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that facilitates community-inclusive collaborative decision-
making in order to maximise the collective-intelligence of
the cryptocurrency community in particular and blockchain
ecosystem at large. In addition to collective-decision mak-
ing, flexible voting rules, that reflect the peculiarities of the
blockchain rather than general voting rules, is important to
the utility of treasury systems. For instance, a simple majority
voting rule may not suffice for all situations, especially, for
high-risk propo | [
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"do"
] | On the sustainability of blockchain funding | 500 |
sals that request huge amounts of funds.
Second, a secure and sustainable treasury funding mecha-
nism. In addition to contributions from block rewards (i.e.,
taxation of miners' rewards), the treasury system should ac-
commodate other funding means such as voluntary donations,
or other external funding sources. This option is particularly
useful when the tax from block rewards becomes small (as a
result of decrease in block rewards) or as a result of money
supply limit being reached and only transaction | [
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] | On the sustainability of blockchain funding | 501 |
sals that request huge amounts of funds.
Second, a secure and sustainable treasury funding mecha-
nism. In addition to contributions from block rewards (i.e.,
taxation of miners' rewards), the treasury system should ac-
commodate other funding means such as voluntary donations,
or other external funding sources. This option is particularly
useful when the tax from block rewards becomes small (as a
result of decrease in block rewards) or as a result of money
supply limit being reached and only transaction | [
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] | On the sustainability of blockchain funding | 502 |
fees make up
block rewards.
Third, thorough stakeholder participation and community-
driven treasury. Game-theoretically efficient incentive struc-
ture / reward mechanism further drives increased stakeholder
participation in treasury process, and also helps ensure that
incentives do not lead to hyper-inflation which can diminish
cryptocurrency value.
Fourth, blockchain and stakeholders' security and privacy.
For instance, an adversary who carries out Sybil attacks (by
distributing his stake into multi | [
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"2017",
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"##ther",
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"Research",
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"##co",
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"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cies",
",",
"\"",
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"IEEE",
"Symposium",
"on",
"Security",
"and",
"P",
"##ri",
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"17",
"-",
"21",
",",
"2015"
] | On the sustainability of blockchain funding | 503 |
fees make up
block rewards.
Third, thorough stakeholder participation and community-
driven treasury. Game-theoretically efficient incentive struc-
ture / reward mechanism further drives increased stakeholder
participation in treasury process, and also helps ensure that
incentives do not lead to hyper-inflation which can diminish
cryptocurrency value.
Fourth, blockchain and stakeholders' security and privacy.
For instance, an adversary who carries out Sybil attacks (by
distributing his stake into multi | [
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",",
"May",
"17",
"-",
"21",
",",
"2015"
] | On the sustainability of blockchain funding | 504 |
ple addresses each with smaller
stakes) should gain no advantage by so doing, and the vote of
stakeholders should be weighted relative to their stake in the
system. Additionally, participation in treasury activity should
not compromise the security and privacy of participants.
Finally, other desirable treasury system properties include:
treasury refund/recall mechanism, project spending/milestone
monitoring scheme, on-chain consensus and history | [
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] | On the sustainability of blockchain funding | 505 |
ple addresses each with smaller
stakes) should gain no advantage by so doing, and the vote of
stakeholders should be weighted relative to their stake in the
system. Additionally, participation in treasury activity should
not compromise the security and privacy of participants.
Finally, other desirable treasury system properties include:
treasury refund/recall mechanism, project spending/milestone
monitoring scheme, on-chain consensus and history | [
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] | On the sustainability of blockchain funding | 506 |
ISSN 2379-5980 (online)
DOI 10.5195/LEDGER.2016.37
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Autonocoin: A Proof-of-Belief
Cryptocurrency
Michael Abramowicz*†
Abstract. This paper proposes a self-governing cryptocurrency, dubbed Autonocoin.
Cryptocurrency owners play formal tacit coordination games by making investments
recorded on the blockchain. Such investments represent bets about the focal point resolution
of normative issues, such as whether a proposed change to Autonocoin should occur. The
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 507 |
ISSN 2379-5980 (online)
DOI 10.5195/LEDGER.2016.37
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Autonocoin: A Proof-of-Belief
Cryptocurrency
Michael Abramowicz*†
Abstract. This paper proposes a self-governing cryptocurrency, dubbed Autonocoin.
Cryptocurrency owners play formal tacit coordination games by making investments
recorded on the blockchain. Such investments represent bets about the focal point resolution
of normative issues, such as whether a proposed change to Autonocoin should occur. The
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 508 |
game produces a result that resolves the issue. With a typical cryptocurrency, the client
software establishes conventions that ultimately lead to the identification of the authoritative
blockchain. Autonocoin completes a circle by making transactions on the blockchain that in
turn define those conventions and the expected software behavior. The distributed consensus
mechanism embodied by formal tacit coordination games, meanwhile, can make other types
of decisions, including which of competing | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 509 |
game produces a result that resolves the issue. With a typical cryptocurrency, the client
software establishes conventions that ultimately lead to the identification of the authoritative
blockchain. Autonocoin completes a circle by making transactions on the blockchain that in
turn define those conventions and the expected software behavior. The distributed consensus
mechanism embodied by formal tacit coordination games, meanwhile, can make other types
of decisions, including which of competing | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 510 |
blockchains is authoritative and whether new
Autonocoins should be rewarded to benefit those who have taken actions to benefit
Autonocoin. This establishes a unique funding model for a cryptocurrency, and it addresses
objections to cryptocurrencies issued predominantly to the initial founders, as well as to those
that encourage wasteful mining activities.
1. Introduction
Cryptocurrency software establishes conventions that determine whether particular
cryptocurrency transactions are valid an | [
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"Among",
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 511 |
blockchains is authoritative and whether new
Autonocoins should be rewarded to benefit those who have taken actions to benefit
Autonocoin. This establishes a unique funding model for a cryptocurrency, and it addresses
objections to cryptocurrencies issued predominantly to the initial founders, as well as to those
that encourage wasteful mining activities.
1. Introduction
Cryptocurrency software establishes conventions that determine whether particular
cryptocurrency transactions are valid an | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 512 |
d which collection of valid transactions (generally
known as a "blockchain") is authoritative. Each instance of the client software maintains a copy
of the blockchain and updates it based on these conventions. But the client software itself does
not establish conventions for making decisions about the future direction of the cryptocurrency,
such as whether the conventions should be changed or whether particular individuals or firms
should be rewarded for taking actions supporting the cryptocurre | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 513 |
ncy. Those decisions are
exogenous to the cryptocurrency, made in open-source projects or private firms creating new
cryptocurrencies.
This paper proposes a new cryptocurrency, which it calls "Autonocoin" to emphasize that
the coin is autonomous. The coin would govern itself in the sense that all relevant decisions
about the cryptocurrency would be determined by cryptocurrency transactions recorded in the
blockchain. For example, a computer running the client software could determine whether | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 514 |
ncy. Those decisions are
exogenous to the cryptocurrency, made in open-source projects or private firms creating new
cryptocurrencies.
This paper proposes a new cryptocurrency, which it calls "Autonocoin" to emphasize that
the coin is autonomous. The coin would govern itself in the sense that all relevant decisions
about the cryptocurrency would be determined by cryptocurrency transactions recorded in the
blockchain. For example, a computer running the client software could determine whether | [
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to
download and launch a proposed change to the client software by consulting the blockchain,
applying an algorithm to determine whether the proposed change had been approved by the
Autonocoin community.
A more important feature enabled by self-governance is the ability for Autonocoin to reward
coins to individuals who have promoted the cryptocurrency (whether by coding, providing
liquidity, adopting the currency on Internet storefronts, or otherwise). The awards would be
proportional to th | [
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"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"fork",
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".",
"With",
"a",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"that",
"depends",
"on",
"informal",
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"##ci",
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"##ren",
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",",
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"always",
"the",
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"This",
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"##pt",
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"##ur",
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",",
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"##t",
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"\"",
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",",
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"Form",
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"Ta",
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"Co",
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"By",
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",",
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"In",
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"##ci",
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",",
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"'",
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"Form",
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"##ci",
"##t",
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"game",
",",
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"is",
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":",
"Su",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"by",
"Keynes",
",",
"6",
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"the",
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"preferences",
"of",
"the",
"competitors",
"as"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 516 |
to
download and launch a proposed change to the client software by consulting the blockchain,
applying an algorithm to determine whether the proposed change had been approved by the
Autonocoin community.
A more important feature enabled by self-governance is the ability for Autonocoin to reward
coins to individuals who have promoted the cryptocurrency (whether by coding, providing
liquidity, adopting the currency on Internet storefronts, or otherwise). The awards would be
proportional to th | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 517 |
e community's perception of contributions. This avoids problems with two
†Michael Abramowicz ([email protected]) is Professor of Law at George Washington University, USA.
*1MioFQjewAb69Kw9rgtCDEQVscbFNLQ8DN
LEDGER VOL 1 (2016) 119−133
l e d g e r j o u r n a l. o r g
120
ISSN 2379-5980 (online)
DOI 10.5195/LEDGER.2016.37
alternative systems for distributing cryp | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 518 |
e community's perception of contributions. This avoids problems with two
†Michael Abramowicz ([email protected]) is Professor of Law at George Washington University, USA.
*1MioFQjewAb69Kw9rgtCDEQVscbFNLQ8DN
LEDGER VOL 1 (2016) 119−133
l e d g e r j o u r n a l. o r g
120
ISSN 2379-5980 (online)
DOI 10.5195/LEDGER.2016.37
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"This",
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"Usually",
",",
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",",
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"the",
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"what",
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"-",
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"At",
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".",
"LED",
"##GE",
"##R",
"V",
"##OL",
"1",
"(",
"2016",
")",
"119",
"##−",
"##13",
"##3",
"l",
"e",
"d",
"g",
"e",
"r",
"j",
"o",
"u",
"r",
"n",
"a",
"l",
".",
"o",
"r",
"g",
"123",
"ISSN",
"237",
"##9",
"-",
"59",
"##80",
"(",
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")",
"D",
"##O",
"##I",
"10",
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"51",
"##9",
"##5",
"/",
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"##GE",
"##R",
".",
"2016",
".",
"37",
"Form",
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".",
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"##ni",
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",",
"7",
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"that"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 519 |
tocurrency – where founders allocate the initial
cryptocurrency (often to themselves) and where cryptocurrency is automatically distributed to
those who "mine" it – and can provide better incentives for fostering continued contributions to
a cryptocurrency's development.
But how does Autonocoin govern itself, and how does it work more generally? Autonocoin
is built on the concept of a formal tacit coordination game, which can identify a community
consensus resolution of a normative issue. This | [
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tocurrency – where founders allocate the initial
cryptocurrency (often to themselves) and where cryptocurrency is automatically distributed to
those who "mine" it – and can provide better incentives for fostering continued contributions to
a cryptocurrency's development.
But how does Autonocoin govern itself, and how does it work more generally? Autonocoin
is built on the concept of a formal tacit coordination game, which can identify a community
consensus resolution of a normative issue. This | [
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",",
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".",
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"-",
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",",
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".",
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"##in",
".",
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"—",
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".",
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"di",
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"##pp",
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"the",
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"code"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 521 |
is different from simple vote counting (which
is infeasible for a cryptocurrency in which individuals are unknown) or auctioning decisions to
the highest bidder. Participants in these games have economic incentives to consider not their
own preferences, but what they think others will think (about what others will think, and so on
in infinite regress) the best resolution of a particular issue is. Each participant's incentive is to
answer a particular question as the participant expects hypothet | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 522 |
is different from simple vote counting (which
is infeasible for a cryptocurrency in which individuals are unknown) or auctioning decisions to
the highest bidder. Participants in these games have economic incentives to consider not their
own preferences, but what they think others will think (about what others will think, and so on
in infinite regress) the best resolution of a particular issue is. Each participant's incentive is to
answer a particular question as the participant expects hypothet | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 523 |
ical later participants to answer
the question. Participants thus search for answers that are salient, and normative arguments in
response to the questions posed create salience.
Among the tasks that a formal tacit coordination game perform is the fundamental one of
confirming the validity of blocks and of determining which of multiple blockchains containing
valid blocks is itself authoritative. Bitcoin accomplishes these tasks through "proof of work."
Miners can create a new block only by so | [
1107,
5010,
1104,
1103,
5835,
1105,
127,
1107,
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 524 |
ical later participants to answer
the question. Participants thus search for answers that are salient, and normative arguments in
response to the questions posed create salience.
Among the tasks that a formal tacit coordination game perform is the fundamental one of
confirming the validity of blocks and of determining which of multiple blockchains containing
valid blocks is itself authoritative. Bitcoin accomplishes these tasks through "proof of work."
Miners can create a new block only by so | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 525 |
lving a computationally difficult puzzle, and the
authoritative blockchain is the one that required the most work to create. Autonocoin works
through "proof of belief." Autonocoin holders can earn coins by successfully challenging a
consensus as to whether particular blocks are in fact valid. In ordinary operation, this will
generally be clear and mechanical based on an established convention for which transactions
should be included, but the mechanism allows occasional policing of bad actors wh | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 526 |
lving a computationally difficult puzzle, and the
authoritative blockchain is the one that required the most work to create. Autonocoin works
through "proof of belief." Autonocoin holders can earn coins by successfully challenging a
consensus as to whether particular blocks are in fact valid. In ordinary operation, this will
generally be clear and mechanical based on an established convention for which transactions
should be included, but the mechanism allows occasional policing of bad actors wh | [
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o
intentionally omit transactions in the hope of achieving double-spends.
Part II explains how formal tacit coordination games work and how they can be applied to
the tasks of determining rewards and determining whether a cryptocurrency should be
improved. This part develops ideas that are explored in more detail in an earlier paper.1 Part III
explains how formal tacit coordination games can perform the central challenge of a
cryptocurrency, determining which of multiple blockchains (each inte | [
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"##co",
"##in",
"(",
"i",
".",
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",",
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"25",
".",
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"its",
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"also",
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"its",
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")",
",",
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"C",
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"##co",
"##in",
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".",
"3",
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"Bel",
"##ief",
"The",
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"that",
"it",
"is",
"possible",
"to",
"design",
"a",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
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"formal",
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"##cy",
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"block",
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"in",
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"Ex",
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"##ing",
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"mechanisms",
",",
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"PA",
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"##OS",
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"Ra",
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",",
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"an",
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"produce",
"when",
"individual",
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"implementing",
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"may",
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"not",
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",",
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"##ci",
"##t",
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",",
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",",
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"\"",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"payments",
".",
"Form",
"##al",
"ta",
"##ci",
"##t",
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"capabilities",
"could",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
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"##cies",
"based",
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",",
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"##co",
"##in",
")",
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"(",
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"##eer",
"##co",
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"##9",
")",
".",
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"ta",
"##ci",
"##t",
"coordination",
"games",
"are",
"an",
"alternative",
"means",
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"determining",
"distributed",
"consensus",
".",
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"formal",
"ta",
"##ci",
"##t",
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"used",
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"fur",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
".",
"This",
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"do",
"so",
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"how",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
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"identify",
"what",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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".",
"Ex",
"##ist",
"##ing",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"Val",
"##ida",
"##tion",
"Me",
"##chan",
"##isms",
"—",
"The",
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"a",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"must",
"solve",
"is",
"not",
"the",
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".",
"Cry",
"##pt",
"##ography",
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"that",
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".",
"Rather",
",",
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"the",
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"of",
"ensuring",
"that",
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"##r",
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"The",
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"-",
"to",
"-",
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",",
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",",
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"-",
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".",
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"##GE",
"##R",
"V",
"##OL",
"1",
"(",
"2016",
")",
"119",
"##−",
"##13",
"##3",
"l",
"e",
"d",
"g",
"e",
"r",
"j",
"o",
"u",
"r",
"n",
"a",
"l",
".",
"o"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 528 |
o
intentionally omit transactions in the hope of achieving double-spends.
Part II explains how formal tacit coordination games work and how they can be applied to
the tasks of determining rewards and determining whether a cryptocurrency should be
improved. This part develops ideas that are explored in more detail in an earlier paper.1 Part III
explains how formal tacit coordination games can perform the central challenge of a
cryptocurrency, determining which of multiple blockchains (each inte | [
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"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
"investment",
")",
",",
"and",
"C",
"wins",
"its",
"1",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
"bet",
"with",
"B",
"while",
"also",
"receiving",
"back",
"the",
"3",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
"that",
"it",
"invested",
".",
"3",
".",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Bel",
"##ief",
"The",
"preceding",
"sections",
"have",
"shown",
"that",
"it",
"is",
"possible",
"to",
"design",
"a",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"to",
"provide",
"the",
"capability",
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"playing",
"formal",
"ta",
"##ci",
"##t",
"coordination",
"games",
",",
"thus",
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"managing",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"'",
"s",
"block",
"##cha",
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"(",
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"a",
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"update",
"the",
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"in",
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"way",
")",
"based",
"on",
"a",
"community",
"consensus",
".",
"Ex",
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"##ing",
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"mechanisms",
",",
"such",
"as",
"PA",
"##X",
"##OS",
"or",
"Ra",
"##ft",
",",
"can",
"allow",
"distributed",
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"the",
"correct",
"answer",
"that",
"an",
"algorithm",
"should",
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"when",
"individual",
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"implementing",
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"8",
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",",
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"##ci",
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"##pt",
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"##ur",
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"##cy",
".",
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"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
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"used",
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"identify",
"what",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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".",
"Ex",
"##ist",
"##ing",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"Val",
"##ida",
"##tion",
"Me",
"##chan",
"##isms",
"—",
"The",
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"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
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"is",
"not",
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".",
"Cry",
"##pt",
"##ography",
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".",
"Rather",
",",
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"-",
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"-",
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",",
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",",
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".",
"LED",
"##GE",
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"##OL",
"1",
"(",
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"119",
"##−",
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"l",
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"d",
"g",
"e",
"r",
"j",
"o",
"u",
"r",
"n",
"a",
"l",
".",
"o"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 529 |
rnally consistent and
containing only appropriately signed transactions) is authoritative.
Part IV concludes, highlighting that Autonocoin is the first proposed cryptocurrency that
would not merely be a peer-to-peer cryptocurrency, but a peer-to-peer institution, one whose
decisions are made without any central intervention. Its adaptability and potential for rewarding
contributors make it a promising candidate to become a relatively focal cryptocurrency in the
already existing tacit coordina | [
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"r",
"g",
"126",
"ISSN",
"237",
"##9",
"-",
"59",
"##80",
"(",
"online",
")",
"D",
"##O",
"##I",
"10",
".",
"51",
"##9",
"##5",
"/",
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"##GE",
"##R",
".",
"2016",
".",
"37",
"A",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"must",
"thus",
"meet",
"two",
"challenges",
":",
"First",
",",
"it",
"must",
"provide",
"a",
"convention",
"for",
"determining",
"whether",
"a",
"proposed",
"additional",
"block",
"of",
"transactions",
"should",
"be",
"added",
"to",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"Second",
",",
"it",
"must",
"provide",
"a",
"convention",
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"determining",
"which",
"pu",
"##rp",
"##orted",
"record",
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"all",
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"(",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
")",
"is",
"in",
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"the",
"authoritative",
"one",
".",
"The",
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"-",
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"-",
"work",
"approach",
"accomplish",
"##es",
"the",
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"of",
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"awarding",
"new",
"currency",
"to",
"the",
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"to",
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"a",
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".",
"The",
"puzzle",
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"a",
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"block",
",",
"consisting",
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",",
"an",
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"non",
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",",
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",",
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"way",
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"produces",
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"has",
"##h",
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".",
"A",
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"##r",
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"##mu",
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"A",
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"##r",
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"##cha",
"##in",
",",
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"##r",
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".",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"work",
"also",
"leads",
"directly",
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"mechanism",
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"determining",
"which",
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"two",
"alleged",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
"is",
"authoritative",
":",
"The",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"more",
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",",
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"necessarily",
",",
"the",
"longest",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
")",
".",
"One",
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"a",
"fake",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"that",
"incorporates",
"only",
"selected",
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",",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"took",
"much",
"more",
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"power",
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".",
"This",
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"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"against",
"\"",
"S",
"##y",
"##bil",
"\"",
"attacks",
"where",
"a",
"large",
"number",
"of",
"nodes",
"di",
"##sse",
"##minate",
"false",
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"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"If",
"one",
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"to",
"even",
"a",
"single",
"node",
"with",
"the",
"correct",
"information",
",",
"one",
"can",
"verify",
"the",
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"##ness",
"of",
"the",
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".",
"Pro",
"##of",
"-",
"of",
"-",
"stake",
"approaches",
"vary",
"in",
"their",
"precise",
"implementation",
",",
"but",
"the",
"general",
"idea",
"is",
"similar",
".",
"A",
"valid",
"block",
"in",
"some",
"versions",
"is",
"a",
"block",
"generated",
"by",
"a",
"user",
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"\"",
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"\"",
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";",
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",",
"each",
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",",
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"In",
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"In",
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",",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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".",
"The",
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"-",
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"-",
"Bel",
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"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Con",
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"##sus",
"Me",
"##chan",
"##ism",
"—",
"For",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
",",
"the",
"two",
"tasks",
"can",
"be",
"accomplished"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 530 |
rnally consistent and
containing only appropriately signed transactions) is authoritative.
Part IV concludes, highlighting that Autonocoin is the first proposed cryptocurrency that
would not merely be a peer-to-peer cryptocurrency, but a peer-to-peer institution, one whose
decisions are made without any central intervention. Its adaptability and potential for rewarding
contributors make it a promising candidate to become a relatively focal cryptocurrency in the
already existing tacit coordina | [
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"in",
"the",
"mining",
"process",
",",
"but",
"need",
"not",
"solve",
"difficult",
"problems",
".",
"In",
"other",
"versions",
",",
"a",
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"block",
"is",
"a",
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"with",
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"age",
",",
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"since",
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".",
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"such",
"a",
"system",
",",
"the",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"is",
"the",
"one",
"that",
"uses",
"the",
"greatest",
"coin",
"age",
".",
"The",
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"##of",
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"of",
"-",
"Bel",
"##ief",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"Me",
"##chan",
"##ism",
"—",
"For",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
",",
"the",
"two",
"tasks",
"can",
"be",
"accomplished"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 531 |
tion game that determines cryptocurrency value.
2. Tacit Coordination
Inherent in the proposal for Autonocoin is the recognition that decisions can be made without
dictatorship or voting. They can be made based on tacit coordination. This section summarizes
the notion of tacit coordination, and also explains how cryptocurrencies already reflect tacit
coordination. Later in this section I explain the notion of a formal tacit coordination game, and
then describe specific formal tacit coordinati | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 532 |
tion game that determines cryptocurrency value.
2. Tacit Coordination
Inherent in the proposal for Autonocoin is the recognition that decisions can be made without
dictatorship or voting. They can be made based on tacit coordination. This section summarizes
the notion of tacit coordination, and also explains how cryptocurrencies already reflect tacit
coordination. Later in this section I explain the notion of a formal tacit coordination game, and
then describe specific formal tacit coordinati | [
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on games that could be used to make binary or
quantity decisions.
Tacit Coordination for Cryptocurrencies—Thomas Schelling developed the idea of tacit
coordination games.2 He imagined the following dilemma: Two people are to meet in New York
on a particular day, but they have not established exactly where or when to meet and cannot
LEDGER VOL 1 (2016) 119−133
l e d g e r j o u r n a l. o r g
121
ISSN 2379-5980 (online)
DOI 10.5195/LEDGER.2016.37
communicate. In a survey, | [
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"Programme",
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"of"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 534 |
on games that could be used to make binary or
quantity decisions.
Tacit Coordination for Cryptocurrencies—Thomas Schelling developed the idea of tacit
coordination games.2 He imagined the following dilemma: Two people are to meet in New York
on a particular day, but they have not established exactly where or when to meet and cannot
LEDGER VOL 1 (2016) 119−133
l e d g e r j o u r n a l. o r g
121
ISSN 2379-5980 (online)
DOI 10.5195/LEDGER.2016.37
communicate. In a survey, | [
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"Programme",
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 535 |
a majority of respondents gave the same answer: the information
booth at Grand Central Terminal at noon. That location and time are in some way "focal" or
salient, standing out from other alternatives. In a tacit coordination game, multiple equilibria
exist but participants have incentives to choose one that social cognition makes focal.
Two extensions to Schelling's observation will be helpful to the proposal to be developed
later. First, a tacit coordination game could occur across time. Supp | [
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"128",
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 536 |
a majority of respondents gave the same answer: the information
booth at Grand Central Terminal at noon. That location and time are in some way "focal" or
salient, standing out from other alternatives. In a tacit coordination game, multiple equilibria
exist but participants have incentives to choose one that social cognition makes focal.
Two extensions to Schelling's observation will be helpful to the proposal to be developed
later. First, a tacit coordination game could occur across time. Supp | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 537 |
ose A must leave a package
for B one day, and B must pick it up the next day. Second, a tacit coordination game can be
normative. Consider members of Congress listening to the President's State of the Union
address. Each member may wish to clap at the same time as others in the member's party. This
requires an analysis of the normative content of the President's statement.
Existing cryptocurrencies already depend on tacit coordination. As Kroll et al. note,3 those
who transact with or mine cry | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 538 |
ose A must leave a package
for B one day, and B must pick it up the next day. Second, a tacit coordination game can be
normative. Consider members of Congress listening to the President's State of the Union
address. Each member may wish to clap at the same time as others in the member's party. This
requires an analysis of the normative content of the President's statement.
Existing cryptocurrencies already depend on tacit coordination. As Kroll et al. note,3 those
who transact with or mine cry | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 539 |
ptocurrency "must maintain consensus (1) on the rules to
determine validity of transactions, (2) on which transactions have occurred in the system, and
(3) that the currency has value." Existing tacit coordination can lead to change in cryptocurrency
conventions, when the community concludes not only that the change would be beneficial, but
also that others (anticipating what others will think, again in infinite regress) will think so as
well. If a particular version of the cryptocurrency code ( | [
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","
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 540 |
ptocurrency "must maintain consensus (1) on the rules to
determine validity of transactions, (2) on which transactions have occurred in the system, and
(3) that the currency has value." Existing tacit coordination can lead to change in cryptocurrency
conventions, when the community concludes not only that the change would be beneficial, but
also that others (anticipating what others will think, again in infinite regress) will think so as
well. If a particular version of the cryptocurrency code ( | [
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such as a Github site originally created
by the founders) is seen as focal, then tacit coordination around relatively noncontroversial
changes to the software conventions will likely occur.
Decisions about the evolution of cryptocurrencies are decentralized, but they are not peer-
to-peer. Even if there are only some individuals authorized to make a change to an open-source
repository, anyone can fork the code and make a new repository. This power constrains the open
source developers.4 But th | [
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"another"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 542 |
such as a Github site originally created
by the founders) is seen as focal, then tacit coordination around relatively noncontroversial
changes to the software conventions will likely occur.
Decisions about the evolution of cryptocurrencies are decentralized, but they are not peer-
to-peer. Even if there are only some individuals authorized to make a change to an open-source
repository, anyone can fork the code and make a new repository. This power constrains the open
source developers.4 But th | [
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"##in",
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"##lo",
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 543 |
ere is an inherent status quo bias. Majority or even supermajority
views in favor of changes are not likely to control given sufficient opposition.
The difficulty in tacitly coordinating on controversial issues has been illustrated in an
ongoing debate about whether to increase Bitcoin block size, which has led to forked versions
of the cryptocurrency.5 Existing cryptocurrencies have no objective metric for determining
whether a proposal has sufficient support. Cryptocurrencies achieve a type o | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 544 |
ere is an inherent status quo bias. Majority or even supermajority
views in favor of changes are not likely to control given sufficient opposition.
The difficulty in tacitly coordinating on controversial issues has been illustrated in an
ongoing debate about whether to increase Bitcoin block size, which has led to forked versions
of the cryptocurrency.5 Existing cryptocurrencies have no objective metric for determining
whether a proposal has sufficient support. Cryptocurrencies achieve a type o | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 545 |
f peer-to-peer
coordination around (2), determining which transactions are authoritative, but cryptocurrencies
do not include a mechanism to coordinate on (1), determining which changes to the protocol
should be made. Legislatures, by contrast, can resolve controversies because there is strong tacit
coordination around voting rules and thus around what rule changes are authoritative.
Many familiar mechanisms, such as allowing designated individuals to vote, could be used
to provide unambiguou | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 546 |
f peer-to-peer
coordination around (2), determining which transactions are authoritative, but cryptocurrencies
do not include a mechanism to coordinate on (1), determining which changes to the protocol
should be made. Legislatures, by contrast, can resolve controversies because there is strong tacit
coordination around voting rules and thus around what rule changes are authoritative.
Many familiar mechanisms, such as allowing designated individuals to vote, could be used
to provide unambiguou | [
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".",
"In",
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",",
"the",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"Ad",
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",",
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"##sp",
"##ent",
"on",
"a",
"fake",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
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"formal",
"ta",
"##ci",
"##t",
"coordination",
"games",
".",
"An",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
"owner",
"could",
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"a",
"game",
"to",
"identify",
"a",
"particular",
"block",
"(",
"through",
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"##h",
")",
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"block",
"that",
"should",
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"in",
"every",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"After",
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"##ly",
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",",
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",",
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"-",
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"-",
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",",
"as",
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"Bit"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 547 |
s resolution of cryptocurrency controversies. But these mechanisms are
not peer-to-peer; they necessarily privilege some decisionmakers over others. The goal of this
paper is to describe how to produce unambiguous answers to controversial questions in a peer-
to-peer way. The strategy is to build on tacit coordination by formalizing it, providing a specific
protocol for individuals to coordinate on normative questions and determine a specific answer.
The existence of formal tacit coordination wou | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 548 |
s resolution of cryptocurrency controversies. But these mechanisms are
not peer-to-peer; they necessarily privilege some decisionmakers over others. The goal of this
paper is to describe how to produce unambiguous answers to controversial questions in a peer-
to-peer way. The strategy is to build on tacit coordination by formalizing it, providing a specific
protocol for individuals to coordinate on normative questions and determine a specific answer.
The existence of formal tacit coordination wou | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 549 |
ld not remove the need for informal tacit
coordination. Informal tacit coordination would be applied to issue (3), determining which
cryptocurrency is valuable. Cryptocurrencies with peer-to-peer decisionmaking features might
through tacit coordination become relatively valuable, for the same reason that perception of
cryptocurrency features affects value. But informal tacit coordination that a particular
cryptocurrency using formal tacit coordination has value would eliminate the need to use
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"##ur",
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"##cy",
".",
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"##ren",
"##cy",
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"(",
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"##no",
"##co",
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"##oc",
"##ur",
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"##cy",
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",",
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"##cha",
"##in",
",",
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",",
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"##no",
"##co",
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".",
"One",
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".",
"This",
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"##ur",
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"##cy",
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",",
"taking",
"advantage",
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"13",
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"r",
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"132",
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"-",
"59",
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"##5",
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"##R",
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"great",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
",",
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"for",
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"technical",
"reasons",
".",
"A",
"similar",
"approach",
"for"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 550 |
ld not remove the need for informal tacit
coordination. Informal tacit coordination would be applied to issue (3), determining which
cryptocurrency is valuable. Cryptocurrencies with peer-to-peer decisionmaking features might
through tacit coordination become relatively valuable, for the same reason that perception of
cryptocurrency features affects value. But informal tacit coordination that a particular
cryptocurrency using formal tacit coordination has value would eliminate the need to use
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informal tacit coordination to make further evolutionary decisions about the cryptocurrency.
The ability to resolve controversies may be an especially valuable feature for a
cryptocurrency because this adaptability can make it easier to adopt other innovations without
LEDGER VOL 1 (2016) 119−133
l e d g e r j o u r n a l. o r g
122
ISSN 2379-5980 (online)
DOI 10.5195/LEDGER.2016.37
risking cryptocurrency forks. With a cryptocurrency that depends on informal tacit coordination | [
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] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 552 |
informal tacit coordination to make further evolutionary decisions about the cryptocurrency.
The ability to resolve controversies may be an especially valuable feature for a
cryptocurrency because this adaptability can make it easier to adopt other innovations without
LEDGER VOL 1 (2016) 119−133
l e d g e r j o u r n a l. o r g
122
ISSN 2379-5980 (online)
DOI 10.5195/LEDGER.2016.37
risking cryptocurrency forks. With a cryptocurrency that depends on informal tacit coordination | [
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"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
"might",
"be",
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"allow",
"anyone",
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"mobile",
"number",
"to",
"claim",
"1",
",",
"000",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##ins",
".",
"Some",
"who",
"signed",
"up",
"might",
"be",
"included",
"in",
"the",
"genes",
"##is",
"transaction",
".",
"Anyone",
"afterward",
"could",
"then",
"operate",
"a",
"service",
"that",
"would",
"c",
"##ert",
"##ify",
"public",
"keys",
"as",
"belonging",
"to",
"particular",
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",",
"and",
"the",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
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"could",
"then",
"confirm",
"or",
"deny",
"individual",
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"for",
"1",
",",
"000",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##ins",
"with",
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"formal",
"ta",
"##ci",
"##t",
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",",
"based",
"presumably",
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"the",
"c",
"##ert",
"##ifier",
".",
"This",
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"would",
"provide",
"an",
"e",
"##gal",
"##itarian",
"approach",
"for",
"initial",
"distribution",
"of",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##ins",
",",
"while",
"still",
"allowing",
"rewards",
"for",
"those",
"who",
"did",
"work",
"before",
"and",
"after",
".",
"Other",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cies",
",",
"lacking",
"a",
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"##s",
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"and",
"c",
"##ert",
"##ifier",
"##s",
",",
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"not",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"perform",
"an",
"air",
"##dr",
"##op",
"as",
"easily",
".",
"5",
".",
"Con",
"##c",
"##lusion",
"Open",
"-",
"source",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cies",
"to",
"date",
"have",
"been",
"governed",
"by",
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".",
"Changes",
"can",
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"made",
"to",
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"defining",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
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"only",
"when",
"there",
"is",
"sufficient",
"confidence",
"that",
"others",
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"accept",
"the",
"change",
".",
"The",
"danger",
"that",
"disagreement",
"can",
"lead",
"to",
"a",
"fork",
"can",
"thus",
"disco",
"##urage",
"change",
".",
"It",
"is",
"possible",
",",
"however",
",",
"to",
"build",
"governance",
"mechanisms",
"directly",
"into",
"a",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"protocol",
",",
"permitting",
"even",
"controversial",
"issues",
"to",
"be",
"resolved",
"in",
"a",
"way",
"that",
"is",
"generally",
"viewed",
"as",
"authoritative",
".",
"The",
"h",
"##y",
"##pot",
"##hetical",
"Auto",
"##no",
"##co",
"##in",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"described",
"here",
"would",
"performance",
"governance",
"through",
"formal",
"ta",
"##ci",
"##t",
"coordination",
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".",
"This",
"governance",
"capability",
"could",
"enable",
"the",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"to",
"include",
"a",
"built",
"-",
"in",
"system",
"for",
"reward",
"##ing",
"contributors",
"to",
"the",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"in",
"proportion",
"to",
"their",
"contributions",
".",
"A",
"##ck",
"##no",
"##wl",
"##ed",
"##gment",
"The",
"author",
"is",
"in",
"##de",
"##bt",
"##ed",
"to",
"three",
"anonymous",
"referee",
"##s",
".",
"All",
"errors",
"are",
"the",
"author",
"'",
"s",
"own",
".",
"Notes",
"and",
"Reference",
"##s",
"1",
"A",
"##bra",
"##mo",
"##wicz",
",",
"M",
".",
"\"",
"Cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"-",
"Based",
"Law",
".",
"\"",
"Arizona",
"Law",
"Review",
"58",
".",
"2",
"35",
"##9",
"-",
"420",
"(",
"2016",
")",
"2",
"Sc",
"##hell",
"##ing",
",",
"T",
".",
"C",
".",
"The",
"Strategy",
"of",
"Conflict",
".",
"Cambridge",
":",
"Harvard",
"Un",
"##iv",
".",
"Press",
"55",
"-",
"56",
"(",
"1981",
")",
"3",
"K",
"##roll",
",",
"J",
".",
"A",
".",
",",
"Davey",
",",
"I",
".",
"C",
".",
",",
"Fe",
"##lten",
",",
"E",
".",
"W",
".",
"\"",
"The",
"Economics",
"of",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"Mining",
"or",
",",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"in",
"the",
"Pre",
"##sen",
"##ce",
"of",
"Ad",
"##vers",
"##aries",
".",
"\"",
"Proceedings",
"of",
"W",
"##EI",
"##S",
"1",
"-",
"21",
"(",
"2013",
")",
"4",
"N",
"##yman",
",",
"L",
".",
",",
"Lin",
"##dman",
",",
"J",
".",
"\"",
"Code",
"Fork",
"##ing",
",",
"Go",
"##vern",
"##ance",
",",
"and"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 553 |
to resolve disputes about the cryptocurrency protocol, there is always the danger of a hard fork.
This paper thus imagines a cryptocurrency built on formal tacit coordination, using formal tacit
coordination even as an alternative to "proof of work" or "proof of stake" mechanisms for
identifying the authentic blockchain The formal tacit coordination mechanism, however, also
could be applied to other cryptocurrencies that continue to use proof of work or stake.
Formal Tacit Coordination—By a " | [
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"No"
] | Autonocoin A Proof of Belief Cryptocurrency | 554 |
to resolve disputes about the cryptocurrency protocol, there is always the danger of a hard fork.
This paper thus imagines a cryptocurrency built on formal tacit coordination, using formal tacit
coordination even as an alternative to "proof of work" or "proof of stake" mechanisms for
identifying the authentic blockchain The formal tacit coordination mechanism, however, also
could be applied to other cryptocurrencies that continue to use proof of work or stake.
Formal Tacit Coordination—By a " | [
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formal game," I mean simply a game in which each
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untitled
Sustainable Blockchain through Proof of eXercise
Ali Shoker
HASLab, INESC TEC & Minho University
Braga, Portugal
[email protected]
Abstract—Cryptocurrency and blockchain technologies are
recently gaining wide adoption since the introduction of Bitcoin,
being distributed, authority-free, and secure. Proof of Work
(PoW) is at the heart of blockchain's security, asset generation,
and maintenance. Although simple and secure, a hash-based PoW
like Bitcoin's puzzle is often referred to as "u | [
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",",
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"-",
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"-",
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",",
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".",
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".",
")"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 557 |
untitled
Sustainable Blockchain through Proof of eXercise
Ali Shoker
HASLab, INESC TEC & Minho University
Braga, Portugal
[email protected]
Abstract—Cryptocurrency and blockchain technologies are
recently gaining wide adoption since the introduction of Bitcoin,
being distributed, authority-free, and secure. Proof of Work
(PoW) is at the heart of blockchain's security, asset generation,
and maintenance. Although simple and secure, a hash-based PoW
like Bitcoin's puzzle is often referred to as "u | [
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",",
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")"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 558 |
seless", and the
used intensive computations are considered "waste" of energy. A
myriad of Proof of "something" alternatives have been proposed
to mitigate energy consumption; however, they either introduced
new security threats and limitations, or the "work" remained
far from being really "useful". In this work, we introduce Proof
of eXercise (PoX): a sustainable alternative to PoW where an
eXercise is a real world matrix-based scientific computation
problem. We provide a novel study of the properties of | [
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"(",
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"##cha",
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"II",
"and",
"III",
".",
"In",
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"cry",
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"##ren",
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"[",
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",",
"[",
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 559 |
seless", and the
used intensive computations are considered "waste" of energy. A
myriad of Proof of "something" alternatives have been proposed
to mitigate energy consumption; however, they either introduced
new security threats and limitations, or the "work" remained
far from being really "useful". In this work, we introduce Proof
of eXercise (PoX): a sustainable alternative to PoW where an
eXercise is a real world matrix-based scientific computation
problem. We provide a novel study of the properties of | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 560 |
Bitcoin's
PoW, the challenges of a more "rational" solution as PoX, and
we suggest a comprehensive approach for PoX.
Index Terms—Cryptocurrency; Blockchain; Bitcoin; Dis-
tributed Systems;
I. INTRODUCTION
Since the introduction of Bitcoin [37], cryptocurrency is
increasingly drawing the attention of business, industry, and
academia [8], [24], [11], [3], [26], [49], and the exchange
rate of Bitcoin currency is still going steep1. The concept
is based on using cryptographic tamper-proof public ledge | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 561 |
Bitcoin's
PoW, the challenges of a more "rational" solution as PoX, and
we suggest a comprehensive approach for PoX.
Index Terms—Cryptocurrency; Blockchain; Bitcoin; Dis-
tributed Systems;
I. INTRODUCTION
Since the introduction of Bitcoin [37], cryptocurrency is
increasingly drawing the attention of business, industry, and
academia [8], [24], [11], [3], [26], [49], and the exchange
rate of Bitcoin currency is still going steep1. The concept
is based on using cryptographic tamper-proof public ledge | [
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r,
called blockchain, to protect the generation and transfer of
"digital" money in a fully distributed peer-to-peer (P2P)
fashion. The goals of cyrptocurrenices are mainly to avoid
central authorities (like banks), reduce transaction delays and
fees, and preserve the real value of money by backing the
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contrary of gold-backed or fiat currencies (e.g., USD, Euro,
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central authorities (like banks), reduce transaction delays and
fees, and preserve the real value of money by backing the
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the system and generates (a.k.a., mines)
money as a reward for the miner's work, namely, adding
new blocks (of transactions) to the blockchain, and verifying
the protocol's invariants [44]. Being a critical part of these
systems, the "work" is made credible through providing a
tamper-proof Proof of Work (PoW). The properties of PoW
are discussed further in Sections II and III.
In most cryptocurrencies, and mainly Bitcoin, the "work"
a miner must do is to solve a cryptographic puzzle: to
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")",
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"##ba",
"##bil",
"##istic",
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"##rification",
",",
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",",
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"huge",
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"overhead",
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"scientific",
"data",
"—",
"more",
"details",
"in",
"Section",
"##s",
"IV",
"and",
"V",
".",
"To",
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",",
"we",
"overview",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
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",",
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",",
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")",
".",
"II",
".",
"BA",
"##C",
"##K",
"##GR",
"##O",
"##UN",
"##D",
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",",
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"-",
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"-",
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"(",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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")",
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"-",
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",",
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 565 |
the system and generates (a.k.a., mines)
money as a reward for the miner's work, namely, adding
new blocks (of transactions) to the blockchain, and verifying
the protocol's invariants [44]. Being a critical part of these
systems, the "work" is made credible through providing a
tamper-proof Proof of Work (PoW). The properties of PoW
are discussed further in Sections II and III.
In most cryptocurrencies, and mainly Bitcoin, the "work"
a miner must do is to solve a cryptographic puzzle: to
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"##X",
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"##cise",
",",
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"##ba",
"##bil",
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"—",
"more",
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"in",
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",",
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"##co",
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",",
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".",
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"—",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"the",
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 566 |
r is supported by SMILES track of TEC4Growth project
(NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000020), and the EU H2020 LightKone project
(732505).
1According to https://www.coindesk.com/, one Bitcoin is worth 3600 USD
— by the time of writing this paper.
find a random nonce that once (cryptographically) hashed
with a perspective block header, returns a 32 Bytes num-
ber having a leading pre-defined number of zeros (called
difficulty) [50]. This puzzle represents the PoW, and lives
forever in the blockchain (together wi | [
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",",
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",",
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",",
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")",
".",
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"\"",
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".",
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",",
"i",
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"has",
"##h",
".",
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".",
"The",
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"##in",
"'",
"s",
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",",
"i",
".",
"e",
".",
",",
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"and",
"easy",
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"verify",
"(",
"among",
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"discussed",
"next",
")",
",",
"come",
"at",
"the",
"price",
"of",
"high",
"com",
"##putation",
"demands",
",",
"reflected",
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"the",
"electricity",
"con",
"-",
"sum",
"##ption",
"of",
"entire",
"countries",
"[",
"38"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 567 |
r is supported by SMILES track of TEC4Growth project
(NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000020), and the EU H2020 LightKone project
(732505).
1According to https://www.coindesk.com/, one Bitcoin is worth 3600 USD
— by the time of writing this paper.
find a random nonce that once (cryptographically) hashed
with a perspective block header, returns a 32 Bytes num-
ber having a leading pre-defined number of zeros (called
difficulty) [50]. This puzzle represents the PoW, and lives
forever in the blockchain (together wi | [
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"38"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 568 |
th the block), allowing
for future verifications. Unfortunately, solving the puzzle is
a very computation-hungry process that manifests in very
high energy consumption, controversial to the recent trend
and demands of sustainable and environment-friendly tech-
nology [25], [41]. For instance, recent studies have shown
that the annual electricity consumption of Bitcoin system is
equivalent to that of Ireland in 2014 [38], and is expected to be
similar to that of Denmark in 2020 [14]. This raised th | [
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"—",
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"—",
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",",
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"-",
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".",
"To",
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",",
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"##h",
"-",
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"##W",
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",",
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"##W",
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".",
"As",
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"II",
",",
"the",
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"(",
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":",
"H",
"##B",
"##h",
"(",
"n",
")",
"=",
"SH",
"##A",
"-",
"256"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 569 |
th the block), allowing
for future verifications. Unfortunately, solving the puzzle is
a very computation-hungry process that manifests in very
high energy consumption, controversial to the recent trend
and demands of sustainable and environment-friendly tech-
nology [25], [41]. For instance, recent studies have shown
that the annual electricity consumption of Bitcoin system is
equivalent to that of Ireland in 2014 [38], and is expected to be
similar to that of Denmark in 2020 [14]. This raised th | [
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"256"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 570 |
e voices
referring to Bitcoin's hash-based puzzle as "useless" work;
whereas, Bitcoin proponents consider this a legitimate price
for maintaining the system. The latter claim being (partially)
sound, we argue that the work can be more rational if the
puzzle itself is useful, rather than being random. Therefore,
we propose an approach to replace the hash-based puzzle with
solving scientific computation problems [39], [40].
In the same direction as ours, several attempts have been
made to reduce the | [
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",",
"i",
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"e",
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"by"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 571 |
e voices
referring to Bitcoin's hash-based puzzle as "useless" work;
whereas, Bitcoin proponents consider this a legitimate price
for maintaining the system. The latter claim being (partially)
sound, we argue that the work can be more rational if the
puzzle itself is useful, rather than being random. Therefore,
we propose an approach to replace the hash-based puzzle with
solving scientific computation problems [39], [40].
In the same direction as ours, several attempts have been
made to reduce the | [
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"wasted" energy following two main
approaches. (We omit Byzantine Fault Tolerance approaches
being not scalable in public settings [49].). The first is to
introduce new forms of mining proofs like Proof of Stake
(PoS) and its variants [30], [33], [45], [6]. Creating blocks
in PoS is based on coin age: a function of coin balance
and earning time. The proposal is often criticized that coin
age accumulates even when the node is not connected to
the network, and being non-democratic solution — biased
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 573 |
"wasted" energy following two main
approaches. (We omit Byzantine Fault Tolerance approaches
being not scalable in public settings [49].). The first is to
introduce new forms of mining proofs like Proof of Stake
(PoS) and its variants [30], [33], [45], [6]. Creating blocks
in PoS is based on coin age: a function of coin balance
and earning time. The proposal is often criticized that coin
age accumulates even when the node is not connected to
the network, and being non-democratic solution — biased
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 574 |
to wealthy peers. The other variants like Delegated Proof-of-
Stake [33] and Proof of Stake Velocity [45] tried to address
each issue aside, leaving the other open and inducing new
limitations or security threats [48]; whereas, Proof of Activity
(PoA) [6] is a hybrid solution of PoS and PoW, where
computation is still considered wasted on a useless nonce.
The second class tried to simply replace the puzzle with
a more useful real world problem, as we do. However,
the proposals fall short at addres | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 575 |
to wealthy peers. The other variants like Delegated Proof-of-
Stake [33] and Proof of Stake Velocity [45] tried to address
each issue aside, leaving the other open and inducing new
limitations or security threats [48]; whereas, Proof of Activity
(PoA) [6] is a hybrid solution of PoS and PoW, where
computation is still considered wasted on a useless nonce.
The second class tried to simply replace the puzzle with
a more useful real world problem, as we do. However,
the proposals fall short at addres | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 576 |
sing a wide range of real
interesting problems. For instance, Primecoin [29] suggested
finding prime numbers instead of a random useless nonce;
Permacoin [35] tried to use have the miners to invest on the
system's storage and memory through Proof of Retrievability;
while PieceWork [42] tried to outsource work like spam
deterrence and Denial of Service defense.978-1-5386-1465-5/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE
1
2
3
4
5
7
8
6
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11 12
13
Employer Blockchain
XBoard
Miner
Shuffler
Shuffler
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 577 |
sing a wide range of real
interesting problems. For instance, Primecoin [29] suggested
finding prime numbers instead of a random useless nonce;
Permacoin [35] tried to use have the miners to invest on the
system's storage and memory through Proof of Retrievability;
while PieceWork [42] tried to outsource work like spam
deterrence and Denial of Service defense.978-1-5386-1465-5/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE
1
2
3
4
5
7
8
6
9
10
11 12
13
Employer Blockchain
XBoard
Miner
Shuffler
Shuffler
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XDB1
Fig. 1. The workflow of PoX without verification. Verification occurs in a
similar manner to the steps from 5 through 13 on a verified instance. Refer
to Section V for more details.
In this work, we introduce Proof of eXercise (PoX), an
approach to rationalize mining in cryptocurrencies — focusing
on Bitcoin — through solving a real eXercise: a scientific
computation matrix-based problem. The choice behind matrix-
based problems is two-fold: (1) matrices have interesting
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"37",
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"current",
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"less",
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"54",
"]",
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"t",
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".",
"In",
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"science",
",",
"the",
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"n",
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"##ions",
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"]",
",",
"[",
"36",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"machine",
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"several",
"months",
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"the",
"matrix",
"product",
",",
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"an",
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"##X",
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"##oc",
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".",
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",",
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"'",
"s",
"hardness",
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"not",
"accurate",
"in",
"reality",
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"values",
"of",
"the",
"matrix",
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"34",
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"##X",
"##er",
"##cise",
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"##H",
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"##X",
"e",
"##X",
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"##cise",
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"(",
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"##ness",
"level",
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"-",
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"the",
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"##X",
",",
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"identify",
"what",
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"may",
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"hardness",
"in",
"each",
"e",
"##X",
"##er",
"##cise",
",",
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"##h",
"-",
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"Po",
"##W",
"since",
"the"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 579 |
XDB1
Fig. 1. The workflow of PoX without verification. Verification occurs in a
similar manner to the steps from 5 through 13 on a verified instance. Refer
to Section V for more details.
In this work, we introduce Proof of eXercise (PoX), an
approach to rationalize mining in cryptocurrencies — focusing
on Bitcoin — through solving a real eXercise: a scientific
computation matrix-based problem. The choice behind matrix-
based problems is two-fold: (1) matrices have interesting
composability propert | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 580 |
ies that help in tuning difficulty, col-
laborative verification, and pool-mining (see later); and (2)
matrix-based problems span a wide range of useful real world
problems, being a principle abstraction for most scientific com-
putation problems, among them: DNA and RNA sequencing
and data comparison [1], [7], protein structure analysis, im-
age comparison, object superposition, surface matching [15],
[2], collaborative-filtering recommendation, data mining [28],
computational geometry [19], face | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 581 |
detection, image compar-
ison, object superposition, surface matching [15], and many
others [28], [40].
To emphasize on the challenges we faced in PoX, we adopt
a down-top presentation approach: we first drive a novel and
comprehensive analysis on the properties of Bitcoin's hash-
based PoW (in Section III). Confronted with PoW's properties,
we then show that the challenges facing a real puzzle like
eXercise is indeed far beyond that of PoW due to: (1) the
lack of tunable hardness and easy verifi | [
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"This"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 582 |
cation methods, (2)
required commitments to solve and maintain an eXercise and
its solution, (3) preventing collude, etc. We analyze these
challenges in Section IV and propose corresponding solutions.
After that, we make use of the discussed solutions to build a
comprehensive Proof of eXercise solution in Section V.
In a nutshell, the workflow of PoX (shown in Fig. I) is as
follows: an employer has an eXercise (e.g., a huge matrix-
based scientific problem) to solve in Bitcoin; it stores it in
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 583 |
cation methods, (2)
required commitments to solve and maintain an eXercise and
its solution, (3) preventing collude, etc. We analyze these
challenges in Section IV and propose corresponding solutions.
After that, we make use of the discussed solutions to build a
comprehensive Proof of eXercise solution in Section V.
In a nutshell, the workflow of PoX (shown in Fig. I) is as
follows: an employer has an eXercise (e.g., a huge matrix-
based scientific problem) to solve in Bitcoin; it stores it in
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 584 |
ighly available store and keeps a hash digest and access
details. It then deposits some credit in a blockchain transaction
to guarantee the availability of eXercise until the process ends.
The hash digest is then shuffled (i.e., randomized) before being
presented on a public board (XBoard) for miners bidding,
which occurs randomly (to avoid collude). A miner commits to
solve eXercise (also through a blockchain deposit transaction)
to be granted access details to its storage place. Once the miner
so | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 585 |
ighly available store and keeps a hash digest and access
details. It then deposits some credit in a blockchain transaction
to guarantee the availability of eXercise until the process ends.
The hash digest is then shuffled (i.e., randomized) before being
presented on a public board (XBoard) for miners bidding,
which occurs randomly (to avoid collude). A miner commits to
solve eXercise (also through a blockchain deposit transaction)
to be granted access details to its storage place. Once the miner
so | [
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lves eXercise, it stores the solution and provides access
guarantees (as before), and publishes the (shuffled) digest to
verifiers (to avoid collude).
Similarly, verifiers also commit to verify an eXercise (before
access rights are granted) and to store the verified data instance
(for further audit). Verifiers use a probabilistic verification
scheme to collaboratively verify — possibly different — parts
of the solution. Once a sufficiently high number of verifiers
approve the solution, it becomes v | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 587 |
lves eXercise, it stores the solution and provides access
guarantees (as before), and publishes the (shuffled) digest to
verifiers (to avoid collude).
Similarly, verifiers also commit to verify an eXercise (before
access rights are granted) and to store the verified data instance
(for further audit). Verifiers use a probabilistic verification
scheme to collaboratively verify — possibly different — parts
of the solution. Once a sufficiently high number of verifiers
approve the solution, it becomes v | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 588 |
alid, and the PoX is created
based on all the signed verifications as well as the block
header digest (to prevent using this PoX for many blocks).
The PoX lives forever with the block, but can no longer be
verified once the stored eXercise, the solution, and the verified
instance become unavailable. This is arguably sufficiently safe
given the tradeoff of probabilistic verification, i.e., to reduce
the huge storage overhead of scientific data — more details
in Sections IV and V.
To get the reader | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 589 |
alid, and the PoX is created
based on all the signed verifications as well as the block
header digest (to prevent using this PoX for many blocks).
The PoX lives forever with the block, but can no longer be
verified once the stored eXercise, the solution, and the verified
instance become unavailable. This is arguably sufficiently safe
given the tradeoff of probabilistic verification, i.e., to reduce
the huge storage overhead of scientific data — more details
in Sections IV and V.
To get the reader | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 590 |
more familiar with the subject, we
overview Bitcoin in Section II, and we postpone related works
to Section VI, just before the conclusion (Section VII).
II. BACKGROUND ON BITCOIN
As defined by Satoshi Nakamoto — an anonymous author
— in the Bitcoin seminal paper [37], Bitcoin is a peer-
to-peer (P2P) electronic cash system often referred to as a
cryptocurrency [8], [6], [32], [29], [35]. The currency itself
(i.e., the asset) is made of digital bits secured via intensive
cryptographic techniques | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 591 |
more familiar with the subject, we
overview Bitcoin in Section II, and we postpone related works
to Section VI, just before the conclusion (Section VII).
II. BACKGROUND ON BITCOIN
As defined by Satoshi Nakamoto — an anonymous author
— in the Bitcoin seminal paper [37], Bitcoin is a peer-
to-peer (P2P) electronic cash system often referred to as a
cryptocurrency [8], [6], [32], [29], [35]. The currency itself
(i.e., the asset) is made of digital bits secured via intensive
cryptographic techniques | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 592 |
making it extremely hard to invent
"bit-coins" out of thin air, steal them, or modify confirmed
transfers. Being P2P, Bitcoin brings many advantages over
classical banking-based currencies: no authorities are needed
to make transfers, transfers are faster and cheaper, trans-
parency, credible smart contracts, and others [43].
Bitcoin payments, transfers, and smart contracts are im-
plemented though transactions. To transfer money (a.k.a.,
Bitcoins) from a spender to a receiver, the corresponding
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"[",
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 593 |
making it extremely hard to invent
"bit-coins" out of thin air, steal them, or modify confirmed
transfers. Being P2P, Bitcoin brings many advantages over
classical banking-based currencies: no authorities are needed
to make transfers, transfers are faster and cheaper, trans-
parency, credible smart contracts, and others [43].
Bitcoin payments, transfers, and smart contracts are im-
plemented though transactions. To transfer money (a.k.a.,
Bitcoins) from a spender to a receiver, the corresponding
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 594 |
transaction must include the sources of the money transferred,
i.e., hash digests (representing unique identifiers) of previous
transactions through which the current spender earned the Bit-
coins earlier. Transactions are digitally signed by the spender
to prevent masquerade and ensure that transactions are issued
by their owner, and are protected by the public key of the
receiver to guarantee that only the true receiver can spend the
money later.
However, given the underlying distributed model, | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 595 |
transaction must include the sources of the money transferred,
i.e., hash digests (representing unique identifiers) of previous
transactions through which the current spender earned the Bit-
coins earlier. Transactions are digitally signed by the spender
to prevent masquerade and ensure that transactions are issued
by their owner, and are protected by the public key of the
receiver to guarantee that only the true receiver can spend the
money later.
However, given the underlying distributed model, | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 596 |
deprived
from central authorities, the described cryptographically pro-
tected P2P transaction scheme cannot prevent the spender
from creating two "concurrent" transactions to spend the same
amount (that refers to the same source transactions) twice, a
problem known as double spending. Consequently, transac-
tions are usually collected in a chain of blocks, representing a
public ledger, i.e., the blockchain. Block creation is carefully
tuned (see later) to enforce global consensus on the order of | [
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deprived
from central authorities, the described cryptographically pro-
tected P2P transaction scheme cannot prevent the spender
from creating two "concurrent" transactions to spend the same
amount (that refers to the same source transactions) twice, a
problem known as double spending. Consequently, transac-
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public ledger, i.e., the blockchain. Block creation is carefully
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blocks across the entire Bitcoin network. Blocks are chained
together in a similar fashion to transactions, ensuring that no
block can get squeezed through previously confirmed blocks
— the current design unfortunately allows for some forks in
the blockchain when two blocks are created at "the same time",
which leads to adopting the "longer" chain.
The order of blocks in the chain is globally defined by
challenging block-creators, called miners, through solving a
very hard cryptographic puzzle: | [
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