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e bounded delay in the XRP ledger implemen-
tation, several heuristics are used to identify lagging nodes, prevent excessive
flooding of messages and route traffic through the network. Protocol parameters
also define maximum delays on different trusted messages in an attempt to aid
liveness. Although we ignore these details to simplify the presentation below, we
stress that they are important practical considerations in the actual implemen-
tation and control the real world performance of the algorithm. T | [
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"delay",
".",
"In",
"the",
"more",
"general",
"case",
"with",
"even",
"minor",
"disagreement",
"of",
"participants",
",",
"we",
"cannot",
"guarantee",
"that",
"the",
"network",
"makes",
"forward",
"progress",
".",
"It",
"is",
"an",
"open",
"question",
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"the",
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"overlap",
"condition",
"in",
"theorem",
"8",
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"be",
"improved",
"by",
"a",
"more",
"detailed",
"consideration",
"of",
"the",
"trust",
"topology",
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"the",
"network",
".",
"A",
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"complicated",
"condition",
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"does",
"not",
"simply",
"take",
"into",
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"way",
"in",
"which",
"messages",
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"the",
"network",
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"have",
"potential",
"for",
"giving",
"a",
"more",
"precise",
"condition",
"for",
"guarantee",
"##ing",
"safety",
".",
"Likewise",
",",
"we",
"might",
"be",
"able",
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"leverage",
"the",
"trust",
"structure",
"20",
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"better",
"explain",
"cases",
"when",
"del",
"##iber",
"##ation",
"can",
"fail",
",",
"which",
"in",
"turn",
"might",
"allow",
"a",
"more",
"refined",
"understanding",
"on",
"forward",
"progress",
".",
"Although",
"we",
"have",
"shown",
"that",
"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
"is",
"pro",
"##va",
"##bly",
"safe",
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"current",
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"near",
"-",
"future",
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",",
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"some",
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"its",
"short",
"-",
"coming",
"##s",
",",
"in",
"the",
"sibling",
"paper",
"[",
"6",
"]",
"we",
"present",
"an",
"alternative",
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"protocol",
"called",
"Co",
"##balt",
".",
"Similar",
"to",
"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
",",
"Co",
"##balt",
"can",
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"be",
"used",
"in",
"networks",
"that",
"lack",
"uniform",
"agreement",
"on",
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"or",
"trust",
",",
"but",
"makes",
"forward",
"progress",
"at",
"a",
"steady",
"rate",
"in",
"the",
"presence",
"of",
"maximum",
"tolerate",
"##d",
"Byzantine",
"faults",
"and",
"a",
"##rb",
"##i",
"-",
"t",
"##rary",
"as",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ony",
".",
"It",
"only",
"needs",
">",
"60",
"%",
"overlap",
"to",
"match",
"the",
"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
"safety",
"tolerance",
"##s",
".",
"Co",
"##balt",
"also",
"has",
"several",
"other",
"properties",
"that",
"make",
"it",
"simpler",
"to",
"analyze",
"the",
"health",
"of",
"networks",
"in",
"practice",
".",
"For",
"these",
"reasons",
"we",
"believe",
"Co",
"##balt",
"represents",
"an",
"encouraging",
"direction",
"for",
"even",
"greater",
"future",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ization",
"of",
"the",
"X",
"##RP",
"network",
".",
"A",
"##ck",
"##no",
"##wl",
"##ed",
"##gment",
"##s",
".",
"Thank",
"you",
"to",
"Ha",
"##ox",
"##ing",
"Du",
"and",
"Joseph",
"McGee",
"for",
"co",
"##l",
"-",
"labor",
"##ating",
"on",
"the",
"early",
"stages",
"of",
"this",
"research",
".",
"We",
"also",
"thank",
"David",
"Schwartz",
"and",
"Stefan",
"Thomas",
"for",
"providing",
"useful",
"discussions",
"and",
"guidance",
",",
"and",
"Rome",
"Reg",
"##ine",
"##lli",
"for",
"careful",
"editing",
".",
"We",
"last",
"##ly",
"thank",
"all",
"our",
"colleagues",
"at",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
"for",
"their",
"support",
".",
"This",
"work",
"was",
"funded",
"by",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
".",
"Reference",
"##s",
"[",
"1",
"]",
"Fred",
"##eri",
"##k",
"Arm",
"##k",
"##ne",
"##cht",
",",
"G",
"##has",
"##san",
"O",
".",
"Kara",
"##me",
",",
"A",
"##vik",
"##ars",
"##ha",
"Man",
"##dal",
",",
"Fr",
"##an",
"##ck",
"You",
"##sse",
"##f",
",",
"and",
"Erik",
"Zen",
"##ner",
".",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
":",
"Over",
"##view",
"and",
"outlook",
".",
"In",
"Trust",
"and",
"Trust",
"##worthy",
"Computing",
":",
"8th",
"International",
"Conference",
",",
"T",
"##R",
"##US",
"##T",
"2015",
",",
"Pro",
"-",
"c",
"##eed",
"##ings",
",",
"pages",
"163",
"–",
"180",
".",
"Springer",
"International",
"Publishing",
",",
"2015",
".",
"ISBN",
"978",
"-",
"3",
"-",
"31",
"##9",
"-",
"228",
"##46",
"-",
"4",
".",
"doi",
":",
"10",
".",
"100",
"##7",
"/",
"978",
"-",
"3",
"-",
"31",
"##9",
"-",
"228",
"##46",
"-",
"4",
"10",
".",
"[",
"2",
"]",
"V",
".",
"But",
"##eri",
"##n",
"and",
"V",
".",
"Griffith",
".",
"Casper",
"the"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 200 |
he fact that
XRP LCP is only weakly asynchronous and its performance depends on these
parameters is a limitation of the algorithm. Cobalt, the proposed alternative
algorithm to XRP LCP, does not have these limitations. It uses cryptographic
randomness to evade the FLP result and guarantees forward progress even with
the maximal number of tolerated faulty nodes and unbounded asynchrony [6].
Table 1 summarizes our notation, including some that will be explained in
subsequent sections.
3 The XRP Ledger Con | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 201 |
he fact that
XRP LCP is only weakly asynchronous and its performance depends on these
parameters is a limitation of the algorithm. Cobalt, the proposed alternative
algorithm to XRP LCP, does not have these limitations. It uses cryptographic
randomness to evade the FLP result and guarantees forward progress even with
the maximal number of tolerated faulty nodes and unbounded asynchrony [6].
Table 1 summarizes our notation, including some that will be explained in
subsequent sections.
3 The XRP Ledger Con | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 202 |
sensus Protocol
The XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol consists of three primary components:
• Deliberation, in which nodes iteratively propose a transaction set to
apply to a prior ledger, based on proposals received from other trusted
5
Pi A node in the network
UNLi The unique node list (UNL) selected by Pi
ni, qi, ti The size, validation quorum and maximum
Byzantine faults of UNLi
L A ledger
seq(L) Sequence number of ledger L
L̂ Fully validated ledger with largest sequence
number (the fully validat | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 203 |
sensus Protocol
The XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol consists of three primary components:
• Deliberation, in which nodes iteratively propose a transaction set to
apply to a prior ledger, based on proposals received from other trusted
5
Pi A node in the network
UNLi The unique node list (UNL) selected by Pi
ni, qi, ti The size, validation quorum and maximum
Byzantine faults of UNLi
L A ledger
seq(L) Sequence number of ledger L
L̂ Fully validated ledger with largest sequence
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 204 |
ed tip ledger)
L̃ Current working ledger of deliberation
T = {x0, x1, . . .} A set of transactions
PT,r,L,i Node Pi's r-th deliberation proposal of
transactions T to apply to L
VL,i Node Pi's validation of ledger L
supptip(L), suppbranch(L) Tip and branch support of a ledger L
uncommitted(s) Uncommitted support at sequence number s
φ(L,L′) Ordering function that is 1 if L > L′ (by hash)
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Table 1: Summary of notation
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 205 |
ed tip ledger)
L̃ Current working ledger of deliberation
T = {x0, x1, . . .} A set of transactions
PT,r,L,i Node Pi's r-th deliberation proposal of
transactions T to apply to L
VL,i Node Pi's validation of ledger L
supptip(L), suppbranch(L) Tip and branch support of a ledger L
uncommitted(s) Uncommitted support at sequence number s
φ(L,L′) Ordering function that is 1 if L > L′ (by hash)
and 0 otherwise
Table 1: Summary of notation
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re-
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Abstract
-The censorship attack is ubiquitous in prevailing blockchains, such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, yet has not been resolved well so far. According to known vulnerabilities of different consensus algorithms, censorship attacks can always achieve great benefits at low costs by various means. In this paper, we propose improvements to existing POS and POW algorithms to resolve censorship attacks in two methods. The first method improves the Tendermint consensus mechanism by introducing three new types o | [
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"##cha",
"##ins",
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"##co",
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"##ther",
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",",
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".",
"According",
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".",
"In",
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",",
"we",
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"##OS",
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"##OW",
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"two",
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".",
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"the",
"Ten",
"##der",
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"##t",
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"by",
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"The",
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"organize",
"an",
"honest",
"chain",
".",
"The",
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"based",
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"##FF",
"##G",
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"evaluating",
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".",
"Theo",
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"-",
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"##in",
",",
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",",
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"##hip",
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"IN",
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"##in",
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"##ul",
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"##lities",
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",",
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",",
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"51",
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"by",
"increasing",
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"and",
"reducing",
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",",
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",",
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"[",
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".",
"II",
".",
"R",
"##EL",
"##AT",
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",",
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"##lik",
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"[",
"3",
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".",
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"as",
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"a",
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"coalition",
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",",
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".",
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"However",
",",
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",",
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",",
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"are",
"distributed",
"in",
"different",
"locations",
".",
"Therefore",
",",
"a",
"censorship"
] | Improved consensus mechanisms against censorship attacks | 209 |
Abstract
-The censorship attack is ubiquitous in prevailing blockchains, such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, yet has not been resolved well so far. According to known vulnerabilities of different consensus algorithms, censorship attacks can always achieve great benefits at low costs by various means. In this paper, we propose improvements to existing POS and POW algorithms to resolve censorship attacks in two methods. The first method improves the Tendermint consensus mechanism by introducing three new types o | [
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] | Improved consensus mechanisms against censorship attacks | 210 |
f messages and an auxiliary role of network nodes. The method can automatically defend against censorship attacks and organize an honest chain. The second method is based on the CasperFFG consensus mechanism and can accurately identify the attackers by evaluating the suspicious scores of all validators. However, an honest validator has to manually choose the honest chain. Theoretical analyses show their effectiveness.
-
Keywords — Blockchain, Protocol Security, Censorship Attack, Consensus Mechanism
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"attack",
"can",
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"even",
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"Ce",
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"##rs",
"##hip",
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"##OS",
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",",
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",",
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".",
"Such",
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"##tel",
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"[",
"5",
"]",
",",
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",",
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"an",
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".",
"III",
".",
"ME",
"##TH",
"##OD",
"##OL",
"##O",
"##GI",
"##ES",
"In",
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",",
"we",
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"two",
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"to",
"solve",
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"attacks",
".",
"The",
"first",
"method",
"extends",
"the",
"Ten",
"##der",
"##min",
"##t",
"consensus",
"mechanism",
"with",
"three",
"kinds",
"of",
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"and",
"an",
"auxiliary",
"role",
"of",
"network",
"nodes",
".",
"It",
"can",
"detect",
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"and",
"organize",
"the",
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"or",
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"##ators",
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",",
"which",
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"##OS",
"consensus",
"mechanisms",
".",
"We",
"discuss",
"the",
"f",
"##eas",
"##ibility",
"of",
"this",
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"for",
"solving",
"censorship",
"attacks",
"within",
"a",
"new",
"t",
"##ril",
"##em",
"##ma",
"framework",
"summarized",
"by",
"us",
".",
"The",
"second",
"method",
"takes",
"the",
"advantage",
"of",
"valid",
"##ators",
"to",
"keep",
"the",
"suspicious",
"scores",
"of",
"other",
"valid",
"##ators",
"conducting",
"censorship",
"attack",
".",
"They",
"have",
"to",
"manually",
"switch",
"to",
"a",
"chain",
"built",
"by",
"more",
"honest",
"valid",
"##ators",
"according",
"to",
"the",
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"scores",
".",
"Though",
"the",
"second",
"method",
"is",
"non",
"-",
"automatic",
",",
"yet",
"it",
"is",
"still",
"more",
"efficient",
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"leaving",
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"to",
"choose",
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"chain",
".",
"IV",
".",
"CO",
"##NC",
"##L",
"##US",
"##ION",
"There",
"are",
"a",
"few",
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"to",
"solve",
"c",
"##en",
"##nso",
"##rs",
"##hip",
"attacks",
".",
"An",
"automatic",
"defense",
"method",
"proposed",
"by",
"Vita",
"##lik",
"But",
"##eri",
"##n",
"for",
"the",
"P",
"##OW",
"consensus",
"mechanism",
"and",
"a",
"pu"
] | Improved consensus mechanisms against censorship attacks | 211 |
f messages and an auxiliary role of network nodes. The method can automatically defend against censorship attacks and organize an honest chain. The second method is based on the CasperFFG consensus mechanism and can accurately identify the attackers by evaluating the suspicious scores of all validators. However, an honest validator has to manually choose the honest chain. Theoretical analyses show their effectiveness.
-
Keywords — Blockchain, Protocol Security, Censorship Attack, Consensus Mechanism
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"attack",
"can",
"occur",
"even",
"though",
"the",
"attackers",
"do",
"not",
"account",
"for",
"the",
"majority",
".",
"In",
"addition",
"to",
"the",
"51",
"%",
"attack",
"(",
"if",
"the",
"attackers",
"account",
"for",
"the",
"majority",
")",
",",
"censorship",
"attacks",
"may",
"cause",
"other",
"side",
"effects",
".",
"Ce",
"##nso",
"##rs",
"##hip",
"attacks",
"can",
"achieve",
"great",
"benefits",
"at",
"low",
"costs",
"and",
"are",
"even",
"more",
"difficult",
"to",
"identify",
".",
"There",
"are",
"different",
"forms",
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"censorship",
"attacks",
"in",
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"consensus",
"algorithms",
".",
"For",
"Na",
"##ka",
"##moto",
"'",
"s",
"P",
"##OW",
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"algorithm",
",",
"attackers",
"often",
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"honest",
"valid",
"##ators",
",",
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"chains",
"might",
"be",
"temporarily",
"longer",
"but",
"will",
"become",
"shorter",
"than",
"the",
"attackers",
"'",
"chain",
"finally",
".",
"For",
"a",
"variety",
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"P",
"##OS",
"algorithms",
",",
"the",
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"'",
"approaches",
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"##OS",
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"P",
"##OW",
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"[",
"4",
"]",
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"P",
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"stake",
",",
"and",
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",",
"the",
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".",
"The",
"more",
"valid",
"##ators",
"are",
"added",
",",
"the",
"lower",
"the",
"reward",
"for",
"those",
"who",
"have",
"joined",
"will",
"be",
".",
"Such",
"an",
"attack",
"will",
"result",
"in",
"the",
"Car",
"##tel",
"monopoly",
"[",
"5",
"]",
",",
"known",
"as",
"price",
"monopoly",
"in",
"economics",
",",
"which",
"is",
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"of",
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"based",
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"an",
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".",
"III",
".",
"ME",
"##TH",
"##OD",
"##OL",
"##O",
"##GI",
"##ES",
"In",
"this",
"paper",
",",
"we",
"propose",
"two",
"methods",
"to",
"solve",
"censorship",
"attacks",
".",
"The",
"first",
"method",
"extends",
"the",
"Ten",
"##der",
"##min",
"##t",
"consensus",
"mechanism",
"with",
"three",
"kinds",
"of",
"messages",
"and",
"an",
"auxiliary",
"role",
"of",
"network",
"nodes",
".",
"It",
"can",
"detect",
"attackers",
"and",
"organize",
"the",
"blocks",
"generated",
"or",
"valid",
"##ated",
"by",
"the",
"honest",
"valid",
"##ators",
"into",
"an",
"honest",
"chain",
"automatically",
",",
"which",
"is",
"suitable",
"for",
"major",
"P",
"##OS",
"consensus",
"mechanisms",
".",
"We",
"discuss",
"the",
"f",
"##eas",
"##ibility",
"of",
"this",
"method",
"for",
"solving",
"censorship",
"attacks",
"within",
"a",
"new",
"t",
"##ril",
"##em",
"##ma",
"framework",
"summarized",
"by",
"us",
".",
"The",
"second",
"method",
"takes",
"the",
"advantage",
"of",
"valid",
"##ators",
"to",
"keep",
"the",
"suspicious",
"scores",
"of",
"other",
"valid",
"##ators",
"conducting",
"censorship",
"attack",
".",
"They",
"have",
"to",
"manually",
"switch",
"to",
"a",
"chain",
"built",
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"more",
"honest",
"valid",
"##ators",
"according",
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"the",
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".",
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"non",
"-",
"automatic",
",",
"yet",
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"is",
"still",
"more",
"efficient",
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"leaving",
"the",
"market",
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"choose",
"the",
"honest",
"chain",
".",
"IV",
".",
"CO",
"##NC",
"##L",
"##US",
"##ION",
"There",
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"a",
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"##rs",
"##hip",
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".",
"An",
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"method",
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"##lik",
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"##eri",
"##n",
"for",
"the",
"P",
"##OW",
"consensus",
"mechanism",
"and",
"a",
"pu"
] | Improved consensus mechanisms against censorship attacks | 212 |
I. INTRODUCTION
The security is critical for the current blockchain systems, which are suffering from various vulnerabilities at various levels, from the entire system to all modules, such as the consensus algorithm. Certain vulnerabilities are implicit at the program level, which are easy to fix once discovered. Certain vulnerabilities are explicit at the protocol level, which are difficult t | [
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] | Improved consensus mechanisms against censorship attacks | 213 |
I. INTRODUCTION
The security is critical for the current blockchain systems, which are suffering from various vulnerabilities at various levels, from the entire system to all modules, such as the consensus algorithm. Certain vulnerabilities are implicit at the program level, which are easy to fix once discovered. Certain vulnerabilities are explicit at the protocol level, which are difficult t | [
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] | Improved consensus mechanisms against censorship attacks | 214 |
Albatross
An optimistic consensus algorithm
Version 4 – December 10, 2019
Bruno França
Nimiq Foundation
[email protected]
Marvin Wissfeld
Nimiq Foundation
[email protected]
Pascal Berrang
Nimiq Foundation
[email protected]
Philipp von Styp-Rekowsky
Nimiq Foundation
[email protected]
Abstract—The area of distributed ledgers is a vast and quickly
developing landscape. At the heart of most distributed ledgers
is their consensus protocol. The consensus protocol describes the
way participants in a distri | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 215 |
Albatross
An optimistic consensus algorithm
Version 4 – December 10, 2019
Bruno França
Nimiq Foundation
[email protected]
Marvin Wissfeld
Nimiq Foundation
[email protected]
Pascal Berrang
Nimiq Foundation
[email protected]
Philipp von Styp-Rekowsky
Nimiq Foundation
[email protected]
Abstract—The area of distributed ledgers is a vast and quickly
developing landscape. At the heart of most distributed ledgers
is their consensus protocol. The consensus protocol describes the
way participants in a distri | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 216 |
buted network interact with each
other to obtain and agree on a shared state. While classical
consensus Byzantine fault tolerant (BFT) algorithms are designed
to work in closed, size-limited networks only, modern distributed
ledgers – and blockchains in particular – often focus on open,
permissionless networks.
In this paper, we present a novel blockchain consensus algo-
rithm, called Albatross, inspired by speculative BFT algorithms.
Transactions in Albatross benefit from strong probabilistic final-
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",",
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"potential",
"and",
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"is",
"called",
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"set",
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"valid",
"##ators",
"tasked",
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"than",
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"in"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 217 |
. We describe the technical specification of Albatross in detail
and analyse its security and performance. We conclude that the
protocol is secure under regular PBFT security assumptions and
has a performance close to the theoretical maximum for single-
chain Proof-of-Stake consensus algorithms.
I. INTRODUCTION
The most famous classical consensus algorithm is PBFT,
or practical Byzantine fault tolerance [1]. PBFT has greatly
influenced the field since its creation in 1999 and is now
a major component in | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 218 |
many of the consensus algorithms
being used or developed for blockchains. However, classical
consensus theory has evolved significantly and, nowadays,
the BFT algorithms providing the highest performance are
speculative BFT algorithms.
Speculative BFT refers to a class of algorithms that have
two modes for consensus: (1) the optimistic mode, where it is
assumed that the nodes are well-behaved and so little security
measures are applied, instead preferring speed, and (2) the
pessimistic mode, where no su | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 219 |
many of the consensus algorithms
being used or developed for blockchains. However, classical
consensus theory has evolved significantly and, nowadays,
the BFT algorithms providing the highest performance are
speculative BFT algorithms.
Speculative BFT refers to a class of algorithms that have
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 220 |
ch assumption is made and the
only goal is to make progress even in the presence of malicious
nodes.
The reason for speculative BFT algorithms being signifi-
cantly faster than non-speculative versions lies in the opti-
mistic mode, which allows them to compete with centralized
systems in terms of speed. The optimistic mode, however,
is not robust or safe at all, with any node being able to
make an invalid update. When that happens, speculative BFT
algorithms automatically enter into pessimistic mode, re | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 221 |
ch assumption is made and the
only goal is to make progress even in the presence of malicious
nodes.
The reason for speculative BFT algorithms being signifi-
cantly faster than non-speculative versions lies in the opti-
mistic mode, which allows them to compete with centralized
systems in terms of speed. The optimistic mode, however,
is not robust or safe at all, with any node being able to
make an invalid update. When that happens, speculative BFT
algorithms automatically enter into pessimistic mode, re | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 222 |
vert
the invalid update and then change back into optimistic mode.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
4.0 International License.
The idea here is deceptively simple. In PBFT, the nodes
adopt a "never trust" attitude, all updates to the ledger being
carried out with a focus on maximum security. In speculative
BFT, the nodes adopt a "trust but verify" attitude, being
allowed to make an update by themselves but with other nodes
verifying the update afterwards and it bei | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 223 |
ng reverted if it is
not valid.
Albatross, our novel blockchain 1 consensus algorithm, is
modeled after some of these speculative BFT algorithms like
Zyzzyva [2], but it also takes inspiration from other consensus
algorithms like Byzcoin [3], Algorand [4] and Bitcoin-NG [5].
II. OVERVIEW
In this section, we will give a summary of Albatross, de-
scribing in an intuitive fashion the different types of validators,
blocks and the chain selection algorithm. We also present the
behavior of the protocol in th | [
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ng reverted if it is
not valid.
Albatross, our novel blockchain 1 consensus algorithm, is
modeled after some of these speculative BFT algorithms like
Zyzzyva [2], but it also takes inspiration from other consensus
algorithms like Byzcoin [3], Algorand [4] and Bitcoin-NG [5].
II. OVERVIEW
In this section, we will give a summary of Albatross, de-
scribing in an intuitive fashion the different types of validators,
blocks and the chain selection algorithm. We also present the
behavior of the protocol in th | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 225 |
e optimistic mode, discuss the
ways validators may misbehave and how such misbehavior is
countered in our protocol.
We will focus on the general structure of Albatross and
leave the details for Section IV.
A. Validators
There are two types of validators: potential and active
validators. A potential validator is any node that has staked
tokens (i.e., tokens that are locked away for this purpose), so
that it can be selected for block production. An active validator
is a potential validator that was selec | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 226 |
e optimistic mode, discuss the
ways validators may misbehave and how such misbehavior is
countered in our protocol.
We will focus on the general structure of Albatross and
leave the details for Section IV.
A. Validators
There are two types of validators: potential and active
validators. A potential validator is any node that has staked
tokens (i.e., tokens that are locked away for this purpose), so
that it can be selected for block production. An active validator
is a potential validator that was selec | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 227 |
ted to produce blocks
during the current epoch and thus has an active role.
The set of all potential and active validators is called the
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"Rest",
"##aking"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 228 |
or list,
but only appears exactly one time in the validator set.
1It is important to note that we focus on a cryptocurrency use case here.
We assume that blocks contain transactions and that the underlying token has
a monetary value.
1
ar
X
iv
:1
90
3.
01
58
9v
3
[
cs
.C
R
]
1
4
Ja
n
20
20
B. Blocks
There are two types of blocks that are produced by the
validators:
• Macro blocks: These blocks are used to change the
validator list and contain the identities of the new active
valida | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 229 |
or list,
but only appears exactly one time in the validator set.
1It is important to note that we focus on a cryptocurrency use case here.
We assume that blocks contain transactions and that the underlying token has
a monetary value.
1
ar
X
iv
:1
90
3.
01
58
9v
3
[
cs
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]
1
4
Ja
n
20
20
B. Blocks
There are two types of blocks that are produced by the
validators:
• Macro blocks: These blocks are used to change the
validator list and contain the identities of the new active
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 230 |
tors. They do not contain user-generated transac-
tions. Macro blocks are produced with PBFT.
• Micro blocks: These blocks are the ones that contain
user-generated transactions. Each micro block is pro-
duced by a randomly chosen active validator and contains
not only the transactions to be included, but also the
current state and a random seed produced by the validator.
Micro blocks only need to be signed by the corresponding
elected validator.
One macro block is always followed by m micro blocks,
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 231 |
this pattern repeating throughout the blockchain. An
epoch is composed of a macro block and the m micro blocks
that preceded it.
C. Chain selection
Nodes will believe the longest chain, by number of blocks,
to be the main chain. Note that, since macro blocks have
finality and are thus forkless, any fork can only happen
between two macro blocks. So, nodes only need to consider
chains that include the last macro block.
D. Optimistic mode
Now, we will consider what happens during an epoch in
Albatross, | [
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"##actions"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 232 |
this pattern repeating throughout the blockchain. An
epoch is composed of a macro block and the m micro blocks
that preceded it.
C. Chain selection
Nodes will believe the longest chain, by number of blocks,
to be the main chain. Note that, since macro blocks have
finality and are thus forkless, any fork can only happen
between two macro blocks. So, nodes only need to consider
chains that include the last macro block.
D. Optimistic mode
Now, we will consider what happens during an epoch in
Albatross, | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 233 |
assuming that all validators are honest. We call this
the optimistic mode because we are trusting that the validators
will not misbehave.
1) At the beginning of an epoch a new validator list is cho-
sen at random. The validators are chosen proportionally
to their stake from the validator set.
2) Using a random seed, a validator is selected at random
to produce the next micro block. This validator is called
the slot owner.
3) The slot owner chooses which transactions to include
in the block and calculat | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 234 |
es the resulting state. He also
produces a new random seed that will be used to select
the slot owner for the next block.
4) He includes the transactions, the current state, and the
random seed in the block, signs it and relays it.
5) Now the next slot owner repeats the process and pro-
duces another micro block that appends some transac-
tions to the blockchain and picks the next slot owner.
This continues until the last micro block in the current
epoch, which will pick the validator that will be PBFT
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 235 |
leader for the macro block.
6) The PBFT leader will also produce a new random seed
which will be used to select a new validator list for the
next epoch. However, there are no transactions to include
in the block.
7) The leader and the other validators sign the block and
relay it.
Note that the validators will produce their random seeds
using a verifiable random function. A verifiable random func-
tion is a pseudo-random function that cannot be manipulated
by the validator and so guarantees a fair selec | [
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"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"H",
".",
"Re",
"##ward",
"##s",
"The",
"rewards",
",",
"consisting",
"of",
"the",
"coin",
"##base",
"plus",
"the",
"transaction",
"fees",
",",
"are",
"always",
"divided",
"equally",
"among",
"all",
"active",
"valid",
"##ators",
".",
"Additionally",
",",
"the",
"rewards",
"for",
"an",
"entire",
"e",
"##po",
"##ch",
"are",
"only",
"distributed",
"at",
"the",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"next",
"e",
"##po",
"##ch",
"(",
"on",
"the",
"mac",
"##ro",
"block",
")",
".",
"So",
",",
"the",
"reward",
"distribution",
"is",
"always",
"delayed",
"by",
"one",
"e",
"##po",
"##ch",
".",
"6",
"The",
"reason",
"for",
"this",
"delay",
"is",
"to",
"allow",
"ample",
"time",
"for",
"valid",
"##ators",
"to",
"submit",
"fork",
"proof",
"##s",
"before",
"the",
"rewards",
"are",
"distributed",
".",
"Note",
"that",
"valid",
"##ators",
"do",
"not",
"need",
"a",
"large",
"incentive",
"to",
"produce",
"blocks",
"since",
"block",
"production",
"in",
"Alba",
"##tro",
"##ss",
"is",
"extremely",
"cheap",
".",
"No",
"expensive",
"mining",
"equipment",
"or",
"GP",
"##U",
"##s",
"are",
"needed",
",",
"and",
"any",
"regular",
"computer",
"with",
"a",
"good",
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"connection",
"su",
"##ff",
"##ices",
".",
"I",
".",
"P",
"##uni",
"##sh",
"##ments",
"Whether",
"a",
"valid",
"##ator",
"delays",
"a",
"block",
"or",
"creates",
"a",
"fork",
",",
"he",
"is",
"punished",
"in",
"the",
"same",
"way",
":",
"•",
"The",
"mi",
"##s",
"##be",
"##having",
"valid",
"##ator",
"is",
"no",
"longer",
"considered",
"in",
"the",
"slot",
"owner",
"selection",
",",
"i",
".",
"e",
".",
",",
"he",
"is",
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"from",
"producing",
"any",
"more",
"micro",
"blocks",
",",
"and",
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"being",
"the",
"leader",
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"mac",
"##ro",
"block",
",",
"during",
"the",
"current",
"e",
"##po",
"##ch",
".",
"However",
",",
"he",
"can",
"still",
"participate",
"in",
"the",
"view",
"change",
"and",
"mac",
"##ro",
"block",
"voting",
".",
"•",
"His",
"reward",
"is",
"confiscated",
"and",
"burned",
"6",
".",
"•",
"He",
"is",
"marked",
"to",
"be",
"expelled",
"from",
"the",
"valid",
"##ator",
"registry",
".",
"Just",
"like",
"in",
"an",
"un",
"##sta",
"##king",
"transaction",
",",
"the",
"deposit",
"is",
"returned",
"to",
"the",
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"and",
"his",
"information",
"is",
"deleted",
"from",
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"registry",
".",
"The",
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"of",
"producing",
"micro",
"blocks",
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"applied",
"im",
"-",
"media",
"##tel",
"##y",
"after",
"a",
"view",
"change",
"(",
"for",
"a",
"delay",
")",
"or",
"in",
"the",
"block",
"where",
"a",
"fork",
"proof",
"is",
"included",
"(",
"for",
"a",
"fork",
")",
".",
"However",
",",
"the",
"reward",
"con",
"##fi",
"##sca",
"##tion",
"and",
"the",
"valid",
"##ator",
"registry",
"expulsion",
"only",
"happen",
"on",
"the",
"mac",
"##ro",
"block",
"at",
"the",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"next",
"e",
"##po",
"##ch",
".",
"In",
"other",
"words",
",",
"it",
"happens",
"at",
"the",
"same",
"time",
"the",
"rewards",
"are",
"distributed",
".",
"Note",
"that",
"fork",
"proof",
"##s",
"can",
"be",
"submitted",
"until",
"the",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"e",
"##po",
"##ch",
"after",
"the",
"one",
"where",
"the",
"fork",
"occurred",
".",
"In",
"addition",
",",
"a",
"valid",
"##ator",
"that",
"delayed",
"a",
"block",
"can",
"avoid",
"being",
"expelled",
"from",
"the",
"valid",
"##ator",
"registry",
"if",
"he",
"can",
"prove",
",",
"before",
"the",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"next",
"e",
"##po",
"##ch",
",",
"that",
"he",
"is",
"available",
"and",
"still",
"knows",
"his",
"secret",
"hot",
"key",
"7",
".",
"Pro",
"##ducing",
"invalid",
"blocks",
"is",
"not",
"punished",
"in",
"any",
"way",
"since",
"it",
"does",
"not",
"impact",
"the",
"consensus",
".",
"J",
".",
"Chain",
"selection",
"The",
"chain",
"selection",
"algorithm",
"is",
"more",
"complex",
"than",
"our",
"brief",
"description",
"of",
"it",
"in",
"the",
"overview",
"section",
"since",
"it",
"needs",
"to",
"take",
"into",
"account",
"ma",
"##lic",
"##ious",
"fork",
"##s",
"and",
"view",
"changes",
".",
"We",
"use",
"the",
"following",
"cumulative",
"conditions",
",",
"from",
"highest",
"to",
"lowest"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 236 |
tion.
E. Misbehaving validators
The protocol above constitutes the optimistic case, assuming
honest validators. However, Albatross also needs to be able
to withstand malicious validators. To this end, we present
appropriate measures for the three ways in which a validator
can misbehave: producing an invalid block, creating a fork,
and delaying a block.
1) Forks: Forks are not possible during a macro block,
because PBFT is a forkless protocol. But a fork can be created
if a validator produces more than | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 237 |
tion.
E. Misbehaving validators
The protocol above constitutes the optimistic case, assuming
honest validators. However, Albatross also needs to be able
to withstand malicious validators. To this end, we present
appropriate measures for the three ways in which a validator
can misbehave: producing an invalid block, creating a fork,
and delaying a block.
1) Forks: Forks are not possible during a macro block,
because PBFT is a forkless protocol. But a fork can be created
if a validator produces more than | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 238 |
one micro block in the same
slot. To deal with this, we introduce fork proofs. Anyone can
create a fork proof. Two block headers, at the same slot, signed
by the same validator, constitute sufficient proof.
If a malicious validator creates or continues a fork, even-
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fork proof and the malicious validator will be punished.
2) Delays: Validators can potentially take a long time to
produce a block, either because they went offline or because
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"risk",
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".",
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",",
"stake",
"##rs",
"don",
"'",
"t",
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"expenses",
".",
"A",
"stake",
"##r",
",",
"in",
"addition",
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"coins",
",",
"only",
"needs",
"a",
"decent",
"computer",
"and",
"a",
"good",
"internet",
"connection",
",",
"both",
"of",
"which",
"are",
"relatively",
"cheap",
".",
"Consequently",
",",
"stake",
"##rs",
"face",
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"St",
"##aker",
"##s",
"have",
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"s",
"##taking",
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"##ow",
"##er",
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"quite",
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",",
"requiring",
"a",
"high",
"degree",
"of",
"technical",
"knowledge",
"and",
"high",
"capital",
"costs",
",",
"acquiring",
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"achieved",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
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".",
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"-",
"holders",
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"have",
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"-",
"node",
",",
"a",
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".",
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"##aking",
"pools",
"solve",
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",",
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".",
"B",
".",
"Dec",
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"##ization",
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"##ization",
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"##W",
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",",
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".",
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",",
"they",
"tend",
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"join",
"the",
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"pools",
".",
"All",
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"##W",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
"being",
"dominated",
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"a",
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"very",
"large",
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".",
"7",
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"the",
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"##holders",
".",
"V",
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"##ce",
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"not",
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"important",
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"stake",
"##rs",
",",
"for",
"whom",
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"is",
"often",
"the",
"primary",
"concern",
".",
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"##taking",
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",",
"wallet",
"##s",
",",
"cu",
"##sto",
"##dian",
"##s",
",",
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",",
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"##S",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
"tend",
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"be",
"significantly",
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"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
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"##W",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
".",
"In",
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",",
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"##taking",
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"##os",
"##i",
"-",
"t",
"##ively",
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"the",
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"##S",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
"because",
"they",
"increase",
"the",
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"number",
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"being",
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"##d",
"while",
"keeping",
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"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
".",
"C",
".",
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"##ake",
"delegation",
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"##ake",
"delegation",
"refers",
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"##taking",
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"-",
"party",
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".",
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",",
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"-",
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"##S",
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"absolutely",
"necessary",
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"the",
"existence",
"of",
"s",
"##taking",
"pools",
".",
"Without",
"stake",
"delegation",
",",
"only"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 239 |
maliciously try to delay the block production. In both
cases, we need to change the slot owner. To this end, we use
the view change protocol of PBFT.
After receiving a block, each validator starts a countdown.
If he doesn't receive the next block before the timer ends, he
sends out a message requesting a view change (a change of the
slot owner). Any validator that receives such messages from
at least two-thirds of the validator list, will no longer accept a
block from the current slot owner. Instead, a | [
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"cu",
"##sto",
"##dial",
"s",
"##taking",
"pools",
"can",
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".",
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"##tro",
"##ss",
",",
"thanks",
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"keys",
",",
"it",
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"stake",
"delegation",
".",
"Imagine",
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"a",
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"a",
"s",
"##taking",
"pool",
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".",
"All",
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"a",
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"to",
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"an",
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"a",
"B",
"##LS",
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"##pair",
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"publish",
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".",
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"Charlie",
"can",
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"s",
"##taking",
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"(",
"see",
"Section",
"IV",
"-",
"C",
")",
"with",
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"'",
"s",
"public",
"B",
"##LS",
"key",
"as",
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"key",
"and",
"Paula",
"'",
"s",
"address",
"as",
"the",
"reward",
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".",
"Now",
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"the",
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"and",
"warm",
"keys",
",",
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",",
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"key",
",",
"giving",
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"'",
"s",
"address",
",",
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"share",
"them",
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".",
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".",
"All",
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"-",
"chain",
".",
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"lever",
"##aging",
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"'",
"s",
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"address",
",",
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"##be",
"##ha",
"##vior",
".",
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",",
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"any",
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"'",
"s",
"entry",
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"as",
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".",
"VI",
".",
"S",
"##Y",
"##NC",
"##H",
"##RO",
"##NI",
"##Z",
"##AT",
"##ION",
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"a",
"way",
"of",
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"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##zing",
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"##cha",
"##in",
",",
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"block",
",",
"which",
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"hard",
"##code",
"##d",
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"client",
"software",
".",
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",",
"the",
"way",
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"which",
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"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##ze",
"depends",
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"are",
":",
"arch",
"##ival",
",",
"full",
"or",
"light",
".",
"8",
"##I",
"##n",
"some",
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"##S",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
",",
"stake",
"delegation",
"can",
"also",
"refer",
"to",
"del",
"##eg",
"##ating",
"voting",
"power",
".",
"A",
".",
"Arch",
"##ival",
"nodes",
"Arch",
"##ival",
"nodes",
"need",
"to",
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"and",
"verify",
"all",
"the",
"blocks",
",",
"including",
"the",
"micro",
"blocks",
",",
"without",
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"option",
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"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
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"but",
"also",
"the",
"slow",
"##est",
",",
"requiring",
"the",
"node",
"to",
"download",
"vast",
"amounts",
"of",
"data",
".",
"Also",
"has",
"the",
"disadvantage",
"that",
"the",
"amount",
"of",
"data",
"to",
"download",
"grows",
"linear",
"##ly",
"with",
"time",
",",
"thus",
"the",
"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##zation",
"time",
"for",
"arch",
"##ival",
"nodes",
"increases",
"over",
"the",
"life",
"of",
"the",
"block",
"##cha"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 240 |
new slot owner
is chosen to produce a block and a new countdown begins.
The new slot owner is chosen in the following way. The
random seed and a counter are hashed together to produce a
random value that is used to pick a validator from the validator
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 241 |
slot owner is selected and so on.
3) Invalid blocks: When a validator produces an invalid
block, either when he is the slot owner for a micro block or
the PBFT leader for a macro block, the other validators just
need to ignore that block.
4) Punishment: Validators that fork or delay blocks are
punished in the same way: they get banned from producing any
more micro blocks during the current epoch and their reward
for the whole epoch is burned. Moreover, such validators
are marked to be automatically rem | [
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",",
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",",
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"##hr",
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"-",
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"light",
"nodes",
",",
"by",
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"-",
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",",
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"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##zing",
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"two",
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"use",
"zero",
"-",
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"proof",
"##s",
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".",
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"-",
"re",
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"##rs",
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"-",
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",",
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",",
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"complexity"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 242 |
oved from the registry of
potential validators if they do not prove being active within
two epochs.
III. PRELIMINARIES
A. Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance
The practical Byzantine fault tolerance consensus algorithm,
or PBFT for short, was introduced by Castro and Liskov in
2
1999 [1].
Assuming that there are 3f + 1 nodes, PBFT can tolerate
up to f faults and, thus, is optimal for a partially synchronous
BFT protocol. There are several slightly different variants of
PBFT but we will only describe | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 243 |
oved from the registry of
potential validators if they do not prove being active within
two epochs.
III. PRELIMINARIES
A. Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance
The practical Byzantine fault tolerance consensus algorithm,
or PBFT for short, was introduced by Castro and Liskov in
2
1999 [1].
Assuming that there are 3f + 1 nodes, PBFT can tolerate
up to f faults and, thus, is optimal for a partially synchronous
BFT protocol. There are several slightly different variants of
PBFT but we will only describe | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 244 |
the one used in Albatross.
PBFT proceeds in four rounds:
• Pre-prepare: In this phase, the leader multicasts a block
proposal to the rest of the validator list.
• Prepare: After receiving the block proposal, each valida-
tor determines if it is valid. If it is, he calculates the block
hash h and signs a message saying 〈PREPARE, h〉. Then,
he multicasts the signature to the rest of the validator list.
The leader also sends a prepare message.
• Commit: If a validator receives prepare messages from
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• Reply: If a validator receives 2f + 1 commit messages
from validators who also sent prepare messages, the block
is considered finalized. Then, he gossips the block to the
network.
Instead of sending all signatures in the block separately, we
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"of",
"co",
"##ll",
"##uding",
".",
"To",
"conclude",
",",
"in",
"the",
"next",
"sections",
"we",
"will",
"analyze",
"the",
"security",
"of",
"Alba",
"##tro",
"##ss",
"and",
"argue",
"that",
"it",
"is",
"secure",
"under",
"the",
"following",
"two",
"assumptions",
":",
"1",
")",
"Less",
"than",
"1",
"3",
"of",
"the",
"valid",
"##ator",
"list",
"is",
"controlled",
"by",
"ma",
"##li",
"-",
"c",
"##ious",
"ad",
"##vers",
"##aries",
".",
"2",
")",
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"##aries",
",",
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"##vers",
"##ary",
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",",
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"a",
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"##vers",
"##ary",
",",
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"##vers",
"##ary",
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",",
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".",
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",",
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"##tro",
"##ss",
"has",
"a",
"security",
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"very",
"similar",
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"P",
"##BF",
"##T",
".",
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"P",
"##BF",
"##T",
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"Alba",
"##tro",
"##ss",
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"##T",
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",",
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"##T",
",",
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"##tro",
"##ss",
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"##po",
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",",
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"##vers",
"##ibility",
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"##po",
"##nent",
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".",
"Depending",
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"##ators",
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"ad",
"##vers",
"##ary",
",",
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"+",
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",",
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":",
"•",
"x",
"≤",
"f",
":",
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"'",
"t",
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".",
"•",
"f",
"<",
"x",
"≤",
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"##f",
":",
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"indefinitely",
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"change",
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",",
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"##ily",
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"##po",
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"10",
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"x",
">",
"2",
"##f",
":",
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":",
"he",
"can",
"delay",
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",",
"create",
"fork",
"##s",
"and",
"publish",
"invalid",
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".",
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"##vers",
"##ary",
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"##s",
"or",
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"blocks",
",",
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"##via",
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",",
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"f",
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",",
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"##ary",
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"f",
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",",
"he",
"will",
"certainly",
"perform",
"double",
"-",
"spending",
"attacks",
"since",
"he"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 246 |
idators sent prepare messages. The
exact same is done to the commit messages. So the justification
for the block consists just of the two aggregated signatures and
the corresponding bitmaps.
B. Boneh-Lynn-Shacham signatures
Boneh-Lynn-Shacham (BLS) is a signature scheme that
was first introduced in 2004 [6] and uses both elliptic curve
cryptography and bilinear pairings. Its security is less con-
servative than some other more commonly used digital sig-
nature schemes (for example ECDSA and Schnorr), bu | [
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"10"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 247 |
t is
still considered secure by the majority of the cryptography
community. It also offers several advantages over ECDSA
and Schnorr, namely: shorter signature sizes, deterministic
signatures, and simple schemes for signature aggregation,
threshold signatures, and multisignatures.
To understand BLS, first it is necessary to understand
bilinear pairings. A bilinear pairing is a function that takes
two elliptic curves points, possibly in two different curves
and outputs a point in another curve. It also mu | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 248 |
t is
still considered secure by the majority of the cryptography
community. It also offers several advantages over ECDSA
and Schnorr, namely: shorter signature sizes, deterministic
signatures, and simple schemes for signature aggregation,
threshold signatures, and multisignatures.
To understand BLS, first it is necessary to understand
bilinear pairings. A bilinear pairing is a function that takes
two elliptic curves points, possibly in two different curves
and outputs a point in another curve. It also mu | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 249 |
st have the
bilinearity property. A more precise definition is:
Let G1 and G2 be additive groups of prime order
p, and GT be a multiplicative group also of prime
order p. Let P ∈ G1 and Q ∈ G2 be generators
of G1 and G2, respectively, and a, b ∈ Zp. Then,
a bilinear is a map e : G1 × G2 → GT such that
e(aP, bQ) = e(P,Q)ab and e(P,Q) 6= 1.
For such bilinear pairings, e(aP, bQ) = e(P,Q)ab implies
that e(xP,Q) = e(P, xQ).
BLS signatures only require a bilinear pairing (with the
curves to support it) and a | [
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st have the
bilinearity property. A more precise definition is:
Let G1 and G2 be additive groups of prime order
p, and GT be a multiplicative group also of prime
order p. Let P ∈ G1 and Q ∈ G2 be generators
of G1 and G2, respectively, and a, b ∈ Zp. Then,
a bilinear is a map e : G1 × G2 → GT such that
e(aP, bQ) = e(P,Q)ab and e(P,Q) 6= 1.
For such bilinear pairings, e(aP, bQ) = e(P,Q)ab implies
that e(xP,Q) = e(P, xQ).
BLS signatures only require a bilinear pairing (with the
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 251 |
hash function that maps to el-
liptic curve points in G1. This hash function is defined as
h : M → G1. Given these primitives, the BLS signature
scheme is defined as follows:
• Key generation: Choose at random an integer x R←− Zp
and calculate Y = xQ. The secret key is x and the public
key is Y .
• Signing: Let m ∈ M be the message. To create a
signature, the message needs to be hashed H = h(m).
Then, calculate the signature as σ = xH .
• Verifying: Given a signature σ and a public key Y , accept
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 252 |
signature if e(σ,Q) = e(H,Y ).
As we have said before, BLS has a number of desirable fea-
tures. One that is useful for our design is signature aggregation.
BLS allows to combine n signatures of n different signers into
a single signature thus saving a considerable amount of space.
The scheme is as follows:
• Setup: Each of the n signers creates a secret key xi and
a public key Yi.
• Signing: Each of the n signers uses their secret key to
create signatures σi.
• Aggregation: The aggregated signature | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 253 |
signature if e(σ,Q) = e(H,Y ).
As we have said before, BLS has a number of desirable fea-
tures. One that is useful for our design is signature aggregation.
BLS allows to combine n signatures of n different signers into
a single signature thus saving a considerable amount of space.
The scheme is as follows:
• Setup: Each of the n signers creates a secret key xi and
a public key Yi.
• Signing: Each of the n signers uses their secret key to
create signatures σi.
• Aggregation: The aggregated signature | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 254 |
is simply the sum
of all individual signatures σ =
∑n
i=1 σi.
• Verifying: Calculate the aggregate public key Y =∑n
i=1 Yi. Accept the signature σ if e(σ,Q) = e(H,Y ).
C. Verifiable Random Functions
A verifiable random function is a pseudo-random function
that can provide publicly verifiable proofs that its output is
correct.
More formally, after a user creates a public key Y and a
secret key x, given an input s, the user can calculate the VRF
π, r = VRFx(s). Here, r is the pseudo-random output and
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 255 |
is simply the sum
of all individual signatures σ =
∑n
i=1 σi.
• Verifying: Calculate the aggregate public key Y =∑n
i=1 Yi. Accept the signature σ if e(σ,Q) = e(H,Y ).
C. Verifiable Random Functions
A verifiable random function is a pseudo-random function
that can provide publicly verifiable proofs that its output is
correct.
More formally, after a user creates a public key Y and a
secret key x, given an input s, the user can calculate the VRF
π, r = VRFx(s). Here, r is the pseudo-random output and
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is a proof for the correct computation of it. Then, anyone
who knows the public key and the proof can verify that r was
correctly computed, without learning the secret key x.
Verifiable random functions have three important properties:
• Pseudo-randomness: The only way of predicting the
output, better than guessing randomly, is to calculate the
function.
• Uniqueness: For each input s and secret key x there is
only one possible output r.
• Public verifiability: Anyone can verify that the output
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",",
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",",
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"##ync",
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"##yn",
"-",
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"##y",
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"##ono",
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",",
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"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ony",
".",
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"this",
"case",
",",
"it",
"is",
"possible",
"to",
"completely",
"halt",
"progress",
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"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"while",
"the",
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"as",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ono",
"##us",
".",
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",",
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"##tro",
"##ss",
"will",
"return",
"to",
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"when",
"the",
"network",
"be",
"-",
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"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ono",
"##us",
"again",
".",
"X",
".",
"CO",
"##NC",
"##L",
"##US",
"##ION",
"In",
"this",
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"we",
"described",
"and",
"analyzed",
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"##tro",
"##ss",
",",
"a",
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"inspired",
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"s",
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"B",
"##FT",
"algorithms",
".",
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"##tro",
"##ss",
"we",
"modified",
"P",
"##BF",
"##T",
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"(",
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")",
"making",
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",",
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"##aries",
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"block"
] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 257 |
orrectly computed.
The BLS signature scheme has all these properties with the
advantage that the signature serve as both the pseudo-random
value and proof of correctness. For this paper we will use we
will use BLS signatures as a simple verifiable random function.
IV. SPECIFICATION
We will now give the technical specification of Albatross,
describing in detail the networking, all of the validator's
functions and processes, the block's format, the misbehavior
handling protocols, the rewards and punishme | [
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orrectly computed.
The BLS signature scheme has all these properties with the
advantage that the signature serve as both the pseudo-random
value and proof of correctness. For this paper we will use we
will use BLS signatures as a simple verifiable random function.
IV. SPECIFICATION
We will now give the technical specification of Albatross,
describing in detail the networking, all of the validator's
functions and processes, the block's format, the misbehavior
handling protocols, the rewards and punishme | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 259 |
nts, and the
chain selection algorithm.
3
A. Networking
We choose S/Kademlia [7] for peer routing. S/Kademlia is a
hardened version of the Kademlia distributed hash table, which
greatly improves resistance of the network to eclipse and Sybil
attacks. We recommend that all communication between peers
is encrypted and gossiped.
By gossip we refer to when a node sends a message to
its connected neighbors, those neighbors relay the message
to their neighbors and so on until the message has been
propagat | [
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ed through the entire network.
Always gossiping messages increases the DoS resistance
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incoming connections from a small set of other nodes and
those connections tend to be long-lived. An attacker most
likely won't be able to connect directly to a validator and
must instead connect to other full nodes.
Honest full nodes will not relay invalid messages and so end
up acting as guards to the validators. As the number of honest
full nodes increases, s | [
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] | Albatross An optimistic consensus algorithm | 261 |
ed through the entire network.
Always gossiping messages increases the DoS resistance
of the validators. This is because each node only accepts
incoming connections from a small set of other nodes and
those connections tend to be long-lived. An attacker most
likely won't be able to connect directly to a validator and
must instead connect to other full nodes.
Honest full nodes will not relay invalid messages and so end
up acting as guards to the validators. As the number of honest
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Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things
978-1-5386-5925-0/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE
Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms
in Internet of Things
Sorin Zoican
Telecommunication Department
Politehnica University
Bucharest, Romania
[email protected]
Roxana Zoican
Telecommunication Department
Politehnica University
Bucharest, Romania
[email protected]
Marius Vochin
Telecommunication Department
Politehnica University
Bucharest, Romania
[email protected]
Dan G | [
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] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 264 |
Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things
978-1-5386-5925-0/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE
Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms
in Internet of Things
Sorin Zoican
Telecommunication Department
Politehnica University
Bucharest, Romania
[email protected]
Roxana Zoican
Telecommunication Department
Politehnica University
Bucharest, Romania
[email protected]
Marius Vochin
Telecommunication Department
Politehnica University
Bucharest, Romania
[email protected]
Dan G | [
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"and"
] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 265 |
alatchi
Telecommunication Department
Politehnica University
Bucharest, Romania
[email protected]
Abstract — this paper focuses on the performance evaluation
of consensus algorithms used in a blockchain system for Internet
of Things (IoT). In such systems the time necessary to achieve
consensus should be small. Three most used consensus algorithms
(modified proof of work, practical byzantine fault tolerance and
binary consensus) are evaluated in different situations – type of
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":",
"(",
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"Using",
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"[",
"3",
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"A",
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"\"",
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"The",
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] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 266 |
alatchi
Telecommunication Department
Politehnica University
Bucharest, Romania
[email protected]
Abstract — this paper focuses on the performance evaluation
of consensus algorithms used in a blockchain system for Internet
of Things (IoT). In such systems the time necessary to achieve
consensus should be small. Three most used consensus algorithms
(modified proof of work, practical byzantine fault tolerance and
binary consensus) are evaluated in different situations – type of
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"(",
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] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 267 |
of nodes participating in consensus algorithm and
radio propagation model. An integrated solution is proposed to
adapt an IoT node to different consensus algorithm. The
simulations in Contiki IoT operating system show good
performance (time to achieve consensus less than seconds)
Keywords— consensus algorithm, Internet of Things,
blockchain
I. INTRODUCTION
The Internet of Things is nowadays in a continuous
expansion [1]. Smart cities, intelligent houses and other
applications require comm | [
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] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 268 |
of nodes participating in consensus algorithm and
radio propagation model. An integrated solution is proposed to
adapt an IoT node to different consensus algorithm. The
simulations in Contiki IoT operating system show good
performance (time to achieve consensus less than seconds)
Keywords— consensus algorithm, Internet of Things,
blockchain
I. INTRODUCTION
The Internet of Things is nowadays in a continuous
expansion [1]. Smart cities, intelligent houses and other
applications require comm | [
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unication between a lot of nodes
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IoT systems use a server-client communication model in
which the devices are identified, authenticated and connected
through servers with high computation and storage resources.
The devices have a unique identity and they are connected
through Internet. Nowadays this communication paradigm will
not longer be used due the huge growing of the number of | [
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] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 270 |
unication between a lot of nodes
which usually consists of low or medium computational power
and small memory amount microcontrollers. Generally, the
IoT systems use a server-client communication model in
which the devices are identified, authenticated and connected
through servers with high computation and storage resources.
The devices have a unique identity and they are connected
through Internet. Nowadays this communication paradigm will
not longer be used due the huge growing of the number of | [
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] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 271 |
IoT
devices. The centralized solutions became expensive – they
use many servers and networking equipment to ensure the
communication between billions of devices and they need
maintenance. Decentralized methods represent solutions that
answer to the high costs issue in huge IoT systems. The
computation power and storage requirements will be shared
among the devices in the network. However, the peer to peer
communication arises some important issues to solve: privacy,
security, data validation and | [
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IoT
devices. The centralized solutions became expensive – they
use many servers and networking equipment to ensure the
communication between billions of devices and they need
maintenance. Decentralized methods represent solutions that
answer to the high costs issue in huge IoT systems. The
computation power and storage requirements will be shared
among the devices in the network. However, the peer to peer
communication arises some important issues to solve: privacy,
security, data validation and | [
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"N",
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"updated"
] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 273 |
consensus.
These nodes must maintain a coherent data base with all
information regard to the operations of cooperative nodes. An
efficient solution to do this is blockchain technology [2]. It
represents a distributed database with a continuous growing of
the public data records (or blocks) added to it. The distributed
database can be only extended, and previous inserted blocks
can not be removed. The whole chain can not be replicated
without very high costs. Each participant maintains a copy | [
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] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 274 |
consensus.
These nodes must maintain a coherent data base with all
information regard to the operations of cooperative nodes. An
efficient solution to do this is blockchain technology [2]. It
represents a distributed database with a continuous growing of
the public data records (or blocks) added to it. The distributed
database can be only extended, and previous inserted blocks
can not be removed. The whole chain can not be replicated
without very high costs. Each participant maintains a copy | [
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of
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network architecture. A client can change information on a
centralized server (of course, if it has the permission to do
this). Database control is maintained by a central authority.
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node is corrupt then all the nodes in the network will be at
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] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 276 |
blockchain database, each node updates the
information into the database working together to ensure the
consensus providing built-in security for the network. In a
blockchain system the nodes are connected (using different
topologies – peer to peer, star) in a distributed system and
each node contributes to decide using a consensus algorithm.
Two main issues arise here: (a) the complexity of the
consensus algorithm should be chosen taking into
consideration the limited reso | [
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] | Blockchain and Consensus Algorithms in Internet of Things | 278 |
Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms
Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus
Algorithms
Mr. Sunny Pahlajani
Department of Computer Engineering,
College of Engineering.
Pune, India
[email protected]
Mr. Avinash Kshirsagar
Department of Computer Engineering,
College of Engineering.
Pune, India
[email protected]
Dr. Vinod Pachghare
Department of Computer Engineering,
College of Engineering.
Pune, India
[email protected]
Abstract— A blockchain | [
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"V",
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"-",
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";",
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",",
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"."
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 279 |
Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms
Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus
Algorithms
Mr. Sunny Pahlajani
Department of Computer Engineering,
College of Engineering.
Pune, India
[email protected]
Mr. Avinash Kshirsagar
Department of Computer Engineering,
College of Engineering.
Pune, India
[email protected]
Dr. Vinod Pachghare
Department of Computer Engineering,
College of Engineering.
Pune, India
[email protected]
Abstract— A blockchain | [
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 280 |
is a distributed ledger of records
called as blocks. These blocks are linked using cryptographic
hash. Each block contains a hash of the previous block, a
timestamp, and transaction data. Consensus layer is the main
layer in Blockchain Architecture, in which consensus protocol
is configured to decide how new block is added in blockchain.
Consensus algorithm solves the problem of trust in blockchain.
Consensus algorithms can be classified into two classes. The
first class is voting-based consensus | [
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"critical",
"for",
"conclusion",
"and",
"treatment",
"purposes",
",",
"so",
"neither",
"the",
"specialist",
"nor",
"the",
"patient",
"ought",
"to",
"have",
"the",
"capacity",
"to",
"alter",
"the",
"records",
"effectively",
"made",
".",
"In",
"any",
"case",
",",
"the",
"specialist",
"claims",
"a",
"private",
"key",
"that",
"enables",
"him",
"to",
"make",
"new",
"records",
",",
"and",
"the",
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"possesses",
"a",
"public",
"key",
"that",
"enables",
"him",
"to",
"get",
"to",
"the",
"records",
"whenever",
"required",
".",
"This",
"technique",
"makes",
"the",
"information",
"both",
"open",
"and",
"secure",
".",
"In",
"this",
"way",
",",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"is",
"autonomous",
",",
"straightforward",
",",
"and",
"secure",
".",
"The",
"upside",
"##s",
"of",
"such",
"a",
"distributed",
"ledge",
"##r",
"are",
"self",
"-",
"evident",
":",
"being",
"it",
"cost",
"and",
"risk",
"reduction",
",",
"information",
"security",
",",
"or",
"exchanges",
"straightforward",
"##ness",
",",
"organisations",
"from",
"most",
"domains",
"can",
"clearly",
"profit",
"by",
"this",
"new",
"innovation",
".",
"The",
"thought",
"itself",
"isn",
"'",
"t",
"new",
",",
"however",
":",
"it",
"was",
"initially",
"illustrated",
"in",
"a",
"1976",
"research",
"paper",
"\"",
"New",
"Direction",
"##s",
"in",
"Cry",
"##pt",
"##ography",
"\"",
"[",
"1",
"]",
",",
"yet",
"for",
"quite",
"a",
"while",
"it",
"was",
"viewed",
"as",
"confused",
"and",
"not",
"explored",
".",
"Be",
"that",
"as",
"it",
"may",
",",
"in",
"2008",
"an",
"obscure",
"individual",
"or",
"group",
"of",
"individuals",
"known",
"by",
"the",
"pen",
"name",
"Na",
"##ka",
"##moto",
"presented",
"(",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
")",
"-",
"a",
"less",
"complex",
"usage",
"of",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"innovation",
"as",
"a",
"digital",
"currency",
"[",
"2",
"]",
".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"ended",
"up",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"main",
"computer",
"##ized",
"monetary",
"standards",
"to",
"utilize",
"distributed",
"innovation",
"to",
"encourage",
"instant",
"payments",
".",
"On",
"account",
"of",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"it",
"likewise",
"turned",
"into",
"the",
"principal",
"computer",
"##ized",
"cash",
"to",
"tackle",
"the",
"issue",
"of",
"two",
"##fold",
"spending",
".",
"All",
"the",
"more",
"essentially",
",",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"is",
"run",
"by",
"absolutely",
"nobody",
"and",
"is",
"im",
"##mu",
"##table",
".",
"The",
"stability",
",",
"security",
",",
"and",
"dispersed",
"nature",
"of",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"made",
"it",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"quick",
"##est",
"developing",
"resources",
":",
"this",
"year",
"alone",
",",
"its",
"cost",
"has",
"ascended",
"by",
"over",
"500",
"%",
".",
"Thus",
",",
"the",
"developing",
"notoriety",
"of",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"pulled",
"in",
"thoughtful",
"##ness",
"regarding",
"its",
"fundamental",
"innovation",
".",
"Present",
"##ly",
"many",
"new",
"tech"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 281 |
, which requires nodes in
the blockchain network to broadcast their results of mining a
new block or transaction, before appending the block to
blockchain. The second class is proof-based consensus, which
requires the nodes joining the blockchain network to solve and
mathematical puzzle to show that they are more eligible than
the others to do the appending or mining work. Performance of
blockchain can be increased with the use of suitable consensus
algorithm. However, theory and data support for | [
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"Present",
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"a",
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"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"models",
"are",
"strategies",
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"##ity",
"and",
"de",
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"##ncy",
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".",
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"##sus",
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"are",
"of",
"two",
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"-",
"based",
"and",
"voting",
"-",
"based",
".",
"They",
"are",
"explained",
"in",
"below",
"sections",
".",
"2",
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"1",
"Pro",
"##of",
"-",
"based",
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"Al",
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"##m",
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",",
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"Till",
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"##cha",
"##in",
"3"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 282 |
, which requires nodes in
the blockchain network to broadcast their results of mining a
new block or transaction, before appending the block to
blockchain. The second class is proof-based consensus, which
requires the nodes joining the blockchain network to solve and
mathematical puzzle to show that they are more eligible than
the others to do the appending or mining work. Performance of
blockchain can be increased with the use of suitable consensus
algorithm. However, theory and data support for | [
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"Over",
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",",
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"##s",
",",
"medicinal",
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",",
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"##bla",
"##zers",
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"approaches",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"to",
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"conventional",
"plans",
"of",
"action",
".",
"Numerous",
"industry",
"chiefs",
"have",
"just",
"accomplished",
"noteworthy",
"business",
"benefits",
",",
"including",
"more",
"prominent",
"straightforward",
"##ness",
",",
"upgraded",
"security",
",",
"enhanced",
"detect",
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",",
"expanded",
"pro",
"##ficiency",
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"speed",
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",",
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".",
"II",
".",
"CO",
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"##SU",
"##S",
"Con",
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"choice",
",",
"regardless",
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".",
"In",
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",",
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"s",
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"All",
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".",
"Others",
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".",
"Present",
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"a",
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"number",
"of",
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".",
"Wouldn",
"'",
"t",
"that",
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"increasingly",
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"?",
"Con",
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"t",
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".",
"It",
"'",
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"##ably",
"a",
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".",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"consensus",
"models",
"are",
"strategies",
"to",
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"uniform",
"##ity",
"and",
"de",
"##ce",
"##ncy",
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".",
"The",
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"is",
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".",
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"##sus",
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"proof",
"-",
"based",
"and",
"voting",
"-",
"based",
".",
"They",
"are",
"explained",
"in",
"below",
"sections",
".",
"2",
".",
"1",
"Pro",
"##of",
"-",
"based",
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"Al",
"##gor",
"##ith",
"##m",
"In",
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",",
"nodes",
"joining",
"the",
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"need",
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"##ographic",
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"##ending",
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".",
"In",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"nodes",
"get",
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"##ending",
"the",
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"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"The",
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"-",
"based",
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"##hi",
"Na",
"##ka",
"##moto",
"[",
"2",
"]",
".",
"Till",
"date",
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"proof",
"-",
"based",
"consensus",
"as",
"below",
"-",
"1",
".",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Work",
"–",
"solving",
"an",
"mathematical",
"puzzle",
".",
"2",
".",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"St",
"##ake",
"–",
"having",
"more",
"stake",
"in",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"3"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 283 |
the selecting
suitable consensus in private blockchain is very limited. This
paper contributes theory and data used for selecting suitable
consensus algorithm and would help researchers for further
exploring of consensus in private blockchain environment.
Keywords—Proof-based consensus; Voting-based consensus;
Byzantine fault tolerant consensus; Crash fault tolerant
consensus.
I. INTRODUCTION
Blockchain is a distributed database existing on multiple
nodes of the network at the same time | [
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 284 |
the selecting
suitable consensus in private blockchain is very limited. This
paper contributes theory and data used for selecting suitable
consensus algorithm and would help researchers for further
exploring of consensus in private blockchain environment.
Keywords—Proof-based consensus; Voting-based consensus;
Byzantine fault tolerant consensus; Crash fault tolerant
consensus.
I. INTRODUCTION
Blockchain is a distributed database existing on multiple
nodes of the network at the same time | [
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".",
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"##of",
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"##sed",
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".",
"Pro",
"##of",
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"Space",
"–",
"bigger",
"size",
"hard",
"-",
"disk",
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"required",
".",
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"i",
".",
"e",
".",
"combination",
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"any",
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"the",
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"consensus",
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".",
"1",
".",
"Pro",
"##of",
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"Work",
"example",
"As",
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"in",
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"a",
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"plus",
"one",
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"##Z",
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"[",
"5",
"]",
".",
"There",
"are",
"two",
"types"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 285 |
in sync. It is a
constantly growing ledger as new 'blocks', are added to it.
Each block contains a timestamp and a link to the previous
block, so they actually form a chain like structure tracking
back to the root i,e. genesis block. No single node maintains
the database, rather each node has a copy of database. Old
blocks of transactions are preserved and new blocks are
added to the ledger irreversibly, making it impossible to
manipulate previously recorded transactions thus it leads to
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"for",
"security",
"certificates",
",",
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"certificates",
",",
"en",
"##rol",
"##ment",
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".",
"•",
"No",
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".",
"j",
"##s",
"SD",
"##K",
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".",
"H",
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"and",
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".",
"All",
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"##ation",
"are",
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".",
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"(",
"CA",
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"to",
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".",
"Similarly",
",",
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"certificate",
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"##ting",
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"be",
"avail",
"##ed",
".",
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"-",
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"##ed",
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"planned",
"for",
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"release",
"[",
"6",
"]",
".",
"3",
".",
"2",
".",
"Co",
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"Co",
"##rda",
"is",
"a",
"version",
"of",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"specifically",
"focuses",
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"domain",
".",
"Co",
"##rda",
"supports",
"smart",
"contracts",
"which",
"are",
"executed",
"automatically",
"once",
"a",
"criterion",
"is",
"matched",
"and",
"can",
"be",
"controlled",
"as",
"per",
"need",
"of",
"application",
".",
"Finance",
"data",
"is",
"linked",
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"smart",
"contract",
"to",
"its",
"logic",
"which",
"is",
"legally",
"enforce",
"##able",
".",
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"document",
"agreement",
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"the",
"two",
"parties",
"and",
"its",
"states",
"is",
"called",
"state",
"object",
"in",
"cord",
"##a",
".",
"State",
"object",
"is",
"visible",
"only",
"to",
"the",
"involved",
"parties",
"unlike",
"in",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"where",
"it",
"is",
"public",
".",
"To",
"ensure",
"this",
"kind",
"of",
"security",
"has",
"##hing",
"is",
"used",
"to",
"identify",
"parties",
"and",
"their",
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".",
"All",
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"##table",
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"a",
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"##r",
"[",
"7"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 286 |
in sync. It is a
constantly growing ledger as new 'blocks', are added to it.
Each block contains a timestamp and a link to the previous
block, so they actually form a chain like structure tracking
back to the root i,e. genesis block. No single node maintains
the database, rather each node has a copy of database. Old
blocks of transactions are preserved and new blocks are
added to the ledger irreversibly, making it impossible to
manipulate previously recorded transactions thus it leads to
immutab | [
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"F",
"##ault",
"To",
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"##ance",
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"B",
"##FT",
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"there",
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"3",
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"De",
"##p",
"##loy",
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"De",
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"##loy",
"the",
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"Return",
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"In",
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"-",
"Ex",
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"##utes",
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"For",
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"##ation",
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",",
"where",
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"X",
"number",
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"##ault",
"To",
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"P",
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"##T",
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",",
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"non",
"-",
"de",
"##ter",
"##mini",
"##stic",
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"certificates",
",",
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",",
"en",
"##rol",
"##ment",
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".",
"•",
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".",
"j",
"##s",
"SD",
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".",
"H",
"##yper",
"##ledge",
"##r",
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"infrastructure",
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"All",
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"##isation",
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"##ation",
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"through",
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"key",
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".",
"Certificate",
"Authority",
"(",
"CA",
")",
"issues",
"en",
"##rol",
"##ment",
"certificate",
"to",
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"want",
"to",
"participate",
"in",
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".",
"Similarly",
",",
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"certificate",
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"issued",
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"##ting",
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"needs",
"to",
"be",
"avail",
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".",
"More",
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"-",
"grain",
"##ed",
"security",
"for",
"transactions",
"is",
"planned",
"for",
"next",
"release",
"[",
"6",
"]",
".",
"3",
".",
"2",
".",
"Co",
"##rda",
"Co",
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"is",
"a",
"version",
"of",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"specifically",
"focuses",
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".",
"Co",
"##rda",
"supports",
"smart",
"contracts",
"which",
"are",
"executed",
"automatically",
"once",
"a",
"criterion",
"is",
"matched",
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"can",
"be",
"controlled",
"as",
"per",
"need",
"of",
"application",
".",
"Finance",
"data",
"is",
"linked",
"by",
"smart",
"contract",
"to",
"its",
"logic",
"which",
"is",
"legally",
"enforce",
"##able",
".",
"A",
"digital",
"document",
"agreement",
"between",
"the",
"two",
"parties",
"and",
"its",
"states",
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"called",
"state",
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"##a",
".",
"State",
"object",
"is",
"visible",
"only",
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"the",
"involved",
"parties",
"unlike",
"in",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"where",
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"is",
"public",
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"To",
"ensure",
"this",
"kind",
"of",
"security",
"has",
"##hing",
"is",
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"to",
"identify",
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"##table",
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"##r",
"[",
"7"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 287 |
le ledger.
All blocks are encoded uniquely, so every node can verify
the data however just a node who possesses a unique
cryptographic key (private) can add another block to a
specific chain. As long as you remain the only node who
knows the key (private), nobody can control your exchanges.
Likewise, cryptography is utilized to ensure synchronization
of duplicates of the blockchain on every node in the network.
You can consider blockchain as an advanced restorative
record: each record is a bloc | [
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"-",
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"[",
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 288 |
le ledger.
All blocks are encoded uniquely, so every node can verify
the data however just a node who possesses a unique
cryptographic key (private) can add another block to a
specific chain. As long as you remain the only node who
knows the key (private), nobody can control your exchanges.
Likewise, cryptography is utilized to ensure synchronization
of duplicates of the blockchain on every node in the network.
You can consider blockchain as an advanced restorative
record: each record is a bloc | [
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".",
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 289 |
k which has a mark expressing
the date and time when the record was entered. The
medicinal history is critical for conclusion and treatment
purposes, so neither the specialist nor the patient ought to
have the capacity to alter the records effectively made. In any
case, the specialist claims a private key that enables him to
make new records, and the patient possesses a public key that
enables him to get to the records whenever required. This
technique makes the information both open and secure.
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 290 |
k which has a mark expressing
the date and time when the record was entered. The
medicinal history is critical for conclusion and treatment
purposes, so neither the specialist nor the patient ought to
have the capacity to alter the records effectively made. In any
case, the specialist claims a private key that enables him to
make new records, and the patient possesses a public key that
enables him to get to the records whenever required. This
technique makes the information both open and secure.
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 291 |
In this way, blockchain is autonomous, straightforward, and
secure. The upsides of such a distributed ledger are self-
evident: being it cost and risk reduction, information
security, or exchanges straightforwardness, organisations
from most domains can clearly profit by this new innovation.
The thought itself isn't new, however: it was initially
illustrated in a 1976 research paper "New Directions in
Cryptography" [1], yet for quite a while it was viewed as
confused and not explored. Be that as | [
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 292 |
In this way, blockchain is autonomous, straightforward, and
secure. The upsides of such a distributed ledger are self-
evident: being it cost and risk reduction, information
security, or exchanges straightforwardness, organisations
from most domains can clearly profit by this new innovation.
The thought itself isn't new, however: it was initially
illustrated in a 1976 research paper "New Directions in
Cryptography" [1], yet for quite a while it was viewed as
confused and not explored. Be that as | [
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 293 |
it may, in 2008 an
obscure individual or group of individuals known by the pen
name Nakamoto presented (Bitcoin) - a less complex usage
of blockchain innovation as a digital currency [2]. Bitcoin
ended up one of the main computerized monetary standards
to utilize distributed innovation to encourage instant
payments. On account of blockchain, it likewise turned into
the principal computerized cash to tackle the issue of twofold
spending. All the more essentially, Bitcoin is run by
absolutely nobod | [
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"If",
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"crash",
",",
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"request",
"would",
"time",
"##out",
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".",
"Heart",
"##beat",
"mechanism",
"is",
"used",
"for",
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".",
"4",
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"Chain",
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"Fed",
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"consensus",
"Fed",
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"consensus",
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"Chain",
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".",
"Block",
"##s",
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"q",
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"M",
"-",
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"N",
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",",
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",",
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"[",
"17",
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"As",
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"There",
"is",
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"block",
"generator",
"coordination",
"between",
"block",
"sign",
"##ers",
"due",
"to",
"which",
"consensus",
"reach",
"efficiently",
".",
"Block",
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"received",
"transaction",
"from",
"the",
"network",
"filters",
"out",
"invalid",
"one",
"and",
"aggregate",
"##s",
"them",
"into",
"blocks",
"and",
"route",
"them",
"block",
"sign",
"##ers",
"for",
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"##ation",
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"Block",
"sign",
"##er",
"ve",
"##ri",
"##fies",
"the",
"block",
"forward",
"##ed",
"by",
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"and",
"signs",
"it",
"if",
"found",
"appropriate",
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"After",
"the",
"block",
"is",
"signed",
"by",
"majority",
"of",
"block",
"sign",
"##ers",
"it",
"publishes",
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"Sale",
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"##r",
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"V",
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"CO",
"##NC",
"##L",
"##US",
"##ION",
"This",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"consensus",
"protocols",
",",
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"block",
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"##in",
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"used",
"in",
"private",
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"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"so",
"that",
"it",
"will",
"be",
"helpful",
"to",
"choose",
"the"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 294 |
it may, in 2008 an
obscure individual or group of individuals known by the pen
name Nakamoto presented (Bitcoin) - a less complex usage
of blockchain innovation as a digital currency [2]. Bitcoin
ended up one of the main computerized monetary standards
to utilize distributed innovation to encourage instant
payments. On account of blockchain, it likewise turned into
the principal computerized cash to tackle the issue of twofold
spending. All the more essentially, Bitcoin is run by
absolutely nobod | [
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"consensus",
"for",
"the",
"entire",
"network",
"through",
"which",
"all",
"log",
"entries",
"must",
"be",
"recorded",
".",
"While",
",",
"the",
"followers",
"are",
"passive",
"and",
"candidate",
"is",
"used",
"to",
"elect",
"a",
"new",
"leader",
".",
"R",
"##PC",
"calls",
"1",
".",
"Re",
"##quest",
"vote",
"for",
"voting",
"a",
"leader",
".",
"2",
".",
"A",
"##ppe",
"##nd",
"entries",
"for",
"replica",
"##ted",
"log",
"entries",
"initiated",
"by",
"leader",
"3",
".",
"In",
"##stal",
"##l",
"snaps",
"##hot",
"for",
"sending",
"replica",
"of",
"leader",
"log",
"to",
"the",
"followers",
".",
"C",
"##lient",
"interaction",
"C",
"##lient",
"##s",
"send",
"the",
"request",
"to",
"the",
"leader",
".",
"When",
"the",
"client",
"first",
"start",
"-",
"up",
",",
"it",
"connects",
"to",
"any",
"server",
"randomly",
".",
"If",
"the",
"connected",
"Server",
"is",
"not",
"leader",
"it",
"rejects",
"the",
"request",
"of",
"client",
"and",
"provide",
"the",
"information",
"related",
"to",
"the",
"most",
"recent",
"leader",
".",
"If",
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"crash",
",",
"client",
"request",
"would",
"time",
"##out",
"and",
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"sending",
"request",
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"another",
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".",
"Heart",
"##beat",
"mechanism",
"is",
"used",
"for",
"checking",
"the",
"state",
"of",
"leader",
".",
"4",
".",
"2",
"Chain",
"with",
"Fed",
"##erated",
"consensus",
"Fed",
"##erated",
"consensus",
"protocol",
"is",
"used",
"by",
"the",
"Chain",
"protocol",
"for",
"consensus",
".",
"Block",
"##s",
"are",
"accepted",
"only",
"when",
"they",
"have",
"been",
"signed",
"by",
"specific",
"q",
"##uo",
"##rum",
"of",
"blocked",
"sign",
"##ers",
".",
"It",
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"for",
"M",
"-",
"of",
"-",
"N",
"multi",
"signature",
"rule",
",",
"where",
"n",
"is",
"the",
"number",
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"blocked",
"sign",
"##ers",
",",
"and",
"m",
"is",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"signatures",
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"a",
"block",
"to",
"be",
"accepted",
"[",
"17",
"]",
".",
"M",
"and",
"N",
"values",
"can",
"be",
"manipulated",
"in",
"accordance",
"today",
"business",
"demands",
"and",
"its",
"security",
".",
"As",
"and",
"when",
"the",
"new",
"block",
"sign",
"##ers",
"join",
"and",
"leave",
"the",
"Federation",
",",
"the",
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"are",
"added",
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"removed",
".",
"Public",
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"The",
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"keys",
"valid",
"##ation",
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"of",
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"has",
"##h",
"of",
"new",
"block",
".",
"Con",
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"##sus",
"Al",
"##gor",
"##ith",
"##m",
"Each",
"peer",
"has",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"trusted",
"peers",
"for",
"block",
"signing",
",",
"consensus",
"is",
"to",
"be",
"reached",
"only",
"to",
"m",
"out",
"of",
"n",
"block",
"sign",
"##ers",
"thus",
"reducing",
"the",
"complexity",
"to",
"reach",
"the",
"concerns",
"throughout",
"the",
"network",
".",
"There",
"is",
"single",
"block",
"generator",
"coordination",
"between",
"block",
"sign",
"##ers",
"due",
"to",
"which",
"consensus",
"reach",
"efficiently",
".",
"Block",
"generator",
"received",
"transaction",
"from",
"the",
"network",
"filters",
"out",
"invalid",
"one",
"and",
"aggregate",
"##s",
"them",
"into",
"blocks",
"and",
"route",
"them",
"block",
"sign",
"##ers",
"for",
"valid",
"##ation",
".",
"Block",
"sign",
"##er",
"ve",
"##ri",
"##fies",
"the",
"block",
"forward",
"##ed",
"by",
"generator",
"and",
"signs",
"it",
"if",
"found",
"appropriate",
".",
"After",
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"block",
"is",
"signed",
"by",
"majority",
"of",
"block",
"sign",
"##ers",
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"publishes",
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"Sale",
"the",
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"##r",
".",
"V",
".",
"CO",
"##NC",
"##L",
"##US",
"##ION",
"This",
"paper",
"has",
"summarized",
"some",
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"the",
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"important",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"consensus",
"protocols",
",",
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"in",
"private",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"We",
"have",
"discussed",
"different",
"voting",
"based",
"consensus",
"used",
"in",
"private",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"so",
"that",
"it",
"will",
"be",
"helpful",
"to",
"choose",
"the"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 295 |
y and is immutable.
The stability, security, and dispersed nature of Bitcoin made
it one of the quickest developing resources: this year alone,
its cost has ascended by over 500%. Thus, the developing
notoriety of Bitcoin pulled in thoughtfulness regarding its
fundamental innovation. Presently many new tech businesses
are racing to deliver the Next Big Thing depending on
blockchain, and an ever-increasing number of individuals
working in finance and different areas start to perceive the
down to | [
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"has",
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".",
"The",
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"protocols",
"and",
"their",
"properties",
"would",
"be",
"helpful",
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"researchers",
".",
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"can",
"be",
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"with",
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"of",
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"consensus",
"comparison",
"with",
"varying",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"loads",
"and",
"peers",
"and",
"evaluate",
"it",
"with",
"some",
"bench",
"##mark",
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"the",
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"performance",
"indicator",
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".",
"R",
"##EF",
"##ER",
"##EN",
"##CE",
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"[",
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"##field",
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"##ff",
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"E",
".",
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"##ography",
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"Theory",
",",
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".",
"It",
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"22",
",",
"No",
".",
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",",
"November",
"1976",
".",
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"2",
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"S",
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"cash",
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",",
"\"",
"2008",
"[",
"Online",
"]",
".",
"Ava",
"##ila",
"##ble",
":",
"https",
":",
"/",
"/",
"bit",
"##co",
"##in",
".",
"org",
"/",
"bit",
"##co",
"##in",
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"p",
"##d",
"##f",
".",
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"3",
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"\"",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"structure",
",",
"\"",
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".",
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"##ila",
"##ble",
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"/",
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"C",
".",
"C",
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"##n",
",",
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".",
"Schubert",
",",
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"M",
".",
"V",
"##uk",
"##olic",
".",
"Non",
"-",
"de",
"##ter",
"##mini",
"##sm",
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"tolerant",
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",",
"a",
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"##iv",
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"160",
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"07",
"##35",
"##1",
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".",
"DC",
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",",
"2016",
".",
"U",
"##RL",
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"[",
"5",
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"##r",
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"[",
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"Schwartz",
",",
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",",
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"A",
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"B",
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",",
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"R",
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":",
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":",
"/",
"/",
"rip",
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".",
"com",
"/",
"files"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 296 |
y and is immutable.
The stability, security, and dispersed nature of Bitcoin made
it one of the quickest developing resources: this year alone,
its cost has ascended by over 500%. Thus, the developing
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"varying",
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",",
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"November",
"1976",
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",",
"\"",
"2008",
"[",
"Online",
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"##ila",
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",",
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",",
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"[",
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",",
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"files"
] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 297 |
practical benefits past the Bitcoin publicity. Over
worldwide supply chains, financial administrations,
medicinal services, governments and numerous different
ventures, trailblazers are investigating approaches to utilize
blockchain to upset and change conventional plans of action.
Numerous industry chiefs have just accomplished
noteworthy business benefits, including more prominent
straightforwardness, upgraded security, enhanced
detectability, expanded proficiency an | [
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 298 |
practical benefits past the Bitcoin publicity. Over
worldwide supply chains, financial administrations,
medicinal services, governments and numerous different
ventures, trailblazers are investigating approaches to utilize
blockchain to upset and change conventional plans of action.
Numerous industry chiefs have just accomplished
noteworthy business benefits, including more prominent
straightforwardness, upgraded security, enhanced
detectability, expanded proficiency an | [
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] | Survey on Private Blockchain Consensus Algorithms | 299 |