrell said that the group had finished recording in March 2009 and were mixing the album for a September release . In April 2009 , it was reported that the new Alice in Chains album would be released by Virgin / EMI , making it the band 's first label change in its 20 @-@ plus year career . On June 11 , 2009 , Blabbermouth.net reported that the new album would be titled Black Gives Way to Blue and was officially set to be released on September 29 , 2009 . On June 30 , 2009 , the song " A Looking in View " was released as the first single from the album . It was made available for a limited time as a free download through the official Alice in Chains website in early July . The music video for the song debuted via the official website on July 7 , 2009 . The second single , " Check My Brain " , was released to radio stations on August 14 , 2009 and was made available for purchase on August 17 , 2009 . In addition , it was announced that Elton John appears on the album 's title track . In September 2008 , it was announced that Alice in Chains would headline Australia 's Soundwave Festival in 2009 , alongside Nine Inch Nails and Lamb of God . In February 2009 , it was also announced that Alice in Chains would play at the third annual Rock on the Range festival . On August 1 , 2009 , Alice in Chains performed , along with Mastodon , Avenged Sevenfold , and Glyder , at Marlay Park , Dublin as direct support to Metallica . The band made an appearance on Later Live ... With Jools Holland on November 10 , 2009 , performing " Lesson Learned " , " Black Gives Way To Blue " , and " Check My Brain " as the final performance of the episode . To coincide with the band 's European tour , Alice in Chains released its next single , " Your Decision " , on November 16 in the UK and on December 1 in the US . The fourth single from the album was " Lesson Learned " and was released to rock radio in mid @-@ June . On May 18 , 2010 , Black Gives Way to Blue was certified gold by the RIAA for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . Along with Mastodon and Deftones , Alice in Chains toured the United States and Canada in late 2010 on the Blackdiamondskye tour , an amalgam of the three bands ' latest album titles ( Black Gives Way to Blue , Diamond Eyes , and Crack the Skye ) . = = = Future plans and the death of Mike Starr ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = In April 2010 , Cantrell revealed to MTV News that Alice in Chains was contemplating making a fifth studio album in the foreseeable future . He explained , " There are thoughts . We 'll see how far we get . Staying in the moment is a good way to live and we certainly hope that it happens . I don 't see any reason why it wouldn 't [ happen ] . " DuVall also commented on the next album and Alice in Chains ' future , " we 've got a lot of water to sail before we do that . There 's a lot of shows . But yeah , generally speaking , yeah , we 're excited about the future . I don 't anticipate some long layoff . " DuVall revealed in September 2010 that Alice in Chains had not begun writing their next album yet , but " there 's plenty of riffs flying around . " He added , " That was the case when we first started back up . We would just stockpile these fragments , and then some time later we would sift through the mountain of stuff , and that 's what became Black Gives Way to Blue . The same thing has been happening since we 've been touring Black Gives Way to Blue , so it would be only natural to at some point say , ' Hey , we 've got a lot of stuff . Let 's sift through and see what we 've got this time . ' " DuVall also mentioned that it was possible that the new album would feature songs that were written for Black Gives Way to Blue . On March 8 , 2011 , former Alice in Chains bassist Mike Starr was found dead at his home in Salt Lake City . Police told Reuters they were called to Starr 's home at 1 : 42 pm and found his body ; Starr was 44 . Reports later surfaced that Starr 's roommate had seen him mixing methadone and anxiety medication hours before he was found dead . Later reports indicated Starr 's death may have been linked to two different types of antidepressants prescribed to him by his doctor . A public memorial was held for Starr at the Seattle Center 's International Fountain on March 20 , 2011 . A private memorial was also held , which Jerry Cantrell and Sean Kinney attended according to Mike Inez . = = = The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here and next album ( 2011 – present ) = = = On March 21 , 2011 , Alice in Chains announced that they were working on a fifth studio album , and both Cantrell and Inez later made statements that they had begun the recording process . The album was expected to be finished by summer of 2012 and released by the end of 2012 or beginning of 2013 . While Alice in Chains were writing for the album in 2011 , Cantrell required surgery , which delayed recording the new material . In an interview published in May 2012 , Cantrell explained , " The thing that set me back is I had some bone spurs [ and ] cartilage issues in my shoulders . I had the same issue in the other shoulder about six years ago so I 've had them both done now . It 's a repetitive motion injury from playing . " In December 2012 , Cantrell confirmed that the new album had been completed , and the first single , " Hollow " , debuted online on December 18 , available for digital download in January 2013 , along with an official music video . On February 13 , 2013 , Alice in Chains posted on Facebook that their new album title would be an anagram of the letters H V L E N T P S U S D A H I E E O E D T I U R R. The next day they announced that the album would be called The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , which was released on May 28 , 2013 , debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 . The band released videos for the songs " Stone , " " Voices , " and the title track later in 2013 . Alice in Chains toured the U.S. in the spring of 2013 , with further international dates in the summer . In the spring and summer of 2014 they embarked on a more extensive tour of Canada , Europe , and the U.S. Asked in September 2013 if Alice in Chains would make another album , Cantrell replied , " It 'll be a while . It 's [ been ] four years since we put the last one out , but at least it 's not the gap that was between the last one , so that 's about right - about three to four years . " In May 2014 Cantrell stated that Alice in Chains would wrap up their tour in the fall , take a break , then begin work on their next studio album . In January 2015 , Alice in Chains performed in the halftime show of the NFC Championship game between the Seattle Seahawks and the Green Bay Packers at CenturyLink Field in Seattle . Cantrell is a lifelong Seahawks fan and often attends their games . In March 2015 , Alice in Chains announced dates for a U.S. summer tour , set to begin on July 17 in Pala , CA and end in Bethlehem , PA on August 16 . A second leg of the tour was announced in June 2016 , including select shows opening for Guns N ' Roses as part of the Not in This Lifetime ... Tour . As of May 2015 , according to Blabbermouth.net , Alice in Chains has been working on their follow @-@ up to The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , which was expected to be released later in the year . Bassist Mike Inez said that the band has been " throwing around riffs for a new record " and " taking it nice and slow . " Asked in a June 2016 interview if Alice in Chains has begun recording their new album , frontman William DuVall replied , " I don 't know . I know we 'll be probably talking about that kind of thing over the next few months . It 's still early yet . We 've gotta get through this tour first . " = = Musical style = = Although Alice in Chains has been labeled grunge by the mainstream media , Jerry Cantrell identifies the band as primarily heavy metal . He told Guitar World in 1996 , " We 're a lot of different things ... I don 't quite know what the mixture is , but there 's definitely metal , blues , rock and roll , maybe a touch of punk . The metal part will never leave , and I never want it to " . The Edmonton Journal has stated , " Living and playing in Seattle might have got them the grunge tag , but they 've always pretty much been a classic metal band to the core . " Over the course of their career , the band 's sound has also been described as alternative metal , sludge metal , doom metal , drone rock , hard rock , and alternative rock . Regarding the band 's constant categorization by the media , Cantrell stated " When we first came out we were metal . Then we started being called alternative metal . Then grunge came out and then we were hard rock . And now , since we 've started doing this again I 've seen us listed as : hard rock , alternative , alternative metal and just straight metal . I walked into an HMV the other day to check out the placement and see what 's on and they 've got us relegated back into the metal section . Right back where we started ! " . According to Mike Inez , they were always the metal stepchildren of the Seattle scene . Jerry Cantrell 's guitar style combines " pummeling riffs and expansive guitar textures " to create " slow , brooding minor @-@ key grinds " . He is also recognized for his natural ability to blend acoustic and electric guitars . While down @-@ tuned , distorted guitars mixed with Staley 's distinctive " snarl @-@ to @-@ a @-@ scream " vocals appealed to heavy metal fans , the band also had " a sense of melody that was undeniable " , which introduced Alice in Chains to a much wider audience outside of the heavy metal underground . According to Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic , Alice in Chains ' sound has a " Black Sabbath @-@ style riffing and an unconventional vocal style " . The band has been described by Erlewine as " hard enough for metal fans , yet their dark subject matter and punky attack placed them among the front ranks of the Seattle @-@ based grunge bands " . Three of the band 's releases feature acoustic music , and while the band initially kept these releases separate , Alice in Chains ' self @-@ titled album combined the styles to form " a bleak , nihilistic sound that balanced grinding hard rock with subtly textured acoustic numbers " . Alice in Chains is also noted for the unique vocal harmonies of Staley ( or DuVall ) and Cantrell , which included overlapping passages , dual lead vocals , and trademark harmonies typically separated by a major third . Alyssa Burrows said the band 's distinctive sound " came from Staley 's vocal style and his lyrics dealing with personal struggles and addiction " . Staley 's songs were often considered " dark " , with themes such as drug abuse , depression , and suicide , while Cantrell 's lyrics often dealt with personal relationships . = = Legacy = = Alice in Chains has sold more than 14 million albums in the United States , around 35 million worldwide , released two number @-@ one albums , had 21 top 40 singles , and has received nine Grammy nominations . The band was ranked number 34 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock . Alice in Chains was named 15th greatest live band by Hit Parader , with vocalist Layne Staley placing as 27th greatest heavy metal vocalist of all time . The band 's second album , Dirt , was named 5th best album in the last two decades by Close @-@ Up magazine . In August 2009 , Alice in Chains won the Kerrang ! Icon Award . Alice in Chains has had a large impact on many bands , such as Godsmack , who are named after the song off their sophomore album Dirt . According to Jon Wiederhorn of MTV , Godsmack has " sonically followed Alice in Chains ' lead while adding their own distinctive edge " . Godsmack singer and founder Sully Erna has also cited Layne Staley as his primary influence . Staind has covered Alice in Chains ' song " Nutshell " live , which appears on the compilation The Singles : 1996 @-@ 2006 , and also wrote a song entitled " Layne " , dedicated to Staley , on the album 14 Shades of Grey . Three Days Grace also performs a cover of " Rooster " , which can be seen on the DVD Live at the Palace . Other bands that have been inspired by Alice in Chains include Creed , Nickelback , Taproot , Stone Sour , Puddle of Mudd , Queens of the Stone Age , A Pale Horse Named Death , Godsmack , Smile Empty Soul , Avenged Sevenfold , Cold , Hurt , Incubus , Hoobastank , Mudvayne , 10 Years , Breaking Benjamin , Days of the New , and Tantric . Metallica said they have always wanted to tour with the band , citing Alice in Chains as a major inspiration for their 2008 release , Death Magnetic . Metallica also recorded " Rebel Of Babylon " as a tribute to Layne Staley , but the song was left off Death Magnetic due to manufacturing restrictions and then later released on a four @-@ song EP , Beyond Magnetic . Alice in Chains has also had a significant influence on modern heavy metal . Their songs were covered by various metal bands such as Opeth , Dream Theater , Secrets of the Moon , Suicide Silence , and Grave . Pantera and Damageplan guitarist Dimebag Darrell had expressed his admiration for Jerry Cantrell 's guitar work in an interview for Guitar International saying that " the layering and the honest feel that Jerry Cantrell gets on [ Alice in Chains ' Dirt ] record is worth a lot more than someone who plays five million notes " . Anders Fridén of Swedish melodic death metal band In Flames cited Layne Staley as an inspiration for his vocals on the band 's later albums . In addition to fellow musicians , the band has also received praise from critics , with Steve Huey of AllMusic calling them " one of the best metal bands of the ' 90s " upon reviewing the 1999 compilation Nothing Safe . = = Band members = = = = = Timeline = = = = = Discography = = Facelift ( 1990 ) Dirt ( 1992 ) Alice in Chains ( 1995 ) Black Gives Way to Blue ( 2009 ) The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here ( 2013 ) = = Awards and nominations = = Alice in Chains has received nine Grammy nominations . Their first nomination was for the song " Man in the Box " , nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1992 . The album Dirt was nominated in the same category in 1993 . Six more songs were nominated between 1995 and 2011 , and the album The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here was nominated for Best Engineered Album , Non Classical in 2014 . The music video for the song " Would ? " , Alice in Chains ' contribution to the 1992 film , Singles , won the award for Best Video from a Film at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards . In 2009 they won the Kerrang ! Icon award , and in 2010 they won the Revolver Golden Gods award for Black Gives Way to Blue . American Music Awards The American Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony created by Dick Clark in 1973 . Grammy Awards The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences . MTV Video Music Awards The MTV Video Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1984 by MTV .

= 2007 Hawaii Bowl = The 2007 Sheraton Hawaii Bowl was a post @-@ season college football bowl game between the Boise State University Broncos from the Western Athletic Conference ( WAC ) and the East Carolina University Pirates from Conference USA ( C @-@ USA ) at the Aloha Stadium in Honolulu , Hawaiʻi on December 23 , 2007 . The game was the final competition of the 2007 football season for each team and resulted in a 41 – 38 East Carolina victory , even though sportsbooks favored Boise State to win by 10 ½ points . Many experts believed East Carolina to be big underdogs to Boise State , which had defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl . The 2007 Hawaiʻi Bowl paid $ 750 @,@ 000 to each team 's conference in exchange for their participation . The game , which was the sixth edition of the bowl , was expected to be an offensive shootout . Boise State averaged 42 @.@ 4 points during the 2007 season , while East Carolina averaged 31 . That expectation turned out to be justified as East Carolina took a 31 – 14 lead in the first half . The Broncos fought back in the second half , however , tying the score at 38 late in the fourth quarter after East Carolina 's Chris Johnson fumbled the ball , allowing Bronco defender Marty Tadman to recover the ball and return it 47 yards for a touchdown . The game remained tied until the final moments as East Carolina 's Ben Hartman made a 34 – yard game @-@ winning field goal as time expired . The attendance of 30 @,@ 467 was the largest crowd to attend a Hawaiʻi Bowl game that did not feature the host school . Boise State 's loss dropped them to a final 2007 record of 10 – 3 , while East Carolina 's final @-@ game win earned them a record of 8 – 5 . = = Selection process = = The Hawaiʻi football team normally receives an automatic bid to the game unless the team is selected to participate in a BCS game or is not bowl eligible . If either of those events happen , the WAC selects its next @-@ highest ranked team to compete in the game . In 2007 , Hawaiʻi was selected to play on January 1 , 2008 in the Sugar Bowl against Georgia , marking just the second time since the creation of the Hawaiʻi Bowl that Hawaiʻi would not participate . The only previous time that Hawaiʻi failed to make an appearance was in 2005 , when the Warriors finished their season with a 5 – 7 record and were not eligible for a bowl game . Conference USA fields the other team in the Hawaiʻi Bowl . The Liberty Bowl has the first selection of C @-@ USA teams , and GMAC Bowl picks second . After those two are picked , the conference provides a team for the Hawaiʻi Bowl and three other bowls . In 2007 , the University of Central Florida accepted the bid to compete in the Liberty Bowl , Tulsa accepted the bid to compete in the GMAC Bowl , leaving East Carolina to be selected by the Hawaiʻi Bowl on December 1 , 2007 . Boise State was undefeated in conference play going into the final game of the regular season , and suffered just one out @-@ of @-@ conference loss . In that final game , BSU lost 39 – 27 to undefeated Hawaiʻi . Following the game , the Broncos decided to travel to Hawaiʻi , rather than play at home in the Humanitarian Bowl , which is located at Boise 's home stadium in Boise , Idaho and features a matchup between a WAC team and one from the Atlantic Coast Conference . Boise ended its regular season 10 – 2 overall and 7 – 1 in conference play . East Carolina , meanwhile , had been in first place in the C @-@ USA 's East Division with just two games remaining . A loss to Marshall University in that second @-@ to @-@ last game , however , put ECU into second place in its division , and thus out of competition for the Conference USA Championship . After winning against conference foe Tulane in the final game of the season , the Pirates decided to travel to the Hawaiʻi Bowl . East Carolina ended the regular season 7 – 5 overall , and 6 – 2 in conference play . = = Pre @-@ game buildup = = On December 1 , 2007 , Hawaiʻi Bowl representatives announced East Carolina and Boise State as the competitors in the 2007 edition of the game . It would be the first time in history that the two teams had ever met . Two weeks after the announcement , Boise State 's top wide receiver Jeremy Childs , cornerback Keith McGowen , and linebacker Ben Chandler were declared out for the game after violating team rules . In an online contest held by ESPN.com in the weeks leading up to the game , 98 % of the participants voted that Boise State would beat East Carolina . Participants also gave 32 out of 32 " confidence points " on average , indicating the highest possible confidence in the predicted outcome . = = = Boise State offense versus East Carolina defense = = = Boise State came into the game averaging 42 @.@ 75 points and 475 @.@ 67 yards per game , the fourth and twelfth highest totals in college football . Senior quarterback Taylor Tharp led the offense by more than 3 @,@ 000 yards and 28 touchdowns , headed into the 2007 Hawaiiʻ Bowl . On the ground , the Broncos were led by junior running back Ian Johnson , who had 17 touchdowns and 1 @,@ 030 yards in the regular season . Wide receiver Jeremy Childs also was a potent threat on offense , averaging 87 @.@ 08 receiving yards per game , and backup running back D.J. Harper rushed for 41 @.@ 44 yards per game on average . Johnson and Childs both earned First Team All @-@ WAC honors , and Tharp was named to Second Team All @-@ WAC . Offensive tackle Ryan Clady was the team 's only All @-@ American , and promised to do a good job protecting Taylor Tharp on the offensive line . East Carolina had been shaky on defense . ECU ranked 98th in total defense and 115th in passing defense , giving up an average of 436 @.@ 42 yards per game . Despite that fact , the Pirates did well in the turnover battle , gaining 27 turnovers while losing just 13 – a margin of + 14 – good enough for ninth in the country . In addition , the ECU defense ranked eleventh nationally in tackles for loss . Defensive linemen Zack Slate and C.J. Wilson and defensive back Van Eskridge took C – USA All – Conference second team honors . = = = East Carolina offense versus Boise State defense = = = Boise State faced the nation 's top all @-@ purpose yards leader , All @-@ American Chris Johnson . Johnson racked up an average of 212 @.@ 67 all @-@ purpose yards per game during the 2007 season , making him a potent threat on offense . Taking snaps for the offense were quarterbacks Patrick Pinkney and Rob Kass . Pinkney had a passer rating of 131 @.@ 58 , while Kass had a comparable rating of 122 @.@ 94 . The top receiver for the Pirates was Jamar Bryant , who averaged 3 @.@ 5 catches for 52 @.@ 17 yards per game . In addition to Chris Johnson , who was named to the C – USA All – Conference second team , offensive lineman Josh Coffman received C – USA All @-@ Conference second team honors . The Broncos ' defense , meanwhile , was ranked number one in the WAC in total defense , scoring defense , rushing defense , and pass defense . The team 's defense ranked number two in the conference in pass efficiency defense , turnover margin , and sacks . Defensive lineman Nick Schlekeway and defensive back Marty Tadman both received All – WAC first team honors and promised to pose difficulties for the Pirates ' offensive front . = = Game summary = = The 2007 Hawaiʻi Bowl kicked off on December 23 , 2007 at 8 : 00 p.m EST in front of an estimated crowd of 30 @,@ 467 , which was the largest crowd in Hawaiʻi Bowl history for a game not featuring the Hawai 'i football team . The game was nationally televised on ESPN , and was watched by an estimated average of 1 @.@ 6 million people , good enough for a television rating of 1 @.@ 47 . East Carolina had to travel 4 @,@ 861 miles ( 7 @,@ 823 km ) one way , making it the longest bowl trip of the season for any team during the 2007 bowl season . Boise State , meanwhile , traveled 2 @,@ 835 miles ( 4 @,@ 562 km ) to Hawaiʻi . Due to the distance involved , East Carolina fans wishing to support their school , but unable to travel to the game , bought 2 @,@ 709 tickets for troops stationed in Hawaiʻi as a show of support . The weather at kickoff was mostly cloudy with winds from the northeast at 13 miles ( 21 km ) . The temperature was 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) . For the officiating crew , the referee was Terry Leyden , umpire was Kevin Matthews , and the linesman was Bob Bahne . The line judge was Bart Longson , the back judge was Joe Johnston and the field judge was Ed Vinzant . The side judge was Craig Falkner . = = = First quarter = = = East Carolina won the pre @-@ game coin toss and deferred the ball until the second half , allowing Boise State to receive the ball to begin the game . The Broncos received the opening kickoff at their 4 – yard line and went three @-@ and @-@ out . Following the Broncos ' punt , East Carolina began its first possession of the game on its 43 – yard line . The offense marched to the 19 – yard line of Boise State , but was stopped on third down . ECU kicker Ben Hartman was sent into the game and made a field goal from 36 yards away . East Carolina kicked the ball to Boise State 's Austin Smith and he returned the kickoff 89 yards for a touchdown . The touchdown and extra point made the score 7 – 3 and gave Boise State its only lead of the game . The next two drives for each team ended in punts . On East Carolina 's third drive , Chris Johnson rushed on the first play 68 yards for a touchdown . With the point after , East Carolina lead 10 – 7 . The next Boise State drive ended in a three and out , and the Broncos kicked the ball away . The Pirates marched down the field 55 yards , but the quarter ended before ECU had a chance to score . At the end of the first quarter , East Carolina led Boise State 10 – 7 . = = = Second quarter = = = ECU began the second quarter on Boise 's 30 – yard line , and quarterback Patrick Pinkney continued the Pirates ' drive with a 14 – yard rush . After three more successful plays , Dominique Lindsay rushed 3 yards for a touchdown . Kicker Ben Hartman converted the point after , which made the score 17 – 7 ECU . The Broncos ' first drive of the second quarter was halted after a holding penalty and an incomplete pass denied BSU a chance for a first down . Boise was forced to kick the ball away once more . The Pirates ' second drive of the quarter began at their 26 – yard line . ECU needed just four plays to march 74 yards down the field for a touchdown . On the drive , Chris Johnson rushed for 46 yards and threw an 18 – yard pass for a touchdown . After the touchdown and the extra point kick , ECU led 24 – 7 . Boise State 's first play after the post @-@ touchdown kickoff was intercepted by Pirates ' defender Travis Williams . Despite the turnover , East Carolina was unable to attain a first down , and went three @-@ and @-@ out before punting . On Boise 's second play of the new drive following the punt , the team earned its first first down of the game . The Broncos continued the drive by going 69 yards in eight plays , culminating in a touchdown . The series included five complete passes and two rushes . With the score , The Broncos had closed the gap to ten points : 24 – 14 East Carolina . East Carolina started their series on their 41 – yard line . A substitution infraction on ECU and an incomplete pass forced ECU to punt the ball away . On the Broncos ' fourth drive of the second quarter , the team began with three complete passes for 18 yards . On the fourth play , however , BSU 's Titus Young fumbled the ball away . Pirates ' defender Jay Ross recovered the fumble , and ECU had another chance on offense before the end of the first half . East Carolina ran five plays for 38 yards . With the clock running down , ECU elected to kick a field goal . The kick was good , and made the score 31 – 14 ECU . Boise State had one final chance on offense , and Boise Quarterback Taylor Tharp went two @-@ for @-@ four , but ran out of time before coming into field goal range . At halftime , East Carolina led Boise State 31 – 14 . = = = Third quarter = = = Because Boise State had received the opening kickoff , East Carolina received the ball to open the second half . ECU completed seven rushes and four passes for 74 yards in five minutes and 53 seconds . On the last play of the drive , Brandon Simmons rushed three yards for a touchdown , and ECU increased its lead to 38 – 14 . To begin its first series of the second half , Boise State returned the post @-@ touchdown kickoff 55 yards . Two quick plays later , Boise quarterback Taylor Tharp completed a pass to Jeremy Avery for a touchdown , cutting East Carolina 's lead to 17 points , 38 – 21 . After the punt , the Pirates were unable to obtain a first down . Three plays netted only two yards , and ECU was forced to punt the ball away . On the ensuing drive , Boise State completed three first downs on the series . BSU kicker Kyle Brotzman , converted a 31 yard field goal and the Broncos shrank the ECU lead further . The series went 40 yards in nine plays . It took the team two minutes and 37 seconds to score . East Carolina took the kickoff on the 39 – yard line , after a Boise player illegally touched the ball on the 39 . Pinkney threw an incomplete pass to start the drive , and after two more plays failed to convert the first down , ECU was forced to punt the ball away . After a touchback , Boise State began at its 20 – yard line . The Broncos completed three plays for 11 yards before the third quarter ended . At the end of the third quarter , East Carolina led Boise State 38 – 24 . = = = Fourth quarter = = = BSU started the fourth quarter by throwing two incomplete passes . Tharp then completed two passes for a combined 39 yards before Pirates ' defender J.J. Milbrook intercepted Tharp 's fifth pass of the quarter . Milbrook returned the interception 27 yards . The Pirates completed one first down but failed to convert the interception into points . Kicker Matt Dodge came into the game , ostensibly to punt the ball away . In a trick play , he rushed the ball instead , picking up the first down . Despite the trick play 's success , the Pirates were not able to gain another first down . On fourth down , Dodge came out again , and this time punted the ball 47 yards for a touchback . The Broncos began the second drive of the fourth quarter by going 80 yards in nine plays for a touchdown . It took just three minutes and 59 seconds and BSU only three first downs . Boise had now cut the Pirates ' lead to 38 – 31 . On the next drive , ECU brought in a new quarterback , Rob Kass . Kass was initially successful , and gained a few first downs . The Boise State defense stiffened , however , and ECU was forced to punt the ball away . After a touchback , Boise State began on its 20 – yard line . Running back Jeremy Avery rushed for four yards on the first play . On the third play , Tharp completed a pass for nine yards for a first down . Tharp then passed three straight times for 32 yards and two first downs . On subsequent plays , Tharp rushed for six yards and passed for another six to convert BSU 's third first down of the drive . Three plays later , however , the Broncos ' Titus Young fumbled the ball for the second time in the game , and as before , ECU recovered , seemingly sealing the victory . After a Boise State unsportsmanlike conduct penalty , ECU began its their 39 – yard line , needing only to rush the ball to keep the clock moving in order to secure the win . On the second rush by Chris Johnson , however , he fumbled the ball . The fumble was recovered by Broncos ' defender Marty Tadman at the ECU 47 – yard line and returned all the way for a touchdown . After the PAT , Boise State tied East Carolina 38 – 38 . The fumble and touchdown turned what had been an inevitable ECU victory into a tie game . Boise kicked the ball deep , hoping to stop the Pirates ' offense and force overtime . Following the kick , ECU began at its own nine – yard line . The Pirates began the drive with one minute and 16 seconds left in the game . Dominique Lindsay rushed for two yards before Rob Kass completed a pass to Jamar Bryant for 39 yards , enough for a first down near midfield . The Pirates ' continued to move forward , passing for short yardage and rushing for short gains that kept the clock moving , but advanced the ball closer to field goal range . On the third to the last play , Kass rushed for seven yards , and ECU took a timeout with 15 seconds left . Rob Kass lost one yard while moving the ball towards the center of the field in order to set up a game @-@ ending kick . ECU took its last timeout , again stopping the clock . With four seconds remaining on the clock , ECU kicker Ben Hartman converted a 34 – yard field goal to take the lead and the win , 41 – 38 , as time ran out . = = Final statistics = = East Carolina running back Chris Johnson finished the game with 223 rushing yards , 32 receiving yards , and 153 return yards for a total of 408 all @-@ purpose yards . That mark broke the NCAA bowl record for all @-@ purpose yards previously set by Alabama 's Sherman Williams against Ohio State in the 1995 Citrus Bowl . On the basis of his record @-@ setting performance , Johnson was named the game 's Most Valuable Player . On the opposite side of the ball , Boise State tailback Jeremy Avery had a solid , if unspectacular , outing . He produced 69 rushing yards , 43 receiving yards , 41 kick – return yards , and caught a 25 – yard touchdown pass . Both Johnson and Avery received the Most Valuable Player award for their respective teams . Boise State committed four turnovers , compared with East Carolina 's one . The Broncos fumbled the ball away twice and threw two interceptions . Despite the disparity in turnover margin , the teams were strikingly similar in several statistical categories , indicating the closeness of the game : Each team earned seven points off the turnovers . Both teams committed 50 yards in penalties ; the Pirates had seven penalties to the Broncos ' four . In addition , both teams earned 22 first downs . = = = Boise State statistical recap = = = Boise State University had 368 total offensive yards during the game . About 73 % of BSU 's total offense came through the air , as quarterback Taylor Tharp passed for 270 yards . The remaining 98 yards came on the ground from five different rushers . Running back Jeremy Avery ran for a team @-@ high 69 yards on 10 carries , while running back D.J. Harper had the only Boise State rushing touchdown of the game . Tharp 's 30 completions were caught by eight different receivers . Austin Pettis led the team with nine catches for 89 yards , and his total accounted for one – third of the team 's receiving yards . Two receivers , Jeremy Avery and Ryan Putnam , accounted for all of the team 's receiving touchdowns . Avery had four catches for 43 yards , while Putnam had one catch for three yards . Taylor Tharp 's two interceptions were the second @-@ most he had thrown in a game during 2007 , and brought his season interception total to 11 . He completed 30 of 44 pass attempts , a completion percentage of 68 @.@ 2 % . His 270 yards were 13 yards more than his season average of 257 yards . With only two passing touchdowns , Tharp tied for his third @-@ worst passing game in 2007 , faring worse only in the win against Weber State , loss to Washington , win against Fresno State , and loss to Hawaiʻi . Tharp was sacked once by Pirates ' defensive lineman C.J. Wilson for a seven yard loss . Boise State 's defense had a hard time stopping the East Carolina offense , especially in the first half . The Pirates ' 31 points were the most scored all year by East Carolina in the first half . Leading the Broncos ' defense was safety Marty Tadman . Tadman had seven solo tackles , three assisted tackles , and recorded a defensive touchdown after recovering Chris Johnson 's fumble late in the fourth quarter . Linebacker Kyle Gingg also starred on defense , recording seven solo tackles , one assisted tackle , and one tackle for a one @-@ yard loss . A total of 23 players recorded at least one tackle . Kyle Brotzman handled all the kicking duties for Boise State , punting the ball four times for 169 yards . His longest punt was 52 yards , and one kick was downed inside the Pirates ' 20 yard line . His only field goal was a 31 – yard kick that came with three minutes and 11 seconds left in the third quarter . Brotzman kicked off seven times for 384 yards , averaging 54 @.@ 9 yards per kick with no touchbacks . Marty Tadman had BSU 's only punt return for -1 yard . The Broncos ' special teams had more luck on kickoff returns . Three players had kickoff returns . Austin Smith returned four kickoffs for 173 yards . His 89 – yard return for a touchdown in the first quarter was the team 's longest of the game and gave Boise State its only lead of the game . Jeremy Avery returned two kicks for 41 yards , and Titus Young returned one kick for 52 yards . Boise State controlled the time of possession only during the fourth quarter , when the Broncos scored 14 points to tie the game . Overall , however , Boise State only controlled the ball for 26 minutes and 16 seconds , in comparison to East Carolina 's 33 minutes and 44 seconds . = = = East Carolina statistical recap = = = Almost 70 % of the Pirates ' rushing offense came from running back Chris Johnson , and the rushing offense itself consisted of two – thirds of East Carolina 's total offensive effort . Six additional rushers contributed 99 yards on the ground . The longest rush of the game – 68 yards – came from Johnson . Quarterback Patrick Pinkney played much of the game , completing 12 passes in 19 attempts . Pinkney threw for 118 yards and one touchdown , but the longest pass came from the Pirates ' second quarterback , Rob Kass . Kass threw a 36 – yard pass in the fourth quarter to keep the Pirates ' game @-@ winning drive alive . The pass was Kass 's only completion out of three attempts . Almost one – third of East Carolina 's total offense came from the air . Ben Hartman and Matt Dodge both contributed to East Carolina 's kicking game . Dodge punted the ball seven times for 302 yards . His longest was a 61 – yard kick , and he had four touchbacks . Hartman and Dodge shared kickoff duty . Dodge had four kickoffs , compared with Hartman 's three . Dodge averaged 60 @.@ 5 yards per kick , while Hartman averaged 57 yards . In addition , Hartman added six points to the scoreboard from field goal attempts . He was two for two , with the second field goal attempt being the game @-@ winner in the fourth quarter . Dwayne Harris handled all punt returns . He fielded two punts , returning them for a total of five yards . Kickoff @-@ return duty was handled by Chris Johnson . He returned six kickoffs for 153 yards , with his longest return consisting of 39 yards . East Carolina 's defense managed a strong performance statistically and in real terms . The most obvious examples of this were the two interceptions and two forced fumbles . On the first play of the second drive of the second quarter , Boise State quarterback Taylor Tharp threw an interception to defensive back Travis Williams . Williams also recorded eight solo tackles — the second @-@ highest total for the Pirates – and a forced fumble . The other interception came from defensive back J.J. Milbrook , who also boasted three solo tackles , tying him for fifth – best on the team . Linebacker Jeremy forced the final Broncos turnover , gaining the ball and four yards on the play . In addition to his forced fumble , Chambliss recorded four solo tackles . The Pirates ' defense as a whole only gave up three yards in the first quarter and did not allow a first down until halfway through the second quarter . That strong defensive effort limited the Broncos ' third – down conversion rate to 50 % . Until the fourth quarter , BSU was just two for seven on third – down attempts . On offense , the Pirates fared slightly better , going six for fifteen on third downs . = = After @-@ effects = = The win by East Carolina knocked # 24 Boise State out of the final AP Poll of the year . This was the first time BSU was not ranked in the AP Poll top 25 since October 28 , 2007 . Because of his impressive performance , Chris Johnson was invited to the 2008 Senior Bowl . After the game , East Carolina finished the season 8 @-@ 5 , the highest win total since 2000 . This also marked Coach Skip Holtz 's first Bowl win . Boise State finished the season 10 @-@ 3 . This marked Coach Chris Petersen first post @-@ season loss .

= The Boat Race 1999 = The 145th Boat Race took place on 3 April 1999 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Featuring the tallest rower in Boat Race history , Cambridge won the race in the second @-@ fastest time ever . It was their seventh consecutive victory in the event . In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis in the fastest time ever , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1998 race by three lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 75 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race . Andrew Lindsay was confident that the Oxford crew would be more motivated than their opponents : " our advantage over Cambridge is that we are hungry for the victory . Everyone in the Oxford boat is driven to go and win this damn thing " . He was making his third and final appearance in the race having lost in both the 1997 and 1998 race . His grandfather represented Cambridge in the 1930s , and his uncle , Alexander Lindsay , rowed for the losing Oxford crew in the 1959 race before triumphing the following year . Cambridge boat club president and Canadian international rower Brad Crombie was also making his third Boat Race appearance , attempting to complete a hat @-@ trick of victories . Sean Bowden was the head coach of Oxford . His Cambridge counterpart , Robin Williams , suggested " it still feels like all or nothing to us . The fear of defeat , the aim of trying to push the limits is motivation itself " . Just as he had done in the 1993 race , umpire Mark Evans introduced modifications to the starting procedure , suggesting that he would be content to hold the crews for up to ten seconds between issuing the " set " and " go " commands . Cambridge 's Williams remarked : " I 'm happy as long as both crews abide by it " , Bowden was nonplussed " Go is when you start races . I 'm happy . " The race was sponsored for the first time by Aberdeen Asset Management , and both crews were competing for the Aberdeen Asset Trophy . It was the fiftieth anniversary of the BBC 's coverage of the event and over the preceding five years had secured an average audience in excess of six million . = = Crews = = The Oxford crew weighed @-@ in at an average of 14 st 10 lb ( 93 @.@ 2 kg ) , 0 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 23 kg ) more per rower than Cambridge . Josh West , rowing at number four for Cambridge , became the tallest rower in Boat Race history at 6 ft 9 in ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) . The Oxford crew comprised three Britons , three Americans , a Swede , a Canadian and a German , while Cambridge were represented by five Britons , two Americans , a German and a Canadian . Three former Blues returned for Cambridge in Wallace , Crombie and Smith , while Oxford saw Humphreys and Lindsay return . Vian Sharif , the Cambridge cox , became the tenth female to steer a Boat Race crew , and was the lightest competitor at the event since the 1986 race . = = Race = = Bookmakers could not initially separate the crews , offering odds on for either boat to win . However , as the start of the race approached , Williams had suggested that he was worried by his crew 's " inconsistency " and Oxford were declared favourites . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Despite being warned by umpire Davis , Cambridge were soon half @-@ a @-@ length ahead , and a second clear by the Mile Post . The lead was extended to a length by Hammersmith Bridge and Sharif had steered her boat into a better angle of attack . Pushing on , Cambridge were seven seconds up by Chiswick Steps and nine seconds at Barnes Railway Bridge . They passed the finishing post three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ahead , with an eleven @-@ second advantage over the Dark Blues . The Light Blues finished in 16 minutes 41 seconds , a time only bettered once before , in 1998 . It was the first time since 1936 that Cambridge had secured seven consecutive victories . In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , their ninth victory in ten years , and in a record time of 16 minutes 58 seconds which beat the fastest time recorded in 1996 and repeated in 1998 . Cambridge won the 51st Women 's Boat Race by one length in a time of 6 minutes 1 second , their eighth consecutive victory . = = Reaction = = Oxford 's Bowden was dumbstruck : " I 'm really floored . I just haven 't got any answers until I talk to the crew . " His number four , Toby Ayer admitted : " my impression is that they were quicker than us and that is a very hard thing to have to say . " Cambridge 's Williams noted : " I thought it would be a bit more competitive than that . " Cambridge boat club president Crombie exclaimed " that 's the most fun I 've ever had rowing for Cambridge . "

= Hoysala literature = Hoysala literature is the large body of literature in the Kannada and Sanskrit languages produced by the Hoysala Empire ( 1025 – 1343 ) in what is now southern India . The empire was established by Nripa Kama II , came into political prominence during the rule of King Vishnuvardhana ( 1108 – 1152 ) , and declined gradually after its defeat by the Khilji dynasty invaders in 1311 . Kannada literature during this period consisted of writings relating to the socio @-@ religious developments of the Jain and Veerashaiva faiths , and to a lesser extent that of the Vaishnava faith . The earliest well @-@ known brahmin writers in Kannada were from the Hoysala court . While most of the courtly textual production was in Kannada , an important corpus of monastic Vaishnava literature relating to Dvaita ( dualistic ) philosophy was written by the renowned philosopher Madhvacharya in Sanskrit . Writing Kannada literature in native metres was first popularised by the court poets . These metres were the sangatya , compositions sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument ; shatpadi , six @-@ line verses ; ragale , lyrical compositions in blank verse ; and tripadi , three @-@ line verses . However , Jain writers continued to use the traditional champu , composed of prose and verse . Important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets but also by noblemen , commanders , ministers , ascetics and saints associated with monasteries . = = Kannada writings = = = = = Overview = = = Beginning with the 12th century , important socio @-@ political changes took place in the Deccan , south of the Krishna river . During this period , the Hoysalas , native Kannadigas from the Malnad region ( hill country in modern Karnataka ) were on the ascendant as a political power . They are known to have existed as chieftains from the mid @-@ 10th century when they distinguished themselves as subordinates of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani . In 1116 , Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana defeated the Cholas of Tanjore and annexed Gangavadi ( parts of modern southern Karnataka ) , thus bringing the region back under native rule . In the following decades , with the waning of the Chalukya power , the Hoysalas proclaimed independence and grew into one of the most powerful ruling families of southern India . Consequently , literature in Kannada , the local language , flourished in the Hoysala empire . This literature can be broadly subdivided as follows : works dominated by the themes of Jain writings , contrasting works by Veerashaiva writers not belonging to the vachana poetic tradition , rebuttals to Shaiva writings from Jain writers , early brahminical works ( Vaishnava ) , works from the birth of the Bhakti ( devotional ) movement in the Kannada @-@ speaking region , writings on secular topics , and the first writings in native metres ( ragale , sangatya and shatpadi ) . As in earlier centuries , Jain authors wrote about tirthankars ( saints ) , princes and other personages important to the Jain religion . Jain versions of the Hindu epics such as the Ramayana and Bhagavata ( tales of Hindu god Krishna ) were also written . According to R. Narasimhacharya , a noted scholar on Kannada literature , more Jain writers wrote in Kannada than in any other Dravidian language during the " Augustan age " of Kannada literature , from the earliest known works to the 12th century . The Veerashaiva writers , devotees of the Hindu god Shiva , wrote about his 25 forms in their expositions of Shaivism . Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics , the Ramayana , the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata . Breaking away from the old Jain tradition of using the champu form for writing Kannada literature , Harihara penned poems in the ragale metre in Siva @-@ ganada @-@ ragalegalu ( 1160 ) . His nephew Raghavanka established the shatpadi tradition by writing a unique version of the story of King Harishchandra in Harishchandra Kavya ( 1200 ) . Sisumayana introduced the sangatya metre in his Anjanacharita and Tripuradahana ( 1235 ) . However , some scholars continued to employ Sanskritic genres such as champu ( Ramachandra Charitapurana ) , shataka ( 100 verse compositions , Pampa sataka ) and ashtaka ( eight line verse compositions , Mudige ashtaka ) . The exact beginnings of the haridasa movement in the Kannada @-@ speaking region have been disputed . Belur Keshavadasa , a noted Harikatha scholar , claimed in his book Karnataka Bhaktavijaya that the movement was inspired by saint Achalananda Dasa of Turvekere ( in the modern Tumkur district ) in the 9th century . However , neither the language used in Achalananda Dasa 's compositions nor the discovery of a composition with the pen name " Achalanada Vitthala " , which mentions the 13th @-@ century philosopher Madhvacharya , lends support to the 9th @-@ century theory . Naraharitirtha ( 1281 ) , one of earliest disciples of Madhvacharya , is therefore considered the earliest haridasa to write Vaishnava compositions in Kannada . Secular topics were popular and included treatises on poetry ( Sringararatnakara ) and writings on natural sciences ( Rattasutra ) , mathematics ( Vyavaharaganita ) , fiction ( Lilavati ) , grammar ( Shabdamanidarpana ) , rhetoric ( Udayadityalankara ) and others . Important contributions were made by some prominent literary families . One Jain family produced several authors , including Mallikarjuna , the noted anthologist ( 1245 ) ; his brother @-@ in @-@ law Janna ( 1209 ) , the court poet of King Veera Ballala II ; Mallikarjuna 's son Keshiraja ( 1260 ) , considered by D. R. Nagaraj , a scholar on literary cultures in history , to be the greatest theorist of Kannada grammar ; and Sumanobana , who was in the court of King Narasimha I and was the maternal grandfather of Keshiraja . Harihara ( 1160 ) and his nephew Raghavanka ( 1200 ) , poets who set the trend for using native metres , came from a Shaiva family ( devotees of the god Shiva ) . The support of the Hoysala rulers for the Kannada language was strong , and this is seen even in their epigraphs , often written in polished and poetic language , rather than prose , with illustrations of floral designs in the margins . In addition to the Hoysala patronage , royal support was enjoyed by Kannada poets and writers during this period in the courts of neighbouring kingdoms of the western Deccan . The Western Chalukyas , the southern Kalachuris , the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and the Silharas of Kolhapur are some of the ruling families who enthusiastically used Kannada in inscriptions and promoted its literature . Writers bilingual in Kannada and Telugu gained popularity which caused interaction between the two languages , a trend that continued into modern times . The Veerashiva canon of the Kannada language was translated or adapted into Telugu from this time period . Palkuriki Somanatha ( 1195 ) , a devotee of social reformer Basavanna , is the most well @-@ known of these bilingual poets . The Chola chieftain Nannechoda ( c . 1150 ) used many Kannada words in his Telugu writings . After the decline of the Hoysala empire , the Vijayanagara empire kings further supported writers in both languages . In 1369 , inspired by Palkuriki Somanatha , Bhima Kavi translated the Telugu Basavapurana to Kannada , and King Deva Raya II ( c . 1425 ) had Chamarasa 's landmark writing Prabhulingalile translated into Telugu and Tamil . Many Veerashaiva writers in the court of the 17th century Kingdom of Mysore were multilingual in Kannada , Telugu and Sanskrit while the Srivaishnava ( a sect of Vaishnavism ) Kannada writers of the court were in competition with the Telugu and Sanskrit writers . Information from contemporary records regarding several writers from this period whose works are considered lost include : Maghanandi ( probable author of Rama Kathe and guru of Kamalabhava of 1235 ) , Srutakirti ( guru of Aggala , and author of Raghava Pandaviya and possibly a Jina @-@ stuti , 1170 ) , Sambha Varma ( mentioned by Nagavarma of 1145 ) , Vira Nandi ( Chandraprabha Kavyamala , 1175 ) , Dharani Pandita ( Bijjala raya Charita and Varangana Charita ) , Amrita Nandi ( Dhanvantari Nighantu ) , Vidyanatha ( Prataparudriya ) , Ganeshvara ( Sahitya Sanjivana ) , Harabhakta , a Veerashaiva mendicant ( Vedabhashya , 1300 ) , and Siva Kavi ( author of Basava Purana in 1330 ) . = = = Jain epics = = = During the early 12th @-@ century ascendancy of the Hoysalas , the kings of the dynasty entertained imperial ambitions . King Vishnuvardhana wanted to perform Vedic sacrifices befitting an emperor , and surpass his overlords , the Western Chalukyas , in military and architectural achievements . This led to his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism . Around the same time , the well @-@ known philosopher Ramanujacharya sought refuge from the Cholas in Hoysala territory and popularised the Sri Vaishnava faith , a sect of Hindu Vaishnavism . Although Jains continued to dominate culturally in what is now the southern Karnataka region for a while , these social changes would later contribute to the decline of Jain literary output . The growing political clout of the Hoysalas attracted many bards and scholars to their court , who in turn wrote panegyrics on their patrons . Nagachandra , a scholar and the builder of the Mallinatha Jinalaya ( a Jain temple in honor of the 19th Jain tirthankar , Mallinatha , in Bijapur , Karnataka ) , wrote Mallinathapurana ( 1105 ) , an account of the evolution of the soul of the Jain saint . According to some historians , King Veera Ballala I was his patron . Later , he wrote his magnum opus , a Jain version of the Hindu epic Ramayana called Ramachandra Charitapurana ( or Pampa Ramayana ) . Written in the traditional champu metre and in the Pauma charia tradition of Vimalasuri , it is the earliest extant version of the epic in the Kannada language . The work contains 16 sections and deviates significantly from the original epic by Valmiki . Nagachandra represents King Ravana , the villain of the Hindu epic , as a tragic hero , who in a moment of weakness commits the sin of abducting Sita ( wife of the Hindu god Rama ) but is eventually purified by her devotion to Rama . In a further deviation , Rama 's loyal brother Lakshmana ( instead of Rama ) kills Ravana in the final battle . Eventually , Rama takes jaina @-@ diksha ( converts to Digambara monk ) , becomes an ascetic and attains nirvana ( enlightenment ) . Considered a complementary work to the Pampa Bharatha of Adikavi Pampa ( 941 , a Jain version of the epic Mahabharata ) , the work earned Nagachandra the honorific " Abhinava Pampa " ( " new Pampa " ) . Only in the Kannada language do Jain versions exist of the Hindu epics , the Mahabharata and Ramayana , in addition to their brahminical version . Kanti ( 1108 ) , known for her wit and humour , was one of the earliest female poets of the Kannada language and a contemporary of Nagachandra , with whom she indulged in debates and repartees . Rajaditya , a native of either Puvinabage or Raibhag ( the modern Belgaum district ) , was in the Hoysala court during the days of King Veera Ballala I and King Vishnuvardhana . He wrote in easy verse on arithmetic and other mathematical topics and is credited with three of the earliest writings on mathematics in the Kannada language : Vyavaharaganita , Kshetraganita and Lilavati . Udayaditya , a Chola prince , authored a piece on rhetoric called Udayadityalankara ( 1150 ) . It was based on Dandin 's Sanskrit Kavyadarsa . = = = Age of Harihara = = = Harihara ( or Harisvara , 1160 ) , who came from a family of karnikas ( accountants ) in Hampi , was one of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana poetic tradition . He is considered one of the most influential Kannada poets of the Hoysala era . A non @-@ traditionalist , he has been called " poet of poets " and a " poet for the masses " . Kannada poetry changed course because of his efforts , and he was an inspiration for generations of poets to follow . Impressed by his early writings , Kereya Padmarasa , the court poet of King Narasimha I , introduced him to the king , who became Harihara 's patron . A master of many metres , he authored the Girijakalyana ( " Marriage of the mountain born goddess – Parvati " ) in the Kalidasa tradition , employing the champu style to tell a 10 @-@ part story leading to the marriage of the god Shiva and Parvati . According to an anecdote , Harihara was so against eulogising earthly mortals that he struck his protégé Raghavanka for writing about King Harishchandra in the landmark work Harishchandra Kavya ( c . 1200 ) . Harihara is credited with developing the native ragale metre . The earliest poetic biographer in the Kannada language , he wrote a biography of Basavanna called Basavarajadevara ragale , which gives interesting details about the protagonist while not always conforming to popular beliefs of the time . Ascribed to him is a group of 100 poems called the Nambiyanana ragale ( also called Shivaganada ragale or Saranacharitamanasa – " The holy lake of the lives of the devotees " ) after the saint Nambiyana . In the sataka metre he wrote the Pampa sataka , and in the ashtaka metre , the Mudige ashtaka in about 1200 . Famous among Vaishnava writers and the first brahmin writer ( of the Smartha sect ) of repute , Rudrabhatta wrote Jagannatha Vijaya ( 1180 ) in a style considered a transition between ancient and medieval Kannada . Chandramouli , a minister in the court of King Veera Ballala II , was his patron . The writing , in champu metre , is about the life of the god Krishna . Leading to the god 's fight with Banasura , it is based on an earlier writing , Vishnupurana . Nemichandra , court poet of King Veera Ballala II and the Silhara King Lakshmana of Kholapur , wrote Lilavati Prabandham ( 1170 ) , the earliest available true fiction ( and hence a novel ) in Kannada , with an erotic bent . Written in the champu metre , with the ancient town Banavasi as the background , it narrates the love story of a Kadamba prince and a princess who eventually marry after facing many obstacles . The story is based on a c . 610 Sanskrit original called Vasavadatta by Subhandu . His other work , Neminathapurana , unfinished on account of his death ( and hence called Ardhanemi or " incomplete Nemi " ) , details the life of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha while treating the life of the god Krishna from a Jain angle . Palkuriki Somanatha , a native of modern Karnataka or Andhra Pradesh , is considered one of the foremost multi @-@ lingual Shaiva ( or Shiva @-@ following ) poets of the 12th and 13th centuries . Historians are divided about the time and place of his birth and death and his original faith . He was adept in the Sanskrit , Telugu and Kannada languages . He was a devotee of Basavanna ( the founder of the Veerashaiva movement ) , and all his writings propagate that faith . It is generally accepted that he was born a brahmin and later adopted the Shaiva faith , although according to the scholar Bandaru Tammayya he was born a Jangama ( follower of the Shaiva faith ) . His time of birth has been identified as either the 12th century or late 13th century . In Kannada , his most important writings are Silasampadane , Sahasragananama and Pancharatna . His well @-@ known poems , written in the ragale metre , are Basava ragale , Basavadhya ragale and Sadguru ragale . He is known to have humbled many Vaishnava poets in debates . Other well @-@ known personalities from the 12th century included several Jain writers . These include Aggala , who authored Chandraprabhapurana ( 1189 ) , an account of the life of the eighth Jain tirthankar Chandraprabha ; Sujanottamsa , who wrote a panegyric on Gomateshwara of Shravanabelagola ; and Vritta Vilasa , who authored Sastra sara and Dharmaparikshe ( 1160 ) . The latter was Vilasa 's version of the Sanskrit original of the same name written by Amitagati c . 1014 . In this champu writing , the author narrates the story of two Kshatriya princess who went to Benares and exposed the vices of the gods after discussions with the brahmins there . The author questions the credibility of Hanuman ( the Hindu monkey god ) and the Vanaras ( monkey @-@ like humanoids in the Hindu epic Ramayana ) . Although controversial , the work sheds useful information on contemporary religious beliefs . Kereya Padmarasa , a Veerashaiva poet patronised by King Narasimha I , wrote Dikshabodhe in the ragale metre in 1165 . He would later become the protagonist of a biographical work called Padmarajapurana written by his descendant Padmanaka in c . 1400 . The brahmin poet Deva Kavi authored a romance piece called Kusumavali ( 1200 ) , and brahmin poet Kavi Kama ( 12th century ) authored a treatise called Sringara @-@ ratnakara on the rasa ( flavor ) of poetical sentiment . Sumanobana ( 1170 ) was a poet @-@ grammarian and the Katakacharya ( " military teacher " ) under King Narasimha I. He was also a priest in Devagiri , the Seuna Yadava capital . = = = Jain – Veerashaiva conflict = = = Harihara 's nephew and protégé , the dramatic poet Raghavanka of Hampi , whose style is compared to that of 10th @-@ century poet Ranna , was the first to establish the shatpadi metre in Kannada literature in the epic Harishchandra Kavya ( 1200 ) . According to L. S. Seshagiri Rao , it is believed that in no other language has the story of King Harishchandra been interpreted in this way . The writing is an original in tradition and inspiration that fully develops the potential of the shatpadi metre . The narration has many noteworthy elegiac verses such as the mourning of Chandramati over the death of her young son Lohitashva from snake bite . The very writing that made Raghavanka famous was rejected by his guru , Harihara . His other well @-@ known writings , adhering to strict Shaiva principles and written to appease his guru , are the Siddharama charitra ( or Siddharama Purana ) , a larger than life stylistic eulogy of the compassionate 12th @-@ century Veerashaiva saint , Siddharama of Sonnalige ; the Somanatha charitra , a propagandist work that describes the life of saint Somayya ( or Adaiah ) of Puligere ( modern Lakshmeshwar ) , his humiliation by a Jain girl and his revenge ; the Viresvara charita , a dramatic story of the blind wrath of a Shaiva warrior , Virabhadra ; the Hariharamahatva , an account of the life of Harisvara of Hampi ; and Sarabha charitra . The last two classics are considered lost . In 1209 , the Jain scholar , minister , builder of temples and army commander Janna wrote , among other classics , Yashodhara Charite , a unique set of stories in 310 verses dealing with sadomasochism , transmigration of the soul , passion gone awry and cautionary morals for human conduct . The writing , although inspired by Vadiraja 's Sanskrit classic of the same name , is noted for its original interpretation , imagery and style . In one story , the poet tells of the infatuation of a man for his friend 's wife . Having killed his friend , the man abducts the wife , who dies of grief . Overcome by repentance , he burns himself on the funeral pyre of the woman . The stories of infatuation reach a peak when Janna writes about the attraction of Amrutamati , the queen , to the ugly mahout Ashtavakra , who pleases the queen with kicks and whip lashes . This story has piqued the interest of modern researchers . In honour of this work , Janna received the title Kavichakravarthi ( " Emperor among poets " ) from his patron , King Veera Ballala II . His other classic , Anathanatha Purana ( 1230 ) , is an account of the life of the 14th tirthankar Ananthanatha . Andayya , taking a non @-@ conformist path that was never repeated in Kannada literature , wrote Madana Vijaya ( " Triumph of cupid " , 1217 – 1235 ) using only pure Kannada words ( desya ) and naturalized Sanskrit words ( tadbhava ) and totally avoiding assimilated Sanskrit words ( tatsamas ) . This is seen by some as a rebuttal meant to prove that writing Kannada literature without borrowed Sanskrit words was possible . The poem narrates the story of the moon being imprisoned by the god Shiva in his abode in the Himalayas . In his anger , Kama ( Cupid , the god of love , also called Manmata ) assailed Shiva with his arrows only to be cursed by Shiva and separated from his beloved . Kama then contrived to rid himself of Shiva 's curse . The work also goes by other names such as Sobagina Suggi ( " Harvest of Beauty " ) , Kavane Gella ( " Cupid 's Conquest " ) and Kabbigara @-@ kava ( " Poets defender " ) . Kama has an important place in Jain writings even before Andayya . The possibility that this writing was yet another subtle weapon in the intensifying conflict between the dominant Jains and the Veerashaivas , whose popularity was on the rise , is not lost on historians . Mallikarjuna , a Jain ascetic , compiled an anthology of poems called Suktisudharnava ( " Gems from the poets " ) in 1245 in the court of King Vira Someshwara . Some interesting observations have been made by scholars about this important undertaking . While the anthology itself provides insight into poetic tastes of that period ( and hence qualifies as a " history of Kannada literature " ) , it also performs the function of a " guide for poets " , an assertive method of bridging the gap between courtly literary intelligentsia and folk poetry . Being a guide for " professional intellectuals " , the work , true to its nature , often includes poems eulogising kings and royalty but completely ignoring poems of the 12th @-@ century vachana canon ( Veerashaiva folk literature ) . However , the selection of poems includes contributions from Harihara , the non @-@ conformist Veerashaiva writer . This suggests a compromise by which the author attempts to include the " rebels " . Other notable writers of the early 13th century were Bhanduvarma , author of Harivamsabhyudaya and Jiva sambhodana ( 1200 ) , the latter bearing on morals and renunciation , and written addressing the soul ; Balachandra Kavi Kandarpa , the author of the Belgaum fort inscription who claimed to be " master of four languages " ; Maghanandycharya , the author of an extinct commentary on the Jain theological work Sastrasara Samuccaya @-@ tiku ( 1209 ) for which there are references , and the available commentary called padarthasara giving a complete explanation of Sanskrit and Prakrit authoritative citations ; Hastimalla , who wrote Purvapurana ; Chandrama , author of Karkala Gomateshvara charite , and Sisumayana , who introduced a new form of composition called sangatya in 1232 . He wrote an allegorical poem called Tripuradahana ( " Burning of the triple fortress " ) and Anjanacharita . The latter work was inspired by Ravisena 's Sanskrit Padma charitra . Somaraja , a Veerashaiva scholar , wrote a eulogy of Udbhata , the ruler of Gersoppa , and called it Sringarasara ( or Udbhatakavya , 1222 ) . Other Jain writers were Parsva Pandita , author of Paravanathapurana , and Gunavarma II , the author of the story of the ninth Jain tirthankar Pushpadanta called Pushpadanta purana ( both were patronised by the Ratta kings of Saundatti ) . Polalva Dandanatha , a commander , minister , and the builder of the Harihareshwara temple in Harihar , wrote Haricharitra in 1224 . He was patronised by King Veera Ballala II and his successor , King Vira Narasimha II . Puligere Somanatha authored a book on morals called Somesvarasataka . = = = Consolidation of grammar = = = Keshiraja was a notable writer and grammarian of the 13th century . He came from a family of famous poet @-@ writers . Although five of Keshiraja 's writings are not traceable , his most enduring work on Kannada grammar , Shabdamanidarpana ( " Mirror of Word Jewels " , 1260 ) , is available and testifies to his scholarly acumen and literary taste . True to his wish that his writing on grammar should " last as long as the sun , the moon , the oceans and the Meru mountain lasted " , Shabdamanidarpana is popular even today and is considered a standard authority on old Kannada grammar . It is prescribed as a textbook for students of graduate and post @-@ graduate studies in the Kannada language . Although Keshiraja followed the model of Sanskrit grammar ( of the Katantra school ) and that of earlier writings on Kannada grammar ( by King Amoghavarsha I of the 9th century and grammarian Nagavarma II of 1145 ) , his work has originality . Keshiraja 's lost writings are Cholapalaka Charitam , Sri Chitramale , Shubhadraharana , Prabodhachandra and Kiratam ( or Kiratarjuniyam ) . A major development of this period that would have a profound impact on Kannada literature even into the modern age was the birth of the Haridasa ( " servants of Hari or Vishnu " ) movement . This devotional movement , although reminiscent in some ways of the Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century ( which produced Vachana poetry and taught devotion to the god Shiva ) , was in contrast intimately devoted to the Hindu god Vishnu as the supreme God . The inspiration behind this movement was the philosophy of Madhvacharya of Udupi . Naraharitirtha ( 1281 ) is considered the first well @-@ known haridasa and composer of Vaishnava devotional songs in Kannada . Before his induction into the Madhva order , he had served as a minister in the court of Kalinga . The Vaishnava poetry however disappeared for about two centuries after Naraharitirtha 's death before resurfacing as a popular form of folk literature during the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire . Only three of Naraharitirtha 's compositions are available today . Other writers worthy of mention are Mahabala Kavi , the author of Neminathapurana ( 1254 ) , an account of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha , and Kumudendu , author of a Jain version of the epic Ramayana in shatpadi metre called Kumudendu Ramayana in 1275 . The effort was influenced by Pampa Ramayana of Nagachandra . Kumara Padmarasa , son of Kereya Padmarasa , wrote the Sananda Charitre in shatpadi metre . Ratta Kavi , a Jain noble , wrote a quasi @-@ scientific piece called Rattasutra ( or Rattamala ) in 1300 . The writing bears on natural phenomena such rain , earthquakes , lightning , planets and omens . A commentary on the Amara Khosa , considered useful to students of the language , called Amara Khosa Vyakhyana was written by the Jain writer Nachiraja ( 1300 ) . Towards the end of the Hoysala rule , Nagaraja wrote Punyasrava in 1331 in champu style , a work that narrates the stories of puranic heroes in 52 tales and is said to be a translation from Sanskrit . = = Sanskrit writings = = The Vaishnava movement in the Kannada @-@ speaking regions found momentum after the arrival of the philosopher Ramanujacharya ( 1017 – 1137 ) . Fleeing possible persecution from the Chola King ( who was a Shaiva ) , Ramanujacharya sought refuge initially in Tondanur and later moved to Melkote . But this event had no impact on Vaishnava literature in Hoysala lands at that time . However , the teachings of Madhvacharya ( 1238 – 1317 ) , propounder of the Dvaita philosophy , did have a direct impact on Vaishnava literature , in both the Sanskrit and Kannada languages . This body of writings is known as haridasa sahitya ( haridasa literature ) . Born as Vasudeva in Pajaka village near Udupi in 1238 , he learnt the Vedas and Upanishads under his guru Achyutapreksha . He was initiated into sanyasa ( asceticism ) after which he earned the name Madhvacharya ( or Anandatirtha ) . Later , he disagreed with the views of his guru and began to travel India . He successfully debated with many scholars and philosophers during this time and won over Naraharitirtha , a minister in Kalinga , who would later become Madhvacharya 's first notable disciple . Unlike Adi Shankaracharya ( 788 – 820 ) who preached Advaita philosophy ( monism ) and Ramanujacharya who propounded Vishishtadvaita philosophy ( qualified monism ) , Madhvacharya taught the Dvaita philosophy ( dualism ) . Madhvacharya taught complete devotion to the Hindu god Vishnu , emphasising Jnanamarga or the " path of knowledge " , and insisted that the path of devotion " can help a soul to attain elevation " ( Athmonathi ) . He was however willing to accept devotion to other Hindu deities as well . He wrote 37 works in Sanskrit including Dwadasha Sutra ( in which his devotion to the god Vishnu found full expression ) , Gita Bhashya , Gita Tatparya Nirnaya , Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya , Bhagavata Tatparya Nirnaya , Mayavada Khandana and Vishnu Tattwa Nirnaya . To propagate his teachings he established eight monasteries near Udupi , the Uttaradhi monastery , and the Raghavendra monastery in Mantralayam ( in modern Andhra Pradesh ) and Nanjanagud ( near modern Mysore ) . The writings of Madhvacharya and Vidyatirtha ( author of Rudraprshnabhashya ) may have been absorbed by Sayanacharya , brother of Vidyaranya , the patron saint of the founders of the Vijayanagara empire in the 14th century . Bharatasvamin ( who was patronised by Hoysala King Ramanatha ) wrote a commentary on Samaveda , Shadgurusishya wrote commentary on Aitareya Brahmana and Aranyaka , and Katyayana wrote Sarvanukramani . A family of hereditary poets whose names have not been identified held the title " Vidyachakravarti " ( poet laureate ) in the Hoysala court . One of them wrote Gadyakarnamrita , a description of the war between Hoysala king Vira Narasimha II and the Pandyas , in the early 13th century . His grandson with the same title , in the court of king Veera Ballala III , composed a poem called Rukminikalyana in 16 kandas ( chapters ) and wrote commentaries ( on poetics ) on the Alankarasarvasva and Kavyaprakasa . Kalyani Devi , a sister of Madhvacharya , and Trivikrama , his disciple , wrote commentaries on the Dvaita philosophy . To Trivikrama is ascribed a poem narrating the story of Usha and Aniruddha called Ushaharana . Narayana Pandita composed Madhwavijaya , Manimanjari and a poem called Parijataharana . The Jain writer Ramachandra Maladhari authored Gurupanchasmriti . = = Literature after the Hoysalas = = Literary developments during the Hoysala period had a marked influence on Kannada literature in the centuries to follow . These developments popularised folk metres which shifted the emphasis towards desi ( native or folk ) forms of literature . With the waning of Jain literary output , competition between the Veerashaiva and Vaishnava writers came to the fore . The Veerashaiva writer Chamarasa ( author of Prabhulingalile , 1425 ) and his Vaishnava competitor Kumaravyasa ( Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari , 1450 ) popularised the shatpadi metric tradition initiated by Hoysala poet Raghavanka , in the court of Vijayanagara King Deva Raya II . Lakshmisa , the 16th – 17th century writer of epic poems , continued the tradition in the Jaimini Bharata , a work that has remained popular even in the modern period . The tripadi metre , one of the oldest in the Kannada language ( Kappe Arabhatta inscription of 700 ) , which was used by Akka Mahadevi ( Yoganna trividhi , 1160 ) , was popularised in the 16th century by the mendicant poet Sarvajna . Even Jain writers , who had dominated courtly literature throughout the classical period with their Sanskritic champu style , began to use native metres . Among them , Ratnakaravarni is famous for successfully integrating an element of worldly pleasure into asceticism and for treating the topic of eroticism with discretion in a religious epic written in the native sangatya metre ( a metre initiated by Hoysala poet Sisumayana ) , his magnum opus , the Bharatadesa Vaibhava ( c . 1557 ) . Though the Vaishnava courtly writings in Kannada began with the Hoysala poet Rudrabhatta and the devotional song genre was initiated by Naraharitirtha , the Vaishnava movement began to exert a strong influence on Kannada literature only from the 15th century on . The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other : the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty , and the Bhakti ( devotion ) writers ( also known as haridasas ) who played no role in courtly matters . The Bhakti writers took the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres such as the kirthane ( a musical composition with refrain , based on tune and rhythm ) , the suladi ( a composition based on rhythm ) and the ugabhoga ( a composition based on melody ) . Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well @-@ known among the Brahmin commentators , while Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa were the most notable of the Bhakti writers . The philosophy of Madhvacharya , which originated in the Kannada @-@ speaking region in the 13th century , spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries . The itinerant haridasas , best described as mystic saint @-@ poets , spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada , winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of jnana ( enlightenment ) , bhakti ( devotion ) and vairagya ( detachment ) . Vachana poetry , developed in reaction to the rigid caste @-@ based Hindu society , attained its peak in popularity among the under @-@ privileged during the 12th century . Though these poems did not employ any regular metre or rhyme scheme , they are known to have originated from the earlier tripadi metrical form . The Veerashaivas , who wrote this poetry , had risen to influential positions by the Vijayanagara period ( 14th century ) . Court ministers and nobility belonging to the faith , such as Lakkanna Dandesa and Jakkanarya , not only wrote literature but also patronised talented writers and poets . Veerashaiva anthologists of the 15th and 16th centuries began to collect Shaiva writings and vachana poems , originally written on palm leaf manuscripts . Because of the cryptic nature of the poems , the anthologists added commentaries to them , thereby providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance . An interesting aspect of this anthological work was the translation of the Shaiva canon into Sanskrit , bringing it into the sphere of the Sanskritic ( marga or mainstream as opposed to desi or folk ) cultural order .

= 1939 Pacific hurricane season = The 1939 Pacific hurricane season ran through the summer and fall of 1939 . Before the satellite age started in the 1960s , data on east Pacific hurricanes are extremely unreliable . Most east Pacific storms are of no threat to land . However , 1939 saw a large number of storms threaten California . = = Storms = = = = = Hurricane One = = = On June 12 , a hurricane was detected . The lowest pressure reported by a ship was 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . The hurricane was last seen June 13 . = = = Possible Tropical Cyclone Two = = = A possible tropical cyclone was located off the coast of Mexico on June 27 . A ship reported a gale and a pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The system was last seen on June 28 . = = = Tropical Cyclone Three = = = On July 19 , a tropical cyclone was detected . A ship reported a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 7 millibars ( 29 @.@ 55 inHg ) . = = = Tropical Cyclone Four = = = On July 29 , a tropical cyclone was located midway between Manzanillo and Acapulco . It moved up the coast , and a ship reported a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) on July 29 as the cyclone made landfall in the vicinity of Manzanillo . = = = Tropical Cyclone Five = = = A small tropical cyclone was detected on August 31 . A ship reported gales and a pressure of 1 @,@ 003 @.@ 3 millibars ( 29 @.@ 63 inHg ) . = = = Hurricane Six = = = From September 4 to 7 , the remnants of a hurricane brought heavy rain to Southern California . The storm delivered over a year 's worth of rainfall to Blythe , while Imperial received more than two year 's worth . The flooding caused major damage in Mecca , California , and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water swamped Thermal . = = = Hurricane Seven = = = A tropical cyclone was first detected south of Acapulco on September 5 . It intensified into a hurricane and moved northwestward . A ship sailing through the eye reported a pressure reading of 948 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) . The tropical cyclone made landfall somewhere along the Baja California Peninsula . It dissipated inland over the northern part of the peninsula on September 12 . Remnants of this tropical storm , in association with a trough , caused rain of up to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in southern California on September 11 and 12 . = = = Tropical Cyclone Eight = = = On September 5 , a tropical cyclone formed off the coast of Costa Rica . It also headed northwest and dissipated over the southern part of Baja California on September 15 . The lowest reported pressure was 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . From September 19 to 21 , remnants of this tropical cyclone caused rain measuring up to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) in Southern California . = = = Hurricane Nine = = = On September 14 , a tropical cyclone formed off the coast of Central America . This tropical storm tracked northwestward and intensified into a hurricane . The sea @-@ level pressure dropped to 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) or lower . The hurricane recurved gradually to the northeast and weakened over cool seas . On September 25 , this tropical storm made landfall near Long Beach , California , and dissipated inland . The tropical storm caught Southern Californians unprepared . It brought heavy rain and flooding to the area , which killed 45 people . At sea , 48 were killed . The storm caused heavy property damage amounting to $ 2 million ( 1939 USD ) in total , mostly to crops and coastal infrastructure . = = = Hurricane Ten = = = On October 23 , a tropical cyclone formed south of Cabo Corrientes . It intensified and headed roughly due north . A steamer , the Nevadan , caught in the eye of this extremely intense hurricane , recording a corrected central pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Even with modern tropical cyclone observation techniques available , this reading still qualifies this cyclone as one of the most intense on record . The steep pressure gradient between the Nevadan and the external hurricane conditions off of Manzanillo , Colima caused several tarpaulins to burst . Other shipping was disrupted off the Mexican coast by the intense tropical cyclone . The hurricane made landfall near Cabo Corrientes on October 25 and dissipated shortly thereafter . Onshore , the storm caused an extensive swath of damage . Homes were destroyed in the towns of Santiago Ixcuintla and Rosamorada in the Mexican state of Nayarit , displacing hundreds of people . In Puerto Vallarta , a strong storm surge flooded a section of the town , destroying several homes . Tobacco , corn , and rice crops in the region suffered considerable damage . The strong winds downed power lines , resulting in the delayed dissemination of damage reports . Although no exact casualty total was documented , reports indicated that the tropical cyclone caused a " few casualties " . After the storm , US $ 6 @,@ 000 was donated to help aid the displaced in the states of Nayarit and Jalisco , while doctors and nurses were sent to those areas .

= G.I. Joe : Retaliation = G.I. Joe : Retaliation is a 2013 American military science fiction action film directed by Jon M. Chu , based on Hasbro 's G.I. Joe toy , comic and media franchises . Written by Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick , the film is a sequel to 2009 's G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra while also serving as a soft reboot of the franchise . Retaliation features an ensemble cast , with Byung @-@ hun Lee , Ray Park , Jonathan Pryce , Arnold Vosloo , and Channing Tatum reprising their roles from the first film . Luke Bracey takes over the role of Cobra Commander , replacing Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt . Dwayne Johnson , D. J. Cotrona , Adrianne Palicki , Ray Stevenson , and Bruce Willis round out the principal cast . In the film , with Cobra operative Zartan still impersonating the President of the United States , the terrorist organization is able to frame the Joes as traitors , and have them nearly decimated in an airstrike . Cobra Commander places the world leaders under Cobra 's control , and gains access to their advanced warheads . Outnumbered and outgunned , the surviving Joes form a plan with the original G.I. Joe , General Joseph Colton , to overthrow the Cobra Commander and his allies . Originally slated for release in June 2012 , the film was delayed in order to convert to 3D and boost interest in international markets . It was released in North America on March 28 , 2013 , and received generally negative reviews , but was a box office success , grossing over $ 375 million worldwide . = = Plot = = Duke ( Channing Tatum ) has become the leader of the G.I. Joe unit , which is framed for stealing nuclear warheads from Pakistan by Zartan ( Arnold Vosloo ) , who is impersonating the President of the United States ( Jonathan Pryce ) . The unit is subsequently decimated in a military air strike with Duke among the casualties . The only survivors are Roadblock ( Dwayne Johnson ) , Flint ( D.J. Cotrona ) , and Lady Jaye ( Adrianne Palicki ) . Meanwhile , Storm Shadow ( Byung @-@ hun Lee ) and Firefly ( Ray Stevenson ) rescue Cobra Commander ( Luke Bracey ) from an underground maximum @-@ security prison in Germany , leaving Destro behind . Storm Shadow is injured during the escape and retreats to a temple in the Himalayas to recover . Upon learning that he is alive , the Blind Master ( RZA ) , leader of the Arashikage Clan , sends Snake Eyes ( Ray Park ) and his apprentice Jinx ( Élodie Yung ) , Storm Shadow 's cousin , to capture Storm Shadow so he can answer for the murder of his uncle , the Hard Master . Roadblock , Flint , and Lady Jaye return to the United States where they set up a base of operations in a rundown gym . After Zartan announces that Cobra will replace the Joes as America 's elite special forces unit , Lady Jaye deduces that someone is impersonating the President , and Roadblock leads them to General Joseph Colton ( Bruce Willis ) , who provides them with weapons , and helps them infiltrate a fundraising event that the President will be attending . Lady Jaye steals a sample of the President 's DNA and confirms that he is Zartan . They escape after a confrontation with Firefly and Zandar ( Matt Gerald ) , the head of the U.S. Secret Service 's Presidential Detail and a member of Cobra . Snake Eyes and Jinx locate and capture Storm Shadow after a battle with ninjas and take him to Japan , where Storm Shadow reveals that Zartan murdered the Hard Master , and that he joined Cobra to avenge his uncle . Storm Shadow then accompanies Snake Eyes and Jinx as they join the Joes ' efforts to stop Cobra . Zartan invites the world leaders to a summit at historic Fort Sumter , where he blackmails them into disabling their nuclear arsenals , and reveals that he has created Project Zeus : seven orbital kinetic bombardment weapons of mass destruction at his command . He destroys central London to prove his superiority , and threatens to destroy other capitals if the countries don 't submit to Cobra . Storm Shadow betrays Cobra Commander and kills Zartan , revealing Cobra 's deception to the world leaders . While Snake Eyes , Jinx , and Flint fight Cobra 's soldiers , Cobra Commander activates the remaining six weapons and instructs Firefly to protect the launch device . Firefly is killed in combat by Roadblock , who deactivates and destroys the orbital weapons . Meanwhile , Colton and Lady Jaye rescue the President . Cobra Commander escapes during the battle and Storm Shadow disappears after avenging his uncle . The real President addresses the nation at a White House ceremony where Roadblock , Lady Jaye , Flint , Jinx , and Snake Eyes are commemorated as heroes . Colton presents Roadblock with an M1911 pistol that belonged to General George S. Patton , to use when he finally finds Cobra Commander and to avenge Duke . Roadblock proudly raises the weapon and fires a single shot in honor of his fallen comrades . = = Cast = = = = = G.I. Joe = = = Dwayne Johnson as Marvin F. Hinton / Roadblock Ray Park as Snake Eyes Adrianne Palicki as Jaye Burnett / Lady Jaye D.J. Cotrona as Dashiell R. Faireborn / Flint Élodie Yung as Kim Arashikage / Jinx Bruce Willis as General Joseph Colton Channing Tatum as Conrad S. Hauser / Duke Joseph Mazzello as Mouse Ryan Hansen as Grunt Jim Palmer as Clutch = = = Cobra = = = Luke Bracey as Rexford Lewis / Cobra Commander Robert Baker as the voice of Cobra Commander Byung @-@ hun Lee as Thomas " Tommy " Arashikage / Storm Shadow Ray Stevenson as Firefly Arnold Vosloo as Zartan Matt Gerald as Zandar / Havoc = = = Other characters = = = Jonathan Pryce as the President of the United States Walton Goggins as Warden Nigel James RZA as Blind Master DeRay Davis as Stoop Joe Chrest as the Chief of Staff James Carville as himself Skai Jackson as Roadblock 's Daughter = = Production = = = = = Development = = = After the financially successful release of The Rise of Cobra , Rob Moore , the studio vice chairman of Paramount Pictures , stated in 2009 that a sequel would be developed . In January 2011 , Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick , the writers of Zombieland , were hired to write the script for the sequel . The movie was originally thought to be titled G.I. Joe : Cobra Strikes , which was later denied by Reese . Stephen Sommers was originally going to return as director of the sequel , but Paramount Pictures announced in February 2011 that Jon Chu would direct the sequel . In July 2011 , the sequel 's name was revealed to be G.I. Joe : Retaliation . Chu would later declare that Paramount wanted a reboot that also served as a sequel to The Rise of Cobra since " a lot of people saw the first movie so we don 't want to alienate that and redo the whole thing . " = = = Casting = = = In January 2011 , it was confirmed that Byung @-@ hun Lee would reprise his role as Storm Shadow in the sequel . Channing Tatum and Ray Park also returned , as Duke and Snake Eyes , respectively . Rachel Nichols , the actress who played Scarlett in the first film , stated that most cast members would not be returning , except for the three aforementioned actors . In March 2011 , Sienna Miller stated that she would not be returning for a sequel . Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt also confirmed that he would not be returning as Cobra Commander in the sequel . In June 2011 , Dwayne Johnson was cast as Roadblock , D.J. Cotrona and RZA were cast as Flint and Blind Master respectively , while Élodie Yung was in talks for the role of Jinx . In July 2011 , Adrianne Palicki was confirmed for the lead female role of Lady Jaye , and Ray Stevenson was confirmed to portray the villain Firefly . Arnold Vosloo also confirmed that he would reprise his role of Zartan , although in the final film Vosloo appears only in a couple of non @-@ dialogue scenes , with Jonathan Pryce playing Zartan in most scenes . Joseph Mazzello was confirmed to play Mouse . In August 2011 , Walton Goggins was added as Warden Nigel James , and it was confirmed that Bruce Willis was cast to star in the film as the original G.I. Joe . The character of Joe Colton was a replacement for fan @-@ favorite Joe character Sgt. Slaughter . Sgt. Slaughter stated that he " was originally supposed to be the part of Bruce Willis ' [ as ] Sgt. Slaughter but because we had a conflict in toy companies , Hasbro and Mattel , I wasn 't able to do it . It 's one of those things , Rock ( Dwayne Johnson ) doesn 't have a contract so he can do what he wants to do and he 's been very successful " . In September , a casting call sheet leaked to the Internet revealed that Cobra Commander would appear in the sequel , though it was unknown who would play the character . Chu said that fans would get a glimpse of Destro in the film , but Christopher Eccleston would not reprise his role in the sequel . On May 1 , 2012 , it was confirmed by Jon Chu that G.I. Joe : Retaliation 's Cobra Commander is Rex Lewis , the same character that Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt played in The Rise of Cobra . Actor Robert Baker confirmed that he is the voice of Cobra Commander in the sequel . = = = Filming = = = Principal photography began in August 2011 in Louisiana . On November 22 , 2011 , a crew member died in an accident at a New Orleans warehouse that was serving as a soundstage for the production . The incident happened while crew members were changing out a set . The battle on the Himalayas was shot in a New Orleans warehouse previously used to build NASA rockets , that had been fitted with a green screen wall at a very steep angle with a lot of rigging above to swing the stunt people through . Fort Pike in Louisiana stands in for Fort Sumter in South Carolina as the site of the climactic summit meeting of the leaders of nuclear @-@ armed countries . = = = Visual effects = = = Retaliation had 700 visual effects shots , which were mostly handled by three effects companies . Visual effects supervisor Zachary Kinnery declared that while the visuals aimed for the " big and bold " typical of the franchise , Retaliation would be the first to attempt " a bit more of that gritty realism . " The major part of the effects was given to Digital Domain , which for 227 effects created digital vehicles and aircraft that had to " look fantastic but which are also plausible " , given they had to match practical models , the Zeus satellite and a sequence where Zartan shows his nanomite @-@ related disguise to the president - done with the same head replacement software developed for The Curious Case of Benjamin Button and Tron : Legacy . Industrial Light & Magic made the London destruction , a digital White House , and the mountain sword fight , which had computer @-@ generated backgrounds and digital augmentation of the stunt people 's performance . Method Studios was responsible for the desert attack , Firefly 's explosive bugs , and the malfunction on the underground prison . Saints LA handled minor effects such as compositing and news graphics . = = = Music = = = The film 's score was composed by Henry Jackman . = = Release = = Previously slated for release on June 29 , 2012 , Paramount announced in May 2012 that they were delaying the film 's release until March 29 , 2013 ( but was later moved to March 28 , 2013 ) , in order to convert the movie to 3D and boost interest in international markets . The delay " gobsmacked " the film industry , according to Deadline.com , because Paramount had already implemented a substantial advertising campaign beginning with a Super Bowl commercial , because " warehouses full of " toys were waiting for the film 's launch , and because it was one of only three Paramount @-@ produced films scheduled for Summer 2012 ( along with The Dictator and Katy Perry : Part of Me ) . The studio also wanted to avoid competing with Tatum 's Magic Mike , also scheduled for June 29 , Deadline reported . = = = Ban in Pakistan = = = The film was banned by the Central Board of Film Censors of Pakistan due to initial scenes at the beginning of the movie which depict the country negatively , according to film censor board officials . A Karachi @-@ based cinema posted on its Facebook page that the film would not be screened due to restrictions by the censor board . The censorship was due to the film 's depiction of Pakistan as an unstable state and the fictional portrayal of a " foreign invasion of Pakistan ’ s nuclear installations " , which caught the ire of film censor authorities . Consequently , restrictions were imposed on screening the movie countrywide . According to an official at the censor board , the film portrayed Pakistan negatively not only on the issue of the War on Terror but also on the international standing of the country : " There is a scene which shows the assassination of the Pakistani president and the imposition of martial law , which is not a fair representation of the country . " Another cinema official explained " There were obviously several objectionable things which would never have passed the censors , but these things are also relevant to the content of the film . " = = = Promotion = = = On December 12 , 2011 , the premiere trailer for the film was released on YouTube exclusively from Machinima.com. The trailer itself features a remix of the White Stripes ' song " Seven Nation Army " by The Glitch Mob . Following the release of the trailer , Interview magazine featured G.I. Joe : Retaliation in " Thursday video Face @-@ Off " against the indie film Alter Egos on January 12 , 2012 . A shorter teaser trailer for the film aired during Super Bowl XLVI , containing music by Jay @-@ Z. A Japanese trailer focusing on actor Byung @-@ hun Lee was released in April 2012 . The second full trailer made its debut on April 24 , 2012 , containing a viral marketing initiative inviting viewers to interact with a website and Facebook application for the film . On December 13 , 2012 , a third trailer was released featuring more footage of London 's destruction . In January 2013 , a four @-@ minute clip of the film featuring a ninja battle between Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow was attached with IMAX screenings of Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters . A soundtrack of the score by composer Henry Jackman was released in April 2013 . A toyline for the film was confirmed by Hasbro in February 2012 . Despite the movie 's release being moved from June 2012 to March 2013 , the initial assortments of figures , vehicles , and role @-@ play items were shipped to retailers , and appeared on store shelves in May 2012 . A Variety article was published stating that the already released figures had been pulled from the shelves and recalled by Hasbro , although the company 's official statement indicated that existing product would be sold through . New product shipments were halted by Hasbro , but existing Retaliation figures were available in Target , Wal @-@ Mart , and Toys R Us as late as December 2012 . The toyline was re @-@ released in the United States in February 2013 . = = = Home media = = = G.I. Joe : Retaliation was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and Blu @-@ ray 3D on July 30 , 2013 . A Blu @-@ ray " Extended Action Cut " added 12 minutes of footage and uncensored violence was also available , with the United States version being a Best Buy exclusive . The film topped No. 1 on both the Blu @-@ ray and DVD sales charts with at least 54 % of both Blu @-@ ray and DVD units sold . The film also topped weekend rentals as well . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 28 % approval rating with an average rating of 4 @.@ 5 / 10 based on 161 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Though arguably superior to its predecessor , G.I. Joe : Retaliation is overwhelmed by its nonstop action and too nonsensical and vapid to leave a lasting impression . " At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received an average score of 41 % , indicating " mixed or average reviews " , based on 31 critics , which was higher than the first film 's 32 % average score . Alan Scherstuhl of The Village Voice wrote in a positive review that " this [ movie ] pushes right past competent into mostly legitimately enjoyable " but added that " the movie is still dumb as catbutt . It 's an honest and accomplished dumbness , however , where the stupidest stuff seems to be there because the movie would be less fun without it . " The Hollywood Reporter 's Todd McCarthy was critical about the film 's use of 3D and accurate reflection of the franchise 's comic book and cartoon origins , but predicted it would still earn better than its predecessor , G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a grade of " B- " , calling it " well @-@ executed technocratic action fluff " and commented : " In its dehumanized and trivial way , it 's a triumph of razor @-@ sharp , hyper @-@ violent style over formulaic substance ... Hollywood has now evolved to the point that it can deliver these kinds of thrills with maximum brute force and keep the impact so light that the result can still be regarded as a ' harmless ' diversion for 14 @-@ year @-@ olds . " Glen Heath Jr. of Slant Magazine gave it two out of four stars , criticizing the film 's " cut @-@ happy style " and plot , but lauding the action sequences and Chu 's direction as " poetry in high @-@ speed motion . " Writing for Indiewire 's The Playlist Blog , Todd Gilchrist gave the film a " B- " and wrote : " As one might expect , there are more than a handful of loose ends once justice has been served , but there ’ s something to be said for a film which aims to please in a sincere and straightforward way , without attempting to be the biggest ever . ' Retaliation ' is no masterpiece , but it ’ s a movie whose fun doesn ’ t feel like a four @-@ letter word " In a negative review , Betsey Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times panned the " overwhelmingly complicated , globe @-@ hopping , enemies within , enemies without story line " and 3D but noted that " the humor , when it works , offers ' Retaliation ' some redemption . " She ended with : " It 's convoluted . Frankly no one should have to think that hard to keep up with the Joes . " Another negative review came from Variety Magazine 's Justin Chang , who ridiculed the movie 's large @-@ scale destruction of foreign cities , writing : " Audiences who thrilled to the sight of Paris under biochemical attack in Cobra will be pleased to watch London endure an even more horrific fate here , although the sequence is tossed off in quick , almost ho @-@ hum fashion , with no time to dwell on anything so exquisitely crass as the spectacle of the Eiffel Tower collapsing . " He summarized the movie as " a more straight @-@ faced brand of idiocy than its cheerfully dumb 2009 predecessor . " PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III wrote " For fans who bought the toys , watched the cartoon and read the comics during the ‘ 80s and now have like @-@ aged children of their own ( all of which I did and do ) , might I suggest proceeding to watch this fun film with your kids , but compromise so that you can leave the commentary track on . The film will remain a treat for the eyes , but you can more easily gloss over those parts that will make you apologize to your brain . " Writing for Empire magazine , Olly Richards gave the movie 2 stars out of 5 and compared it unfavorably with its predecessor , writing : " The first film you could at least laugh at . This takes all its silly ingredients and smushes them down flat . ' Retaliation ' over @-@ promises and under @-@ delivers . " Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun Times gave the movie 1 @.@ 5 stars out of a possible four , branding it a " ridiculous and overblown debacle " that contained " nothing but well @-@ packaged garbage " and further adding : " To say ' G.I. Joe : Retaliation ' is a video game for the big screen is to insult a number of video games that are far more creative , challenging and better @-@ looking . " Despite the negative critical response , audiences responded favorably . CinemaScore polls found that audiences gave the film an average grade of A @-@ minus . = = = Box office = = = G.I. Joe : Retaliation grossed $ 122 @,@ 523 @,@ 060 in North America and $ 253 @,@ 217 @,@ 645 internationally for a worldwide total of $ 375 @,@ 740 @,@ 705 . Overall , according to Box Office Mojo it is the 25th highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 in North America , the 18th highest @-@ grossing film worldwide that year , the highest @-@ grossing film in the G.I. Joe film series , and the fifth highest @-@ grossing Hasbro film . In North America , the film grossed $ 10 @.@ 5 million on its opening day at the top of the box office . The film retained the No. 1 spot over the three @-@ day weekend and grossed $ 40 @.@ 5 million , which is the third @-@ highest Easter debut ever behind Furious 7 and Clash of the Titans . However , this was lower than its predecessor 's opening weekend of $ 54 @.@ 7 million . The international response was even more positive , with $ 80 @.@ 3 million across the weekend . = = Sequel = = On April 1 , 2013 , reports surfaced that there will be a third G.I. Joe film , and it will likely be in 3D . The studio announced that Chu will return to direct the third film . While at the 2013 San Diego Comic Con , Chu talked about bringing Scarlett back in the next film . The writers of the second film are also thinking about bringing back the Baroness in the sequel . Johnson is interested in returning as Roadblock for the sequel , and Park has talked about a possible return as Snake Eyes and also including his pet wolf Timber . Producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura has stated he is open to doing a G.I. Joe / Transformers crossover , which Chu stated that he would be interested in directing . Bonaventura told Beijing News that he hoped that Johnson and Willis would return , the script is still in the writing stage , and that they are considering adding a third important role . On September 10 , 2013 , Chu was confirmed to direct the film , along with writer Evan Daugherty ( Snow White and the Huntsman , Divergent , Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles ) to pen the film 's script . On December 5 , 2013 , Daugherty talked about writing the film 's script and his feelings about Duke being killed , but Chu told MTV that Tatum may return as Duke in the sequel . On April 2 , 2014 , in an interview with Collider , Johnson believes that Chu may not return to direct , due to working on the live action Jem film , but they may find another director for the film . It was revealed that the third film will have a 2016 release date . On June 23 , 2014 , di Bonaventura told Collider in an interview that they 're meeting with new directors and filming may start in early 2015 . On July 1 , 2014 , Variety reported that Jonathan Lemkin will write the script for the film and will focus on Roadblock with Johnson returning . On February 5 , 2015 , Film Divider reported that the twins Tomax and Xamot and Matt Trakker from the TV series M.A.S.K. will be appearing . On April 2 , 2015 , the studio hired Aaron Berg to write the film , and D. J. Caruso to direct the film . On November 23 , 2015 , Deadline reported that Akiva Goldsman will lead a writers room for the next G.I. Joe film .