Datasets:

aazwan

/

upsi_ejournal_of_music

like 0

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 2 (2023)

blended learning, music education, outcome-based education, Thai music history, Thai music learning, Thai music theory

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/531

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8101

Problems and Expectations of Students Regarding the Management of Learning in the Subjects of Thai Music Theory and History within the Thai Undergraduate Music Education Curriculum

This research aimed to investigate the problems and expectations of students regarding the management of learning in the subjects of Thai music theory and history within the Thai undergraduate music education curriculum. The exploratory and descriptive research methodology was employed. The data was collected from 103 students who enrolled in the Thai Music Education curriculum at the undergraduate level. Instruments include a documentary analysis form, and an online questionnaire (Google Form). The results showed that: (1) teaching method was lecture-based, resulting in disengaged learning and limited knowledge acquisition; (2) content was the lack of clear delineation between the content of the two subjects; in many cases, instructors mixed Thai music theory with Thai music history which made students confused and mis-concept; (3) instructional media failed to captivate students and did not facilitate comprehensive learning; (4) instructional materials, each university had different approaches to managing its teaching resources, which were both uninteresting and overly academic; and (5) context consists of the diversity of students, assignments, classroom conditions, and instructor’s preparedness. From the results, this research proposes the guideline for the management of learning in Thai music theory and history through Outcome-based education (OBE) and a blended learning approach that can apply to traditional music teaching which is familiar with the Thai culture.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8101/4720

Weerakit Suwanphithak, Chalermpan Ruwicha, & Yootthana Chuppunnarat 1 Problems and Expectations of Students Regarding the Management of Learning in the Subjects of Thai Music Theory and History within the Thai Undergraduate Music Education Curriculum Weerakit Suwanphithak1*, Chalermpan Ruwicha2, Yootthana Chuppunnarat3 Department of Art, Music, and Dance Education, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University 254 Phayathai Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding Author: [email protected] Published online: 5 December 2023 Cite this article (APA): Suwanphithak,W., Ruwicha, C., & Chuppunnarat, Y. (2023). Problems and expectations of students regarding the management of learning in the subjects of Thai music theory and history within the Thai undergraduate music education curriculum. Malaysian Journal of Music 12(2), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.2.1.2023 Abstract This research aimed to investigate the problems and expectations of students regarding the management of learning in the subjects of Thai music theory and history within the Thai undergraduate music education curriculum. The exploratory and descriptive research methodology was employed. The data was collected from 103 students who enrolled in the Thai Music Education curriculum at the undergraduate level. Instruments include a documentary analysis form, and an online questionnaire (Google Form). The results showed that: (1) teaching method was lecture- based, resulting in disengaged learning and limited knowledge acquisition; (2) content was the lack of clear delineation between the content of the two subjects; in many cases, instructors mixed Thai music theory with Thai music history which made students confused and mis-concept; (3) instructional media failed to captivate students and did not facilitate comprehensive learning; (4) instructional materials, each university had different approaches to managing its teaching resources, which were both uninteresting and overly academic; and (5) context consists of the diversity of students, assignments, classroom conditions, and instructor’s preparedness. From the results, this research proposes the guideline for the management of learning in Thai music theory and history through Outcome-based education (OBE) and a blended learning approach that can apply to traditional music teaching which is familiar with the Thai culture. Keywords: blended learning, music education, outcome-based education, Thai music history, Thai music teaching, Thai music theory Introduction The essentials of learning music are divided into two main parts: (1) music content, which contains music elements, music literature, and history, and (2) music skill, which consists of listening, singing, performing, moving, creating, and reading. Both are always related and rely on each other (Miller, 1978; Bergethon & Boardman, 1979; Stark, 1976; Sutthachit, 2023). Knowledge of Thai music theory and history has become essential for students pursuing a professional career in music. A deep understanding of these subjects is now necessary as a foundation for advancing their music education at the professional level. Consequently, these subjects are prominently included as required subjects in every music curriculum across all institutions, which means both are significant subjects to be learned. Not only do they support each other among Thai music theory and history knowledge for the student, but they also support the student in learning advanced Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (1-17) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 2 musical knowledge in other core subjects of Thai music, such as Thai musical form and analysis, composition, ensembles workshops and conducting, and even Thai music skill, ensemble, and pedagogy subjects. However, another important factor is the variety of knowledge sources used in music theory and the history of Thai music, which includes concepts from various master schools. With so many different information sources, each university in Thailand has relied on different ones, and that these are based on the schools that each professor attended. As a result, it has been found that the teaching of these subjects at the undergraduate level in Thailand has not been clearly standardized in terms of learning outcomes, instructional methods, scope of content, and content details, particularly in institutions aiming to produce professional music educators. Every subject requires the establishment of clear standards and detailed scope contents, and each one should be current and responsive to societal changes, including the evolving learning methods of students. However, such management and standardization have not yet been implemented with respect to the study of music in Thailand. Evidence from research conducted in Thailand reveals a limited focus. Juthaset and Bankrithong (2021) conducted a study on teaching approaches in Thai music theory only at the secondary education level that aimed to investigate the differences in learning strategies of undergraduate music education programs. Furthermore, another study by Kaewsawang (2021) investigated the implementation of project-based learning in Thai music theory for undergraduate students at the Lopburi College of Dramatic Art. Both studies primarily focused on presenting experimental results and teaching approaches in Thai music theory. However, there was a lack of research investigating the current situation, issues, and expectations of undergraduate students regarding the study of Thai music theory and history. Additionally, the scope of study of both subjects needs to focus more on students’ understanding of the interrelationships and distinctions among the content details, which researchers considered to be a concerning issue that warranted prompt research. Furthermore, research conducted in foreign countries with cultural similarities to Thailand in the past five years has predominantly focused on studying problems and perspectives in teaching traditional music. Studies such as “Learning and Teaching Traditional Music in Cambodia: Challenges and Incentives” by Grant (2017), “Personality and World Music Preference of Undergraduate Non-music Majors in South Korea and the United States” by Yoo et al. (2018), and “Design of traditional music teaching in colleges and universities from the perspective of multiculturalism” by Zuo (2018) examined various aspects of music education and teaching in Asia. However, no research has been found that investigates the current state and expectations regarding the teaching of music theory and history in those specific cultures. In this research, the necessity to examine the issues and expectations of students in learning Thai music theory and history within Thai undergraduate music education programs is recognized. The aim was to gather new and current data that had not been previously collected to benefit curriculum development and learning management in higher music education, in order to be suited to the rapidly changing current situation and the need to create innovative learning approaches that enhance efficiency and effectiveness in music education. This research will push Thai music theory and history national standards to be raised and will impact the Thai music educator grooming process and make it much stronger. It will allow understanding of the same scope and clear content, and will also empower music education in Thailand, especially to make the Thai traditional music knowledge stronger and more developed. This is the first study of its kind in Thailand, and it provides valuable insights that can be referenced and applied to the teaching and management of music theory and history within culturally similar contexts, yielding significant benefits. Objectives The research aimed to examine the problems and expectations of students regarding the management of learning in the subjects of Thai music theory and history within the Thai undergraduate music education curriculum. In aspects of the teaching method, the focus is upon the student’s understanding of subject concepts, instructional media, and context. The study also seeks to identify specific challenges faced by students in each subject and propose guidelines for teaching and learning management based on outcome- based education (OBE) and a blended learning approach. Benefits The research findings can be applied to enhance and modernize the management of learning in a manner that is highly relevant and suitable for both teachers and students in the current context. Can be encouraged to raise the Thai music and history national standard that has not been yet in present. Moreover, these Weerakit Suwanphithak, Chalermpan Ruwicha, & Yootthana Chuppunnarat 3 findings also benefit the teaching and learning approaches in music education across different cultural contexts with similar issues and expectations—especially, managing the learning of global music, multicultural music, and even ethnic music, where a better understanding of students and the context of traditional music is highly beneficial. Literature Review A brief overview of the Thai music curriculum and learning evolution Evidence shows that music education in Thailand existed in the pre-Sukhothai period (Before 1249), the Sukhothai period (1249-1463), the Ayutthaya period (1350-1767), the Thon Buri period (1767-1782), and the Rattanakosin Era (1783-present), and has been consistently progressing ever since. In each era, significant transformations were witnessed in both theoretical and practical knowledge resulting from the influence of three major institutions: households, temples, and palaces. These institutions played a crucial role in driving the acquisition of knowledge and the practice of Thai music education. A study by Chuppunnarat (2018) investigating the “Development of Thai Music Education Curriculum and Teaching in Thailand” reveals that the evolution in the Sukhothai period, the Ayutthaya period, the Thon Buri period, and the Rattanakosin Era (until the country’s administration changed in 1932) can be divided into three periods: (1) Thai music education in the Sukhothai period, the Ayutthaya period, and the Thon Buri period. During these periods, the teachers and learners were commoners, nobles, courtiers, the king, and his royal family; the oral tradition was the main teaching approach, and the curriculum consisted of the religious ritual repertoire, the masked drama accompaniment songs, and the entertainment songs for various occasions. No evaluation method has yet been explicitly defined. However, during these periods, no clearly defined curriculum or instructional plan was used; instead, a non-formal or informal educational approach in which emphasis was placed on practical music skills, with theoretical knowledge incorporated informally, was the norm. Music education in Thailand relies on the oral tradition– learning by direct transmission (Amatyakul, 1996; Rungruang 2003; Laovanich, 2013; Chuppunnarat, 2018). This was similar to music education in other cultures worldwide, all of which relied on methods such as rote learning, demonstration, and imitation (McPhee, 1970; Blacking, 1973; Campbell, 1991; Corpataux, 2002; Barton, 2003). Furthermore, Thai music education existed within the framework of teaching by sect masters or in homes. Students in each sect adhered to the knowledge passed down by their respective masters. This gave rise to a diversity of knowledge in both theoretical and practical aspects of Thai music, where each sect master possessed distinct characteristics in terms of principles or beliefs regarding Thai music. These characteristics differed from one master to another and were transmitted from generation to generation; (2) Thai music education in the Rattanakosin Era (until the country’s administration changed in 1932). The teachers and learners were similar to the previous era, and the curriculum still followed the traditional direction; and (3) Thai music education in the Rattanakosin Era (after a significant change in the governance of Thailand, in 1932). Education was formalized more explicitly, which led to the inclusion of music education within the national core curriculum in the formal education system (Office of the National Education Commission, Office of the Prime Minister, 1999). In 1934, the School of Dramatic Arts and Music was established which was named the College of Dramatic Arts as established in the present, focusing on teaching and learning Thai traditional music, dance, and fine arts. In other words, the study of music became a part of the fundamental subjects in the curriculum. Moreover, at present, there are a large number of music courses offered by Thai colleges and universities. The Thai music curriculum in the Rattanakosin Era (before the National Education Act until the present (1892-present)) comprised 19 curriculums and 29 versions. The first curriculum was utilized in 1960 for the primary and secondary education curriculum as an elective course focusing on singing and listening skills. Until the present, music education in Thailand still adjusted to the Basic Education Core Curriculum, 2008 in the courses of arts (Chuppunnarat, 2018; Sutthachit, 2023). The Thai Music Theory and History Content Categorization The term “theory” has multiple definitions provided by the various contexts in which it is used; however, a precise and explicit definition of “Thai Music Theory” has not yet been identified. The researcher, therefore, conducted a study based on documents, textbooks, and research papers related to the study of Thai music theory. It was found that, besides the lack of a clear definition, the content of the theoretical aspect includes a combination of Thai music theory and Thai music history (Sowat, 1996). If we go back in time, the study of Thai music theory has long been integrated with practical learning. However, the Thai music learning Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (1-17) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 4 culture began with learning through the oral tradition, where teachers would incorporate theoretical aspects while teaching instrumental music without explicitly separating them. This is explained by Sirichaichan Fakchamroon (the Thai National Artist) stating that: …Thai music education, in reality, follows an ancient Thai approach, where we begin with practical experience. Teachers would then teach us while we were engaged in practical activities, without explicitly labeling them as theory. Instead, they would emphasize the relevance of these elements to our practical application and how to utilize them. They did not categorize them clearly as distinct theoretical components, as done in foreign practices… (Sowat, 1996, p. 60) After the establishment of the College of Dramatic Arts, Montri Tramot (the Thai National Artist) authored the first textbook for Thai music theory titled “Duriyangkhasatthai” (The Theory of Thai Music) in the year 1938. This textbook became the cornerstone of Thai music theory in Thailand; it served as the primary resource for studying Thai music theory nationwide and also served as a model for subsequent textbooks. The content book comprised three main sections: (1) music history; (2) music principles; and (3) miscellaneous knowledge and perspectives (Department of Fine Arts, 2002). However, the details of the content in each section can be summarized as follows: Diagram 1. Summary diagram of the scope of content in the Thai Musicology textbook. From the above diagram, it can be seen that there is a clear categorization of content related to the history and literature of Thai music in the first section. The second section provides detailed rules for practicing Thai music. The third section is relevant to the general knowledge that Thai musicians should further study. The researcher found that the second section clearly reflects the content of Thai music theory. Weerakit Suwanphithak, Chalermpan Ruwicha, & Yootthana Chuppunnarat 5 By comparing it with the content of Western music theory exams using the framework of the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (2020), which is globally recognized, the scope of music theory content for Grades 1–5 can be identified as clef, time signatures, pitches, degrees of scale, keys, scales, time values, rests, intervals, triads, chords, transposition, phrase structure, grouping, ornaments, instruments, instrumental directions, voices, terms, and signs. It is obvious that the designated content is related solely to the rules or order of music rather than content related to the music history part which is consistent with the second part of Montri Tramot’s Thai music theory textbook (Department of Fine Arts, 2002). Therefore, the researchers found that the concept of Thai music theory is about the rules and order, while music history is about the timeline and evolution of the music. From the explicit concepts of theory and history, the researchers synthesized and summarized six categories of Thai music theory content as follows: (1) Thai musical instruments and ensembles; (2) sound, rhythm, melody, and genres in Thai music; (3) principles and techniques of Thai instrumental performance and singing; (4) repertoire and Thai musical ensembles— performance of Thai music according to seasonal conventions; (5) Thai music teacher's rituals; and (6) Thai musical terms. From the synthesized six parts of Thai music theory, the researchers focus on the understanding of students by providing a clear concept that arranges the content from small units to large units. As Thai musical instruments are the sounds’ origin, and each ensemble is gathered by the instruments, that is the reason these two contents are adjusted into the first part of learning. The second part provides the Thai music elements that are arranged from the smallest to the largest element; sound integrated with rhythm will be the melody, and many composed melodies will be the pieces and songs that are classified. The following parts focus on knowledge application such as the performance practice, the use of repertoire and ensembles on each occasion, and the Thai music teacher’s ritual management. The last part is about Thai musical terms and meanings which cover all the parts. Diagram 2. Summary diagram of the Thai music theory content boundary. The content of Thai music history, although categorized within the theoretical study of Thai music, exhibits distinct objectives and emphases. It involves the exploration of stories from the past to the present, and the study of the development of music. This is achieved through division according to historical periods; apart from combining theoretical content with Thai music history, it is found that the division of Thai music history is usually based on different eras, often aligned with statism, as follows: (1) Pre-Sukhothai period (before 1249); (2) Sukhothai period (1249-1463); (3) Ayutthaya period (1350-1767); (4) Thon Buri period (1767-1782); and (5) the Rattanakosin Era (1783-present). To facilitate the connection with the national historical context, it is noteworthy that there are two distinct approaches to dividing the eras of the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (1-17) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 6 Rattanakosin period. The first approach categorizes the eras based on the reigns of monarchs, from the first reign to the present one. The second approach, on the other hand, classifies the periods based on the socio- musical context of Thai music during different time frames. These include the Recovery Era (Reigns 1-3), the Prosperous Era (Reigns 4-6), and the Transitional Era (Reigns 7–present). Additionally, each textbook presents different perspectives and historical evidence, particularly regarding the contemporary aspect and the availability of newly discovered evidence. Moreover, the compilation of evidence is found to be scattered and not consolidated into a single comprehensive textbook. The study of Thai music history focuses on the timeline/period and is evidence-based on aspects of Thai musical instruments, ensembles, pieces, and context/literature evolvement (Chindawat, 1978; Jamnongsarn, 2020; Puchadapirom, n.d.; Rungruang, 2003; Silapabanleng & Pleinsri, 2018). Diagram 3. Summary diagram of the Thai music history content boundary. Therefore, understanding the differences and categorization of content in Thai music theory, as well as the history and literature of Thai music, is highly significant for comprehension. Thai music theory focuses on the rules and regulations of music, while the history of Thai music is concerned with aspects such as time, historical periods, and the development of music which derive from significant evidence. However, highlighting the differences in important content between the two subjects does not imply that they are completely unrelated. The two subjects are interdependent and rely on each other, particularly in the details of learning where their integration is needed for better comprehension. Clear categorization and delineation of content boundaries in an effort to emphasize the core concepts and essence of each subject will greatly benefit learners in effectively applying their knowledge. The current study of Thai music education In the context of Thailand, music educational research study has various aspects and establishes research works such as student research works, academic articles, and books. There are 3 types of music in music education study in Thailand: The Thai traditional music, Thai folk music, and non-Thai music, which is divided into 2 groups: western music, and non-western music. In terms of music education graduate students' research, only master's degree theses (N=28) could be found by searching using the keyword “music education” from the Thailand Library Integrated System which is the online national research database platform that includes all the Thai graduate students' master's and doctoral degree research in Thai universities. The search period was 2019 to 2023. The thesis Weerakit Suwanphithak, Chalermpan Ruwicha, & Yootthana Chuppunnarat 7 contains the following six areas: (1) musical transmission; (2) music teaching and learning; (3) music teacher's development; (4) music exercises and learning activities development; (5) musical knowledge collecting; and (6) the study of success from lessons learned, as Table 1 shows below: Table 1 Details of Thai music education theses from 2019 to 2023 Categorized area content The study details Type of music Level of degrees TH traditional TH folks Non-TH Primary Secondary Under graduate Non- degree Musical transmission 2 3 - - - - - Music teaching and learning method 1 2 6 5 5 1 Music teacher's development - - 1 - 1 1 Music exercises and learning activities development - - 5 5 1 - 2 Musical knowledge collecting - - - - - - - The study of success from lessons learned - - 1 - 1 - - Total 3 5 13 10 8 1 3 Table 1 provides information about the clarification of Thai music educational thesis areas of study during the previous 5 years. In the aspect of musical type, non-Thai music in the part of Western music is the most frequently employed thesis study area in Thailand, and with reference to 4 areas of content, the musical teaching and learning method has the largest number. Moreover, the studies at the primary student level are strongly concentrated. As a result, the thesis study tendency of Thai traditional music at the undergraduate level in Thailand is significantly lacking. This is related to the information from Thai Journals Online (ThaiJO) which is the Thai national online platform as the database of Thai academic articles from all Thai journals. It reveals that most music education research on undergraduate student study from 2006 to 2023, apparently concentrates on the music teaching and learning method, and curriculum development of both Thai and western music. Moreover, the research aim and scope frequently only focus on case studies in each curriculum, faculty, institute, or university. Therefore, the data were collected from a few populations and a specific group of samples, so the findings predominantly present the teaching and learning guidelines, or curriculum development that is proper only for each area of study. For instance, the study of user opinions of Bachelor of Education programs in music education (4 years) (revised in 2019), Lopburi College of Dramatic Arts (Funfuengfu et al., 2022). For reviews and analysis of previous music education research on undergraduate students in Thailand, there are a few research studies that examined music education in Thai traditional music which acquired the data from various sources, covering sample groups that will have an impact upon the Thai music education curriculum. No research has studied the issues and expectations of students in learning Thai music theory and history within Thai undergraduate music education programs, and no research presents the Thai music curriculum development and learning management integrated with outcome-based education. Not only Thai music theory and history teaching and learning are very important for the learners, but also the development of Thai music education suited to the rapidly changing current world situation and the need to create innovative learning approaches are significant issues for the Thai music educator to take into consideration. This research will operate as a guideline and prototype for Thai music education research and complete the gap in Thai music education learning management to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in music education in Thailand. Methodology This research aimed to investigate the problems and expectations of learners in the teaching of Thai music theory and history within the Thai music education curriculum at the undergraduate level. From the research aim, gathering and analyzing the findings is an important outcome to reveal the current status of these two subjects that affect the Thai music education curriculum. Therefore, the exploratory and descriptive research Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (1-17) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 8 methodology was adequately employed to explain the data from the research samples. The following are the details of the study: Population/Sample Group. The researchers collected data from students enrolled in the Music Education curriculum (Thai music) at the undergraduate level in 5 universities under the Council of University Presidents of Thailand and divided by mission groups of universities by the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research, and Innovation. The sampling method employed was cluster sampling; the researchers selected a sample group of students currently studying or having completed courses in Thai music theory and/or Thai music history and literature (2022). The sample consisted of students (N=103) pursuing bachelor's degrees in Thai music education. The data collection process. This was conducted through surveys that focused on issues and expectations regarding the teaching and management of Thai music theory and history. During the COVID- 19 situation for three months, from March 23 to May 3, 2022, the online survey links were sent to students at each university through Line, Facebook, along with the electronic letter requesting cooperation which was generated by the faculty. The research instruments. It included a documentary analysis form, and an online questionnaire approved by the Office of the Research Ethics Review Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects: The Second Allied Academic Group in Social Sciences, Humanities, and Fine and Applied Arts, Chulalongkorn University. Also, the research instruments were tried out with three students and three music educators to ensure the quality of the instruments before collecting the data. In addition, using Google Forms, researchers developed a document analysis form, as well as an online questionnaire with the following details: 3.1. The Documentary Analysis Form, used to categorize document and electronic media sources, consisted of two sections: Section 1: Document and Electronic Media Details, which gathered 7 items regarding the specific details of the documents and electronic media, and Section 2: Content and Analysis Topics, which consisted of 4 items related to the content and analysis topics. 3.2 The questionnaire was designed to gather information about students' problems and expectations regarding their learning and teaching experiences. It consisted of two sections: Section 1: General Information, which included six questions, and Section 2: Issues and Expectations, which comprised nine questions focused on identifying the students' problems and expectations. Data analysis. The researchers employed exploratory and descriptive research methods, and the data triangulation approach was employed to verify the data collected from 103 students who enrolled from 5 universities. Moreover, the collected data were read and analyzed from the survey by using the content analysis approach (Chantavanich, 2018) to categorize the set of data. This established inductive conclusions and presented them in terms of descriptive data, diagrams, and tables. Findings The researchers presented the research findings on the problems and expectations of students regarding the management of Thai music theory and history within the undergraduate music education curriculum in Thailand. The findings were categorized into five aspects, with the following details: Teaching method. Due to the extensive content and diverse sources of information about music theory and history, it is a challenge for instructors to adequately prepare themselves with deep knowledge and a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. Based on the study, the majority or all of the teaching was conducted through lecture-based methods involving one-way communication. In these methods, the instructor speaks while the students listen. This approach is challenging and slow, and it decreases student interest and engagement. Students get bored and lack motivation as they are passive receivers of information without active participation in the learning process. According to the results, some instructors lacked teaching materials for students, believing that providing such materials would lessen students' enthusiasm for learning. Instead, they instructed students to take notes during class and review them for exams. This approach resulted in inconsistent learning outcomes as students had to independently connect the content and seek additional information, especially when studying outside the classroom. The quality of their learning, then, depended on the content they managed to record. Thus, students believed that having teaching materials as helpful tools could improve their learning experiences. Furthermore, it was found that the majority of students desired more diverse teaching formats to facilitate authentic learning experiences. For instance, they felt that incorporating field studies into the curriculum, especially for Thai Weerakit Suwanphithak, Chalermpan Ruwicha, & Yootthana Chuppunnarat 9 music history, would provide opportunities for students to learn from actual historical evidence rather than relying solely on images in the classroom. In addition, organizing discussion activities would encourage the exchange of perspectives, allowing students to present ideas they had explored outside the classroom. This would promote collaborative learning within the classroom, extending beyond the predefined content provided by the instructor. The study also revealed that this issue affected students' perceptions of instructors regarding their presentation of information. Instructors tended to focus solely on familiar data and references, limiting the variety of information used in the learning process. This approach hindered the exploration of new perspectives and prevented students from accessing a wide range of alternative sources for study. Additionally, students also wanted to learn how to apply knowledge from both subject areas in their future roles as educators. They found that, even though they acquired knowledge during their studies, they were unable to effectively apply the knowledge in their teaching practices or conduct evaluations. In summary, the research findings concluded that the predominant teaching method used in Thai music theory and history in undergraduate programs was lecture-based, resulting in disengaged learning and limited knowledge acquisition. Additionally, students expressed a desire for more field studies and discussions as teaching approaches, along with the introduction of diverse and contemporary teaching methods. Content. The study revealed that the main content-related issue was the lack of clear delineation between the content of the two subjects; that is, in many cases, instructors mixed Thai music theory with Thai music history and literature, resulting in a disorganized arrangement of content without logical sequencing or coherence. Due to this confusion, students had trouble picking up on and comprehending complex ideas. The ability of students to apply knowledge in their teaching practice as well as when instructing Thai music theory and history was hampered by unclear content boundaries. For example, the teaching of Thai music theory includes a detailed study of the types of Thai music ensembles, their components, and the process of assembling them. However, during the teaching process, instructors often explained the history and literature that depicted the era in which Thai music ensembles originated. This content fell under the domain of history and literature. This resulted in complex content. Moreover, in terms of selecting and utilizing information, it was found that instructors only relied on familiar sources. This had an impact on students, many of whom felt that the content was not comprehensive enough. Additionally, the quantity of content often exceeded the available time available for learning, both with respect to an individual period and for the semester. As a result, there was a tendency for teachers to rush through the content at times. In terms of accessing information, contemporary students have a wide range of channels available for obtaining information, while instructors still rely on traditional sources. Instructors are advised to have clear boundaries for the content, as such boundaries have an impact on the design of teaching and learning throughout the study period. Instructors are also encouraged to gather content from diverse sources, to allow students to study materials from various perspectives, and to promote the use of information based on reasoning. If a primary source of information is used in teaching, it is important to explain its origin and significance to help students understand the rationale behind its selection. Instructional media. Instructors primarily relied on PowerPoint presentations for teaching. However, these presentations mainly consisted of text rather than utilizing visuals or videos. As a result, the instructional media failed to captivate students and did not facilitate comprehensive learning. Specifically, in Thai music theory, and especially regarding musical terminology, the use of images and sound is crucial to effective learning and better understanding. For instance, when explaining different types of ensemble performances, sounds, videos, or actual student performances should be incorporated to illustrate each characteristic. This allows learners to truly experience and actively participate in the learning process. Students suggested the increased integration of technology in teaching, going beyond traditional software or websites, to enhance the learning experience, and said that some instructors had started using platforms like YouTube and Canva as additional teaching tools, recognizing the importance of up-to-date media in successfully delivering lessons on Thai music theory and history. There are numerous modern teaching aids available that can be utilized to enhance teaching, activities, and out-of-classroom learning for students. Incorporating these tools can make the teaching and learning process more engaging and effective. Additionally, some universities have adopted some of these instructional materials as the primary teaching media. The main teaching aids commonly used by instructors can be summarized as Table 2 below: Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (1-17) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 10 Table 2 Types of media used and the problems in teaching Types of Media Problems Students’ Expectations PowerPoint/Canva • Content is text-heavy • Outdated • Lack of attractiveness • Media content is inconsistent with teaching content. • Difficult to understand • There should be more use of images and VDOs in the instructional media to enhance visual clarity. • The media should be made more engaging and interesting. • The amount of text should be reduced. • The media should include references to the displayed information sources. Images • Unclear • There aren't many images appearing in the media. VDO/YouTube • Very few VDOs are presented in the media. Instructional materials. It was found that each university had different approaches to managing its teaching resources. Some universities provide instructional materials in the form of textbooks authored by individual scholars with specific principles and perspectives; some universities used PowerPoint as instructional materials for students. Overall, however, students said that the content was both uninteresting and overly academic. Students desired more high-quality, clear, and visually appealing illustrations, such as images, books, or manuals, not just for interest, but to enhance understanding. Such materials should include diverse, reliable, and academically sound references, and it is important for the teaching materials to be up-to-date, affordable for undergraduate students, and to have clear summaries of content. Furthermore, electronic teaching materials have become increasingly popular with students due to their ease of storage and prevention of loss. The summary of the issues and expectations of students regarding teaching materials is illustrated by Figure 1 and 2: Figure 1. Problems of instructional materials for Thai music theory and history classes Weerakit Suwanphithak, Chalermpan Ruwicha, & Yootthana Chuppunnarat 11 Figure 2. Student’s needs for Thai music theory and history classes. Context The diversity of students played a crucial role in students' learning and advancement in music education, especially in terms of their varying basic knowledge of music theory and Thai music history across different universities. Those with a strong foundation in music knowledge could effectively engage with the instruction provided by teachers, finding enjoyment in the learning process and achieving a comprehensive integration of knowledge. However, students with limited foundational knowledge struggled to keep pace and often fell behind, resulting in incomplete learning experiences and loss of motivation. As a result, the instructional efforts in those instances proved unsuccessful. In addition, students expressed a need for accommodation of this diversity by providing modern and appropriate learning tools that would enable self-directed learning outside the classroom, allowing all students to learn at their own pace and maximize effectiveness. Assignments. Students felt that instructors should establish assignments from the beginning of the semester, with those assignments clearly stated in the course syllabus. The number of assignments should be balanced with the course content and duration throughout the academic term. Classroom conditions. Students at some universities encountered problems with the physical environment for onsite learning. That is, the classrooms were too small to accommodate the number of students, limiting the ability to conduct learning activities. Moreover, substandard classroom equipment affected students' concentration and the absence of electronic devices such as projectors, speakers, and microphones hindered the use of multimedia teaching aids. These factors resulted in incomplete learning experiences and an unfavorable learning atmosphere. In addition, with the shift to online learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was found that students did not favor this learning format. The majority encountered issues with unstable internet signals, and some faced other distractions in their learning environment that further disrupted the learning process and hindered concentration. Additionally, in online learning, students experienced a lack of interaction with other students, leading to reduced opportunities for activities such as questioning, expressing opinions, and conducting demonstrations. Online learning was not considered a natural learning approach, as it diminished students' motivation and limited collaborative engagement. Additionally, the distinct learning environment had a clear impact on students' learning experiences. Instructor’s preparedness. It was observed that most instructors were subject matter experts with relevant experience; however, they lacked the ability to effectively transmit the content to the students. Moreover, instructors often deviated from the material without considering its boundaries, resulting in a deviation from the scheduled time and overall instructional plan. Additionally, instructors exhibited insufficient proficiency in utilizing technology for teaching convenience and providing suitable instructional media. Therefore, further skill development and study in these areas are necessary for instructors. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (1-17) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 12 Discussions Problems and Obstacles of Thai music theory and history teaching and learning in Thailand. The teaching of Thai music theory and history still faces various problems and obstacles. There is a lack of consensus among instructors regarding definitions and boundaries, leading to a merging of content between music theory and music history. In reality, the content of these two subjects has different definitions and emphases. Music theory deals with principles and methodologies, while music history encompasses the timeline of events from the past to the present. However, the data for music history has not been properly organized and compiled for effective teaching. Additionally, instructors seem to find the vast amount of content confusing in terms of defining scope, organizing material, and selecting specific information from all that is available to them. This has an impact on students, who receive incomplete and unclear content in both areas. Moreover, the use of instructional media is a crucial element in teaching these subjects. Instructors need to employ instructional media and demonstrative illustrations to ensure that students develop a clear perception and comprehension of the content, leading to enhanced efficiency and effectiveness in their learning outcomes. Many instructors lack skills in producing instructional media and designing appealing learning materials; this was especially apparent during the COVID-19 pandemic and its attendant online instruction of students. While theoretical and practical aspects are both emphasized in these subjects, obstacles are less likely to arise in practical sessions. However, the specialized content requires accurate, comprehensible, and interesting instructional media, along with suitable learning strategies for the specific context. However, the researcher found that the teaching methods of oral tradition and the diversity of musical sect masters, which are inherent in Thai music education and driven by three institutions—homes, temples, and palaces—have been passed down from the past to the present. This might be a factor contributing to the transmission of diverse knowledge in both theoretical and practical aspects of Thai music. In particular, the transmission of knowledge in Thai music theory through the masters has led to conflicting interpretations on certain issues. This is compounded a lack of comprehensive compilation, summarization, analysis, and synthesis of the scope and details of the content to establish clear national standards, which are crucial to creating standardized criteria that Thai music professionals can collectively reference, especially in higher education. It is essential to expedite collaborative efforts to initiate this process swiftly as it will serve as a foundation for teaching and will strengthen the field of Thai music education, allowing it to progress further. In addition to observations of the challenges in Thai music education, the researcher has found that the teaching and learning of traditional music in other cultures with similar characteristics also face multidimensional problems and obstacles. For example, the influence of Western music culture has significantly impacted music education in Japan. Students have limited knowledge of traditional Japanese music, which is a matter of great concern for cultural preservation in the country. Therefore, there is an increasing emphasis on global music education to enable students to explore music from Japanese cultures through a teaching strategy called “Learn of the Connection,” which focuses on the similarities and differences between Japanese music and various other musical traditions. By incorporating this approach, students have the opportunity to learn about their own national music in the context of broader musical studies. The recent developments in school music education in Japan, as discussed in “Crossroads for Cultural Education Through Music” by Takizawa (2008), align with the research conducted by Beng (2008) on a paradigm shift in teaching music in Malaysian schools. Both studies emphasize the incorporation of multicultural music in education while placing a strong emphasis on national music to instill values and strengthen cultural identity in the face of rapid global changes. Additionally, Jang's (2008) research on Korean music, music education, and the value of music and the arts in education and human development reveals that Korean national music is experiencing a decreasing influence from Western music culture, leading to a decline in popularity and a reduced focus on music education. The researchers suggest that weak national music education systems can lead to cultural intrusion and assimilation, particularly in Asian countries with similar cultures. As mentioned earlier, in the research in Japan and Malaysia, adjustments were made to integrate national music with other cultural music and to create an educational system that ensures the preservation of music within the respective cultures. Thus, the diversity of music education in Thailand, particularly in theoretical aspects, not only represents a significant cultural charm but also necessitates the accelerated collection, development, and standardization of knowledge in Thai music. This is crucial for establishing a strong cultural foundation and safeguarding against cultural intrusion while remaining connected to global society with its rich cultural diversity. Weerakit Suwanphithak, Chalermpan Ruwicha, & Yootthana Chuppunnarat 13 The guideline for the management of learning in Thai music theory and history through Outcome- based education (OBE) and blended learning approach Global society is undergoing rapid changes due to various factors, notably the recent COVID-19 pandemic. These changes have highlighted technology's crucial and indispensable role in our daily lives. It can be said that we are living in an era of adaptation; therefore, acquiring skills that enable individuals to thrive in a global society has become exceedingly important. Education plays a significant role in shaping the direction of change and preparing the global population for the ‘new normal’ in the future. Consequently, the approach to learning has shifted from traditional methods, and towards fostering essential competencies that are necessary for sustainable and resilient living (The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2022). Outcome-based education (OBE) is an educational approach that places the learner at the center, focusing on learning outcomes and the necessary skills that they need to acquire based on their individual abilities. OBE emphasizes performance assessment and learner development, requiring ongoing monitoring and evaluation. In this context, teachers play the role of facilitators, ensuring optimal learning experiences for students (Japee & Oza, 2021; Davis, 2003; Rao, 2020; Spady, 1994). This aligns with the educational goals of producing individuals who are prepared for the present and future of global society. Thailand recognizes the significance of implementing OBE in education. In 2022, the Ministry of Education, Science, Research, and Innovation announced that all undergraduate programs must adopt the OBE approach to align with societal changes and the needs of learners in the present era (Royal Thai Government Gazette, 2022a, 2022b). Based on the research findings and learner expectations, it is suggested that a shift be made away from content-based and lecture-based approaches, which primarily focus on one- way communication and instruction. In place of these outdated teaching methods, in today's world where knowledge is easily accessible, it is crucial to adapt teaching methods to the OBE (outcome-based education) approach, thus ensuring that education remains relevant and meets the needs of modern learners. OBE can address and fulfill the learning needs of Thai music theory, and Thai history by shifting away from the traditional content-based approach and memorization-based learning. By considering the students' problems, expectations, and contextual appropriateness, learning outcomes can be defined to maximize the application of knowledge for each student. Research shows that lecture-based teaching is currently the primary method used, resulting in unengaging learning environments, repetition, and one-way communication from the instructor. Consequently, students' learning outcomes are limited. The traditional teaching approach focuses mainly on content memorization; there should be a fundamental change in the initial thinking and development to emphasize the student’s ability to analyze knowledge and apply it effectively. In implementing OBE, it is crucial to prioritize learning outcomes (LO). Researchers have found that the direction of learning outcomes needs to be aligned with OBE principles for these two subjects. The aim of OBE is to enable students to perform and apply their knowledge effectively. Therefore, the researchers propose that learning outcomes (LO) for Thai music theory courses targeting undergraduate students in the music education curriculum should be revised to align with current research findings and student needs as follows: LO1: Students will be able to analyze Thai music theory knowledge. It is crucial for students to capably analyze the causes and effects of theories in various aspects in order to truly comprehend the learning process. Currently, the nature of Thai music education often involves the transmission of knowledge from one generation to another, emphasizing student compliance without delving deeply into the origins or rationale behind the theories. LO2: Students will be able to apply their knowledge of Thai music theory to practical skills and teaching. This builds upon LO1. Assuming that students have a clear understanding of Thai music theory, the application of knowledge becomes crucial and should be nurtured, as the general approach to teaching this subject often focuses solely on the course content without emphasizing the practical application, especially in teaching. Research has shown that students have a desire for enhanced application of knowledge as it greatly enhances their learning experience within the music education curriculum. Moreover, blended learning, as defined by Chulalongkorn University (2020), refers to a systematic learning process that takes place in various learning environments, including physical classrooms and virtual platforms via the Internet. Its primary goal is to ensure that learners achieve learning outcomes by combining online and onsite learning. This approach aligns with the OBE model, emphasizing the use of learning outcomes as the foundation. Online learning encompasses both synchronous learning (anywhere, real-time learning) and asynchronous learning (anywhere, anytime learning). Implementing blended learning in teaching and learning fosters diversity and significantly increases engagement, making the learning experience more varied and interesting. The learning process is organized into modules, and students have the freedom to choose the time and location of their learning. This modular approach enables learners to have greater flexibility and empowers them to participate in selecting their own learning methods. Instructors can effectively manage both content and time throughout the semester and utilize classroom time for activities that directly impact student learning. Therefore, if Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (1-17) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 14 instructors establish clear learning outcomes that align with the practical application of knowledge for students, it will significantly impact the appropriate content and instructional methods for both content and student learning. For example, in the context of Thai music theory, topics such as sound, rhythm, melody, and Thai songs can be learned beyond the level of memorization and understanding. Students can first learn the content online through asynchronous learning, focusing on concepts, and then engage in interactive discussions with the instructor through synchronous online or onsite learning to solidify their understanding. Based on the content scope of both subjects, the researchers propose a prototype and approach for managing the blended learning of Thai music theory that aligns with the following learning outcomes: Table 3 Thai music theory learning management through blended learning approach guidelines. Chapter Content Learning Approach Learning Strategies Onsite Online Synchronous Learning Asynchronous Learning 1 Introduction of Thai music theory • Interactive Lectures • Group Discussion 100% Or 100% 2 Thai musical instruments • Concept Mapping • Presentation 90% • Lectures • Assignment 10% 3 Thai musical ensembles • Mind Mapping • Demonstration • Presentation 90% • Lectures • Assignment 10% 4 Thai musical elements: Sound, Rhythm, and Melody • Concept Mapping • Case-based Learning • Demonstration • Practice 90% • Lectures 10% 5 Genres in Thai music • Concept Mapping • Case-based Learning 90% 10% • Lectures 6 Principles and techniques of Thai instrumental performance and singing • Concept Mapping • Case-based Learning • Demonstration • Practice 80% • Lectures 20% 7 Repertoire and Thai musical Ensembles: Performance of Thai music according to seasonal conventions • Concept Mapping • Case-based Learning • Group Discussion • Brainstorm 100% Or 100% 8 Thai music teacher's ritual • Field Trip • Practice • Group Discussion 90% • Lectures • Concept Mapping 10% 9 Thai musical terms • Case-based Learning • Demonstration • Practice 60% • Lectures • Concept Mapping 40% Weerakit Suwanphithak, Chalermpan Ruwicha, & Yootthana Chuppunnarat 15 Based on Table 3 provided, the researcher extracted the lessons from the learning management of the Thai Music Theory course for 103 first-year undergraduate students majoring in Music Education, Department of Arts, Music, and Performing Arts Education, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University, during the first semester of the 2022 academic year. It was found that all students achieved the learning outcome of the course comprehensively and demonstrated progress based on the pre-test and post- test assessments. Therefore, a prototype of the Thai Music Theory learning management system was presented for further study and exploration in the future. The researchers have an observation regarding the sequencing of learning in this subject. They found that it begins with: (1) content memorization; (2) in- depth content analysis; (3) deep comprehension of the content, and finally (4) application of the acquired knowledge. This sequence aligns with Bloom's Taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001), which consists of six levels of learning: (1) remembering; (2) understanding; (3) applying; (4) analyzing; (5) evaluating; and (6) creating. However, the lesson learned from the analysis is that once learners have memorized the content, it is necessary to analyze the material to achieve comprehension and facilitate the application of knowledge. This finding contrasts with the sequencing of levels 2-4 in Bloom's Taxonomy, indicating that the learning sequence in the cognitive domain of Bloom's Taxonomy can serve as a starting framework for instructional design. In OBE-based learning, the emphasis is on defining the learning outcomes (LO), which may vary. Therefore, it is essential to align with the LO as the foundation and utilize Bloom's Taxonomy learning sequence for analysis while maintaining flexibility in sequencing and instructional design to ensure maximum effectiveness and suitability for the learners' context. The integration of outcome-based education (OBE) with blended learning effectively caters to the requirements of educators and learners in terms of the learning process. Unlike traditional teaching methods that prioritize content delivery via lectures, and which limit learning to levels of memorization and understanding only, OBE allows learners to achieve learning outcomes (LO) and develop their abilities to a level where they can apply them effectively, which is essential for individuals in the current and future global population. The Thai Music Theory curriculum, implemented through blended learning, presents a table outlining how learners can study certain content independently, freeing up classroom time for interactive activities and diversified learning experiences. This approach maximizes the effectiveness and efficiency of learning outcomes. Moreover, the Thai Ministry of Education's Higher Education Standards (Royal Thai Government Gazette, 2565a, 2565b) for undergraduate programs in Thailand states that learners should reach the application level of learning, as outlined in Bloom's Taxonomy Level 3, where knowledge is applied. However, based on the researcher's firsthand experience as both a learner and an instructor, it has been observed that learners can attain the analysis stage (Level 4) as well. This is because Thai music theory involves principles and reasoning based on established criteria. Therefore, if students comprehend and can analyze these criteria, they will be able to apply their knowledge accurately and effectively in both musical practice and teaching. The researcher believes that the learning abilities of undergraduate learners should not be restricted merely to the application stage but should be expanded to the analysis stage. Combining OBE with blended learning in Thai music theory and history is a new approach in Thailand. However, the researcher believes that integrating these learning approaches can lead to efficient and targeted management of both subjects while also increasing student engagement and promoting the practical application of knowledge in the modern era. Suggestions Instructors at the undergraduate level and music educators from different cultures should study the students' challenges, expectations, and contextual factors related to the content of music theory and history. This will accelerate the development of learning outcomes that align with the context of educational, economic, and societal development plans. Strategic approaches to instruction should be designed, including the synthesis of innovative learning methods that are diverse and tailored to the specific characteristics of each region or nation while remaining current and aligned with national standards. These strategies should effectively enable learners to achieve the desired learning outcomes and contribute to the sustainability of education and the preservation of valuable knowledge in the arts and cultural domains. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (1-17) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 16 Acknowledgement This research was funded by the Ratchadapisek Sompoch Endowment Fund (2021), Center of Excellence: Siam Cultural Education: Social Innovation Research and Learning, Chulalongkorn University. The Thai art academic development project, Chulalongkorn University. References Amatyakul, P. (1996). Summary of lectures by Prof. Poonpit Amatyakul on the history and development of Thai music. Language and Culture Research Institute, Mahidol University. Anderson, L., Krathwohl, D., Airasian, P., Cruikshank, K., Mayer, R., Pintrich, P., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing division of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Barton, G. (2003). The influence of culture on instrumental music teaching: A participant-observation case study of Karnatic and Queensland instrumental music teachers in context [Doctoral dissertation, Queensland University of Technology]. http://drora.me/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/influence-of-culture-on- instrumental-music-teaching.pdf Beng, T. S. (2008). A paradigm shift in teaching music in schools: Traditional music and multiculturalism in Malaysian education: Approaches in music appreciation classes. Educating in the Arts: The Asian Experience: Twenty- Four Essays, 249-260. Bergethon, B. & Boardman, E. (1979). Musical growth in the elementary school. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Blacking, J. (1973). How musical is man. The University of Washington Press. Campbell, P. S. (1991). Lessons from the world: A cross-cultural guide to music teaching and learning. Schirmer Books. Chantavanich, S. (2018). Qualitative research methods. Chulalongkorn University Printing House. Chulalongkorn University. (2020). Online teaching and learning management and assessment of learners under the situation and measures to prevent the outbreak of COVID-19 virus. คู่มือการจัดการเรียนการสอนและการประเมินผลผู้เรียนแบบออนไลน์ ใช้จริง.pdf Chuppunnarat, Y. (2018). Development of the Thai music education curriculum and teaching in Thailand. Rachadaphiseksompotch Fund, Chulalongkorn University. Corpataux, F. (2002). In Ilari, B and Majlis, P. eds. Children’s songs around the world: An interview with Francis Corpataux. Journal of the International Society for Music Education, 40(1) 3-14. Davis, M. H. (2003). Outcome-based education. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 30(3), 258-263. https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme.30.3.258 Department of Fine Arts. (2002). Duriyangkhasatthai [The theory of Thai music]. Chuanpim. Funfuengfu W., Kaewsawang P. & Mankong P. (2022). Opinions of users of the Bachelor of Education program Major: Music education (4 years) (revised in 2019). Lopburi College of Dramatic Arts. Journal of Nisitwang, 24(2), 83-90. Grant, C. (2017). Learning and teaching traditional music in Cambodia: Challenges and incentives. International Journal of Music Education, 35(1), 5-16. Japee, G., & Oza, P. (2021). Curriculum and evaluation in Outcome-based education. Psychology and Education Journal, 58(2), 5620-5625. Jamnongsarn, S. (2020). Thai music history [Unpublished manuscript]. Faculty of Fine Arts, Srinakharinwirot. Jang, K. B. (2008). Layers of thought on Korean music, music education and the value of music and arts in the context of education and human development. Educating in the Arts: The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, 261- 272. Juthaset, C., & Bankrithong, S. (2021). Approaches to teaching Thai music theories to lower secondary students. Journal of Education Studies, 49(2), 1-10. Kaewsawang, P. (2021). The project-based learning in Thai music theory subject for the first student in the undergraduate level of the Lopburi College of Dramatic Art. Journal of Nisitwang, 23(1), 12-22. Laovanich, V. (2013). Marginalization of music subject in Thai basic education curriculum: An archaeology of knowledge approach. Fine Arts International Journal, 17(1), 35-51. McPhee, C. (1970). Children and music in Bali. In Traditional Balinese Culture (pp. 212-239). Columbia University Press. Miller, H. M. (1978). Introduction to music. Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc. Office of the National Education Commission, Office of the Prime Minister. (1999). National Education Act B.E. 2542 (1999). Pleinsri, A. (2018). Thai music investigation, Vol. 1. Thai music history series (2nd ed). Thammasat University Press. Puchadapirom, P. (n.d.). History of Thai music 1. [Unpublished manuscript]. Faculty of Fine Arts, Chulalongkorn University. Weerakit Suwanphithak, Chalermpan Ruwicha, & Yootthana Chuppunnarat 17 Rao, N. J. (2020). Outcome-based education: An outline. Higher Education for the Future, 7(1), 5-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/2347631119886418 Royal Thai Government Gazette. (2022a). Ministerial Regulation on Standards for Higher Education Curriculum B.E. 2565 (2022). Royal Thai Government Gazette. (2022b). Announcement of the Commission on Higher Education Standards on Criteria for Undergraduate Curriculum B.E. 2565 (2022). Rungruang, P. (2003). History of Thai music. Thaiwattana Panich. Silapabanleng, C., & Chindawat, L. (1978). Thai music study. Aksorncharerntasn Press. Sowat, B. (1996). Thai music theory. Ruangkaeo Publishing House. Spady, W. G. (1994). Outcome-based education: Critical issues and answers. American Association of School Administrators. Stark, C. J. (1976). Conceptual framework as resources for curriculum development with music as paradigm case. [Doctoral Dissertation, Indiana University]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/302804903?pq- origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true Sutthachit, N. (2023). The principles and essentials of music education (pp. 25-47). Chulalongkorn University Press. Takizawa, T. (2008). Crossroads for cultural education through music: Recent developments of school music in Japan. Educating in the Arts: The Asian Experience, Twenty-Four Essays (pp. 231-238). The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music. (2020). ABRSM Qualification Specification Music Theory. https://gb.abrsm.org/media/67080/merged-music-theory-grades-1-8-qual-spec-14-april-2023-final-1.pdf. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2022). Transforming education for the future. UNESCO. https://www.un.org/en/transforming-education-summit/sg-vision-statement Yoo, H., Kang, S., & Fung, V. (2018). Personality and world music preference of undergraduate non-music majors in South Korea and the United States. Psychology of Music, 46(5), 611-625. Zuo, Q. (2018). Design of traditional music teaching in colleges and universities from the perspective of multiculturalism. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 18(6). Biographies Weerakit Suwanphithak is a lecturer at the Division of Music Education, Department of Art, Music, and Dance Education, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. His background also includes more than 10 years of teaching Thai traditional music string instruments, Thai Ensemble performances. His research interests focus on music education in Thailand, Music Curriculum, and Thai music pedagogy. Chalermpan Ruwicha is a lecturer at the Division of Music Education, Department of Art, Music, and Dance Education, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. His background also includes more than 10 years of teaching Thai traditional melodic percussion instruments and Thai Ensemble performances. He is currently a special lecturer at the Department of Art, Music, and Dance Education, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University. His research interests focus on music education in Thailand and music pedagogy. Yootthana Chuppunnarat is an Associate Professor at the Department of Art Music and Dance Education, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University. He has extensive experience including more than 20 years as a music educator in the area of curriculum and instruction in Thai traditional music. His research interests include music education in Thailand. He has published research in music education in a variety of journals, currently one was an investigation into the status of Thailand’s music education systems and organization in the British Journal of music education.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 2 (2023)

Kidung, Hindu temple performances in Bali, sacred music, Yadnya

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/531

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8537

Kidung:

Hindu religious ceremonies continue to be performed in Bali throughout the ages. A ceremony cannot be completed perfectly without the presence of the

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8537/4748

18 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (18-34) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Kidung: Integral and Structured Parts in the Implementation of Balinese Hindu Religious ceremonies Desak Made Suarti Laksmi1, I Wayan Sudirana2* Music Department, Faculty of Performing Arts Institut Seni Indonesia Denpasar Jalan Nusa Indah, Sumerta, Denpasar, Bali, 80235 e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 17 December 2023 Cite this article (APA): Laksmi, Desak Made Suarti & Sudirana, I. W. (2023). Kidung: Integral and structured parts in the implementation of Balinese Hindu religious ceremonies. Malaysian Journal of Music 12(2), 18-34. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.2.2.2023 Abstract Hindu religious ceremonies continue to be performed in Bali throughout the ages. A ceremony cannot be completed perfectly without the presence of the Kidung (hymn/sacred song), an integral component that cannot be separated. The implementation of the Yadnya ceremony is connected to the ceremony’s purpose. Panca Yadnya refers to these five types of ceremonies, divided by domain into Dewa Yadnya (ceremonies for Gods), Bhuta Yadnya (ceremonies for Bhutakala/demon), Rsi Yadnya (ceremonies for Mahaguru, Rsi, or parents/teachers), Pitra Yadnya (ceremonies for the deceased), and Manusa Yadnya (ceremonies for human’s life). The selection of the type of Kidung (hymn) adapts to the five domains of the relevant Yadnya, considering the various types of Kidung with text selection for context. Several supporting factors refer to the concept of tatwa, morals, and procedures both philosophically, technically, and contextually. The Kidung is sung with full regard for propriety, which is believed to strengthen the spiritual ascent in achieving sidakarya and sidapurnanya (perfectly done) by performing the Yadnya ceremony as an expression of offerings. Keywords: Kidung, Hindu temple performances in Bali, sacred music, Yadnya Introduction Kidung has the same meaning as the words chant or song, which, according to Purwadarminta (1987, p. 30), means song or poetry that is sung. Hindu religious songs are a form of Dharma Gita songs that are sung in offerings. Its role is very dominant in implementing Hindu religious ceremonies in Bali, apart from being an offering and a support for ceremonies. The makidung tradition is the activity of reading and, at the same time, developing the text of the Kidung (2022, p. 30). The makidung tradition began in the 16th century along with the introduction of Javanese songs to Bali (Hinzler, 1981, p. 433; Laksmi, 2022a, p. 31; Suarka, 2007, p.149). Kidung is included in the Sekar Madya group (from four groupings of songs: Sekar Agung, Sekar Madya, Sekar Alit and Sekar Rarē). The function of each group of Kidungs is determined by the religious ceremony that is taking place. The literary selection sung corresponds to the domain of the ceremony taking place. This is commonplace and is understood by most vocal Kidung practitioners, in relation to Hindu religious ceremonial activities and artistic performances. As a sacred song, Kidung serves not only as a musical accompaniment but also as an offering that is almost always resounded at each performance. A ceremony is currently in progress. In all types of Desak Made Suarti Laksmi & I Wayan Sudirana 19 ceremonies, the Kidung is always present and plays a preeminent role. The selection of literary stanzas, types of songs with variations in tone and character play, has a very close relationship with the Yadnya domain and cannot be confused with its use (Laksmi 2007, p. 1) so Yadnya Kidungs are suitable for use in every ceremony. It is crucial to address this to become more stable in your spiritual ascent and concentrate on your desired goals. All of these realities are elaborations on the ontological perspective that will be examined in greater depth in this research. This epistemological perspective seeks to know, comprehend, and simultaneously study descriptively and qualitatively what is occurring in society regarding the existence of religious Kidungs. In the meantime, the value and implications of axiology to integrate all the values in Kidung literature into human life require respectable comprehension and awareness. Several factors necessitate the use of Kidungs during ceremonies in Bali. In addition to contributing to the solemnity of the ceremony, these factors pertain to the function of the Kidung in the ceremony, spiritual norms and metaphysical impulses regarding the structure of the ceremony, and the significance of the Kidung itself. The essential role of Kidungs in Hindu religious ceremonies has never been documented in the form of articles, which is unfortunate. Factors that Strengthen the Existence of Kidung in Hindu Religious Rituals Theological Factors. Theology is regarded as a science that investigates all topics pertaining to divinity and religious beliefs. Theologians seek to employ analysis and logical arguments when discussing, interpreting, and instructing on religious topics. Theology enables an individual better to comprehend his own religious tradition or other religious traditions, facilitates comparisons between diverse traditions, preserves and renews a particular tradition, aids in the propagation of a tradition, and applies the sources of a tradition to a current situation or need, among other purposes. The limitations of rational meaning have made “Gugon Tuwon; nak mule keto (that is how it is)” a reliable shield for the general public in justifying religious autonomy. It is understood that “Gugon Tuwon” refers to a belief in something as a truth transmitted from generation to generation. It is essential to understand the fundamentals of the Hindu religious framework regarding philosophy, morals, and rituals/ceremonies, which contain philosophical, ethical, and legal connotations. It is identical to theology at the tatwa level, which entails an expansion of divine philosophy. Previously, only certain individuals, such as clergy, writers, and cultural figures, had access to interpretations of the aspects of tatwa/religious philosophy; however, the general public now plays a larger role in the moral order and procedures. The massive and rapid development of science in both the virtual and physical worlds has an effect on the growth of mastery of the aforementioned knowledge. Kidung, as an art offering (wali), as a support (bebali), and as a performing art (balihan) position itself structurally alongside the sequence of events (dudonan) at each ceremony. Numerous variables, including space, time, and circumstances, are intertwined with its implementation and incorporation goals. Balinese Hinduism is a blend of animism, ancestor worship, Hinduism, and Buddhism (Sudirana 2013, p. 45). Yadnya is one of the manifestations of the contents of this blend by accommodating the Vedic teachings, the believe in nature and spirit, reincarnations, and harmony. Since Yadnya itself is stated in the Veda, it must be carried out by Hindus throughout their life (Sanjaya, 2008, p. 4; Laksmi, 2022a, p. 131). In this embodiment, it is depicted in the form of symbols with the aim that the Yadnya can be more easily understood and carried out by Hindus, as well as increasing stability in the implementation of religious activities or Yadnya itself (Agastia, 2008, p. 4). All forms of the greatness and majesty of God Almighty, the sincerity of the hearts or feelings of His worshippers, as well as the forms of offerings are depicted in the form of symbols (niyasa) which are reflected in the forms of ceremonies in the Yadnya ceremony (Laksmi, 2022a, p. 130). The Kidung is almost always present at every Yadnya ceremony as an essential form of offering. Kidung is derived from the Veda, the source of Hindu religious doctrines. X.71.11 (Sanjaya, 2008, p. 4; Laksmi 2022b, p. 131) states that the Veda describes four 20 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (18-34) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 different ways of expressing his teachings: Rcām tvah posamāste pupusvām, gāyatram tva gāyati sakvarisu bhahmā tvo vadati jātavidyām yadñasya mātrām vi mimita utvah; the meaning: One person is tasked with reciting Vedic verses, another with singing Kidungs in sakwari, another with mastering Vedic knowledge and teaching the Vedic content, and yet another with teaching the procedures for performing the holy sacrifice (Yadnya). (2008, p. 4 in Laksmi 2022b, p. 131). Yadnya is done as the result of human birth and life in this world, which carries a debt known as Tri Rna. Humans have three birth debts, which are known as Tri Rna. Firstly, human have a debt to Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Waça (God Almighty), who created and provided humans with all the necessities of life, also known as Dewa Rna. Second is Pitra Rna, which refers to the debt of life owed to the ancestors, particularly mothers and fathers who gave birth and raised their children to adulthood. Third is Rsi Rna, debts owed to MahaRsi (teachers), and other holy persons who have contributed to teaching knowledge, arts and culture, spiritual guidance (Agastia, 2008, p. 4). Hindus pay for the three debts in five different types of Yadnya (Panca Yadnya): Dewa Rna was compensated with Bhuta Yadnya and Dewa Yadnya; Rsi Rna with Rsi Yadnya; and Pitra Rna with Manusa Yadnya and Pitra Yadnya. The offerings offered for these Yadnya(s) are associated with the compensation of the three debts, with the additional specific chanting (Kidung) as supplements to achieve the sidakarya, sidapurna, sidaning yasa (the successful of the debt payment rituals). The five Yadnya domain groupings were flexibly organized into the levels of kanista/nista (minor/essential), madiama/madya (intermediate), and mahotama/utama (major), also known as Nista madya utama. Kidung, as the application of Vedic teachings, is required at every level of the Yadnya ceremony, with ceremonies based on the dresta (unwritten rules) prevalent in the local area. If the presence of the gamelan (a traditional music of Bali) is not required due to the low level of the ceremony, the Kidung can be present as an integral and structured part of strengthening the achievement of the goal of perfecting the Yadnya. God is described, personified, and manifested visually in works of art, including literary arts, fine arts, and performing arts, in literary works. Many of the literary texts in song, as an integral part of religious activities, provide an approach to theological theory about the existence of God and how people respect God. Kidung, as part of a religious ritual linked to the existence of God, necessitates a theological examination of the text’s elements, context, as well as practical and aesthetic elements. It is recognized that Kidung is a very broad field in terms of scope, variety, form, function, meaning, and problem area. Nowadays, selective Kidung poetry has spread in the form of “pocketbooks” as a practical guiden for people who want to support religious activities. However, it should be noted that different interpretations of the text and its context still necessitate a more thorough theological analysis. Even though the nature of God is still a mystery sought by mankind throughout the universe, it has never been fully solved. The theological theory is being studied in depth by various experts with a scalpel to interpret God’s existence. Thus, religious intelligence can be achieved in various ways to increase spiritual ascent. Nonetheless, it should be recognized with an open heart that the traditional concept of Gugon Tuwon (a prohibition, taboo or advice left by ancestors and passed down to their children and grandchildren) is a proper boundaries that cannot be rationalized, even though a theological theory cannot reveal everything clearly and completely about the mysteries of the universe with its various elements of God’s creation. As Hindus’ holy book, Vedic literature forbids haphazard study and practice in all circles of society. Previously given teachings on implementing the Vedas in the form of Itiasa, Puranas in the form of stories from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and other Puranas for people who want to deepen their understanding of the Vedas. For those who read them, Desak Made Suarti Laksmi & I Wayan Sudirana 21 all literary works are an endless “spiritual menu” to be discussed as “spiritual food.” These teachings are contained in the art forms of Vedic teaching media. Empu Tantular (Warna, 1988, p. 38; Laksmi, 2022b, p. 138) in Arjuna Wiwaha’s kakawin (long narrative poems composed in Old Javanese, written in verse form with rhythms and meters derived from Sanskrit literature) describes God’s necessity as a real (sekala) and virtual (niskala) being. It is difficult to obtain God’s precepts in their manifestation with full effort based on personal purity. After successfully completing Tapa Yoga Semadi and receiving the Pasupati Sastra weapon from Lord Shiva, Arjuna worshipped the Gods as written in the kakawin stanza of Merdukomala: It is stated in the stanza of the kakawin Merdukomala that God will not show His grace to just anyone, especially those who are classified as dirty or filthy. However, it only reveals its holy character and light to those who diligently purify themselves and are always on the path of truth according to dharma teachings. The divine teachings mentioned in Arjuna Wiwaha’s kakawin in Wirama Kakawin Totaka: This series of kakawin verses teaches and guides Hindus that it is possible, albeit difficult, to communicate with and witness God’s actual form. It requires physical and mental purity, much like the moon’s shadow, which is reflected clearly only in water that is pure and free of impurities. Similarly, as a self-reflection in capturing the moon’s shadow’s radiance, water ought to purify purity and clarity. Under these circumstances, the moon’s shadow will be clearly visible (Laksmi, 2022b, p. 139). Similarly, in the pursuit of enlightenment, divine light is sought to cleanse oneself of the turbidity and filth that tend to envelop us in darkness. Djelantik recalls the spiritual ascent of searching within oneself for the mystery of life to comprehend God’s existence (Djelantik in Laksmi, 2022b, p. 139). This is the opening to Geguritan Sucitana’s literary work in Pupuh Sinom: Ong sembah ning anatha tinghalana detriloka sarana; Wahya dyatmika sembahing hulun ijeng ta tan hana waneh; Sang lwir agni sakeng tahen kadi minyak sakeng dadhi kita; Sang saksat metu yan hana wwang hamuter tutur pinahayu. Ong Hyang, The Holy God, ruler of the three worlds, please look at my worship; I worship You in the mortal world and the divine world, nothing else; You are like fire coming out of a tree, like oil coming out of coconut milk; You shine out when there are people who practice noble sacred teachings. Çaçi wimba haneng ghata mesi banyu; Ndan asing suci nirmala mesi wulan; Iwa mangkana rakwa kiteng kadadin; Ring angembeki yoga kiteng sakala.‐ Like the shadow of the moon on a jar filled with water; Only in clear and clean water can the moon’s shadow be seen clearly; Such is the radiance of God in this life; Only in humans who are obedient in practicing yoga, God will show His holy light in a real way 22 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (18-34) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 A summary of poetic stanzas with minimal wordplay but large concepts makes God’s teaching admirable and beautiful. The ability of an author to select beautiful words for his literary work has a profound, extensive, and expansive significance. If the string of words in question is strung together with a melodious melody or according to the nature of the song, it becomes even more beautiful. Thus, the senses are nourished by beauty, while the mind is nourished by teachings that calm the heart. Here the role of the vocal art of tatembangan plays an important role. Singing is a primary human need for expressing happiness. Even though it is acknowledged that singing expresses a variety of emotional upheavals “nawa rasa”, the singer still sings with joy. In performing arts, when someone expresses his sadness through singing, even though the sadness itself almost carries him away, he is not actually sad. Similarly, other emotional fluctuations, such as anger, romance, etc., are merely emotional expressions designed to achieve sincerity. The closest expression of happiness, the sensation of having butterflies in the stomach, can be linked to the expression of the song. It is odd for someone who is extremely angry or extremely depressed to express their emotions and emotional turmoil through singing. The beautiful chanting of songs in “sekaran” sound art conveys the fact that there has been a long-standing tradition from the past to the present of internalizing these teachings so that they can penetrate more deeply. In this instance, the Kidung becomes one of the most significant vehicles for conveying the meaning of the message contained within. In addition, if the connoisseurs are willing to engage in quasi-participation in ongoing religious ceremonies. The vessel emptied to receive the gift of His grace can also be refined by listening to religious Kidungs. In the Mabebasan tradition, the chanting of the song is interpreted by someone who serves as a translator (paneges). Elaboration and collaboration in meaning utterances require someone with a theological approach to give a broader meaning and contextualize it with the ongoing situation, making the literary work an educational medium besides entertaining. In a ceremony that is being held, all elements provide support for the same goal. The Kidung of Aji Kembang provides a fusion of the position of Sanghyang Catur Sanak (the unseen human’s siblings) within oneself with the position of Sanghyang Catur Sanak in the universe through the pasuk wetuning indranya (spiritual connection between the microcosm and the macrocosm). The understanding of pangider-ideran (the reference for the position of Dewatanawasanga/gods with all shakti, position, color, urip/neptu, weapons, rides, Bhuta, and others) is the nature of the universe’s elements, bhuwana agung (macrocosm) which is affiliated with the small universe, bhuwana alit (microcosm) within its believers. This is also used as a reference in various ceremonial symbols for the gods’ places (Dang Kahyangan/Kahyangan Jagat temple). The counter-extraction and designations in Caru’s offerings (sacrifice ritual offerings) are of various levels, the practice of the shaman, the pocapan pengrandan (sacred mantras), which has immense power, the power of the Gods’ places in iderating if the possession is truly internalized within oneself. Here is the theological teaching that God’s spark exists in every living creature he creates, whereas Jenek ring meru sarira, Kastiti hyang maha suci, Mapuspa Padma hredaya, Magenta swaraning sepi, Meganda baan tisning budi, Malepane sila ayu, Mabija menget prakasa, Kukusing sadripu dagdi, Dupan ipum, Madipa hidepe galang. Build a monument of worship within yourself, to worship and glorify God, flower of the heart is used as a flower of worship, the sound of silence beats the bells without stopping, the fragrance of the temperament is spread, based on good and honest behavior, rice between the foreheads is a constant reminder of His greatness, eliminate and burn the six the enemy within (sad ripu); as incense is the brilliance of the mind, heart and feelings are always enlivened. Desak Made Suarti Laksmi & I Wayan Sudirana 23 living creatures do not exist in Him. Therefore, living as a human being is said to be a way to do good so that Sang Hyang Atman (the soul) can reunite with Sang Hyang Brahman (the God). Ethical Factors. Ethics and aesthetics are two distinct sciences but are closely related. They are interconnected in the Balinese Hindu community and religious practices. According to the Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Great Indonesian Dictionary), multiple interconnected definitions of ethics exist. The first one, ethics is the study of what is good and bad, as well as moral rights and duties. The second, ethics is a collection of moral principles or values. According to Purwadarmita (1987, p. 237), ethics is also a value regarding right and wrong that is adhered to by a group or society. According to Djelantik (1990, p. 9), ethics, which is synonymous with morality, is good actions toward fellow human beings, which includes good conduct. Djelantik further explains that ethics refers to the behavior and responsibility of a group that must be exercised in order to clarify the meaning and function of a religious Kidung so that its purity and holiness are maintained as a means and support for Hindu religious ceremonies in Bali. Nawa Widha Bhakti is nine teachings used as guidelines to increase sradha (believe) and bhakti (devotion) of the Hindu community before God (Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa). These nine teachings include Srawanam, Wedanam, Kirthanam, Smaranam, Padasewanam, Sukhyanam, Dahsyam, Arcanam, and Sevanam. Among the nine teachings known as Kidung, chanting religious sacred songs is implicitly included as part of the teachings of “Kirtanam.” Daily teaching is demonstrated by singing a Kidung (makidung) after concluding a prayer or ceremony. Kidung also accommodates Srawanam’s teachings regarding giving good advice or suggestions; for instance, listening to and accepting good things from parents and teachers is simple. The values of advice that lead to the path of truth serve as guiding principles. As a result, the art instructor has a potent medium to convey the information in an entertaining context. The majority of the dramatic content of an artistic performance consists of educational and moral lessons. Kidungs are used to enhance the aesthetics of communicating wisdom values, even in humorous parodies. Artists, including spiritual artists such as Kidung performers, are therefore also referred to as Guru Loka when it comes to educating the public about human values in the broadest sense. Sevanam refers to providing quality service, such as assisting others or providing the best service possible. Those with the ability to sing religious songs are obligated to participate in the system of mutual cooperation without submitting a formal request to help each other with sincerity by providing spiritual songs. As a form of devotion and a means of legitimizing the success of family members carrying out a Yadnya, the service provided here is not measured by material goods as a means of achieving a balance. Chanting Kidung is a Yadnya, hard work that has certain effects on the performer’s body. Sound vibrations can provide positive vibrations to neutralize blood circulation so that Kidungs become a healthy therapy for devotees who can fulfill their wishes in carrying out their Yadnya: namely seeking happiness and being physically and spiritually healthy. The makidung tradition is the activity of reading as well as developing Kidung texts (Suarka, 2007, p. 149). The makidung tradition in Bali began in the 16th century with the arrival of Javanese Kidungs to Bali (Hinzler, 1981, p. 443; Suarka, 2007, p. 149). The makidung tradition, together with the makakawin, mageguritan, malawakia, and nyloka (other singing traditions), are preserved through the mabebasan tradition, an activity of reading as well as developing, translating and reviewing traditional literary texts (2007, p. 149). In Bali, this tradition is increasingly alive and growing in society, so groups called themselves Sekaa Santi or Sekaa Pesantian, collective groups who do the mebasan tradition, are formed. Many positive and useful things can be learned by getting involved in vocal training activities in Sekaa Santi groups, especially regarding the formation of morals and ethics. Aesthetic Factors. Aesthetics is a science that examines all aspects of what we call “beauty” (Djelantik, 1990, p. 6). As a concept of aesthetic beauty, it colors every aspect of 24 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (18-34) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 human existence, reminding us that every action has an aesthetic basis. This concept penetrates the human soul and subtly reflects every aspect of daily life. Aesthetics explains the essence of beauty and the experience of beauty (Waesberghe, 2016, p. 21), whereas Literary Arts is an art that uses language to express aesthetic intuition. In relation to the material’s essence, the aesthetic experience of literary art appears to be a synthesis of the auditory (hearing) and visual (appearance) aspects of language (p. 5). The songs are sung with beautiful language formations and melodic strains, which are woven into literary and melodic sequences. Whether we realize it or not, this song would have never been written if the composer had not utilized aesthetic principles. Kidung literature is formed using lingsa (conventional rules). These rules pertain to uger-uger (framework), such as the guru wilang rule (the number of syllables in each line and the number of lines in each stanza) and the vowel fall in each line. Considering the concepts of logic, ethics, and aesthetics, the series of words are formed in such a way that they become compositions bound by certain rules and contain beautiful literary compositions. The aesthetic sensibility of the author in composing Kidung literature is frequently influenced by the strains of love, so that a great deal of Kidung literature is composed of a series of love-related words. As in the example of the Kidung Wilet Mayura (see below), the feeling of love has penetrated and stimulated the author’s soul, resulting in the creation of a very poetic literary description in beautiful literary language that touches everyone who reads or sings it. Wilet Mayura (panawa), laras pelog. The beauty of love expressed in Kidungs addressed to the opposite sex, differs from the beauty of love for the Almighty God. In describing the Kidung Malat, Vickers (1989) mentioned aspects of the Kidung is deemed significant. This element is a painting depicting sexual or romantic scenes (Soekatno, 2013, p. 286; Laksmi, 2022b, p. 169). According to Vickers, composing a Kidung is also a form of worship, which may not include composing a kakawin, but is nevertheless a form of worship in which the poet is one with the Creator. A poet uses sexual means to compose Kidungs - emotional means, particularly those related to feelings of love and sexuality (Teeuw, 2013, p. 286). The composition of Kidung literature is highly dependent on the author’s pursuit of aesthetics. According to Zoetmulder and Robson (2011), a pangawi or a poet is a seeker of beauty and a nomad. They wandered the forests and coastlines, worshiping the God of Beauty and attempting to unite with him, beginning with yoga and concluding with eternal liberation (Agastia, 1987, p. 82). Aestheticians distinguish six points or categories of beauty: glorious, beautiful, tragic, comical, pretty, and ugly. All these types of beauty can be found in all art forms (Waesberghe, 2016, p. 7, cited in Laksmi, 2022a, p. 170). Since Kidung literature is based on a deep sense of love from its Creator, who is said to be a hunter of beauty, we can conclude that it contains a great deal of literary complexity. The beauty that attracts is not Angrerimang sang ulangun, Sang lara angunur guyu, Sang karwa lingnya kasemaran, Amawas istri kaleson, Dadyata amuwuhing angrawit, Sasolah irasang arum, Sang kakung lingnya, Duh yayi paran denkwa, Amunung saking larasta. Daydreaming creates feelings of love, He who languishes enjoys the beauty of love, They both show love-stricken words, Looking at a lover who is struggling, So it adds to the sense of beauty of love, Her every behavior is beautiful, The man now said, Oh my sister, why brother, Tempted? It's because of your beauty Desak Made Suarti Laksmi & I Wayan Sudirana 25 only the beauty of a woman, but also the beauty of the panorama of the universe and the beauty manifested by a feeling of love for the Creator that unites and penetrates the poet’s soul. This event’s underlying indicators include the noble, the tragic, the beautiful, and the ugly comic. Agastia (1987) states in Wrtsacaya classical poetry that Mpu Tanakung is a poet who is full of the desire to enjoy beauty and is intoxicated by it. It is also stated that one must seek beauty in nature, which Agastia considers to be an excellent place for self-training (1987, p. 83). According to Zoetmulder and Robson (2011), the praise addressed to God by poets is actually a form of yoga, with God of Beauty as the focus of meditation, who is believed to reside in the lotus of the heart during mental concentration (Koentjaraningrat, 1987, p. 84). By meditating on God’s special descent and appearance within it, what happens to the hidden core of his sense of beauty (sandining lango), will then become apparent, as he reveals God in his literary work as in a temple. Consequently, a kawiswara (a poet-king) is also a siddhayogi (a perfect yogi). What a kawiswara aims for is essentially the same as what every yogi aims to achieve: liberation (sadhana sang kawiswara asadhya kalĕpasani sandhi ning mango) ((Koentjaraningrat, 1987, p. 84). Song compositions are one-of-a-kind divine works of art resulting from the author’s expressive and universal religious aesthetic creativity, which successfully moves the audience’s emotions. The literary beauty of the song is greatly bolstered by the musical beauty of the melodies, which bind and form an interdependent beauty. As a component of traditional vocal music, Kidung singing is intimately connected to the melody, rhythm, dynamics, and harmony. Taking into account that the concept of the guru dingdong or the song’s melodic guideline which is formed according to each line and stanza concludes with the fall of specific notes that reflect the composer’s aesthetic sensibility. The beauty of a Kidung’s melody is highly dependent on the succession of the selected tones (murwa kanti) that create a beautiful harmony. A Kidung composer closely relates his feelings, attitudes, values, and behavior into the melody he wrote. In other words, a composer’s affective life includes feelings, interests, attitudes, and emotions. In such a circumstance, composer can freely express his emotions according to the flow of emotions surrounding him. Melody is a continuous musical event that, in addition to being about the affective nature of a composer, is also about intellectual power, reason, auditory power, and emotional power. Another view that must be maintained is that there is a special relationship between sound structure and affective and emotional life or human emotions (Waesberghe, 2016, p. 59). If the experience of beauty already has an affective nature, then the affective nature must be specified in great detail. Just as visual imagination turns out to be related to intellectual power, specifically reason, auditory imagination turns out to be related to emotional power. Therefore, music undeniably establishes a relationship with human affective life that is more specific than any other art form (p. 59). The beauty of a Kidung can be seen in its melodic flow, woven from a series of notes that create an enjoyable harmony. Numerous Yadnya songs have distinctive melodic characteristics, allowing sensitive singers to identify them easily. Unlike a statis melodic progression (or in Bali is called ngalekeh), many Kidungs feature melodic, dynamic, and contrasting melodies that move from high to low notes or vice versa. However, singing such songs, especially when is sung by talented vocalists using high-quality vocal processing techniques, the singer must keep in mind that songs with monotonous melodies, which appear less interesting to sing, do not necessarily produce a sound that is not beautiful. The value of a Kidung’s beauty can be determined by the perspective from which it is viewed and the occasion for which it is sung. As in the case when the song is sung during the Dewa Yadnya ceremony, the significance of the song’s melody can evoke solemnity and other spiritual emotions. However, melodic, dynamic, and romantic melodies are required when the Kidung is sung during the Manusa Yadnya (wedding) ceremony. Figure 1 is Rangga Noja kidung and Figure 2 is Demung Gulaganti kidung, two Yadnya Kidungs with contrasting melodies. 26 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (18-34) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 1. Kidung Rangga Noja in Pelog Scale Figure 2. Kidung Demung Gula Ganti in Selendro Scale The two Kidungs in Figures 1 and 2 use two different tunings. The first uses the Pelog scale and the Desak Made Suarti Laksmi & I Wayan Sudirana 27 second the Selendro scale. The characteristics of these two scales are very different—like the major and minor scales in Western music. The melodies built into the two Kidungs indicate ceremonial activities for humans, but with different feelings that arise from the use of two different scales and lyrics according to the ongoing ritual. Entertainment and Education Factors. The terms entertainment and education are like complementary currencies that add value to an artistic performance, including religious rituals, particularly a performance of the performing arts. “Spectacle” and “guidance” is the primary content for determining the quality of an artistic performance. In addition to its entertaining nature, the content of meaning, philosophy, and wisdom becomes psychological content that can be used as a guide and awakens the viewers’ awareness of living this life. Kidung, in addition to being a subgenre of sekar madya, is a referenced and incorporated source for enhancing dance drama presentations in performing arts. In this instance, the intended entertainment and educational factors will extend to songs presented in religious rituals and songs used to strengthen the dramatic structure, and content of a performing arts performance. Even though it is not formatted as is the case in performing arts in general, the position of Kidung in religious rituals between the audience and the presenter is mingled with the tasks and activities of each. It can be said that the presentation of Kidungs in religious ceremonies is part of performing art. Two senses play an active role in appreciating it: the sense of hearing and the sense of sight. These two senses also dominate in appreciating performing arts presentations specifically for display. Even though the Kidung singer is more dedicated to his expertise in the presentation, the elements of logic, ethics, and aesthetics are the main elements that underlie the performing arts. It is not much different from the world of performing arts, where entertainment and education are two things that complement each other. The late I Gusti Ngurah Windia (a famous Topeng dancer of Topeng Tugek Carangsari group from Badung regency) said that when an artist can make the audience laugh, it indicates that their attention is focused on what the dancer is doing on stage. At that time, it was also important to provide moral education or religious teaching in the form of speech, philosophy of life as a reinforcement of identity and the formation of human/society character. The title of an artist as a local teacher has power over time, place, and opportunity to convey abilities and expertise in their field, both concerning the presentation of the aesthetic form of the appearance of their work (dramatic form) as well as the dramatic content (interview, January 17, 2018 before he passed away). In accordance with the “tegak gede” tradition, a prestigious event for invited singers at a grand temple ceremony, sekaran songs have always been an integral part of the ceremony. It is an essential role that the songs must be performed. With a total of 18 people representing the number of characters in the Balinese script, it indicates that the ceremony carried out was based on the dresta literature, a local literature that has been passed down from generations. Education based on literacy is the objective of the Yadnya. These characters come to life and contribute significant meaning to the maprawerti (traditional ritual singing tradition), which is permeated by a series of beautiful notes from the selected songs. If the meaning of the song is derived from the singing tradition, it also refers to the human life cycle, which reflects utpeti (birth), stiti (life), and pralina (death). As in performing arts, the presenter of a religious ceremony must be aware of the selection of Kidung lyric stanzas in order to comprehend the form and content of the ceremony. In performing arts (in the main dance drama presentation), the dancers (pragina) choose the appropriate and relevant Kidung to be performed so that it is consistent with the activities supported by the presence of the art in the ceremony. If a performance at the Dewa Yadnya ceremony focused on marriage, it would be difficult and out of context to display it. It would be strange and distorted if the Dewa Yadnya ceremony discussed death and the recitation process in a given context. The same awareness should be carried out by Kidung artists to both educate and entertain the congregation attending ongoing religious ceremonies. 28 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (18-34) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Functions of Kidung in Hindu Religious Ceremonies in Bali Functions of Kidung in Rituals. Sound (paswaran) is an essential element in a ceremony. Conscience, intentions, and desires underlie all rituals that proceed from the beginning to the peak as well as the completion of rituals. Organizing large-scale ceremonies; natural sounds, human voices, and the sound of instruments/barungans, blend harmoniously “bustlingly” as an expression of celebration. In large-scale “Dewa Yadnya” ceremonies, for example: the sounds of nature (sunari, pindekan, penimpug, kulkul, ketipluk, panglepugan), gentorag bell, chanting of Kidung, ritual drama, gamelan sounds, coming together to complement each other for the successful of the ceremony. Thus, the function of sound in religious rituals plays an important and essential role as an expression of offerings before Him. There are three classifications based on the function of performing arts, including Kidung, within the ceremony: wali (sacred and religious function), bebali (ceremonial function), and balih-balihan (secular function) (Sudirana, 2013, p. 26). The bebali function dominates the Kidung’s more specific function. The Kidung can also serve as a wali or balih-balihan in certain other regions. Despite the fact that we recognize this partition is not a rigid division, it is joined flexibly, as Sudirana states ambiguity in its application (p. 30). Kidung acts explicitly as a wali when it is an integral part of the continuity of a ritual. Without the Kidung, the ceremony would be impossible to carry out. For example, singing the pangundang roh Kidung (a Kidung to invite the divine soul) is essential to the Sanghyang dance at the padudusan ceremony (grand ceremony). Combining the Kidung’s melodies serves as a medium for the trance process. Kidung must be included in the intended process. Without his participation, the ritual cannot be performed. The function of Kidung as balih-balihan is clear when it has no religious ties. Especially when Kidung is contested to improve aesthetic quality and performance presentation, it will only functions as secular performance. Similarly, when Kidung is cited in secular performing arts, it will position itself as a secular performing art. However, even though there is no ritual context, Kidung is often considered a sacred vocal art by most people because sacred values are still felt to be attached to it, even though it is sung without any religious ceremony. Giving Spiritual Norms and Metaphysical Encouragement To Ceremonial Structures. The most basic thing in offering a religious ritual is that it is presented and intended for things of a transcendental nature related to the niskala (unseen world). It is believed that this classical nature exists and resides in the God realm (the upper realm or Swahloka) and the Bhuta realm (the lower realm or Bhurloka). Humans live in the Bwahloka realm the middle realm), endowed with the advantage of having a tripremana (three abilities: to think, to move, and to speak) compared to other creatures living in the same realm. The position of humans and other creatures in the middle realm will have the opportunity to balance the Bhuta realm with the God realm. The middle realm is a place to carry out prawerti (noble pathway) which can have an impact according to karma wesana (deed): namely falling into the realm of hell due to sinful actions during their lifetime; or even being able to ascend to the heavenly realm of mukti bhukti (virtuous deeds) and can even achieve moksha (to merge back into the soul original “place) or in Balinese is called mawali ke sangkan paraning numadi (merge back to God).Therefore, Kidung, with an integral function in death ceremonies, can help guide the spirit to see the path according to the deeds carried out during life. Performing Obligations. In all forms of Balinese rituals, the mutual assistant or ngayah is an integral concept of work in preparing all elements in the ritual. Most people in the society participated sincerely in a religious ritual. This is because of their devotion, sacrificing of work, time, and offerings to ancestors and Gods. Prioritizing the ngayah attitude from the planning stage through the implementation of the ritual, and until the completion of the Desak Made Suarti Laksmi & I Wayan Sudirana 29 ritual. These activities are carried out voluntarily, or away from business considerations. There are traditional “payment” made out of offerings as a complement for particular implements, such as sulinggih (high priest), pregina (ritual performers/dancers), and sekaa Kidung/gong (musicians and singers). There is also an occasional reward in the form of sesari (the reward for the essence of the work done at a ceremony). The Kidung performers, whether coordinated in groups or individually, are also performed more based on the dedication of the ngayah concept. Participating in ceremonial needs, such as playing traditional instruments, dancing/memendet, makidung (situal singing), and other activities, in order to fulfill one’s obligations, instills a sense of pride that stems from the encouragement of sincerity in doing so. By devoting what you can do as an act of devotion, you will be proud of yourself, and be expressed in the clan of the path of karma as an act of gratitude for the abundance of blessings and grace. Adding Solemnity to the Ceremony. A Balinese ritual whose domain is assigned to one of the five Yadnya has a distinct purpose, even though the five Yadnya are an integral component. Certain types of Kidung with specific texts related to the ritual purpose is chosen to support the specificity of the ritual. The high priest, Ida Pedanda Gede Putra Bajing from Geria Sumerta Denpasar, opined that the strength of the Yadnya carried out by combining all the ritual elements will contribute to the solemnity of the Yadnya being held. Bajing said, “the Priest’s Puja with the Panyomya Bhutakala (neutralizing the demonic power), Vedic Puja accompanied by Baleganjur Music (Balinese marching music), Bhuta Yadnya Kidungs (demonic theme chanting), and the bustle of the Yadnya caused the vortex of the offerings to reach its zenith, are the excitement that occurs in rituals in Bali. When all of these are done, the Bhutakala received their sacrificial offerings and the Bhutadinya (demonic nature) became neutral and did not disturb the peace of the people (interview, July 22, 2018). Philosophically, this is a play on concentration on the realm of spiritual taste and belief, as a piercing shot that concentrates or repeats the mind on a single target. The specific Kidung for this ritual is called Pupuh Jerum (see below), and is sung during the Bhuta Yadnya sacrifice ceremony. Another Kidung that provides a structural picture of how God in His precarity is depicted in the verses of the poetry called Wargasari. It is also believed that the Kidungs sung according to what events occur at a particular ceremony will immerse the devotees in surrender. When the ngaturang piodalan (the peak of the ceremony) is taking place, the singers will accompany the ritual with Kidungs that glorify divine qualities. Below is an example of the first stanza of Kidung Warga sari sung at the peak of ceremony. Kidung pangundang ring Bhuta, Basa lumrah pupuh jerum, Bhuta asih widhi asung, Caru pesajine reko, Genep saha upacara, Manut warna lawan ungguh, Sekul iwak pada bina, Olah‐olahan sadulur.‐ Bhutakala’s inviting song, Commonly spoken in the Pupuh Jerum, God bless Bhutakala, With sacrificial offerings, Complete with ceremonies, According to the color and position, The composition and meat are different, processed in an order according to their relatives.- 30 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (18-34) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 At the end of the ritual, the priest usually takes the tirta (purified holy water) to bless all offerings and people who attended the ceremony. At this moment, the situation is usually quiet and peaceful. Only the specific Kidung (the last stanza of Wargasari) is chanted. Everyone manifests their strong will to receive good health, prosperity, joy, and to be safe from harmful situations. For the Balinese, grace is realized by sprinkling tirta to the people. Below is the last stanza of Wargasari that reverberates during this last ritual stage. The Manusa Yadnya ceremony of matatah (tooth filing) is to repay the parents’ deeds and allowing their children to be more mature. The purpose of this ceremony is to philosophically remove bhutakala traits from adolescence who participates in this ceremony. The symbol of removing these traits is by filing the six upper teeth (four incisors and two canines). Below is the song of Pupuh Jerum as an example of an explicit literary connection to the tooth-filing ritual. Pawiwahan (marriage) is the stage of life that follows a tooth-filing ceremony. This ceremony is a symbolic spiritual meeting of the purusa (man) and the predana (woman). Ida Ratu saking luhur, The Gods from above holiness, Kawula nunas lugrane, Mangda sampun titiang tandruh, Mengayat Bhatara mangkin, Titiang ngaturang pajati, Canang suci lan daksina, Sami sampun puput, Pratingkahing saji. Your servant begs for blessings, May I clearly know, Asking before You now, I presents the offerings of Pejati, Sacred Canang and Daksina, Everything is complete, The order of the offering ceremony. Turun tirtha saking luhur, nenyiratang pemangkune, Mekalangan muncrat mumbul, Mapan tirtha mrtajati, Paican Bhatara sami, panglukatan dasa‐mala, Sami pada lebur, Malane ring gumi.‐ Holy water descends from the pinnacle of purity, The one who sprinkles it is the priest, The splash spreads all around, Truly it is the water of life, A gift from the Gods, Cleanser of the ten defilements, All are purified, Including the filth on earth.- Puja kalapati muwang, sadwaja yogya pinutur, Seri catur karo siyung, Puja Kalapati and Six teeth are filed, Four incisors and two canines, ika ngaran sarwa kawon, Pawakaning Bhutakala, paraganing sarwa letuh, Ngardi wudan pejagatan, pangrubedan isadripu.‐ All of these are called symbols of ugliness, The body is Bhutakala, The symbol is all dirty, Making trouble in society, The turmoil of the six enemies within. Desak Made Suarti Laksmi & I Wayan Sudirana 31 This religious ceremony confirms the couple’s commitment to each other for life and death. Through this ceremony, they are expected to be able to continue the family lineage. The sequence of the ceremony begins with mabyakala (purification), which eliminates internal impurities (leteh). After the cleansing ritual, the bride and groom perform scenes of family responsibilities in accordance with real life, for example, grocery shopping, cooking, and symbolically act to consume the fruits of their labor. In the literature it is explained that this ceremony strengthened the meeting of the God Samara and the Goddes Ratih (the two Gods of love), which represented the meeting of Sukla (man) and Swandita (woman) through physical relations. In the Manusa Yadnya ceremony, the song from the story of Tantri Kamandaka can be used as a reference. The final part of the wedding ceremony is the mawinten ceremony. This ceremony aims to purify bride and groom. This is because they will be responsible for carrying out activities at the Pemerajan/Sanggah (family temple) in all rituals that will periodically continue. Madiksa is a ceremony of self-purification both physically and mentally from a Wilaka (ordinary person) to become a holy priest or sulinggih. The Madiksa ceremony is included in the Rsi Yadnya ceremony or sacred sacrifice ceremony. The Madiksa ceremony is a form of expression of gratitude to the teachers or Maha Rsi who have taught religious knowledge, sacred knowledge and led ceremonies. Madiksa is also called Madwijati, which means second birth. A person who will become a priest is obliged to take part in this ceremony, because it will provide teaching for himself and others. Kidung of Rsi Yadnya is sung for this ritual. The lyrics tells when a person is raised in status from an ordinary person to a priest. In the Pitra Yadnya ceremony (death/cremation ritual), or traditionally also called Mamukur, the Kidung legitimizes this ritual by confirming the implementation of the Yadnya being held. When washing a corpse (nyiramang layon), the wirama Girisa is recited in a choir style. Death is a cycle of life which is continued by the spirit treading a long journey to return to its origins. This is the final physical body cleansing that is carried out before the body’s elements are returned to their origin. Wirama Girisa is as follows: Wuwusan Bhupati, Ring Patali nagantun, Subaga wirya siniwi, Kajrihin sang para ratu, Salwaning jambu warsadi, Prasama hatur kembang tawon. There was a king, In the land of Patali, Famous, brave, and respected, Feared by other kings. Throughout the Jambu Dwipa region, All of them offer tribute every year. Nihan polahing sang tatas wiku. Nawang bhumi langit. Dija ento warangane. Punika tegakan wiku. Wulan surya lawan wintang. Sampun kawasne ring langit. Endi pamating ipun. Mwang riuriping banyu asri. Someone who understands as a priest (dwijati), knows the earth and the sky, where everything is connected, That is the foundation of being a priest, the Moon, sun and stars, Already mastered by the mysteries of the sky, Where is death, And life from holy water. 32 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (18-34) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Similarly, during the Memukur ritual, the Kidung of Aji Kembang revealed the relationship between the bhuwana agung (macrocosm) governed by Brahman and the bhuwana alit (microcosm) governed by Atman. A concept of life based on pasuk wetu (the inhaled and exhaled breath), which teaches many things about seeking God within oneself. Selecting the pupuh Kidung stanzas that correspond to the rituals of the ongoing Yadnya ceremony will lend legitimacy to the ceremony and heighten its solemnity. The appropriateness and propriety of vocals in specific rituals can be bolstered by selecting various types and texts (lyrics) from the Kidung at hand. As a Means of Ceremony. To confirm the success of a ceremony, it requires the presence of essential elements and other supporting factors. Ida Pedanda Gede Putra Bajing said that “a priest who performs ‘ngagem Shiva,’ a manifestation of the God Shive in his Vedic Puja offerings, is equipped with tools that must exist, such as puja japa/mantram (the chanting of sacred mantras), puspa (flower), tirta (holy water), fire, mudra (hand gestures), and bajra (holy bell). This is the attitude and behavior of a sulinggih (high priest) practicing swadharma (duty) to become yogiswaraning Yadnya (the main person who perform the ritual). The creation of symbols from the universe is reflected in the various functions and personifications of the upakara/banten (offerings). The flower is associated with the Yadnya ceremony, the tinkling of the bajra gives birth to the art of percussion, the priest’s “mudra” gives birth to the art of dance, and the priest’s puja mantram gives birth to the art of sound. In most communities, this element is an integral part of a Yadnya. The priests acknowledge that the means of upakara (the elements of Yadnya) are not only in the form of the offerings but also elements of other arts such as the art of sound, percussion, dance, and wayang (shadow puppet). These elements are inseparable parts of ascending to the peak of spirituality and for the success of a Yadnya. The Concept of Tatwa, Susila, Upakara. The traditional Balinese framework consists of upacara, etika, and tattwa as a process of tradition that is highly flexible. The concept of kanista-madya- utama, desa-kala-patra, and desa-mawacara provides a space of freedom yet is still bound by the Bala ugu dina melah manuju tanggal sasih, Pan Brayut panamaya asisig adyus akramas, Sinalinan wastra petak mamusti madayang batis, Sampun puput maprayoga Tan aswe ngemasin mati. Wuku Bala and Ugu are good days, especially in the calendar month, It is time for Pan Brayut to clean his teeth, bathe and wash his hair, wear a white dressing cloth, it will not be long before death comes to him.- Ring purwa tunjunge putih, Hyang Iswara Dewatanya, Ring papusuh pranahira, Alinggih sira kalihan, Pantesta kembange petak, Ring tembe lamun dumadi, Suka sugih tur rahayu, Dana punya stiti bhakti.‐ The lotus in the east is white, Hyang Iswara is the god, His position is in the heart, its second stana, the journey of the white lotus; it becomes incarnated, happy, safe and sound, The philantrope is bowing down in filial piety. Desak Made Suarti Laksmi & I Wayan Sudirana 33 traditional Balinese framework. It is strongly linked to each other. If one element is not fulfilled, it will lead to failure. It is in a similar manner to the “egg of life” where the three of them strengthen each other in synergy from bakti, karma, jnyana. As previously mentioned, sekala and niskala are the essence of offerings. As many performing artists have cited, karma sandyasin and yoga sandyasin are two sides of the coin that complement each other with values. An expression of offering that uses elements of nature available on this earth, as found in the Bhagawadgita verse 26: “patram puspam phalam toyam, yo me bhaktya prayacchati, tad aham bhakty-upahrtam, asnami prayatatmanah” (Whoever bows down to Me with an offering, a leaf, a flower, a fruit or a sip of water, I accept as a devotional offering from a sincere person). From this procedure of offering, culture emerges, with all its completeness and efforts should be made to fulfill it to the greatest extent possible as expected. In this instance, synergy between the two elements is required. When a person can live the life of a wanaprasta (the life of a monk) and biksuka (the life of a priest) who rely solely on the depths of jnyana to draw closer to God, the earthly offerings diminish until they are no longer necessary. Conclusions Kidung as a religious song (dharmagita) is an integral and structured component of the Hindu religious ceremony implementation. In accordance with the order of events, this religious chant is always present at religious ceremonies. Regarding the Hindu religion in Bali, its rebirth remains extremely difficult, given that older generations still dominate the Kidung interpreters in its practice. However, during religious ceremonies involving the Panca Yadnya ceremony, the Kidung will continue to exist. Although it is undeniable that the wealth of Kidungs has undergone numerous extinctions, this fact cannot be refuted. As a result of the fact that several Kidungs are only recorded by name and genre, it is extremely difficult to find people who can play and sing the melody. The government has consistently guided the younger generation through competitions held in Utsawa Dharmagita, a venue for contesting various religious songs. The participants included children, adolescents, and adults who sing vocally. Recording devices, such as cell phones, greatly facilitate the learning process in today’s efforts to develop a cadre of Kidung singers. In addition, the emergence of Kidung with a modern touch of arrangement, accompanied by melodies from Western musical instruments, has become an alternative innovative concept. In the context of Hindu religious rituals, every religious ceremony is always accompanied by traditional classical music. However, the lack of participation of the younger generation in singing religious Kidungs remains a problem that must be addressed. References Agastia, I. B. G. (1987). Sagara Giri: Kumpulan esei sastra Jawa kuno. Wyasa Sanggraha. Agastia, I. B. G. (2008). Ida Pedanda Wanasara Bramara Sangupati. Yayasan Dharma Sastra. Bhagawad Gita. (n.d.). Pancama Weda. Paramita. Djelantik, A. A. M. ( 1990). Pengantar dasar ilmu estetika, Jilid I, Estetika Instrumental. Indonesian College of Arts (STSI) Denpasar. Hinzler, H. (1981). Bima Swarga in Balinese Wayang. Brill. Koentjaraningrat, R. M. (1987). Sejarah teori antropologi I. Universitas Indonesia (UI- Press). Laksmi, Desak Made Suarti. (2007). Kidung manusa Yadnya: Teks dan konteksnya dalam masyarakat Hindu di Bali. Department of Karawitan, Faculty of Performing Arts, Indonesian Art Institute, Denpasar. Laksmi, Desak Made Suarti. (2022a). Pemahaman dan strategi pembinaan Kidung keagamaan Hindu di Kota Denpasar. Fakultas Seni Pertunjukan, Indonesian Art Institute Denpasar Collaborating with the Citta Usadhi Art Studio, Badung Regency. Laksmi, Desak Made Suarti. (2022b). Imba Kidung Yadnya (Dharmagita). CV Karya Ranah Baru Collaborating with the Citta Usadhi Art Studio, Badung Regency. Purwadarmita, W. J. S. (1987). Kamus Umum Bahasa Indonesia. Balai Pustaka. 34 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (18-34) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Sanjaya, P. (2008). Acara agama Hindu. Paramita. Sudirana, I. W. (2013). Gamelan gong luang: Ritual, time, place, music, and change in a Balinese sacred ensemble. [Doctoral Dissertation, University of British Columbia]. https://open.library.ubc.ca/soa/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/24/items/1.0071979 Teeuw, A. (2013). Sastra dan ilmu sastra: Pengantar teori sastra. PT. Dunia Pustaka Jaya. Tim Penyusun. (1990). Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Balai Pustaka. Vickers, A. (1989). Bali: A paradise created. Periplus Edition. Waesberghe S. J., F. H. Smits van. (2016). Estetika musik. Thafa Media. Warna, I Wayan. (1988). Arjuna wiwaha. Bali Provincial Elementary Education Office. Yuda Triguna, I. B. G. (2003). Estetika Hindu dan pembangunan Bali. The Masters Program in Religion and Culture at the Universitas Hindu Indonesia collaborates with Widya Dharma Publishers Zoetmulder, P. J. & Robson, S. O. (2011). Kamus Jawa kuno Indonesia. PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Biographies Desak Made Suarti Laksmi is a well known scholar and performer of Balinese dance, including Arja (Balinese opera), and gamelan. She is ranked as one of few internationally renowned female composers from Bali, Indonesia. Desak earned her bachelors degree in dance in 1984 and a post-bachelors degree (SSKar) in Karawitan in 1987 from the National College of the Arts (formerly STSI) in Denpasar but graduated at ISI Yogjakarta. Desak has performed in a variety of international tours in Australia, Europe, India, Japan, Canada, and the United States. She has been a professor at ISI since 1986, and has also taught classes at Clark University, Emerson College, the Eastman School of Music, the College of the Holy Cross, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where she was a co founder of Gamelan Galaktika (MIT Community Group Gamelan). Desak was a Luce Assistant Professor of Balinese Music, Theater, and Dance for four years and then completed another year residency as the first Visiting Fellow in Balinese Dance and Music at the College of the Holy Cross. She received her masters degree in music composition at Brown University in May 2005. She finished her Doctor degree in religion and culture at Hindu University of Indonesian with coumloude predicate after presenting her dissertation in the title of “Understanding and Training Strategy on Hindu Religious Choir in Denpasar City: A Teo- Aesthetic Analysis in April 2020. Desak published books such as Vocal Placement in Balinese Vocal Arts, 2006; Kidung Manusa Yadnya: Text and Context in Hindu Society in Bali, 2007; and Imba Kidung Yadnya (Dharmagita), 2022. ORCID: 0000-0002-6308-2109. I Wayan Sudirana is a composer and ethnomusicologist who graduated from the University of British Columbia, Canada. He diligently studied ancient music in Bali. In addition, he also studied many world music traditions, such as Samulnori music from Korea, ensemble drumming from Ghana West Africa, South Indian drumming traditions, and also some Western classical music. With this experience, he developed his music with a strong foundation to seek a new identity in the realm of new music for gamelan. Sudirana has written two books about gamelan Gong Luang and edited a book about Gabor, a genre in Gamelan Gong Kebyar tradition. He has written many articles published in journals with the theme of traditional approaches in studying Balinese gamelan and world music, and new music development in Bali and Indonesia. His current research is focused on the development of new music in Bali and the ancient Balinese manuscript of Gamelan philosophy and theory. ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-2357-048X

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 2 (2023)

distributed capitalism, eco-organology, participatory design, plastic recorder, standardisation

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/531

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8108

Towards Eco-Organology and Paper Flute Design to Disrupt the Plastic Recorder Industry

In this article, the concept of “distributed capitalism” (Rifkin, 2011) is used to shift power among administrators, performers and audiences to problematise the homogeneity of unsustainable instrument materials. This shift involves adopting a participatory approach where musicians as key stakeholders get to choose their materials and self-construct their instruments. Instruments, society and ecosystems have intersecting and overlapping relationships that should be studied interdependently through eco-organology (Guy, 2009; Titon, 2013; Allen, 2013; Dawe, 2016), especially when mainstream culture consumption plays a crucial role in the struggle between sustainable materials for instruments and the ecosystem. As an example, mainstream production companies such as Yamaha, Aulos and Fender have standardised the industry and cornered the market for consumers in a top-down consumption model. Educators, artists, and retailers promote the consumption of mainstream instruments, further reinforcing their power of discourse in the materials field. Contesting standardisation, eco-organology involves the study of network relations between tangible materials and aesthetics from the viewpoint of culture and society. As an alternative material, this research project shared paper flutes with elementary school students and conducted over 20 workshops in Southern Taiwan where musicians of all ages self-constructed paper flutes. Paper is readily accessible, recyclable and allows end-users to follow an instruction manual, cut a template out and fold it into a playable flute. End-users participated in material selection, instrument construction and many became critically informed about current environmental issues with the plastic recorder industry. We argue that eco-organology helps decentralise mainstream instruments by educating end-users about eco-friendly materials.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8108/4757

Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 35 Towards Eco-Organology and Paper Flute Design to Disrupt the Plastic Recorder Industry Ching-Jie, Kang1, Made Mantle Hood2* Institute of Creative Industries Design, National Cheng Kung University email: [email protected], [email protected]* *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 21 December 2023 Cite this article (APA): Kang, C. J., & Hood, M. M. (2023). Towards eco-organology and paper flute design to disrupt the plastic recorder industry. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12 (2), 35-60. doi: https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.2.3.2023 Abstract In this article, the concept of “distributed capitalism” (Rifkin, 2011) is used to shift power among administrators, performers and audiences to problematise the homogeneity of unsustainable instrument materials. This shift involves adopting a participatory approach where musicians as key stakeholders get to choose their materials and self-construct their instruments. Instruments, society and ecosystems have intersecting and overlapping relationships that should be studied interdependently through eco-organology (Guy, 2009; Titon, 2013; Allen, 2013; Dawe, 2016), especially when mainstream culture consumption plays a crucial role in the struggle between sustainable materials for instruments and the ecosystem. As an example, mainstream production companies such as Yamaha, Aulos and Fender have standardised the industry and cornered the market for consumers in a top-down consumption model. Educators, artists, and retailers promote the consumption of mainstream instruments, further reinforcing their power of discourse in the materials field. Contesting standardisation, eco-organology involves the study of network relations between tangible materials and aesthetics from the viewpoint of culture and society. As an alternative material, this research project shared paper flutes with elementary school students and conducted over 20 workshops in Southern Taiwan where musicians of all ages self-constructed paper flutes. Paper is readily accessible, recyclable and allows end-users to follow an instruction manual, cut a template out and fold it into a playable flute. End-users participated in material selection, instrument construction and many became critically informed about current environmental issues with the plastic recorder industry. We argue that eco-organology helps decentralise mainstream instruments by educating end- users about eco-friendly materials. Keywords: distributed capitalism, eco-organology, participatory design, plastic recorder, standardisation 36 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Introduction In broad terms, eco-organology is emerging as an interdisciplinary study involving the interdependent areas of musical instruments, ecosystems, and societies (Guy, 2009; Titon, 2013; Allen, 2013; Dawe, 2016). Interdependent, none of the three are excluded from decision-making for the design and manufacturing process. All have the potential to adversely affect sustainable materials and musical aesthetics in a mutual way. For these reasons, the principal eco-organology research objectives are to study network relations between tangible materials and aesthetics from the viewpoint of culture and society. Rather than a linear relationship between music and ecosystems, eco-organology is not only concerned with the selection of sustainable materials, but more importantly, identifying and critiquing the power structures, principal stakeholders, and multiple agendas of those who choose instrument-making materials and are involved in the decision-making process. Throughout history, musicians from various cultures have been using a variety of materials to make musical instruments, such as gourds and spiderwebs for African balafon, bamboo for Balinese and Chinese flutes, as well as tree trunks hollowed out by termites for aboriginal Australian didgeridoos. However, the mindset of “orthodox”, “authentic”, “proprietary” and “ideal” materials was largely constructed through westernisation, modernisation, and industrialisation. As a result, mass produced instruments tend to embrace a homogeneity of musical instrument materials. The monopolisation of instruments and materials not only consolidates the myth and belief of specific materials for instruments but also contributes to the overuse of some materials. For instance, African blackwood used for high-end oboes and clarinets as well as violin fingerboards, as well as Brazilian rosewood for high-quality guitars are facing a shortage1 (Yamaha, n.d.; Jef, 2017). Manufacturers are not the only stakeholders who have standardised musical instruments such as recorder. Musicians who have adapted to current instruments, students who learn with those musicians and teaching materials, as well as publication houses who distribute teaching materials, are also stakeholders who standardise the instrument. The informants, Sandy and Chan, both music educators, have mentioned that it will be easier and more efficient to teach the recorder instead of other instruments because teaching materials are mostly focused on the recorder, and this plastic instrument is easier to teach and learn (personal communication, November 10, 2022; personal communication, November 21, 2022). First, this article introduces theoretical concepts on ecology and ecomusicology to frame the relevance of paper flute design in the disruption of the plastic recorder industry. Second, the article examines the current situation of plastic recorder use in Taiwan. Third, a prototype flute was subjected to a usability test involving 60 participants. This data was used to redesign and improve the prototype for the next phase of this study involving a blind test, semi-structured interviews, and elementary school workshops. The results of this study show that differing from conventional instruments produced following consumerism and modernism models, the paper flute was based on critical thinking in instrument design, material selection and accessibility. As an ethnomusicology study, we employ the generic term ‘flute’ to Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 37 refer to a paper aerophone, because “recorder” connotes the Western European block flute (blockflöte) and English flute. “Flute” as a more inclusive term may refer to Balinese suling, Irish tin whistle, or Turkish Ney as well as a self-constructed paper aerophone. The paper flute allows people to participate in the design, self-construction, and material selection process of the instrument in an economically affordable and technically accessible way. Ecology and Ecomusicology Discourse on sustainable musical instrument design relates to ecology and ecomusicology. In the modern era, the urgency and importance of environmental preservation dates to the 1960s. The first large-scale eco-movement was organised during that time, to resist mainstream values of industrialisation and “techno- progressivism” (Whiteley, 2016, p. 100). During the 1970s, a significant change to the environmental movement occurred with the rise of the “environmental decade” which culminated in a complete change in public attitude and policy (Coglianese, 2001). As a result of this dramatic change towards a strengthening eco-movement, eco-protection ideology has become the zeitgeist for this current era of the Anthropocene. However, ecological awareness towards the design and manufacture of sustainable instruments among musicians and instrument players is much less obvious (Guy, 2009). Studies on sustainability strategies employed by heritage orchestras in Southeast Asia (Hood, 2014) and the ecology of soundscapes influenced by diatonicisation and musical invasives (Hood, 2013) have begun to explore intersections between music and the eco-movement. However, a green trademark on musical instruments has not yet become a marketing priority in advertising through online catalogues of instrument companies or brick and mortar stores as well as exhibitions. Related to the “green economy”, ecomusicology has seen significant growth in interest among scholars such as Guy (2009), Devine (2015), Allen and Dawe (2016), as well as Boyle and Waterman (2016). Scholars’ ideas address varying aspects between changing attitudes and beliefs about the current state of the environment reflected in music and the performing arts. They critique environmental problems in the musical world. Under the umbrella of ecocriticism (Eisley, 1969; Bateson, 1979), tangible and intangible cultures involving musical instruments, performances and musical activities are entry points that lead researchers to see human beings inextricably linked to, and not separate from, the environment. Current Directions of Ecomusicology edited by Allen and Dawe (2016), has comprehensively discussed the definition of ecomusicology from different scholars’ perspectives. Allen (2013) defines eco-musicology as, “the study of music, culture and nature”; Titon (2013) explains eco-musicology as, “the study of music, culture, sound and nature in a period of environmental crises”. As Allen and Dawe suggest, the prefix of ecomusicology is better understood as “eco-critical” referring to ecological criticism, rather than “ecological”. Given these definitions, the current study employs the perspective critiquing power structures in the unsustainable usage of plastic in the manufacture of musical instruments, specifically the ubiquitously distributed plastic recorder. Eco-organology stands on the foundations of ecomusicology and organology to critique ecological issues and problematise industrialised processes in the music 38 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 instrument supply chain by offering green design for musical instruments. Ecomusicology is often eco-critically discussed through the intersecting areas of music (sound), culture (society) and nature (environment) (Guy, 2009; Titon, 2013; Allen, 2013). Similar to acoustemology (Feld, 1996), scholars explore the environment and how humans react to music under environmental crisis. Therefore, this organological study on ecology issues focuses on two construction materials: plastic, a material commonly equated to a pollutant; and paper, commonly recognised as a sustainable “green material”. However, in broad terms, eco- organology is concerned with the ethical and political issues in the boundary of a given tangible environment. Although musical instrument makers often insist on using natural materials to create their masterpieces, many are unethical or unsustainable. For example, the supply of python skin for making an erhu (二胡; Chinese two-string bowed fiddle) involves environmental issues; cat and dog skin for making a Japanese shamisen involves ethical issues; ivory for making piano’s white keys prior to plastic involved endangered animals. Similarly, ABS plastic resin recorders are an extension of the ubiquitous use and abuse of the natural environment. Plastic recorders do not biodegrade. That said, there is complexity woven into their manufacture and distribution as one of the most prevalent instruments in education systems around the world. Mass produced by companies such as Aulos for decades, this resin-based instrument is as common as a plastic straw. Taiwan’s Recorder-scape Although one of the most ubiquitous musical instruments in the world, plastic recorders are insulated from change largely because of government education policies protect and consolidate the use of plastic recorders in the compulsory education system. The “recorder-scape” of Taiwan illustrates how the plastic recorder has become firmly entrenched in music education. The recorder is widely represented in the literature that covers the history of the recorder in Taiwan (Xu, 1989; Wu, 1990; Wu, 2004; Lin, 2005; Tseng, 2006) but also depicted in the anecdotes shared by informants who participated in this study. According to Tseng, in 1969, the KHS company began to introduce plastic recorders from Yamaha, in Japan to Taiwan. Father Alphonse Soren started to promote Karl Orff Schulwerk along with the recorder which further popularised the instrument. In 1971, Luming Publication House in Taiwan started to translate the teaching materials from other countries and produced soprano and alto recorders. These results attracted the attention of Professor Ou-Kang from the National Taiwan Normal University; thus, he recommended the Ministry of Education employ the recorder as a mandatory teaching tool (Tseng, 2006, p. 62). In 1980, a “Recorder Mentoring Project” was founded by Rong-Gui, Wu (officer of the National Taiwan Symphony Orchestra), to train schoolteachers to be able to teach recorders in school (Tseng, 2006 p. 64). Afterward in 1984, the Ministry of Education fixed the recorder as a mandatory instrument. Hence, the recorder began to be regarded as the most important instrument in the Taiwan compulsory education system (Tseng, 2006, p. 65). Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 39 Recorder education issues are not only the concern of academia. A YouTube channel “志祺七七 X 圖文不符”, interviewed several experts in recorder instrument and music education in Taiwan. In this video, Prof. Shun-Wen, Wu of the National Taiwan Normal University’s Department of Music, mentioned that the accessible playing technique of the recorder is one of the important factors that make the recorder a common teaching tool in compulsory music education in Taiwan. The initial motive for employing recorders in Taiwan's education system was to give more people the opportunity to learn music because piano and violin required more musical and economic investment. Therefore around 1983, to make recorders economically affordable, some local manufacturers in Taiwan started to develop plastic recorders. In 1993, the Ministry of Education mandatorily fixed recorder education as required content for compulsory music education, a regulation that lasted until 2001. Although this regulation was cancelled, most music teachers still uphold the recorder as an easy means to teach and learn music. Moreover, the teaching materials provided by most publishers are still readily available for recorders helping the plastic recorder maintain its dominance (志祺七七 X 圖文不符, 2023). However, the technical accessibility and economic affordability of recorders also negatively impact the instrument as articulated by several participants in this study. In the opinion of a music major named Anna who specialises in the instrument, recorders are too ubiquitous because almost every Taiwanese has learned or purchased at least one plastic recorder during their studies. It can be purchased almost anywhere from online retailers, stationery stores or grocery stores. This situation makes recorders hierarchically different from other prestige musical instruments. Moreover, the recorder is one of the easiest wind instruments on which to make a sound. It is employed by the education system as an “elementary tool”. Sandy, a recorder player and music teacher in elementary and secondary school who also participated in this study, has a similar opinion to Anna. Sandy says, “plastic recorders are cheap and affordable” (personal communication, November 10, 2022). She complains that students often lose their recorders, and she collects a lot of derelict recorders in her music class every term. Plastic recorders are commonly depicted in daily conversations in Taiwan’s recorder-scape as disposable items. Informants provided several solutions to this problem. Former recorder ensemble members Chen and Julia suggested collecting the recorders from students and handing them down to younger students or recycling them. Yuan who experienced compulsory music education growing up recommended manufacturing plastic recorders with recyclable materials or giving them to family members. Summer, a 10-year-old student accompanied by his father Ting remarked that he was also aware of the ecological issues of plastic and said, “We should stop using plastic recorders altogether” (personal communication, November 29, 2022). One crucial difference between plastic recorders and plastic straws is people usually do not throw away the former. In a narrow sense, abandoned plastic recorders do not directly pollute the environment. However, in a broader sense, as long as the demand exists, the Taiwan factories will maintain production of plastic recorders by the millions. The “plastic recorder as an invisible but well-distributed rubbish”, maintains the running of mould-injection machines in factories such as Yamaha and 40 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Aulos. However, those informants who value the plastic recorder say it is not only a musical tool, but also embodies their wonderful childhood memories. Although Julia, Chen and Anna do not play plastic recorders anymore, keeping them preserves memories as an invaluable treasure. From this alternative perspective, plastic recorders not only embody instrumental value but also offer comfort to those who attach importance to it. As Sandy suggests, “playing a recorder releases stress” (personal communication, November 10, 2022), an argument that musical activities socially bridge people to a larger sense of comradery and even humanity in an effort to counter techno-progressivism. In Taiwan and other countries, plastic still maintains a dominant presence and recorders are widespread in its music education soundscape. As mentioned above, this organological study addresses ecology issues by focusing on two construction materials: plastic, a material commonly equated to a pollutant; and paper, typically recognised as a sustainable “green material”. However, we do not attempt to refuse the use of plastic products by criticizing its unsustainability, because the “greenness” of a material is often socially and technologically dependent. For instance, the initial objective of Thulin’s invented plastic bags was to prevent deforestation caused by the low durability of paper bags (Foster, 2019). As Taiwan musicians and educators, Sandy and Chan both defend the value of plastic recorders and do not regard them as dispensable items. As long as people play plastic recorders, and extend or recycle their use, they feel plastic recorders will not be harmful to the environment. Julia and Chen both have similar ideas to Sandy and Chan. Their experiences not only present the view of former junior recorder performers but also represent the views of recorder enthusiasts who see the plastic recorder as a meaningful and invaluable instrument. But the question remains about how to find an alternative to the plastic recorder. Employing the use of paper as an alternative material and a participatory design may have unforeseen benefits. Designing the Paper Flute: An Alternative to Plastic Recorder Throughout the musical instrument industry, there are several examples that demonstrate the ecological concern about instrument design.2 Prior to 1494, instrument builders had constructed pipe organs featuring paper pipes (Bucur, 2019, p. 307). However, probably due to its low durability, nowadays, paper is not commonly used for making musical instruments, although it is an accessible material. Informants such as Julia and Chen, question the low durability of the paper flute because it will probably be unsustainable, just like the paper bags in Thulin’s era. However, the “long-life” plastic recorder that is virtually absent in the recycling system and second-hand market, although physically durable, loses its value as an instrument and is distributed in everyone’s house as a kind of “invisible rubbish”. Moreover, as we upcycled abandoned book covers, desk calendars, and paper bags to make all paper flutes in this study, we encourage end-users to use leftover paper products. Research questions in this study centre on how to use a participatory design in the construction and assembly of musical instruments for end-users. The simplicity over complexity approach called KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid) (Interaction Design Foundation, n.d.) is one of the main objectives that will inform the design of this paper Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 41 flute. For convenience, the template was designed with only straight lines, thus, it was easy to trim by end-users. There are two terms used in this study. The first is “prototype paper flute” (see Figure 1 and 2) which refers to the instrument first created in 2018 prior to being examined by 60 participants in the usability test. Paper with a weight and thickness of approximately 250 GSM3 has been selected through several pre-data collection phases of this project to make paper flute prototypes. The 250 GSM paper is thick enough to increase the durability of the paper flute and, based on our test, can be used for a total of eight hours. As is the case with all wind instrument classes for children, end-users were recommended to clean the mouthpiece before playing by using tissue or hygienic towelette. Coated paper is recommended but not necessary. The prototype paper flute has been recognised by a public agency, Figure 3 shows the poster of the “Paper Flute Workshop” designed and advertised by the Southern Taiwan Maker Centre, Ministry of Labour, Taiwan, Figure 4 shows the paper flute was performed in a forum hosted by the Ministry of Labour. The second term “redesigned paper flute” refers to instrument improvements on the prototype based on the results of the usability test. The redesigned paper flute is in the key of F5, featuring seven holes in the front, like the sopranino recorder. The thumb hole is not considered due to the complexity of constructing the rolled-layered paper bore structure, yet the higher octave range similar to the regular sopranino recorder is still playable, as discussed later in the article by informants in the blind test. While not a diatonic F major flute, it is capable of a range of F5-Bb6 and can accommodate chromatic notes by using fork fingering (The link to the YouTube video is on page 52). Figure 1. Trapezoid-shaped prototype paper flute design diagram. 42 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 2. Trapezoid-shaped prototype paper flute design diagram. Photo by the author Figure 3. The poster of “Paper Flute Workshop” designed and advertised by Southern Taiwan Maker Centre, Ministry of Labour, Taiwan. Screenshot from Facebook. Figure 4. The seated performer (left) plays the paper flute at the 2nd International Forum on Vocational Training and Maker Movement, hosted by the Ministry of Labour, Taiwan, in 2019. Photo by Mr. Chen Jia Hong. Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 43 Usability Test for Evaluating Prototype and Redesigning Paper Flute In order to increase the engagement rate and assess the functionality of the paper flute a usability test was employed. There were 40 participants evenly categorised by age and gender. These participants had no specific training in handicrafts. To increase objectivity, an additional 20 participants who were familiar with handicrafts were invited to partake in the usability test. These participants were design students, relics conservatory students, crafts teachers, and craftsmen. The following table shows the categories of 60 participants: Table 1 The participants for the usability test for prototype paper flute assessment. Usability Test Participants for Prototype Paper Flute No. Categories Gender Age No. of People 1 Untrained Participants Female 11-15 5 2 Male 11-15 5 3 Female 16-20 5 4 Male 16-20 5 5 Female 21-40 5 6 Male 21-40 5 7 Female 41-60 5 8 Male 41-60 5 9 Trained Participants 20 Total 60 In this usability test, all 60 participants made the prototype paper flute with an instruction manual and tutorial video. The process of participants constructing the paper flute (draw, cut, roll, seal, fold, play and adjust), and sounding it was observed and recorded for further analysis. Feedback forms were also filled up by participants after prototype paper flute making completion. Interviews were not included in this usability testing session due to the considerable number of participants and time limit. There were five (5) categorical observations made on the prototype paper flute making process which include template drawing, template cutting, bore rolling and sealing, labium folding and windway making and playing and adjusting. The following are the categorical observations made on modification and adjustments that were applied to the redesigned paper flute: 44 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Template Drawing Physically, pitch is affected by dimension and is proportional to the total size of the musical instrument. For acoustical accuracy, non-integer numbers were employed for the template drawing instructions for the prototype paper flute; however, as some participants suggested, it would be more convenient to utilise integer numbers. The principal consideration of redesigning the paper flute was making it convenient and easily assembled. Therefore, a small-scale dimensional adjustment and a higher fault tolerance were considered. For example, the width of the template corresponds to the diameter of the bore. The bore diameter can affect the sound; therefore, it was more important to address how much the template was rolled, rather than how wide. Thus, the width of the template can be an integer number. With the consideration of tone quality, wavelength and hand feeling, the redesigned paper flute template will no longer use a trapezoid shape. A rectangle shape 10cm wide and 21cm long will replace the trapezoid prototype shape. In order to create a wavelength of F5, with a diameter of 2cm, the redesigned paper flute had to be 21cm long in geometry (See Figure 5). The other consideration was that 21cm is the width of an A4 paper, which means the template was easier to measure and cut. The size of the windway is 1cm*1cm correlated to the size of the window, which is 1cm*0.5cm. All the tone holes are 0.5 cm*0.5 cm, with intervals of 1cm, 1.5cm and 2cm. The dotted line seen in Figure 5 functions as the limit for rolling. It is positioned at the bottom and top edge of the template, with a 3cm distance from the left edge. Figure 5 shows the redesigned paper flute template, including the mouthpiece part. Figure 5. The template of the redesigned paper flute. Template Cutting Observing participants undertake the cutting process during the usability test was unexpectedly convenient for the participants, even for the children. A utility knife and a cutting mat were suggested for use. Scissors were not recommended to cut the tone holes and window because they may accidentally fold the template. Inherited from Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 45 the prototype paper flute, the template design excluded any curved lines and the tone holes are square, thus it is easier to cut than a circle. Bore Rolling and Sealing According to usability test feedback, the process of making the prototype conical bore was the most challenging for participants. A conical bore is more difficult to roll than a cylindrical bore. For a small instrument, the length difference between both bores is relatively small. After a mock-up test, we found the difference between the prototype (conical) and redesigned (cylindrical) paper flute was the sound quality and the playing feel, issues not about the usability, but rather adaptation and not about quality, but rather aesthetics. Labium Folding and Windway Making To build a windway on a prototype paper flute, the participants were required to fold a shallow concave at the mouthpiece area. The full process was complex as shown in Figure 6: Figure 6. The prototype paper flute windway making process. Design by the author. The usability test participants often failed to make a well-concave because they over-ferruled the bore and pressed the shallow concave into a deep V shape. To overcome this windway design flaw, the redesigned paper flute employed a new design to overcome the problem. The strip was inserted into the bore. The elasticity of the paper strip maintained its own position to form the mouthpiece windway (Figure 7). 46 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 7. Redesigned paper flute windway construction process. Design by the author. Observing human behaviour interactions with material properties was an important part of the redesign. Through observation, it became clear participants were not able to easily manipulate and adjust, but not over-ferrule the material for the prototype paper strip. The new redesign decreases human manipulation, prioritizing the elasticity of paper strips. This windway-forming method changed the windway itself to a lower position. Therefore, it was necessary to fold the labium into form. The folded labium is then geometrically lower than the wall of the bore (Figure 8). Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 47 Figure 8. Prototype (left) and redesigned paper flute (right) labium structure. Design by author. Playing and Adjusting The usability test provided data to improve the playing and adjustment of the redesigned paper flute. Its making process became easier and had a lower error rate, and even the playability became higher. It was suggested to adjust the mouthpiece to make the redesigned paper flute conform more ergonomically to end-users because different individuals have a variety of playing behaviours such as the speed and volume of exhalation, angle of holding the flute as well as embouchure. In terms of the accessibility of instrument construction technique and knowledge, the design of the paper flute retains flexibility for end-users to explore the interaction flow between themselves and the instrument. This is in contrast to the commodified and ready-made musical instruments in the plastic recorder market where consumers can only select instruments to find the most suitable one. Instead, the design of the paper flute encourages end-users to make an instrument that conforms to themselves. Distributed Capitalism and the Paper Flute Redesign The redesigned paper flute discussed above offers end-users an opportunity to participate in the construction and material selection process under the idea of distributed capitalism. Based on the idea of distributed capitalism and the KISS principle, the conceptual considerations when designing the paper flute are acceptable acoustic properties, simple structure, accessibility, usability, and impact. With these criteria, the rate of involvement in the self-making paper flute process was a significant and considerable determinant. Designing a self-made paper flute is a process that involves negotiating the quality of the instrument and the degree to which end-users participate in construction. Said differently, how much work does 48 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 one need to do to make a paper flute? The challenges of designing the paper flute appeared when the end-users who were non-professionals were invited to construct the flutes. Paper flute making must consider the ability of its end-users, but the joy of engagement could not be sacrificed too much, i.e., the making process could not be too easy. In a related test, the redesigned paper flute was subjected to evaluation for its accessibility, level of engagement and most importantly the time it took to assemble. Our enthusiastic 10-year-old musician named Summer and his father, Ting were joined by Amy (15 years old) and Rick (10 years old), a sister and brother pair accompanied by their mother named Yong. The following table shows the time they took for every stage of the redesigned paper flute making process: Table 2 Time required for four informants to complete the redesigned paper flute. Redesigned Paper Flute Time taken (minutes) Making Processes Ting Summer Amy Rick - Template Drawing 13 24 12 9 - Template Cutting 6 18 9 7 - Bore Rolling 7 9 6 4 - Mouthpiece Making 6 6 3 4 32 57 30 24 Although Summer took the longest time (57 minutes), he completed and played the redesigned paper flute successfully. Summer and his father, Ting, felt surprised by the similarity between the paper flute and the standard plastic recorder and were excited to play it. They made several attempts and finally produced a satisfying sound by reducing the amount of air exhaled. Even Ting managed to play some simple melodies on the flute. Rick showed his ability and confidence when making the redesigned paper flute in just 24 minutes. When Amy occasionally glanced over to her brother Rick to check whether her procedure was correct or not, Rick would patiently assist her. Both were able to draw a precise template and cut it out in a short amount of time (see Figures 9 and 10). Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 49 Figure 9 and 10. Rick cutting the template and playing the redesigned paper flute template after windway and mouthpiece adjustment. Photo by the author. After Rick’s template was trimmed, he showed his enthusiasm to help Amy. Rick made the bore successfully and could play some simple melodies such as “Mary had a Little Lamb” and “Hänschen klein”.4 Blind Test: An Evaluation of Acoustics and Aesthetics This stage of the research project to disrupt the plastic recorder industry using eco- organology invited 13 informants for a blind test and interview. All informants have experience with the plastic recorder and represent a broad spectrum of musicians including educators, performers, students, amateurs and parents. The following table shows their information: 50 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Table 3 Informants who participated in the blind test. Informant(s) Background Information 1 Julia Former members of a recorder ensemble in elementary school. 2 Chen 3 Nica University students with experience in compulsory recorder music education. 4 Yuan 5 Anna Contemporary music student who majors in recorder. 6 Sandy Recorder and music teacher in elementary and secondary school. 7 Chan Professional recorder performer and lecturer at a university. 8 Wen Parent of diploma students of the recorder. 9 Ting and Summer Parent and children who engage in compulsory recorder music education. 10 Yong, Amy and Rick Several studies have proved the reliability and validity of the blind test in the acoustical judgment of musical instruments, and further analyse the phenomenon of canonizing instruments in terms of materials and history (Cho, 2014, 2017; Oleg, n.d.; Widholm et al, 2001). These studies served as a model for the blind test for paper flutes. The following QR code links to a short sample video of a blind test. In this video, a major scale in F is played in ascending order and descending order by redesigned paper flute and plastic recorder (similar to blind testing the informants). https://youtu.be/JpvJolIajaU The following blind tests with informants were conducted by the first author and involved six types of fipple flutes constructed from various materials. The table below shows the pictures and descriptions of these flutes: Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 51 Table 4 Variety of fipple flutes used for interviews and blind tests. Fipple Flute Description Wooden Flute The construction process of this flute is similar to the redesigned paper flute. A piece of veneer was employed for making this wooden flute. Metal Flute The construction process of this flute is similar to the redesigned paper flute. A yellow brass sheet was employed for making this metal flute. Polypropyle ne (PP) Flute The construction process of this flute is similar to the redesigned paper flute. A polypropylene sheet was employed for making this PP flute. Redesigned Paper Flute A cylindrical fipple flute made of paper in F. Plastic Recorder A regular Yamaha plastic sopranino recorder in F. Bronze Recorder A bronze casted sopranino recorder in F. 52 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Every blind test was administered for a duration of approximately 20 minutes in a 100 square feet room that served as the acoustic environment. Each informant sat opposite the first author at a moderate distance from a desk. They turned around when he played the fipple flutes for the blind test. The results of the blind test indicate that the sound of the redesigned paper flute and Yamaha plastic recorder are virtually indistinguishable. While three participants were more familiar with recorder, six out of nine participants could not distinguish the redesigned paper flute and plastic recorder including Nica, Yuan, Anna, Sandy, Chan, and Dong. In terms of preference, eight out of 11 informants acknowledged the quality of sound for the redesigned paper flute. The following table are the informants and their comments about the redesigned paper flute: Table 5 Comments on redesigned paper flutes by the informants. No. Informants Comments on redesigned paper flute 1 Julia It has a well-tuned pitch, and the timbre is mellow and rich. It is probably a wooden flute. 2 Chen This is Chen’s favourite flute. The timbre is richer than the others (wooden and metal flutes), and the sound is more stable. 3 Nica It is a “real” plastic recorder. It is too common, so no impression of it in the first test. 4 Yuan It sounds “natural”, like a bamboo flute, or at least the materials contained fewer plastic elements. 5 Anna It is a standard Sopranino recorder, but the pitch is not so accurate. 6 Sandy It is well-tuned, but the volume is small and limited. It sounds like a controllable flute, probably made of plastic rated 8/10. 7 Chan It is a bronze recorder. The lower note is out of tune. 8 Wen The sound is better than the plastic recorder. 9 Yong It has a mellower timbre than the plastic recorder. 10 Amy It has a mellower timbre than the plastic recorder. 11 Rick It has a mellower timbre than the plastic recorder. In these interviews, informants listened to the sound of the redesigned paper flute during the blind test. The sound quality was pleasant but also surprising to them. Therefore, they are confident with the paper flute as a mediator with the potential to trigger end-users’ ecological awareness of the plastic recorder industry. For instance, Chen and Yuan both regarded the resources of recycled and regular paper with suspicion but had changed opinions on the issue of paper material after they examined and experienced the redesigned paper flute. The paper flute inspires informants to look at the contrasting arguments against plastic recorders and consider their sustainability issues, and the worldwide-scaled education trend that defines plastic recorders as a necessary and mainstreamed teaching tool in a mandatory way. Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 53 In the blind tests, most informants found the sound quality of the redesigned paper flute was sonically appealing and musically acceptable. For some informants, the sound quality was aesthetically more pleasing than the plastic recorder. For this reason, we argue that acoustically and aesthetically, the redesigned paper flute has the potential to disrupt the dominance of the recorder industry and serve as an alternative to the plastic sopranino recorder. Applying the Paper Flute to a Group of Elementary School Students The following section is an observational record of the construction process of the redesigned paper flutes by 12 elementary school students (four females and eight males, all between nine- and ten- years old). The interactions between these students were observed and analysed. Therefore, the time spent on each making process was not recorded. Every individual mentioned was given an alias. We highlight in this stage of the research a “horizontal knowledge flow” created between the designer, end-user and paper flute. As outlined below, the design of the paper flute reserves a degree of flexibility for end-users to contemplate alternative ways of making connections between themselves and the instrument. This participatory design element helps motivate musicians to make an instrument that reflects their input and ideas. During this study several students demonstrated talent in mathematics, music, drawing, cutting, and sealing. As a result, these individual talents helped bring the class together and make group progress. For instance, Willy drew a precise template in a short time and then started to help and teach other students to complete the templates. As other students explained to the first author, Willy excelled in mathematics, so he could assess and measure the template very precisely. Other students had learned this basic measurement skill in their regular mathematics class, but some students still had not mastered it and could not efficiently read the decimal places with accuracy. However, after Willy taught them one by one to count the scales on the ruler, they understood the measuring method and were able to read the scale and draw the template by themselves. Willy also considered the ergonomics of the redesigned paper flute. He discussed with his fellow student Kenny that the last finger hole will probably not allow their pinkie finger to cover it because the finger holes are in a straight line. Excited to face a challenge, Willy began measuring to determine a better position for the last finger hole. Willy physically bent the template to put his fingers around it, marking the suitable position. Then, he drew the same finger hole but in a new position. He realised the relationship between the horizontal and vertical axis and understood that the finger hole can only be horizontally offset to maintain the pitch. The following figure shows Willy finding the best position for the last finger hole and his template (see Figure 11 and 12): 54 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 11 and 12. Willy redesigned, sketched, and trimmed the template finding a suitable position for last finger hole. Photo by the author. Willy and Kenny agreed that the distance between the finger holes was too wide. Willy took out his alto recorder and measured the distance between finger holes. He found that his alto recorder required a larger distance than the redesigned paper flute. After Willy measured the alto recorder, he felt the finger hole distance on the redesigned paper flute was not actually an obstacle for playing and feels confident playing it. In addition, Willy quickly realised the absence of a thumb hole on the paper flute may be a disadvantage. Although the first author explained to him that this design allows people to play an octave higher without a thumb hole, Willy believed that he could control the pitch better by using a thumb hole. Thus, he compared the redesigned paper flute with his alto recorder and found the relative thumb hole position for the first and second finger holes, and finally, he added a thumb hole to his flute. Due to the efficiency of leading the class, and to ensure the students are safe when using a knife, they were required to consolidate assembly steps. The students were divided into Group A (four students who are afraid to use a knife), and Group B (eight students who are confident in using a knife). They sat together in two groups so Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 55 the first author could ensure that they were safely when using the sharp knife. Meanwhile, he invited Group A to observe the template-cutting process of Group B. After Group B completed the trimming process, three students from Group A became confident and said that they would attempt to cut by themselves, only one of them was assisted by two students from Group B. Finally, they trimmed out the templates. Only three students made the bore successfully the first time, and one student completed the bore the second time. Other students realised the difficulties of maintaining and sealing at the same time; thus, they asked for help. They stayed in a pair, one child held the paper rolled into shape the bore, and the other applied the tape to seal it. After the first author demonstrated the making process of the mouthpiece, the students made it successfully and started to make some sounds on their flutes. Figure 13 and 14 shows Emily and Aaron playing their flute: Figure 13 and 14. Aaron and Emily playing the redesigned paper flute. Photo by the author After some adjustments, ten students were able to successfully sound the flutes. Only Jacqueline and Patrick asked for the first author’s help. He taught them to make a new mouthpiece. After some adjustment, they could also play some notes, and began to explore songs and music with the paper flute made by them. One thing we found interesting was kids were more careful using paper flutes because they realise that paper-made items are more delicate and not as strong as plastic items. While some students horse around with their plastic recorders pretending they are swords or other weapons in mock battles, and they use their paper flutes are treated much more delicately. Making paper flutes is a learning-through-playing process for children. Informants like Julia, Chen, Yuan, Anna, Sandy, Chan, Ting, Amy, and Rick were quite confident that the redesigned paper flute would be suitable for children and as a teaching tool for learning music and acoustics. Through applying the redesigned paper flute to a class of 12 elementary students, we observed children like Willy and Kenny, were not only concerned with the paper flute itself, but were able to correlate its implications with the regular plastic recorder. They did this by comparing the structure of both instruments and thereby engaging with organological issues they might not have considered otherwise. Moreover, they were not only accepted the idea of the paper 56 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 flute on its own terms, but they also examined its structure in an ergonomic way. They then redesigned a new individually adapted paper flute. At this moment, a horizontal knowledge flow was created between the designer, end-user, and paper flute. As mentioned previously, the design of the paper flute retains flexibility for end-users to explore the interaction flow between themselves and the instrument and encourages end-users to make an instrument that conforms to their creative ideas. Most importantly, this group activity highlighted the value of cooperation and mutual aid in instrument making while constructing the redesigned paper flute. Children are often excited to voluntarily help each other to complete to share knowledge, exchange ideas and assess problems. Therefore, we argue the redesigned paper flute achieves an eco-organological objective that strikes a balance between usability and playability while targeting the challenge of environmental awareness by avoiding ready-made plastic instruments in favour of pedagogically engaging self- constructed instruments that are fun and playful. Conclusion Paper flutes and eco-organology as applied to the “recorder-scape”, attempt to disrupt the current hyper-market driven plastic recorder industry in Taiwan. However, this disruption is only a minor first step at raising awareness and inspiring much needed debate on the contrasting arguments for and against plastic recorders, as well as to consider sustainability issues. Through reviewing existing literature and conducting interviews with informants, the plastic recorder was scrutinised as a ubiquitous item due to the power structures and commercial reasons behind the compulsory education system in Taiwan. Informants’ responses in this study show a paper flute as a mediator has the potential to trigger end-users’ ecological awareness of the plastic recorder industry. For instance, Chen and Yuan both had opposing opinions on the issue of paper material after they examined and experienced the redesigned paper flute and recycled and regular paper resources were regarded with suspicion. In addition, the low-status people give plastic recorders is one of the factors affecting its waste, and loss of value as a musical instrument. As musicians and educators, Sandy, and Chan both defend the values of the plastic recorder, and do not regard it as a dispensable item. They hold the view that as long as people play recorders, and extend its life, plastic recorders will not be harmful to the environment. Julia and Chen both hold similar views with Sandy and Chan. Their experiences not only present the view of former junior recorder performers, but also represent the views of recorder enthusiasts who see the plastic recorder as a meaningful and invaluable instrument. On the one hand, an abandoned and forgotten plastic recorder does not pollute the environment so long as it does not get thrown away. On the other hand, if the demand exists, Yamaha and Aulos factories will continue production with mould- injection machines. What is clear is that the phenomenon of plastic recorders as a dispensable item still exists. Chen suggested collecting the recorders from students and reusing or using or recycle them. Yuan suggested manufacturing recorders with recyclable materials, and to donate our plastic recorder to family members. Summer Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 57 who is only 10 years old was also aware of the ecological issues of plastic. He simply suggested to stop using plastic recorders altogether. One of the reasons informants have confidence in paper flutes as an alternative to mass-produced plastic instruments, is the satisfactory performance of the redesigned paper flute. The results of blind tests show the indistinguishable sound of the redesigned paper flute compared to a plastic recorder. Nica, Chen, Anna, Ting, Dong, Yong, Amy, and Rick could not distinguish between the redesigned paper flute and other fipple flutes. In terms of musical aesthetics, Wen preferred the redesigned paper flute over plastic recorder, because the former has a “warmer and more tender” voice. In terms of applicability, the redesigned paper flute as an engaging and assessable self-made instrument is readily available as a downloadable template for communities such as elementary schools. By introducing the redesigned paper flute to these communities in Taiwan, their awareness may be raised about environmental issues occurring in the plastic recorder industry. Understanding the diversity of musical instrument materials against standardised instruments, and the possibility of self- constructing paper flutes rather than buying a factory-made recorder, helps consumers realise the mutual and interdependent relationship between industry, environment, society, its education system, and alternative instruments designed with eco- organology in mind. Endnotes 1 Yamaha and Fender both face material shortage issues. However, according to the “Yamaha Supplier CSR Code of Conduct” and “Yamaha Group Timber Procurement Policy”, Yamaha strikes the balance between instrument purposes and environmental concern by investing in African Blackwood in Tanzania and signing an agreement with the Okhotsk General Sub Prefectural Bureau and the town of Engaru, Monbetsu-gun, Hokkaido. Yamaha maintains the supply chain of timbers and avoids the reduction of specific timbers. However, the way Yamaha practices the idea of sustainability is just a temporary solution because they still insist on the use of specific woods, rather than a variety of choices. An official Fender statement proclaims they are transitioning most of their Mexico-made products away from rosewood to pau ferro for their SRV signature Stratocaster and transitioning to ebony for their American Elite series. However, they are still using Rosewood as their main fretboard material due to the “historical accuracy” argument. 2 The ecological construction process of a tradition-inspired djembe percussion instruments was studied by Chen, Kuang-Jih (Chen, 2016). He advocates using multi-plank instead of lathe- turning one-piece logwood to replicate the Mandinka djembe drum, particularly his four principles of making djembe: reducing waste, using multi-materials, timbre heterogeneity, using recovered wood when possible. Chang, Chia-Yin (Chang, 2012) focuses on the environmentally friendly huqin instruments (胡琴; a family of Chinese bowed fiddles) of Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra (HKCO). HKCO and other makers developed synthetic leather huqin because of the inadequate supply of python, and unethically, even some makers tried dog, fish, or other animal skin. 3 GSM (grams per square metre) is the paper weight and thickness unit. 4 “Hänschen klein” (Little Hans) is a German folk song composed by Franz Wiedemann in 1899. For the Sinophone the melody is well recognised as xiaomifeng (little bee). 58 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 References Allen, A. S. (2013). Ecomusicology. In C.H. Garrett (Eds.), The Grove Dictionary of American Music (pp. 80-81). Oxford University Press. Allen, A. S. & Dawe, K. (2016). Ecomusicologies. In A.S. Allen & K. Dawe (Eds Current directions in ecomusicology: Music, culture, nature (pp. 1-15). Routledge. Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and nature: A necessary unity. Dutton. Boyle, W. A. & Waterman, E. (2016). The ecology of musical performance: Towards a robust methodology. In A.S. Allen & K. Dawe (Eds.), Current directions in ecomusicology: Music, culture, nature (pp. 25-39). Routledge. Bucur, V. (2019). Handbook of materials for wind musical instruments. Springer. Chang, C. Y. (2012). 胡琴類樂器改革的探究-以香港中樂團環保胡琴為例 [Research on the reform of huqin instruments: Taking the Hong Kong Chinese orchestra's environmentally friendly huqin as an example], [Master’s thesis, Tainan National University of the Arts]. https://hdl.handle.net/11296/vbs8t3 Chen, K. J. (2016). 環保概念多板合成Djembe之設計與製作 [Design and production of environmentally friendly concept multi-board synthetic Djembe], [Master’s thesis, Tainan National University of the Arts]. https://hdl.handle.net/11296/98fw3s Cho, A. (2014). Elite violinists fail to distinguish legendary violins from modern fiddles. Science. https://www.science.org/content/article/elite-violinists-fail-distinguish- legendary-violins-modern-fiddles Cho, A. (2017). Million-dollar Strads fall to modern violins in blind ‘sound check’. Science. https://www.science.org/content/article/million-dollar-strads-fall-modern-violins- blind-sound-check Coglianese, C. (2001). Social movements, law, and society: The institutionalization of the environmental movement. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 150(1), 85- 118. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.297161 Dawe, K. (2016). Materials matter: Towards a political ecology of musical instrument making. In A.S. Allen & K. Dawe (Eds.), Current directions in ecomusicology: Music, culture, nature (pp. 109-121). Routledge. Devine, K. (2015). Decomposed: A political ecology of music. Popular Music, 34(3), pp.367- 389. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24736940 Eisley, L. (1969). The unexpected universe. Harcourt, Brace & World. Feld, S. (1996). Waterfalls of song: An acoustemology of place resounding in Bosavi, Papua New Guinea. In S. Feld & K. H. Basso (Eds.), Senses of place (pp. 91-135). School for Advanced Research Press. Foster, L. (2019, October 21). Plastic bags were invented to help save the planet. Newsround. BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/50094813 Guy, N. (2009). Flowing down Taiwan's Tamsui river: Towards an ecomusicology of the environmental imagination. Ethnomusicology, 53(2), 218-248. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25653067 Hood, M. M. (2013). Musical invasives: Ecology and the forces of diatonicization in Balinese music. In The 2nd Symposium of the ICTM Study Group on Performing Arts of Southeast Asia Proceedings (pp.235-239). Philippine Women’s University. Hood, M. M. (2014). Bamboo bridges: Vocality and human temporality in Balinese flute playing. Musica Journal, 9, 22-34. https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/musika/article/download/5197/4668 Interaction Design Foundation (n.d.). Keep It Simple, Stupid (KISS). https://www.interaction- design.org/literature/topics/keep-it-simple-stupid Jef. (2017, May 19). Fender officially stopping rosewood guitars and basses this summer! The Kang Ching-Jie & Made Mantle Hood 59 CITES regulation are now kicking in fast! Gear News. https://www.gearnews.com/fender-officially-stopping-rosewood-guitars-basses- summer/ Lin, S. F. (2005). 直笛音樂教育在臺灣之引進與發展 [The introduction and development of recorder music education in Taiwan]. 教師之友 [Journal of Professional Teachers]46(4), 64-72. Oleg. (n.d.). Welcome to our alto sax audio lab. Oleg products. https://olegproducts.com/alto- saxophone-audio-lab/ Rifkin, J. (2011). The third industrial revolution: How lateral power is transforming energy, the economy, and the world. Palgrave Macmillan. Titon, J. T. (2013). The nature of ecomusicology. Música e Cultura, 8(1), 8-18. https://www.academia.edu/5517860/The_Nature_of_Ecomusicology_2013_ Widholm, G., Linortner, R., Kausel, W., & Bertsch, M.A. (2001). Silver, gold, platinum – and the sound of the flute. Research Gate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228488924_Silver_gold_platinum- and_the_sound_of_the_flute Whiteley, N. (2016). Design for society. In W.-L. You, M.-Y. Yang, Y.-Y. Li, (Trans.). Lianjing Publishing Co., Ltd. Yamaha. (n.d.). Sustainable resource use. Yamaha. https://www.yamaha.com/en/csr/environment/sustainable_resource_use/ 志祺七七. (2023, January 7). 學校的音樂課，真的學得到東西嗎？是誰規定音樂課要學 直笛的？《 蛤Huh? 》EP3｜志祺七七 [Do you really learn anything from music class at school? Who decided that music class should learn the recorder? “Huh?” EP3 | Shasha 77] [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved January 25, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o59n1goiwEs&t=160s Tseng, H. W. (2006). 論直笛移入台灣音樂教育體系後的發展與適應—以中壢地區三所國 小之觀察為例 [The development and adaptation of recorder in Taiwan since moving into the music educational system: Observations of three elementary schools in Chung Li as examples], [Master's thesis, Taipei National University of the Arts]. https://hdl.handle.net/11296/tca646 Wu, M. C. (2004). 木笛一百問 [Questions about the recorder]. 小神笛出版社 [Xiao Shen Di Publisher]. Wu, R. G. (1990). 台灣省第一屆直笛比賽記實 [Records of the first recorder competition in Taiwan province]. 音樂教育月刊 [The Music Education] 17, 26-35. Xu, Y. Q. (1989). 中日音樂教學之比較研究 [A comparative study of music teaching in China and Japan]. Chuan Yin Music Publishers. Biographies Ching-Jie Kang (CJ Artecent) is the art director and musical instrument designer of Before Watt. He is currently enrolled in the Ph.D. program at National Cheng Kung University's Institute of Creative Industries Design in Taiwan. He earned a Master of Arts in Ethnomusicology from Tainan National University of the Arts. Prior to this, he served as a research and development engineer for a musical instrument company in Taiwan and as a music instructor at Amber Contemporary Music Academy in Malaysia. His artworks were exhibited and performed at the National Theatre and Concert Hall, the National Taiwan Museum, the 60 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (35-60) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Taiwan International Festival of Arts, the Tainan International Music Festival, the Taiwan Contemporary Culture Lab, the Tainan City Traditional Orchestra, and the Ministry of Labour. Made Mantle Hood is professor of ethnomusicology, Chair of the Graduate Institute of Ethnomusicology and Director of the Asia-Pacific Music Research Centre at the Tainan National University of the Arts, Taiwan. He serves as Chair (2021-2025) of the ICTM PASEA study group. His previous posts were at Universiti Putra Malaysia (2012–2018), Melbourne University, Australia (2011–2012) and Monash University, Australia (2005–2011). His current research interests include ontologies of sounded movement, endangered forms of vocalisation, tuning systems as well as music and social justice. He is currently the lead researcher in the Taiwan Ministry of Science and Technology-funded project, ‘Decolonializing Indonesian and Philippine Indigenous Performing Arts’ (2022–2024). He is the author of Triguna: A Hindu- Balinese philosophy for gamelan gong gede music (2010) and co-editor of Music: Ethics and the community (2015).

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 2 (2023)

bamboo music, Banyumas, borderland, calung, Javanese

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/531

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8079

Calung Banyumasan:

The music of the Banyumas region in west Central Java contains a complex blend of cultural influences, spurred on by the influence of neighbouring regions, the institutionalisation of Javanese classical music and the spread of recording technology. The bamboo

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8079/4786

Sean Hayward & Darno Kartawi 61 Calung Banyumasan: Borderland Identity Through the Lens of Musical Technique Sean Hayward California Institute of the Arts, USA e-mail: [email protected] Darno Kartawi Institut Seni Indonesia Surakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 26 December 2023 Cite this article (APA): Hayward, S. & Kartawi, D. (2023). Calung Banyumasan: Borderland identity through the lens of musical technique. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12(2), 61-75. doi: https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.2.4.2023 Abstract The music of the Banyumas region in west Central Java contains a complex blend of cultural influences, spurred on by the influence of neighbouring regions, the institutionalisation of Javanese classical music and the spread of recording technology. The bamboo calung ensemble is viewed as traditional; however, most of the standard techniques, instruments and forms are relatively modern. Specifically due to this artificiality and resultant flexibility, the musical techniques that have become standard practice in calung can be used as a lens through which to view local identity and representation in a borderland culture. The music played by the calung ensemble distinguishes itself from the court music of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, while drawing on its techniques as a means for development. Elements of Sundanese music become forces for inspiration in the context of entertainment and commercialism, with expert musicians preferring incorporation above imitation. Calung thus acts as a site for the assertion of Banyumas cultural identity. Through interviews and musical analysis, the authors claim that Banyumas is not merely a blend of surrounding cultures, but rather a distinct sub-cultural group. Keywords: bamboo music, Banyumas, borderland, calung, Javanese Introduction In the Banyumas region, a variety of musical forms are found. However, none can be considered more representative of regional culture than the bamboo calung ensemble. The calung ensemble is not so much a definitive marker of Banyumas culture due to its authenticity, but rather due to its history, flexibility, and even artificiality. Through the instrumental construction, techniques, and repertoire found in the calung Banyumas ensemble, we do not find a monolithic entity, but rather a complex convergence of musical ideas, heavily influenced by the music of neighbouring regions, educational institutions, and the spread of commercial recordings. Banyumas lies in the westernmost part of Central Java province, along the border of Sundanese West Java. Ethnically, the resident population is predominantly Javanese. However, in many ways the Banyumas region is culturally distinct. The Javanese dialect used varies substantially from typical Javanese, often evading understanding by people from outside the area. While Banyumas culture is frequently referred to Indonesians from outside the region as a blend of Sundanese and Javanese cultures, the reality is much more complex. From the 1960s until the 1990s, calung experienced substantial growth and development alongside an increased interest in music from the region. The institutionalisation of calung often involved 62 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (61-75) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 development in the direction of Central Javanese court music, while developments toward entertainment and commercialisation have often tended toward Sundanese influence. These developments are received with varying degrees of enthusiasm by expert musicians, culture bearers, and casual enthusiasts. While most Javanese court influence is viewed as positive, Sundanese musical influence is viewed with caution and concern by many expert musicians. The calung ensemble (Figure 1) marks an attempt to embrace, develop, and refine the unique characteristics of the region into an archetypal musical form. John Blacking described how people use music as part of a process of self-identification, “Thus music, which is a product of the processes which constitute the realisation of the self, will reflect all aspects of the self” (Blacking & Nettl, 1995). As such, it serves as a lens by which to understand how the people of Banyumas view themselves in a broader cultural framework. Performing arts act as a means for the communication and presentation of this identity both to insider and outsider audiences. While the classical gamelan traditions of the Central Javanese courts have been the subject of extensive research, Javanese regional performing arts traditions have received relatively little academic attention. Through retrospective analysis, we find the techniques that were adopted and somewhat standardised for use in the calung ensemble provide an image of cultural values and influences. Figure 1. Calung Banyumasan Methodology This research was the result of two years of research in Banyumas and Surakarta from 2019-2021. For this project, we adopted a participant-observer methodology, described by DeWalt and DeWalt (2011) as “a method in which a researcher takes part in the daily activities, rituals, interactions, and events of a group of people as one of the means of learning the explicit and tacit aspects of their life routines and their culture” (p. 1) and engaged in substantial collaborative fieldwork as outlined by Justice and Hadley (2015). The authors in this case consisted of one culture bearer (Darno Kartawi) born and raised in the Banyumas musical culture and one cultural outsider (Sean Hayward) albeit with extensive experience in Java. During the process of research, the authors also maintained a teacher-student relationship. Our lessons included ongoing conversations about the cultural context of the music being studied; these conversations formed the basis for our fieldwork and analyses. Research methodology included direct musical study through lessons in instrumental and vocal performance, review of extant literature, extensive interviews, recordings, and subsequent analysis. This form of interaction and research also serves as an extension of the bi-musicality described by Mantle Hood (1960). The outsider author previously mentioned endeavours here to not only become relatively fluent in the musical techniques of Banyumas, but also to actively participate in existing conversations about cultural identity within the region. The authors of this paper have chosen to work in this way for a variety of reasons. As researchers, we feel that insider knowledge allows for increased access through personal connections and relationships while simultaneously avoiding the potential missteps or Sean Hayward & Darno Kartawi 63 misunderstandings that may arise from a purely outsider perspective. Meanwhile, outsider knowledge allows for a broader range of opinions and a fresh look at material that may be taken for granted by active cultural practitioners. By combining our respective views, our goal has been to find a shared position that is both ethically sound and accurate. Terminology The term "gamelan" in this article refers specifically to the large bronze or iron ensemble associated with the Javanese courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. The term is occasionally used by Indonesian people to refer to calung as well (i.e., "bamboo gamelan"), but we will avoid this practice for clarity. When referring specifically to the gamelan styles of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, we opt for the term "court gamelan" as shorthand. For additional information on debates surrounding terminology and calung in general, see Anderson Sutton’s book, Traditions of Gamelan Music in Java: Musical Pluralism and Regional Identity. (1991, pp. 72-73). Gendhing is used as a general term throughout this article to refer to a piece of traditional music. Lagu refers to song. In Banyumas, these terms may be used somewhat interchangeably. For example, when a musician asks what gendhing will be performed next, they might ask, "Lagunya apa?" (tr. "What song?"). Calung is a term with many applications in other areas of Indonesia, and of relevance is the eponymous bamboo music of West Java. When calung is used by itself in this article, we are always referring to the Banyumas tradition. Banyumas is here used to refer to the Banyumas cultural region, stretching from the border of Pekalongan in the north, to Cilacap in the South, to Kebumen in the east, to the border with West Java to the west. The use of "-an" when attached to the name of a place is used in Java to denote a collection of styles or characteristics specific to that location. As such, the term Banyumasan will here refer to the musical styles of Banyumas. The use of double nouns i.e., gendhing-gendhing, lagu-lagu, etc. is a form of plural in Indonesian and Javanese which also implies distinct items in a set. Performing Arts as Means for Affirming Identity in Borderland Regions For any borderland region, artistic expression may serve as a means for asserting local identity. Kun (2005) writes about the US-Mexico border, “Outside of the grasp of the official border(s), yet informed by them, there arises a multiplicity of unofficial borders where borderness is voiced and rescued from the willful aphasia of official culture. Surely the aural border, the border that is narrated through sound, music, and noise is one worth taking seriously” (p. 144). In Banyumas, the unofficial border is an ethnic one, the separation between Javanese and Sundanese cultures is often blurred linguistically and aesthetically, but most residents identify strongly as Javanese. Despite hundreds of years of transmigration and communication, this border, unmarked by geographical barrier, plays an important role in the development of performing arts. The aesthetics of such a region may fall decidedly on one side of the border or may express a more complex amalgamation of influences. Ayyagari’s (2012) article about Manganiyar music along the border of India and Pakistan lays out how a complex intermingling of musical techniques and theoretical systems create a unique musical language and an apt representation of Rajasthan’s geographical and cultural location. Because the music has almost exclusively been described in terms of Hindustani theory by other scholars, the characteristics which make such music unique have been misunderstood. Ayyagari (2012) writes, Their music, while utilising elements of Hindustani raga, also draws considerably on Sindhi surs, a body of musical/poetic texts more closely associated with Pakistani music. The Manganiyar meld these musical systems into their own practices in order to assert their borderland identities, and ultimately complicate broader dichotomies and binaries in South Asian contemporary music (p. 3). While assertion implies intentionality, these musical amalgams are created both consciously and subconsciously. A particular individual creates a piece of music necessarily as a result of the influences which they have been exposed to (a markedly wider frame of reference after the advent of recording technologies). However, the selection of particular materials for use will often involve conscious negotiation of suitable musical techniques, audience/patron preferences, and cultural context. When this process is extended to a wider community, the result is the affirmation of a particular identity or set of identities, reflective of the area’s location geographically and culturally. Ayyagari (2012) goes on to say, 64 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (61-75) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Because of these unspoken cultural links with transborder territory, songs, stories, and cultural imaginings are a way that Manganiyars articulate a relationship to a borderland for themselves and their patrons as well… Music allows Manganiyar musicians to actively and creatively maintain the cultural continuity that has been arbitrarily divided, marked, and nationalised since Partition ( p. 23). In Banyumas, the border in question is a provincial one and not a national one. As such, state narratives do not carry the same weight. However, the cultural and social divide along the border with West Java is readily apparent and figures strongly into the practice of performing arts. The process of cultural negotiation in Banyumas is most clearly visible through the calung ensemble. The repertoire that is played by the calung ensemble is extraordinarily broad. The ensemble easily absorbs songs from folk, popular, and classical music. Pak Sudarso of ISI Surakarta, a scholar originally from Banyumas, writes that gendhing-gendhing Banyumasan can be divided into roughly three categories: Kulonan (Western flavour, derived from Sundanese music), Wetanan (Eastern flavour, derived from Javanese court music), and Banyumas asli (originally developed within the region). Pak Rasito, an expert musician and teacher highly revered in Banyumas, preferred to identify five directions of influence: Cirebon style to the north, Yogyakarta style to the south (through the traveling theatre groups along Java's south coast), Surakarta style to the East, and Banyumas itself (Rasito, personal communication, January 2, 2020). In interview with Pak Wargo, an elder musician who has been playing calung and its predecessors since 1954, he claimed that there were no such distinctions; all pieces played on calung were simply Banyumasan (Wargo, personal communication, December 1, 2020). All these opinions are true in their own ways. The numerous interpretations and questions about what can really be considered original are fundamental to the nature of syncretism. While the specificity of Rasito’s theory is useful for deeper technical study, Sudarso’s (1999) three directions are sufficient for the positioning of calung as a cultural product. The remainder of this paper will proceed from Sudarso’s notion of three directions and attempt to explain how the calung ensemble reflects Banyumas identity and incorporates influences from Sundanese music and from Central Javanese court music. The three directions theory brings another important point to light. The reductionism often employed by the assertion that Banyumas is a blend between Sundanese and normative Javanese cultures ignores the innovations originating within Banyumas. The distinctions employed by Banyumas people when describing themselves serve as a means of differentiation into a third sub-cultural group, not as a means for navigating a simple binary. Campbell (2015) points out, individuals may feel freer to engage in particular kinds of cultural improvisations and multiplicities that transcend binary alterities or familiar forms of hybridity, in ways that are less possible in the “heartland” of each nation/state (p. 298). The flexibility that is afforded to Banyumas by not belonging entirely to either Sundanese or Javanese cultural groups allows for substantial variation and innovation, free from the constraints of cultural norms and traditions. Finally, this understanding leads us back to the truth of Pak Wargo’s assertion that all influences, whether from outside or within are simply Banyumas itself. Banyumas Asli: Distinguishing Facets of Regional Character National identity and ethnic identity are not mutually exclusive (Nandi & Platt, 2015, pp. 2615–2634). Similarly, identifying with both a majority ethnic group and a minority sub-cultural group can occur at the same time. While most people from Banyumas are ethnically Javanese, most are eager to point out that they are substantially different in character from the archetypal Javanese coming from the cultural centres of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. These differences are complex, both in their presentation and in their perception. However, these distinctions can be summarised briefly by the following four characteristic tendencies of Banyumas people: egalitarian, agrarian, humorous, and direct in communication. These distinctions were repeatedly pointed out by all performers we encountered, and their opinions are shared by the authors. These characteristics extend to all parts of social life in Banyumas, including communication, ethics, and artistic expression. The performance practice of calung music reflects these characteristics in numerous ways. Historically, the Banyumas cultural region is predominantly agricultural. A commonly repeated phrase goes as follows: adoh ratu, cedhak watu (tr. "far from the king, close to the rocks"). In particular, Banyumas is famous for bamboo production. Pak Yusmanto, a cultural researcher from Banjarnegara writes, "The Sean Hayward & Darno Kartawi 65 ordinary people of Banyumas are inseparable from the bamboo tradition. It is an important part of daily life, as a basic building material, a tool for aesthetic expression, and children’s toys" (Yusmanto, 2006, p. 123). For precisely this reason, calung is considered by many to be more originally and authentically Banyumas than metal ensembles. This was also the reason that calung gradually replaced its iron predecessor gamelan ringgeng as the accompanying ensemble for the lénggér dance (Lysloff, 2002, p. 6).1 Until the present, calung is very often performed by non-professional musicians who gain their income from farming. Unlike the elevated, regal nature of Central Javanese gamelan with texts often written in poetic high Javanese (krama) or old Javanese (kawi), the music played by the calung ensemble is for a general audience of all social strata. Song texts are also written entirely in the same Banyumas dialect used in daily life. All these factors make calung a worthwhile candidate for a symbol of regional identity. Furthermore, the performance of calung Banyumas is typically light-hearted, encouraging spontaneity and improvisation. Unlike Javanese court music, there are very few consistent practices (pakem) associated with the performance of a given gendhing. Pieces may stop and start in unpredictable ways, feature extreme shifts of tempo, spontaneous changes to text, unrehearsed vocal interjections. At first glance, gendhing-gendhing Banyumas appear relatively simple or basic, consisting of only a few lines (Sutton, 1986, p. 126). As a result, the tradition is sometimes viewed as slight by musicians of the court gamelan tradition which features lengthy, complex compositions. In accordance with the enormous variability found in calung performance, the line between correct and incorrect is substantially more flexible in Banyumas. While straying too far from standardised playing styles might be quickly labelled as ngawur (doing something haphazardly or while lost) in Surakarta, the same kind of deviance poses no problem in calung Banyumasan. The resultant complexity of gendhing-gendhing Banyumasan does not come from the content of the compositions themselves, but rather through the garapan (roughly translated to arrangement) or the spontaneous means by which the piece is worked out in live performance. This level of tolerance and flexibility is also what makes Banyumas music particularly rich in variety, open to outside influence, and vulnerable to shifting tastes. This vulnerability is sometimes bemoaned by older musicians, particularly with regards to the influence of Sundanese popular music. Kulonan: Commercialism and the Sundanese Influence The influence of Sundanese music on the music of Banyumas is undeniable. Written records and the prevalence of Sundanese calung (a different but related instrument) across West Java make it likely that similar instruments first developed there before undergoing substantial transformation and adaptation in Banyumas. Although the incorporation of Sundanese repertoire and techniques are increasingly commonplace, the degree to which this should be acceptable is a matter of substantial debate amongst musicians. Some of the repertory referred to as kulonan adopts only the melody of a Sundanese song, while other pieces combine even Sundanese and Javanese lyrics (songs such as Renggong Manis or Blendrong Kulon). Instrumentally, while there are certain, limited similarities to Sundanese calung techniques, there are no resemblances strong enough to imply direct transference or incorporation. The only exception to this is in the performance of kendhang (the barrel drums used to accompany music across Java (Figure 2). For example, in Sundanese music, it is common practice to use the foot to pull ropes attached to the head of the kendhang to shift the pitch of the drum. While the pitch shifting technique has been present in Banyumas for a long time, it did not used to be considered an integral part of the style. According to Pak Tamiarji (Figure 3), an expert musician and builder of calung since the 1950s, in early periods, pitch shifting was only used sparsely as a form of coloration; the player did not use ropes but rather placed the heel directly on the head of the drum. The drum was positioned on a level stand, requiring the player to lift their heel off the ground to reach the head (Tamiarji, personal communication, December 5, 2020). 66 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (61-75) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 2. Kendhang Banyumasan Figure 3. Mbah Tamiarji However, all of that changed in the latter half of the 20th century. In the 1970s, a new style of music emerged from West Java: jaipong. This style features extremely intense drumming, using a large, rounded Sean Hayward & Darno Kartawi 67 drum (now referred to simply as kendhang jaipong). This drum lends itself to extreme changes in pitch while playing. In order to assist with this technique, the kendhang is placed at a slant, bringing the large drumhead to the ground, closer to the foot. Through cassette recordings, jaipong rapidly became popular throughout the archipelago, especially within Java (Sutton, 1985, p. 29). During the 1970s, one kendhang player was influential in bringing this technique to Banyumas, Pak Sukendar (Figure 4). Although there were innumerable calung ensembles playing in Banyumas at the time, Pak Sukendar was running one of the most popular groups, Langen Budaya, performing almost every day. While in a recording session in Bandung, West Java, Pak Sukendar witnessed Sundanese musicians using this pitch shifting technique. Upon returning to his home in Banyumas, he began experimenting with pitch shifting techniques, placing the kendhang at a slant, and placing additional drums around his set up (Sukendar, personal communication, January 3, 2020). However, the patterns that he was playing remained firmly rooted in Banyumas tradition. This technique has since become a hallmark of talented kendhang players in Banyumas. By the 1980s, musicians were incorporating Sundanese instruments, particularly for pieces that were considered Western in style. Figure 4. Pak Sukendar (left), with musicians of Langen Budaya However, during the 1990s, as the display of flashy technique became more highly valued than adherence to a particular form or pattern, kendhang players began imitating jaipong directly, creating a disconnect from the lènggèr dance and the typical drumming patterns of Banyumas music. This departure from kendhang Banyumasan is frequently bemoaned by older musicians, who feel that the style is losing its character (Wargo, personal communication, December 1, 2020). While the ability to play jaipong music more or less directly is sometimes marketed as the ability to play in multiple styles, for expert musicians in Banyumas, the ability to incorporate rather than imitate is much more impressive and valuable. The distinction between incorporation and imitation is viewed as key to avoiding the loss of cultural identity. Younger musicians operating outside of the institution may view this as an outdated, conservative attitude and will often note that musicians must adhere to a changing market. However, it seems that the loss of local identity feared by older musicians is a valid threat. The departure from musical norms in Banyumas has become more radical with the spread of another popular music: dangdut. As a result, combinations with drum set, keyboard, bass, and other Western instruments have become more and more commonplace, in some cases even replacing traditional ensembles. From this example, we can see that the height of calung performance and technique was accelerated by the incorporation of Sundanese influences. However, that same tolerance has resulted in a perceived watering-down of the tradition and for many older musicians, a loss of local identity. The extent to which such incorporation is acceptable varies from one musician to the next. Thus, influence of Sundanese music is treated somewhat cautiously and even viewed as a corrupting force. When looking to the east, we do not 68 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (61-75) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 find the same phenomenon. The classical music of Central Java has been looked to consistently for inspiration and development since the 1960s. The incorporation of musical techniques, instruments, and styles has not been seen as a threat, but rather to elevate and expand the vocabulary of the ensemble. Wetanan: The Influence of Javanese Court Styles and Institutionalisation Before the 1960s, calung was a relatively simple, village art form. The ensemble was smaller, consisting of only two gambang (a horizontal xylophone with suspended bamboo keys, in Figure 5), kendhang, and a lènggèr dancer (also serving as the vocalist or pesindhèn). The other instruments of the calung ensemble, including the dendem, kenong, gong bumbung, and additional gambang. can be considered to a certain extent, auxiliary. By accounts of all elder musicians interviewed, all these additional instruments came to their current state of development at some point before the late 1960s. Many musicians claim that their addition was itself an attempt to elevate the respectability of calung to that of the gamelan, while others argue that the additions were in simple service of volume, vibrancy, and strength of accented unisons (cem- ceman) (Yusmanto, personal communication, August 4, 2020). Figure 5. Gambang calung Expansion of the Calung Ensemble By the accounts of Pak Wargo and Pak Tamiarji, the earliest kenong typically had only three keys (Tamiarji, personal communication, December 2, 2020; Wargo, personal communication, December 1, 2020). This instrument played a simple repeating pattern which did not change according to the gendhing being played, but rather served only to mark out the form, create a rhythmic overlay, and keep time. In contrast, the modern kenong has six keys (Figure 6). This arrangement allows for the lowest key to function as the kethuk (a single kettle gong), and the other five keys to function as the kenong (a series of larger bossed kettle gongs), in direct imitation of their bronze correlates in court gamelan. Although it is entirely common for a single player to be responsible for both the kethuk and kenong in Javanese gamelan, their combination into a single horizontal array seems to be unique to Banyumas. A similar arrangement can be found in the gamelan ringgeng ensemble (the iron gamelan which preceded calung as the primary accompaniment for lènggèr). Sean Hayward & Darno Kartawi 69 Figure 6. Kenong calung Figure 7. Dendem calung The dendem is the most recent addition to the calung ensemble (Figure 7). This instrument is responsible for playing the balungan, a skeletal version of the melody in each piece of Javanese music. The concept of the skeletal melody itself is a direct influence from Javanese court style gamelan. In calung Banyumasan (as in other forms of Banyumas music, the vocal line is considered to be the primary melody and there was never a strong need for any form of reduction)(Tamiarji, personal communication, December 5, 2020). The concept of balungan was projected onto Banyumas music from Javanese court music, and its integration only became stronger with the founding of SMKI Banyumas (to be discussed later in this article). 70 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (61-75) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 8. Gong bumbung One of the most unusual instruments of the calung ensemble is the gong bumbung (Figure 8). Rather than being a struck instrument, this is an end-blown bamboo tube gong. It consists of two bamboo pipes, one smaller tube that functions as a mouthpiece inserted into a larger tube that functions as a resonator. Similar blown gongs can also be found in Bali, Madura, and in East Java. In calung, it serves the function of a large gong, marking the end of each cycle in the musical form. Despite its fascinating construction and playing technique, one of the most interesting aspects of the gong bumbung is how often it is omitted. Without amplification, the instrument itself is relatively quiet, almost inaudible beneath the rambunctious struck percussion. Additionally, when there are not enough players, it will typically be the first instrument left out of the ensemble. This presents a stark contrast to the grand importance of the gong in gamelan. This once again points to the primacy of the vocal line in Banyumasan. The flow of a composition is fundamentally determined and felt through the structure of the vocal line, not the structure of the balungan or the formal structure of the gendhing. In modern performance, amplification is commonplace. The gong bumbung is often amplified to a ridiculous degree, imitating the often over-driven, distorted, booming tone of the metal gong in village gamelan performances. All these additions reveal the influence of court music and the intention to create a grander, louder presentation, pushing calung beyond its humble beginnings. As Pak Yusmanto explained, these instruments were added in order that the ensemble could be played in the pendhapa (a large roofed platform in Javanese architecture, typically used for performances of gamelan). In other words, the additional instruments were intentionally added to allow calung the opportunity to play in a more formal context where gamelan might normally be used, rather than for pure entertainment. The development of calung and its popularity directly led to its imminent institutionalisation. Development of Musical Techniques through Institutionalisation Anderson Sutton was one of the most active scholars studying the music of Banyumas in the 1980s. Sutton (1986) describes a process of standardisation and development which occurred in the traditional arts of Banyumas in the late 1970s and 80s; indeed, this period is now considered by many musicians to be the peak of Banyumas performance practice. . In particular, the calung ensemble and the lènggèr dance that it accompanies reached the height of their popularity at that time, coming to serve as symbols for Banyumas culture. The crystallisation in question occurred in part due to the spread of recording technology and their Sean Hayward & Darno Kartawi 71 use as teaching materials, and in part due to the development of educational institutions teaching Banyumas- style music. In the 1970s, the popularity of Banyumas songs exploded in Java, largely due to the influence of Ki Nartosabdho, a dhalang (shadow puppeteer) and ensemble leader originally from Semarang, Central Java (Petersen, 2001). The popularity of Ki Nartosabdho’s recordings and performances, along with several successful efforts by Banyumas groups in gamelan competitions, led to a growing interest in the region as a source of cultural wealth. This led to the development of SMKI Pemda Banyumas (now known as SMK Negeri III Banyumas), a high school entirely devoted to the arts. The select artists who were chosen to lead this school played a strong role in the development and institutionalisation of arts in Banyumas. One such individual was Pak Rasito (Figure 9). In the early 1970s, Pak Rasito was tasked with recording ten full albums of Banyumas music. Despite being born in the Banyumas Regency, Pak Rasito's education and expertise was entirely focused on court style gamelan. In order to fulfil this request, Pak Rasito travelled around the Banyumas area for six months collecting regional songs. Shortly thereafter, he was tasked with organising the founding of SMKI Banyumas (Rasito, personal communication, January 2, 2020). To this day, the curriculum offered at SMKI consists of 50% Banyumas style, and 50% Surakarta style. During our research in Banyumas, we rarely encountered a young calung musician who was not a graduate of SMKI. Figure 9. Pak Rasito Although practice courses were available for Banyumas and Surakarta style classes, theory classes were only offered for Surakarta-style gamelan, and as a result, the nomenclature from this style was increasingly applied to Banyumas art forms (despite in many instances not being entirely appropriate/applicable). The simple fact that all musicians trained in calung are also being trained in Surakarta court-style gamelan along with the openness to variation and innovation in calung playing, virtually guarantees that the styles will be closely linked. Since the inception of SMKI, the forms and patterns of Banyumas music have undergone substantial standardisation, only furthered by the introduction of Banyumas-style courses at the arts university in Surakarta. When the same material is taught to a larger number of students, as in the case of a high school or college class, the resultant modes of playing generally tend to be more similar than what might occur in traditional teaching contexts. This is made more pronounced by the increased use of notation (as opposed to oral transmission) within educational institutions. The primary melodic instrument of the calung ensemble is the gambang and its common playing techniques form a particularly apt example of the court influence. There are two identical gambang used 72 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (61-75) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 but are referred to as either gambang barung or gambang panerus based on the role they play in the ensemble during performance.2The standard playing techniques of gambang fall into one of three categories: patterns that imitate/develop upon classical Javanese gambang patterns, patterns that originate uniquely in Banyumas, and patterns that are the spontaneous invention of the player themselves. These styles of playing are often combined within a single piece, and their relative frequency is determined by the overall feel and regional flavour of the gendhing. The kendhang determines the overall tempo, and the gambang player chooses their playing technique accordingly. The gambang barung typically has three choices depending the style of the piece, and on the tempo at a given moment (from fastest to slowest): mbalung/ngelagu, imbal, and gambangan. In general, the gambang player will opt for the fastest technique which they are able to play at any given moment. In other words, if the tempo is slow enough and the gambang player is capable, they will opt for a technique involving a more rapid division of the beat. In turn, the gambang panerus chooses their playing technique according to the technique of the gambang barung. In mbalung/ngelagu technique, the gambang barung plays the pitches of the vocal melody or the balungan. It is critical to point out that a talented player will always opt to follow the vocal melody rather than the balungan when possible and will refer to this technique as ngelagu. In interview, Mbah Tamiarji confirmed this and stated that mbalung was not, in fact, a technique used in calung playing, but that the player is actually following the vocal melody (Tamiarji, personal communications, December 2, 2020) This is a specific instance of classical terminology being applied to folk arts (and in this case, in a potentially misleading fashion which may have influenced the technique itself). This is now the least frequently used of the three techniques, usually only occurring momentarily in unison with the voice, or at the beginning of a particularly fast section (Figure 10).3 Figure 10. Mbalung technique The most predominant and characteristic playing technique for gambang calung is imbal, an interlocking technique between the gambang barung and gambang panerus (Figure 11). This technique is said to imitate the imbal in Central Javanese gamelan, but the patterns played are exclusive to the calung ensemble. There is a dominant basic imbal pattern and numerous common variations. The variations used are not typically discussed beforehand but occur spontaneously during performance. The live improvisation of new patterns during performance is also common. Figure 11. Imbal technique The source of the standard imbal pattern most frequently used in calung is unclear. However, two possibilities are the most likely: 1) the pattern developed originally within the calung Banyumasan ensemble, or 2) the pattern originally developed in the earlier gamelan ringgeng. Mbah Wargo, a ringgeng and calung musician active since 1954, asserted with equal confidence that both were true (Wargo, personal communication, December 1, 2020). Most of a typical calung performance will be dominated by the imbal technique. Sean Hayward & Darno Kartawi 73 If the tempo is relatively slow, or the piece is Eastern in style (drawn directly from court-style gamelan), the gambang barung player may switch to gambangan. The two hands of the play long octave- unison lines approaching important tones in the vocal melody (Figure 12). These patterns or cèngkok closely resemble gambang playing in court-style gamelan (occasionally even identical). According to Mbah Tamiarji, the use of gambangan is an entirely modern innovation, spurred on by the increasing influence of court gamelan. In periods prior to 1965, the gambang played only ngelagu or imbal (Tamiarji, personal communication, December 2, 2020). The increase of the gambangan technique in calung performance is undoubtedly due to the institutionalisation of Banyumas style music and the growing number of trained gamelan musicians involved with its practice. However, there remain some key differences between how this technique is used in calung as opposed to the gamelan. Figure 12. Gambangan technique The primary differences for gambangan calung are the following when compared to court-style gambang playing: 1. In calung, the two hands tend to remain together more often and have less independent movement. However, should the player have extensive experience in other styles of music (or simply get bored), they will often interject patterns with greater variation between hands. 2. The repertoire of cèngkok contains more extensive variation in calung Banyumas. Many musicians have their own patterns and there is still a relative lack of standardisation, despite the increasing number of musicians with formal education. This is partially due to the prominence of the gambang in the calung relative to its role in gamelan. Gambang players in calung naturally develop their abilities and patterns so as to remain continually interesting to both the audience and themselves. 3. Hanging patterns (gantungan) are used less frequently, and the player will typically opt for continual motion. While in court gamelan, a general sense of stability with motion toward an important goal tone is acceptable, calung requires the feeling of constant momentum and drive. By maintaining these distinctions, the patterns of court-style gambang playing retain their Banyumas character and are fully incorporated into the ensemble. The close relationship of calung Banyumasan and court-style gamelan is mostly due to the backgrounds and fluencies of the players. At the present time, there are almost no calung musicians who do not also play gamelan, and none were encountered during our fieldwork. Despite this closeness, there seem to be no concerns on behalf of Banyumas musicians (at least not expressed to the authors) that the tradition will be lost or corrupted due to the influence of Javanese court music. Banyumas is Javanese and the intermingling of calung with Javanese court styles presents no existential threat, unlike the concerns expressed regarding Sundanese music. Through the development of gambang techniques and the addition of numerous instruments related to Javanese court-style gamelan, we find that the calung ensemble has drawn substantially on the other tradition, in particular Surakarta. However, this influence is not perceived as a problem, but rather as a means to strengthen and expand the vocabulary of the ensemble. This is an affirmation that Banyumas people consider themselves to be firmly Javanese, simply distinct in character than the Javanese of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Conclusion The Banyumas area is home to a complex intermingling of cultural influences and ideas. The reality of how this blending emerges as a discrete local identity is different from region to region, era to era, and even 74 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (61-75) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 person to person. While sometimes described as a mix between Javanese and Sundanese culture, how these influences are expressed and incorporated into an entirely distinct cultural identity reveals greatly subtlety in how the people of Banyumas view their position in the cultures of Java. In looking at the calung ensemble, we find a condensed representation of how the artists of the Banyumas region wish to view and present themselves. Tradition is often thought of as something solidified over time, but in certain instances it can just as easily be a modern creation (Hobsbawm & Ranger, 2012). Calung is an artificial tradition to some degree (presented as a traditional ensemble, but only coming to its current form in the late 1960s); just as the Banyumas identity is a construction, a shared belief in a set of characteristics and ideals. Similar to what Ayyagari (2012) observed in Rajasthan, “As musicians create their own musical and cultural boundaries from the bottom up, defying those national boundaries determined from the top down, music is then symbolic of those struggles over defining geopolitical boundaries” (p. 6). The calung ensemble presents Banyumas people as firmly Javanese through their direct relationship to the courts of Central Java. In the 1970s and 80s, this influence was emphasised and became much more readily apparent through Banyumas music. At the current time, most of the terminology used to describe the instruments and their techniques are directly taken from Javanese gamelan. We also find a large amount of material that has been developed locally in Banyumas, with a strikingly different character from the music of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. While Sundanese influence can be heard using pitch shift in kendhang playing and the use of Sundanese songs, these elements undergo substantial transformation when used in calung. Anytime Sundanese musical elements are directly imitated in calung Banyumasan performance, this is viewed by older musicians and experts as a degradation and a corruption of local identity and character. By maintaining a certain degree of distance from Sundanese material and emphasising incorporation over imitation, the culture of Banyumas asserts its relationship to the border with West Java. As such, Banyumas positions itself at once as Javanese, but distinct from the "other" Javanese. Calung forms a site for Banyumas people to emphasise the ways in which the culture differs from other Javanese subcultures through the use of spontaneity, exuberance, humour, and an overall attitude of egalitarianism and inclusiveness. In this sense, calung is a microcosm, a lens through which we gain a better understanding of the intricate complexities of Banyumas culture. Acknowledgements The authors express their sincere gratitude to Institut Seni Indonesia Surakarta, California Institute of the Arts, The Fulbright Program, AMINEF, and Paguyuban Ebeg Banyumas, for their sponsorship and support during this research. Additional thanks to the musicians and cultural researchers interviewed, in particular to Pak Rasito and Pak Sukendar for their boundless expertise and generosity. Endnotes 1 Lènggèr is the most popular form of traditional dance in Banyumas. In earlier periods, the dancer also acted as the vocalist or pesindhèn during performance. 2 In earlier periods the terms used varied widely. The now-standardised use of these terms is, in itself, reflective of court gamelan influence where the terms barung and panerus are used in a variety of situations. 3 Note regarding notation: when only one line is written, it is referring to the right hand. The left hand plays the same tones, one octave lower. When the hands differ, two lines will be written out. The notation used here is the kepatihan notation typical for Javanese music. References Ayyagari, S. (2012). Spaces betwixt and between: Musical borderlands and the Manganiyar musicians of Rajasthan. Asian Music, 43(1), 3–33. https://doi.org/10.1353/amu.2012.0005. Blacking, J, & Nettl, B. (1995). Music, culture, and experience: Selected papers of John Blacking. University of Chicago Press. Campbell, H. (2015). Escaping identity: Border zones as places of evasion and cultural reinvention. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 21(2), 296–312. DeWalt, K., & DeWalt, B. (2011). Participant observation: A guide for fieldworkers. AltaMira Press. Hobsbawm, E., & Ranger, T. (2012). The invention of tradition. Cambridge University Press. Hood, M. (1960). The challenge of “bi-musicality.” Ethnomusicology, 4(2), pp. 55-59. Sean Hayward & Darno Kartawi 75 https://doi.org/10.2307/924263 Justice, D. & Hadley, F. M. (2015). Collaborative fieldwork, ‘stance,’ and ethnography. Yearbook for Traditional Music 47, 64–81. https://doi.org/10.5921/yeartradmusi.47.2015.0064. Kun, J. (2005). Listening to the line: Notes on music, globalization, and the US-Mexico border. IBEROAMERICANA. América Latina - España - Portugal, 5(17), 143–52. https://doi.org/10.18441/ibam.5.2005.17.143-152. Lysloff, R. (2002). Rural Javanese ‘tradition’ and erotic subversion: Female dance performance in Banyumas (Central Java). Asian Music, 33(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.2307/834230. Nandi, A., & Platt. L. (2015). Patterns of minority and majority identification in a multicultural society. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38(15), pp. 2615–2634. Petersen, R. (2001). Lakon arangan: The legacy of Ki Nartosabdho in Banyumas, Central Java. Asian Theatre Journal, 18(1), 105–12. Sudarso. (1999). Tiga warna dalam gendhing Banyumasan. ISI Surakarta Press. Sutton, R. A. (1985). Commercial cassette recordings of traditional music in Java: Implications for performers and scholars. The World of Music, 27(3), 23–45. Sutton, R. A. (1986). The crystallization of a marginal tradition: Music in Banyumas, West Central Java. Yearbook for Traditional Music, 18, 115–32. https://doi.org/10.2307/768524. Sutton, R. A. (1991). Traditions of gamelan music in Java: Musical pluralism and regional identity. Cambridge University Press. Yusmanto. (2006). Calung: Kajian tentang identitas kebudayaan Banyumas. [Master's dissertation, Institut Seni Indonesia Surakarta]. Biographies Sean Hayward is a performer, composer, and researcher currently based in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He has served as a lecturer at California Institute of the Arts and University of California, Los Angeles. Darno Kartawi is an educator, performer, and composer specialising in the performing arts of Banyumas. He currently serves as a lecturer in calung and gamelan at Institut Seni Indonesia Surakarta.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 2 (2023)

emotion regulation, gender differences, music listening, strategies and mechanisms

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/531

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8098

Gender Differences in the Function of Music for Emotion Regulation Development in Everyday Life:

The present study employed experience sampling methodology (ESM) to examine the role of music in regulating emotions and the potential differences in music usage for emotion regulation between men and women in everyday life. The study spanned over seven days, including both weekdays and weekends, during which 28 participants (14 men and 14 women) were asked to complete a brief questionnaire 21 times a day. The questionnaire aimed to document instances of music listening in the past three hours, resulting in a total of 588 questionnaires being sent and 264 instances of music listening being analysed. Results indicate that listening to music in daily life may have a positive impact on emotion regulation and suggest possible differences in music usage between men and women for this purpose. The study's primary findings include: (1) Relaxation was the most commonly used strategy for regulating emotions with music; (2) Four primary mechanisms of music usage for emotion regulation, including emotion type, familiarity, and content of music, were found to be essential; (3) Listening to music was an effective emotion regulation strategy, particularly for regulating happiness and peacefulness; (4) Men were more likely to use music for active coping and to consider the type and content of music when selecting music; and (5) Music appeared to regulate the intensity of emotions similarly for both men and women, although men tended to report higher emotional intensity.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8098/4808

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 76 Gender Differences in the Function of Music for Emotion Regulation Development in Everyday Life: An Experience Sampling Method Study Zheng Danhe1,3 1 Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia 3 Department of Music and Dance, Jingdezhen University, Jiangxi, China Jingdezhen, 333403, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China [email protected] Aini Azeqa Ma’rof 1,2 * 1 Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia 2 Institute for Social Science Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia [email protected] Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh2 2 Institute for Social Science Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 29 December 2023 Cite this article (APA): Danhe, Z., Ma’rof, A. A. & Zaremohzzabieh, Z. (2023). Gender differences in the function of music for emotion regulation development in everyday life: An experience sampling method study. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12(2), 76-94. doi: https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.2.5.2023 Abstract The present study employed experience sampling methodology (ESM) to examine the role of music in regulating emotions and the potential differences in music usage for emotion regulation between men and women in everyday life. The study spanned over seven days, including both weekdays and weekends, during which 28 participants (14 men and 14 women) were asked to complete a brief questionnaire 21 times a day. The questionnaire aimed to 77 Zheng Danhe, Aini Azeqa Ma’rof & Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh document instances of music listening in the past three hours, resulting in a total of 588 questionnaires being sent and 264 instances of music listening being analysed. Results indicate that listening to music in daily life may have a positive impact on emotion regulation and suggest possible differences in music usage between men and women for this purpose. The study's primary findings include: (1) Relaxation was the most commonly used strategy for regulating emotions with music; (2) Four primary mechanisms of music usage for emotion regulation, including emotion type, familiarity, and content of music, were found to be essential; (3) Listening to music was an effective emotion regulation strategy, particularly for regulating happiness and peacefulness; (4) Men were more likely to use music for active coping and to consider the type and content of music when selecting music; and (5) Music appeared to regulate the intensity of emotions similarly for both men and women, although men tended to report higher emotional intensity. Keywords: emotion regulation, gender differences, music listening, strategies and mechanisms Introduction Numerous empirical studies have demonstrated how music can regulate emotions in various aspects of daily life (Carlson et al., 2021; Fancourt et al., 2019). People use music both consciously and unconsciously to manipulate, generate, preserve, or elevate their emotions and moods for personal benefit (Stewart et al., 2019). Giordano et al. (2020) discovered that music listening is the second most common method for improving mood, boosting energy, and reducing tension. Among 162 emotion regulation strategies identified by Parkinson and Totterdell (1999), music is one of them. Moreover, gender differences in emotion regulation have been identified in psychology research (Goubet & Chrysikou, 2019). Men, for example, are more prone than women to repress melancholy but less likely to suppress anger (Gross & John, 2003). In comparison, Greasley (2008) discovered that women use music more frequently than men to regulate their emotions. Understanding how individuals use music as a tool for emotion regulation in their daily lives is becoming a more significant field of study. However, there is a considerable vacuum in our understanding of potential sex differences in the use and effectiveness of music for emotion regulation. Thus, the purpose of this study is to look at the role of music in emotion regulation and how gender differences affect this emotional regulatory activity. This study is noteworthy because it tries to provide insight on how people use music to regulate their emotions in their daily lives. A greater knowledge of these systems can lead to better emotional self-management and mental health. Emotion Regulation in Everyday Life Emotion regulation include altering or maintaining the duration, intensity, and frequency of both negative and good moods (Harley et al., 2019). Individual music preferences and choices result in distinct musical experiences, making the use of music to impact mood complex (Chaturvedi et al., 2022). Participants in laboratory experiments are rarely allowed to listen to their favourite music, so they may not be listening to music that they normally love (Knobloch & Zillmann, 2002). An Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 78 alternative research approach, such as the Experience Sampling Method (ESM), should be used to explore emotion regulation with music in everyday life (Negishi & Sekiguchi, 2020). ESM is one of the main methods used in everyday life research with music, alongside diary studies and interviews (Quiñones, 2019). Self-report is the most common and straightforward method used to measure emotions in the context of music, as it provides information about the subjectively experienced component of emotion (Fallon et al., 2020). However, relying solely on physiological measures to identify emotions without participant reports is unreliable (Scherer & Zentner, 2001). Self-report data, while useful, may also be subject to individual biases and may not reflect habitual modes of listening (Anderson et al., 2021). ESM, on the other hand, is a solid approach that enables direct monitoring of daily musical life without interference (Taruffi, 2021). It entails signalling participants at random times throughout the day using electronic pagers, with each signal prompting participants to complete a brief answer form regarding their present or previous experience. This method provides reliable and valid data on emotional responses to everyday musical experiences (Greb et al., 2019). To investigate daily music listening and emotion regulation, the present study employed ESM over one week. Emotion Regulation Strategies with Music There is growing interest among music psychologists in studying the functions of music in everyday life, particularly concerning emotion regulation strategies that have been supported by numerous empirical studies (Jakubowski & Ghosh, 2021). A variety of emotion regulation strategies exist (Ziv & Hollander-Shabtai, 2022). Saarikallio and Erkkilä (2007) conducted group interviews and follow-up studies to gather data on how Finnish adolescents use music to regulate their emotions. They discovered seven main techniques that the teenagers utilized to control their emotions: consolation, mental work, diversion, amusement, revival, strong sensation, and intense sensation. Adolescents use music as entertainment to set the mood and for fun and relaxation. They frequently played background music when reading, traveling, participating in sports, visiting friends, conversing online, doing chores or homework, and sleeping. This strategy was used to uplift their mood and maintain a positive attitude. The revival strategy involved using music for personal renewal, relaxation, and energy. Adolescents would often listen to their favourite music while lying in bed alone to experience strong sensations of enjoyment, excitement, and pleasure. The diversion strategy involved using music to forget about negative emotions. Adolescents would listen to peaceful or cheerful music to calm down and lift their spirits. The discharge strategy involved using music to express and release emotions. Adolescents used drumming, for example, to release emotional pressure and improve their mood. The mental work strategy involved using music to facilitate contemplation and mental imagery. Adolescents would contemplate issues while listening to music, such as falling in love, daily events, or significant life events. Finally, the solace strategy involved using music to offer comfort during times of sorrow and trouble and provide a sense of connection to significant things. These seven techniques may be utilized concurrently and interact with one another, demonstrating the role of music in emotion control (Schäfer et al., 2020). 79 Zheng Danhe, Aini Azeqa Ma’rof & Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh Van Goethem and Sloboda (2011) took Saarikallio and Erkkilä's (2007) findings and compared the seven strategies with a general standardized strategy for mood regulation. They broke down the process of emotion regulation into four levels: goals, strategies, tactics, and underlying mechanisms. They then observed the functions of music in emotion regulation by dividing 500 music-listening episodes among 44 participants and collecting data on their responses through questionnaires and interviews. Before thoroughly analysing the data, they categorised several tactics, such as rationalizing reappraisal, optimistic thinking, and rationalization. According to the authors, listening to music may be used to relax, divert attention, engage in active coping, engage in introspection and vent, and engage in rational thought. Relaxation was found to be the primary strategy for regulating mood with music, accounting for 62.9% of participant use in the study. Although there were some differences in the definitions of the strategies between Saarikallio and Erkkilä (2007) and Van Goethem and Sloboda (2011), both studies showed that musical activities can be an effective means of regulating emotions. People use music consciously or unconsciously as a tool to adjust and enhance their emotional state in everyday life (Saarikallio & Erkkilä, 2007; Van Goethem & Sloboda, 2011). Our study builds upon the previously presented literature on emotion regulation strategies and investigates which strategies were most used for music listening and emotion regulation. Underlying Mechanisms of Music in Emotion Regulation Juslin and Västfjäll (2008) reviewed several emotion-induction processes and discovered six distinct mechanisms that might explain emotional reactions in everyday life: brain stem response, evaluative conditioning, emotional contagion, visual imagery, episodic memory, and music expectation are all examples of brain stem reflexes. The first mechanism, known as the brain stem response, includes the induction of emotion by music as a result of one or more basic acoustical features that the brain stem interprets as signifying an urgent and significant occurrence. The second mechanism, evaluative conditioning, involves the induction of emotion by a piece of music through affective learning, emotional conditioning, or preference conditioning. The third mechanism, emotional contagion, involves the induction of emotion by a piece of music because the listener perceives the emotional expression of the music and "mimics" this expression internally through feedback from muscles or activation of emotional representations in the brain. Visual imagery, the fourth mechanism, involves the induction of emotion in a listener by conjuring up visual images while listening to music. The fifth mechanism, episodic memory, involves the induction of emotion by music that evokes a memory of a particular event in the listener's life. The sixth and final process, known as musical expectancy, is the induction of feeling in a listener as a result of a specific aspect of the music that contravenes, postpones, or validates the listener's expectations regarding the music's progression. These six mechanisms offer potential explanations for how music affects emotions (Van Goethem & Sloboda, 2011). Van Goethem and Sloboda (2011) conducted a study to investigate the mechanisms involved in using music as an emotion regulation tool. They collected data from 44 participants using structured interviews and questionnaires and Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 80 identified eight underlying mechanisms: the emotion of music, type of music, familiarity with music, the content of music, another world, memories, music-related activities, and music-unrelated activities. Participants said that furious, hilarious, cheery, upbeat, joyful, pleasurable, amusing, melancholy, or romantic music helped them control their emotions, showing that the emotion of the music was a key element. Additionally significant factors included the type of music, musical familiarity, and musical substance. Other techniques included music evoking memories, transporting listeners to different worlds, and engaging in music-related or unrelated activities. Van Goethem and Sloboda (2011) found that these mechanisms interacted with mood regulation goals and concluded that music's mood was essential in regulating emotions. This study aims to determine the most significant underlying mechanisms involved in music listening for emotion regulation. Emotion Regulation Goals with Music It is widely acknowledged that emotions are closely linked to the pursuit of specific goals (Baltazar, 2019). Music is used by people to help them control their emotions and gain emotional insight and expression (Varner, 2020). Previous research has found that the primary objective of musical encounters is to impact emotions. Music is used by individuals to transform or release feeling, to fit their present emotional state, to enjoy or soothe oneself, and to reduce stress (e.g., Stewart et al., 2019). According to Saarikallio and Erkkilä (2007), the major aims of teenagers in mood regulation are mood control and improvement, with music having a particularly favourable influence on mood improvement. Another important objective is to manage and self-determine one's mood, as seen by attempts to relax through calming music, to make sense of one's thoughts and feelings, and to match mood and energy levels to situational needs. North et al. (2004) investigated participants' daily listening episodes and discovered three primary reasons for listening to music: to pass the time, to enjoy it, and to create the ideal environment. According to Juslin and Laukka (2004), there are 10 primary reasons why people listen to music, including expressing emotions, relaxation, enjoyment, energy, and remembering. While previous research has provided some insight into the intentions that individuals have when listening to music, this study will concentrate on six distinct emotions: happiness, sorrow, surprise, anger, fear, and tranquillity. These emotions were found to be commonly experienced in everyday life, with guilt, shame, jealousy, disgust, contempt, embarrassment, and fear being less frequently associated with music listening. This study aims to determine which of these six emotions can be most effectively regulated through music listening. Gender Differences with Emotion Regulation Emotion regulation is a critical component in any study involving emotional expression, language, or comprehension (Montana et al., 2020). It is critical to evaluate gender disparities in emotion regulation and to investigate the advantages of various ways of self-regulation for different emotions (Peistaraite & Clark, 2020). Individual variations in two typical emotion management methods, cognitive 81 Zheng Danhe, Aini Azeqa Ma’rof & Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh reappraisal and expressive suppression, were investigated by Gross and John (2003). Cognitive reappraisal is the process of revising one's viewpoint on an emotional occurrence, whereas expressive suppression is the reduction of emotional expression once one has already entered an emotional state. Gross and John (2003) used short questionnaires to measure individual differences in these two strategies and also studied gender effects. They found that men tend to use suppression more than women and are more likely to suppress sadness but less likely to suppress anger. Similarly, other studies have found gender differences in emotion regulation strategies. For example, boys tend to display greater emotional control than girls (Underwood et al., 1992), while women use a wider range of adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies than men (Tamres et al., 2002). The evidence also points to gender disparities in the control of musically induced emotions. Men often listen to music for relaxation and diversion, and they are more likely than women to feel negatively about the music they don't enjoy (Saarikallio et al., 2013). However, few studies have specifically investigated gender differences in the use of music as a mood-regulation strategy (North & Hargreaves, 2010). Despite this, some studies have found gender-related differences in the functions of music. For instance, females tend to use music as a means of mood regulation, while males view it as a way to establish their identity (North et al., 2000). Moreover, girls report more positive mood changes due to music than boys (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). Based on these findings, understanding how people use music for emotional regulation is critical in the study of psychology. Music's reputation for dramatically influencing our emotional state emphasizes the need of understanding how it is used for this purpose, whether purposefully or unintentionally. This study also adds to determining the usefulness of music in guiding various emotions, giving significant information for persons seeking emotional well-being techniques and music therapy specialists. Furthermore, investigating how different genders use music for emotional control adds a critical layer to our knowledge of emotional management. As a result, the purpose of this study was to look at the use of music in emotion regulation and its relationship to gender differences. The research aims to address several crucial research inquiries, including: 1. Which strategies were mostly used for music listening to help people regulate emotion? 2. Which underlying mechanisms can be considered highly important in music listening? 3. How successful is music listening, and which emotion can be most effectively regulated? 4. Can gender differences be found in the use of music listening for emotion regulation? Methodology Participants This research was carried out in 2021. For this study, 28 people (14 men and 14 women) ranging in age from 16 to 36 years (Mean = 23.86 and SD = 2.56) were recruited. Thirteen of the participants had received more than 3 years of musical Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 82 training, while the remaining fifteen had no musical training. Initially, email was used to contact potential participants in the UK and China, but due to a lack of response, social media was used to directly contact individuals and send them information about the study. The participants were informed that the study focused on music listening but was not told specifically that the topic was emotion regulation. One crucial aspect to consider is the rationale behind selecting participants from both the UK and China in this study, as it could potentially introduce cultural variations that impact the findings. The choice to include participants from these two distinct countries stems from a deliberate effort to explore potential cross-cultural differences in how individuals, specifically music students, utilize music for emotion regulation. It is well-established that music, being deeply intertwined with culture, can hold different meanings and functions in various societies. Therefore, including participants from both the UK and China allows for the examination of potential variations in the perception and impact of music on emotion regulation. For instance, music may play different roles in emotional expression and regulation within these cultures due to varying musical traditions, preferences, and societal norms. Materials The initial part of the questionnaire aims to determine if participants are currently listening to music or if they have listened to music in the past three hours. It also seeks to gather information about their location, activity, and reasons for listening to music at that particular time. If a participant has not listened to music in the past three hours, the questionnaire ends automatically. The term "music listening" is defined as times when the participant has actively chosen to listen to music. The second section of the questionnaire contains various items related to music. It asks participants to identify the people they are with while listening to music and the genre of music they are listening to. The music genre is measured using the 14-item STOMP (Short Test of Musical Preferences) scale, which identifies four broad music preference dimensions (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003). Additionally, the second section asks participants to rate the emotions they experienced before and after listening to music. The emotions include happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, and peacefulness. Participants are also asked if they intentionally listened to music to influence their emotions and if so, what their intention was (e.g., to change their mood). After describing how they use music to regulate their emotions, participants are asked to tick all the appropriate emotion regulation strategies from a list of options provided. These techniques, which include several behavioural and cognitive techniques identified in research on emotion regulation, were chosen based on a thorough study of the literature and two surveys (Bushman et al., 2001; Gross et al., 2006; Salovey et al., 2002). The strategies include rational thinking, seeking distraction, expressing feelings, active coping, and introspection. Procedure The study was conducted for seven consecutive days, including both weekdays and weekends, to capture typical everyday situations where music might be involved. Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire, which took approximately 2-3 83 Zheng Danhe, Aini Azeqa Ma’rof & Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh minutes, at random times during their waking hours. The participants were required to carry their mobile phones with them at all times and complete the online questionnaire as soon as they received the text message with the link to it. Each participant received a total of 21 text messages, with three texts per day. If a participant was unavailable, they were asked to complete the questionnaire as soon as possible. Participants who had not listened to music in the last three hours only had to complete the first section of the questionnaire. However, if participants were currently listening to music or had listened to music in the last three hours, they were asked to complete all sections of the questionnaire. The questionnaire included a section where participants could write down their thoughts if the categories provided did not cover their experiences. Participants were informed that there were no correct or incorrect answers and that their answers were confidential. During the first experiment, the researcher defined each strategy to ensure that participants understood the questions and different strategies. Definitions of the strategies were also given in the online questionnaires, and participants had the opportunity to discuss the strategies with the researcher to ensure comprehension. Participants were instructed not to report any events that they initially forgot to decrease the possibility of retrospection bias. The information sheet, which contained contact details and an indication of normal waking hours, was filled out by participants before the first experiment to ensure the study was as non-intrusive as possible. Results A total of 588 questionnaires were distributed to research participants in this academic examination, with a selection of 264 episodes subjected to rigorous analysis. Only episodes were considered if participants gave information on who they had been listening to music from in the preceding three hours. Of these episodes, 213 were identified as serving an emotion regulation purpose (80.6% of the total), and 208 were found to have successfully regulated the listener's emotions (78.8% of the total). In addition, it was discovered that 41 episodes (15.5% of the total) that were not initially listened to for regulatory purposes affected the listener's emotions. These results indicate that music listening is frequently used for emotion regulation in everyday life and can effectively influence the emotions of the listener. Research Question 1: Which strategies were mostly used for music listening to help people regulate emotion? Relaxation, diversion, active coping, introspection, venting, and rational thinking were the six strategies investigated in the study. Suppression, denial, and social support were removed from the investigation since they were not deemed unambiguous processes. Participants were able to indicate which strategies they used to regulate emotions with music and could select multiple appropriate strategies by ticking the corresponding boxes in Question 11 of the questionnaire. The percentages of nominations for each of the six strategies are presented in Table 1. The results indicate that music was most commonly used for relaxation (52.7%), followed by distraction (22.7%) and rational thinking (18.6%). Participants often reported using Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 84 several strategies simultaneously or sequentially to achieve the same emotion regulation goal, resulting in a total percentage greater than 100%. Table 1. The emotion regulation strategies used with music (n=264). Research Question 2: Which underlying mechanisms can be considered highly important in music listening? Participants were instructed to identify the important factors in music listening each time they listened to music. Five mechanisms related to the characteristics of the music itself were identified as important by participants. These mechanisms are as follows: 1. The emotional content of the music, including its mood and whether it is angry, funny/cheerful/upbeat, happy/enjoyable/amusing, melancholic, or romantic. 2. The type of music, including whether the listener admires the artist, likes the variety of the music or can pinpoint key musical features. 3. The familiarity of the music, which participants highlighted as crucial due to their relationship to their favourite songs or singers, frequently referring to them as "old friends." 4. The familiarity of the music, which participants highlighted as crucial due to their relationship to their favourite songs or singers, frequently referring to them as "old friends." 5. Music's ability to create memories. Participants described how music can help recall memories, either related to the music or not, and how music associated with difficult events can provide strength for the present situation. Additionally, participants noted that music can create a feeling of nostalgia. Strategies N nominations % of nominations Relaxation 139 52.7 Distraction 60 22.7 Rational Thinking 49 18.6 Venting 34 12.9 Active Coping 20 7.6 Introspection 4 1.5 Total 306 116 85 Zheng Danhe, Aini Azeqa Ma’rof & Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh Table 2. Nominations for each basic process in music listening (n=264) Table 2 displays the total number of nominations for each mechanism in music listening. A total of 448 instances of using music for emotion regulation were reported. Table 2 indicates that the emotion, type, familiarity, and content of the music were the most significant underlying mechanisms in music listening for emotion regulation. Research Question 3: How successful is music listening, and which emotion can be most effectively regulated? A repeated-measures ANOVA was performed on the intensity of emotions before and after music listening, using emotion rating type as a within-subject variable. The residuals were checked for normality and found to be approximately normally distributed. The results, with a Greenhouse-Geisser correction, showed a significant effect of emotion type (F(3.138, 825.364) = 340.360, p<0.001), a main effect of time (F(1, 263) = 46.675, p<0.001), and a significant interaction between emotion type and time (F(1.768, 465.084) = 469.089, p<0.001). Happiness and peacefulness showed a significant increase over time compared to other emotions. A paired-sample t-test confirmed a significant difference in the intensity of happiness and peacefulness conditions (t(527) = 30.409, p<0.001). Figure 1 shows a linear progression of happiness and peacefulness ratings across time, indicating that these emotions increased after music listening. However, sadness, surprise, and fear showed little change over time (p>0.005). In summary, the findings suggest that music listening can most effectively regulate happiness and peacefulness emotions. Underlying mechanism No. nominations % nominations Emotion of music 108 40.9 Type of music 117 44.3 Familiarity with the music 105 39.8 Content of music 88 33.3 Memories 30 11.4 Total 448 169.7 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 86 Figure 1. Means of participants’ basic emotion ratings separated by time and emotion types. Error bars indicate a 95% confidence interval of the mean. Research Question 4: Can gender differences be found in the use of music listening for emotion regulation? We conducted a study to investigate gender differences in three aspects of emotion regulation, which were the strategy used, underlying mechanisms, and the effectiveness of change. We looked at six basic emotions and analysed the data separately for males and females. Figure 2 shows the frequency of nominations for each emotion regulation strategy used by males and females. The most commonly used strategies were relaxation, rational thinking, and distraction. A Chi-square test was performed to determine if there were any differences between the genders in their use of each strategy. However, we were unable to conduct a reliable statistical test for the strategy of introspection as its expected frequencies were less than five. Reliable Chi-square testing was possible because of the employment of relaxation, distraction, active coping, venting, and logical thought techniques (Table 3). The findings showed that there was a substantial difference in the usage of the active coping approach between males and females, with females being more likely to report using introspection while listening to music. However, no significant differences were discovered between males and females in the use of the strategies of relaxation, distraction, venting, and rational thinking. 87 Zheng Danhe, Aini Azeqa Ma’rof & Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh Figure 2. The number of nominations for each strategy is separated by gender. Table 3. Crosstabulation of strategy type and gender. Note. Adjusted residuals appear in parentheses below observed frequencies. *p<.05. Figure 3 illustrates the number of nominations for each emotion regulation underlying mechanism used by males and females separately. Both genders reported that the characteristics of the music, such as its emotion, type, familiarity, and content, were the most important underlying mechanisms in music listening. Males were more likely than females to consider the type, familiarity, and content of the music in their emotion regulation. Table 4 shows the observed frequencies of each mechanism and adjusted residuals. A Chi-square test was conducted to determine if there were any multivariate differences between males and females in their use of each mechanism. As all the mechanisms had expected frequencies of more than 5, a reliable Chi-square test was conducted (see Table 4 for results). The mechanisms of music type and content of music showed significant differences between males and females (type of music (χ2=16.676, p <0.001), and content of music (χ2=4.870, p <0.05). However, the mechanisms of the emotion of music (χ2=0, p=1), familiarity with the music (χ2=1.793, p =0.181), and memories (χ2=0.967, p=0.325) did not have significant effects on gender differences in emotion regulation. 54.5 22.1 4.5 7.8 14.9 20.7 50 23.6 11.8 1.8 10 26.4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Relaxation Distraction Active Coping Introspection Venting Rational Thinking % Female % nominations Male % nominations Relaxation Distraction Active coping Introspection Venting Rational thinking Male 55 26 13 2 11 22 Femal e 84 34 7 2 23 18 χ2 0.532 0.089 4.847 1.393 3.448 p 0.466 0.766 0.028* 0.238 0.063 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 88 Figure 3. The number of nominations for each underlying mechanism in music listening is separated by gender. Table 4. Crosstabulation of each underlying mechanism and gender. Note. Adjusted residuals appear in parentheses below observed frequencies. *p<.05. ** p<.001. The study tested for gender differences in emotion changes over time by conducting a repeated-measures ANOVA with a Greenhouse-Geisser correction. Participants were asked to rate the intensity of each emotion before and after listening to music, with time and emotion as within-subject variables. The results are presented in Figure 4, with Graph A showing the effects of time and Graph B showing the effects of emotion. The analysis showed significant effects of time (F(1, 262) = 55.160, p< 0.001) and emotion (F(2.319, 607.667) = 573.572, p< 0.001), as well as a significant interaction effect between emotion and time (F(1.913, 501.220) = 0.695, p< 0.001). Both men and women reported feeling happier and more peaceful than the other four emotions, with men reporting a higher intensity of emotions overall. There was a non- significant trend towards an interaction effect between time and gender (p=0.054), as shown in Figure 3, where women responded more strongly to the music than men, but men reported higher overall intensity of emotions. There was no three-way interaction effect between emotion, time, and gender (p=0.482). Graph C and Graph D show that both men and women reported changes in emotion intensity in the same way over time. Emotion Type Familiarity Content Memories Male 45 65 49 45 10 (0) (4.1) (1.3) (2.2) (1) Female 63 52 56 43 20 (0) (-4.1) (-1.3) (-2.2) (1) χ2 0 16.676 1.793 4.870 0.967 p 1 p<.001** 0.181 0.027* 0.325 89 Zheng Danhe, Aini Azeqa Ma’rof & Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh a. Time b. Emotion c. Female d. Male Figure 4. The results of gender differences in the use of music for emotion regulation. Discussion The goal of the study was to understand how listening to music helps people regulate their emotions in daily life and how gender variations may affect this activity. This topic was investigated through three levels of analysis: strategy, the underlying mechanism, and changes in each emotion. The first research question aimed to identify which emotion regulation strategies were mostly used in music listening. This result supports the results of Van Gothem and Sloboda (2011). The results confirm that the strategy of relaxation was mostly used. People are mainly listening to music for enjoyment and relaxation in everyday life (Juslin & Laukka, 2004; Juslin et al., 2008; Sloboda, 1999). The strategies of distraction, rational thinking, and venting are also commonly used, but the strategy of introspection was rarely mentioned in this study. However, several questions should be taken into account in further research. Participants frequently selected the multiple-choice option when they could choose from a variety of tactics for each music-listening session in this study. Although it Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 90 seems like the relaxation approach was employed frequently, it's possible that, when combined with another strategy, it wasn't the most crucial for establishing emotion regulation. Therefore, even if several methods can be used at once, it is beneficial to find out which ones are seen to be more crucial in emotion regulation with music by limiting participants' choices. The second research question aimed to determine the most important underlying mechanisms in the use of music listening for emotion regulation. Four mechanisms related to the characteristics of the music itself were identified as the most important: emotion, type, familiarity, and content of the music. However, the mechanism of memories did not receive enough nominations in this study. These findings are consistent with previous research by Van Goethem and Sloboda (2011), who also found that these four mechanisms were most frequently reported. Some of the underlying mechanisms in this study were also identified in Juslin and Västfjäll's (2008) study. The process of emotional contagion, for example, may be related to the feeling of music, and episodic memory was also discovered as a memory here. According to Juslin and Västfjäll (2008), familiarity is arousal feedback, and the style of music is musical expectation. However, it is important to note that this study focused on regulating the existing effects of emotions through music, while Juslin and Västfjäll's (2008) study was based on emotions evoked by music. Therefore, it may be challenging to directly compare the results regarding the importance of underlying mechanisms. The third study question assessed the efficacy of listening to music for regulating emotions and identifying which emotions may be most successfully controlled. The goal was to determine the effectiveness of listening to music for regulating emotions. The results revealed a marked rise in happiness and peacefulness over time. These findings support Juslin et al.'s (2008) observation that listening to music tends to have primarily positive effects, indicating that music listening may have implications for health psychology. While sadness, surprise, fear, and anger were less affected, the overall attempts at emotion regulation were successful. To find out how successful each method is when paired with music listening, more study is required. The significance of music listening in emotion regulation should be assessed in terms of its application to a variety of emotion regulation techniques as well as the degree to which the mood shift was successful. Among the vast number of possible strategies that can be used in emotion regulation, music listening was found to be a frequently used strategy. However, whether music has unique applicability compared to other strategies remains to be determined. Future research could compare the success levels of music with other potential strategies used for emotion regulation purposes. The fourth study question sought to determine if listening to music for emotional regulation varied by gender. Previous studies suggested that women report using all emotion regulation strategies more than men, particularly rational thinking, active coping, and suppression (Tamres et al., 2002). The study did not discover any noteworthy differences between men and women in their use of relaxation, distraction, venting, and rational thought. Although women were slightly more likely than men to report using introspection in music listening, this difference was small, only 6%. Furthermore, although both men and women considered emotion, type, 91 Zheng Danhe, Aini Azeqa Ma’rof & Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh familiarity, and content of the music to be the most important underlying mechanisms in music listening for emotion regulation, gender differences emerged regarding the mechanisms of type and content of the music. Men were more likely than women to consider the type and content of music when listening. Gender differences were also observed in emotions and changes in emotions over time, with men reporting more intense emotions than women. This finding is in contrast to previous research on gender differences in emotion regulation (Augustine & Hemenover, 2009). However, it is possible that instructing individuals to apply a certain strategy may have a similar effect on men and women when using music for emotion regulation. Although women are more likely to emotionally react than men (Augustine & Hemenover, 2009), music may be an effective means of venting emotions for men, as suggested by Saarikallio et al. (2013), who found that men use music for revival and distraction more than women. Limitations and future direction This study explores gender differences and the function of music in emotion regulation, but there are several limitations to consider. The sample used in the study is limited to highly educated individuals in their 20s from British and Chinese backgrounds, which may not be representative of the broader population. Therefore, future research should include participants from diverse age groups and backgrounds to gain a better understanding of music listening habits and emotion regulation strategies. The study did not take into account the sort of music listened to, how much was listened to, or how music was used in conjunction with other techniques, all of which might reveal important differences or similarities. Future research could investigate whether music listening can be replaced with other emotion regulation strategies or if it has unique goals, strategies, and underlying mechanisms. For example, the research could compare the underlying mechanisms of music with those of other activities, such as housework, exercising, or reading. By doing so, we can gain a better understanding of the specific role of music in emotion regulation. Finally, it's crucial to note that the study's participants are mostly from China and the United Kingdom, limiting the findings' generalizability to a larger, more culturally varied population. While the study focuses on gender differences in emotion control through music and includes individuals from various cultural backgrounds, it is critical to explore how gender and culture interact to shape the function of music in emotion regulation. Expanding the research to include a more diverse cross-cultural approach with participants from various cultural backgrounds, professions, and levels of musical expertise in the future could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how gender and culture interact to influence the intricate dynamics of using music to regulate emotions. This larger approach would provide more nuanced insights into this complicated interaction and broaden the study's application across many contexts. Conclusions To sum up, the findings of this study indicate that listening to music is a widely employed emotion regulation technique with a high success rate in enhancing positive emotions by utilizing various techniques and underlying processes. Based on Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 92 the findings of this study, suggestions are made regarding how music might be used to control emotions in daily life. The current study's findings offer some evidence for the role of music in emotion regulation across genders. While these findings may provide a valuable starting point, further research should be conducted to examine the specific role of music in emotion regulation and the relationship between emotion regulation and gender. References Anderson, I., Gil, S., Gibson, C., Wolf, S., Shapiro, W., Semerci, O., & Greenberg, D. M. (2021). “Just the way you are”: Linking music listening on Spotify and personality. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12(4), 561–572. Augustine, A. A., & Hemenover, S. H. (2009). On the relative effectiveness of affect regulation strategies: A meta-analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 23(6), 1181–1220. Baltazar, M. (2019). Musical affect regulation in adolescents: A conceptual model. In K. McFerran, P. Derrington, & S. Saarikallio (Eds.), Handbook of Music Adolescents, and Wellbeing (pp. 65–74). Oxford University Press. Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., & Phillips, C. M. (2001). Do people aggress to improve their mood? Catharsis beliefs, affect regulation opportunity, and aggressive responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(1), 17–32. Carlson, E., Wilson, J., Baltazar, M., Duman, D., Peltola, H.-R., Toiviainen, P., & Saarikallio, S. (2021). The role of music in everyday life during the first wave of the coronavirus pandemic: A mixed-methods exploratory study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 647756. Chaturvedi, V., Kaur, A. B., Varshney, V., Garg, A., Chhabra, G. S., & Kumar, M. (2022). Music mood and human emotion recognition based on physiological signals: A systematic review. Multimedia Systems, 28(1), 21–44. Fallon, V. T., Rubenstein, S., Warfield, R., Ennerfelt, H., Hearn, B., & Leaver, E. (2020). Stress reduction from a musical intervention. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain, 30(1), 20–27. Fancourt, D., Garnett, C., Spiro, N., West, R., & Müllensiefen, D. (2019). How do artistic creative activities regulate our emotions? Validation of the Emotion Regulation Strategies for Artistic Creative Activities Scale (ERS-ACA). PloS One, 14(2), e0211362. Giordano, F., Scarlata, E., Baroni, M., Gentile, E., Puntillo, F., Brienza, N., & Gesualdo, L. (2020). Receptive music therapy to reduce stress and improve wellbeing in Italian clinical staff involved in COVID-19 pandemic: A preliminary study. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 70, 101688. Goubet, K. E., & Chrysikou, E. G. (2019). Emotion regulation flexibility: Gender differences in context sensitivity and repertoire. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 935. Greasley, A. E. (2008). Engagement with music in everyday life: An in-depth study of adults’ musical preferences and listening behaviours [Doctoral dissertation, Keele University]. Greb, F., Steffens, J., & Schlotz, W. (2019). Modeling music-selection behavior in everyday life: A multilevel statistical learning approach and mediation analysis of experience sampling data. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 390. Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. 93 Zheng Danhe, Aini Azeqa Ma’rof & Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh Gross, J. J., Richards, J. M., & John, O. P. (2006). Emotion regulation in everyday life. In D. K. Snyder, J. Simpson, & J. N. Hughes (Eds.), Emotion regulation in couples and families: Pathways to dysfunction and health. American Psychological Association. Harley, J. M., Pekrun, R., Taxer, J. L., & Gross, J. J. (2019). Emotion regulation in achievement situations: An integrated model. Educational Psychologist, 54(2), 106– 126. Jakubowski, K., & Ghosh, A. (2021). Music-evoked autobiographical memories in everyday life. Psychology of Music, 49(3), 649–666. Juslin, P. N., & Laukka, P. (2004). Expression, perception, and induction of musical emotions: A review and a questionnaire study of everyday listening. Journal of New Music Research, 33(3), 217–238. Juslin, P. N., & Västfjäll, D. (2008). Emotional responses to music: The need to consider underlying mechanisms. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31(5), 559–575. Knobloch, S., & Zillmann, D. (2002). Mood management via the digital jukebox. Journal of Communication, 52(2), 351–366. Montana, J. I., Matamala-Gomez, M., Maisto, M., Mavrodiev, P. A., Cavalera, C. M., Diana, B., Mantovani, F., & Realdon, O. (2020). The benefits of emotion regulation interventions in virtual reality for the improvement of wellbeing in adults and older adults: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(2), 500. Negishi, K., & Sekiguchi, T. (2020). Individual traits that influence the frequency and emotional characteristics of involuntary musical imagery: An experience sampling study. Plos One, 15(6), e0234111. North, A. C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2010). Music and marketing. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Handbook of music and emotion: Theory, research, applications (pp. 909– 930). Oxford University Press. North, A. C., Hargreaves, D. J., & Hargreaves, J. J. (2004). Uses of music in everyday life. Music Perception, 22(1), 41–77. North, A. C., Hargreaves, D. J., & O’Neill, S. A. (2000). The importance of music to adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(2), 255–272. Parkinson, B., & Totterdell, P. (1999). Classifying affect-regulation strategies. Cognition & Emotion, 13(3), 277–303. Peistaraite, U., & Clark, T. (2020). Emotion regulation processes can benefit self-regulated learning in classical musicians. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 568760. Quiñones, M. G. (2019). Studying listening to recorded popular music: A methodological overview and some suggestions for future research. 91–100. Rentfrow, P. J., & Gosling, S. D. (2003). The do re mi’s of everyday life: The structure and personality correlates of music preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), 1236. Saarikallio, S., & Erkkilä, J. (2007). The role of music in adolescents’ mood regulation. Psychology of Music, 35(1), 88–109. Saarikallio, S., Nieminen, S., & Brattico, E. (2013). Affective reactions to musical stimuli reflect emotional use of music in everyday life. Musicae Scientiae, 17(1), 27–39. Salovey, P., Stroud, L. R., Woolery, A., & Epel, E. S. (2002). Perceived emotional intelligence, stress reactivity, and symptom reports: Further explorations using the trait meta-mood scale. Psychology and Health, 17(5), 611–627. Schäfer, K., Saarikallio, S., & Eerola, T. (2020). Music may reduce loneliness and act as social surrogate for a friend: Evidence from an experimental listening study. Music & Science, 3, 2059204320935709. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (76-94) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 94 Scherer, K. R., & Zentner, M. R. (2001). Emotional effects of music: Production rules. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Music and emotion: Theory and research (pp. 361– 392). Oxford University Press. Stewart, J., Garrido, S., Hense, C., & McFerran, K. (2019). Music use for mood regulation: Self-awareness and conscious listening choices in young people with tendencies to depression. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1199. Tamres, L. K., Janicki, D., & Helgeson, V. S. (2002). Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-analytic review and an examination of relative coping. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(1), 2–30. Taruffi, L. (2021). Mind-wandering during personal music listening in everyday life: Music- evoked emotions predict thought valence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), 12321. Underwood, M. K., Coie, J. D., & Herbsman, C. R. (1992). Display rules for anger and aggression in school-age children. Child Development, 63(2), 366–380. Van Goethem, A., & Sloboda, J. (2011). The functions of music for affect regulation. Musicae Scientiae, 15(2), 208–228. Varner, E. (2020). General music learning is also social and emotional learning. General Music Today, 33(2), 74–78. Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (1992). The development of achievement task values: A theoretical analysis. Developmental Review, 12(3), 265–310. Ziv, N., & Hollander-Shabtai, R. (2022). Music and COVID-19: Changes in uses and emotional reaction to music under stay-at-home restrictions. Psychology of Music, 50(2), 475–491. Biographies Zheng Danhe is a postgraduate student at the Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Aini Azeqa Ma’rof is a Senior Lecturer in Social Psychology, Department of Social Sciences and Development, Faculty of Human Ecology as well as head of lab at Institute for Social Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh is a research fellow at Institute for Social Science Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 2 (2023)

music education, Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), systematic literature review

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/531

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8081

Investigating the Roles of Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Music Education:

Despite the growing recognition of the importance of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in music education, there is a significant knowledge gap regarding the precise nature of its role and how it contributes to effective teaching and learning. The objective of this systematic literature review is to examine and synthesize existing research on the roles of teachers' PCK in music education. Specifically, the study aims to explore how the PCK of music educators influences their teaching strategies, curriculum development, student engagement, and assessment practices. The research seeks to examine how these roles may vary across different scenarios and the implications of these variations for teaching and learning, especially in the context of music education across various educational settings. By synthesizing findings from diverse educational levels and cultural contexts, this review seeks to offer profound insights into the optimization of music education across various educational settings. The study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. The analysis focused on the research question and identified themes related to the PCK in music education. The analysis revealed four emerging themes: understanding of music concepts, pedagogical strategies, student-centered teaching approaches, and assessment practices. These findings provide insights into effective practices for music curriculum designers and instructors in designing and developing strategies in teaching and learning in music education. These insights can inform the development of effective teaching strategies, curriculum design, and assessment practices in music education, ultimately enhancing the quality of instruction and learning experiences for students.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/8081/4811

Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 95 Investigating the Roles of Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Music Education: A Systematic Literature Review Shahazwan Mat Yusoff1*, Anwar Farhan Mohamad Marzaini2, Muhammad Hafiz Hassan3, & Noorhayati Zakaria4 1Department of Curriculum and Instructional Technology, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia. 2Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 13500, Permatang Pauh, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. 3University Teknologi MARA Cawangan Sarawak, Kampus Samarahan, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia. 4Department of Language and Literacy Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia. e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 29 December 2023 Cite this article (APA): Mat Yusoff, S., Mohamad Marzaini, A. F., Hassan, M. H. & Zakaria, N. (2023). Investigating the roles of pedagogical content knowledge in music education: A systematic literature review. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12(2), 95-114. doi: https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.2.6.2023 Abstract Despite the growing recognition of the importance of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in music education, there is a significant knowledge gap regarding the precise nature of its role and how it contributes to effective teaching and learning. The objective of this systematic literature review is to examine and synthesize existing research on the roles of teachers' PCK in music education. Specifically, the study aims to explore how the PCK of music educators influences their teaching strategies, curriculum development, student engagement, and assessment practices. The research seeks to examine how these roles may vary across different scenarios and the implications of these variations for teaching and learning, especially in the context of music education across various educational settings. By synthesizing findings from diverse educational levels and cultural contexts, this review seeks to offer profound insights into the optimization of music education across various educational settings. The study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. The analysis focused on the research question and identified themes related to the PCK in music education. The analysis revealed four emerging themes: understanding of music concepts, pedagogical strategies, student-centered teaching approaches, and assessment practices. These findings provide insights into effective practices for music curriculum designers and instructors in designing and developing strategies in teaching and learning in music education. These insights can inform the development of effective teaching strategies, curriculum design, and assessment practices in music education, ultimately enhancing the quality of instruction and learning experiences for students. Keywords: music education, Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), systematic literature review Introduction The dynamic interplay of teacher knowledge, student engagement, and learning outcomes forms the nexus of the educational process. Within this complex interplay, the concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) has taken a central role, particularly in the context of music education. PCK, as a 96 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 critical component of teaching expertise, refers to the specific set of knowledge and skills that teachers need to provide quality instruction and foster meaningful learning experiences (Manila, 2020). In the realm of music education, PCK encompasses not just a deep understanding of music theory and technique, but also a rich toolkit of teaching strategies, student engagement approaches, curriculum implementation skills, and evaluative methods for assessing student aptitude across diverse aspects of music (Wacker, 2020). Extant research in music education has spotlighted several arenas wherein PCK is crucial. Cross-national studies exploring student music teachers' perceptions of PCK-in-action in three different countries have shown its significant role in shaping pedagogical perspectives and teaching effectiveness (Mateiro, et al., 2012). Further, there is a growing body of evidence illustrating the significant role music plays in developing children's phonological awareness, language skills, and future reading abilities. This underscores the importance of PCK in music education, particularly for elementary school teachers, and highlights the potential broader implications for general educational outcomes. In terms of the content of PCK in music education, emerging research with Dutch specialist preschool music teachers has identified a new form of bodily-based PCK. This entails instructional and representational gestures and guiding movements that contribute to creating a multisensory learning experience (Bremmer, 2021). This indicates that PCK is not just about what teachers know, but also how they communicate and demonstrate this knowledge in the classroom. Despite the growing recognition of the importance of PCK in music education, there is still much to be understood about the precise nature of its role and how it contributes to effective teaching and learning. Jossan et al. (2021) asserted that The efficacy of specific teaching methodologies anchored in PCK can be subjective. Their success can vary depending on student demographics, individual learning styles, and cultural contexts. Despite anecdotal evidence supporting various methods, there's a dearth of empirical research that systematically evaluates which PCK-driven techniques resonate most effectively with diverse student groups in the realm of music education (Bond, 2017; Hart, 2019; Wacker, 2020). Moreover, music is a multifaceted discipline that goes beyond mere rhythm and melody. It's a tapestry of emotions, historical narratives, and cultural significances (McCarthy, 2007; Song, 2023). Understanding how educators with a robust PCK framework can seamlessly weave these elements into their teaching practices, offering students a holistic music education experience. The influence of PCK doesn't end at teaching; it also potentially shapes assessment practices in music education (Payne et al., 2019). The extent and efficacy of PCK's role in assessment remain areas of further inquiry. The incorporation of PCK into assessment practices is essential because it ensures that assessments are grounded not just in technical competence but also in contextual comprehension and interpretive nuance (Mat Yusoff et al., 2023). A PCK-driven assessment can place more weight on a student's ability to communicate the emotional or historical significance of a work than just flawless performance. A PCK- based holistic assessment approach like this promotes a more thorough comprehension of music and acknowledges the complexity of musical competence (Vadivel, 2021). These gaps are particularly noticeable in the exploration of teachers' PCK roles across different educational levels and in diverse cultural contexts. A robust understanding of these roles can potentially guide the development of professional development programs for music educators and inform curriculum design and pedagogical strategies. The current study aims to address this knowledge gap and extend the understanding of the roles of teachers' PCK in music education and thus to address the knowledge gap and extend the understanding of the roles of teachers' PCK in music education. Specifically, the study aims to explore how the PCK of music educators influences their teaching strategies, curriculum development, student engagement, and assessment practices. The research seeks to examine how these roles may vary across different scenarios and the implications of these variations for teaching and learning, especially in the context of music education across various educational settings. Given the multifaceted nature of PCK and the diverse contexts in which music education occurs, it is crucial to examine how these roles may vary across different scenarios and the implications of these variations for teaching and learning. In particular, the study seeks to explore how the PCK of music educators influences their teaching strategies, curriculum development, student engagement, and assessment practices. The potential implications of this study could offer profound insights into the optimization of music education across a range of educational settings. Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 97 Literature Review Shulman's (1986) theory of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) underscores the crucial role that teachers play in translating subject matter into effective learning experiences for students. This concept becomes particularly salient within the context of music education, as teachers are required to integrate their understanding of musical concepts with instructional strategies, curriculum development, student engagement strategies, and appropriate assessment practices. In light of the importance of PCK, this article seeks to delve into its relevance and application within the field of music education. Effective teaching strategies, born from the integration of musical understanding and pedagogical expertise, represent a crucial aspect of teachers' PCK in music education. In line with Swanson (2013), the deployment of innovative teaching strategies that move beyond mere rote learning is vital. Such strategies could include problem-based learning, where students are encouraged to explore real-world musical issues, fostering a deeper understanding and critical engagement with the subject matter. Alongside these innovative methods, the integration of technology into teaching strategies is paramount. Utilising tools such as digital audio workstations, music composition software, and interactive music learning apps can significantly enhance the delivery of lessons, making musical concepts more tangible and engaging for students (Tsugawa, 2022). Another vital component of teachers' PCK is their involvement in curriculum development. The teacher's expertise allows for the design of a curriculum that covers a broad spectrum of musical genres and cultures while balancing between theory and practice. Sungurtekin (2021) emphasises the importance of experiential learning opportunities within the music curriculum, such as ensemble playing, concerts, and field trips to music concerts or music composition projects. These activities enhance students' practical skills while expanding their understanding and appreciation of music's multifaceted nature. A teacher's PCK in music education also shines through in their ability to foster student engagement. A stimulating and inclusive learning environment created by the teacher can enhance student involvement and understanding (Rizk & Hillier, 2022). Diverse teaching materials and resources, such as popular music or film scores, can be used to contextualise musical concepts and capture students' interests. Additionally, a technique such as the 'flipped classroom', which allows students to study materials outside of class and then use class time for discussions and practising, can significantly enhance student engagement. Engagement shouldn't be confined to the classroom, and students should be encouraged to participate in extracurricular music activities, such as school orchestras or choirs. Lastly, teachers' PCK plays an essential role in the execution of appropriate assessment practices in music education. As Yan and Carless (2022) highlights, effective assessment should capture both the process and product of students' learning. Formative assessment strategies, such as ongoing feedback during music rehearsals or compositions, provide students with timely, actionable feedback. Simultaneously, promoting peer and self-assessment practices aids in developing students' ability to critically reflect on their own work and others, fostering a sense of responsibility and independence in their learning. In conclusion, teachers' PCK in music education is multi-dimensional, encompassing a deep understanding of effective teaching strategies, curriculum development, student engagement strategies, and assessment practices. By elucidating these aspects, this article hopes to provide practical insights to educators and those involved in curriculum design and policymaking, contributing to the enhancement of music education. Theoretical Foundation of Pedagogical Content Knowledge Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) is a fundamental principle highlighting that effective teaching extends beyond merely delivering Content Knowledge (CK) to students. As Shulman (1987) emphasized, PCK is the distinguishing factor between content specialists and educators, providing the pedagogue with a unique, multifaceted understanding of knowledge transmission (p. 8). Shulman (1986) introduced the concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) as a distinct and significant form of knowledge specific to teachers. PCK is characterised by teachers' capacity to effectively connect their pedagogical knowledge, which pertains to their understanding of effective teaching methods, with 98 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 their subject matter knowledge, which reflects their expertise in the content they teach. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) can be understood as the integration of two distinct domains, wherein teachers utilise their expertise in subject matter to enhance instructional practises. Since its inception in the 1980s, the concept of PCK has been intensively explored, particularly in science and mathematics education, to uncover its specific components. Research has underscored several key aspects of PCK that teachers need to possess. These include understanding students' interests (Ball, et al., 2008; Hill, et al., 2004), recognizing common challenges students face in grasping content (Koehler & Mishra, 2009; Tamir, 1988), and utilizing specific strategies tailored to teaching concepts within their discipline (Magnusson, et al., 1999; Rowan et al., 2001). On top of that, Cochran, DeRuiter, and King (1993) conducted a revision of Shulman's original model in order to better align it with a constructivist viewpoint on the processes of teaching and learning. The authors of the study proposed an expanded framework for Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), which presents a model that arises from the seamless integration of four key components which are known as; • subject matter knowledge • and pedagogical knowledge. • Teachers' understanding of students' abilities and learning strategies, ages and developmental levels, attitudes, motivations, and prior knowledge of the concepts to be taught. • The other component of teacher knowledge that contributes to pedagogical content knowledge is teachers' understanding of the social, political, cultural and physical environments in which students are asked to learn. This model enhances our comprehension of the strategies employed by teachers to effectively communicate subject matter to their students as illustrated in Figure 1 below. Figure 1. Components of PCK Model Moreover, PCK requires educators to sequence instruction appropriately (Hill et al., 2008), comprehend typical student errors and common misunderstandings of content (Hill et al., 2008), and interpret student performance and work effectively (Ball, et al., 2008; Hill et al., 2004). These PCK aspects, although initially studied in science and mathematics education, have been extended and Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 99 applied to other fields, including music education. This broad application of PCK principles across disciplines underscores their universal relevance and the necessity for educators to acquire these multifaceted skills. A robust understanding of PCK enriches the teaching process, enabling educators to provide instruction that is not only knowledge-rich but also tailored to their students' unique needs and learning styles. This reinforces the assertion that effective teaching necessitates a profound grasp of both content and pedagogy, embodied in the concept of PCK. In music education, Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) is uniquely defined as the knowledge of teaching strategies in music, engaging students meaningfully with music, effective implementation of the music curriculum, assessment of student abilities across music's different facets, and the ability to demonstrate and explain musical concepts (Ballantyne & Packer, 2004, p. 302). PCK extends beyond the realm of Content Knowledge (CK) by focusing on how to teach musical concepts rather than just the knowledge of these concepts. For instance, if a teacher recognizes that a clarinet player is not properly playing tenuto markings, they are applying CK. PCK, however, involves knowing how to instruct the player on tongue placement, air usage, and note duration to achieve the correct tenuto articulation. Research in music education has deeply explored the elements of teaching that encompass PCK and its application in implementing music curricula (Haston, 2018; Millican, 2012; Raiber & Teachout, 2014). Additionally, researchers have investigated various rehearsal skills such as providing feedback (Goolsby, 1999; Incognito, et al., 2022), pacing (Price & Byo, 2002; Worthy, 2005), and error detection (DeCarbo, 1982; Forsythe & Woods, 1983). These studies aim to better understand the preparation of preservice educators and its impact on teaching. Applying Shulman's PCK framework, Millican (2013) explored the thought processes of expert beginning band teachers. The findings revealed that these expert band directors identified elements of PCK while analyzing videotaped performances of beginner bands. The most frequently observed elements were mental imaging/modeling, understanding how to manipulate variables to positively impact student performance, and collecting and interpreting specific data to help students master performance principles. Supporting these findings, Forrester (2018) conducted interviews with experienced school band directors. Her results suggested that instrumental music teaching calls for a specialized form of knowledge that merges teaching and conducting, advocating for an integrated approach rather than teaching these aspects separately. In-service teachers concur on the significance of PCK in teaching music (Millican, 2008, 2013), stating that preservice teachers need to strengthen their PCK through experiences like observing and interacting with experienced teachers (Millican, 2008; Paul, 1998). Such opportunities can be created through field experiences (Wolfgang, 1990), lab classes (Butler, 2001; Paul, 1998), and reflective teaching and planning activities (Barry, 1996). These experiences provide preservice teachers with successful applications of PCK, which can then be replicated in their classrooms. Further research is needed to investigate the most effective methods for developing PCK and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge in preservice music teacher preparation. Music education demands a diverse range of PCK applications, with leading a rehearsal as a significant example. This activity involves various skills such as beat pattern and gestural techniques (Silvey, et al., 2020; Johnson & Fredrickson, 1995; Mayne, 1992), conceptual understanding of the musical score (Lane, 2006; Silvey et al., 2017), and instrumental fingerings and repair techniques (Millican, 2008). Knowledge of secondary instruments is also a vital aspect of PCK in music education (Millican, 2017). Another essential aspect of PCK in music education revolves around score study. This area has been extensively researched, shedding light on how both expert and novice musicians internalize music (Lane, 2006; Gromko, 2021) and how PCK influences novice musicians' preparation for rehearsals (Silvey & Montemayor, 2014; Wacker, 2018). While the methods of score study may vary among conductors, the importance of this practice remains consistent in preparing to lead a rehearsal. Historically, music education research focusing on instrumental ensemble preparation has predominantly addressed PCK (Crowe, 1996; Lane, 2006; Montemayor & Moss, 2009; Sætre & Zhukov, 2021). However, having a high level of PCK is not the sole determinant of a music teacher's success (Millican, 2008). Some music educators believe that more explicit instruction on private lesson teaching might enhance their practice (Bresler, 2021; Villarreal, 2010). Even though PCK is crucial in teaching, the mere possession of knowledge doesn't guarantee the teacher's ability to effectively impart this knowledge to students (Loughran et al, 2012; Oztay & Boz, 2022). Thus, knowing how to teach the content can be as significant and impactful as knowing the content itself. 100 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Methodology The Systematic Literature Review (SLR) is a method to identify, assess, interpret, and analyse existing research findings related to a specific topic, research question, or phenomenon. The objective of this study was to conduct an SLR to summarise the literature on the roles of PCK educational settings to support teaching and learning. The review was conducted according to the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) (Moher et al., 2009), which consist of four steps: identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion criteria. The identification step involves finding relevant articles using keywords and database searches. The screening step involves selecting articles based on predetermined criteria, and the eligibility step involves evaluating articles to ensure they meet the inclusion criteria. The final step is the inclusion criteria, where the remaining articles are analysed. There are several benefits of using PRISMA as a guide for conducting an SLR, as its searching procedures are systematic, it provides a clear understanding of the process, and it makes the evaluation of the sources of information easier (Mohamed et al., 2020). Figure 2 below illustrates the process of conducting the SLR in this study. Figure 2. Stages of analysis (Adapted from Moher et al. 2009). Total numbers of records identified through database searching N = 51 Science Direct (n = 32) Web of Science (n = 24) Screening Included Eligibility Identification Assessment of title and abstract N = 48 Full-text articles (N = 34) Excluded due to: Text didn’t justify the title, Not delve into PCK and music education Studies retained for review N = 11 Full-text articles assessed for eligibility Search narrowed by removal of Duplicates, Articles published before 2014, Language not in English, conference paper, chapter in books, review articles Records excluded (N = 3) in the criteria: Not in the educational settings, Participants are not school educators Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 101 Identification The initial step in conducting the SLR using PRISMA is the identification process, where the main keywords are expanded by identifying and listing synonyms to retrieve as many articles from the database as possible. The researcher used the WOS and Science Direct databases at Universiti Malaya to generate search strings using the keyword “ PCK in music education “. The search strings were then entered in the Advanced menu’s Enter query string. This allowed for the documents to be retrieved in the first phase. Screening The second stage is the screening process, where articles are selected or discarded based on criteria established by the researcher and obtained from the database. Articles that meet the criteria are referred to as “included articles”, while those that do not meet the criteria are removed and are referred to as “excluded articles.” The search was carried out in WOS and Science Direct using the keyword “PCK in music education” from 2014 to 2023, with a restriction to studies written in English. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are summarised in Table 1. Table 1. The Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Criteria Inclusion Exclusion Types of Articles Journal (research articles) Conference paper, chapter in book, review articles Language English Non-English Timeline From 2014 until 2023 Published before 2014 The researcher continued the process by selecting "article" as the type of document in the database and limiting the search to those in the English language. This was accomplished by clicking on the left side box of the website interface and selecting the "Limit to" button at the bottom of the checkboxes. This resulted in 97 articles being produced from the screening process. The researcher then analysed the distribution of the articles, considering the year of publication, subject area, authors, countries, and universities the authors were affiliated with. Out of the 48 articles, 3 were excluded for reasons such as being irrelevant to the study context, lack of access to the full text, as well as insufficient information in the abstracts regarding the results and a comprehensive understanding of the topic. Eligibility The next step in the SLR process was the eligibility phase, where 45 articles were chosen. The articles were thoroughly assessed by reading through the titles, abstracts, methods, results, and discussions to make sure they satisfied the inclusion criteria and were aligned with the current research goals. The selection of articles to be reviewed was carried out in three stages. The first stage involved screening the titles and abstracts, the second stage involved analysing the articles based on established selection criteria and organising the results into a table, and the third stage involved reading and synthesising all results into one document. The researcher only included articles that were relevant to the research questions and excluded those that did not examine PCK in music education. After eliminating articles that were not applicable to the study of PCK in music education, 11 articles remained and were deemed suitable for analysis. Table 1 summarises the review of research on PCK in music education. The study employed thematic analysis, a qualitative technique, as its chosen methodology. According to Xu and Zammit (2020), qualitative analysis is synonymous with synthesis through interpretation and explanation. The process began with a comprehensive review of all 16 publications, focusing specifically on the abstract, findings, and discussion sections. The data was then abstracted based on the study topics. Relevant data from the investigations that could address the research questions were collated and abstracted for further evaluation. Thematic analysis was then conducted on 102 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 the abstracted data, involving tasks such as identifying similarities, counting, clustering, detecting patterns and themes, and establishing linkages. The aim of thematic analysis is to identify and analyze key elements of the data, guided by the research question (Clarke & Braun, 2013). Thematic analysis is considered the most effective method for synthesizing data from an integrative (mixed research design) approach (Flemming et al., 2019). The author employed both deductive and inductive thematic analysis. Deductive thematic analysis involved identifying themes related to the research question initially, while inductive thematic analysis involved identifying themes based on patterns observed in previous research. Results The research resulted in 51 hits, however, only 11 studies satisfied the inclusion criteria and were analysed. Table 2 shows the themes of these 11 studies. The studies included in the review were conducted in Philippines (1), Australia (3), United States (5), Finland (1), Spain (1), and China (1). They were published between 2014 and 2023, with the majority being published in 2022. The sample sizes of the studies varied and the data was mainly collected through interviews and surveys. The systematic review uncovered four main themes related to the PCK, with a focus on the understanding of music concepts, pedagogical strategies, student-centered teaching approaches, and assessment practices (as shown in Table 2). Table 2. Review of the research on the pedagogical content knowledge in music education Author & Year Country Respondents Theme 1 Understanding of music concepts Theme 2 Pedagogical strategies Theme 3 Student- centered teaching approaches Theme 4 Assessment practice Manila, B. M. (2020) Philippines 54 elementary teachers from the District of Mariveles, Bataan, Philippines / Yin (2022) China 100 music teachers from colleges and universities in China / Lee, D. A. (2018) Australia 15 Australian electric guitarists, including professional musicians, music educators, and students / Hart Jr., J. T. (2019) United States 100 music education faculty and conducting instructors from colleges and universities in the United States / Haston, J. L. (2018) United States 5 in-service secondary band teachers from the United States / Shaw, R. (2016) United States 2 urban choral music educators / Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 103 Beltman, S., Glass, C., Dinham, J., Chalk, B., & Nguyen, B. (2015) Australia 125 pre-service music teachers from an Australian university / Tsugawa, Y. (2022) United States 16 undergraduate music education students and 5 current and former teaching assistants from a university in the United States / Draves, T. J. (2019) United States a first-year music educator in the United States / Calderón- Garrido, D., & Gustems- Carnicer, J. (2021) Spain 335 compulsory education music teachers from Spain / Partti, H., Westerlund, H. & Lebler, D. (2015) Finland and Australia Program leaders from the Sibelius Academy in Finland and the Queensland Conservatorium in Australia / Understanding of Music Concepts To make music comprehensible to students, teachers need to have a deep understanding of music, including its historical, theoretical, and practical aspects. However, research specifically investigating Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in Music Education remains limited, as noted by Manila (2020). Manila conducted a descriptive research study in Mariveles, Bataan, during the 2019-2020 school year, involving 54 elementary teachers selected purposively. The study utilized both questionnaires and interviews to gather data, which were analyzed using the SPSS software. The findings revealed that the respondents demonstrated insufficient knowledge of elementary-level music content and pedagogy, posing a significant barrier to effective teaching and learning in music education. Teachers identified challenges such as their lack of subject knowledge, negative student attitudes towards music, inadequate facilities, and a lack of teaching resources. Manila (2020) emphasizes the importance of teachers improving their content and pedagogical knowledge in music and highlights a positive correlation between teachers' content knowledge and the number of relevant seminars and trainings they attended. Moreover, pedagogical knowledge variations were influenced by teachers' specialization and the number of relevant seminars and trainings they attended, further highlighting the need for professional development opportunities to enhance PCK and improve music education quality. While Manila's study underscores the vital role of PCK in grasping music concepts, it seems to indirectly suggest that the mere accumulation of content knowledge may not translate to effective music pedagogy. The intricate nature of musical concepts demands not just knowledge, but a nuanced understanding and the ability to contextualize them for students of varying competencies. Besides, the emphasis on seminars and trainings, although beneficial, might overshadow the essential experiential and reflective processes that facilitate a profound comprehension of music concepts in pedagogical scenarios. Another study by Yin (2022) underscores the critical role of PCK in deepening content understanding in music education, particularly in the context of modern music instruction. Yin proposes an innovative approach that integrates PCK with information fusion-oriented multimedia technology to enhance teaching effectiveness. By studying music teachers' practices in colleges and universities, a 104 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 theoretical framework was developed to equip them with strategies to augment their PCK and enhance students' comprehension of music content. The study also presents the construction of an intelligent music teaching system based on multimedia technology and PCK principles. This system aims to create a more immersive and enjoyable learning environment by recharacterizing subject knowledge in a way that appeals to students. The results of the experiment indicate a significant positive impact when PCK and information fusion-oriented multimedia technology are applied in music education, leading to improved educational outcomes in modern music. Integrating PCK into music instruction not only promotes a deeper understanding of the content but also increases student engagement in the learning process. Furthermore, although multimedia can support instructional strategies, a heavy reliance on technology could take away from the experiential, hands-on component of music education, which is essential for deeply internalising and comprehending musical concepts. Lee (2018) focuses on the development of an up-to-date pedagogical canon for electric guitar in popular music education in Australia. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, analyzing data from various industry sources. It revealed a significant cultural insight into Australian music education, showing that the development of electric guitar culture in Australia was heavily influenced by international trends from the United States and the United Kingdom. However, the study highlights the importance of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in considering the specific cultural and contextual factors that influence students' engagement with and understanding of music. The findings suggest a potential gap in the content understanding aspect of PCK in Australian music education, as the focus on international content may hinder the growth of a distinct Australian electric guitar culture. Lee emphasizes that PCK in content understanding should involve considering the cultural context and tailoring instruction to better reflect and incorporate local influences, thereby making music education more engaging and relevant for learners and promoting a deeper understanding of the subject. This study emphasises the nuanced nature of teaching electric guitar in Australia, but it also highlights concerns about striking a balance between indigenous musical traditions and global influences. International trends certainly influence music education, but it's crucial to acknowledge and celebrate Australia's own musical legacy and original ideas. A wider lesson for music education worldwide is implied by the focus on PCK's cultural context adaptation: be cautious of universal pedagogies that could unintentionally homogenise musical training, therefore dilution of regional musical expressions and traditions. Pedagogical strategies Studies also show the importance of not only content knowledge but also effective pedagogical strategies in teaching music, specifically conducting. However, limited real-world conducting experiences suggest a need for more practical applications of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in this field to improve music education outcomes. Hart Jr. (2019) conducted a study examining conducting courses completed by undergraduate music education majors, focusing on course structure, content, pedagogical values, and the emphasis instructors placed on various areas of teacher knowledge. The study utilized Shulman's PCK framework as a guiding structure. The findings revealed that music education divisions generally required two conducting courses across different degree specializations. Instructors were predominantly male, highly educated, and held assistant or full professor ranks, with significant college teaching experience. However, their experience in K-12 music teaching was comparatively limited. Both music education faculty and conducting instructors emphasized the highest importance on music content knowledge, followed by music PCK and general pedagogical knowledge. Despite this emphasis, opportunities for students to conduct in authentic learning contexts were minimal. These findings highlight the role of PCK in music education, particularly in the context of pedagogical strategies. Instructors recognized the value of PCK in effectively teaching specific content to students, which involves different teaching strategies, understanding student learning processes, and addressing common difficulties. However, the limited opportunities for authentic conducting practice suggest an area for improvement. Enhancing these opportunities could facilitate a better application of PCK by providing students with real-world experiences to connect their content knowledge with effective pedagogical strategies. Thus, the role of PCK in music education extends beyond content understanding to encompass mastering pedagogical strategies for effective teaching. It is essential for Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 105 future practices, policies, and research to address these aspects and ensure a comprehensive and practical approach to music education. Pedagogical strategies in music education are derived from a combination of professional training, personal intuition, and social interactions. These strategies are tailored to effectively teach music content to students, underscoring the critical role of PCK in shaping practical teaching approaches. Haston (2018) investigated the perceived sources of PCK used by five in-service secondary band teachers. The teachers participated in an exercise involving planning, teaching, and video- recording a 30-minute band rehearsal. The researcher identified instances of PCK application, which were confirmed by an independent researcher. All participants agreed with the identified instances. The findings revealed diverse sources of PCK among the participants, including observation apprenticeship, methods courses, intuition, peer influence, and cooperating teachers. These varied sources indicate that PCK in music education is derived from a range of experiences and influences. This study emphasizes the importance of PCK as a guiding framework that informs and shapes teaching approaches used by band teachers in real-world settings. The reliance on various sources of PCK demonstrates how teachers tailor their pedagogical strategies to effectively teach music content. Additionally, the participants acknowledged the positive impact of metacognition on their teaching practices. Reflecting on their sources of PCK and observing it in action facilitated a deeper understanding of their teaching strategies. This awareness, along with their expressed interest in future reflection on PCK, highlights the ongoing role of PCK in shaping and refining pedagogical strategies in music education. Teachers showcased their ability to adjust their pedagogical strategies based on their Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), employing different approaches to accommodate each classroom's distinct characteristics. This highlights the critical role of PCK as a flexible tool in tailoring teaching methods to optimize student learning outcomes. Shaw (2016) investigated the contextual knowledge possessed by urban music educators about their students, schools, communities, and broader cultural contexts. The study observed two urban choral music educators working in multiple, demographically diverse classrooms each week, allowing for an examination of how these teachers adjusted their pedagogical strategies based on their understanding of each unique context. PCK played a prominent role in this scenario, as teachers modified their approach according to the unique characteristics of each classroom. This demonstrates the application of PCK as an adaptable tool that teachers utilize to customize their teaching strategies to suit their students' needs, acknowledging the influence of the wider school, community, and cultural contexts. Despite these context-based adjustments, consistent elements in the teachers' practices were observed across different settings, reflecting their underlying pedagogical principles. This further underscores the role of PCK in shaping teaching practice in music education. Notably, the teachers employed culturally relevant and anti-racist pedagogies, highlighting the critical role of PCK in addressing the complexities of urban and multicultural learning environments. The application of PCK in this sense enhances not only content understanding but also promotes inclusivity and responsiveness to cultural diversity, crucial aspects of contemporary music education. The study concludes by discussing the implications of these findings for music teacher education, emphasizing the importance of equipping future music educators with the skills to adapt their PCK to the unique demands of various urban contexts. Student-centered teaching approaches PCK plays a crucial role in developing the identity of teachers, fostering positive relationships, and creating enjoyable learning experiences, thereby emphasizing a student-centric teaching approach. Beltman (2015) conducted a study on the formation of professional teacher identity among pre-service teachers in an Australian university, using drawings as a method to understand their perception of themselves as future teachers. The findings revealed that the participants envisioned themselves as teachers who foster positive student relationships, create enjoyable learning experiences, and exude confidence. This study highlights an important aspect: student understanding. The pre-service teachers' drawings indicate their intention to focus on the student experience, indicating their recognition of the need for student-centered teaching strategies. This understanding is a vital component of PCK, which emphasizes the adaptation of teaching strategies to meet the needs and learning styles of students for effective instruction. However, the study also identified a potential gap in the pre-service teachers' understanding of the complexities and challenges of teaching, which are critical aspects of the PCK 106 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 framework. This suggests that while they grasp the need for student-centered pedagogy, they may not fully comprehend the multidimensional nature of teaching and the significance of content knowledge, contextual factors, and pedagogical skills. This finding presents a challenge to music teacher educators to strike a balance between preparing pre-service teachers for the realities of the profession while preserving their enthusiasm and positive approach. It underscores the need for music teacher education programs to enhance students' PCK by integrating content knowledge with an understanding of pedagogical strategies and the realities of the teaching profession. In addition, by understanding and adapting to generational differences, teachers can effectively engage and connect with their learners, enhancing their pedagogical content knowledge and preparing them for future careers in inclusive and diverse music education. This is demonstrated in a study by Tsugawa (2022) that explored the intergenerational dynamics between pre-service music teachers and senior adult musicians in a New Horizons ensemble as part of a university's music teacher preparation program. Through an intrinsic qualitative case study methodology, data from 16 undergraduate music education students and interviews from 5 current and former teaching assistants were analysed to understand how younger teachers adapted to generational differences, the PCK acquired through their teaching experiences, and the impact of these experiences on their future careers. The findings underscored the importance of aligning the goals of music teacher education programs and adult ensembles while fostering opportunities that prepare students for adult music education. It also emphasized the need to reimagine partnerships between New Horizons and music teacher education to encourage greater national, racial, cultural, and musical diversity. Furthermore, studies highlight the significance of teacher identity development in music teacher education programs and its impact on student learning experiences. Draves (2019) conducted a particularistic case study that followed the journey of Paul, a first-year music educator, focusing on the development and transformation of his teacher identity. Drawing from Olsen's sociocultural view of teacher identity, the research examined Paul's personal teaching beliefs, their interaction with his professional development experiences, and how he perceived himself as a teacher. The study revealed three significant themes: Becoming Student Focused, Learning to Be Myself as a Teacher, and Taking Ownership. The findings emphasize the need for increased awareness and activities promoting teacher identity development in music teacher education programs. The researcher suggests that more scholarship on teacher identity focused on music student teachers and beginning music educators would be beneficial. In terms of student understanding, this study underscores the profound impact a teacher's evolving identity can have on pedagogy and student outcomes. As Paul developed a student-focused approach and took ownership of his role, it likely influenced the way he communicated and interacted with his students, shaping their learning experiences. Moreover, by learning to be himself as a teacher, Paul likely created a more authentic, relatable educational environment. This authenticity could enhance student engagement, fostering a more productive and enjoyable learning environment. In essence, understanding the transformation and nuances of a teacher's identity is pivotal not only for the teachers themselves but also for significant implications for student learning. Assessment Practice The COVID-19 pandemic prompted a sudden shift to remote education in Spain, significantly impacting music education. Calderón-Garrido & Gustems-Carnicer (2021) conducted a study involving 335 compulsory education music teachers, which found that their adaptation to remote teaching involved contemplative activities, with notable disparities among public, private, and semi-private institutions. While teachers reported increased contact with students, the learning primarily took place asynchronously. Significant differences emerged in the content taught, including musical styles, instrument playing, singing, and physical expression. Interdisciplinary teaching was underutilized, despite the potential benefits offered by digital technology. The study also revealed a gender gap in the perception of online teaching advantages, with more male teachers seeing benefits. Advantages included increased organization, family participation, and time for students, while concerns included inadequate content coverage, lack of government instructions, and evaluation challenges. The pandemic highlighted the importance of emotional aspects in music education and its role in emotional well-being. Teacher age significantly influenced their evaluation of remote teaching. Despite concerns about job security, most teachers felt they had learned something from the experience and recognized the need Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 107 for post-pandemic investment in schools. These findings underscore the urgent need for enhanced support for teachers in crisis-induced transitions to online education, including pedagogical skills development, reflective practice, and addressing social divides among students. Importantly, these data highlight the value of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in assessing student learning in music education, even in remote settings. PCK can be instrumental in navigating online teaching challenges, particularly in effectively evaluating students' musical abilities and understanding, thus ensuring a comprehensive, meaningful, and efficient learning process. Another study by Partti et al. (2015) explores the potential for innovative assessment practices in higher music education, considering the role of PCK and positioning assessment as a participant in the learning process. The study conducted an instrumental case study comparing assessment practices in folk music education in Finland and popular music education in Australia. Drawing on theories of communities of practice, the researchers aimed to understand assessment as learning and the development of professional identity through student participation in assessment processes. Qualitative data was collected through semi-structured interviews with program leaders from the Sibelius Academy in Finland and the Queensland Conservatorium in Australia. The interviews were treated as narratives, transcribed, and analysed, focusing on the development of assessment practices, goals, and success criteria. The results highlighted the learning value derived from participatory assessment practices and the contrast between the current state of the community and its aspirations. In this context, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) plays a crucial role in assessment practices, allowing educators to effectively design and adjust assessment tasks to the specific context, fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter, and aiding students in their professional identity development. This case study illuminates the potential of integrating PCK in assessment practices within higher music education. Discussion The findings from the studies by Manila (2020), Yin (2022), and Lee (2018) highlight the critical role that Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) plays in fostering a deep understanding of music concepts in education. Manila's research illustrates the significance of PCK in delivering quality instruction and facilitating meaningful student learning in music education, underlining that a lack of such knowledge presents a significant barrier to effective teaching and learning. The study illuminates that teachers' content and pedagogical knowledge in music can be greatly improved through professional development opportunities, like seminars and training sessions, emphasizing the importance of continuing education for teachers to enhance PCK. Manila (2020) emphasizes the importance of PCK in delivering high-quality music instruction. This resonates with earlier studies, such as Shulman (1986), which introduced the idea of PCK and highlighted its crucial role across different subject areas, not just music. While it underscores the necessity of professional development to boost PCK, previous research by Opfer & Pedder (2011) points out that the effectiveness of professional development varies based on its duration, focus, and active learning opportunities. Therefore, simply advocating for more seminars and training may not be sufficient. The content and nature of these training programs, as well as their adaptability to different teaching environments, should be thoroughly assessed. Yin (2022) provides insight into how PCK can transform music education when combined with innovative technologies such as multimedia, proposing an intelligent music teaching system based on multimedia technology principles and PCK. This system, by restructuring subject knowledge in ways that appeal to students, aims to create a more immersive and engaging learning environment, demonstrating the potential of PCK in modernizing music education and making it more effective. Although this study showed that integration of PCK with multimedia technologies in music education is a progressive move, previous research like Mayuni and Dhieni (2022) on multimedia learning, suggests that well-designed multimedia resources can significantly enhance learning. However, as pointed out by Mercader and Gairín (2020), there are barriers to technology integration in education, such as lack of resources, training, and institutional support. Thus, while Yin's intelligent music teaching system sounds promising, its broad applicability and the prerequisites for its effective implementation should be studied further. Lee's study focuses on the need for a culturally responsive PCK in music education, particularly in the context of electric guitar culture in Australia. The research suggests that the lack of a distinctively Australian guitar culture could be due to an insufficient understanding and consideration of the cultural 108 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 context in the pedagogical content knowledge applied in music education. This indicates the importance of integrating cultural awareness into PCK for it to be truly effective in engaging learners and fostering deep understanding. The study focuses on culturally responsive PCK, especially concerning electric guitar culture in Australia, aligns with Donahue-Keegan et al. (2019)'s research emphasizing culturally responsive teaching as a means to engage diverse learners better. Not only that, Abacioglu et al. (2020) has previously discussed the importance of teachers understanding their students' cultural backgrounds to make content more relevant and engaging. While Lee's study on the lack of a distinct Australian guitar culture is an important observation, it would be beneficial to consider broader cultural elements beyond just the guitar culture. In summary, these studies emphasize the transformative potential of PCK in music education, whether by enhancing teacher competency, integrating with modern technology, or adapting to cultural context, thus fostering an enriched understanding of music concepts among learners. The pivotal role of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in developing and deploying effective pedagogical strategies within music education is amply demonstrated in the studies by Hart Jr. (2019), Haston (2018), and Shaw (2016). Hart Jr.'s research underscores the importance of providing authentic learning contexts, such as opportunities for student conducting, to facilitate the practical application of PCK in music education. It reveals that despite an emphasis on music content knowledge, there is a clear recognition of the value of PCK, underlining the importance of coupling content with effective pedagogical strategies. This study reflects earlier findings by Ekiz-Kiran and Boz (2020), which discussed the intricate interplay between subject matter knowledge and pedagogical techniques, emphasizing the importance of PCK. Also, Mat Yusoff et al. (2023) argued that practice-based opportunities in real classrooms are vital for the development of effective teaching. While the highlights the limited opportunities for authentic conducting practice, it's worth to understand that even in authentic settings, the quality of the experience matters. Further, Kong et al. (2020) denotes that the authenticity of practice must be combined with reflection and expert feedback for maximal impact on developing PCK. Similarly, Haston's study provides insight into the multifarious sources of PCK that shape music educators' teaching approaches, including apprenticeships, intuition, peer influence, and the impact of a cooperating teacher. This underscores PCK as a flexible, adaptable framework informed by a variety of influences and experiences, capable of refining music education strategies. Shaw's study extends the scope of PCK in music education, emphasizing its role in adapting pedagogical strategies to unique classroom, school, and community contexts, further enhancing its relevance and application. This demonstrates PCK's dynamic role in not just enhancing content understanding but also promoting inclusivity and cultural responsiveness. Collectively, these studies illuminate the multifaceted nature of PCK in shaping effective pedagogical strategies in music education. They highlight the need for music educators to possess a robust PCK that integrates deep content knowledge with versatile teaching strategies, informed by a broad range of experiences and adaptable to diverse learning contexts. Haston's findings resonate with the notion that PCK is a complex, multifaceted construct, a perspective well- documented by Kind and Chan (2019). They argued that PCK evolves from a blend of content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and knowledge of context. While diverse sources of PCK (like peer influence, methods courses, etc.) are highlighted, it would be beneficial, as Shulman (1987) suggests, to discern which sources are most impactful in developing robust PCK. Not all experiences or influences contribute equally to effective pedagogical strategies. Hence, PCK serves as a vital framework guiding the continual refinement and adaptation of music education strategies to ensure optimal learning outcomes. The studies conducted by Beltman (2015), Tsugawa (2022), and Draves (2019) distinctly underscore the role of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in shaping student-centered teaching approaches in music education. Beltman's study delves into the emerging teacher identity among pre- service teachers, highlighting their intention to cultivate positive relationships and enjoyable learning experiences for students. This points to a crucial element of PCK: the understanding and adaptation of teaching strategies based on student needs and learning styles. However, it also uncovers a potential gap in comprehending the multi-dimensional aspects of teaching, such as content knowledge and pedagogical skills, which are integral to PCK. Beltman's focus on pre-service teachers' teacher identity formation is similar to Maaranen and Stenberg (2020) research on teacher identity. They asserted that the process of forming a teacher's identity is continual and affected by environmental, professional, and Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 109 personal factors. Further, Sevinc (2023) highlighted that PCK is not just about content or pedagogy, but the intersection of the two. While Beltman underscores the importance of cultivating positive relationships, the study could benefit from a deeper exploration of how these intentions translate into effective PCK development, especially when adapting to diverse student needs. Tsugawa's study takes this a step further by examining intergenerational dynamics, emphasizing the necessity to adapt teaching methods to cater to generational differences in learners. This not only amplifies PCK's scope by incorporating diverse learning needs but also lays emphasis on inclusivity and diversity in music education, enhancing teacher preparedness for versatile learning environments. The study focuses on intergenerational dynamics in teaching is in line with Jarrahi and Eshraghi’s (2019) digital native versus digital immigrant dichotomy, emphasizing the evolving learning preferences across generations. Although Tsugawa emphasizes the need to understand generational differences, researchers like Rudolph et al. (2021) have warned against overgeneralizing and labeling entire generations. Hence, while PCK should indeed adapt to cater to different learners, care should be taken not to make broad assumptions about generational learning needs without considering individual contexts. Draves' study rounds up this exploration of PCK's role in student-centric teaching approaches, tracing the transformation of a teacher's identity and its consequent influence on pedagogy and student learning experiences. It posits that a teacher's evolving identity, characterized by a student-focused approach and authenticity, impacts the learning environment and student engagement, underlining a teacher's identity as a vital facet of PCK. The interplay between teacher identity and pedagogy finds resonance in Meesuk et al. (2020) work, suggesting that one’s understanding of oneself is central to being an effective teacher. While Draves emphasizes the transformation of teacher identity, Labbaf et al. (2019) argue that teacher identities are continually evolving, influenced by both internal and external factors. Understanding how these dynamic identities interact with the development and application of PCK would provide a more comprehensive picture. Together, these studies reinforce the role of PCK as a guiding framework that encompasses content knowledge, pedagogical strategies, and a deep understanding of student needs to craft effective, student-centered teaching approaches in music education. The studies by Calderón-Garrido & Gustems-Carnicer (2021), Payne et al. (2019) and Partti et al. (2015) strongly highlight the critical role of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in shaping and executing effective assessment practices in music education, be it remote or traditional, across different levels of education. Calderón-Garrido & Gustems-Carnicer's research into remote music teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic underscores the need for PCK in evaluating student learning even in virtual environments. By incorporating PCK, teachers can better navigate the challenges of remote teaching, enabling a more holistic understanding of students' musical abilities. Their study of PCK in remote music education during the pandemic is consistent with the TPACK approach developed by Koehler & Mishra (2009), which emphasises the integration of content, pedagogy, and technological knowledge. While Calderón-Garrido & Gustems-Carnicer stress the importance of PCK in virtual learning, Greenhow et al. (2022) points out that technology-mediated environments introduce new types of interactions, requiring an evolved form of PCK. The study might benefit from incorporating TPACK principles more explicitly to address the unique challenges of remote music education. Payne et al. (2019) underscore the importance of a systematic six-step assessment process to enhance student performance and guide instructional decisions in music education. Here, PCK acts as the foundation that allows educators to create customized assessment tasks, scoring devices, and feedback mechanisms that closely reflect and support individual students' musical progress. The systematic six-step assessment process mirrors Hassanien et al. (2013) work, which suggests that assessments should be interwoven with teaching to optimize learning. Payne et al. (2019) emphasize structured assessment. However, as Matsunobu (2023) notes, the danger is that a too rigid structure can sometimes sideline the essence of musical creativity. There's a balance needed between a systematic approach and fostering an organic, creative learning process, which may not have been deeply explored in this study. Meanwhile, Partti et al.'s study delves into higher music education, exploring the potential of innovative assessment practices that view assessment as part of the learning process. Through the lens of PCK, educators can better design and adapt assessment tasks to specific contexts, deepening students' understanding of the subject matter and aiding in their professional identity development. Partti et al.'s 110 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 approach to viewing assessment as part of the learning process resonates with Oliveira et al.’s (2019) argument for embedding assessment within the pedagogical process for it to be truly transformative. However, de la MoraVelasco and Hirumi (2020) caution that innovative assessments in music, without proper calibration to reflect true learning outcomes, can sometimes mislead educators. There might be a need to balance innovation with validity and reliability in assessment methods. Overall, these studies emphasize that a nuanced understanding of PCK, combined with effective assessment strategies, could significantly elevate the quality and efficacy of music education, regardless of the teaching and learning environment. As a dynamic and adaptable framework, PCK plays a central role in shaping assessment practises that are tailored to the specific requirements and circumstances of music students, thereby fostering their musical growth and development. Conclusion This systematic literature review elucidates the multifaceted nature of PCK in shaping and influencing effective pedagogical strategies in music education. The review draws together insights from a range of studies, highlighting the interplay between PCK and various elements of music education, such as teacher competency, understanding of music concpets, pedagogical strategies, student-centered approaches, and effective assessment practices. A notable conclusion from this review is the recognition of PCK as a dynamic and adaptable framework that, when properly understood and applied, can significantly enhance the teaching and learning processes in music education. In the landscape of music education, PCK has demonstrated its transformative potential. It is clear from the literature that a deep understanding of both content and pedagogical knowledge is essential for effective music instruction. This amalgamation becomes particularly potent when combined with innovative technology, as it offers an engaging, immersive, and modernized learning environment. Furthermore, it's evident that PCK must be culturally responsive to resonate with learners' experiences and contexts, a factor that can significantly influence engagement and understanding. PCK also plays an instrumental role in shaping student-centric teaching approaches, which accommodate diverse learning needs and styles, thereby fostering a more inclusive and effective learning environment. Nonetheless, gaps and challenges in the effective application of PCK remain. There is a need for more professional development opportunities, like seminars and training sessions, to equip music teachers with the necessary PCK. Similarly, the review identifies the need to enhance music teachers' cultural responsiveness, integrating it into their PCK to reflect local influences better. Also, the necessity for educators to adapt their PCK to the unique dynamics of each learning environment, be it traditional or remote, is evident, particularly in the design and execution of assessment practices. In conclusion, the role of PCK in music education, as revealed in this systematic literature review, is undeniably significant. It serves as a cornerstone for delivering quality instruction, fostering a deeper understanding of music concepts, ensuring effective pedagogical strategies, and enhancing assessment practices. For the potential of PCK to be fully realized in music education, there is a pressing need for targeted interventions aimed at addressing the identified gaps, including improved professional development opportunities, increased cultural responsiveness, and adaptable pedagogical strategies tailored to diverse learning environments. Only then can the transformative potential of PCK be fully harnessed, leading to an enriched, effective, and inclusive music education for all learners. However, the study also acknowledges several limitations. It identifies the potential for language bias due to the restriction of the search to English language articles, and the temporal limitation, with only articles published between 2014 and 2023 being included. Furthermore, the variance in methodology, sample size, and intervention design across the studies could affect the comparison and synthesis of findings, thus presenting another limitation of this review. Despite these potential limitations, the study's findings offer valuable insights into the role of PCK in shaping the learning within music education. Acknowledgements This research was not funded by any specific grant from public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. The authors declare no potential conflict of interest. Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 111 References Abacioglu, C. S., Volman, M., & Fischer, A. H. (2020). Teachers’ multicultural attitudes and perspective taking abilities as factors in culturally responsive teaching. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(3), 736-752. Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H., & Phelps, G. (2008). Content knowledge for teaching: What makes it special? Journal of Teacher Education, 59(5), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487108324554 Ballantyne, J., & Packer, J. (2004). Effectiveness of preservice music teacher education programs: Perceptions of early-career music teachers. Music Education Research, 6(3), 299-312. Barry, N. H. (1996). Promoting reflective practice in an elementary music methods course. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 5(2), 6-13. Beltman, S., Glass, C., Dinham, J., Chalk, B., & Nguyen, B. (2015). Drawing identity: Beginning pre-service teachers' professional identities. Issues in Educational Research, 25(3), 225-245. Bond, V. L. (2017). Culturally responsive education in music education: A literature review. Contributions to Music Education, 42, 153-180. Bremmer, M. (2021). Where’s the body? Reconsidering the concept of pedagogical content knowledge through research in music education with Dutch specialist preschool music teachers. British Journal of Music Education, 38(2), 119-130. Bresler, L. (2021). What formative research can do for music education: A tool for informed change. Vision of Research in Music Education, 16(5), 24. Butler, A. (2001). Preservice music teachers' conceptions of teaching effectiveness, microteaching experiences, and teaching performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 49(3), 258-272. Calderón-Garrido, D., & Gustems-Carnicer, J. (2021). Adaptations in conservatories and music schools in Spain during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Instruction, 14(4), 451-462. Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2013). Teaching thematic analysis: Overcoming challenges and developing strategies for effective learning. The Psychologist, 26(2). Cochran, K. F., DeRuiter, J. A., & King, R. A. (1993). Pedagogical content knowing: An integrative model for teacher preparation. Journal of teacher Education, 44(4), 263-272. Crowe, D. R. (1996). Effects of score study style on beginning conductors' error-detection abilities. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44(2), 160-171. DeCarbo, N. J. (1982). The effects of conducting experience and programmed materials on error-detection scores of college conducting students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 30(3), 187-200. de la Mora Velasco, E., & Hirumi, A. (2020). The effects of background music on learning: A systematic review of literature to guide future research and practice. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68, 2817-2837. Donahue-Keegan, D., Villegas-Reimers, E., & Cressey, J. M. (2019). Integrating social-emotional learning and culturally responsive teaching in teacher education preparation programs. Teacher Education Quarterly, 46(4), 150-168. Draves, T. J. (2019). Teaching ambition realized: Paul’s beginning music teacher identity. Journal of Research in Music Education, 67(2), 153-174. Ekiz-Kiran, B., & Boz, Y. (2020). Interactions between the science teaching orientations and components of pedagogical content knowledge of in-service chemistry teachers. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 21(1), 95-112. Flemming, K., Booth, A., Garside, R., Tunçalp, Ö., & Noyes, J. (2019). Qualitative evidence synthesis for complex interventions and guideline development: Clarification of the purpose, designs and relevant methods. BMJ global health, 4(Suppl 1), e000882. Forrester, S. H. (2018). Music teacher knowledge: An examination of the intersections between instrumental music teaching and conducting. Journal of Research in Music Education, 65(4), 461-482. Forsythe, J. L., & Woods, J. R. (1983). The effects of conducting on the error detection ability of undergraduate and graduate instrumental conductors. Contributions to Music Education, 10, 27-32. Goolsby, T. W. (1999). A comparison of expert and novice music teachers' preparing identical band compositions: An operational replication. Journal of Research in Music Education, 47(2), 174-187. Greenhow, C., Graham, C. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2022). Foundations of online learning: Challenges and opportunities. Educational Psychologist, 57(3), 131-147. Gromko, J. E. (2021). Invented iconographic and verbal representations of musical sound: Their informal content and usefulness in retrieval tasks. Visions of Research in Music Education, 16(6), 6. Hart Jr., J. T. (2019). The status of music education conducting curricula, practices, and values. Journal of Research in Music Education, 67(2), 153-174. Haston, J. L. (2018). Sources of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) for secondary band teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 66(2), 175-194. 112 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Hassanien, M. A., Al-Hayani, A., Abu-Kamer, R., & Almazrooa, A. (2013). A six step approach for developing computer-based assessment in medical education. Medical Teacher, 35(sup1), S15-S19. Haston, W. (2018). In-service music teachers’ self-perceived sources of pedagogical content knowledge. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, (217), 45-66. Hill, H. C., Schilling, S. G., & Ball, D. L. (2004). Developing measures of teachers’ mathematics knowledge for teaching. The Elementary School Journal, 105(1), 11-30. Incognito, O., Scaccioni, L., & Pinto, G. (2022). The impact of a music education program on meta-musical awareness, logical-mathematical, and notational skills in preschoolers. International Journal of Music Education, 40(1), 90-104. Jarrahi, M. H., & Eshraghi, A. (2019). Digital natives vs digital immigrants: A multidimensional view on interaction with social technologies in organizations. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 32(6), 1051-1070. Johnson, C. M., & Fredrickson, W. E. (1995). The effect of aural commentary, written comments, and behavioral self-assessment on conductor intensity. Journal of Band Research, 30(2), 27. Jossan, K. S., Gauthier, A., & Jenkinson, J. (2021). Cultural implications in the acceptability of game-based learning. Computers & Education, 174, 104305. Kind, V., & Chan, K. K. (2019). Resolving the amalgam: connecting pedagogical content knowledge, content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. International Journal of Science Education, 41(7), 964-978. Koehler, M., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 60-70. Kong, S. C., Lai, M., & Sun, D. (2020). Teacher development in computational thinking: Design and learning outcomes of programming concepts, practices and pedagogy. Computers & Education, 151, 103872. Labbaf, A., Moinzadeh, A., & Dabaghi, A. (2019). Professional identity and teaching quality: The case of Iranian EFL teachers. Two Quarterly Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning University of Tabriz, 11(24), 201-225. Lane, J. S. (2006). Undergraduate instrumental music education majors' approaches to score study in various musical contexts. Journal of Research in Music Education, 54(3), 215-230. Lee, D. A. (2018). A pedagogical canon for electric guitar: An Australian cultural perspective. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 58-77. Loughran, J., Berry, A., & Mulhall, P. (2012). Understanding and developing science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (Vol. 12). Springer Science & Business Media. Maaranen, K., & Stenberg, K. (2020). Making beliefs explicit–student teachers’ identity development through personal practical theories. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(3), 336-350. Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J., & Borko, H. (1999). Nature, sources, and development of pedagogical content knowledge for science teaching. Examining Pedagogical Content Knowledge: The Construct And Its Implications For Science Education, 95-132. Manila, B. M. (2020). Pedagogical content knowledge in music education among public elementary teachers Pedagogical Research, 4(1), 1-13. Mat Yusoff, S., Razak, R. A., Chin, H. L., & Mohamad Marzaini, A. F. (2023). Exploring teachers’ conceptions of assessment: A quantitative study in a secondary school setting. Journal of Research, Policy & Practice of Teachers and Teacher Education, 13(2), 59-72. Mateiro, T., Russell, J., & Westvall, M. (2012). Student music teachers’ perceptions of pedagogical content knowledge-in-action: An inquiry across three countries. Finnish Journal of Music Education, 15(02), 53- 64. Matsunobu, K. (2023). Discussing a methodology for researching the long-term impact of music education: Drawing on learners’ memories and self-accounts. Research Studies in Music Education, 45(2), 229-244. Mayne, R. G. (1992). An investigation of the use of facial expression in conjunction with musical conducting gestures and their interpretation by instrumental performers. The Ohio State University. Mayuni, I., & Dhieni, N. (2022). The effectiveness of multimedia learning for distance education toward early childhood critical thinking during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Educational Research, 11(3), 1553-1568. McCarthy, M. (2007). Narrative inquiry as a way of knowing in music education. Research Studies in Music Education, 29(1), 3-12. Meesuk, P., Sramoon, B., & Wongrugsa, A. (2020). Classroom action research-based instruction: The sustainable teacher professional development strategy. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 22(1), 98- 110. Mercader, C., & Gairín, J. (2020). University teachers' perception of barriers to the use of digital technologies: The importance of the academic discipline. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 17(1), 4. Millican, J. S. (2012). Starting out right: Beginning band pedagogy. Scarecrow Press. Mat Yusoff, Mohamad Marzaini, Hassan & Zakaria 113 Millican, J. S. (2008). A new framework for music education knowledge and skill. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 18(1), 67-78. Millican, J. S. (2013). Describing instrumental music teachers’ thinking: Implications for understanding pedagogical content knowledge. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 31(2), 45-53. Millican, J. S. (2017). Band instrument selection and assignment: A review of the literature. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 35(2), 46-53. Mohamed, R., Ghazali, M., & Samsudin, M. A. (2020). A systematic review on mathematical language learning using PRISMA in Scopus database. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 16(8), https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/8300 Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & Prisma Group. (2009). Reprint—preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Physical therapy, 89(9), 873-880. Montemayor, M., & Moss, E. A. (2009). Effects of recorded models on novice teachers’ rehearsal verbalizations, evaluations, and conducting. Journal of Research in Music Education, 57(3), 236-251. Oliveira, A., Feyzi Behnagh, R., Ni, L., Mohsinah, A. A., Burgess, K. J., & Guo, L. (2019). Emerging technologies as pedagogical tools for teaching and learning science: A literature review. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 1(2), 149-160. Opfer, V. D., & Pedder, D. (2011). The lost promise of teacher professional development in England. European Journal of Teacher Education, 34(1), 3-24. Oztay, E. S., & Boz, Y. (2022). Interaction between pre-service chemistry teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and content knowledge in electrochemistry. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 6(1), 245-269. Partti, H., Westerlund, H., & Lebler, D. (2015). Participatory assessment and the construction of professional identity in folk and popular music programs in Finnish and Australian music universities. International Journal of Music Education, 33(4), 476-490. Paul, S. J. (1998). The effects of peer teaching experiences on the professional teacher role development of undergraduate instrumental music education majors. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 73-92. Payne, P. D., Burrack, F., Parkes, K. A., & Wesolowski, B. (2019). An emerging process of assessment in music education. Music Educators Journal, 105(3), 36-44. Price, H. E., & Byo, J. L. (2002). Rehearsing and conducting. The science and psychology of music performance: Creative strategies for teaching and learning, 335-351. Raiber, M., & Teachout, D. (2014). The journey from music student to teacher: A professional approach. Routledge. Rizk, J., & Hillier, C. (2022). Digital technology and increasing engagement among students with disabilities: Interaction rituals and digital capital. Computers and Education Open, 3, 100099. Rowan, B., Schilling, S. G., Ball, D. L., Miller, R., Atkins-Burnett, S., Camburn, E., Harrison, D. & Phelps, G. (2001). Measuring teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge in surveys: An exploratory study. Ann Arbor: Consortium for Policy Research in Education, University of Pennsylvania, 1, 1-20. Rudolph, C. W., Rauvola, R. S., Costanza, D. P., & Zacher, H. (2021). Generations and generational differences: Debunking myths in organizational science and practice and paving new paths forward. Journal of Business and Psychology, 36, 945-967. Sætre, J. H., & Zhukov, K. (2021). Let’s play together: Teacher perspectives on collaborative chamber music instruction. Music Education Research, 23(5), 553-567. Sevinc, S. (2023). Knowledge-in-action for crafting mathematics problems in realistic contexts. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 26(4), 533-565. Shaw, R. (2016). Urban music educators' contextual knowledge: Implications for teacher education. Music Education Research, 18(3), 297-312. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: A conception of teacher knowledge. American Educator, 10(1). Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1-23. Silvey, B. A., & Montemayor, M. (2014). Effects of internal and external focus of attention on novices’ rehearsal evaluations. Journal of Research in Music Education, 62(2), 161-174. Silvey, B. A., Montemayor, M., & Baumgartner, C. M. (2017). An observational study of score study practices among undergraduate instrumental music education majors. Journal of Research in Music Education, 65(1), 52-71. Silvey, B. A., Springer, D. G., Noon, C. M., Baumgartner, C. M., Scherer, A. D., & Montemayor, M. (2020). Band directors’ perceptions of instrumental conducting curricula. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 30(1), 65-78. Song, Y. (2023). Sino-African Artistic Exchanges: A Cross-Cultural Analysis. Journal of Namibian Studies: History Politics Culture, 35, 1027-1049. Sungurtekin, S. (2021). Classroom and music teachers' perceptions about the development of imagination and 114 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (95-114) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 creativity in primary music education. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 5(3), 164-186. Swanson, J. B. (2013). Education for problematization: A democratic reconstruction of the school. The Pennsylvania State University. Tamir, P. (1988). Subject matter and related pedagogical knowledge in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4(2), 99-110. Tsugawa, Y. (2022). Intergenerational dynamics in a New Horizons ensemble: Preservice music teachers’ experiences and pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Research in Music Education, 70(2), 195-214. Vadivel, B. (2021). Using music for developing language skills in the English language classroom. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT), 12(12), 501-507. Villarreal, E. (2010). Private lesson teachers' attitudes towards private teaching and pre-service education: A replication and extension [Master’s thesis, Texas Tech University]. Wacker, A. T. (2020). Teacher knowledge and lesson preparation in music education: A review of the literature. Visions of Research in Music Education, 35(1), 4. Wacker, A. T., Scherer, A. D., Hampton, R., & Regier, B. J. (2018). Programming Trends of Large Ensembles at the Missouri Music Educators Association Conference (2009-2018). Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education, (55). Wolfgang Jr, R. E. (1990). Early field experience in music education: A study of teacher role socialization. University of Oregon. Worthy, M. D. (2005). The effects of self-evaluation on the timing of teacher and student behaviors in lab rehearsals. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 15(1), 8-14. Xu, W., & Zammit, K. (2020). Applying thematic analysis to education: A hybrid approach to interpreting data in practitioner research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406920918810 Yan, Z., & Carless, D. (2022). Self-assessment is about more than self: the enabling role of feedback literacy. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 47(7), 1116-1128. Yin, J. (2022). The application of PCK concept and information fusion-oriented multimedia technology in music education. Advances in Mathematics and Computer Science, 8978742. Biographies Shahazwan Mat Yusoff is an English teacher at SMK Damansara Damai 1 in Selangor, Malaysia. He recently earned his Ph.D. in Education, specializing in Curriculum and Instruction, from the University of Malaya, Malaysia. In addition to his expertise in education, Shahazwan has a keen interest in music education research. This interest is reflected in his innovative teaching methods, where he integrates music into his English language curriculum. Anwar Farhan bin Mohd Marzaini is an English language lecturer at Universiti Teknologi MARA in Pulau Pinang. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D. in Education at UiTM. In addition to his academic pursuits, Anwar Farhan is deeply interested in exploring the intersection of music and language education. His research focuses on how music can be used as a dynamic tool in teaching English, particularly in enhancing language retention and improving pronunciation skills. Muhammad Hafiz bin Hassan, a graphic design lecturer with a Master's in Design Technology, is not just passionate about visual arts and education, he is also deeply interested in music. His scholarly pursuits also encompass an avid interest in music, exploring its elements and their interplay with design technology. Alongside his work in crafting educational tools for children with autism, Hafiz integrates musical elements into his teaching approach at Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sarawak. Noorhayati Zakaria is a teacher at Tenby International School and is currently pursuing her Ph.D. in Education, focusing on Language and Literacy Education at the University of Malaya. Her research delves into the literacy of EAL integrated with music. She explores how music can support and enhance literacy development, positing that musical elements like rhythm and melody can reinforce language patterns and structures. Her innovative approach aims to examine the effectiveness of incorporating music into literacy instruction to improve student engagement and achievement in language learning.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 2 (2023)

Biedermeier style, chamber music performance, Rattanakosin era, social context, Thai music

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/531

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7776

Proximity to Daily Life:

In every culture and time period, music has always been a medium of expression that gathers people together. In Thailand, the

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7776/4816

Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 115 Proximity to Daily Life: Parallel Musical Functions in the Austrian Biedermeier and Early Thai Rattanakosin Eras Margaret Hayne Kim1, Apichai Chantanakajornfung2, Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee3* School of Music, Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music 2010 Arun Amarin 36, Bang Yi Khan, Bang Phlat, Bangkok, Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 29 December 2023 Cite this article (APA): Kim, M. H., Chantanakajornfung, A., & Suwanpakdee, S. (2023). Proximity to Daily Life: Parallel Musical Functions in the Austrian Biedermeier and Early Thai Rattanakosin Eras. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12(2), 115-134. doi: https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.2.7.2023 Abstract In every culture and time period, music has always been a medium of expression that gathers people together. In Thailand, the Sadhukarn, ceremonial music from the early Rattanakosin era (1782-1851), expressed a bodily and mental salutation to heavenly spirits, reinforcing a unified belief system before the start of an event. In a parallel era in Central Europe, the music of the Biedermeier period (1815-1848) also had a unifying function as it grew out of societal conditions in which the distinction of classes became less pronounced. In order to more fully engage with these concepts, a concert was devised featuring an ensemble of instruments that would commonly have been played in a Viennese salon during the Biedermeier era. The repertoire studied and performed for this research were serenades written for the relatively rare and under-performed combination of guitar, violin, and viola by Biedermeier-era composers Leonard von Call, Wenzeslaus Matiegka, and Anton Diabelli, as well as a newly created arrangement of the Thai Sadhukarn for the same combination of instruments. Upon investigation of the role that music written in the Austrian Biedermeier and Thai Rattanakosin cultural contexts had in the broader community, it was found that both cultures were strongly driven by the middle class, resulting in a conception of music that emphasised accessibility and functionality, highlighting its proximity to daily life. The performance of these works aimed to transfer knowledge about the social function of this music to contemporary audiences of today. Keywords: Biedermeier style, chamber music performance, Rattanakosin era, social context, Thai music Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 116 Introduction Chamber music has proved itself resilient through the ages and has historically survived through the harshest of conditions. In contrast to large-scale productions such as symphony orchestras, operas, and ballets, which require a framework of economic stability, chamber music has the advantage of mobility and flexibility, which renders it adaptable to various occasions and situations. It has consistently been able to weather the shifting tides of change, be it political conflicts, economic downturns, or global health crises. The present and ongoing need for more options in chamber music has propelled our interest in diversifying the genre, moving beyond the well-known territory of more standard chamber ensembles of the 18th and 19th century–such as the string quartet and piano trio–and bringing attention to chamber music repertoire outside of the typical mainstream fare. As of today, little is known about music for violin, viola, and guitar, a genre that grew out of middle-class domestic music-making practices and salon culture in early 19th century Vienna. The period from 1815-1848, known as the “Biedermeier” period, saw the growth and expanding influence of the newly affluent middle class. In the previous decade, the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) had left many aristocratic families in financial ruin, weakening their political influence, as well as their ability to give patronage to the arts. The void they left was filled by financiers and industrialists, who grew in prominence and began to have a heightened role in shaping the culture of the times. This social shift occurred in tandem with changes in musical life. Emulating the aristocratic music salons of the past, the middle class also began to feature music in their homes, whether as entertainment at parties and gatherings, or as a way for young men and women to show their skill and accomplishment to climb up the social ladder. Music in that period was a highly ubiquitous social activity; there was at least one amateur musician in every household in Vienna, and music publishers sought to ensure that attractive and accessible music would be readily available to the Viennese public. Popular instruments for the home included flute, violin, viola, guitar, and keyboard instruments. The aftermath of the French Revolution and the ensuing political tensions of the day resulted in the Austrian government’s strict censorship of all the arts. Publications, theatrical works, and music with text containing the slightest implications of political or religious undertones were heavily policed by the state during this time. With limited options for social activities, music in the home provided a welcome diversion alongside card-games and dancing. Wordless instrumental music perfectly met the need in Viennese society for harmless pastimes. Thus, the Biedermeier ethos in music was characterised by simplicity and accessible elegance; music and the arts offered an escape from turbulent global events and the various turmoil of contemporary life. Bringing the concept of Biedermeier into the context of Thailand, similar ideas can be found in the role and function of Thai music in the same period. In Thailand, the Biedermeier period correlates to the early Rattanakosin period. Occurring between the reigns of King Rama II (1767-1824) and King Rama III (1788-1851), the Rattanakosin period was a golden age of culture in which many writers and poets contributed important works. Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 117 The lifestyle of the Siamese people in the early Rattanakosin period reflected the beliefs, religion, and rituals of Buddhism and its teachings on impermanence as a way of bringing humans into awareness of the reality of death (Tsomo, 2006, p. 31). Daily life revolved around the temple, which acted as a centre for preserving and disseminating culture and knowledge. Traditions and rituals were always related to the societal context; every social event carried the significance of auspiciousness and holiness, thus strengthening the morale of the people. Rattanakosin-era entertainments such as drama, music, and dance allowed people to feel involved and connected (Puchadapirom, 2003), promoting sentiments of unity among the people gathering and participating in the event. In defining culture, American anthropologist Clifford Geertz refers to “a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” (Geertz, 1993, p. 89). The ‘symbolic forms’ in this case being the medium of music, the principal aim of this research is to explore the proximity of musical practices and daily life, observing parallels between the European Biedermeier and Thai Rattanakosin cultures. Conceptual Framework In order to study the music, culture, and social context of the Biedermeier period (1815-1848) in Austria, the compositions selected for the research and performance are pieces written for the violin (originally flute), viola, and guitar combination written by three different composers of the Biedermeier period. The instrumentation, and especially the use of the guitar, is a point of particular interest; before the advent of technological innovations on that piano the led to a surge in piano literature in the 19th century, the guitar was a popular domestic instrument that was ideally suited for chamber music; no other period in music history produced more chamber music with guitar than the Biedermeier period. The chosen repertoire was written by composers Leonhard von Call, Wenzeslaus Matiegka, and Anton Diabelli, all of whom had idiomatic knowledge of the guitar and were active in Vienna, Austria during the height of Biedermeier era. An additional component of the research is to find connections between the cultures surrounding Biedermeier music and Thai classical music from the same time, the Rattanakosin era. After exploring and documenting the connections between the two, the research team will present the findings in a lecture recital. The performance of the pieces will aim to accessibly communicate the ideas to the audience. The research will focus on three stages: literature review, practice, and performance/presentation. The first stage, literature review, will focus on how the European historical context between the years of 1815- 1848 affected musical life in the Biedermeier era, and compare the findings with the role of music in societal culture of the Thai early Rattanakosin period using the anthropology concept of Clifford Geertz. In the second stage, practice, musical works with the instrumentation of violin, viola and guitar by various composers based in Vienna during the Biedermeier era will be examined and selected for study and performance. Using the same combination of instruments, violin, viola, and guitar, an arrangement of a Thai musical work from the Rattanakosin period will be created in order to investigate a performance-based approach to understanding the two musical Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 118 cultures. Rehearsal of the selected and arranged pieces will be in process during this stage, focusing on elements of performance practice in the respective periods. The third and last stage will feature a lecture recital, combining the musical selections with a spoken presentation of the research findings interspersed throughout, using each piece as a topic of discussion to direct the audience’s attention to specific elements from the research (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Conceptual framework. On The Biedermeier Era The term Biedermeier was coined in the late 19th century as a somewhat derogatory reference looking back to the seemingly conservative years in the first part of the century. Gottlieb Biedermeier was the name of a fictional character that was invented by two contributors to the satirical magazine Fliegende Blätter in the 1850s. The name, roughly meaning “God-loving common man” in German, began as a humorous epithet of the ordinary every man, and was subsequently used to refer to German and Austrian culture and artistic aesthetics during a time characterised by conservatism, political stability, and the rise of the middle class. The Biedermeier era began in 1815 with the defeat of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna and ended with the Revolutions of 1848. Although the conservative attitudes of the time may seem at odds with the free-spirited and emotionally charged works of art, literature, and music that are usually associated with 19th century Romanticism, the Biedermeier sensibility was very much a socio- political response to the tumultuous events of the preceding years. In Austria, attempting to restore order after the Napoleonic Wars, the government made heavy use of police, secret police, and informers to discourage political dissent and problematic intellectual notions. Travel was restricted for Austrian citizens, and strict censorship was enforced in the arts as well; the aim was to create a stable Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 119 administration by compelling people to live simple lives. This caused people to retreat into their homes, and a new focus on domestic life permeated the culture of the times. As such, the art of this period reflects a mood of escapism and a post-war search for peace and restoration. Paintings by well-known painters of this era, such as those by Joseph Franz Danhauser, Peter Fendi, and Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, often depict domestic scenes, families with children, and simple ordinary everyday life (see Figure 2). The concept of functionality also influenced the music of this period. Music was already a popular pastime in Vienna, and now that the newly affluent members of the middle class were able to afford instruments, music lessons, and sheet music to play in their homes, music became an indispensable part of social life. The number of amateur musicians abounded in this period, increasing the demand for small chamber works that could be performed in salon concert settings. Common genres included sonatas, theme and variations, programmatic pieces, lieder, and orchestral transcriptions for piano. Dance music such as the waltz, polka, ländler, galopp, and tanze were abundant, with well-known composers such as Franz Schubert, Johann Strauss Sr., and Joseph Lanner writing in these genres as well. In addition to providing entertainment in the home, music was also a means of climbing the social ladder; for young women, singing and playing the piano were ways to be put forth in society for a favorable marriage, while for young men, playing music served a “recommendation in good society” (Hanson, 1985, p. 118). The rise of the middle class – the dominance of the “ordinary common man” – gave birth to new customs and trends surrounding music, and it is from this more socially focused context that the distinctive aesthetics of the Biedermeier style emerged. Figure 2. Kersting, G. F. “Embroidery Woman” (1817). ed. Dorota Folga-Januszewska (2006). National Museum in Warsaw. Galleries and Study Collections. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 120 The Influence of Biedermeier Culture on Music Throughout history until the present there have been various discourses regarding the function and the aesthetics of European art music that cause its creators and consumers to question whether this music can have appeal be for the masses, or just an initiated few. The genesis of this discourse can be traced to the drastic changes in the political landscape and social customs during the Biedermeier era. This era is particularly of interest for its reaction to and dismantling of previous structures that had been in place. The Middle Class. Whereas the aristocracy had been the primary patrons of the arts in the previous century, the costly Napoleonic Wars rendered them no longer able to afford the opulent entertainment of the past. As they met their financial ruin, the 18th century model of the court musician crumbled, making way for a democratisation of the music industry, and setting the stage for modern practices of musical life that continue on to this day. With the rise of the middle class came the idea of the musician as a free agent, not dependent on commissions from the wealthy ruling classes. Musicians began earning a living through public performances, teaching, composing on commission, and publishing music. Needing to compete in an open market, musicians increasingly became niche specialists; whether on one instrument, in the case of performers, or in one genre, as in the case of composers (Burkholder et al., 2014, p. 588). Conservatories gave easier and more open access to music education, and music journals and criticism circulated ideas about music to the public. Censorship. In addition to the socio-economic shifts of power among the classes, political factors also had a significant impact on the music of this period. The French Revolution had powerfully challenged the institution of monarchy in Europe, and as a result, the Austrian government, still under monarchs, was strict with censorship. For the arts, this meant that all literary, theatrical, or musical works that contained any hint of political undertones or revolutionary ideas had to be censored (Hanson, 1985, pp. 41-7). Under these restrictive circumstances, the artistic output that emerged from this period favored the simple and idyllic. This aesthetic of simplicity was an early permutation of escapism (Yates, 2001, p. 558), a theme that continued to be present in the Romantic aesthetic of the idealised and the transcendent that would bloom later in the century. The government also kept an organised system of both public and secret police to regulate the behavior of the citizens and prevent potentially problematic public gatherings, which contributed to the effect of the home becoming the center of cultural life in this period. Salon Music. The Biedermeier era was distinctive for its culture of private consumption of music at home. The salon concert was highly popular, especially in the earlier part of the century. Taking over patronage of the arts from the aristocracy, wealthy bankers and middle-class bureaucrats began shaping the musical outlook of the times. An emblematic example of the impact of salon culture can be found in the works of Franz Schubert, whose intellectual middle-class friends famously organised salon concerts known as Schubertiades (see Figure 3). While also writing more formal genres of music for his aristocratic patrons, Schubert generated many lieder, dances, Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 121 and piano duets for informal entertainment among his circle of friends. Schubertiades included meals, games, and dancing, all of which were “equally important” as the music-making, according to eyewitnesses (Hanson, 1985, p. 121). The duality of serious art music and music for lighthearted entertainment in Schubert’s prolific output gives a telling insight into the musical customs of this time. This puts Schubert in marked contrast to Beethoven, who also lived in Vienna during the Biedermeier era but whose serious late works were falling out of fashion with the tastes of the Viennese public towards the end of his life (Hanson, 1985, p. 184). Salon culture also contributed to the introspective quality of Romantic music. Fryderyk Chopin was known for his strong preference for giving private salon concerts over public performances (Goldberg, 2020). The development of Nachtmusik (night-music) – which began in the 18th Century as a genre of frothy party music related to the serenade/serenata (evening music) – into the dark, moody nocturnes made famous by Chopin, occurred largely in the informal, intimate, and improvisatory atmosphere of the salon (Taruskin, 2005, pp. 64-75). Figure 3. Schwind, Moritz. “A Schubert Evening at the Home of Josef Spaun” (1868), Vienna, Historisches Museum der Stadt Wien (History Museum). Elitism. The proliferation of the musically initiated middle class resulted in divided tastes in music, the beginnings of a self-aware elitism in music. The educated middle class tended toward nationalism, favoring art music of a serious calibre by Austrian and German composers (Hanson, 1985, p. 183), while musical philistines were fond of fashionable genres such as the Viennese waltzes of Johann Strauss Sr. and Jr. and music imports such as Italian opera (Hanson, 1985, p. 188). In tandem with the prominence of intimate salon concerts was a new cult of the virtuoso performer, exemplified by international artists such as Niccolò Paganini who astounded audiences with his dazzling displays of technique. Whereas the 19th-century salon was initially a respectable and prestigious venue associated with Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 122 the educated and culturally elite, after a while, the salon fell into disrepute. Over time, salon concerts came to be associated with music that was shallow and superficial – the petty bourgeoisie’s cheap imitation of the grand bourgeoisie. Adding to the stigma surrounding salon concerts was the fact that they were often run by women, causing salon music to be considered effeminate and inferior (Hanson, 1985, p. 78). The derogatory connotation of the term “Biedermeier” stems from the rapidly changing and often paradoxical values of the 19th century, and in fact many of these negative undertones associated with so-called salon music have lasted until the present day. Beginning with an attitude of escapism and a search for simplicity in a post-war period, and going on to empower a new class of the educated elite, the cultural shifts of Biedermeier era housed the seeds of many new developments in the 19th century, several of which still have residual influence on the way we perceive European art music today. Comparative Study: Biedermeier and Thai Cultural Societal Context American anthropologist Clifford Geertz’s definition of culture as “a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” (Geertz, 1993, p. 89) forms the basis for an exploration of the role that music has played in the lives of the people, in the respective cultures of both the Biedermeier era and in the Thai Rattanakosin period. In 1782, during the early Rattanakosin period, King Phraphutthayotfa Chulalok (King Rama I, 1737-1809) moved the capital of Thailand – then known as Siam – to Bangkok (Phongpanitanon, 1989, pp. 193-5). This was the starting point of the revival, reformation, and transformation of Siam. In 1805, a complete written version of Thai laws appeared for the first time, attesting to the strength of the government's administration during this transitional time. The effects of the Napoleonic wars were felt in Southeast Asia through the expanding power of European nations and their interest in colonising new territories to strengthen their economies. For instance, it was during this era that the French became interested in Vietnam to use as an army base to expand its power into the Yunnan province of China (Duk, 1996, p. 18). Historian Sujit Wongthes has mentioned that, in order to avoid British colonisation during the reign of King Rama I, the Siamese people began to adapt and incorporate elements of Western culture into their society (Wongthes, 2010, p. 132). After King Rama I’s reign focusing on administration and rebuilding stable social structures, the reigns of the subsequent kings Rama II and Rama III saw a golden age in culture and the arts. As in Biedermeier Austria, the rise of the bourgeoisie resulted in a powerful middle class that drove the economy and culture in Thailand (Wongthes, 2010, p. 123). It was during this time of cultural flourishing that the idea of music for listening and individual appreciation began to clearly materialise (Wongthes, 2010, p. 125). Thai Music From the Ayutthaya period (1350-1767) up until the early Rattanakosin period, the fields of art, literature, music, and drama were becoming increasingly Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 123 standardised. Pi Phat (ปี่พาทย์) ensembles were widely used in ceremonial events in which the main repertoire was vocal music, and the Mahori (วงมโหรี) ensemble became standard in the middle of the Ayutthaya period. Although Thai people already had had contact with Western culture from the middle of the Ayutthaya period, Western music styles appear not to have influenced Thai music until the reign of King Rama IV of Bangkok (1851-67), when the military band tradition became prominent (Roongruang, 2001, p. 327). Thai classical music composed for royal functions and aristocratic courts is well documented, but beyond the court were many other kinds of music that related directly with the lives of the people. The Pi Phat ensemble played an important role and function in connecting Thai people’s culture, beliefs, and lifestyles. Music was always a part of temple festivals, rituals, and other important traditions, guaranteeing that people would approach music in some form or another. An example of late Ayutthaya/early Rattanakosin music is a theatrical work for Pi Phat ensemble, the Homrong-yen (โหมโรงเย็น), or Evening Prelude. The playing of this prelude was how a performance was announced to the public. The Evening Prelude ensemble score of Prince Damrong Rajanubhab (1892-1915) was revised in 1935, funded by the Fine Arts Department of Thailand and published in 1954 by J. Thibouville-Lamy & Company (Wongthes, n.d.). The music consists of seventeen songs, beginning with Sadhukarn. It was notated in the Western music notation system and the publication included descriptions in both Thai and English by Phra Chenduriyang (Peter Feit, 1883-1968), offering a comparison of Thai and Western music tuning systems and featuring principles of Thai music in brief (see Figure 4). Figure 4. Cover of score, Evening Prelude by Prince Damrong Rajanubhab, Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music Library Archives. Music professor Natcha Pancharoen has referred to the outgrowth and the functioning of creative work as a source of inspiration for people in each generation, contributing to new dimensions of sustainability in music; creative work is the extension of knowledge to practice and thus at its core is pragmatically driven Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 124 (Pancharoen, 2016). The empowerment of the middle class as creative agents was a phenomenon in both Biedermeier and early Rattanakosin society, and the effects of the cultural shifts caused by these developments can still be felt today. Notes on the Performance and Repertoire In the Biedermeier era, the democratisation of music and the increase in the number of capable musicians and amateurs resulted in changing practices concerning music notation. Whereas performers of previous centuries had largely been expected to use their best judgment and apply their own taste in regards ornamentation and other issues of execution (Brown, 1999, p. 459), the expanding domain of music necessitated more clarity and specificity in composers’ markings and indications. This has resulted in modern-day practices of score study and the investigation of composers’ intentions as an integral aspect of interpretation. Nevertheless, these changes towards more precise notation were affected over a long period of time. Notational practices in the early 19th century were still largely inconsistent, a situation that was exacerbated by ongoing disagreement between theorists, composers, and performers (Brown, 1999, p. 467), as well as variability within a composer’s own habits (Brown, 1999, p. 506). Approaching Biedermeier-era music as a performer, this has been an important insight to keep in mind. The music studied and performed for this research contains a plethora of symbols for ornamentation, and decisions had to be made on the method of their execution amid conflicting opinions from historical sources. In addition to ornamental considerations, bowing articulations for the violin and viola were an important point of investigation. The springing spiccato was not yet a widely used stroke in the early 19th century, and the upper half of the bow was more extensively used instead (Brown, 1999, p. 262). For the purposes of this research, following what was likely to be the preferred style in the Biedermeier era, on-the-string bow strokes in different parts of the bow were explored to achieve various articulations. A stroke best described as a cross between brush-stroke and martelé, applicable at the beginning of the second and fourth quarters of the bow, became useful as an alternative to the modern spiccato, allowing for a full and singing sound while also providing detachment and space between the notes. Not limited in utility to the Biedermeier repertoire, this stroke also proved suitable for imitating the Thai ranad, a mallet percussion instrument, in the arrangement of Sadhukarn that was created as a part of this research. Repertoire. Of particular interest for this research was chamber music with guitar, a genre that was at its peak in the Biedermeier era before the technological innovations that led to the rise of the piano and its dominance in later 19th century chamber music. The search for composers who were active in Biedermeier Vienna and had particularly idiomatic knowledge of the guitar led to the selection of the following composers and repertoire: Leonhard von Call (1767-1815) - Serenade, Op. 75, Wenzeslaus Matiegka (1773-1830) - Serenade (Trio), op. 26 and Anton Diabelli (1781-1858) - IIIème Grande Sérénade, Op. 66. The selected pieces were composed for flute, viola, and guitar. Music for combinations of instruments that could easily be found in the home were popular at Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 125 that time, suiting the culture of domestic music-making either as a pastime or as entertainment for social gatherings. Owing to the flexible nature of this musical culture, it was common practice for the treble part of these pieces to be performed interchangeably on flute or violin. The flute parts were played on the violin for this research. The serenade was a popular genre of music during the Biedermeier era. Originating from the Italian word serenata, meaning evening, the usage of serenade as a musical term evolved throughout the centuries. In the Middle Ages, it referred to quiet evening love songs, usually performed with lute. In the Baroque era, it denoted a genre of outdoor instrumental music with voice, similar to the cantata. During the Classical period, Mozart wrote several famous serenades for celebratory occasions, also usually taking place outdoors. In the 19th century, it was absorbed into concert music, but retained the light-hearted nature of the original intention. The structure of the Serenade, Op. 75 by Call is straightforward, using simple musical forms. It has five movements, following a multi-movement structure typical of the serenade genre: an Andante in sonata form (see Table 1), a Menuetto and Trio, a slow and lyrical Adagio, a bright Allegro, and a concluding Marcia. The earliest of the three serenades, the piece was selected as a standard example of the uncomplicated and lighthearted Biedermeier ethos. Matiegka’s Serenade, Op. 26 was selected for its notable differences in contrast to the serenade by Call. It is in three movements, borrowing from the more soloistic concerto tradition, and features more virtuosity in the writing for each instrument as well as interesting modifications to standard compositional form, especially in the second movement. While marked as a Scherzo-Trio, the movement can be considered as being in sonata form rather than the generic compound binary form of a traditional scherzo–owing to the A section containing two main themes, the latter of which is in the dominant key. Moreover, the B section can be heard as a development section as the theme is obviously derived from the first main theme. The A’ or recapitulation section correlates to sonata form in that the two main themes repeat in the tonic key (see Table 2). Occupying somewhat of a middle ground between the traditional serenade of Call and the more innovative one by Matiegka, the compositional structure of IIIème Grande Serenade, Op. 66 by Anton Diabelli follows a five-part structure like the Call but in a more decorated style. The piece includes five movements: Andante sostenuto e cantabile, Menuetto moderato-Trio, Andante cantabile, Rondo Pastorale-Allegretto, and Marcia-Allegro. The first movement, marked Andante sostenuto e cantabile, is especially dramatic, featuring a lengthy dominant pedal and non-diatonic chord progressions that mark a break away from the galant-style harmonies of the 18th century and begin to head into the chromatic expressions of the 19th century. Modifications are present in the form, as well; for example, the third movement, Andante cantabile, demonstrates an expansion of binary form, with a transition between sections A and B as well as a coda section after B. All the material is then repeated, but in different key signatures (Table 3). Responding to the research objectives, the researchers also presented an arrangement of Sadhukarn from Thai traditional music to represent the relationship between Biedermeier and Thai cultures, and to situate the event in a Thai context. Connected to Buddhist and Hindu beliefs, the term Sadhukarn means “Utterance to a Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 126 triple gem.” Originating from the Rattanakosin period (1782-1851), Sadhukarn was traditionally performed in royal ceremonies and general rituals such as ordinations, house-blessing, and homage to music teachers. The playing of Sadhukarn signals that the event will begin and is a performance to summon deities to the auspicious ceremony. In traditional Thai culture, this music has several functions: it serves as a greeting and dedication to music gurus of the past, welcomes the audience, and provides the musicians an opportunity to warm up before a performance. Sadhukarn is a good entryway piece for musicians who are learning to play Thai music for the first time; the complex structure requires a high level of concentration from the performers. The researchers programmed this piece first in the lecture recital so that the concert would begin following the implication of Sadhukarn. In arranging this music, originally written for Pi Phat (ปี่พาทย์) Thai traditional ensemble, for guitar-violin- viola trio, the researchers sought a dialogue between Western Classical instruments and the idioms of Thai music. While Sadhukarn is music that has sacred and ceremonial implications, it also serves very practical purposes for the performers and for the public. In addition, it is a piece of music that can be enjoyed for its own sake. Much in the same way, the serenades of Call, Matiegka, and Diabelli were pieces that would have been for practical use either in private settings or as entertainment for a social gathering. The three pieces vary in the range of complexity, offering a view of the diversity of musical output during this time; Biedermeier-era music served a wide range of levels from the amateur to the professional, and was written for enjoyment and leisure. In both the Rattanakosin and Biedermeier eras, the changes in social life and the importance of the public sphere had an increasingly significant impact on musical genres. Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 127 Table 1. L.v. Call, 1st Movement Analysis Form: Sonatina Exposition Development Recapitulation Theme 1 Theme 2 Theme Transition Theme 1 Theme 2 Measure 1-26 27-52 53-62 63-66 67-90 91-120 Expression Andante Key Signature A major E major C major E major A major A major Time Signature 3/8 Table 2. W. Matiegka, 2nd Movement Analysis Form: Scherzo & Trio Scherzo Trio Exposition (A) Development (B) Recapitulation (A’) A B A’ Coda Theme 1 Theme 2 Transition Theme Transition Theme 1 Theme 2 Transition Coda Measure 1-20 21-43 40-62 63-81 82-100 101-127 128-150 151-169 170-187 188- 203 204- 231 232- 239 240- 254 Expression Presto Key Signature C major G major G major Eb Major Dominant preparation to G G major C major Dominant preparation to C C major F major F major F major F major Time Signature 3/4 Table 3. A. Diabelli, 3rd Movement Analysis Form: Binary Section A Transition 1 Section B Coda 1 Section A’ Transition 2 Section B’ Coda 2 Measure 1-28 29-43 44-51 52-73 77-88 89-96 97-104 105-123 Expression Andante Key Signature D major A minor A major A major D major D minor D minor D major Time Signature 2/2 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 128 Sadhukarn: Arrangement for violin, viola and guitar The comparative study of the Austrian Biedermeier and the early Thai Rattanakosin periods showed that both eras were defined by cultural transition. Both Vienna and Bangkok saw the phenomenon of the middle class rising in power and driving society; concepts of nationalism and liberalism were growing stronger as the bourgeoisie became the new leaders of culture and economy. The impact that these changes had on culture and lifestyle created reverberations in musical practices as well. In addition to documenting the transitioning style of the early 19th century from Classical elegance to Romantic expression, the chamber music of Biedermeier Vienna also reflects the need for music to be innovative and attractive in order to be marketable to an increasingly musically adept and literate public. In Rattanakosin-era Bangkok, the wealth and stability of the middle class created a culturally flourishing environment which resulted in an increased appreciation of the arts. Music played an important role in ceremonies, rituals, and auspicious events, in addition to providing entertainment in temple fairs and other daily activities. Arrangement. Awareness of the essence of the original traditional music was the principal guide for the style, tempo, and musical idioms. The arrangement transformed music written for the Pi Phat ensemble to be played on violin, viola and guitar. Traditional Pi Phat instrumentation consists of the following: Pi Nai, a wooden wind instrument with a cylindrical bore and six finger holes; Ranad Ek, a high-pitched xylophone on boat-shaped wooden resonators; Gong Wong Yai, circular gong-chimes with 16 tones, which plays a primary role in a traditional performance of Sadhukarn by providing a stable rhythm in the background; Gong Wong Lek, circular gong-chimes with 16 tones, smaller than Gong Wong Yai; Ranad Thume, a low-pitched xylophone with 16 keys on metal box-shaped resonators; Thume Lek, a metallophone that consists of flat metal slabs placed over a rectangular wooden resonators; and additional optional percussion instruments: Ching, Tapone, Klong Thad, Charb Yai or Mong. The arrangement kept the melody and the essential roles of each part. The melody was described by simultaneous variations of monophonic or heterophonic lines in the Sadhukarn. At the beginning, the Pi Nai, Gong Wong Yai and Thume Lek parts were selected to form the introductory material (Figure 5). Throughout the piece, the violin, viola, and guitar alternated roles providing melody and rhythmic patterns, showing the idea of heterophony (Figure 6). The octave pattern repeatedly appears in each part, corresponding to repetitions in Thai traditional music of the same musical idioms in different variations (Figure 7). Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 129 Figure 5. Introduction, selected parts from Pi nai, Gong Wong Yai and Thume Lek. Figure 6. Alternation of roles by each instrument. Figure 7. Variations of octaves. The arrangement featured the common Thai musical idiom Lon (ล่อน), which is playing with articulation without interrupting the other lines. Another idiom, Luk Khat (ลูกขัด) is a syncopation applied to the melody for a more exquisite flavour and exciting sound (see Figure 8). In the coda, musicians gradually play faster, an element of Thai performance practice known as Lok Mhod (ลูกหมด). It signals to the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 130 audience that the music is coming to an end. The character of the music becomes more exciting and shows the musician’s skill in playing (see Figure 9). At the very end, there is a gradual slowing of the tempo; it is the last section of Lok Mhod (see Figure 10). Figure 8. Example of element of Thai traditional music Lon (ล่อน) and Luk Khat (ลูกขัด). Figure 9. Demonstration of Lok Mhod, represented as accelerando in Western music notation. Figure 10. Demonstration of ritardando, gradual slowing of tempo until the end. Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 131 As Thai music always contains the idea of heterophony, each line in the arrangement performs different roles and functions. The melody transforms under constant variations but is always spoken clearly in the music while the accompaniment changes rhythmic patterns. Performance terms from Thai traditional music, such as Luk Khat and Luk Mhod, were included in the score to help musicians with interpretation. In creating the arrangement, the researchers endeavoured to keep the essence of Thai traditional music from the original score of the Evening Prelude by Prince Damrong Rajanubhab. Transforming the instrumentation from the Pi Phat ensemble to the violin, viola, and guitar trio gave a new experience of Thai music to the audience, creating an auditory juxtaposition of Thai musical idioms performed on Western instruments and Austrian Biedermeier chamber music performed in Thailand. Performance. The research findings were presented in a lecture recital, held on the 2nd March, 2022 in the Thailand Asian Music Centre at Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music (PGVIM). Taking inspiration from Biedermeier culture, the performance concept endeavored to emulate the relaxed and informal environment of the Biedermeier salon concert, and to disseminate knowledge about the research findings in a simple and engaging manner. Paying tribute to Thai musical practices, the concert began with the musicians already in their places and performing Sadhukarn while audience members were still taking their seats and was followed by a spoken introduction to the concert and explain the connection between Thai and Biedermeier music. Each of the following pieces on the program was preceded by spoken portions in which specific topics regarding various aspects of Biedermeier culture were introduced. The Serenade, Op. 75 by Call was preceded by a discussion of the changing styles of music from 18th century Classicism to 19th century Romanticism, the growing middle class in both Thailand and Vienna as well as Biedermeier concert practices and salon music culture. Matiegka’s Serenade Op. 26 followed an explanation of the type of salon concerts that were made popular by more well-known composers such as Schubert, who had been familiar with Matiegka’s work. Diabelli’s IIIème Grande Sérénade focused the discussion on middle-class musicians who no longer had to rely on the patronage system of the past and pursued entrepreneurial activities in the music industry in addition to composition. The concert took place on-site and was streamed live on Facebook and YouTube. Academic documentation, audio recordings, and a video recording of the full concert can be found on the website: www.pgvim.ac.th/research/biedermeier (Figure 11). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 132 Figure 11. Performance on 2nd of March 2022 at Thai-Asian Music Centre, PGVIM. Conclusion Through the study, rehearsal, and performance of the pieces investigated for this research, it was found that the music of both the Austrian Biedermeier era and the parallel Thai Rattanakosin period played significant roles in social functions. The rise of the middle class as the new driving force of culture was a phenomenon that occurred in both contexts. In Biedermeier Vienna, where music was a popular pastime, the newly affluent middle class was able to purchase instruments and devote time to music lessons. This led to an increase in amateurs and an expanded market for music publishing. Salon concerts flourished during this time; music played an important role in providing entertainment for social gatherings in the home. In early Rattanakosin Thailand, where music was integrated with functions and rituals in daily life, the rise of the bourgeoisie occurred in tandem with a cultural golden age, resulting in an abundance of literary and artistic works and the emergence of the idea that music could be listened to and enjoyed on its own. In a transitional phase between two important musical eras, the style of Biedermeier music contains elements of both the preceding Classical era in its preference for the tasteful and restrained, and the succeeding Romantic era in its lyricism and dramatic expression. The distinctive aesthetic of Biedermeier music reflects a focus on simplicity and elegance, as music was widely used as pleasant entertainment during a post-war era in Europe in which the prevailing sentiment was to seek a restoration of stability and a new order of peace. The escapist undertones in this very intentional invocation of simplicity have resonance with Thai Buddhist beliefs of transience and the search for meaning beyond the various turmoil of the material world. Although there was a plethora of compositions being published during the Biedermeier era to meet the demands of the market for the growing number of amateur musicians, the guitar-violin-viola trio was the focus of this research to represent an ensemble of typical household instruments. The research brought attention to bring attention to three composers’ contrasting approaches to writing for the guitar-violin-viola trio, and especially in the genre of the serenade, which has been Kim, Chantanakajornfung & Suwanpakdee 133 the quintessential music for entertainment throughout history. These pieces would likely have been performed in domestic settings or social functions, contributing to a culture of music being practiced and performed for enjoyment. Thai Rattanakosin-era ceremonial music, also, had practical functions for allowing musicians to get into the spirit of music-making together. In both cultural contexts, music was an integral part of daily life that facilitated social activities. The pieces selected for study required careful examination of notation and performance practice in order to be performed effectively. Several issues of performance had to be resolved, such as adapting early 19th-century articulation practices for modern instruments and understanding the changing nature of ornamentation in the transitional period between the Classical and Romantic eras. In the previous centuries, matters of style had largely been left to the taste and the discretion of the performers, but the rise of amateur musicians in the Biedermeier period necessitated more precision from composers and a new focus on the scholarship of composers’ intent. The Biedermeier period marked the beginnings of new attempts to standardise and clarify, but notational practices were still largely inconsistent during the time. Considering these discrepancies, as well as the transitional nature of this period, elements of both Classical and Romantic performance practice were incorporated into the interpretation of the works. Such adjustments made by the performers, however, can be seen as a simulation of how Biedermeier music may have been practiced in its day. The Biedermeier era was a time in which music very much belonged in the hands of the public; the relatively informal settings in which much of the music of the time was being played created spaces in which music could be shared and enjoyed as a part of daily life. Similarly, Thai customs from the early Rattanakosin era brought music closer to the daily practices of public life, as it was included in a range of formal and informal events. While acknowledging and affirming the lofty ideals that music can convey, the exploration of the more practical side of music was an important focus of this research. The unique ability of music to gather people together around common shared beliefs and values can be seen in two completely disparate cultures, Biedermeier Vienna and early-Rattanakosin Thailand. The music of these cultures are precious for being close to the practices of daily life – it is thus that music will continue to live on beyond memory and history. Acknowledgements We are deeply indebted to numerous individuals whose help and support has made this research possible. We would like to thank Silpathorn artist Anant Nakkong for his insightful supervision of the Thai music portion of this project and for challenging us to promote Thai musical traditions in new contexts. For the Romantic guitar that was used in preparation for the concert, we would like to thank Naris Charaschanyawong for offering us an authentic instrument made in 1837 by the legendary French guitar builder René François Lacôte. We are grateful to PGVIM for providing us with the funding and support to complete this project. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 2 (115-134) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 134 References Brown, C. (1999). Classical and Romantic performing practice 1750-1900. Oxford University Press. Burkholder, J. P., Grout, D. J. & Palisca, C. V. (2014). A history of western music (9th ed.). W. W. & Company. Duk, P. (1996). Relation between Thailand (Siam) and French in 19th Century from Documents of Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Royal Society of Thailand. Geertz, C. (1993). Religion as a cultural system. Fontana Press. Goldberg, H. (2020). Chopin in Warsaw’s salons. Polish Music Center, University of Southern California: https://polishmusic.usc.edu/research/publications/polish- music-journal/vol2/chopin-in-warsaw-salons/ Hanson, A. (1985). Musical life in Biedermeier Vienna. Cambridge University Press. Pancharoen, N. (2016). “Botsangkraoh nganwijai mitimaikhong dontrisakol nai pratedthai dontrisangsan chengwichakarn” บทสังเคราะห์งานวิจัย มิติใหม่ของดนตรีสากลในประเทศไทยดนตรี สร้างสรรค์เชิงวิชาการ [Synthesis the new dimensions of Western music in Thailand]. In Dontrilikhit ruambotkwam dontrisangsan chengwichakarn ดนตรีลิขิต: รวมบทความดนตรี สร้างสรรค์เชิงวิชาการ [Academic in creative music]. Bangkok. Phongpanitanon, W. (1989). Socio-cultural change in “Bangkok During the Early Rattanakosin in Period, 1782-1868. Chulalongkorn University. Puchadapirom, P. (2003). “Wiwattanakarn khong vattanatham bunthengun sampan kab prapani piteekam samai korn Rattanakosin” วิวัฒนาการของวัฒนธรรมบันเทิงอัน สัมพันธ์กับประเพณี พิธีกรรมสมัยก่อนรัตนโกสินทร์ [The revolution of entertainment culture which related to the tradition]. In Wattanatham buntheng nai chatthai วัฒนธรรมบันเทิงในชาติไทยฯ [Ritual before Rattanakosin]. Matichon. Roongruang, P. (2001). Thailand. In The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians, eds. Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell, 2nd ed. Macmillan. Taruskin, R. (2005). The Oxford history of western music: Music in the nineteenth century. Oxford University Press. Tsomo, K. L. (2006). Dying, death, and afterlife from a Buddhist perspective (A. D. Sherma, Ed.). Theology and Religious Studies: Faculty Scholarship. Wongthes, S. (2010). Dontrithai machaknai ดนตรีไทยมาจากไหน? [Where does Thai music come from?]. Nakhon Pathom: Mahidol University. Wongthes, S. (n.d.). Prelude. In evening prelude, Damrong Rajanubhab (pp. 3-10). Nakhon Pathom: Mahidol University. Yates, W. E. (2001). Biedermeier. In E. B. Tyrrell, The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians (Vol. 2nd ed.). Macmillan. Biography Margaret Hayne Kim, Apichai Chantanakajornfung and Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee are faculty members at School of Music, Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music (PGVIM), Bangkok, Thailand. See more information about us please visit our website www.pgvim.ac.th/research/biedermeier.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 1 (2023)

audience perception, audience profile, contemporary classical music, music consumption, music sociology, musical taste

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/491

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7390

Audience’s Profile and Perception Towards Contemporary Classical Music:

Contemporary Classical Music (CCM) emerged from Classical Music (CM) in the early 20th century; however, it has received mixed reception from both audiences and institutions. Due to its low acceptance among the mainstream CM audience, CCM composers need to take their own initiative to boost the visibility and exposure of their creative output. In addition, more musicians in recent decades have gradually specialised in this genre and perceived it as a potential career path, in addition to the competitive CM performing market. However, there is limited research on the CCM audience, both globally and locally. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the audience profile and their perceptions towards specific styles of CCM based on social status, educational level, musical background, and interest. An exploratory case study was employed to investigate the audience profile of the first International Composers' Symposium 2021 (ICS2021), which was a collaboration between Universiti Malaya, the National Band Directors Association of Malaysia and funded by the Japan Foundation of Kuala Lumpur. An online survey was distributed to the participants at the end of the webinars. Following the analysis of the 73 surveys, it was found that respondents consisted mostly of students and young working professionals. Although many were encouraged to participate due to teacher-student relationships and other social connections, they generally held a positive and open-minded view towards CCM and viewed the event as an opportunity to experience CCM and learn new knowledge about it. The study also informed possible factors that attract the CCM audience.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7390/4404

Poon Chiew Hwa & Wang I Ta 1 Audience’s Profile and Perception Towards Contemporary Classical Music: An Exploratory Case Study of an Online International Composers’ Symposium in Malaysia Poon Chiew Hwa1, Wang I Ta2* Faculty of Creative Arts, Universiti Malaya 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]* *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 1 June 2023 Cite this article (APA): Poon, C. H. & Wang, I. T. (2023). Audience’s profile and perception towards contemporary classical music: An exploratory case study of an online International Composers’ Symposium in Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.1.1.2023 Abstract Contemporary Classical Music (CCM) emerged from Classical Music (CM) in the early 20th century; however, it has received mixed reception from both audiences and institutions. Due to its low acceptance among the mainstream CM audience, CCM composers need to take their own initiative to boost the visibility and exposure of their creative output. In addition, more musicians in recent decades have gradually specialised in this genre and perceived it as a potential career path, in addition to the competitive CM performing market. However, there is limited research on the CCM audience, both globally and locally. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the audience profile and their perceptions towards specific styles of CCM based on social status, educational level, musical background, and interest. An exploratory case study was employed to investigate the audience profile of the first International Composers' Symposium 2021 (ICS2021), which was a collaboration between Universiti Malaya, the National Band Directors Association of Malaysia and funded by the Japan Foundation of Kuala Lumpur. An online survey was distributed to the participants at the end of the webinars. Following the analysis of the 73 surveys, it was found that respondents consisted mostly of students and young working professionals. Although many were encouraged to participate due to teacher-student relationships and other social connections, they generally held a positive and open-minded view towards CCM and viewed the event as an opportunity to experience CCM and learn new knowledge about it. The study also informed possible factors that attract the CCM audience. Keywords: audience perception, audience profile, contemporary classical music, music consumption, music sociology, musical taste Background of Contemporary Classical Music According to Mencke et al. (2022), Contemporary Classical Music (CCM) emerged from Classical Music (CM) in the early 20th century. An important turning point was in 1889 when music shifted from romanticism to the development of new musical styles established by composers like Debussy and Schoenberg. 2 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Many non-Western performing artists participated in the International Paris Exposition and the exchange initiated at the event created an exploration of sound and styles (for example, the influence of Gamelan on composers like Debussy and Mahler). From that point till 1920, tonality had been shaken up by the chromaticism advocated by Liszt and Wagner. Schoenberg followed suit and constructed his works by stressing the motivic use and textural design. Compositional language became more atonal and highly chromatic. His contemporaries continued to develop in new ways, such as Stravinsky’s experimentation with innovative rhythms that created asymmetry and unsettled patterns, Debussy’s focus on the exploration of sonority and use of novel scales instead of the conventional developmental formal structure and chromatic tension and resolution. Those innovative compositional approaches deviated from tonality and structural and formal hierarchy, broke the regularity of rhythm and meter, and often contained dissonance (Schwartz & Godfrey, 1993). Schwartz and Godfrey stated, “Music composed since 1900 can be described, even by its proponents, as angular, biting, and discordant. Some pieces even seem deliberately created to provoke the listener, as though the composer had set out to distort every traditional definition of music” (p. 3). Because of this, CCM is enjoyed by niche audiences (Mencke et al., 2019), which might be due to the difficulty of auditory retrieval (Schulze et al., 2012) and attaining familiarity (Prior, 2013). According to Morgan (1991), the radical environmental changes after the Second World War also affected the musical arts. In North America, we saw experimental music by John Cage, Harry Partch, and Lou Harrison who explored the intonational possibilities, instrumental properties and performance formats that inclined towards Asian culture (Schwartz & Godfrey, 1993). French composer Pierre Boulez pointed out that early 20th-Century composers had not fully achieved the musical revolution after the loss of tonality (e.g. Schoenberg’s twelve-tone theory) and started to employ other musical elements in the creative process, e.g., “rhythm, dynamics, texture, and ultimately form itself—according to strictly serial procedure” (Morgan, 1991, p. 334), which marked the start of serialism. Boulez and his contemporaries such as Olivier Messiaen and Karlheinz Stockhausen refined the idea of fragmentation of those elements to create an avant- garde music style. In the 1950s, Indeterminacy, “the intentional utilization of some degree of chance in composition” (Morgan, 1991, p. 359), amplified the ideology of serialism. The most notable composer of this genre, John Cage, believed that “each musical unit existed for itself, essentially independent of any relationship it might have with other units. A sound was not derived from the sounds that preceded it, nor did it imply those that followed” (Morgan, 1991, p. 362). His encounter with Zen Buddhism inspired Indeterminacy and this resulted in the minimal use of compositional materials. His “4’33”” prefigured the minimalism that emerged in the 1960s. Representative composers include John Cage, Steve Reich, and Philip Glass. According to Schwartz and Godfrey (1993), there were trends influencing the development of CCM after 1945. Some composers started to value and adopt non-Western musical materials; they started to use “noise” as the sound property in compositions such as John Cage’s “Credo in Us”. The percussive timbre was explored among composers like Henry Cowell and Bela Bartok. Some composers also broke the boundaries of the twelve equal temperaments and explored smaller subdivisions to create particular intonations. The sound properties of the instruments were maximised to achieve “coloristic orchestration” (Schwartz & Godfrey, 1993, p. 15), as seen in works such as Alban Berg’s opera Wozzeck and Anton von Webern’s Klangfarbenmelodie. Instruments rarely seen in art music, such as cowbells, sleigh bells, mandolins, anvils, and whips; altered instruments such as prepared pianos and alternative instruments such as radios and phonograph turntables have also been experimented with for their acoustical possibilities. Experimentations also extended to dramatic or visual elements, such as the novel placement of performers or the selection of performance venues. According to Schwartz and Godfrey (1993), compositional innovation and radicalism peaked in the late 1960s and many composers started to question the necessity of being innovative and avant-garde in their creations. They felt that so-called originality, such as dissonance, experimental intonation and instrumentation and complex coding (i.e., serialism), had become predictable. Therefore, a new trend emerged that went back to the tonal past and linear musical textures. However, Schwartz and Godfrey continue, this rekindled enthusiasm for tonality did not refer to the period from 1700 to 1900, but rather to the concept of using "persistent pulse, clear rhythm patterns, consonant sonorities, lyrical melodic phrasing, and diatonic scale relationships" (p. 264). Moreover, CCM extended its boundaries to incorporate other genres such as jazz, rock, and popular styles (Schwartz & Godfrey, 1993). Cultural hybridity was also embedded in CCM during the post-modern era (Adler, 1998), when economic, social, and political changes were influencing classical music (Yang, 2007). The appearance of ethnic sources was not unusual (Schwartz & Godfrey, 1993). Poon Chiew Hwa & Wang I Ta 3 According to Norman (2002), the momentum of adopting non-Western classical music genres has continued into the 21st century. Norman says that this trend is largely due to globalisation, which has been driven by technological advancements, the promotion of pop culture and a “de-emphasis on fine arts” (p. 73). To reach wider audiences, composers and performers in the current era have incorporated elements of other music genres into their work. Additionally, composers in the 21st century are not afraid to embrace their cultural identities, which are reflected in their musical output. As a result, multiculturalism has become a significant feature of 21st century CCM (Chatman, 2010). The current case study investigates the audience and their perceptions of CCM through the first International Composers' Symposium 2021 (ICS2021). In this study, CCM refers to the works composed by living composers whose output is not considered avant-garde and may fall into the narratives of 21st century CCM composers, as described by Norman (2002) or Chatman (2010). The invited composers presented their works covering styles such as neo-tonality, multiculturalism, and fusions of other music genres. However, it is important to note that the representation of CCM in this event did not cover all the diverse styles of CCM. Literature Review According to Ross (2021), 21st century CCM composers came from diverse geographical and cultural backgrounds and had different compositional styles, including progressive composers who were inclined towards experimental music and modernism, as well as those who stuck to more traditional uses of harmony and forms. While recent creative output by CCM composers has been vigorous, it is unclear how they can sustain their professional stream. Ross added that institutions such as orchestras or opera houses held a reserved attitude towards adding new works to concert programs. Robin (2018) stated that, despite the conservative attitude of the public, since the 1960s, there has been an emergence of groups such as Ensemble of Intercontemporain, Bang on a Can and London Sinfonietta as well as composer-led groups such as Fires of London, Steve Reich and Musicians and Philip Glass Ensemble. Ross (2012, 2016) noted that CCM festivals such as Donaueschingen Festival, Warsaw Autumn in Europe and Big Ears in the US have also attracted thousands of younger and niche audiences. Ross (2021) observed that composers have had to find channels to promote their creative output and musicians have gradually accepted that specialising in performing new music as a viable path besides performing in the competitive CM market. Additionally, Ross said, the audience has been younger groups that "come from a cohort of intellectually curious people who are receptive to current trends in various art forms" (p. 41). Globally, contemporary music was less accepted by most audiences (Ross, 2010). As mentioned by Schwartz and Godfrey (1993), listeners would rather stay in their comfort zone and listen to music that they are familiar with. CCM might require listeners to perceive and even participate in music differently. Music sociologist Adorno commented that when listening to Schoenberg's works, listeners had to become "compositional partners" because the deconstruction of hierarchical tonal and structural organisation engages them in "active sense-making" (DeNora, 2003, p. 19). When listening to John Cage's music, "The listener as active participant in the composition process leads to observing situated specificity of music materials" (DeNora, 2003, p. 19). This might explain why the audience for CCM are adventurous individuals who look for something "different", "new", "challenging", "unexpected", "not commercial" and "not a commodity" (Gross & Pitts, 2016, p. 16). However, according to Pitts and Price (2020), the contemporary arts only have a small audience, and they lack support from cultural champions in embracing new music. In a study by the Audience Agency, the ratio of contemporary classical music audience members to classical music ones on average was about 1:3 (Bradley, 2017). However, it is unclear what the demographics of the audience are as well as their experiences and motivations for attending CCM events. Grebosz-Haring and Weichbold (2020) pointed out that the audience for CCM concerts and festivals comprises social elites and education-driven individuals who regularly consume CCM in the initiation of knowledge exploration, experience, and involvement in the genre. Menger (2017) also reported three compounding factors that contributed to their attendance of CCM concerts and events, which includes their strong musical background, high social status, and education level. In contrast to the younger audience of CCM, Boghossian (2021) stated that the cultural reliance of CM is limited to a small number of aging, mostly white, audience members. Due to the conservative attitude of this group, which makes up a significant portion of paying consumers, the addition of new compositions to concert programming could result in a reduction in ticket sales. However, programming new compositions may be more accepted by younger audiences. Boghossian recommends that attention should 4 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 be paid to integrating mainstream classical music and new music audiences by exploring or tailoring the “concert venue”, “format” and “protocols” for the sustainability and development of CCM (p. 44). The activities of CCM in Malaysia, as stated by Tajuddin et al. (2021), were prompted by the establishment of the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra (MPO) in 1999. The organisation called for commissioned works by local composers from 2001 to 2003 and organised the MPO Composer’s Forum in 2007. Subsequently, the HSBC Young Composers Workshop and the KL Contemporary Music Festival were held in 2008 and 2009 respectively, followed by the first UiTM-klpac Malaysian Composers Series, which was launched in 2010. Besides those events at the domestic level, the Soundbridge Festival 2013 and the SPECTRA Festival 2014 reached out to their international counterparts. In addition, according to Gan (2014), there were three musical societies founded to promote CCM in Malaysia: the Malaysian Composers Collective in 2007, the Society of Malaysian Contemporary Composers in 2010 and the Classical Music Society Selangor and Kuala Lumpur in 2010. The Society of Malaysian Contemporary Composers (SMCC) hosted a variety of workshops and concerts of CCM, featuring local and foreign composers (Khoo, 2014). Moreover, Malaysian composers have been active at the international level in performance (performing works in 31 countries) and competitions (winning or becoming finalists in 20 competitions) (Tajuddin et al., 2021). The achievements of Malaysian CCM composers over the last decade demonstrate the development and maturity of CCM. However, Tajuddin et al. (2021) have noted that efforts to fund and promote CCM to a wider audience in Malaysia are largely lacking. Although the development of CCM in Malaysia can be traced back to the 1950s, the progress of development is slow compared to other Asian countries such as Japan and China (Gan, 2017). The slow growth of acceptance and popularity of CCM in Malaysia might be due to the musical features of CCM addressed in this article, which might not be easily understood and received among musicians and non-musicians. Although CCM development in Malaysia has been examined in only a handful of studies (Gan, 2014; Khoo, 2014; Gan, 2017; Tajuddin et al., 2021), to the best of the researchers’ knowledge, there has not been an investigation into the audience profile and perceptions towards CCM in Malaysia. Globally, the audience profile of CCM is an under-researched topic. Therefore, the researchers have reviewed past studies on CM to discover possible issues applicable to CCM and to construct a feasible methodological approach to generate the required data in response to the research queries. Large-scale population surveys in the United States (Brown et al., 2002), the United Kingdom and the United States (Kolb, 2001) and the Netherlands (Meijjer & Warntjes, 2005) found that the audience of CM concerts was generally well-educated and from the higher social status population. Further research was completed by Roose (2008), validating that the audience of CM is mostly well-educated. Similarly, Menger (2017) discovered that the Parisian audience of classical music and opera was generally older, with an above average social status and had an above average education profile. Whereas in Malaysia, there has been a lack of research about the Malaysian audience profile of CM in general. The most recent research was Loo (2009), a case study conducted on the Malaysian audience profile in selected art music concerts: a symphony, a musical and a concert version of opera. By employing surveys and intercepted interviews at the performance venues, Loo found that the audiences were predominantly students and generally below 30 years old. The audiences were mainly students of tertiary education as well as primary and secondary schools. The blooming of student orchestras, wind bands and Chinese orchestras in the education sector cultivated the younger concertgoers. In addition to the environmental impact, it was also observed that the teacher-student social connection motivated those young concertgoers to attend musical performances. According to Loo, this phenomenon contrasts with the aging population commonly seen in the concert arena in the West. The author also examined the musical background of the audience. According to statistics, the ratio of musically trained to untrained audience members was approximately 1:1. However, for the Beethoven Symphony No. 9 concert, 64% of the audience was musically trained, while in the musical category, which was based on a Chinese folk story, 70% of the audience was untrained. The latter also attracted a wider age range of attendees, from 21 to 60 years old, which indicates that the acceptance of art music concerts was influenced by genre and familiarity with the context of music production (i.e., older audience, particularly Chinese who were familiar with the folk story). The study suggested that, even though art music is not commercially viable, the audience is the key stakeholder in the concert production. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how various genres are perceived and received by the audience. The current study holds the same rationale and attempts to conduct an exploratory investigation on the Malaysian audience's profile and perceptions towards CCM. In conclusion, CCM is comprised of diverse compositional languages and limited studies suggest that its audience is comprised of younger generations seeking new experiences and knowledge. Despite Poon Chiew Hwa & Wang I Ta 5 slow growth, Malaysian composers have achieved visibility and recognition, with local and international activities taking place. However, little is known about the demographics and reception of the audience towards CCM in Malaysia. Furthermore, it remains unclear whether the audience profile and perceptions towards CCM differs from the West, given the unique cultural and social contexts of Malaysia. This study on the audience demographics for CCM could provide readers with preliminary information about the audience's musical tastes and perceptions towards CCM. Understanding the audience's needs through this study is especially important for those who are looking to develop CCM performances and events in the country. Furthermore, the International Composers Symposium 2021 (ICS2021) is the first online symposium of international composers in Malaysia, and it provided fundamental demographic data about the audience for future research. Based on Menger’s (2017) three compounding factors that contribute to CCM’s audience, the current study aims to explore the audience profile through social status, education level and musical background, using ICS2021 as an exploratory case study and a starting point. The audience’s musical interests towards CCM were also explored to strengthen and deepen the research findings. Through surveys, the collected data addressed two research questions: (1) Who is the audience for ICS2021, an online contemporary classical music symposium, in terms of social status and educational level? and (2) What are the audience’s musical background and interests towards contemporary classical music? Methodology This exploratory case study aimed to examine the audience profile through demographic questions to investigate social status, education level, musical background, and interest by using an online survey. Through contextual and experiential questions, we aimed to gain a deeper understanding of the audience’s perceptions towards CCM, such as the reasons for participating in a CCM symposium (motivation), how they are involved with CCM and how it relates to them at a personal level (experience), as well as their thoughts about CCM as a musical genre (perception). The symposium was held online for one month and therefore the researchers faced time constraints in data collection, as respondents were spread across multiple cities in Malaysia and China. An online survey was undoubtedly a convenient and efficient tool to use. There was a lack of study and research instruments on the audience profile survey relating to specific genres such as symphonic wind bands. Besides, many studies on music audiences, such as Crawford et al. (2014), Kolb (2000), O’Sullivan (2009) and Dobson (2010), utilised a qualitative method instead of a survey. Hence, this study adopted a survey method and convenience sampling. The respondents were the attendees of the online International Composers Symposium 2021 hosted by the Music Department of Universiti Malaya, in collaboration with the National Band Directors Association of Malaysia and funded by the Japan Foundation of Kuala Lumpur. The event consisted of four webinars by different composers: Lee Feng-Hsu (Taiwan), Eiji Suzuki (Japan), Daisuke Shimizu (Japan) and Marzelan Salleh (Malaysia). In this study, the researchers collected 73 completed surveys by the end of ICS2021. The online survey was distributed to the audience at the end of each webinar and Google Forms was used as the medium for the survey questionnaires. The content of the questionnaires was adapted from the survey distributed by The Paris Autumn Festival in 2014. The Paris Autumn Festival is an annual international festival that is dedicated to multi-disciplinary contemporary arts that also hosted performances by elite CCM composers. Grebosz-Haring and Weichbold (2020) employed the Paris Autumn Festival questionnaire as part of their instrument to investigate the audience profile of contemporary art music. They discussed their findings in relation to the homology of music sociology, proposed by Pierre Bourdieu, and music consumption patterns, related to lifestyle theories by Gerhard Schulze. Additionally, the questionnaire was largely general as it was adapted to various types of concerts, such as large and small ensembles, multimedia performance, choir or vocal concerts and others. The questions were flexible, had high adaptability and supported the aims of our study. They were modified and selected based on the three compounding factors of CCM audiences stated by Menger (2017): social status, education level and musical background. Additionally, musical interest was added to understand the CCM audience’s musical taste and intentions at a deeper level. The first webinar was conducted by Lee Feng-Hsu, where he explained how he constructed and composed his saxophone pieces with creative use of motives and materials. Lee is a prolific composer with many commissioned works, and he has won numerous international composition awards. This was followed by Eiji Suzuki’s webinar on explaining the orchestration techniques of his works. Suzuki has an international reputation as a world-renowned composer, especially for his contribution to wind orchestra 6 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 works. His works were premiered and performed by many major orchestras around the world. Next, the third webinar showcased Daisuke Shimizu, a specialist in wind band, who shared his inspiration for creating his well-known piece “Seas of Wisdom”. Shimizu is also a well-known composer in wind orchestra and his works were commonly performed by wind bands in Japan and other countries. In the last webinar, Marzelan Salleh talked about how he incorporated intercultural and Gamelanistic elements in his compositions. Transcultural compositional techniques are one of the unique styles that set him apart from other composers. His compositions have been performed in major music festivals internationally. Result and Discussion of Findings Audience Profile The results were organised according to Menger’s (2017) three compounding factors that contribute to the audience of CCM concerts and events: social status, education level and musical background. Musical interest was added to the category of musical background to enrich this audience study. The data analysis of social status consisted of age, gender, occupation, publicity, and level of demand for CCM events. Next, the education level of respondents was presented. The final part of the presented results were the musical background and interest of respondents in the order of percentage of attendance for each webinar, intention of respondents, perspective of ICS2021, interest in attending similar future events, previous CCM experience, involvement with CCM, personal perspectives towards CCM and personal relation with CCM. Social Status In discussions of pluralism in musical aesthetics, Schulze (1992) and Van Eijck (2001) both discovered that education level and age of the audience might accurately predict their musical taste. As shown in Figure 1, the group aged 18 and less (35.6 %) and the one aged 30 and above (32.9%) contributed to the higher portions of respondents. The 18 and less group represented the students at the pre-college level. This was due to the student's involvement in school bands and the fact that there were two webinars conducted by two well-known band composers and conductors. The 30 and above group were working professionals, including music educators, band directors, kindergarten and day-care teachers, musicians, and IT engineers. The 19 to 23 (16.4%) group included students with a bachelor’s degree while the 24 to 30 (15.1%) group were in postgraduate study, both in music-related fields. The two groups comprise 31.5% of total respondents. We can see that over 66% of respondents were under 30. This is in line with Loo’s (2009) study in two aspects: (1) students from tertiary education and high schools make up a significant portion of participants in art music events; (2) audiences are involved in school band or orchestra. Figure 2 shows that the majority of respondents’ gender was female (62.6%) versus male (38.4%). Figure 1. Age distribution of ICS2021 attendees Poon Chiew Hwa & Wang I Ta 7 Figure 2. Gender of ICS2021 attendees Figure 3 shows that 42.5% of respondents were students across different education levels. This, again, demonstrated that the student population was the major group in this event, which was consistent with Loo (2009). However, this contrasted with Grebosz-Haring and Weichbold (2020), where most attendees of three CCM festivals had obtained a high level of education. Bourdieu (1984) and Schulze (1992) discovered that a high level of education is a typical criterion of lifestyle and social class. Bourdieu (1984) observed that CCM was usually listened to by a highly educated and privileged elite. Figure 3. Occupation of ICS2021 attendees Figure 4 shows that most respondents became aware of ICS2021 through the promotion in their school or university (53.4%) and social media (52.1%). This figure also implies that the networking of respondents can be considered as one of the factors in social status. It was not surprising to encounter a high percentage of publicity through school or university because of the lecturers and band directors who were encouraging their students to attend such events. Additionally, social media has been widely and increasingly used to promote music events (Chen & Lei, 2021). The reason may be that social media served as one of the most direct and cost-efficient ways to reach out to audiences locally and internationally. Although this event had been advertised in newspapers, it was obvious that it did not reach the target audience, because only 4.1% of respondents discovered this event through newspapers. This indicates that newspapers might not be the most effective channel to advertise CCM-related events. Oklobdžija (2015) claimed that traditional media is declining as one of the marketing strategies in the current trend. The limited effectiveness of newspaper advertising in this study has undoubtedly supported this claim. 8 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 4. The publicity of ICS2021 In Figure 5, just over half of respondents (50.7%) rated similar CCM events as moderately demanded in Malaysia, whereas 27.4% reported such events as highly demanded and 21.9% felt they were very highly demanded. None of the respondents thought that they have low or very low demand in Malaysia. Rizkallah (2009) discussed classical music performing organisations in the United States, which were having difficulties in attracting concertgoers and this had a significant impact on the sustainability of the performing arts business. With the positive responses to this question, there is a high potential to attract more attendees to CCM, perhaps branching out from the conventional performance venues of CM, creating an innovative concert format or delivery, as suggested by Boghossian (2021). Figure 5. Levels of demand for CCM events Note: 1 stands for ‘very low demand’; 2 stands for ‘low demand’; 3 stands for ‘moderately demanded’; 4 stands for ‘highly demanded’; 5 stands for ‘very highly demanded’ Educational Level Figure 6 shows the education background of respondents. Over half of them were students, 41.1% in high school or lower, 37% were studying for a bachelor’s and 6.8% studying for a diploma, master’s or doctorate. Though there was a wide distribution of education backgrounds, high school students made up a significant portion of respondents because the symposium was held in collaboration with the National Band Directors Association of Malaysia. The association helped connect the research team with the two Japanese composers and promoted the events to their respective students. The linkages between them were clear, as the student-teacher relationship was one of the main factors. On the other hand, there was a relatively high percentage of bachelor’s students (37%). In addition, respondents holding a master’s degree and above took up 13.6 %. Over half of respondents came from a bachelor’s degree and above. This result was supported by many other studies, where most of the audience of CCM had obtained a higher level of education (Zehme, 2005; Menger, 2017; Grebosz-Haring & Weichbold, 2020). Poon Chiew Hwa & Wang I Ta 9 Figure 6. Education background of ICS2021 attendees Musical Background and Interest As shown in Figure 7, the number of attendees was significantly higher in the webinars of the two Japanese composers, which focused on band compositions. This suggested that the motivation for attending the webinars related to student involvement in music learning (e.g., participation in band or orchestra) and teacher-student social relationships (Loo, 2009). Figure 7. Percentage of attendees for each webinar Figure 8 shows the intentions and motivations of respondents in attending ICS2021. In the multiple- choice question “What makes you come to this particular event?”, 80.0% selected “To develop/educate myself”, which aligned with Grebosz-Haring and Weichbold’s (2020) findings that the CCM audience seeks knowledge exploration. The second-highest choice was “I want to listen to both the speaker and the compositions”, which could be interpreted as a sign of teacher-student social interaction in a CCM event because the band teachers advertised and encouraged their students to attend ICS2021. In addition, many audience members were also students of the two composers from Taiwan and Malaysia. This is similar to Loo's (2009) finding that the teacher-student social relationship plays a crucial factor in motivating concertgoers. The third-highest choice was “I want to experience something new” (63%), which was in line with Gross and Pitts (2016), which stated that the CCM audience is adventurous in exploring “something new”, “challenging”, “different” and “unexpected” (p. 16). Other popular choices were “Music-related professional reasons” (52.1%), “I want to listen to the speaker’s compositions” (46.6%) and “I am interested in Contemporary Classical Music” (42.5%) (See Figure 8). 10 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 8. The audience’s intentions in attending ICS2021 Figure 9 shows that most respondents strongly agreed that ICS2021 was a place for educational enrichment, served as a space to explore various compositional styles and was a platform to support national and international CCM (A, B, C, D). It was motivating to discover that respondents thought positively of ICS2021. This result also indicated that most attendees were not intimidated by this type of event, which was entirely about CCM. These results might contradict the acceptance level of CCM music reported in other research, as some CCM can be challenging to follow due to its complex tonalities and unpredictable rhythmic structure at times (Mencke et al., 2022; Schulze et al., 2012; Prior, 2013). De La Fluenta (2010) discussed how CCM has not been successfully communicated to critics, audiences and sometimes even the performers themselves. However, there is a possibility that the music educators and lecturers had frequently exposed their students to CCM, which might have served as an additional support and preparation for CCM in terms of musical sound and knowledge about CCM. Figure 9. Audience perspectives on ICS2021 Note: (A) stands for “ICS2021 is a place for education enrichment”; (B) stands for “ICS2021 is a platform to support national CCM”; (C) stands for “ICS2021 is a platform to support international CCM”; (D) stands for “ICS2021 serves as a space for exploring various compositional styles”; (E) stands for “ICS2021 is for experts only”. Another positive sign of the audience’s willingness to attend CCM event is shown in Figure 10. Most respondents stated that they will be attending similar CCM events in the future (87.7%), which was much higher than the respondents who answered “maybe attending” similar CCM events in the future (12.3%). It is an optimistic result that none of the respondents answered “No” or not interested at all in attending similar events in the future. Poon Chiew Hwa & Wang I Ta 11 Figure 10. Audience interest in attending similar future events In Figure 11, more than half of those surveyed reported that they had experienced CCM events through workshops (58.9%) and concerts (57.5%). Many respondents attended festivals (41.1%) and symposiums (37%) about CCM. Some attended CCM-related forums (13.7%), conferences (11%) and competitions (20.5%). Only a few (2.7%) indicated that they did not have any experience with CCM events. As a result, many ICS2021 attendees had experience and exposure to CCM events, which resonates with Mencke et al.’s (2019) claim that the CCM audience is a niche group with previous experience in CCM. Figure 11. Previous experience of attendees with CCM events Most respondents (45.2%) reported that they were moderately involved with CCM, followed by 28.8% who were involved with CCM (Figure 12). 6.8% indicated that they were not involved, while 6.8% reported that they were very intensely involved. These responses were similar to Sakin (2016), where a large majority of the music major students listened to CCM sometimes, which was similar to the moderately involved respondents. Figure 12. Level of involvement of attendees with CCM 12 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Note: 1 stands for “not involved”; 2 stands for “somewhat involved”; 3 stands for “moderately involved”; 4 stands for “involved”; 5 stands for “intensely involved”. As shown in Figure 13, most respondents watched and listened to recorded CCM (90.4%). 52.1% attended CCM events and 45.2% played CCM. Meanwhile, only 5.5 % composed CCM, 2.7% wrote about CCM and the same frequency was reported for respondents who were not devoted to CCM. Sakin (2016) revealed that music performance majors considered CCM technically difficult, and this was one of the factors that affected their exposure to learning and playing it. Figure 13. Exposure of attendees to CCM In response to the statement “CCM is hard to understand”, option A in Figure 14, the majority of respondents felt that CCM can be understood moderately. Sakin’s (2016) research in Turkey demonstrated that the level of understanding of 20th and 21st Century classical music of university music major students was insufficient and that this was one of the factors why CCM was not the most preferred musical style among all the different classical music periods. Many respondents disagreed that CCM is for experts only (option B). Most also disagreed that CCM is much less important for the development of classical music prior to the 20th Century (option C). Regarding option D, the majority agreed and strongly agreed that CCM is innovative and creative and stimulates one's imagination. Respondents also agreed that CCM challenges one's musical habits (option E). Most of them strongly agreed that CCM combines elements of traditional and new music (option F). They also agreed that CCM is an art form that is mixed with other arts and media (option G). According to the personal perspective of respondents, we observed that they positively accepted CCM, considered the genre as innovative and challenging (Gross & Pitts, 2016) and perceived it as a hybrid of something traditional and new (Ross, 2021) as well as a combination with other art forms and media. Figure 14. Personal perspectives of attendees towards CCM Note: (A) CCM is hard to understand; (B) CCM is for experts only; (C) CCM is much less important for the development of CM prior to the 20th century; (D) CCM is innovative, creative and stimulates one’s imagination; (E) CCM challenges one’s musical habits; (F) CCM combines elements of traditional and new music; (G) CCM is mixed with other arts and media. Poon Chiew Hwa & Wang I Ta 13 Figure 15 shows that a majority of respondents agreed with seven descriptions about what CCM stands for them personally. They agreed that CCM enhances their personal development, entertains, and relaxes them, is a thought-provoking impulse and an expression of their way of life. They also agreed that CCM stimulates exchange with other people and is very approachable for them. Most felt moderate about CCM being related to expressing rebellion and serving as an indispensable part of their lives. The openness and willingness to accept new music supported the aesthetic pluralism discussed by Grebosz-Haring and Weichbold (2020), which noted that “aesthetic pluralism and openness” to new music can possibly lead to social class change (p. 74). The expectation was one of the key factors for listeners, who were motivated by the unexpected and surprising moments of CCM, which contrasted with classical music. The aesthetic experiences of listeners were also evident in the discussion of Mencke et al., (2022). Figure 15. Personal relation of attendees to CCM Conclusion The current study had two main research objectives: (1) to explore the social status and education level of the audience for the online Contemporary Classical Music Symposium (ICS2021); and (2) to understand the audience's musical background and interest in contemporary classical music (CCM). The respondents were composed of two main age ranges, 18 years old or less (35.6%) and 30 years old or above (32.9%). The majority was female (61.6%) and most had a high school education or lower (41.1%) or a bachelor's degree (37%). 50.6% held a bachelor’s degree and above. Regarding occupation, 60.3% were students while the rest were working professionals. The survey data collected showed that respondents had a positive and open view of CCM, with 86.3% indicating that they would recommend ICS2021 to their friends. Respondents embraced CCM music and most attended with the purpose of experiencing and learning something new from these events. They did not feel intimidated by CCM, and most were neutral when asked whether ICS2021 was for experts only. Although frequency of exposure to CCM was not explicitly asked about in this study, it was clear that a significant portion of respondents had moderate to high levels of exposure to CCM through various means such as recordings, concerts, and personal musical learning journeys. It can be concluded that the overall acceptance level of CCM among the audience in Malaysia ranged from moderate to high. Respondents also expressed a desire to have more opportunities to learn about CCM from professionals and participate in CCM events in Malaysia. 14 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Practical Implications The data revealed a phenomenon that could be valuable to researchers, performers, and musicians for organising and marketing future events. The study indicates that newspaper advertising was not an effective way to reach the target audience for ICS2021. Detailed consideration should be given to the choice of newspaper and the frequency of advertising when selecting newspapers as one of the publicity strategies. Social media and recommendations from teachers or friends were found to be the most effective promotional strategies for events such as ICS2021. It was also noted that respondents enjoyed events that emphasised educational value. During ICS2021, attendees expressed that they were inspired and motivated when composers shared their music and compositional techniques in real-time, which enabled them to develop knowledge and understanding. This is consistent with Gross and Pitts’ (2016) observation that the audience enjoys and values being in proximity with the artist and being "part of that world" (p. 12). Limitations and Further Research The results and findings of this study are subject to a few limitations. For instance, the sample size that was employed was small and it was limited to one CCM event. This case study does not encompass the broad spectrum of genres in CCM, given that CCM is highly individualistic in compositional style. Hence, this study does not intend to represent the entire CCM field. Another limitation is the geographical location of the event organisation, which was based in Kuala Lumpur. Even though ICS2021 was an online event that had the possibility of foreign audience participation, due to the time difference and limitations of connectivity, it was mainly attended by a local audience in Malaysia. An additional uncontrolled factor is the possibility that some audience members were strongly encouraged to attend the event by their instructors, which may have resulted in biased opinions when they responded to the survey questions. Therefore, it is recommended that a larger sample size and more even distribution of geographical locations be employed in future studies. Physical CCM concerts, events and festivals that are on a larger scale and with greater variety could generate more specific and rich data that represents local or global views. Additionally, more research will need to be done to understand and determine audience perceptions and preferences towards CCM, which would contribute significantly to the sustainability and development of CCM locally and internationally. Acknowledgments This research was funded by the Japan Foundation of Kuala Lumpur. The authors would like to express their gratitude to JFKL for supporting ICS2021. References Adler, C. (1998). Cross-cultural hybridity in music composition. Christopheradler.com. Retrieved October 31, 2022, from http://christopheradler.com/hybridity98.pdf Boghossian, P. (2021). Preface. In M. Beckerman & P. Boghossian (Eds.), Classical music: Contemporary perspectives and challenges (p. xxv). OpenBook Publishers. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/3640094e- cae2-40ca-8c9c-d967497c4083/9781800641150.pdf Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste. Harvard University Press. Bradley, C. (2017). National classical music audiences: An analysis of audience finder box office data for classical music events 2014–2016. Retrieved October 31, 2022, from www.theaudienceagency.org/asset/1303 Brown, A. S., Wolff, S. A., Fish, A. J., Fenlaw, M. B., Lorway, C. & Swenson, E. (2002). Classical music consumer study. How Americans relate to classical music and their local orchestras. Audience Insight LLC, Southport: John S. and James L. Knight Foundation. Chatman, S. (2010). The influence of multiculturalism on Canadian Contemporary Art Music. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(5), 7403–7406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.05.104 Chen, Y., & Lei, W. S. C. (2021). Behavioral study of social media followers of a music event: A case study of a Chinese music festival. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 4(2), 163-182. https://doi.org/10.1108/jhti-09-2020-0168 Poon Chiew Hwa & Wang I Ta 15 Crawford, G., Gosling, V., Bagnall, G., & Light, B. (2014). Is there an app for that? A case study of the potentials and limitations of the participatory turn and networked publics for classical music audience engagement. Information, Communication & Society, 17(9), 1072-1085. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.877953 De La Fuente, E. (2010). Paradoxes of communication: The case of modern classical music. Empedocles: European Journal for the Philosophy of Communication, 1(2), 237-250. DeNora, T. (2003). New methods and classic concerns. In After adorno: Rethinking music sociology. Cambridge University Press. Dobson, M. C. (2010). New audiences for classical music: The experience of non-attenders at live orchestral concerts. Journal of New Music Research, 39(2), 111–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/09298215.2010.489643 Gan, P. J. (2014). Tenunan II by Tazul Izan Tajuddin (b. 1969): A case study of cultural confluence in malaysian contemporary music. Malaysian Journal of Music, 3(1), 13-31. https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/722 Gan, P. J. (2017). Rojak: A study of cultural elements assimilated in selected works of Malaysian contemporary composers (2001-2014) [Doctoral Thesis: The University of Adelaide]. Adelaide Research & Scholarship. https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/handle/2440/115182 Grebosz-Haring, K., & Weichbold, M. (2020). Contemporary art music and its audiences: Age, gender, and social class profile. Musicae Scientiae, 24(1), 60-77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864918774082 Gross, J., & Pitts, S. (2016). Audience for the contemporary arts: Exploring varieties of participation across art forms in Birmingham, UK. Journal of Audience & Reception Studies, 13(1), 4-23. https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/100071/1/WRRO_100071.pdf Khoo, K. S. (2014). Selected solo piano works by contemporary Malaysian composers: An analysis (Order No. 3618112). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1530298699). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/selected-solo-piano-works-contemporary- malaysian/docview/1530298699/se-2?accountid=41453 Kolb, B. M. (2000). You call this fun? Reactions of young first-time attendees to a classical concert. MEIEA Journal, 1(1), 13-28. Kolb, B. (2001). The effect of generational change on classical music concert attendance and orchestras’ responses in the UK and US. Cultural Trends, 11(41), 1-35. Loo, F. C. (2009). A case study of the audience at three art music concerts in Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 17(2), 79-92. Meijjer, E. & Warntjes, A. (2005). Klassieke Muziek in Nederland. Segmentatie Analyse. Report Stichting Rotterdam Festivals & Elsbeth Meijjer Cultuuronderzoeken. Mencke, I., Omigie, D., Wald-Fuhrmann, M., & Brattico, E. (2019). Atonal music: Can uncertainty lead to pleasure? Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, 979. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00979 Mencke, I., Seibert, C., Brattico, E., & Wald-Fuhrmann, M. (2022). Comparing the aesthetic experience of classic– romantic and contemporary classical music: An interview study. Psychology of Music, 51(1), 274–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356221091312 Menger, P. M. (2017). Contemporary music and its audience: A tale of Benevolent Asceticism? In Enhancing Participation in the Arts in the EU (pp. 115-139). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09096- 2_8 Morgan, R. P. (1991). Twentieth-century music: A history of musical style in modern Europe and America. Norton. Norman, L. K. (2002). The respective influence of Jazz and Classical music on each other: The evolution of third stream and fusion and the effects thereof into the 21st century [Doctoral Thesis, The University of Columbia]. UBC Theses and Dissertations. https://dx.doi.org/10.14288/1.0099668 Oklobdžija, S. (2015). The role and importance of social media in promoting music festivals. In Synthesis 2015- International Scientific Conference of IT and Business-Related Research (pp. 583-587). Singidunum University. https://doi.org/10.15308/Synthesis-2015-583-587 O'Sullivan, T. J. (2009). All together now: A classical music audience as a consuming community. Consumption, Markets and Culture, 12(3), 209–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253860903063220 Pitts, S. E., & Price, S. M. (2020). Understanding audience engagement in the contemporary arts. Routledge. Prior, H. M. (2013). Familiarity, schemata, and patterns of listening. In H. M. Prior & E. King (Eds.), Music and familiarity: Listening, musicology and performance (pp. 33-62). Ashgate. Rizkallah, E. G. (2009). A non-classical marketing approach for classical music performing organizations: An empirical perspective. Journal of Business & Economics Research (JBER), 7(4), 111-124. Robin, W. (2018). Balance problems: Neoliberalism and new music in the American university and ensemble. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 71(3), 749-793. https://doi.org/10.1525/jams.2018.71.3.749 Roose, H. (2008). Many-voiced or unisono? An inquiry into motives for attendance and aesthetic dispositions of the audience attending classical concerts. Acta Sociologica, 51(3), 237-253. Ross, A. (2010, November 28). Why do we hate modern classical music? The Guardian. Retrieved October 31, 2022, from www.theguardian.com/music/2010/nov/28/alex-ross-modern-classical-music Ross, A. (2012, November 12). Blunt instruments. The New Yorker. Ross, A. (2016, April 25). Embrace everything. The New Yorker. 16 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Ross, A. (2021). A report on new music. In P. Boghossian & M. Beckerman (Eds.), Classical music: Contemporary perspectives and challenges (pp. 39-45). Open Book Publishers. Sakin, A. S. (2016). The opinions of music education students about 20th and 21st centuries classical music: Uludag University Exemplification. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(35), 117-123. Schulze, G. (1992). Die Erlebnis-Gesellschaft: Kultursoziologie der Gegenwart [The Adventure Company: Cultural sociology of presence]. Campus Vlg. Schulze, K., Jay Dowling, W., & Tillmann, B. (2012). Working memory for tonal and atonal sequences during a forward and a backward recognition task. Music Perception, 29(3), 255-267. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2012.29.3.255 Schwartz, E., & Godfrey, D. (1993). Music since 1945: Issues, materials, and literature. Schirmer Books. Tajuddin, T. I., Naili, R., & Ismail, M. J. (2021). Tracing art music compositions and composers in Malaysia. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 15(10), 542-560. https://www.ijicc.net/images/Vol_15/Iss_10/151040_Tajuddin_2021_E1_R.pdf Yang, M. (2007). East meets west in the concert hall: Asians and classical music in the century of imperialism, post- colonialism, and multiculturalism. Asian Music, 38(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1353/amu.2007.0025 Zehme, H. (2005). Zeitgenössische Musik und ihr Publikum. Eine soziologische Untersuchung im Rahmen der Dresdner Tage der zeitgenössischen Musik [Contemporary music and its audience: A sociological investigation during the Dresden Days of Contemporary Music]. Regensburg, Germany: ConBrio. Biographies Poon Chiew Hwa is currently a senior lecturer at the University of Malaya and she holds a Doctor of Musical Arts degree in piano performance from the University of Arizona under the tutelage of Professor Tannis Gibson. She has also recently achieved the Applied Credential in Dalcroze Education at the Longy School of Music, Boston. Dr. Poon conducted music and movement sessions for dementia patients, senior citizens, children, and high school bands. Her research interest in music and movements was evident in her recent article publications both locally and internationally. Wang I Ta is a senior lecturer at the University of Malaya. He holds a Doctor of Musical Arts degree in piano performance from the University of Minnesota and a Master of Music in Piano Performance from the Peabody Conservatory of Johns Hopkins University. He has an interest in mindfulness and has been applying the concept and practice of it in teaching and research. His recent interdisciplinary research projects encompass music, sociology, and mental well-being.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 1 (2023)

5 Early Songs, meter, music theory, Razak Abdul Aziz, theoretical analysis

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/491

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7303

What’s the Time? Deciphering “Meter” in Razak Abdul Aziz’s 5 Early Songs

The concept of meter in music has existed probably as old as music itself. Scholars had a variety of ways of categorizing meters in music. Recent investigations on the element of meter in contemporary art music show that scholars were more Europe-American-centric and only

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7303/4406

Mohd Fairuz Zamani, Nur Fadilla Nadia & Tan Jin Yin 17 What’s the Time? Deciphering “Meter” in Razak Abdul Aziz’s 5 Early Songs Mohd Fairuz bin Zamani School of the Arts, Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800, Gelugor, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia email: [email protected] Nur Fardilla Nadia binti Abu Bakar Faculty of Applied and Creative Arts, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia email: [email protected] Tan Jin Yin School of the Arts, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Gelugor, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia email: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 5 June 2023 Cite this article (APA): Zamani, M. F., Abu Bakar, N. F. N. & Tan, J. Y. (2023). What’s the time? Deciphering “Meter” in Razak Abdul Aziz’s 5 Early Songs. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12(1), 16-33. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.1.2.2023 Abstract The concept of meter in music has existed probably as old as music itself. Scholars had a variety of ways of categorizing meters in music. Recent investigations on the element of meter in contemporary art music show that scholars were more Europe-American-centric and only 10 Pantun Settings and Maria Zaitun by Razak Abdul Aziz were previously discussed academically, hence justifying the need to conduct this investigation. 5 Early Songs by Razak Abdul Aziz were written in 1980 (3 songs) and 1988 (2 songs). The researchers had chosen to conduct a systematic theoretical analysis of the chosen work using music theories proposed by Kostka et al. (2013), Kostka and Santa (2018), and Locke (2010). The analysis found that the use of the metric element is more complex in the two songs that were composed in 1988, suggesting that the 8-year gap the composer had given him time to acquire more musical materials, maturing over the years. It is hoped that this investigation would spark some interest among other scholars to conduct studies on the similar or other work(s) of Razak Abdul Aziz and possibly expand this to other Malaysian contemporary composers. Keywords: 5 Early Songs, meter, music theory, Razak Abdul Aziz, theoretical analysis Introduction Meter in music refers to the pattern of beats that are consistent throughout a passage (Kostka et al., 2013), as it is also a perceptual phenomenon that is usually characterized in terms of an internal sense of accent or strong and weak beats (Lerdahl & Jackendoff, 1982). The concept of music meter has probably existed as early as the music itself. Wiessner (2014) proposed that humans in the pre-historic era had danced to music as early as 40,000 years ago, suggesting that there were patterns of beats used to play dance music for social functions. 18 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Killin (2018) argues that the timeline goes far back than Wiessner suggested, as he documented the findings on musical activities of pre-historic humans through archaeological artefacts from 400,000 years ago, stating that the function of music during this pre-historic era was similar to what Wiessner proposed, hence agreeing to the existence of pattern of beats during the said era. This concept is still relevant to this day, as composers and music theorists had developed it to be more complex and intricate. Though Kostka et al. (2013) proposed that these patterns of beats are consistent throughout a passage, Kostka and Santa (2018) argued that meter for most tonal pieces is relatively consistent and easy to comprehend, unlike its post-tonal (sometimes called “contemporary art”) counterpart where meter and rhythms are frequently varied and complex. Hasty (1981) acknowledged the difficulty of theorizing rhythm in twentieth-century music, as well as the central role of meter. He stated “A useful place to begin is to ask what is meter if this music can depart from it (in various degrees) yet still be rhythmic” (p. 185). This is consistent with Sullivan (2018) when he discusses the opposing perspectives of Krebs (1999), Temperley (2001) and London (2012) when discussing the use of meter in Barber’s At Saint Patrick’s Purgatory from Hermit Songs, Op. 29. Krebs (1999) argues that the perception of multiple metrical layers in this song is possible, stating that the layer could exist in two ways: metrical consonant or metrical dissonance. Temperley (2001) states that (when discussing the said piece) “It is difficult to entertain two metrical structures at once, even in cases where either one can readily be entertained on its own” (p. 228). London (2012) disagrees with Krebs and Temperley, stating that such attending (of two metrical structures) is not possible. Benward and Saker (2009) generalised the types of meter into two categories: (i) changing meter – referring to the frequent change of meter within a piece of music, (ii) asymmetric meter – referring to meters in which the beats are not grouped into units divisible by two or three. Though this categorisation is easy to comprehend, this oversimplification does not represent the real situation. Kostka et al. (2013) and Kostka and Santa (2018) categorized meters in greater detail, that are: 1. Asymmetrical meter – based on regular recurring pulses could not be subdivided into groups of two (2) or three (3). This includes the use of 5 or 7 in the numerator of a meter, with common denominators 4, 8 or 16. 2. Composite meter – indicates recurring irregular subdivisions on its numerator, such as 3+2+3, 2+2+3 and 3+3+2, while the common denominator is 4, 8 or 16. 3. Mixed meter – refers to the rapid change of meter in succession within a piece of music. As the name suggests, the “mix” could include symmetrical meter, asymmetrical meter and composite meter. 4. Polymeter – happens when more than one music meter is used simultaneously. This involves two (2) or more types of meters being executed concurrently. 5. Ametric music – Music that lacks an aurally perceivable metric organization. It does not seem to imply a regular series of recurring pulses (visibly and/or aurally), despite some ametric music using meter. 6. Metric modulation – used to describe an immediate change in tempo created by equating a particular note value to another note value, usually located in the next bar. Elliott Carter is generally credited with being the first to use this particular method of changing tempos. Kostka et al. (2013) and Kostka and Santa (2018) also discussed the rhythmic characteristics of post- tonal/contemporary art music, mentioning additive rhythm, non-retrogradeable rhythm, polyrhythm, and displaced accent (among others) that were developed during this music era. As this paper intends to conduct a systematic investigation on the use of meter in Razak Abdul Aziz’s 5 Early Songs (1980-1988), we would not be discussing rhythmic characteristics as proposed by Kostka et al. (2013) and Kostka and Santa (2018). It is vital that we focus the investigation on the use of meter in this piece so that the readers would have a clear comprehension of how the composer perceives meter in this work and not be deviated. Razak Abdul Aziz (b. 1959) is arguably one of the earliest contemporary art composers in Malaysia (Zamani et al., 2019). He received his academic trainings at Skidmore College (USA) as an undergraduate and at Columbia University (USA) and University of Edinburgh (UK) at postgraduate levels. Zamani and Gani (2020) documented the list of works by Razak Abdul Aziz as follows: 1. 5 Early Songs for voice and piano (1980-1988) 19 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 2. Quintet for strings (1981) 3. 10 Pantun Settings for combinations of soprano solo, alto solo, SATB chorus, violin, piano four hands and two pianos (1981-1990) 4. For Violin and Piano for violin and piano (1982, revised 2019) 5. The Wedding for Orchestra (1986) 6. Do Take Muriel Out for soprano solo, alto solo, SSAA chorus and orchestra (1994) 7. Etudes for solo piano (2002) 8. Maria Zaitun for voices and chamber orchestra (2002) 9. The Fisherman for solo voice, chorus and chamber ensemble or piano (2015) 10. Pepatah Episodes for solo piano (2019) 11. Prisms No. 1 and 2 for 1 piano 4 hands (2019-2020) 12. Haiku for soprano solo, SATB chorus and piano (2020) His compositions had received premieres and performances on national and international platforms. Among notable performances of his work include The Wedding by the Shinsei Nihon Symphony Orchestra at the Tokyo Metropolitan Art Space (20 November 1986), For Violin and Piano at the Asian Contemporary Music Festival in Seoul, Korea (20 October 1993), selections from the 10 Pantun Settings by the Zelanian Ensemble in Wellington, New Zealand (2 December 1992) and Fairuz Zamani PhD Recital 2 – Music of Razak Abdul Aziz in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (26 July 2019) (Zamani et al., 2019; Zamani, 2021b). This article will now be focusing on the review that would consist of recent studies of meter in post- tonal music and existing studies on Razak Abdul Aziz. As we shall see later, the review will reveal the gap in the literature (specifically in understanding the elements of meter in the said work), providing a necessity for this investigation to take place, hence, making this investigation relevant and contributory towards understanding the elements of meter in Razak Abdul Aziz’s 5 Early Songs, specifically, and enriching academic documentation on Razak Abdul Aziz, in general. Review The review would be divided into two themes: recent investigations of time in contemporary art music and existing studies on works by Razak Abdul Aziz. The first theme discusses the importance of understanding the element of time and meter in contemporary art music by 20th and 21st century composers such as Arnold Schoenberg, Elliot Carter, George Crumb, Tigran Hamasyan, and Craig Taborn. This is then followed by the second theme that would discuss existing studies on works by Razak Abdul Aziz by scholars that would ultimately disclose the need of investigating his 5 Early Songs from a metrical perspective. Recent investigations of time in contemporary art music Contemporary art music consists of tonal and post-tonal music. Grebosz-Haring and Weichbold (2020) defined contemporary art music as “Current genres and aesthetics connected with or departing from earlier European art music and its tradition” (p. 74), which “Developed principally in the 20th century and occupied a niche in the post-war decades” (p. 60). Hence, this section of the review would be discussing recent investigations of time on tonal and post-tonal contemporary art music of the 20th and 21st centuries. Sullivan (2018) develops a theory of meter that responds to the rhythmic irregularities of post-tonal music by seeking metric regularity at a moment-to-moment level in his dissertation. In doing so, Sullivan adopts Danuta Mirka’s theory of meter perception. Mirka (2009) developed a model to account for meter perception and the manipulation of meter. Though she used the chamber music of Haydn and Mozart in developing this model, it suitably adapts and handles meter perception in a wide variety of music, including rhythmically irregular post-tonal music. Adopting this model in a more recent context, Sullivan analysed selected 20th century post-tonal works by Western composers Webern, Bartók, Britten, Barber, and Adés. Through this study, Sullivan made four primary contributions to the field of music theory: 20 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 1. Developing a precise, rigorous. and testable model of meter perception for a repertoire in which meter often proves elusive. 2. Developing the perceptual relationship between meter and streaming and between meter and melodic parallelism. 3. Extending the perceptual and historical purview of three specific metric manipulations typically associated with 18th century theory and practice: imbroglio, close imitation, and free fall. 4. Applying its theoretical machinery in the analysis of familiar and under-studied works. Boyle (2021) analysed three pieces (The Broad Day King, Avenging Angel, and Neverland) from Craig Taborn’s solo piano album Avenging Angel (2011). As a result, she coined the term “flexible ostinati” which comprises a repetitive, omnipresent stream within the overall texture, provides a rapid isochronous pulse and implies higher-level metric levels, as opposed to strict ostinati. In The Broad Day King, Boyle mentioned that the deceptively simple ostinato persists for the entire piece. Boyle describes this ostinato as “A single upper- register pitch that repeats in a few basic durations” (p. 6). One might label this piece as “minimalistic” and like many minimalist works, the essence of this piece is in its dynamic metric sensations, which allow constant reinterpretation of its recurring pitch materials. However, the flexible ostinato never succumbs to a single metric interpretation. Instead, with its shifting rhythms, deceptive simplicity and delicate articulation, it floats freely above the texture, compelling entrainment to possible pulse streams. Avenging Angel utilises two contrasting ostinato (coined as Ostinato 1 and Ostinato 2). While Ostinato 1 is in the low register and strongly projects a simple quadruple meter, Ostinato 2 is the opposite of Ostinato 1 in almost every way–complex and freewheeling bassline, prominent with the use of dyadic thirds, fifths and sixths, suggesting tertian chords that interlock in a flexible manner. This piece is structured around the interaction between both ostinati in three phases, with Ostinato 1 becoming the material for the first phase. In the second phase, fragments of Ostinato 2 begin to intrude and destabilise Ostinato 1. Finally, in the third phase, Ostinato 2 emerges as dominant, cycling continually without variation. In Neverland, Boyle describes the flexible ostinato as “subtle and short-lived”, as opposed to the first two songs where the ostinati are “long-lasting and obvious” (p. 15). Within the overall composition, the flexible ostinato serves as “An unusual climax, briefly offering a particular focus and momentum that stand in stark contrast to the heady counterpoint of the piece’s opening and the diaphanous pianism of the middle phase” (p. 17). Yet, a stable groove remains constantly out of reach, probably depicting the distant and carefree Neverland. Schumann (2021) studied the use of asymmetrical meter, ostinato and cycles in the music of Tigran Hamasyan by identifying, transcribing, and analysing at least 39 cycles from 137 tracks from 13 studio albums of Hamasyan’s compositions from the year 2006-2020. Schumann discovered that the use of cycles only becomes prominent after Hamasyan’s third album Red Hail, while the use of asymmetrical meter and ostinato has been consistent throughout his 13 albums. Hamasyan’s use of asymmetrical meter can potentially be thought of as deriving from two sources related to his musical background: the folk music of his native Armenia and his love for progressive genres. Schumann found that the use of cycle in the selected works of Hamasyan could be divided into three categories: phrasal cycle, structural cycle, and developmental cycle. Compositions using phrasal cycle use one metric layer throughout most of the piece, while another layer is introduced in the middle of the composition to conflict with the first layer, creating a cycle. Compositions with structural cycles are constructed using metric dissonances throughout a significant portion of the composition and are defined in part by the tension created by multiple cycles. Pieces in the developmental cycle category introduce one ostinato at the beginning of a piece that is later juxtaposed with a second ostinato to create a cycle. Schumann concluded that although this article demonstrated asymmetrical meter, ostinato and cycles play an important role in Hamasyan’s music, it only scratches the surface of Hamasyan’s approach to rhythm and meter, inviting additional study of other aspects of Hamasyan’s music. Despite the growing number of theoretical works on the music of George Crumb, Knowles (2022) criticises scholars for almost disregarding the elements of rhythm and meter in the said scholarly body. As many scholars have addressed many features of Crumb’s music such as the use of set classes, transpositional combination and unique timbral language (among others), relatively few scholars have discussed his use of rhythmic and metric elements. Knowles analysed selected works of Crumb such as “Notturno I” from Four Nocturnes, “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” from Apparition, excerpts from “Ancient Voices of 21 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Children” and “Notturno V” from Night Music I to investigate the rhythmic gestures in each work that generates varying levels of metricality. A detailed analysis of rhythm, time, and meter of Sea Nocturne (…for the end of Time) from Vox Balaenae was made. From this analysis, Knowles found that Crumb used the elements of metric ambiguity, metric emergence and ametric in composing this work that is written in Arch form. Knowles concluded that approaching the music of Crumb through the lens of metrical spectrum draws attention to manipulations of the recurrence and consistency of a perceived pulse and conflicts in rhythmic groupings – highlighting an array of rhythmic and metric structures. Knowles also described her study as “An initial inquiry into Crumb’s use of rhythm and metre, sketching the outlines of how these temporal elements are applied throughout his (Crumb’s) oeuvre” (p. 49). Hahn (2021) investigated the projections of higher-dimensional lattices in Scott Joplin’s music using the description of generated rhythm (Pressing, 1983) and metric matrix (Locke, 2009, 2010). Pressing (1983) in Hahn (2021) stated that: For a rhythm to be generated, every onset in the rhythm must be connected to every other onset in the rhythm by an unbroken chain of onsets that are separated by a constant duration called the “generative interval”. Generated rhythms are said to be prime generated rhythms when the generative interval’s length in pulses is coprime with the number of total pulses per repeated cycle of music (p. 4). Locke (2009, 2010) developed metric matrix to quantify the simultaneous multidimensionality of African music. To simplify, the metric matrix is similar to hemiola, but with more ability to characterize off- beat pulse. In hemiola, we can assume that the rhythmic ratio is 3:2 and will coincide together on the downbeat. However, this is not often the case in African music. To solve this, Locke introduced the metric matrix system that could notate the rate of the notes unfolding and the temporal displacement relative to the downbeat. Hahn adapted Pressing (1983) and Locke (2009, 2010) into investigating the projections of higher-dimensional lattices in Joplin’s music and concluded that analytical insight into Joplin’s music could be gained through lattice structures as proposed by Hahn. Though Hahn selected a set of Joplin’s late works for this study, he claimed that this method of understanding Joplin’s music is applicable throughout the composer’s body of work. Existing studies on works by Razak Abdul Aziz Academic studies on the works of Razak Abdul Aziz are scarce, despite starting to gain academic attention in recent years. This section will discuss the existing studies of the works of this composer and ultimately reveal the need to undertake the investigation of this academic paper not just to decipher the meter in 5 Early Songs but to also enrich the academia in matters relating to Razak Abdul Aziz. The composer’s 10 Pantun Settings has been a favourite subject in a few academic papers. Zamani and Idrus (2022) analysed chosen texts from this song cycle. As the texts were an adaptation of Ahmad Abdullah’s Nyanyian Kanak-Kanak (1938), Razak Abdul Aziz selected ten (10) sets of pantun (rhyming poems in couplets or quatrains) and arranged them in certain orders to narrate a story. Zamani and Idrus contextualised the text analysis from the perspective of social (in)stabilities in arranged marriages. They concluded that the analysis and interviews with the composer had revealed “The pervasiveness of wretchedness, peripheralisation and disappointment across arranged marriages that provides real-life snapshots of loss and grief” (p. 13). Though Zamani and Idrus only selected and analysed texts from five songs (No. 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10), they were seen as an adequate representation of the story and argued that “10 Pantun Settings provoked a nostalgic saudade and past instabilities of what it means growing up married in preconfigured environments” (p. 13). Investigation on the texts of 10 Pantun Settings was also made by Zamani and Gani (2020). Unlike Zamani and Idrus (2022) who had analysed chosen text from this work and incorporate social exchange theory to understand the underlying nuances of this song cycle, Zamani and Gani (2020) were interested in understanding the imagery behind the chosen texts of the said work by Razak Abdul Aziz and how these imageries were translated into music notations. The data for this study were mainly obtained from interviewing the composer, revealing that each song had its own imagery/ies association. These associations were a recollection of the composer during his earlier years, when he observed and participated in certain activities in Penang, Malaysia–the place he grew up in. Though the study focused on the imagery/ies of each song, the authors suggested that 10 Pantun Settings was about an abandoned wife who was daydreaming while swaying 22 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 her child in a cradle and only returned to reality at night when she realised that her husband was never coming back. Zamani (2020) focused on the elements of Malaysian traditional performing arts, magunatip (bamboo dance popular in Sabah) and wayang kulit (shadow puppet play popular in Kelantan) found in two of the songs in 10 Pantun Settings – No. 4 Jangan Tengok Kami and No. 6 Pinjam Dandang, respectively. As academic investigations on this matter were scarce, Zamani (2020) obtained most of his data from interviewing the composer, besides operating music analysis on these songs to relate and connect the data to the output from the interviews. Zamani (2020) also encouraged further investigations on other local compositions that are inspired by Malaysian traditional performing arts such as Ramlan Imam’s Putera and Tazul Izan Tajuddin’s Puteri Saadong. Opera Maria Zaitun, the composer’s adaptation of the short story Perkembalian Seorang Yang Bernama Maria Zaitun by Fatimah Busu is the centrepiece in Batubara et al. (2021). The analysis of the transformational process of adapting a novel into an opera was recorded by these researchers. Highlighting the selected parts of the short story, Razak Abdul Aziz had made some revisions in the original text to be suited to the libretto and music he wrote. Batubara et al. also discussed how the revised texts were then transformed into music notations, analysing the pitch series and metric and rhythmic elements used in some parts of the opera. Zamani (2021a) had written an extensive dissertation on the inspirations of Razak Abdul Aziz in selected solo and collaborative piano works. As the major component of his doctoral degree was the academic recitals as documented by Zamani (2021b), he adopted Louise Rosenblatt’s Transactional Theory (1938, 1994) into translating these inspirations in the performances of the selected works, being the co-creator of the said works. Rosenblatt said that “the reader brings to the work personality traits, memories of past events, present needs and preoccupations, a particular mood of the moment and a particular physical condition” (1938, p. 31). She revisited this later when she adapted the theory into musical performance, stating that: …even better analogy for the re-enactment of the text is the musical performance…it’s only an indication of how the composer was able to come in transcribing her exact thoughts on paper. Beyond that point, the interpreter is on her own (1994, p. 14). Adapting the theory to the academic recitals, Zamani (2021b) recorded the process as an artist project. Programmes for both recitals were included and preparations for each selected work were documented. He also mentioned that these recitals were the first ones to be dedicated entirely to a Malaysian composer. Both recitals received positive feedback from the composer and other attendees, encouraging more performances and studies on the composer as well as other Malaysian composers. Reflection Looking at the review, recent investigations by scholars on the element of time in contemporary art music have been conducted, either in tonal music such as the music of Scott Joplin, Tigran Hamasyan and Craig Taborn, or post-tonal music such as the music of George Crumb, Anton Webern, and Bela Bartók. These scholars investigated various elements of time in their respective research, ranging from analysing the use of meter and rhythm to developing theories to understand the element of time in the selected works. However, the composers and works investigated in this study were heavily leaning towards European and American-centric, not giving any shoutout to composers outside the said region. Existing academic studies on Razak Abdul Aziz are scarce, to say the least. Only scholars like Zamani and Idrus (2022), Zamani (2021a, 2021b), Batubara et al. (2021), Zamani (2020), Zamani and Gani (2020) and Zamani et al. (2019) had conducted such studies on this composer. Though his work 10 Pantun Settings became a centrepiece for a few academic investigations, the same could not be said for his other works. Hence, this paper intends to study 5 Early Songs by conducting a systematic theoretical analysis on the use of meter by adapting common music theory as mentioned in Kostka et al. (2013) and Kostka and Santa (2018) and possibly integrating Locke (2009, 2010) in one of the songs. 23 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Analysis The analysis begins with a brief background of 5 Early Songs, mentioning the composition year and texts used. It is then followed by the systematic theoretical analysis as proposed by Kostka et al. (2013) and Kostka and Santa (2018) for all songs and integrating Locke (2010) for the fourth song in this cycle. The analysis will reveal the use of meter in each song, hence enhancing the understanding towards the element of time in this cycle. Background of 5 Early Songs This song cycle was written in the years 1980 and 1988 – “A Song”, “Dead” and “Grace for a Child” in 1980 and “In Winter in the Woods” and “Requiem” in 1988. The texts for these songs were adapted from poems by Percy Bysshe Shelly (1792-1822), William Wordsworth (1770-1850), Robert Harrick (1591-1674), Robert Frost (1874-1963) and Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894), respectively. The complete cycle has received a recent performance at Fairuz Zamani PhD Recital 2 at Akademi Seni Budaya dan Warisan Kebangsaan (ASWARA) in February 2020, besides its inclusion as part of standard contemporary vocal repertoire at this institution (Zamani, 2021a). A Song. The first song in this cycle, “A Song”, was written for solo voice and cello or piano. Either way, the music is written using two (2) types of meters – mixed meter and polymeter (implied). The use of mixed meter is apparent throughout the song. However, measures 8-10 display the most rapid change of meter in the entire song (see Figure 1). Figure 1. The rapid change of meter in “A Song” (measures 8-10). At all times, the solo and collaborative parts are using similar meters. Nevertheless, at closer inspection, the collaborative part has light accents at odd places throughout - displaced accents. These displaced accents mostly happen in a cycle of three (3) as shown in the figure below, implying the use of polymeter (3/8 meter on the collaborative part against 4/4 meter in the solo part) (see Figure 2). Figure 2. Displaced accents on collaborative part implying polymeter. 24 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Although the accents are mostly displaced, there are instances where the accents are placed, hence terminating the polymeter suggestion (see Figure 3). Figure 3. Placed accents terminating the suggestion of polymeter (measures 13-14). Dead. The second song in the cycle is written for solo voice and piano (similar to the rest of the songs in this cycle with the exception of “A Song” as mentioned earlier). There are two types of meters found in this song – asymmetrical and mixed meter. The use of asymmetrical meter is found as early as the first bar of the song (see Figure 4). Figure 4. The use of asymmetrical meter at the beginning of the song (measure 1). The meter changes at almost every measure in this song, hence fulfilling the criterion of mixed meter – rapid change of meter. The “mix” also consists of symmetrical and asymmetrical meters (see Figure 5). 25 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 5. The use of mixed meter (symmetrical and asymmetrical meter). Grace for a Child. Possibly the simplest in terms of the use of meter, “Grace for a Child” utilizes mostly common time 4/4. Though there are instances where the composer implied displaced accents at certain spots in the music by beginning the phrases at different beats between voice and piano creating different tactus and probably resulting in polymeter, this was not as clear as the first song in this cycle (see Figure 6). Figure 6. Phrases begin at different beats creating an illusion of displaced accent (measures 10-11). 26 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 There is also an asymmetrical meter of 5/4 used in this song, which could be found in the last two measures of the song (measures 13-14) (see Figure 7). Figure 7. Asymmetrical meter at the end of “Grace for a Child”. In Winter in the Woods. At cursory examination, the fourth song in this cycle utilises mixed meter throughout as the change of meter occurs at the beginning of almost every measure in this song, using simple duple, triple and quadruple meters interchangeably. The following excerpt demonstrates the said use (Figure 8). Figure 8. An example of the interchangeable use of simple duple, triple, and quadruple meters. On closer inspection, the composer used complex rhythmic ratios in this song, such as 3:2:1, 4:3:2 and 6:3:2 (among others). These rhythmic ratios result in interlocking. To analyse this, the author would like to adopt metric matrix as proposed by Locke (2009, 2010). Metrix matric is a concept where structured patterns of accentuation are exchanged among instruments (in this case, among solo voice and R.H. and L.H. collaborative piano part), resulting in a set of beats of different durations and locations within a fixed period. This concept is developed to enable discussion of the rhythmic design with precision. Locke also argues that this concept also “points towards a systematic explanation for musical expressiveness in compositions and performance” (2010). Though Locke introduced metric matrix to quantify the complexity of African music, the 27 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 author found this concept helpful in understanding the rhythmic complexity of certain measures in this song. For instance, the opening measure of this song begins with 3:2 and then evolves to 3:2:1, as shown in Figure 9. Figure 9. The rhythmic complexity in the opening measure of “In Winter in the Woods”. Translating this excerpt into Locke’s metric matrix, this is the result (see Figure 10): Figure 10. The opening measure in metric matrix in simple triple time. Complex rhythmic patterns are also found in other measures of the song. The author had chosen two (2) more excerpts to demonstrate this complexity and translate them into Locke’s metric matrix. Measure 4 (see Figure 11) begins with 3:1 in the first beat and evolves to 4:3 on the second beat, before escalating and becoming more complex on the third beat 6:3:2. 28 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 11. Measure 4 of “In Winter in the Woods”. As demonstrated through the metric matrix in Figure 12, it reveals that the rhythm used in the voice part coincides with the piano part on the second beat and on the upbeat of the third beat, where the last quaver on the voice coincides with the fourth note in the sextuplet group on R.H. piano. Figure 12. Measure 4 in metric matrix in simple triple time. Possibly the most complex rhythmic design in the entire song (and entire cycle), measure 17 (see Figure 13) begins with 2:1 in the first beat and evolves to 3:2 on the second beat, before escalating and becoming more complex in the third beat 4:3:2 and 6:3:2 in the fourth beat. Despite this complexity, the metric matrix reveals that the rhythm used in the voice part coincides with the piano part (with the exception of the first and third quaver), as shown in Figure 14. 29 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 13. Measure 17 of In “Winter in the Woods”. Figure 14. Measure 17 in metric matrix in simple quadruple time. Requiem. The last song in the cycle utilises the most metric elements in the entire cycle and consists of four (4) distinctive sections – A, B, C and D. Sections A, B and C make recurrences in similar or slightly different fashions. Section A is in simple triple meter 3/16 (see Figure 15). Figure 15. The use of simple triple 3/16 meter in Section A. 30 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Section B uses a simple quadruple meter of 4/4. However, due to the vast gap between the denominator of meters in the first section (denominator 16) and the second section (denominator 4), the composer chose to utilise metric modulation, shown on the top left corner of Figure 16 ( ). This could be perplexing as each semiquaver in Section A represents one (1) beat, whereas each semiquaver in Section B is treated as one-fourth of a beat for the voice while the collaborative part is playing in groups of semiquaver sextuplet. Figure 16. The use of metric modulation at the beginning of Section B (measure 7). Section C is chiefly written with mixed meter, as the change of meter occurs at the beginning of every bar in this section. Figure 17 exemplifies this change. Figure 17. Excerpt from Section C (measures 9-11). Section D occurs at the end of the song and is written in simple duple time 2/4 (apart from the 2-bar extension) (see Figure 18). 31 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 18. Excerpt from the beginning of Section D (measures 33-34). The 2-bar extension at the end of this section (Figure 19) has an indication of metric modulation ( ). Although, on the surficial level, this metric modulation looks similar to the one in Section B (as shown in Figure 16), upon closer inspection, the metric modulation here derives from the tempo from Section D (65 crotchet bpm) rather than 60 dotted quaver bpm in Section A. To measure these two tempi using crotchet as the common denominator, Section D is in 65 crotchet bpm and Section A is 45 crotchet bpm. Figure 19. Metric modulation at 2-bar extension. Conclusion After thorough examinations of each song in 5 Early Songs, we could conclude that the first three songs used mixed meter, implied polymeter, symmetrical and asymmetrical meters. The use of meter is more sophisticated in the last two songs, where more complex rhythmic and metric organisations are used such as rhythmic ratios that were analysed using Locke’s metric matrix and the use of different types of metric organisation and manipulation in different parts of a song. As the first three songs were written in 1980 and the last two songs were in 1988, the gap of 8 years probably had matured the composer to learn and master more music materials, 32 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 specifically concerning the element of meter. The maturing up of this composer in the said musical element is apparent throughout his compositional life. This is evident if one were to take a glance at the works by Razak Abdul Aziz after 5 Early Songs. The element of meter progressively becomes more complex with time, ultimately reaching its pinnacle in works such as the opera Maria Zaitun, Etudes for Piano Solo and Pepatah Episodes. As stated earlier in this paper, Razak Abdul Aziz has quite an extensive list of compositions. However (with the exclusion of this paper), only 10 Pantun Settings and Maria Zaitun had been studied by scholars, as discussed in the review section. This calls for more research and investigations on other works by this composer from various perspectives such as compositional, analytical, and philosophical (among others) as he is regarded as arguably the earliest contemporary composer in Malaysia (Zamani et al., 2019). It is hoped that the investigation this paper undertook would inspire other scholars to conduct studies in similar and/or different area(s) of interest or composition(s), academically documenting more works of this composer and/or other contemporary Malaysian composers. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the composer, Razak Abdul Aziz, for giving the permission to use the music scores and to conduct this study. This work was supported by Short-Term Grant of Universiti Sains Malaysia with Project No.: 304/PSENI/6315693. References Batubara, J., Rustiyanti, S., & Budi Prasetya, S. H. (2021). Maria Zaitun: The journey from a novel to Razak Abdul Aziz’s opera. Music Scholarship/Problemy Muzykal'noj Nauki, 3, 112–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.33779/2587- 6341.2021.3.112-122 Benward, B., & Saker, M. N. (2009). Music in Theory and Practice (8th ed., Vol. 2). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Boyle, A. (2021). Flexible Ostinati, Groove, and Formal Process in Craig Taborn’s Avenging Angel. Music Theory Online, 27(2), 1-26. http://doi.org/10.30535/mto.27.2.6 Grebosz-Haring, K., & Weichbold, M. (2020). Contemporary Art Music and its audiences: Age, gender, and social class profile. Musicae Scientiae, 24(1), 60–77. http://doi.org/10.1177/1029864918774082 Hahn, J. W. (2021). Reframing generated rhythms and the metric matrix as projections of higher-dimensional lattices in Scott Joplin’s music. Music Theory Online, 27(2), 1-22. http://doi.org/10.30535/mto.27.2.10 Hasty, C. F. (1981). Rhythm in post-tonal music: Preliminary questions of duration and motion. Journal of Music Theory, 25(2), 183-216. http://doi.org/10.2307/843649 Killin, A. (2018). The origins of music: Evidence, theory, and prospects. Music & Science, 1, 1-23. http://doi.org/10.1177/2059204317751971 Knowles, K. L. (2022). Metric ambiguity and rhythmic gesture in the works of George Crumb. Contemporary Music Review, 41(1), 30-54. http://doi.org/10.1080/07494467.2022.2033569 Kostka, S. M., Payne, D., & Almén, B. (2013). Tonal harmony: With an introduction to twentieth-Century music (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Kostka, S. M., & Santa, M. (2018). Materials and Techniques of Post-Tonal Music (5th ed.). Routledge. Krebs, H. (1999). Fantasy pieces: Metrical dissonance in the music of Robert Schumann (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. Lerdahl, F., & Jackendoff, R. (1982). A generative theory of tonal music. MIT Press. Locke, D. (2009). Simultaneous multidimensionality in African music: Musical cubism. African Music: Journal of the International Library of African Music, 8(3), 8–37. https://doi.org/10.21504/amj.v8i3.1826 Locke, D. (2010). Yewevu in the metric matrix. Music Theory Online, 16(4). https://mtosmt.org/issues/mto.10.16.4/mto.10.16.4.locke.html London, J. (2012). Hearing in time: Psychological aspects of musical meter (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Mirka, D. (2009). Metric manipulations in Haydn and Mozart: Chamber music for strings: 1787-1791. Oxford University Press. Pressing, J. (1983). Cognitive isomorphisms between pitch and rhythm in world musics: West Africa, the Balkans, and western tonality. Studies in Music, 17, 38-61. Rosenblatt, L. M. (1938). Literature as exploration. D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc. 33 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue (1), 17-33 ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Rosenblatt, L. M. (1994). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary work. Southern Illinois University Press. Schumann, S. C. (2021). Asymmetrical meter, Ostinati, and cycles in the music of Tigran Hamasyan. Music Theory Online, 27(2), 1-14. http://doi.org/10.30535/mto.27.2.5 Straus, J. N. (2016). Introduction to post-tonal theory (4th ed.). W.W. Norton. Sullivan, J. (2018). Meter, melodic parallelism, and metric manipulation in post-tonal music [Doctoral dissertation, University for Rochester]. Eastman School of Music. Temperley, D. (2001). The cognition of basic musical structures. MIT Press. Wiessner, P. W. (2014). Embers of society: Firelight talk among the ju/’hoansi Bushmen. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(39), 14027-14035. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1404212111 Zamani, M. F., Idrus, M. M., & Lin, G. Y. (2019). Razak Abdul Aziz: The Forgotten Composer. Asean Journal of Management and Business Studies, 1(1), 76-83. http://doi.org/10.26666/rmp.ajmbs.2019.1.11 Zamani, M. F. (2020). Magunatip and wayang kulit: The influence of Malaysian traditional performing arts in Razak Abdul Aziz’s 10 Pantun Settings. International Journal of Applied and Creative Arts, 3(1), 01-09. http://doi.org/10.33736/ijaca.2187.2020 Zamani, M. F., & Abd Gani, A. F. (2020). Razak Abdul Aziz’s 10 Pantun Settings: Imagery behind the chosen texts. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 10(6), 959-990. http://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v10-i6/7465 Zamani, M. F. (2021a). Performing music by a living composer: Understanding the musical inspirations of Razak Abdul Aziz in selected piano works [Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris]. Fakulti Muzik dan Seni Persembahan. Zamani, M. F. (2021b). Music of Razak Abdul Aziz: Preparing chosen solo and collaborative piano works for two academic recitals. Wacana Seni Journal of Arts Discourse, 20, 79-85. http://doi.org/10.21315/ws2021.20.7 Zamani, M. F., & Idrus, M. M. (2022). Music as poetry and performance: Arranged marriages, past instabilities, and Razak Abdul Aziz’s musical performance. 3L The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 28(1), 1-15. http://doi.org/10.17576/3l-2022-2801-01 Biographies Mohd Fairuz Zamani is currently attached to the School of the Arts, Universiti Sains Malaysia as an academic. He received his PhD in Music Performance from Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Master of Performing Arts (Music) from Universiti Malaya, and Bachelor of Music (Composition) and Diploma in Music from Universiti Teknologi MARA, besides professional diplomas from London College of Music (FLCM and LLCM in Pianoforte Performance). Apart from being a scholar and an academic, Mohd Fairuz also regularly performs with the National Symphony Orchestra of Malaysia and composes and arranges music for various establishments and events such as the National Choir of Malaysia, Malaysian Composer Collectives for Freehand Piano Festival 2022, and Malaysian Composer Series for Jalur Kita Cerita Kita 2022. Nur Fardilla Nadia Abu Bakar (better known as Dia Fadila) graduated from Universiti Malaya in 2018 with a Master in Performing Arts (Music). With over 15 years of teaching experience as a vocal instructor, she has been working in public and private higher education institutions such as Akademi Seni Budaya dan Warisan Kebangsaan, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris and Twintech International University College of Technology. Currently serving as a full-time lecturer at University Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), she is also active in conducting vocal classes and choir for various private and government agencies such as Radio dan Televisyen Malaysia and ASTRO. She has released 3 albums under Warner Music Malaysia and has won ‘Best New Female Artiste’ at Planet Music Award 2005 in Singapore, gold and silver medals for pop and folk/traditional categories respectively at ASEAN Golden Melodies Festival 2008 in Vietnam and 1st runner-up for Gegar Vaganza 2015, ASTRO. Tan Jin Yin has Master of Arts degrees in Vocal Performance and Music Pedagogy and Performance from Nanjing Normal University and Universiti Sains Malaysia. She studied opera singing with Professor Lu Qi, Khoo Hooi Lay, and Chin Loke Chun. She has taken workshops and masterclasses with famous vocal trainers and pianists such as Low Siew Tuan, Graham Johnson, Hein Boterberg, Michael Hampton, Roy Holmes, and Stacey Tappan of the Chicago Lyric Opera. In her career, she has performed in several opera productions and concerts with international and local artists and has won multiple awards in international and national singing competitions. As a faculty member of the Music Department School of the Arts USM, Jin Yin founded the USM SOTA Chamber Choir, which has won international choral competitions. She also coordinates the Penang Philharmonic Chamber Choir and coaches the Penang Chinese Girls' High School Chorus, which has received international prizes under her direction.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 1 (2023)

folk music heritage, folk music in indigenous cultural festivals, folk music in life cycle events, Ta Oi people, Thua Thien-Hue, Vietnam

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/491

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7291

Preserving Folk Music in Community Cultural Events as a Method of Preserving Traditional Heritage:

The Ta Oi people in Thua Thien-Hue province continue to preserve and promote numerous unique indigenous music genres. However, these invaluable cultural heritages are at risk of vanishing from their cultural life in the future if there is no comprehensive and scientifically backed protection policy in place. My first-hand fieldwork and surveys have demonstrated that folk music is integral to the Ta Oi people’s way of life, being practiced at every stage of their lives, in significant cultural events within the community, and during religious rituals. Music serves as a distinct language, fostering connections among individuals, between people, and between people and spirits within specific cultural spaces, thereby forming a remarkably distinctive cultural mosaic among the Ta Oi people. Utilizing qualitative research methods, this study focuses on conducting in-depth interviews with skilled local artisans and participating in folk music performances within the Ta Oi community. The findings of the study reveal that significant community events play a crucial role in the practice, preservation, and maintenance of the Ta Oi people’s traditional musical culture. The study asserts that preserving folk music within the cultural life of the community serves as the most effective approach to safeguarding the indigenous folk art of each distinct community. This progression would enable the maintenance of the musical heritage of each ethnic group within contemporary society. Such endeavors necessitate support from the government, researchers, and local authorities.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7291/4579

34 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (34- 47) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Preserving Folk Music in Community Cultural Events as a Method of Preserving Traditional Heritage: A Case Study of the Ta Oi Ethnic Group in Thua Thien-Hue Province, Vietnam Nguyen Dinh Lam Lecturer, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Hanoi. Email: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 7 August 2023 Cite this article (APA): Nguyen, D. L. (2023). Preserving folk music in community cultural events as a method of preserving traditional heritage: A case study of the Ta Oi ethnic group in Thua Thien-Hue Province, Vietnam. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12(1), 34-47. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.1.3.2023 Abstract The Ta Oi people in Thua Thien-Hue province continue to preserve and promote numerous unique indigenous music genres. However, these invaluable cultural heritages are at risk of vanishing from their cultural life in the future if there is no comprehensive and scientifically backed protection policy in place. My first-hand fieldwork and surveys have demonstrated that folk music is integral to the Ta Oi people’s way of life, being practiced at every stage of their lives, in significant cultural events within the community, and during religious rituals. Music serves as a distinct language, fostering connections among individuals, between people, and between people and spirits within specific cultural spaces, thereby forming a remarkably distinctive cultural mosaic among the Ta Oi people. Utilizing qualitative research methods, this study focuses on conducting in-depth interviews with skilled local artisans and participating in folk music performances within the Ta Oi community. The findings of the study reveal that significant community events play a crucial role in the practice, preservation, and maintenance of the Ta Oi people’s traditional musical culture. The study asserts that preserving folk music within the cultural life of the community serves as the most effective approach to safeguarding the indigenous folk art of each distinct community. This progression would enable the maintenance of the musical heritage of each ethnic group within contemporary society. Such endeavors necessitate support from the government, researchers, and local authorities. Keywords: folk music heritage; folk music in indigenous cultural festivals; folk music in life cycle events; Ta Oi people; Thua Thien-Hue, Vietnam Introduction The Ta Oi people, with a population of 34,960 individuals, are an ethnic group who have long resided in the Truong Son area and its surroundings, specifically the South-Central region. They are predominantly concentrated in A Luoi district (Thua Thien-Hue), Dak Krong, and Huong Hoa district (Quang Tri). The Ta Oi people also have other branches and names such as Pa Co, Ta Uot, Kan Tua, and Pa Hy, and their languages belong to the Mon-Khmer group within the Austroasiatic language family. Nguyen Dinh Lam 35 In A Luoi district (Thua Thien-Hue), the Ta Oi people constitute a significant population of 26,000 individuals, accounting for approximately 66% of the district’s total population of 36,880 people (Nguyen, 2009: 14-21). They are considered the primary ethnic group in this district. The main occupation of the Ta Oi people is hillside and mountain rice cultivation, along with other food crop cultivation. Additionally, they engage in fishing, hunting wild animals, and maintain the tradition of Zèng weaving (Tran & Nguyen, 2003). The Ta Oi people continue to preserve numerous forms of traditional culture until now. Figure 1. A dance and singing performance at the Rong house The house holds significant cultural symbolism for the Ta Oi people, serving as an essential cultural space for organising various cultural events, where folk music plays an integral role. The traditional Ta Oi house is designed as a long stilt house, often accompanied by a Rong house, which serves as a communal cultural space. The house has an oval shape with two sloping roofs, featuring two main doors at both ends of the stairs and two middle doors. Typically, traditional houses consist of five compartments without walls, each measuring approximately 1.6 meters in length. The main door, windows, and roof sides of the house are adorned with platforms and courtyards. It is customary to attach two buffalo horns or two dragon heads to the gables of the communal house. Like many other ethnic groups in Vietnam, wedding customs hold significant importance in the Ta Oi people’s life cycle rituals. Weddings serve as crucial events where folk music is created, practiced, preserved, and passed down through generations. The marriage process among the Ta Oi people involves three main steps: (i) the meeting of the bride and groom’s families; (ii) the engagement ceremony; and (iii) the official wedding ceremony. The most formal and solemn ritual is the wedding covenant, which includes offerings such as silver, precious stones, onyx, ear jewelry, necklaces, bracelets, and food items sourced from four-legged animals like pigs, cows, deer, and dogs. Following the covenant ceremony is the engagement ceremony, during which the two families discuss the specifics of the wedding date. The third and final step is the wedding ceremony itself, which involves various rituals, including the welcoming of the bride, the demographic cutting ceremony (where the bride’s name is removed from her family’s list and added to the husband’s family list), and a thanksgiving ceremony to the deities for bringing the couple together through fate. In the realm of sacred culture, the Ta Oi people annually organise numerous festivals to express gratitude to heaven, earth, Jang (an important deity of the village and mountains for the Ta Oi people), and other sacred gods (Jang). These festivals serve as significant spaces and occasions for the creation and development of various folk music genres. Among the festivals, the most essential and grandest ones of the year are the season offerings (super aya). It is a ritual to express gratitude to the gods for a year of abundant crops and prosperous businesses. The offerings for this ceremony include not only buffaloes, cows, chickens, fish, and other livestock, but also a variety of plants that have been utilized by the people throughout the year. During the ceremony, a buffalo stabbing ritual takes place, accompanied by lively and enjoyable forms of entertainment. 36 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (34- 47) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 In the spiritual and cultural life of the Ta Oi people, funerals hold great significance as one of the important religious rituals and the final rite in the people’s life cycle. Funeral folk songs are practiced and flourish during these ceremonies and events. Funerals among the Ta Oi people involve two main stages: the funeral ceremony and the grave removal and abandonment ceremony. The coffin used for the deceased is a significant cultural artifact that warrants observation and study. Ta Oi coffins are crafted from solid wood, with the interior of the chosen tree hollowed out to form the coffin. Once the coffin is completed, a ceremony is conducted to place the deceased inside it before proceeding with the burial. The Ta Oi people do not allow the deceased’s body to remain in the family home for an extended period. Therefore, the tangible and intangible cultural heritages, including rituals and beliefs, of the Ta Oi people not only serve as cultural symbols but also provide important cultural spaces for the practice of performing arts, particularly folk music. Folk music is an indispensable element within these cultural events. Its appearance varies depending on the different spaces and performance contexts, displaying a rich and distinctive character. Thus, it becomes crucial to explore the core elements of Ta Oi folk music, its presence in community cultural events, perspectives on the importance of folk music heritage in social life, and approaches to preserving the folk music heritage within the Ta Oi community. To discover and clarify the characteristics of the folk music heritage of the Ta Oi people in their cultural life and traditional festivals, I will utilize the stakeholder theory introduced by R. Edward Freeman (1984). The theory of stakeholders, originally analysed in administration and business, has now been applied by several scholars in cultural heritage conservation. For instance, Aas, Ladkin, and Fletcher (2005) explored a collaborative approach in the relationship between heritage management and tourism development in Luang Prabang, Laos. They aimed to examine the cooperation and management roles of stakeholders, as well as the interdependence of heritage conservation and tourism development. Another study by Simengwa and Makuvaza (2015) discussed the legal frameworks for heritage in Malawi. The authors argued that conflicts often arise from managing heritage sites with the interests of multiple parties, emphasizing the need for stakeholder theory to guide management practices and address these conflicts. Similarly, Tosun (2000)’s research, and Huibin and Azizan Marzuki’s study (2012) reviewed previous studies on community participation in tourism and innovation systems, analysing the specific characteristics and current situation of cultural heritage tourism in Penang, Malaysia. Chirikure and Pwiti (2008) and Fouad and Messallam’s (2018) research focused on the role of community participation in heritage conservation and promotion. These studies provide insights into the importance of involving communities in preserving and promoting heritage values. The theoretical framework investigates the key stakeholders, including (i) management agencies; (ii) local communities as heritage creators; (iii) researchers; and (iv) media agencies. The folk music heritage and traditional cultural events of the Ta Oi people will be at the centre of this analysis, and the relevant agencies will have an impactful and supportive relationship with each other to preserve and develop the heritage of this tribe. Literature review According to the International Council of Folk Music, folk music is “the product of a musical tradition that has been developed through oral transmission” (Pegg, 2001). Thus, folk music should be viewed as a product of traditions transmitted orally. Every folk music tradition has outstanding artists within the community who contribute to the creation, practice, and preservation of the music across generations. Shepherd and Wicke (1997) along with others, have tackled the challenge of comprehending music as a form of human expression. They argue that music is the foundation of social life. It serves a role beyond mere relaxation or entertainment – it is central to the formation and reproduction of human society. Music, especially folk music, participates in almost all human activities, and in human cultural life by its special function and power. Merriam (1964: 219-227) has found common functions, which in my opinion are relatively universal and suitable for most cultural and social contexts of people, including: (i) emotional expression; (ii) aesthetic enjoyment; (iii) entertainment; (iv) communication; (v) symbolic representations; (vi) physical response; (vii) enforcing compliance to social norms; (viii) Nguyen Dinh Lam 37 validation of social institutions and religious rituals; (ix) contribution to the continuity and stability of culture; and (x) contribution to the integration of society. Music deeply reflects ethnic cultural identity through aesthetics that have been created and maintained in the community for generations. Folk music serves to protect the identity of each community and has connections to social movements and racial identities (Roy, 2002). American folk music has played a role in both overturning and solidifying the racial divisions between blacks and whites in twentieth-century America. The concept of aesthetic identity refers to the cultural association of art genres with social groups, wherein these groups feel that the genres represent their own art, music, and literature. According to Roy, before being labeled as folk music, Native American music exhibited more racial integration compared to the society surrounding it, drawing influences from both European and African sources. Furthermore, folk music has been recognized as a tool of racial solidarity during times of racial polarization, particularly by American communists and their allies (Roy, 2002). According to To (1981), a prominent expert in ethnomusicology in Vietnam, folk music has not only been influenced by changes in feudal dynasties but has also experienced interruptions and loss of historical continuity. The historical continuity of folk music contributes to the creation of a national musical tradition that withstands cultural assimilation attempts by invading forces. Folk music serves as a repository for preserving ancient traditions and plays a crucial role in the cultural adjustment and support of national musical culture (Nguyen, 1980). Therefore, folk music holds a significant position within a culture, and according to To (2007), it serves a unique function in the social life of each ethnic group, which cannot be replaced by other types of music or modern musical forms. Preserving the heritage of folk music in contemporary social life poses an important challenge for researchers and managers in this field. Wang (2014) proposes the concept of “preserving heritage by exploiting it”, which aligns with the law of development and the spirit of adapting to the times. This approach aims to find radical solutions in the protection and development of traditional music heritage and traditional culture rather than preserving it solely as a “museum type”. Instead, the focus is on establishing measures such as museums that actively preserve and promote the cultural heritage of traditional music. In relation to the preservation of folk music heritage, Gillan (2004) discusses the role of village festivals in safeguarding the local ritual repertoire. Chapter six of Gillan’s work delves into the analysis of a song called “Tubarama”, which holds relevance to conservation issues. These village festivals serve as a platform for the expression, continuation, and preservation of indigenous folk music from one generation to another. Regarding the preservation and promotion of music during festivals and cultural events, Burns (2008) argues that the popularity of British folk music since the early 1970s can be attributed to its performance as music. British folk rock, with its connections to cultural and music industry marketing and promotion techniques, along with its inclusion in world music festivals during the 1990s, has contributed to its increased audience appeal since the mid-1990s. The challenge of preserving folk music is closely linked to educational activities. Lykesas et al. (2018) suggests that the transmission of folk music and dance should rely on traditional methods, such as oral tradition passed down from one generation to the next. This approach allows future generations to gain a more profound understanding of their country’s history and culture, enabling them to embrace their own identity, draw from the past, and strive for a brighter future. Nguyen (2014) emphasizes that the traditional characteristics of music primarily reside in folk music, encompassing musical instrument performance, folk singing, and various artistic expressions. Additionally, improvisation is highlighted as an important value in traditional performing arts, as it adds to the unique charm of traditional music. Similarly, in India, improvisation in the creation and performance of traditional music is considered a defining characteristic, enhancing the distinctiveness and allure of this musical form (Suppiah & Khan, 1993). In folk art, the artist plays a central role. Dave (2009) emphasizes the need to elevate the level and awareness of folk artists and overall artists to defend folk music and folk art. He also highlights that street plays today serve the purpose of awakening citizens to their rights. However, this folk legacy is at risk of extinction as young people are increasingly drawn to Western culture and art. Thus, there is an urgent need to preserve the endangered Kathiawari art and literary forms. And preserving cultural heritage in general, and folk music art in particular, requires the special support of stakeholders (Doan, 2021). The preservation and promotion of folk music from an ethnic 38 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (34- 47) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 group can only be achieved with the support of management agencies, local communities (as heritage creators), researchers, and the media. Vietnam, with its rich cultural tradition spanning thousands of years, has managed to maintain and preserve its own identity in traditional music, particularly among ethnic groups. Despite facing challenges from foreign musical cultures, Vietnamese traditional music finds the strength to protect itself and engage in self-creation to reach higher levels (Vietnam Academy of Music, 2003). To (2007) emphasizes that folk music, rooted in the old agrarian economy, exists and flourishes within communities and societies. It is closely tied to the daily activities, production, and life of farmers, reflecting their thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Folk music is often performed and received simultaneously, created by artists without prior preparation or composition. Importantly, folk art often takes the form of a collective possession within the community. Witnessing the passion of elderly artisans in preserving folk music has further motivated the researcher to contribute to the preservation of this endangered heritage. The future of Ta Oi folk music in the community relies on its practice by the next generation. Throughout this experience, important factors in the conservation process have been identified, which will be explored in the following sections. Methodology This study will adopt an interdisciplinary approach encompassing cultural anthropology, musicology, and ethnomusicology. The focus of the article is to identify the role and significance of folk music in the cultural life of the Ta Oi people, particularly in cultural events. Additionally, the study aims to determine strategies for preserving and safeguarding this musical heritage for future generations of the Ta Oi community. Consequently, the study will not primarily focus on musicological analysis. I conducted the fieldwork in specific communes such as Nham, A Ngo, Huong Lam, and Hong Trung, which are areas with a concentrated population of Ta Oi people and rich cultural and folk music traditions. The research involved in-depth interviews with 25 elderly artisans, labeled as Artisan 1 to Artisan 25, three village elders, three village heads (Village Heads 1 to Village Heads 3), two civil servants responsible for cultural management (Staff 1 and Staff 2), and two experts specializing in Ta Oi ethnic culture (Expert 1 and Expert 2). The selection criteria for the in-depth interviews focused on talented folk singers and musical instrument performers who possess extensive experience, a deep understanding of local culture, and are advanced in age. Additionally, interviews were conducted with village elders, village heads, and other folk artists to gain further insights into migration patterns, community living, and general cultural characteristics of the Ta Oi people in the region. These interviews provide valuable information regarding the importance of folk music in the cultural life of the Ta Oi people and shed light on their creation, practice, and preservation of various forms of folk music. Furthermore, interviews were conducted with participants and artists during festivals and folk music activities of the Ta Oi people in the local area. These interviews offer a closer observation of the relationship between music and the cultural and religious life of the community. The study employs an ethnomusicological approach to identify the musical characteristics of the Ta Oi people, exploring the distinctive folk songs and musical instrument families that are interrelated. The research delves into understanding how these elements are interconnected within different performance spaces and environments specific to the Ta Oi people. The field research conducted in the locality, combined with analysis, synthesis, comparison, and contrast methods, allows for a comprehensive understanding of various aspects of music in the cultural and religious life of the Ta Oi people. Results Folk songs in life-cycle events Folk songs play a significant role in the major events of the Ta Oi people's lives, from birth to death. Depending on the specific life events, folk songs serve different functions and hold influence in shaping and preserving the Ta Oi cultural identity. Nguyen Dinh Lam 39 Lullabies, known as Nui y col, are a genre of folk songs associated with the early stages of life. Ta Oi parents often sing lullabies while carrying their children on their backs during work in the fields or to lull them to sleep at home. Lullabies serve not only as a means of soothing children to sleep but also have an educational function. They serve as the initial music lessons for Ta Oi children. Additionally, lullabies contribute to the artistic development and formation of Ta Oi folk music in the community. Expert 2 further elaborates: The folk music of the Ta Oi people demonstrates distinctive characteristics that are evident across various genres, ranging from lullabies to love songs. These shared traits include the melodic structure and the timbre, creating a sense of cohesion and unity throughout their folk music repertoire. Therefore, it can be stated that folk songs, including lullabies, serve as the foundation for shaping the overall folk music of the Ta Oi people. The lullabies of the Ta Oi people hold significant value as a cultural heritage that the community strives to preserve and pass down to future generations. These lullabies are not merely songs with soothing melodies, but they also encompass profound lyrical content that reflects the philosophy of life, folklore beliefs, and traditional values held by the Ta Oi people. In the lyrics of Ta Oi lullabies, one can find expressions of a mother’s love, moral values, aesthetic sensibilities, and the importance of upholding customs such as good parenting, harmonious neighborly relations, and communal solidarity in the face of life's trials and tribulations. These are the important contributions of music that have also been pointed out by Merriam (1964) in the basic functions of music, here the emotional expression function, enforcing conformity to social norms, and contribution to the continuity and stability of culture, in human society. Those standards, still practiced and maintained by the Ta Oi mothers in their cultural life, are still practiced today. For example, one of the recorded lullabies from artisan 18 contains the following content: “Put your baby to sleep well, baby, sleep well, baby / Go to the forest, up the mountain, pick fruits and vegetables, burn bees / Oh my baby... oh... when I grow up, I'll study well so that I can have a good future for society in the future / When I grow up, I will weave a warm and happy future.” Lullabies continue to be utilized in the Ta Oi community to soothe children to sleep. However, there is a pressing concern that these lullabies might fade away from the cultural fabric of the community if appropriate and timely conservation methods are not implemented. Staff 1 highlights: Lullabies are still preserved within the Ta Oi community by mothers and grandmothers, who have taken on the responsibility of passing them down to younger generations within their families. However, there is a growing trend among young people to prefer singing modern and soothing songs to their children. This preference stems from their desire to express their contemporary vitality through modern songs from other nations or imported from abroad. As a result, there is a risk that the traditional lullabies of the Ta Oi people might gradually be overshadowed by these modern influences. This is an issue that needs to be discussed in depth. In my opinion, based on many years of research and fieldwork, lullabies and many other folk songs are found in almost all ethnic groups in Vietnam. They have been created and maintained by the locals for centuries. These genres of folk songs express their unique identity and have a stable structure. The musical melody remains fixed, while people add lyrical content to adapt it to different contexts. For example, the same tune may be used to sing a baby lullaby, but the lyrical content will vary when a mother sings in the field compared to singing to the baby in the house. Similarly, when a love song is sung at a wedding, the lyrical content will differ from when it is sung at a community festival, even though both are performed on the same musical structure. The creative feature of the folk music of the Ta Oi people, as well as other ethnic groups in Vietnam, lies in improvisation on the spot, rather than pre-composing like professional musicians do. Improvising on the spot means that people will spontaneously incorporate lyrical content into an existing musical melody, regardless of the time or place, without prior preparation. Therefore, the folk songs of the ethnic groups in Vietnam, up to the present time, possess a unique identity. Each ethnic group has created these songs with the desire to maintain and preserve them for future generations. 40 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (34- 47) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Stakeholders, especially researchers, play a crucial role in providing information to management agencies and media outlets to support the community in raising awareness about the cultural and musical value of their heritage. However, whether the heritage is preserved and maintained ultimately depends on the community - the very subject that creates the heritage. Therefore, stakeholders need to interact and participate together in the process of preserving the heritage of lullabies particularly, and indigenous folk music, in general, within their ethnic groups. In the discussion, one of the important issues that will be explored in depth is the decline of traditional folk songs following the lullaby genre. Folk songs, which are associated with folk games and intended for children between the ages of 10 to 14, are gradually disappearing from the cultural practices of the Ta Oi community. Most local artisans and cultural managers acknowledge that this genre now exists only in the memories of the elderly, as the younger generation no longer sings and engages in traditional folk games accompanied by these songs. Based on surveys and retrospective interviews with specific artists, it is evident that folk songs not only enhance the appeal of folk games, but also play a crucial role in fostering the creative abilities of young individuals. They contribute to the development of new and diverse folk games, while enriching the folklore of the Ta Oi people. Folk songs also serve as a means of instilling values of kindness and honesty among young individuals, nurturing the Ta Oi community. Expert 1 adds: How to restore music for this age group is an important issue because historically, this genre of music has had a great effect on the formation of personality, intelligence, courage, and love for people – as children create and practice this kind of music together. However, folk games are now in danger of disappearing, being replaced by electronic games that appeal to young people. The state’s task is to revive, preserve, and maintain the best young folk music genres, introduce them into community life, and teach them in primary and secondary school departments. Thus, the responsibility for preserving and maintaining folk games lies with policymakers, researchers, local authorities, and other relevant parties. This study will be further discussed in the next section. The folk music of the Ta Oi is closely associated with various adult events, including love and response songs. The distinctive melodies of the Ar boch and Co Loi genres form the essence of Ta Oi folk music. The Ar boch can be sung in the form of a collective response, or sometimes as a reciprocal song between two individuals. When sung alone, this song serves as a medium for Ta Oi people to express their emotions, sorrows, and joys of life and human existence. According to Artisans 1, 2, and 6, they explained: During family gatherings, the Ta Oi people engage in personal singing, expressing their individual joy. There are also moments when they sing alone, particularly when they face sadness and unhappiness in life. Singing alone becomes a means for them to share their pain and sorrow stemming from the loss of something significant. Furthermore, they incorporate verses into their songs as supplications to the gods, seeking assistance in their daily lives and wishing for good fortune and happiness. The Ta Oi community actively promotes Ar boch songs during village cultural events and youth artistic activities. Ar boch can be performed in various forms. Young men and women utilize Ar boch as a medium for expressing love, showcasing their talents, and sharing emotions with one another, regardless of gender. They sing together to foster connections, introduce each other during weddings, and participate in village festivals. Artisan 13 emphasizes: During village weddings, friends of the bride and groom are invited to participate. These friends engage in singing love songs to one another, showcasing their talents, and sharing their thoughts. Remarkably, there have been instances where couples have formed and eventually married as a result of these wedding events and the profound connections established through these unique love songs. Love singing at community cultural events, particularly at weddings, plays a significant role in fostering social morality, nurturing cultural development, and preserving indigenous traditions, including folk art, folk songs, and languages. The lyrics of the song performed by artist 19 encompass the following content: Nguyen Dinh Lam 41 My friend, you work hard, you should rest under the shade of the trees in the forest. Drink a lot of clear spring water in the forest. You eat many sweet ripe fruits in the forest. Don't let your parents worry. You are strong enough to make rice, earn money to support your parents and marry a girl. Friend, did you hear me say… Norton (2010), in his study on the folk music of Prespa Alpany weddings, observed that musical performances played a crucial role in establishing social and moral order, while also naturalizing the differences between women and men. Traditional performance settings and the inspiration derived from the love experiences of young individuals contribute to the creation of reciprocal love songs that hold significant cultural and linguistic value, representing the ethnic group’s identity. This process also shapes the ethnic poetic identity. Notably, poetry and music share an inseparable connection, with the creation of folk melodies heavily reliant on elements of traditional folk poetry. In line with this, Proschan (2010: 613), in his study on love songs among the Khmu and the Vietnamese, emphasizes that, typically, the individual who demonstrates the greatest inspiration is the one who skillfully combines a significant number of verses. They arrange these verses in a harmonious manner, employing a plethora of rhymes, utilizing diverse word groups, incorporating vivid imagery, and employing contrasting or complementary elements. Ar boch, along with other forms of love and response folk songs, play a crucial role in the development of ethnic languages and folklore, not only among the Ta Oi people but also in many other ethnic communities in Vietnam. Field investigations conducted among the artisans reveal that, fortunately, the Ta Oi people in A Luoi district continue to uphold the tradition of Ar boch singing in their community life. During village festivals and various cultural and recreational activities, people still engage in reciprocal singing, which fosters and strengthens love relationships. In addition to songs that serve entertainment and educational purposes, there are also folk songs that serve ritual functions, following the Co Loi melody. These songs hold significant importance in festivals and religious ceremonies of the Ta Oi people, particularly during the harvest festival when the community has completed their harvest. The Co Loi songs act as a vital connection between the Ta Oi people and their Jang gods, symbolizing their spiritual bond. Artisans 1, 2, 18, 21, and 23 express their insights on this matter: People sing Co Loi songs as expressions of gratitude to Jang for bestowing a prosperous harvest and favorable business outcomes. These songs are a means for the Ta Oi people to seek the gods’ assistance in maintaining a balanced climate – neither excessive rain nor excessive sun – and to safeguard their rice crops from diseases. By offering these prayers through the medium of Co Loi songs, the Ta Oi people aspire to ensure an abundance of food during harvest time and to prevent any hardships or poverty. Co Loi songs hold a significant role as the Ta Oi people’s heartfelt prayers to our gods, Jang. The singing of Co Loi songs holds particular significance when performed by the elderly members of the village, as they convey important messages about traditional values to future generations. Woma (2012) highlights that music, including funeral music, is a collection of activities that support cultural norms and symbolically represent them through public performances facilitated by cultural practitioners. This ensures the acceptance and reinforcement of the fundamental characteristics of the community. Funeral music, in particular, carries a highly political nature, as those who engage in its practice address social issues. Thus, politics and the social context play a governing role in funeral music, while funeral music itself holds a significant place within society. Furthermore, within a religious setting, Co Loi songs are also sung during house inaugurations as a means of praying to Jang and other gods for the owner’s wellbeing, happiness, and prosperity. Typically, the singing of Co Loi songs is accompanied by the beat of a drum and the resonance of a gong. Artisan 21 expresses insight on this matter: After the completion of building a house, it is customary for my family to invite both family members and neighbors to join in the celebration and share the joy. During this gathering, our family and neighbors come together to sing songs of happiness and to offer prayers to the gods for our family’s continuous happiness and financial prosperity. Through our songs, we express our wishes for our children to grow up quickly and for our family and neighbors to experience everlasting happiness and joy. 42 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (34- 47) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Thus, in the important events of the Ta Oi people, from festivals to weddings, funerals, or building a new house, folk music is always present with an important position and role. Therefore, preserving the musical heritage in community events is of utmost importance. The decisive factor in the conservation process must be the community, followed by the stakeholders. The relationship among stakeholders will help maintain the heritage in the social life of each ethnic group. Lastly, folk songs play a particularly significant role in a crucial event in the lives of the Ta Oi people, the funeral. When a Ta Oi individual passes away and returns to their ancestors, folk songs serve the important function of guiding and accompanying them on this journey. The Ta Oi people have a custom of singing and crying when paying respects to the deceased. Mourning songs, known as Raroi, provide a means for the living Ta Oi community to express the pain of losing a family member or a beloved neighbor, reminiscing about the shared moments they had together. These songs also serve as a means of connecting the living with the departed. Artisan 7 provides insights into this aspect of Ta Oi culture: We hold a strong belief that through these songs, the departed can hear their words. We believe the spirits of the deceased will provide us with strength and support, enabling us to attain prosperity for our families and the village. Singing these songs serves as a way to bid farewell to the departed and express the hope that the spirits will continue to assist us and guide us throughout our lives. Indeed, every cultural tradition holds its unique philosophies surrounding death, as well as distinct cultural habits and customs for honoring the deceased based on the rites of their community. Previous research has demonstrated that modern funeral rites are interconnected with the concept of “living religion”, which explores how religious beliefs and practices are integrated into daily life, both within and beyond institutionalized settings. The connection between the living and the deceased is not severed but continues through these rites. Funeral music, which often references themes of heaven and angels, can be seen as an integral element of the funeral ritual (Bruin-M., 2019). Figure 2. A Ta Oi sings at a cultural event of his ethnic group In addition, the Ta Oi people also sing Cha Chap folk songs. The village elders have also adopted Cha Chap songs to impart emotions and traditional morality to the younger generation of the Ta Oi community. During village events, ranging from weddings to village festivals, the Ta Oi people continue to sing Cha Chap songs, expressing their thoughts and feelings towards one another and their deities. It is worth noting that there are ongoing debates regarding the copyright of the Cha Chap genre between the Ta Oi and Pa Ko people. Local surveys and studies indicate that both ethnic groups acknowledge that the genre was created by their ancestors. However, it is highly likely that the Ta Oi people “borrowed” this song from the Pa Ko people, preserving it since ancient times and considering it of utmost importance in their cultural life. The phenomenon of acculturation or borrowing in folk art Nguyen Dinh Lam 43 is a common occurrence that I have observed during my field trips studying folk music for nearly 20 years. To determine the copyright of this folk song, I planned to conduct a follow-up study to delve into the issues related to the acculturation of ethnic minorities in this area. The folk songs of the Ta Oi people have been integral to the cultural and social events of the Ta Oi community up to the present day. The elders within the community wish for these folk songs to be preserved for future generations because they possess not only pleasing melodies that align with the community’s culture, but also because they were created by their ancestors. Moreover, the content of these folk songs holds significant value in terms of moral education and cultural traditions for the Ta Oi people’s future generations. It should be emphasized that the folk songs of each ethnic group in Vietnam are the products of collective creation, collective practice, and maintenance from generation to generation. The melodies of the Ta Oi people's folk songs, from lullabies to ritual songs, have all been created and maintained by the Ta Oi community; it is not created by an individual, so personal factors, especially the creative involvement of professional artists, can be the risk that their folk songs will be stretched and distant from the world their traditional identity. Therefore, I strongly feel that we need to respect the community's own aesthetic and identity in creating, practicing, and maintaining the folk music of each specific ethnic group. Preserving folk tunes does not mean being conservative in maintaining and promoting our cultural identity, but in essence, we seek to find our identity and develop distinct characteristics in the music and culture of each community in Vietnam and the music culture of ethnic communities as well. This is also the view of To (2007), one of the member of the Standing Committee of the International Council of Traditional Music ICTM-UNESCO, a leading expert on ethnography in Vietnam. It should be noted that, with the 53 other ethnic groups in present-day Vietnam, the folk music of the Ta Oi people showcases their unique identity through a relatively fixed melodic structure. These musical melodies are created collectively by the Ta Oi community, rather than by individuals. The copyright for these tunes belongs to the community. Those who engage in folk song performances creatively incorporate different lyrical content into these fixed melodies, resulting in a richness and allure of the folk songs. While personal factors play a significant role in professional music composition, the creation of Ta Oi folk music emphasizes the importance of community elements and community creativity. Discussion Folk music is an important heritage for every nation or ethnic group (Folkestad, 2002; Merriam, 1964; Pegg, 2001; Revill, 2004; Shepherd & Wicke, 1997; To, 2007; Woma, 2012). For the Ta Oi people, and for the diversity of Vietnamese culture in general, folk music continues to be maintained in the community’s cultural events. However, this heritage is at risk of disappearing and not being passed down to future generations. The elderly Ta Oi people, who are in their 70s, 80s, and 90s and have been involved in creating, preserving, and promoting the folk music of this ethnic group, are eager to preserve and maintain this precious legacy for their future generations. Artisan 12 expressed concerns about the increasing popularity of songs from other cultures among young Ta Oi people: The content of these songs does not align with the traditional culture of the Ta Oi people. As older individuals, we may find these songs inappropriate, but we still consider our traditional folk songs significant because they convey educational content that aligns with our cultural traditions. We are uncertain whether future generations will continue to sing the songs that our ancestors created. In my opinion, the younger generation is entitled to perform modern songs imported from the West or other cultures into the Ta Oi community. However, management agencies, researchers, and media need to raise awareness to help local communities gain a more profound understanding of the issue of national identity created by their ancestors. Preserving the cultural identity of their ancestors is not conservative, but rather a means to maintain good customs and cultural traditions for future generations of the Ta Oi people. Based on over 50 years of experience in fieldwork and collecting Vietnamese folk music, To (2007) believes that the creators of folk art hold the key to successful preservation of traditional and folk 44 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (34- 47) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 products. Only creative individuals and communities can effectively maintain and preserve their art. I concur with To (2007)’s perspective. Drawing from nearly 20 years of experience in fieldwork and research on folk music in Vietnam, I believe that we should preserve folk music within the community and restore the right to preserve and maintain this heritage to the community. However, we should professionalize this form of conservation. We should establish folk performing arts clubs in the villages of the Ta Oi people, as well as in other ethnic minority communities in Vietnam. Why? The reasons are quite simple: (i) folk art carries historical significance derived from the cultural, economic, and contextual living characteristics of the past. Previously, folk art creators composed folk songs and instrumental music on the spot, drawing inspiration from cultural events within their community. For example, wedding songs were composed to express promises about the future and the joyful emotions between the bride and groom. Funeral dirges conveyed mourning for the deceased when paying respects at funerals. All song content was created spontaneously without prior preparation, unlike today's professional music. Therefore, the lyric content and methods of folk songs are rich and representative of the Ta Oi ethnic identity. While the younger generation today can only re-perform the folk songs and traditional tunes of their ancestors by learning from the older artisans in the village, they no longer engage in direct creation as before. They are now practitioners and performers, rather than creators; (ii) present-day young people often have to seek employment in industrial companies to support their families. In other words, their economic activities differ from those of previous generations, making it challenging to find time for artistic creation and practice. Artisan 14 commented: I am very passionate about the folk music and dance of my people, but I have to work in the economy to support my family. My children need money to attend school, and I also require money to sustain our livelihood. We can only find time to practice together during the festivals in our village. Sadly, many of the folk songs taught to me by my parents are fading from my memory. Therefore, we need to establish a policy that supports the creation of clubs. In this framework, the state and local authorities should allocate salaries and funds to these clubs to ensure their development and creativity. Club members would be akin to professional artists, with their primary responsibility being the continuous creation, learning, and preservation of the folk performing arts passed down by their ancestors. During cultural events, they would serve as performers, introducing and guiding the younger generations in the preservation and practice of their traditional folk music; and (iii) professionalizing folk music through clubs would facilitate the government and the central cultural sector in managing and preserving the musical identity of each ethnic group. Researchers and cultural managers at both the central and local levels would have easy access to these clubs, enabling them to provide guidance and direction on the best methods to preserve the folk music heritage of each ethnic group. This approach also ensures the preservation of folk music for each ethnic group in Vietnam, avoiding the risk of hybridization and the dilution of each group’s distinct identity. In addition to the community’s ecological environment, music education in high schools plays a crucial role. Ćalić and Durdanović (2020) emphasize the importance of nurturing traditional folk music within families, as it can enhance students’ motivation to learn content related to traditional folk music. Students recognize that listening to folk music within the family is an underutilized resource. The preservation of folk art, in general, and the folk music of the Ta Oi people, in particular, should prioritize the role of artisans. Artisans play a vital role in preserving folk music, as they possess talent in creating and transmitting their culture to future generations of the Ta Oi people. Extensive field research has confirmed that artisans are crucial in maintaining ethnic identity and passing on this legacy (To, 2007). To ensure the preservation and development of folk music, it is important to provide adequate support to artisans, particularly the elderly and experienced ones within ethnic groups. Vietnam currently has policies in place to honor artisans, but there is a lack of financial support, especially in economically disadvantaged and remote areas. Finally, the preservation of folk music heritage requires the role of stakeholders, including researchers, management agencies, local communities, and the media. Researchers are instrumental in surveying and conducting fieldwork, enabling them to identify talented artisans and understand the reality of local musical cultures. They can play a pivotal role in saving endangered folk music traditions within each community. By considering the insights of researchers, the government and local authorities Nguyen Dinh Lam 45 can effectively preserve and maintain folk music in a sensible manner. The responsibility of the state and local authorities lies in creating policies to manage and encourage the preservation and development of folk music, aiming to unify the diverse cultural identities of the country. China serves as an example of a country that has made significant progress in this regard. Tang (2021)'s research on Chinese folk music in the 21st century demonstrates how centralized control has helped shape musical traditions from various ethnic and regional groups into a pluralistic heritage, contributing to the unity of the ancient Chinese state. Effective coordination between researchers, the state, and local authorities will be a crucial factor in preserving and nurturing the folk music art of the Ta Oi communities in Vietnam, particularly in the southern region. And, to maintain the folk music and cultural heritage of a community, the local community - the owner of that heritage has a particularly important role, they will be the ones to maintain this heritage until the next generations. To accomplish this, media agencies need to continuously provide information and awareness about heritage for local communities, managers, and researchers to understand. Conclusion Folk music accompanies individuals throughout their life cycle, from the moment of birth until death. It serves as a lullaby for children while simultaneously imparting emotional and moral education from early infancy. Ta Oi folk music also acts as a means for young boys and girls to express love for one another. Moreover, music plays a significant role in the transmission of wisdom from the elderly to the younger generation during festivals and weddings, emphasizing the importance of familial and national love. With its sacred nature, music acts as a sacred bridge connecting humans with the divine (Jang). It serves ceremonial purposes and holds great significance during funerals, allowing the Ta Oi people to express their grief and sorrow upon the loss of a loved one or community member. In village festivals and traditional religious rituals, village elders and chiefs utilize music melodies and prayers to communicate their desires to the gods. They seek blessings for their families, the prosperity of their village merchants, bountiful harvests, successful businesses, and overall happiness. The melodies of folk songs hold significant cultural value within the Ta Oi ethnic group. They serve as integral components of important cultural events and express the distinct cultural nuances of the Ta Oi people. Through their system of melodies, scales, and rhythms found in folk songs such as Ar boch, Co Loi, and Cha Chap, as well as their instrument system, the Ta Oi culture is vividly represented. The traditional folk music heritage of the Ta Oi people has evolved over centuries, shaped by their ancestors, and passed down through generations. It is an essential aspect of community life, contributing to the unique identity of the Ta Oi people compared to other ethnic groups in the region. Close links between regulators, the media, researchers, and local communities and stakeholders are also needed to support the conservation and promotion of the musical heritage and folklore of the Ta Oi people, as well as that of many other ethnic groups in Vietnam management agency. Management agencies are to maintain this cultural heritage in line with its historical roots, as it is crucial to focus on community-centred preservation efforts, particularly during festivals and cultural events specific to the Ta Oi ethnic group. As history progresses, it becomes essential to devise effective conservation methods, including the establishment of folk music clubs within communities to professionalize folk music. Moreover, supporting both young and elderly artisans with regular financial assistance is vital, enabling them to dedicate their time and efforts to preserving and developing the folk art of their communities. A close collaboration between researchers, the central government, and local authorities is essential. By working together, they can successfully preserve the folk music heritage of the Ta Oi people and other ethnic communities. This collaborative approach ensures the continuity of folk music from one generation to the next, sustaining and promoting the unique musical and cultural identities of each community throughout different historical periods. Acknowledgments This study is solely funded by the Academic Publishing Fund of VNU-University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Hanoi, under project number USSH-2023.12. 46 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (34- 47) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 References Aas, C., Ladkin, A., & Fletcher, J. (2005). Stakeholder collaboration and heritage management. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(1), 28-48. Bruin-Mollenhorst, J. (2019). Funeral music between heaven and earth. In M. J. Bennett, & D. Gracon (Eds.), Music & Death: Interdisciplinary Readings and Perspectives, 7-18. Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-83867-945-320191005 Burns, R. G. H. (2008). Transforming folk: Innovation and tradition in English folk–rock music. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Otago. Ćalić, М. & Durđanović, М. (2020). Family and its role in the cultivation and preservation of traditional folk music at junior primary school age. International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 8(3), 103–112. Chirikure, S. & Pwiti, G. (2008). Community involvement in archaeology and cultural heritage management: An assessment from case studies in Southern Africa and elsewhere. Current Anthropology, 49(3), 465-485. Dave, P. I. (2009). Preservation of Kathiawari folk literature and arts. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 8(4), 626–628. Doan, V. L. (2021). Theory and the role of stakeholders in conservation and promotion of heritage values. Culture and Arts Journal, 479. Folkestad, G. (2002). National identity and music. In R. R. MacDonald (Ed.), Musical Identities, Oxford University Press, 151–162. Fouad, S. S. & Messallam, O. (2018). Investigating the role of community in heritage conservation through the ladder of citizen participation approach: Case study, Port Said, Egypt. International Journal of Architectural and Environmental Engineering, 12(11), 1539-1545. Gillan, M. A. (2004). Multiple identities in Yaeyaman folk music [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, SOAS] University of London. Huibin, X. & Azizan Marzuki. (2013). Community participation of cultural heritage tourism from innovation system perspective. International Journal of Services Technology and Management, 18, 105- 127. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSTM.2012.052855 Lykesas, G., Douka, S., Koutsouba, M., Bakirtzoglou, P., Giosos, I., & Chatzopoulos, D. (2018). Theater and theatrical game as teaching methods for Greek traditional dances. Sport Science, 11(1), 23-30. Merriam, A. (1964). The anthropology of music. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Nguyen. T. L. (1980). Thinking about Vietnamese vitality through musical history. Art Research Journal, 5(25), 11-13. Nguyen, D. L. (2009). Field report on folk music and dance of the Co Tu, Pa Co and Ta Oi People in Thua Thien Hue Province, Additional Fieldwork 2019, 2023. Library of the Vietnamese Institute for Musicology, Hanoi, 14–21. Nguyen, T. L. (2014). Music of talented people: Characteristics and contributions, Published by Culture, Information Publishing House and Arts and Culture Magazine. Norton, B. (2010). The anthropology of Vietnamese music? News in Modern and traditional dynamics in Vietnam: Anthropological approaches (Vol. 2), National University Publisher, 631. Pegg, C. (2001). Folk music. Grove Music Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.09933 Proschan, F. (2010). Singing and responding to young men and women in Vietnam by Nguyen Van Huyen and the love singing of the Khmu people. Printed in Modernity and the Dynamics of Tradition in Vietnam: Ways to Approach Anthropology (Vol. 2), Published by Vietnam National University, 613. Revill, G. (2004). Performing French folk music: Dance, authenticity, and nonrepresentational theory. Cultural Geographies, 11(2), 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1191/14744744004eu302xx Roy, W. G. (2002). Aesthetic identity, race, and American folk music. Qualitative Sociology 25(3), 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016094232372. Shepherd, J. & Wicke, P. (1997). Music and cultural theory. (Eds.) Polity Press. Simengwa, D. & Makuvaza, S. (2015). The application of the stakeholder theory in the management of heritage places in Malawi., 1-14. University of Zimbabwe. Suppiah, E. T. & Khan, S. (1993). Improvisation in Indian music. [Forum papers]. Evolving traditions. Presented at the 2nd ASEAN Composers Forum on Traditional Music, 11–24 April 1993, Singapore. Tang, K. (2021). Singing a Chinese nation: Heritage preservation, the Yuanshengtai movement, and new trends in Chinese folk music in the twenty-first century. Ethnomusicology, 65(1): 1–31. https://doi.org/10.5406/ethnomusicology To, N. T. (1981). About the object of research and collection of Vietnamese traditional folk music. Journal of Art Research, 2(37), 2–5. To, N. T. (2007). Doubts about culture and music. Social Sciences Publisher, Hanoi, 50 -51; 61-63; 304-306; 898- 900. Nguyen Dinh Lam 47 Tosun, C. (2000) Limits to community participation in the tourism development process in developing countries. Tourism Management, 21, 613-633. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(00)00009-1 Tran, N. K. P. (2021, March). Characteristics of Ta Oi folk songs, Song Huong Online Magazine. http://tapchisonghuong.com.vn/tin-tuc/p9/c29/n29876/Dac-diem-dan-ca-Ta-Oi.html Tran, H. & Nguyen, T. S. (2003). Contributing to understanding the folklore of Ta Oi ethnic group, A Luoi district, Thua Thien Hue Province. Publishing House. Native Culture. Wang, Y. (2014). A study on measures of preservation of cultural heritage of Chinese folk music. Proceedings of the International Conference on Education, Language, Art, and Intercultural Communication, 576- 578. https://doi.org/10.2991/icelaic-14.2014.145 Woma, B. (2012). The socio-political dimension of Dagara funeral ritual, music, and dirge [Unpublished master’s dissertation]. Indiana University. Biography Nguyen Dinh Lam, who obtained his PhD in Religious Studies in 2014 from the Vietnam Academy of Social Science, specializes in Religious Music. He holds a Bachelor of Musicology from the Vietnam National Academy of Music, which he received in 2005. With over 10 years of experience in folk music research at the Vietnamese Institute for Musicology, he has dedicated his research to various ethnicities such as the Tay, Nung, Thai, Ta Oi, Kho Mu, Co Tu, Pa Co, Cham, Cao Lan, and H Mong. Currently, Nguyen Dinh Lam teaches Vietnamese Traditional Performing Arts at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Hanoi. His research interests primarily revolve around religious music and Vietnamese traditional performing arts. Throughout his academic career, he has contributed to the field by publishing more than 70 scientific articles in both national and international scientific journals.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 1 (2023)

Javanese Gamelan, mṛdaṅgam , music education, performance pedagogy, world music ensembles

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/491

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7979

Sounds of Wisdom:

This article explores the transformative power of musical instruments on pedagogical strategies within music ensembles, with a focus on world music ensembles at the tertiary level. Drawing from my unique perspective as an international graduate student in the U.S. and having had no prior exposure to world music ensembles, I share my experiences with the

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7979/4594

48 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (48-65) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Sounds of Wisdom: Unveiling the Hidden Pedagogical Power of Musical Instruments of World Music Ensembles1 JinXing (Gene) Lai Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale (RILM) 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10016-4309 e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 18 September 2023 Cite this article (APA): Lai, JX. (2023). Sounds of wisdom: Unveiling the hidden pedagogical power of musical instruments of world music ensembles. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12(1), 48-65. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.1.4.2023 Abstract This article explores the transformative power of musical instruments on pedagogical strategies within music ensembles, with a focus on world music ensembles at the tertiary level. Drawing from my unique perspective as an international graduate student in the U.S. and having had no prior exposure to world music ensembles, I share my experiences with the saron metallophone from the Javanese gamelan and the mṛdaṅgam, the principal rhythmic instrument of South Indian Karṇāṭak music ensemble. I argue that the interaction of sound between instruments and learners offers a deeply enriching, immersive educational journey. Recognizing this sonic interaction broadens our understanding of world music education and suggests that instruments inherently carry pedagogical value. By embracing this notion, educators can cultivate a more holistic teaching methodology, enhancing the pedagogical landscape within and beyond world music ensembles. Keywords: Javanese gamelan, mṛdaṅgam, music education, performance pedagogy, world music ensembles Introduction World music ensemble educators play a crucial role as intermediaries, enhancing cultural comprehension and facilitating a compassionate exploration of an array of global musical terrain. Their significant responsibilities include honouring and 49 JinXing (Gene) Lai correctly contextualising diverse musical traditions to prevent cultural misrepresentation. Through a diligent and ceaseless commitment to teaching the genres of their expertise, these educators empower their students with the requisite knowledge and instrument-playing techniques to encapsulate the spirit of the music. Nevertheless, their mission is often hampered by the substantial challenges set by their parent academic institutions. These hurdles encompass restricted time frames typically bound by the academic calendar, high student turnover rates, and the implicit demand to produce outstanding performances. Collectively, these aspects add a multifaceted layer of challenges to the world music ensemble curriculum (Lu, 2023; Solis, 2004a). World music ensemble educators form the basis of their student’s musical progression. They offer essential guidance, an abundance of resources, and supplemental assistance encompassing notation, multimedia materials, and additional tutorials beyond the prescribed class schedule. Utilising creative pedagogical strategies, they adeptly impart vital skills, techniques, and culturally pertinent knowledge related to the musical tradition. As a result, they cultivate what Solis (2004b, p. 17) referred to as “meaningful and coherent performative worlds” through constant adaptation and transformation and what Kisliuk and Gross (2004, p. 253) articulated as “interpretations of the musical tradition rather than merely replicating original ensembles.” The educator is essential in delivering guidance, educational materials, and innovative teaching methods to enrich students’ experiences in the vibrant world of music ensembles. In addition to their comprehensive responsibilities in teaching and performance, numerous world music ensemble educators undertake research work and administrative tasks within their institutions. These commitments necessitate students’ active engagement in self-directed learning and consistent practice, allowing them to refine their instrumental skills through sonic interaction. This interaction involves attentive listening, familiarising required movements and gestures, and discerning feedback manifested through the auditory output of the musical instruments. Thus, in this context, musical instruments can also be viewed as nonhuman educators. In this article, I explore the interplay between physical movements, focused listening, and the learning journey of musical instruments within world music ensembles. At the heart of this exploration is my personal experience, offering insights into the educational alchemy that took place. As an international graduate student, I embarked on a musical journey with world music ensembles at Wesleyan University, a liberal arts college in Middletown, Connecticut. What became fascinating to me through firsthand encounters is the universality of learning experiences across musical traditions. One such learning experience is the sonic interactions between students and their musical instruments. Whether the balungan instruments of the Javanese gamelan, the South Indian mṛdaṅgam barrel drum, the violin of the Western symphony orchestra, or the drumkit of a jazz trio, musical instruments can emerge as nonhuman mentors, each imparting distinct lessons, and educational values. By weaving together my firsthand accounts of immersion in world music ensembles at Wesleyan, my goal is to illuminate these insights and inspire scholars, educators, and ensemble directors of diverse musical genres to appreciate 50 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (48-65) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 the common pedagogical essence of musical instruments. Whether one is part of a jazz ensemble, a brass band, or a Japanese gagaku ensemble, instruments have an innate ability to guide, challenge, and teach. As this paper focuses on world music ensembles within an academic context, I will present a brief historical overview of world music ensembles in the academy. Mantle Hood’s Notion of Bi-Musicality and World Music Ensembles For over six decades, world music ensembles have established themselves as pivotal pillar within universities and global educational institutions. Their presence has brought about a profound augmentation of the academic journey for students and scholars by presenting a broad palette of performance and research possibilities. These ensembles serve as a dynamic platform that stimulates a deeper engagement with the multitudinous musical traditions worldwide, thereby enriching the academic realm. In 1954, Mantle Hood took up a faculty position at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), and ingeniously introduced the notion of bi- musicality.2 Hood emphasised the importance of cultural immersion using music, dance, and rituals to achieve a more profound understanding. These activities forge strong connections that transcend language barriers, as the link between traditional music and its culture provides remarkable authenticity and unambiguous communication without the need for translation or transliteration (Hood & Trimillos 2004, pp. 285-288). To this end, UCLA incorporated master musicians as artists-in- residence within the music department, empowering them to impart their musical traditions to the student body. Building on UCLA’s pioneering work in the early 1960s, Robert E. Brown, a disciple of Mantle Hood, adapted the UCLA model for implementation at Wesleyan University. Brown contends that engaging with a different culture necessitates a profound commitment to genuinely appreciating and nurturing that culture, leveraging all available resources to support and nourish the valued musical traditions (Brown, 1997). In 1962, Brown invited his mṛdaṅgam teacher, T. Ranganathan, to serve as Wesleyan’s inaugural artist-in-residence. He later broadened the program to include additional artists-in-residence representing diverse global cultures.3 Brown’s unwavering devotion fueled the extraordinary growth of Wesleyan’s ethnomusicology program, which now boasts an eclectic array of world music ensembles, ultimately elevating it to a distinguished status within the United States. As the 20th century gave way to the 21st, an extraordinary upswing in world music ensembles enlivened the campuses and concert halls of educational institutions worldwide. This growth was fueled by a burgeoning enthusiasm for ethnomusicology and the unwavering commitment of universities to nurture multiculturalism within their curricula. Academic institutions across the United States, Europe, and Asia embraced ensembles celebrating an extensive array of world music traditions. These ensembles offered students a platform to learn and perform traditional music and fostered cultural exchange and understanding between participants and audiences. 51 JinXing (Gene) Lai A crucial element of world music ensembles is the cooperative engagement with instructors who exemplify the cultural traditions inherent in the music being taught, promoting skilful leadership within these groups. These educators personify the “teacher as text” concept (Racy, Marcus, & Solis 2004, p. 3), offering an opportunity to examine the transmission of musical knowledge beyond the constraints of Western, language-centred pedagogy. Moreover, by emphasising demonstration and repetition over questioning and explanation, world music ensembles create a supportive environment that encourages teachers to primarily use kinesthetic and auditory techniques for sharing knowledge (Trimillos, 2004, p. 39). This teaching approach not only fosters a more profound appreciation of different cultures but also facilitates the growth of vital skills among students, thus cultivating an enriched and immersive learning experience. The immersive learning process in world music ensembles helps students deeply understand and connect with the music, allowing it to become part of their intellectual and cultural identities (Harnish, 2004, p. 127). The ensemble environment, with its unique spatial layout, interesting artefacts such as musical instruments, and engaging social interactions, supports and enhances the teacher’s goals and actions. Students must grasp the teacher’s expectations and desired outcomes to become skilled in their roles in the ensemble. The learning process involves carefully listening, following clear instructions, and imitating the teacher’s sounds and physical movements. Auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic learning are essential components in disseminating musical knowledge. These components render world music ensembles a profoundly impactful and transformative educational experience. By embracing a holistic approach to music education, students can become versatile musicians with heightened cultural awareness and empathy. In the following sections, I will explore the pedagogical significance of incorporating physical movements, gestures, and listening while learning an instrument. Learning Physical Movements in World Music Ensembles In his landmark work, “Techniques of the Body,” Mauss (1973) explores the concept of body techniques, framing them not as isolated habits but as entities deeply entwined with sociocultural factors. These include educational practices, contemporary fashion trends, and societal status. Building on Mauss’s foundational theory, Crossley (2022, p. 10) highlights the pivotal role that physical movement plays in a musician’s early learning trajectory. Through this transformative journey, Crossley suggests that burgeoning musicians not only gain competency in their chosen instrument but also develop and refine critical physical techniques and movements. These proficiencies can ultimately lead to unlocking the full potential of their instrument. The journey of learning a musical instrument is anchored in acquiring and mastering intricate physical instrument playing techniques pivotal for proficient performance. Through diligent and focused practice, students in world music ensembles hone the unique physical movements that each instrument demands, enabling them to perform with enhanced proficiency and emotional depth. World music ensembles vividly underscore the significant impact of 52 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (48-65) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 corporeal motions, manifested through unique instrumental techniques, nurturing an understanding and appreciation of music that transcends the varied sociocultural origins of its participants. This universal orchestration is palpable within world music ensembles around the globe. For instance, irrespective of the diverse backgrounds of the Wesleyan and National University of Singapore gamelan ensembles, performers continue to uphold the traditional physical actions required to execute complex gamelan techniques. This viewpoint is further reinforced by the research conducted by ethnomusicologists. Hesselink’s (2004) study on South Korean Samul Nori drum ensembles, Brashier’s (2013) exploration of the embodiment of Balinese gamelan knowledge at the Eastman School of Music, and Lai’s (2023) investigation of Damaru, the Singaporean pan-Indian folk drumming ensemble, all converge on this point. These research endeavours illuminate the timeless resonance of specific bodily movements within instrumental techniques, underscoring their enduring relevance. Despite geographical disparities, evolutionary shifts in ensembles, and ongoing musical innovation, these movements persist, demonstrating their crucial role in preserving and enhancing the depth of these profound musical traditions. They stand as a testament to the intrinsic value and powerful influence of physical movement in shaping and propelling the spirit of world music traditions forward. Learning these movements can pose formidable challenges for students, particularly if such gestures are unfamiliar due to their cultural background. However, the necessity of acquiring proficiency in these movements for participation in a world music ensemble cannot be overstated. Slobin (1996, p. 23) emphasises that engagement in a world music ensemble requires students to surpass their physical and mental limits. They may face unfamiliarity with specific movements and gestures due to their unique backgrounds. By immersing themselves in this process, students set upon a journey of personal evolution and cultural enlightenment. This enriching journey enhances their appreciation of the myriad of musical expressions and deepens their understanding of the diverse and lively world of music. The path to learning a musical instrument surpasses mere physical dexterity. It also necessitates the refinement of sharp listening skills. The following section will explore the intricate interplay between physical techniques and enhanced auditory perception, illuminating the significance of both components in mastering a musical instrument. Engaged Listening in World Music Ensembles Beyond mastering the physical techniques required to play an instrument, active listening emerges as an equally vital element in world music ensemble pedagogy. Sumarsam (2004, p. 86) emphasises the importance of attentive listening in gamelan instruction. He advocates for a pedagogical approach that launches without the reliance on notation, subtly guiding students into a sensory dive into the distinctive sounds and unique tuning nuances intrinsic to gamelan music. Notation, as Sumarsam further elaborates, is an effective aid when retaining compositions poses a challenge to students, bolstering their learning expedition (ibid.). This immersive methodology nurtures a profound appreciation for the nuances of the musical tradition, thus paving 53 JinXing (Gene) Lai the way for students to augment their understanding and foster a deep admiration for the musical practice. During their acquaintance with the unique sounds and tunings of a musical instrument, students embark on a journey resembling what Campbell et al. (2021, p. 16) identify as “engaged listening.” World music ensemble students are urged to be active participants in various musical aspects—whether singing a melody, maintaining rhythm, performing a rhythmic composition, or executing a dance sequence (ibid., 52). Further, Campbell et al. posit that engaged listening heightens students’ sensitivity towards the subtle intricacies within a composition (p. 53). This enhanced perceptiveness empowers them to discern elements, including distinctive styles, specific instrumental or vocal timbres, and the fusion of harmonic constituents with a heightened concentration. In the quiet solitude of individual practice sessions, students meticulously refine their senses tuned to the nuanced dance of physical exertion on the musical instrument and its resulting sonic feedback. This auditory exchange exemplifies the art of active listening and physical adjustments according to the instrument’s sound. It unearths a deep-seated phenomenon: musical instruments transcend their fundamental role as mere sound generators. Yung (1984) eloquently posits that the true essence of a musical instrument encompasses much more than simply producing sound. His thesis underscores the crucial role of kinesthetic elements in the musical experience of instrumentalists, especially within the context of guqin performances. Yung’s proposition on the kinesthetic component of music performances broadens our understanding of musical instruments and enhances the sensory experience of playing them. Bates (2012) complements Yung’s ideas, furthering the discourse on the relationship between physical movement and music. He asserts, “Our appreciation and comprehension of music can be significantly elevated by deepening our understanding of the methods of sound production, concurrently demanding a focus on the interplay between objects and instrumentality.” Bates’ assertion accentuates the profound influence of the tactile experience on sound perception when playing an instrument, fostering a more intimate connection between the musician and the instrument. The synthesis of Yung and Bates’s perspectives affirms the multifaceted nature of musical instruments. They surpass their fundamental role as sound- generating artefacts, becoming conduits of musical experiences for the musicians. Their true potential is unlocked when we delve deeper into the intricate interplay between the tactile and the aural, the musician and the instrument. The significance of physical movements and active listening in mastering a musical instrument is highlighted in this section, underscoring their educational value within the framework of world music ensembles. The ensuing discussion will delve deeper into the role of musical instruments as dynamic elements within the social structure of world music ensembles, dissecting their pedagogical input and building a robust case for acknowledging them as nonhuman educators. Instruments as nonhuman Musical instruments innately embody pedagogical qualities, serving as alternative 54 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (48-65) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 educators in the absence of a human instructor. Recognising these instruments as nonhuman mentors within world musical ensembles, we can perceive their unique contribution to instruction. Their pedagogical impact amplifies the complexity of social exchanges, an integral facet of world music ensembles, thus underscoring their invaluable role in this setting. Bennett introduced the concept of “thing-power” to describe the capacity of inanimate objects to animate, influence, and generate both dramatic and subtle effects (2010, p. 6). This idea has served as a cornerstone for recent studies to consider musical instruments more seriously within the field of Ethnomusicology. Scholars, including Yamin (2019), Rees (2017), and Bates (2012), have demonstrated that musical instruments possess social lives, much like humans, which contribute to the social dynamics within music culture, thus making them valid subjects for research. Adapting Bates’ (2012, p. 364) argument regarding the social lives of musical instruments to the realm of world music ensembles, a musical instrument is intertwined within intricate networks of relationships among students, teachers, and instruments themselves. These connections encompass interactions between student and student, student and teacher, student and instrument, teacher and instrument, and instrument and instrument. By attributing the core principles of autonomy and individuality to musical instruments, akin to those granted to human subjects, researchers can better comprehend the active instructional function they serve within the social dynamics of global music ensembles. The instructor demonstrates the necessary techniques for playing the instruments while the instruments generate sounds corresponding to the educator’s actions (see Figure 1). Conversely, students learn and emulate these techniques and sounds on their instruments. During individual practice sessions, when a human teacher is absent, the instruments assume the role of the mentor by offering auditory feedback, guiding students to refine their techniques, and harmonising with the ensemble (see Figure 2). Figure 1. The Social Relationship Network of the World Music Ensemble based on Bates (2012, 364). 55 JinXing (Gene) Lai Figure 2. The Social Relationship Network of the World Music Ensemble in the absence of a human teacher. Thus far, I have examined the critical role that physical movements and active listening play in learning a musical instrument and provided an in-depth analysis of the profound educational influence that such instruments exert within the framework of world music ensembles. In the remaining sections, we glean insights from an immersive engagement with two instruments: the Javanese gamelan’s saron and the South Indian mṛdaṅgam drum. These explorations underscore the teaching merits inherent in the rich, dynamic sonic exchanges between a learner and their musical instrument. Javanese Gamelan instruments as a nonhuman teacher The Javanese hold the gamelan in extraordinary esteem, perceiving it not merely as a musical instrument but as an ancestral treasure imbued with enigmatic and mystical energy. Sumarsam vividly captures this sentiment in his writing: Often, the Javanese consider a gamelan set as pusåkå, an inherited object endowed with supernatural power. An honorific title, Kyai or “The Venerable Sir,” and a name is assigned to the gamelan. An offering is provided periodically, and incense is burned before the gong. For this reason, the Javanese always show respect for the instruments (2023, 8). The Wesleyan World Music Hall is home to two unique gamelan sets. The five-tone sléndro gamelan set is called Kyai Mentul, or “Bouncing,” and the seven- tone pélog gamelan set is named Kyai Pradhah, or “Generosity” (see Figure 3). Before every semester-end concert, a performer offers flowers, food, and coffee to these instruments (see Figure 4). Ethnomusicologist Maho Ishiguro, a former gamelan member of the Wesleyan Javanese gamelan ensemble, shared that the instruments 56 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (48-65) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 expressed their desire for coffee as an offering through a dream (Maho Ishiguro, personal communication, December 2, 2016). These anecdotes highlight the extraordinary character of the gamelan instruments. Figure 3. The Wesleyan Javanese Gamelan Ensemble with Gamelan sets Kyai Mentul and Kyai Pradhah (Courtesy of I.M. Harjito). Figure 4. Offerings for the gamelan (Courtesy of Maho Ishiguro) In the spring of 2015, I found myself venturing into the mesmerising realm of Javanese gamelan music, captivated by its rhythmic allure and instrumentation. In the first gamelan class, I was introduced to the saron and the demung, both exquisite 57 JinXing (Gene) Lai forms of metallophones. Both instruments are part of the balungan playing instruments, aptly considered the musical spine of any Javanese gamelan ensemble. Professor Sumarsam, an authority on gamelan music, guided us through this intricate exploration. With his profound wisdom, we embarked on understanding the subtle art of striking and damping, an essential technique when playing the saron or demung. This playing technique involves a swift sequence of actions: a key is struck by the mallet held in one hand, and almost simultaneously, the sound of the previously struck key is subdued by the other hand. The damping is accomplished by pinching the key between the left thumb and index finger (see Figure 5). If the precision falters, the sounds could interweave, resulting in a muddled musical output. Interestingly, some experimental compositions purposely employ such a melding of sounds. Initially, mastering this damping technique was daunting, but consistent practice gradually transformed it into an intuitive part of the playing process. Figure 5. The strike and damp techniques. The player damps the dhådhå (key number 3) while striking the gulu (key number 2). Following his illuminating demonstration, Professor Sumarsam provided us with the latitude to explore our respective instruments while he preoccupied himself with preparing the kendang drum for ensemble rehearsal. As the ensemble initiated their performance, I wrestled with keeping tempo, simultaneously attempting to perfect the strike and damp techniques. Inevitably, I put the daunting task of damping aside and proceeded to play the saron in a manner reminiscent of a xylophone for the rest of the session. Although my initial efforts were disheartening, I resolved to arrive earlier for future rehearsals, pledging extra hours for solitary practice to refine my technique and elevate my musical understanding. A few weeks into my dedicated practice sessions, my attention began to centre on the saron’s acoustic subtleties as I refined the strike and damp technique. In 58 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (48-65) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 this auditory dialogue with the instrument, I strived for a fluid sound transition, damping the previous key at the exact instance of striking the next. Premature damping interrupted the saron’s seamless melodic flow, while delayed damping generated an echoing resonance that distorted the following note. As my body acclimated to these precise movements and gained fluency in developing a seamless sound from the saron, the strike and damp technique transformed from a deliberate action into an instinctive manoeuvre. Weeks into this immersive practice, I began to decode the delicate nuances of the saron’s sound, continually honing my strike and damp techniques. Engaging in this auditory dialogue with the instrument, my goal was to create an uninterrupted, melodious flow. This technique required damping the previously struck key at the exact moment the following note was sounded. If I damped too swiftly, the melodious continuity of the saron was disrupted, creating a jarring auditory experience. Conversely, if I damped too leisurely, the resultant resonance interfered with the subsequent note, creating a dissonant echo that blurred the intended melody. As I became more attuned to the intricate choreography required to produce a harmonious sound on the saron, the strike and damp technique organically transitioned from a conscious endeavour to an instinctual process. This evolution allowed me to fine-tune my technique, forging a deeper connection with the instrument. Free from the constraints of mechanics, I was now able to immerse myself fully in the music, resonating with the emotions conveyed through each piece. This intuitive approach augmented my technical prowess and enriched my emotional engagement with the music, fostering a deeper connection with the instrument and the enthralling realm of Javanese gamelan music. As this intuitive connection grew, my body absorbed the movements, gradually achieving the fluidity necessary for a continuous sound on the saron. Applying the strike and damp technique became second nature on all balungan instruments, including the demung, pekin, and slenthem. Notably, during our sonic interaction, the responsive nature of the gamelan instruments provided us with vital feedback, signaling sound anomalies such as a key failing to resonate when struck or the buzzing sound caused by the contact of two or more keys. These acoustic cues prompted us to make necessary adjustments, maintaining the instrument’s desired sound. In the context of Javanese gamelan social relations, performing the imbal, or interlocking patterns, on the saron or demung presented a unique sonic interaction involving two instruments and two players (see Figure 6). The complexity of the strike and damp technique is further amplified when executing the imbal on the demung. The performer must not only master the technique of playing the demung but also attune to the partnering demung player, adjusting the precise timing of the strike and damp process. This challenge escalates when playing the imbal melody at the composition’s most intricate and rapid sections. Any discrepancy in speed or volume between the demung players could disrupt the imbal melody, detracting from the desired harmony in Javanese gamelan performances. When the performers synchronise their movements, the two demungs unite, creating a single repeating melodic pattern. 59 JinXing (Gene) Lai Figure 6. Performing the imbal on two sléndro sarons. The player (on the left) damps the dhådhå (key number 3) while striking gulu (key number 2). The other performer (on the right) damps the higher barang (key number 1) while striking nem (key number 6). My journey in learning the striking and damping techniques of the balungan instruments and executing the intricate interlocking patterns known as imbal has illuminated the essential synergy between physical movements, active listening, and the sonic feedback from these instruments. This sonic exchange between the student and the instrument vividly exemplifies the instrument’s profound capacity as a nonhuman teacher. In the following section, I will present my encounter with the South Indian mṛdaṅgam drum, further emphasising the instrument’s role as a remarkable instructor beyond human realms. The mṛdaṅgam instruments as a nonhuman teacher In the fall of 2014, my academic journey took an exciting turn as I commenced my first semester as a graduate student at Wesleyan University. My journey into the world of South Indian percussion was initiated under the guidance of Professor David Nelson. My studies began with mastering the basics of the mṛdaṅgam, a two-headed barrel drum used as the primary accompanying percussion instrument for karṇāṭak music, the South Indian rāga-based music. Esteemed mṛdaṅgam performers, such as U. Sivaraman, hold their instrument in high regard, equating its sanctity with revered instruments like the viṇā and the veṇu, a flute endemic to Karṇāṭak music (Sivaraman cited in Devnath, 2003, p. 45). This profound reverence is often expressed through religious rituals, with performers conducting pujas or prayers for their drums. Notably, some artists begin their Karṇāṭak music concert with a brief prayer for their drum, epitomising the deep spiritual bond between the performer and their instrument. 60 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (48-65) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 During my initial foray into mṛdaṅgam playing, I was introduced to two drum strokes unique to this instrument, the cāppu and arai cāppu. It is the arai cāppu stroke, the important drum stroke that sets the Putukkōṭṭai mṛdaṅgam playing style apart from its Tanjavur counterpart,4 that presents me with an intriguing challenge. Achieving the distinctive, metallic tone characteristic of the arai cāppu stroke is no easy process. It demanded an intimate interaction with the instrument rather than merely following the prescribed instructions from the mṛdaṅgam teacher. My learning journey was characterised by persistent efforts spanning several months as I strived to perform the arai cāppu stroke flawlessly. During this period, my mṛdaṅgam teacher, Professor Nelson, emphasised the importance of independent learning in mastering the stroke, as he believed it was something that could not be imparted but rather discovered by the student. The months of trial and error were testing, yet they were instrumental in developing my understanding of the unique relationship between the drummer and the drum. Every day, I engaged in a sanctified ritual: practising for a dedicated hour to perfect the complex arai cāppu stroke on my mṛdaṅgam. This practice evolved into an enlightening exploration of the profound relationship between a student and the instrument. In this journey, I discovered that even minute alterations to the position of my hand could profoundly transform the tonal quality of the stroke, underlining the vital role of continual adjustment and adaptation. By playing the stroke and listening attentively to its sound, I would adjust my hand in direct response to its tonality. If the sound seemed too dull (see Figure 7), I would draw my hand closer to my body. Conversely, if the fundamental tone was overly pronounced (see Figure 8), I would distance my hand from my body. This subtle sonic dialogue between my mṛdaṅgam and me proved invaluable. It took a year to understand the physical movements and locate the unique spot on my mṛdaṅgam to execute the arai cāppu correctly (see Figure 9). Figure 7. The striking spot on the right drumhead where the drum produces a dull sound. 61 JinXing (Gene) Lai Figure 8. The striking spot on the right drumhead where the drum produces too much fundamental tone. Figure 9. The correct striking spot on the right drumhead where the drum produces the characteristic metallic sound of arai cāppu drum stroke. Having learnt the fundamentals of the arai cāppu stroke, my training evolved to encompass the more challenging tam stroke. This stroke is a harmonious fusion of two actions: implementing the arai cāppu stroke on the right drumhead while concurrently striking the left drumhead with the ta stroke. The ta stroke involves a powerful strike on the drumhead using four fingers (see Figure 10). 62 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (48-65) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 10. David Nelson demonstrates the ta drum stroke on the left drumhead. This progression introduced a fresh set of challenges. My responsibility lay in ensuring the prominence of the arai cāppu stroke over the ta stroke and seamlessly blending the two into a single, unified sound (see Figure 12). Given my once-a-week mṛdaṅgam lesson with Professor Nelson, it was imperative that I attentively listen to the auditory feedback from the drum, subsequently modifying my technique to perfect it. Figure 11. The tam drum stroke consists of arai cāppu on the right drumhead and the ta stroke on the left. 63 JinXing (Gene) Lai To deal with these difficulties, I started recording my practice sessions. This way, I could listen back, examine the different sounds of the drum, and check my technique. I then tweaked my timing, strength, and accuracy as needed. This back- and-forth process between me, the drum, and the recording device became a valuable learning aid. It felt like a conversation in sound, which helped me grow as a mṛdaṅgam player. This experience showed me the importance of interaction, both in sound and socially, in learning to play an instrument. It built a deep, rewarding connection between me and the drum. Conclusion The guidance of a teacher appears to be particularly beneficial in introducing the expansive world of musical knowledge and honing techniques within world music ensembles in higher education institutions. However, one can't overlook the potential significance of an individual's journey with their instrument. As my anecdotes suggest, certain instrumental techniques might benefit from personal experimentation, potentially eluding full capture through traditional teaching alone. Recognizing the constraints of instructional time and the aim to reach performance readiness, students might sometimes explore their instruments in their own unique ways. While many scholars and instructors place considerable value on direct human-to-human teaching methods in world music ensembles, there could be a worthwhile discussion about the mentorship role instruments might play. It might be worth considering instruments not merely as tools, but possibly as nonhuman contributors to the learning process, adding another dimension to our understanding of ensemble learning. World music ensembles aim to meet, and at times, exceed institutional standards. Yet, the essence of truly understanding an instrument might not always align perfectly with these academic pressures. Some instruments, such as the saron and mṛdaṅgam, could offer lessons akin to a teacher’s guidance. The potential connection between students and their instrument, highlighted through sonic communication, could merit further exploration. This relationship might enhance the overall learning experience and foster a deeper connection between musician and instrument. These reflections might prompt a more flexible understanding of the role of musical instruments within world music ensembles. By acknowledging the possible instructional qualities of musical instruments, we might be opening doors to diverse teaching strategies in world music ensemble education. This perspective could offer a more comprehensive look at the learning dynamics within these ensembles and hint at a teaching approach that embraces multiple facets of musical education. 64 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (48-65) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Endnotes 1 This article is a revised version of the paper titled “The Pedagogical Life of Musical Instruments,” which was originally presented as part of the organised panel Bi-musicality, Tri- musicality, and Beyond: Reconsidering World Music Ensembles Today at the 2021 Society for Ethnomusicology Annual Meeting. 2 I adhere to Mantle Hood’s original spelling of “Bi-Musicality” instead of “Bimusicality” (Hood: 1971). 3 In an interview with T. Viswanathan and Jody Cormack, Brown emphasised the cultural significance of the artists he selected to perform at Wesleyan. He acknowledged that these artists represented their regions’ “classical” musical traditions. Brown further revealed that he faced a huge dilemma when choosing the musical traditions that most effectively capture the essence of each geographical area at Wesleyan (Robert E. Brown cited in Viswanathan and Cormack 1997). 4 The Putukkōṭṭai and Tanjavur styles are the two main styles of mṛdaṅgam playing in Karṇāṭak music. At Wesleyan University, David Nelson teaches his students the Putukkōṭṭai style. Acknowledgement I am deeply grateful to David P. Nelson, Sumarsam, I.M. Harjito, and Maho Ishiguro for their invaluable insights. My sincere thanks to Lee Tong Soon for his feedback and to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive critiques, all of which significantly enriched this article. References Bates, E. (2012). The social life of musical instruments. Ethnomusicology, 56(3): 363-395. Bennett, J. (2010). Vibrant matter: A political ecology of things. Duke University Press. Brashier, R. (2013). In Gamelan you have to become one ‘Feeling’: Sensory embodiment and transfer of musical knowledge. Ethnomusicology Review, 18. Brown, R. E. (1997, September). Interview with T. Viswanathan, and Jody Cormack. Call Number WA9.4.306-307. Wesleyan World Music Archives. Middletown, Connecticut. Audio Cassette. Campbell, P., Coppola, W. J. & Hebert. D. G. (2021). World music pedagogy, volume VII: Teaching world music in higher education. Routledge. Crossley, N. (2022). From musicking to music worlds: On Christopher Small’s important innovation. Music Research Annual, 3, 1-24. Devnath, L. (2003). Sivaraman uvaacha. Sruti Magazine, 224, 41-47. https://www.sruti.com/ Harnish, D. (2004). “‘No, not ‘Bali Hai’!’: Challenges of adaptation and orientalism in performing and teaching Balinese Gamelan.” In Ted Solis (Eds.), Performing ethnomusicology: Teaching and representing in world music ensembles (pp. 126- 138). University of California Press. Hesselink, N. (2004). Samul nori as traditional: Preservation and innovation in a South Korean contemporary percussion genre. Ethnomusicology, 48(3), 405–439. Hood, M. & Trimillos, R. (2004). Afterword. Some closing thoughts from The First Voice. In Ted Solis (Eds.), Performing ethnomusicology: Teaching and representing in world music ensembles (pp. 283-288). University of California Press. Hood, M. (1971). The Ethnomusicologist. McGraw Hill. 65 JinXing (Gene) Lai Kisliuk, M. & Gross, K. (2004). “What’s the ‘It’ that we learn to perform?: Teaching BaAka music and dance.” In Ted Solis (Eds.), Performing ethnomusicology: Teaching and representing in world music ensembles (pp. 249-260). University of California Press. Lai, JX. (Gene). (2023). An artistic product of globalised Singapore? The Damaru Pan-Indian Folk drumming ensemble. Yearbook for Traditional Music, 54(2), 119-140. Lu, C. J. (2023). Distinct locations and cultures: A discussion on the development of two Chinese music ensembles in universities in the United States.” Silk Road: Chinese Music in the New Silk Road 88, 26-37. Mauss, M. (1973). Techniques of the body. Economy and Society, 2(1), 70-88. Racy, A. J., Marcus, S. & Solís, T. (2004). Can’t help but speak, can’t help but play: Dual discourse in Arab music pedagogy. In Ted Solis (Eds.), Performing ethnomusicology: Teaching and representing in world music ensembles (pp. 155- 167). University of California Press. Rees, H. (2017). Music of Thailand at UCLA, 1960s to the Present: Instruments as social actors and cultural archives. In Patricia Matusky and Wayland Quintero (Eds.) Proceedings of the 4th Symposium: The ICTM Study Group on Performing Arts of Southeast Asia (pp. 25–29). School of the Arts, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Slobin, M. (1996). From multiculturalism to convivencia. Academic Forums (online paper and discussion). Wesleyan University. Solis, T. (Ed.). (2004a). Performing ethnomusicology: Teaching and representing in world music ensembles. University of California Press. Solis, T. (2004b). Introduction: Teaching what cannot be taught: An optimistic overview. In Ted Solis (Eds.), Performing Ethnomusicology: Teaching and representing in world music ensembles (pp. 1-22). University of California Press. Sumarsam. (2023). Introduction, theory, and analysis: Javanese gamelan. Wesleyan University. Sumarsam. (2004). Opportunity and interaction: The gamelan from Java to Wesleyan. In Ted Solis (Eds.), Performing ethnomusicology: Teaching and representing in world music ensembles (pp. 69-92). University of California Press. Trimillos, R. (2004). Subject, object, and the ethnomusicology ensemble: The Ethnomusicological’ We’ and ‘Them. In Ted Solis (Eds.), Performing ethnomusicology: Teaching and representing in world music ensembles (pp. 23-52). University of California Press. Yamin, T. (2019). One or several gamelan? Perpetual (Re)construction in the life of a Balinese gamelan Semara Pagulingan. Ethnomusicology, 63(3), 357-392. Yung, B. (1984). Choreographic and kinesthetic elements in performance on the Chinese seven-string zither. Ethnomusicology, 28(3), 505-517. Biography JinXing (Gene) Lai is an Associate Editor at Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale (RILM), City University of New York, United States. He holds a PhD and an MA in Ethnomusicology from Wesleyan University. His publications have appeared in the ICTM Yearbook of Traditional Music, Asian Music, and Ethnomusicology Forum.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 1 (2023)

contingency, one-to-one piano lessons, scaffolding process, young beginners

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/491

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7913

Examining Scaffolding Process in One-to-One Piano Lessons for Young Beginners

In piano education, the initial stages of teaching young beginners establish the foundation for future endeavours. Due to the necessity of collaborative effort, piano lessons can be a complex process for both the teacher and the student. A balance must be found whereby the teachers can administer information in a way that is compatible with the student’s learning style. Therefore, the teacher must adapt their instruction to the level of the student. This exploratory case study investigates how scaffolding process is adapted into piano education in private setting to enhance the learning process of young beginner students. 10 teacher-student dyads, with students ages between 5-7 years, were recruited. Weekly lessons over a span of four weeks were observed and documented. Interviews with participants were conducted to find out more insights on their perspectives of teaching. Video data analysis was conducted based on the three characteristics–contingency, fading of support and transfer of responsibility–from the conceptual model of scaffolding. The findings indicate that two types of scaffolding process were applied in piano lessons–consistent and contingent, with the latter prevailing in most of the lessons. It was also observed that the three characteristics of scaffolding emerges within the same lesson and across several lessons, influenced by students’ readiness and response. Whilst there were differences among the contingency strategies used, certain tendencies recured across the teachers. Among these, modelling stood out as the as the predominant strategy and that teachers rely primarily on their perspectives and intuition when it comes to scaffolding.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7913/4616

66 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (66-79) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Examining Scaffolding Process in One-to-One Piano Lessons for Young Beginners: An Observational Analysis Wong Yiing Siing1, Wang I Ta 2, Mohd. Nasir Hashim3 Universiti Malaya 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 07 October 2023 Cite this article (APA): Wong, Y. S., Wang, I. T., & Hashim, M. N. (2023). Examining scaffolding process in one- to-one piano lessons for young beginners: An observational analysis. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12(1), 66-79. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.1.5.2023 Abstract In piano education, the initial stages of teaching young beginners establish the foundation for future endeavours. Due to the necessity of collaborative effort, piano lessons can be a complex process for both the teacher and the student. A balance must be found whereby the teachers can administer information in a way that is compatible with the student’s learning style. Therefore, the teacher must adapt their instruction to the level of the student. This exploratory case study investigates how scaffolding process is adapted into piano education in private setting to enhance the learning process of young beginner students. 10 teacher-student dyads, with students ages between 5-7 years, were recruited. Weekly lessons over a span of four weeks were observed and documented. Interviews with participants were conducted to find out more insights on their perspectives of teaching. Video data analysis was conducted based on the three characteristics–contingency, fading of support and transfer of responsibility–from the conceptual model of scaffolding. The findings indicate that two types of scaffolding process were applied in piano lessons–consistent and contingent, with the latter prevailing in most of the lessons. It was also observed that the three characteristics of scaffolding emerges within the same lesson and across several lessons, influenced by students’ readiness and response. Whilst there were differences among the contingency strategies used, certain tendencies recured across the teachers. Among these, modelling stood out as the as the predominant strategy and that teachers rely primarily on their perspectives and intuition when it comes to scaffolding. Keywords: contingency, one-to-one piano lessons, scaffolding process, young beginners Introduction One-to-one instruction, or private lessons (Kennell, 2002) is commonly used as a mode of instruction in music and piano education (Carey et al, 2013; Coutts, 2019), from a beginner’s level, all the way to advanced professional training. The initial stages of teaching young beginners in piano education establish the foundation for future endeavours (Abdumutalibovich, 2020; Isekeeva et al., 2016). This early phase is vital as it moulds the child’s perception of music and the creative process as a whole. According to Thomas- Lee (2003), a child’s musical experiences during the formative years significantly impact their later musical development, underscoring the importance of effective piano education right from the outset (Isekeeva et al., 2016). The piano teacher plays a central and influential role in the learner’s musical journey, serving as a key figure in shaping their overall development and progress (Davidson & Jordan, 2007; Yeh, 2018). Due to the necessity of collaborative effort, piano lessons can be a complex process for both the teacher and the student. It is crucial to find a balance where teachers can deliver information in a manner that aligns with the student’s learning style (Maldjian, 2015; Yeh, 2018). Therefore, one of the fundamental principles of teaching is that the teacher must adapt their instruction to the level of the student. This principle Wong Yiing Siing, Wang I Ta & Nasir Mohd Hashim 67 is central to constructivist teaching, specifically the concept of scaffolding. Based on Vygotsky’s work (1978), scaffolding in learning refers to temporary support provided by an adult to assist the child with a task that is just beyond their current level (Granott et al., 2002; Wood et al., 1976). After successful scaffolding, the support can be scaled back gradually to ensure that the child has agency over the learning process. Scaffolding in the context of learning an instrument Scaffolding is pivotal in the learning of an instrument at a young age. Lehmann et al. (2007) state that all early music instruction requires adult intervention, because most children under six years old have yet to achieve a level of competence that allows independent or self-directed study on an instrument. Current literature in music education defines musical development in terms of complex, non-linear, individual trajectories and the influence of various factors and environmental interaction (McPherson et al., 2012). Studies in educational settings (Ensing et al., 2014; Steenbeek et al., 2012) show how complex transactional patterns in teacher-student interaction emerge on the micro-level and contribute to different learning outcomes on the macro-level. However, from a review of the available literature reflects the lack of detailed descriptions of the real-time processes that occur in music lessons. Küpers, van Dijk, & van Geert (2014) mentioned that this should be a focal point for future research. Based on this suggestion, the current study will explore and describe the real- time scaffolding process that occurs during the music lessons. Although few methods and procedures already exist to analyse the information encompassed within instrumental lessons, they focus on interpersonal and gestural behaviours (Creech, 2012; King et al, 2019; Simones et al, 2015), lesson planning and scaffolding models (Chai & Koh, 2017; Rusznyak & Walton, 2011), motivation and determination outcomes (Küpers, van Dijk, McPherson, & van Geert (2014) and student autonomy (Küpers et al., 2015). The above literature supports the notion that teaching a piano beginner effectively from the beginning is important for the later development. Relevant literature also indicated that scaffolding is effective in helping students to learn or acquire certain skills. Based on these, it appears that scaffolding in the early stages of piano lesson would be beneficial for a young student. However, none of the studies surveyed in the literature review observed young beginner’s piano lessons in the context of teacher’s scaffolding. Thus, this study hopes to fill the gap of the literature by observing young beginner’s piano lesson and providing real-time descriptions of the scaffolding process that emerges during the private lesson. A conceptual model of scaffolding Figure 1. Scaffolding process between teacher and student (adopted from “Scaffolding in Teacher-Student Interaction: A decade of Research” by van de Pol et al., 2010) 68 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (66-79) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 The conceptual model of scaffolding (see Figure 1) by van de Pol et al. (2010) identified three key characteristics of scaffolding – contingency, fading and the transfer of responsibility. Contingency is the adaptation of the support to the level of the student. The teacher should be proactive in tailoring their teaching to the level of the student at any point in the lesson (van de Pol et al., 2010; Lajoie, 2005). van Geert and Steenbeek (2005) posit that there is an optimal distance between the level of the teacher and that of the student, which is not fixed as it is subject to the teacher-student dyad. To maintain this optimal distance, teachers adapt their support according to the shifts in the student’s performance level. Diagnostic strategies assist the teacher in providing contingent support. This begins with determining the student’s current level of competence to adapt the support provided. Many authors have supported the use of diagnostic strategies in music lessons, referring to it variably as: dynamic assessment (Lajoiec, 2005; Macrine & Sabbatino, 2008; Pea, 2004; Swanson & Lussier, 2001), formative assessment (Shepard, 2005), online diagnosis (Palincsar & Brown, 1984), or monitoring and checking students’ understanding (Garza, 2009). The second characteristic of scaffolding is the gradual withdrawal of support over time: fading (Pea, 2004). The rate at which fading occurs should be adjusted according to the student’s rate of development (van de Pol et al., 2010; van Geert & Steenbeek, 2005). The third characteristic involves transfer of responsibility. With gradual fading, the responsibility for learning is eventually transferred back to the student. In this review, responsibility refers broadly to the students’ state at a certain point of learning, be it cognitive, metacognitive, or affective. Successful transfer of responsibility occurs when the student gains agency over their learning process, leading to autonomous competence (Reigosa & Jiménez- Aleixandre, 2007). In sum, scaffolding is an intrinsically dynamic process occurring over repeated interactions between music teacher and student. For effective scaffolding, these interactions need to be contingent. Over time, a transfer of responsibility occurs as the teacher fades out the level of support according to the student’s progress to promote independence. This process is repeated for subsequent sub-goals. This conceptual model of scaffolding will be the analytical framework for this current study. Problem Statement Scaffolding in one-to-one piano lessons positively influences student’s skill development, confidence, critical thinking abilities, musical expression and autonomy in their musical journey. It facilitates skill acquisition by offering appropriate support and guidance, breaking down complex tasks into manageable steps (Wood et al., 1976). This personalised support enhances students’ confidence, motivating them to practice, explore new challenges and achieve musical goals (Bandura, 1997). Furthermore, scaffolding promotes critical thinking and independent problem-solving by gradually reducing support and allowing students to make decisions (Vygotsky, 1978), thus fostering autonomy and self-regulation (Küper, van Dijk, McPherson, & van Geert, 2014). Overall, scaffolding in one-to-one piano lessons has a significant impact on students’ musical development, especially in the initial learning (Meissner & Timmers, 2020). Although scaffolding has shown potential as an effective teaching method, the disparity in the extent of practical application calls for further research to be conducted in everyday educational practice. Existing literature on scaffolding in music education predominantly focuses on teachers/student’s behaviours and their contributions to certain forms of learning and motivational outcomes and the application of specific methods conducted in the settings of tertiary education or intermediate/advanced level. Additionally, previous research on young beginners’ piano learning mainly centres on the content analysis of method books (Ballard, 2007; Kanaeva, 2021; Rad & Azadeh, 2022; Sung, 2017; Thomas-Lee, 2003). To date, there is a notable lack of studies investigating the issue of teacher’s scaffolding methods in young beginners within the private piano lesson setting. Therefore, it was the purpose of the present study to bridge this gap by investigating and describing the real-time scaffolding process and teaching strategies employed by independent piano teachers in Klang Valley within the settings of private piano lessons. Based on the conceptual model of scaffolding by van de Pol et al. (2010), the specific objectives of this research are: 1) To analyse the dynamic interplay of the three key characteristics of scaffolding – contingency, fading of support and transfer of responsibility – as they manifest in real-time during private piano lessons, 2) To elucidate the specific instructional and scaffolding strategies utilised by piano teachers to facilitate the student’s learning during the lesson. The research seeks to answer the following research questions: Wong Yiing Siing, Wang I Ta & Nasir Mohd Hashim 69 1. How do the three characteristics of scaffolding – contingency, fading of support and transfer of responsibility – unfold in the piano lessons? 2. How do piano teachers implement scaffolding strategies to support the student’s learning during the lesson? Methodology Participants Participants for this research were recruited through mixed sampling (a combination of purposeful and snowball sampling. Purposeful sampling was used to determine the student’s inclusion criteria which were determined after a preliminary survey conducted among the teacher participants. The survey results indicated that beginners were typically 5-7 years old, therefore this age range was established as one of the inclusion criteria for student participants. Another inclusion criterion was that students should have less than one year of learning experience to be considered as a beginner. Initially, a number of 5 teacher-student dyads were selected in the first step of the sampling process to establish a foundational pool of individuals with relevant expertise or experience. Subsequently, as the research progressed, additional participants were identified through a snowball sampling approach, leveraging the connections and recommendations of the initial participants. This iterative process continued until a total of 10 teacher-student dyads were included in the study and data saturation was achieved, wherein further sampling did not yield significantly new insights or perspectives. The selected pairs were based on student’s inclusion criteria and teachers were good mix representatives of the Malaysian piano teaching contexts. Teaching experience ranged from 3-14 years and teaching backgrounds vary with trainings in various areas such as early childhood music education, group class instruction, Kodaly methodology and elementary piano teaching. Most of the teachers held an undergraduate degree in music, while five out of ten teachers had completed a graduate degree in music. By including teachers with diverse teaching background and experience, this study aimed to gather comprehensive insights into the dynamics of one-to-one piano teaching. Pseudonyms were given to the participants to ensure their anonymity. Procedure The research design of this study is exploratory case study that adopts a qualitative methodology. Naturalistic, non-participant observation was conducted due to its ability to capture authentic and unfiltered interactions within their real-life context (Creswell & Poth, 2018). In the context of the current study, this approach allows the researcher to witness the dynamics between the piano teachers and the student as they engage in spontaneous teaching and learning moments. In addition, the researcher can gain insights into the subtle cues, verbal and non-verbal communication and the gradual adjustment of instructional support, which are all vital components of the scaffolding process. This method ensures that the observations remain ecologically valid and provides a comprehensive understanding of how scaffolding unfolds organically in a genuine learning setting. 10 teachers video-recorded their weekly lessons with the beginner students over 4 weeks of lessons. A total of 40 video recordings, 4 videos from each pair of teacher-student dyads, were collected and documented in this study. To encapsulate the learning process in its essence, neither the teachers nor the students received any instructions prior to or during the lessons. Ethics clearance (Ref: UM.TNC2/UMREC– 675) and participants’ written consent was obtained before the recording begun. Next, teachers were interviewed to get more insights on their perspectives on their teaching in general as well as related to the lesson videos. Data analysis The 40 lesson videos were assessed and manually coded, with the findings recorded into an excel spreadsheet. The deductive analysis was carried out to identify the three characteristics of scaffolding (contingency, fading of support and transfer of responsibility), teachers’ teaching strategies, students’ response and other unanticipated themes that emerged. Subsequently, narrative interviews were conducted with the teachers to triangulate the data. To provide a glimpse into the piano lessons, sample vignettes illustrating four representative scaffolding process were provided below. Subsequently, all videos were 70 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (66-79) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 compared to identify any shared themes that emerged among the collective cases of teacher-students. The themes are discussed in the discussion section. Findings The sample vignettes below represent the four general scaffolding process that emerged during the observation. The scaffolding process was analysed based on the conceptual model of scaffolding by van de Pol et al. (2010). According to them, scaffolding process consists of three key characteristics–contingency, fading of support and transfer of responsibility. Vignette 1: Learning a new scale with a different fingering (within same lesson) Teacher Kor is about to teach the student the F major scale which involves a different fingering pattern on the right hand compared to the previous keys learnt. Previously, the student has learnt C, D and G major which uses the same fingering patterns in both hands. The teacher started by explaining that F major has a different fingering on the right hand, and then proceed to place the student’s right hand on the keys, and then pointing to the fingers on the key and explain the fingering. Then, the teacher holds the student’s finger one by one and place them on the key to play the F major scale. When the student struggled with the fingering that was different than the other keys, the teacher held her hands and fingers and moved them while giving verbal instructions and explaining why the fingering is so. After that, the teacher asked the student to play the ascending F major scale again. They played one octave several times. Next, the teacher asked her to attempt the descending section, while also moving her fingers and reminding her of the fingering in the same section. Then, the student was asked to play both ascending and descending F major scales. The student attempted to figure it out by herself, with minimal help from the teacher. She was also asked to attempt playing two octaves, of which she succeeded on her own. Vignette 2: New technical exercise (within same lesson) In the second lesson, Win assigned her student with the task of playing a new piece of technical exercise titled ‘Jumping over the bench’. Before playing it, Win instructed (while also modelling the action) the student to stretch her right hand straight forwards and then crossing the left arm across the right arm and back to the left in a half- arch shape. The teacher then demonstrated this action on the piano and explained the connection between the movement and the title of the exercise. The teacher then proceeded to play the technical exercise. For the next step, Win asked the student to play the right-hand part, while she played the left-hand part which crosses over. After that, the teacher explained the movement again before switching parts. After doing that twice, teacher asked her to try playing with both hands on her own. The student did as instructed, while the teacher continued modelling the action while she played. After that, the teacher asked the student to try playing again, without any modelling or verbal instructions, which the student succeeded. Vignette 3: Rhythm and Aural (across several lessons) In teacher Hing’s second lesson, the student learnt a new song called Doggy doggy. The first step of learning the song was to echo after the teacher sang each verse. Next, the student was asked to sing the melody while tapping the pulse together with the teacher. Then, the student was asked to sing the melody while tapping the rhythm instead of the pulse. When the student could do all those steps, the teacher asked the student to clap the pulse while she clapped the rhythm, all the while singing the melody, and vice versa. In the next step of contingency, the teacher provided a diagram with images of whole heart shapes that are divided into halves and told the student that these are heartbeats. The teacher then asked the student to point to the heartbeats (according to the pulse) while singing the melody. The next step is similar, but this time the student is asked to point according to the rhythm of the melody, instead of the pulse, while singing. After all these steps, teacher Hing explained that each heartbeat is a crotchet, and half a heartbeat is a quaver. After the explanation, a new diagram was shown to the student, this time with crotchets and quavers written in the heartbeats and she asked the student to point to it (according to pulse first, followed by rhythm) while singing the melody. Wong Yiing Siing, Wang I Ta & Nasir Mohd Hashim 71 The next lesson began with the same Doggy doggy activity. This time, the teacher gave a starting pitch and tempo, and the student sang the melody while tapping the pulse with sticks, with the teacher tapping along with the student. Next, the student is asked to point to the heartbeats with crotchets and quavers, both according to the pulse as well as the rhythm. This time, the teacher asked the student to notate the rhythm of the melody using the crotchet and quaver notes while singing it. The student attempted to notate it while singing the melody and managed to do it with some help from the teacher. Based on the same activity, teacher Hing asked the student to identify the solfege in the melody. This is focus listening and singing occurring simultaneously. After identifying the solfege, the student was asked to sing the melody, this time gesturing with the Kodály solfege hand signs. In this scenario, the student could identify the solfege almost immediately with almost no help from the teacher. In this same lesson, a new song was introduced through the same contingency strategies. The teacher started by writing down the lyrics for the student to refer to, before singing it verse by verse while echoed by the student. The next step, similar to the previous song, is singing the melody while tapping the pulse, involving both teacher and student. In the next lesson, teacher Hing activated the metronome and asked the student to sing the melody of the new song while tapping the pulse according to the metronome’s speed. It is observed that the student can do so. Following that, the student sang and clapped the rhythm while the teacher clapped the pulse, and vice versa. Pointing to the ‘heartbeats’ while singing comes next, but this time instead of singing the words, the student was asked to sing in the Kodaly rhythm language. Finally, the student was asked to notate the rhythm using crotchets and quavers. After that, to make the activity more engaging, the teacher asked the student to sing (in rhythm language) and clap the rhythm, but this time, only singing the quavers while clapping the whole rhythm. The student tried and managed to accomplish the task albeit with slight confusions which he quickly recovered from. Vignette 4: Rhythm (across several lessons) In the first video from teacher Kor, the student was asked to play a piece titled “The Little Frog”. This piece was assigned to the student in the week prior to the first recording. In the first video, the student struggled with the starting rhythm of the piece. Upon seeing this, teacher Kor responded by asking her to count the rhythm and then writing down the rhythm on the book. Next, the teacher and the student clapped the rhythm together while counting out loud. After these contingency steps, the student was asked to play the same part on the piano, but the student still struggled and could not play the correct rhythm. Thus, the teacher repeated the previous contingency steps of clapping the rhythm while counting out loud. After that, the student was asked to play again on the piano, with the teacher playing and singing along with her. After several attempts, the student managed to play it with ongoing support and assistance from the teacher. However, she still could not play it on her own without support from the teacher. In the next video, the student was asked to play the same piece again. This time, the student played it with the wrong rhythm at the beginning of the piece again. Teacher Kor then repeated the contingency steps by asking her to count the rhythm, and then clapping the rhythm together several times. This time, the teacher added in an additional contingency step of tapping the rhythm on the student’s arms so the student could feel the rhythm. After all the contingency steps, the student attempted to play on the piano again and although she played it with the wrong rhythm at the start, she played the piece with the correct rhythm following a reminder from the teacher. In the third video, when the student was asked to play this piece again, the teacher reminded her to pay attention to the starting rhythm, and she managed to play it correctly without any aid from the teacher. Discussion Two types of scaffolding process emerge through the observation–contingent scaffolding and consistent scaffolding. It was also observed that the three characteristics of scaffolding process unfold within the same lesson as well as across several lessons and is affected by students’ readiness. In general, despite some variances among the contingency strategies used, certain tendencies recurred across teachers and modelling was observed to be the prevalent contingency strategy. It was also discovered that teachers provide scaffolding based on their intuition and students’ response. A more detailed discussion of findings follows the tabulation of the sample vignettes based on the three characteristics of scaffolding. 72 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (66-79) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Table 1 Tabulation of vignettes based on the three characteristics of scaffolding Contingency Fading of support Transfer of Responsibility Vignette 1: Learning New Scale Explanation of different fingering (modelling) → Place student’s hand on the keys and manoeuvre the fingers to play the scale while explaining the fingering (kinaesthetic) → repeat this several times Student attempted to play descending with some guidance and assistance from teacher (modelling) Student was able to combine ascending and descending → student able to play two octaves ascending and descending (Student is able to apply the previously learnt knowledge into similar keys) Vignette 2: New technical exercise Verbal and physical modelling of the action away from piano (modelling) → Verbal and physical modelling on piano and relate the movement to the title of the piece (modelling) → Demonstrate playing the piece with the movement (modelling) → Teacher plays one hand while the student plays the other hand (modelling) Student attempted to play both hands, while teacher continued modelling the action (without any verbal explanation). Student attempted to play this on her own without any assistance from the teacher. Vignette 3: Rhythm (1st lesson) Verbal echo → Sing melody while tapping pulse → Sing melody while tapping rhythm → student sing and tap pulse while teacher taps rhythm and vice versa → Introduce heartbeats (in crotchet and quaver beats) → sing and point to the hearts in pulse → sing and points to heartbeats in rhythm → relate heartbeats to crotchet and quaver notation → point to crotchet for pulse, and quavers for rhythm while singing (2nd lesson) Student sung melody and tapped pulse with sticks, teacher tapping pulse along → point (pulse and rhythm) to heartbeats with crotchets and quavers while singing Student notated the rhythm while singing the melody (3rd lesson) Sing and tap pulse with metronome → student sings and claps rhythm while teacher claps pulse and vice versa (reinforcement) →Point Notation of the melody using crotchets and quavers Wong Yiing Siing, Wang I Ta & Nasir Mohd Hashim 73 to heartbeats and singing Kodaly rhythm language Vignette 3: Aural Teacher sing, student echo → Teacher sing, student identify solfege Student sing and gesture with Kodaly solfege hand signs Singing and echo new song (modelling) → singing and tapping pulse (reinforcement) Vignette 4: Rhythm (1st lesson) Counting rhythm out loud and write rhythm on the book → clap rhythm and count out loud (T&S) → student still could not play → Repeat → Teacher sing and play along with student (repeat several times) (2nd lesson) Count and clap the rhythm together several times → teacher tap rhythm on student’s arms → student played but still wrong, but manage to correct after reminder (slight fading of support) (3rd lesson) Student was able to play correctly on her own with just a reminder from teacher Emergence of contingency, fading of support and transfer of responsibility within the same lesson and across several lessons In line with van de Pol et al.’s (2010) conceptual model of scaffolding, the lessons demonstrated the presence of three characteristics during the scaffolding process. Notably, it was observed that the emergence of these characteristics occurred within the same lesson as well as across multiple lessons, and their manifestation was influenced by an external factor – student’s practice/readiness. Based on the observations in the videos, it was evident that when students did not practice or demonstrate the desired learning outcomes, it took a longer time or greater number of lessons for the transfer of responsibility to take place. Vignette 1 and 2 demonstrates the scaffolding process within the same lesson, with all three characteristics detected within the same lesson. In both vignettes, both teachers were about to teach something new to the student and had to scaffold it by explaining and allowing the student to experience it while also guiding the student. This is the first characteristic, contingency. After several attempts, student then attempted on their own with some reminders and hints from the teacher – this is the fading of support stage. In vignette 1, the student was given some responsibility to attempt the descending scale with less guidance from the teacher. Finally, when the student is able to do it entirely on their own, and apply the same knowledge to similar situations, transfer of responsibility has occurred. In the scenario of Vignette 1, the student was able to apply the newly taught knowledge when asked to connect both ascending and descending sections, as well as play two octaves of the scale. Vignette 3 and 4 depicts the scaffolding process across several lessons. In these scenarios, only one or two characteristics emerge within the same lesson, and it takes several lessons for the student to reach the stage of transfer of responsibility. Vignette 4 depicts the scaffolding process that spans across three lessons when the student struggled with a particular rhythm. In the first lesson, after the teacher had taken several contingency steps to teach the rhythm to the student, the student still could not play it correctly on her own, indicating an absence of transfer of responsibility. The same situation occurred in lesson 2 (despite a hint of fading of support), and finally, in lesson 3, the student could play the rhythm correctly without any 74 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (66-79) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 assistance from the teacher, indicating the transfer of responsibility. From the observations, it was revealed that students’ readiness affected the process of scaffolding. Students who did not practice, takes a longer time/more lesson to achieve the transfer of responsibility. However, when the students practised a decent amount, a huge progress can be noticed from the following lesson, and the transfer of responsibility is observed. In more than one scenario, the transfer of responsibility was only observed after two or three lessons. When the teacher praised and talked to the student, it was revealed that the student practiced and therefore managed to achieve the transfer of responsibility. Contingent and consistent scaffolding Upon analysing the lesson videos with respect to the three characteristics outlined in van de Pol et al.’s (2010) conceptual model of scaffolding, two distinct forms of scaffolding process were identified, which the researcher termed as contingent and consistent scaffolding. Contingent scaffolding is the process where teacher scaffolds intuitively based on the student’s reaction/response whereas consistent scaffolding is the process where the teacher scaffolds systematically across a long period of time to attain specific goals. It was observed that contingent scaffolding is more prevalent in most of the lessons. Most teachers conducted contingent scaffolding based on the student’s response during the lesson. The contingency step is taken when student faces difficulty during the lesson and the scaffolding process is conducted based on the students’ response. In this study, only two teachers conducted consistent scaffolding, which was intended for aural and rhythmic development. Vignettes 3 and 4 illustrate the difference between these two-scaffolding process in rhythmic scaffolding. In Vignette 4, teacher took contingency steps when the student encounters some difficulty during the lesson. Based on the student’s response, the teacher took contingency steps to scaffold the rhythm for the student. In contrast, Vignette 3 depicts a consistent scaffolding process of rhythm through several contingency strategies across several lessons. The scaffolding was provided with the intention of conveying and teaching the concept to instil long-term understanding that could be applied in future tasks. The Doggy doggy activity was utilised to scaffold both rhythm and aural. When the Doggy doggy rhythmic activity was first introduced in the second video, only contingency was observed as the teacher scaffolded the process in various ways. In the next video, fading of support was observed when the student did the activities with minimal support from the teacher, and finally transfer of responsibility emerges when the student was able to apply the knowledge form the previous activities into notating the rhythm. This scenario illustrates how the scaffolding process unfolds across several lessons. In the same lesson, when the aural aspect was conducted for the same activity only contingency, and transfer of responsibility occurred. The student could immediately identify the pitches upon being asked to do so. This is the result of the consistent scaffolding that teacher Hing has done at the early stages of music lessons. During the interview with teacher Hing, she brought up the importance of aural (listening and singing) and stated that she allocates approximately 15 minutes to aural activities in each lesson. This implies that the contingency steps for tonal recognition were executed consistently across the lessons from the early stages of learning; therefore, only transfer of responsibility was observed here as the student could immediately recognize the pitches without any assistance. This also infers that consistent and systematic scaffolding across a period is important to internalize the intonation and rhythm into the students from an early stage. Win shares the same point of view as Hing when it comes to aural. According to her, the child’s ears are more sensitive and active when they are younger, so it is best to train it when they were younger: “The musical ear is more sensitive when they were young. It starts to ‘close’ as they grow older, from as early as 8 years old, therefore making it harder to develop the aural skills.” In the second rhythmic activity that was introduced in the third video, it is observed that the contingency steps required a much shorter time compared to the first. Furthermore, the student was able to do the activities with minimal to no support from the teacher, even when the teacher added some different tasks to the activity. Once more, this shows the importance of scaffolding in the student’s learning as they would be able to apply what was taught to a new, but similar activity. Despite recommendations from researchers to support learning through a systematic process in order to achieve learning goals (Rosenshine et al., 2002), this study uncovered that a majority of teachers did not follow this approach. Wong Yiing Siing, Wang I Ta & Nasir Mohd Hashim 75 Contingency relies primarily on teacher’s perspectives and intuition Although there were variances among the contingency strategies used, certain tendencies recurred across the teachers. For example, in the scenario of learning a repertoire, almost all teachers used a similar contingency step by reviewing the notation of the piece. Some teachers did this by asking the students to identify the starting note and the fingering/hand positions, while some went into more detail by asking students to identify the dynamics, articulation as well as the structure of the whole piece. Teachers Yip and Lai stated that it is important for the student to understand the whole piece so that they can identify similar sections as well as find out about the character of the piece. Yip added that this is important in helping the student to know how to pre-analyse a repertoire in the later stages. After that, the teacher will count the starting tempo for the student to play while playing or singing along with the student throughout the whole piece. Some teachers, such as Yip, Kor, and Ash, had additional contingency steps by pointing out certain sections and guiding the student to clap the rhythm before playing it on the piano. However, one teacher, Win, used an approach that was completely different from the others. Instead of teaching a new repertoire by reviewing the notation on the score, she used an aural approach by singing and playing the piece first, then asking the student to echo after her. In the interview, Win stated that it is important for the child to experience the piece by listening and singing before playing it on the piano. It enables the student to relate to the piece more and thus be able to convey it better when playing it on the piano. Rhythmic scaffolding is another good example to illustrate this observation. Similar strategies were employed with some variations depending on the student’s response. Most teachers utilise modelling (through clapping or tapping) as their first step of contingency, but based on students’ responses, the teachers then employ other variations such as tapping on the student, asking student to tap pulse while teacher taps rhythm and vice versa, or even applying the rhythmic language by pedagogues such as Zoltán Kodály or Edwin Gordon. In scaffolding physical techniques, most teachers utilise modelling as their contingency steps, although there might be a variance in the way they conduct the activity. For example, in vignette 1, teacher Kor uses modelling while providing physical support to the student, while teacher Win in vignette 2 utilises only modelling without any physical support. In the interview, Kor stated that he believes that physical support is essential in scaffolding at the beginning stage as it prevents students from developing the wrong habit in physical technique. Win, however, shares a contradictory view that student could become reliant on the direct physical support, and they would not know how to do it on their own without physical support later on. Therefore, physical support is her last resort if all other modelling contingency fails. This discussion reveals that piano teachers rely primarily on their perspectives and intuition upon facing the students’ response, aligning with the findings of Han et al’s (2017) study. As a result, their ways of teaching vary accordingly. Strategies used during the scaffolding process The predominant observation was that most teachers employed modelling as their initial contingency strategy in the scaffolding process. As described by Single (1991), teacher modelling plays a significant role in helping students distinguish between an ideal performance and their own performance by providing a reference point. Typically, this modelling was accompanied by verbal instructions during the first contingency step. Research has indicated that combing modelling with verbal explanation yields the most effective results (Sweller et al., 2021). The findings also revealed that teachers utilised various modelling strategies during the scaffolding process. These strategies included modelling with explanation, demonstrating both correct and incorrect versions and sometimes even employing modelling without explicit verbal explanations. However, some teachers employed physical support, such as manoeuvring the student’s hands, as the first contingency before gradually transitioning to modelling with verbal instructions and eventually relying on modelling solely. Additionally, teachers also engage students in activities such as signing, chanting, conducting and rhythm clapping during contingency. These activities align with the progressive approach identified by Hallam (2006) and Rosenshine et al. (2002) for introducing new knowledge. These interactive activities provide students with hands-on experiences and opportunities to actively engage with the musical concepts being taught. By incorporating these activities, teachers create a 76 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (66-79) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 dynamic and immersive learning environment that supports students’ understanding and acquisition of new musical knowledge. As students progressed in their learning, directed and sequential instructions were frequently employed, often accompanied by non-verbal cues such as nods or hand gestures from the teachers, during fading of support. Additionally, it was observed that modelling, in the form of tapping the pulse, singing, or gestures, was utilised as a means of support and accompaniment while the student was playing the instrument. Studies in the context of instrumental music lessons has shown that modelling has a positive influence on student performance (Meissner & Timmers, 2020; Zhukov, 2012). During the transfer of responsibility, as students gradually take over the responsibility of their learning, teachers reduced scaffolding support (van de Pol et al., 2010) and instead, employed questioning and prompts to facilitate students’ independent thinking to problem-solve the tasks at hand. This is particularly evident in consistent scaffolding, as observed in vignette 3, where the student successfully notated the rhythm with only minimal prompts and questions from the teacher. By utilising questioning and prompts, the teacher encourages the student to think critically, analyse the task at hand and formulate their own solutions. This approach promotes autonomy and self-regulation in the student’s learning process, allowing them to develop independent problem-solving skills ((Küper, van Dijk, McPherson, & van Geert, 2014). The teacher’s role becomes that of a facilitator, guiding and supporting the student’s thinking rather than providing direct answers or solutions (Vygotsky, 1978). This method empowers students to take ownership of their learning and develop the confidence to tackle musical challenges on their own (Hmelo- Silver, 2004). The following figure illustrates the summary of findings from the observations (see Figure 2). Figure 2. Illustration of the summary of findings from the observation Conclusion and suggestions for future research Teaching beginner piano students can be a riveting yet daunting process. The teacher has an important role, particularly in the early stages of piano education. Over the course of the lessons, the teacher must ensure that the student develops an extensive skillset, and their methods will have a great impact on the outcomes. By observing real-time piano lessons, this study has unveiled two distinct forms of scaffolding process – contingent and consistent scaffolding. Modelling was observed as the prevalent contingency strategy during the lessons. The scaffolding process is influenced by the readiness of the students, while the contingent steps in the scaffolding process rely on teacher’s perspectives and intuition. For those reasons, further Wong Yiing Siing, Wang I Ta & Nasir Mohd Hashim 77 research into music education should be conducted from the perspectives of piano teachers’ scaffolding process. Larger samples and longitudinal studies are needed to verify the reported results in order to expand on the theories brought up in regard to musical scaffolding in the initial stage of piano learning. Since teacher’s teaching experience or music training background may influence the way,they teach (Ünal & Ünal, 2012; Al-Harthy et al., 2013; Dewaele et al., 2018; Han et al., 2017; Podolsky et al., 2019), further research could also investigate if teaching experience or music training background have a correlational effect on teaching styles. Through the observations and analyses conducted in this study, it is hoped that the findings will help piano educators and pre-service piano teachers to become reflective practitioners and develop scaffolding strategies to effectively guide students in their learning. Acknowledgement The authors wish to extend their appreciation to the individuals who willingly participated in this research and generously shared their valuable insights. References Abdumutalibovich, A. M. (2020). Methods of working with studies in piano lessons at the university. Asian Journal of Multidimensional Research (AJMR), 9(7), 49-55. Al-Harthy, S., Jamaluddin, S., & Abedalaziz, N. (2013). Teachers’ attitudes and performance: An analysis of effects due to teaching experience. International Interdisciplinary Journal of Education, 2, 889-894. Ballard, J. A. (2007). An analysis of the music content in ten piano methods (1994–2006) for the elementary-aged beginning piano student for MENC National Standards based elements. University of Southern California. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W H Freeman/Times Books/ Henry Holt & Co. Carey, G., Grant, C., McWilliam, E., & Taylor, P. (2013). One-to-one pedagogy: Developing a protocol for illuminating the nature of teaching in the conservatoire. International Journal of Music Education, 31(2), 148–159. Chai, C. S., & Koh, J. H. L. (2017). Changing teachers’ TPACK and design beliefs through the Scaffolded TPACK Lesson Design Model (STLDM). Learning: Research and Practice, 3(2), 114-129. Coutts, L (2019). Empowering students to take ownership of their learning: Lessons from one piano teacher’s experiences with transformative pedagogy. International Journal of Music Education, 37(3), 493-507. Creech, A. (2012). Interpersonal behaviour in one-to-one instrumental lessons: An observational analysis. British Journal of Music Education, 29(3), 387-407. Creswell, J., & Poth, C. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design. Sage Publishing. Davidson, J. W., & Jordan, N. (2007). Private teaching, private learning: An exploration of music instrument learning in the private studio, junior and senior conservatories. In L. Bresler (Ed.), International Handbook of Research in Arts Education (pp. 729- 754). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. Dewaele, J. M., Gkonou, C., & Mercer, S. (2018). Do ESL/EFL teachers’ emotional intelligence, teaching experience, proficiency and gender affect their classroom practice? In: Martínez Agudo, J. (Eds.) Emotions in second language teaching. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_8 Ensing, A., van Geert, P. L. C., van der Aalsvoet, D., & Voet, S. (2014.). Learning potential is related to the dynamics of scaffolding. An empirical illustration of the scaffolding dynamics of 5-year-olds and their teacher. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 13(3), 375–391. https://doi.org/10.1891/1945- 8959.13.3.375 Garza, R. (2009). Latino and white high school students’ perceptions of caring behaviors: Are we culturally responsive to our students? Urban Education, 44, 297–321. Granott, N., Fischer, K. W., & Parzialle, J. (2002). Bridging the unknown: A transition mechanism in learning and development. In N. Granott & J. Parzialle (Eds.), Microdevelopment: Transition processes in development and learning (pp. 131– 156). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511489709.00 Hallam, S. (2006). Music psychology in education. Institute of Education, University of London. Han, I., Shin, W.S., & Ko, Y. (2017). The effect of student teaching experience and teacher beliefs on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy and intention to use technology in teaching. Teachers and Teaching, 23(7), 829-842. Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16, 235-266. Isekeeva, S. V., Batyrshina, G. I., & Shirieva, N. V. (2016). Playing exercises in learning piano for beginners survey of Russian piano methods. The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication (TOJDAC) [Special Edition]. 2617-2625. 78 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (66-79) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Kanaeva, V. E. (2021). Beginning piano methods of Russian tradition: An analysis and evaluation of the Russian school of piano playing by A. Nikolaev [Unpublished master’s research paper]. Southern Illinois University Carbondale. https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2428&context=gs_rphttps://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi /viewcontent.cgi?article=2428&context=gs_rp Kennell, R. (2002). Systematic research in studio instruction in music. In R. Colwell & C. Richardson (Eds.), The new handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 243-256). Oxford University Press. King, A., Prior, H., & Waddington-Jones, C. (2019). Exploring teachers’ and pupils’ behaviour in online and face- to-face instrumental lessons. Music Education Research, 21(2), 197-209. Küpers, E., van Dijk, M., & van Geert, P. (2014). ‘Look closely at what I’m doing!’ Scaffolding in individual string lessons: Two case studies. International Journal of Music Education, 32(3), 375–391. Küpers, E., van Dijk, M., McPherson, G., & van Geert, P. (2014). A dynamic model that links skill acquisition with self-determination in instrumental music lessons. Musicae Scientiae, 18(1), 17-34. Küpers, E., van Dijk, M., van Geert, P., & McPherson, G. E. (2015). A mixed-methods approach to studying co- regulation of student autonomy through teacher–student interactions in music lessons. Psychology of Music, 43(3), 333-358. Lajoie, S. P. (2005). Extending the scaffolding metaphor. Instructional Science, 33, 541– 557. Lehmann, A. C., Sloboda, J. A., & Woody, R. H. (2007). Psychology for musicians: Understanding and acquiring the skills. Oxford University Press. Macrine, S. L., & Sabbatino, E. D. (2008). Dynamic assessment and remediation approach: Using the DARA approach to assist struggling readers. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 24, 52–76. Maldjian, S. M. (2015). Mind over music: An analytical approach to teaching the beginner/intermediate piano student [Doctoral dissertation]. Drew University. https://digitalcollections.drew.edu/UniversityArchives/ThesesAndDissertations/CSGS/DLitt/2015/Maldjian /openaccess/SMMaldjian.pdf McPherson, G. E., Davidson, J. W., & Faulkner, R. (2012). Music in our lives: Rethinking musical ability, development and identity. Oxford University Press. Meissner, H., & Timmers, R. (2020, February). Young musicians' learning of expressive performance: the importance of dialogic teaching and modeling. In Frontiers in Education, 5, p.11). Frontiers Media SA. Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension- monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117–175. Pea, R. D. (2004). The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning, education, and human activity. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 423–451. Podolsky, A., Kini, T., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2019). Does teaching experience increase teacher effectiveness? A review of US research. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 4(4), 286-308. Rad, M. S., & Azadeh, P. (2022). Analysis and comparison of most popular piano teaching method in Iran. Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, 10(1), 43-58. Reigosa, C., & Jiménez-Aleixandre, M-P. (2007). Scaffolded problem-solving in the physics and chemistry laboratory: Difficulties hindering students’ assumption of responsibility. International Journal of Science Education, 29(3), 307–329. Rosenshine, B., Froehlich, H., & Fakhouri, I. (2002). Systematic instruction. The new handbook of research on music teaching and learning, 299-314. Rusznyak, L., & Walton, E. (2011). Lesson planning guidelines for student teachers: A scaffold for the development of pedagogical content knowledge. Education as Change, 15(2), 271-285. Shepard, L. A. (2005). Linking formative assessment to scaffolding. Educational Leadership, 63, 66–70. Simones, L. L., Rodger, M., & Schroeder, F. (2015). Communicating musical knowledge through gesture: Piano teachers’ gestural behaviours across different levels of student proficiency. Psychology of Music, 43(5), 723-735. Single, N. A. (1991). A summary of research-based principles of effective teaching. Update: The Applications of Research in Music Education, 9(2), 3–10. Steenbeek, H., Jansen, L., & van Geert, P. V. (2012). Scaffolding dynamics and the emergence of problematic learning trajectories. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(1), 64–75. Sung, M. M. W. (2017). A survey of technique elements in piano method books and technique books for young piano beginners [Doctoral dissertation, University of Ottawa]. uO Research. http://dx.doi.org/10.20381/ruor- 20765 Swanson, H. L., & Lussier, C. M. (2001). A selective synthesis of the experimental literature on dynamic assessment. Review of Educational Research, 71, 321–363. Sweller, N., Sekine, K., & Hostetter, A. B. (2021). Gesture-speech integration: Combining gesture and speech to create understanding. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 732357. Thomas-Lee, P. M. (2003). Piano pedagogy for four-and five-year-olds: An analysis of selected piano methods for teaching preschool children [Doctoral dissertation] University of Georgia. Wong Yiing Siing, Wang I Ta & Nasir Mohd Hashim 79 Ünal, Z., & Ünal, A. (2012). The impact of years of teaching experience on the classroom management approaches of elementary school teachers. International Journal of Instruction, 5(2), 41-60. van de Pol, J., Volman, M., & Beishuizen, J. (2010). Scaffolding in teacher–student interaction: A decade of research. Educational Psychology Review, 22(3), 271– 296. van Geert, P., & Steenbeek, H. (2005). The dynamics of scaffolding. New Ideas in Psychology, 23(3), 115–128. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: Development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(1), 89–100. Yeh, Y. L. (2018). An investigation of Taiwanese piano teachers’ reflection on teaching challenges and pupils’ learning difficulties. Music Education Research, 20(1), 32-43. Zhukov, K. (2012). Teaching strategies and gender in higher education instrumental studios. International Journal of Music Education, 30(1) 32–45. Biography Wong Yiing Siing is currently a PhD candidate at University of Malaya. She obtained her Bachelor of Music (with Distinction) and Master in Arts from the University of Malaya. Her research interests include musicology, music education, piano pedagogy research and trans-disciplinary experimental research. Dr Wang I Ta is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Creative Arts, University of Malaya. He has trained under Professor Boris Slutsky and Professor Alexander Braginsky, receiving his MM and DMA. His publications covers the area of piano pedagogy, self-regulation in piano practice and well-being through music meditation. Prof. Dr. Mohd. Nasir bin Hashim has had an extensive career in music, which includes a 32-year tenure at the Faculty of Creative Arts, University of Malaya, with the record of the longest-serving dean. His publications range from ethnomusicology, musicology, music education and inter-disciplinary experimental research between music and medicine.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12 No. 1 (2023)

indigenous music, musical creation, musical succession, musical transmission, Orang Asli, Semai

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/491

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7772

Demystifying Knowledge on Music Transmission, Creation, and Succession Among the Indigenous Semai of Malaysia

The Semai are a group of indigenous minorities, collectively known as the Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysia. They are well-known for their dream songs or

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7772/4675

80 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Demystifying Knowledge on Music Transmission, Creation, and Succession Among the Indigenous Semai of Malaysia Clare Suet Ching Chan* Department of Music, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 5 November 2023 Cite this article (APA): Chan, C. S. C. (2023). Demystifying knowledge on music transmission, creation, and succession among the indigenous Semai of Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Music, 12 (1), 80–98. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol12.1.6.2023 Abstract The Semai are a group of indigenous minorities, collectively known as the Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysia. They are well-known for their dream songs or jenulak that is taught by the gunik (spirit guide) to halak (shaman). The knowledge of how jenulak is transmitted, created, and succeeded becomes important today when researchers collaborate with culture bearers to sustain their musical heritage. This knowledge is integral to the sustainability of Semai musical heritage, indigenous concepts, and values. This article examines (1) how jenulak is transmitted from one generation to the next generation; (2) how Semai musicians create music; and (3) who can succeed as the next generation of Semai musicians. It utilises the revisiting ethnography methodology in which the researcher re- examines case studies through data from past transcribed fieldnotes and interviews with Semai musicians over a span of 10 years. In this article, I argue that the learning of jenulak is not limited to the transmission from gunik to halak—it can be learned by anyone who has strong interest in the music. Second, Semai musicians do create new jenulak devoid of supernatural transmission after learning to sing those with spiritual origins. Third, the potential for being a Semai musician, creator, and successor is “achieved” rather than “ascribed”. Keywords: indigenous music, musical creation, musical succession, musical transmission, Orang Asli, Semai. Introduction The Semai are one among 18 groups of Orang Asli (orang: people, asli, original), the indigenous minorities of Peninsular Malaysia. They number 60,438 (29 percent) of a population of 206,777 Orang Asli in Malaysia (Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli, 2020). Each Orang Asli group has their own musical heritage that comprise songs for healing ceremonies, rites of passages and recreation (Chan, 2012a, 2012b, Mohd. Jalaluddin, 2003; Roseman, 1991). Their mysterious healing songs taught by a gunik (spirit guide) to halak (shamans) through a reciprocal teaching and learning process during dreams has intrigued researchers for many years. These songs are sung to summon the gunik to aid in diagnosing illness during healing ceremonies. The halak was a powerful person who had the ability to heal, enchant Clare Suet Ching Chan 81 and incur sickness among the people through their connection with the spiritual world (Lim, 2016, p. 5). Some examples of healing ceremonies are the pinloin among the Jahai (Schebesta, 1973); belian, Mah Meri (Karim, 1981); and kebut, Semai (Mohd. Jalaluddin, 2003). Among the Semai, dream songs are known as jenulak and are sung during sacred kebut (healing) ceremony. Jenulak can also be sung for secular festivals such as dian (durian) and paddy harvest festival, annual ancestral day celebrations and other recreational events. It may also be performed as entertainment for local and international visitors for tourism events. Statement of Problem In traditional societies, music is transmitted through an enculturation process that occurs over a length of time. During the learning processes, young musicians are also ingrained in the concepts and values of the society. For the past two decades, I have conducted research on the music of several Orang Asli groups, namely the Semelai, Jahai, Semai, Mah Meri, and Jakun, in their cultural context. In a recent Semai music advocacy project, I have collaborated with the culture bearers to advocate for the sustainability of the Semai musical heritage. It was incumbent on me to understand how indigenous music was encultured to sustain the indigenous values inherent in the community. I encountered several issues and challenges involving the transmission, creation, and succession of the traditional music. Firstly, traditional music is transmitted through the oral tradition which includes a dynamic process of learning through observing, imitating, remembering, and recreating. Till date, there is scarce documentation on how Semai oral traditions are transmitted from one generation to another. I have only conducted one research to examine the music pedagogy of a Semai musician through a non-interventive research approach. I discovered that the Semai musician practiced teacher-student mobility, freedom of choice, intuitive responses, integration of cultural concepts, flexibility, and adaptability in response to the children’s character (Chan, 2015). The learning processes in traditional societies are usually summarised as “rote learning”— listening, observing, and imitating. Current literature on rote learning relegates it to imitative learning through repetition and memorisation without creative thinking processes: regurgitation, cramming, mugging, and parroting of knowledge. These definitions are rather decondensing and does not consider the entire enculturation process of learning, creating, and succeeding as a musician. During my music advocacy workshops with the Semai, I had many questions that required deeper understanding of Semai transmission processes such as “How did the elder musicians correct the young musicians when they did not achieve the musical aesthetics or desired sound? Do the elder musicians teach by demonstrating the music phrase by phrase or as a whole piece? Secondly, I encountered issues in identifying the creator of the music which I had recorded. Since I intended to publish some of my Semai music recordings online, the “composer” and “lyricist” categories provided by the intellectual property organisations for royalties did not fit into how traditional music is organised. The “creator” of oral traditions differs from the “composer” as known in western classical and popular music. In western classical music, the creator of the music is an individual composer whose work is premiered and presented as a final product. Among the Orang Asli, the Jahai and Mah Meri recreate traditional secular songs through spontaneous improvisations of song text, melody, and rhythm. As each individual musicians repeatedly embellish secular songs in various ways, the song will eventually sound like a new song with tinges of the original tunes (Chan, 2016; Chan, 2023). This process of creation is noted by Nettl (1954) who emphasises on the importance of “communal recreation” in improvisation, which involves “improvising over a previously existent melody, or changing and varying it (p. 82). This phenomenon supports Rice’s (2017) statement who asserts that even though songs and music may be created based on group interaction in communities, “individual agency” in the creation of music is also an aspect to be considered. He emphasises on “formative processes where people historically construct, socially maintain and individually create and experience music” (Rice, 2017). However, acknowledging a “creator” is not of paramount importance in 82 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Orang Asli society. In the case of the Semai, jenulak is derived from supernatural origins. As such, the answers to creation and ownership becomes complicated. If the gunik is the teacher of the jenulak, how do we credit a spirit guide? In addition, did the halak change any of the music and song texts he acquired from his predecessor who acquired them from the gunik? Would these modifications credit him as a “creator”? The identification of ownership, copyrights and intellectual property becomes important today when publishing music online makes it susceptible to public sampling, modification, and commercialisation without proper attributions. The third issue in my music advocacy projects was the aura of mysticism that surrounded the origins of jenulak, which is believed to be taught by a gunik to a halak (shaman). According to (Domhoff, 1985), “The song becomes the property of the dreamer, who may use it to summon the gunik. The gunik may then be called upon to assist the singer and his kinsmen and co-villagers in a variety of ways, but especially in curing illnesses and warding off other kinds of attacks…” (p. 27). In my musical advocacy project, I encountered issues with the grandchildren of the shaman who did not want to replace their grandfather as the “lead” singer. They believed that jenulak can only be sung by the halak (shaman) and rearrangement of the original text is forbidden. There is also fear that when a particular jenulak is performed, its owner, the gunik will be summoned. Their grandfather, the shaman, informed me that only a halak with proper qualification can summon a gunik, therefore he gave me consent to teach his jenulak to the public (Bah Kang Bah Mat, personal communication, May 6, 2017). However, one of his grandchildren insisted that singing the jenulak without their grandfather would invoke involuntary responses from the gunik. The contradiction between Bah Kang’s approval for me to transmit his jenulak and his grandchild’s differing opinion led me into a confusion and hindered the progress of my project. Hence, this article attempts to clarify some taboos associated with jenulak. A deeper analysis of these varied perceptions may lead to a better understanding of how jenulak can or cannot be transmitted to the public. Objectives The aim of this research is to examine (1) how Semai songs and music are transmitted from one generation to the next generation; (2) how Semai musicians create songs and music; and (3) who can succeed as the next generation of Semai musicians and composers? Semai Concepts and Indigenous Values in Music In traditional societies, the concepts and values of a society are integrated into the enculturation of music processes (Merriam, 1964). The term “enculturation” is defined as the aspects of the learning experience … by means of which, initially, and in later life, [man] achieves competence in his culture (Herskovits, 1948, p. 39). Enculturation refers to the process in which the “individual learns his culture, and it must be emphasised that this is a never-ending process continuing throughout the life span of the individual” (Merriam 1964, p. 146). In learning music, one is encultured in the concepts of the culture. The Semai are an egalitarian society that practices the concept of sharing and working together (Baer, 2006). The egalitarian concept is embodied in their singing structure. For example, the halak is never highlighted as a soloist with exceptional talent—the end of the halak’s solo phrases is overlapped by the heterophonic singing of the centong chorus (bamboo stamping tubes) (Chan, 2012; Mohd Jalaluddin, 2003). Another Semai concept of paramount importance is tulah that renders everyone responsible for all humanity. There should be no hurt, harm or deprivation inflicted on another individual (Nicholas, 2010, p. 81). Therefore, no Semai children are forced to learn any musical instruments if they were not interested in it. Semai concepts of egalitarianism and tulah are encultured into the Semai through Clare Suet Ching Chan 83 the process of learning music. Literature Review In this section, I discuss some of the literature about transmission, creation, and succession in traditional music of various societies. Much of the literature are from older sources as there has not been many scholars that have examined these three processes in recent years. Transmission The section provides some examples of the transmission process in the diverse cultures of the world. Merriam (1964) and Nettl (2005) are among the earliest ethnomusicologists that have addressed issues of transmission and creation in the late 20th century. Merriam states that formal training is given to youngsters who demonstrate potentials to become “real” musicians in the society. Musicianship is a special skill that requires directed learning. Future specialists are identified and undergo special instructions and training in the musical skills (Merriam 1964, p. 150). Densmore (1930) describes the learning of music among American Indians in general as: … the young men “sit with the singers at the drum and learn the songs in that way.” They are allowed to pound on the drum with the others, and they sing softly until they learn the melodies (p. 654). On the Nupe of Nigeria, … you may see small boys practicing drumming on little toy-like instruments under the eye of the father. They will go with him wherever he is called to perform, watching him, and when they are sufficiently advanced, accompanying him on their own drums” (Nadel, 1942, p. 301). According to Lord (1960), Yugoslavian male youth learn oral epics by “listening closely to an elder, imitating his singing and finally, having acquired the necessary expertise, starting to perform at informal gatherings (pp. 22-24). Densmore (1930), Nadel (1942) and Lord (1960) reveals a close relationship between the teacher and the student in the learning process. In a more recent literature on Balinese music, Kitley (1995) discusses the complex teacher-student relationship in which the teacher and pupil have an idealised relationship whereby dedication, love, and loyalty mean more than money” (p. 49). In some cultures, punishment is also a method used in training musicians. Nketia observed that Akan musicians of Africa “were not always patient with their pupils. Master drummers have memories of the smacks received when they faltered and of other hardships” (Nketia, 1954, p. 40).The cult drummers of Brazil in South America are “put to public tests before the gods themselves, but any deviation from the strict rhythm will be punished by a sharp rap over the knuckles, administered by the player of the larger drum, who uses his drumstick for the purpose” (Herskovits, 1944, p. 489) Blacking’s (1957) observation of children’s singing games demonstrates their ability to learn tonal systems and rhythms beyond those introduced in Western Music Education. Venda children could: acclimatise to singing the heptatonic melodies and more complex rhythms which are so common in Venda music… it would be wrong to say that Venda children learn tetratonic songs before embarking upon pentatonic and hexatonic song…There is a factor of taste, which is always hard to explain: the hexatonic “Ndo bva ba tshidongo” is everywhere very popular, so that in spite of certain musical and linguistic complexities, it appears to be one of the first songs that children learn, simply because they hear it more often. Irawati (2019) states that the transmission of kêlèntangan, music performed by the Dayak Bênuaq of Indonesia requires different mechanisms (Irawati, 2019). These mechanisms include bêkajiq (listening), kintau (imitating), and tameh (improvisation) (p.108). Hand (2017) discusses the term 84 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 kupingan or “ear”, as an approach to learning that derives from the learner’s keen interest in learning through listening. In kupingan, the student’s takes the lead in learning even without any specific teacher who provides personal attention (p. 32). Harisna (2010) emphasises that “learning by ear” can only be successful if it is “supported by perseverance and the willingness of individuals to repeat the results of their observations” (p. 42). Harisna (2010) and Waridi (1997) examined how Indonesian gamelan musicians learn by ear, self-discipline, and ascetic activities. Blacking (1957), Irawati (2019), Hand (2017) and Harisna (2010) reveals a student driven self-directed approach to learning music. In a recent literature, Treloyn (2022) argues for the importance of intergenerational knowledge in music transmission and ethnomusicological praxis. She states the process in music transmission is complex and changing—and is not necessarily passed along in a vertical manner among the indigenous Aborigines Australia (Treloyn, 2022). This revelation is quite interesting as the younger generation who have mastered a traditional musical skill may impart it to an older generation. The literature on transmission provides some basic understanding to how music was transmitted from the elders to the young. However, the transmission of song from the spirit guide of the supernatural to human world continues to be shrouded in mystery. Creation In traditional societies, creation is shaped by public acceptance and rejection. Nettl (1954) argues that creation among nonliterate people is the product of the mind of an individual and a group of individuals (Nettl, 1954, p. 81). However, the Grimm brothers argues that “folklore (including music) is the expression of an entire people that the group of reference as an entity is the creator of each folklore item”. Grimms states that there is no individual creation and that any item of folklore is created from bits and patches contributed by the people and put together into a cohesive entity at the time of creation (Merriam, 1964, p. 165). However, Merriam (1964) argues that there are: … processes of compositions which groups of individual's works together, but in all cases, there are individuals working creatively. Items of culture do not simply appear out of nowhere, there must be contributions from specific individuals, whether these contributions can or cannot be pinpointed after the fact of composition” (Merriam, 1964, p. 166). While creations of non-literature societies have not been studied and written about in as detail as the music of “high” cultures, Merriam contends that there is much evidence to support that nonliterate people know creation, recognised it as a distinct process and some are able to discuss it. The Ibo musicians “must learn all tunes by ear, or compose his own, which he frequently does” (Basden, 1921, p. 190). Each adult male relatives among Mangaia in Polynesia must recite a song, if they cannot compose a song, they will have to pay someone to provide him with a suitable song (Andersen, 1933, p. 155). Roseman (1991) states that the Temiar, a group of Orang Asli, had come to engage with the spirits of modernity—the airplane spirit and canned sardine spirit during the Japanese occupation of Malaya through song. She deconstructs the notion of an “authentic” Orang Asli that does not change over time. The Temiars channelled their disadvantaged status into creative song creations—“they may be forced to eat canned sardines instead of freshwater fish, but they can dream and sing the power of its spirit” (Roseman, 2006, p. 201). Whether or not they are submitting to their disenfranchisement through an illusory inversion of disempowerment, Temiar shamans communicate with the spirits of modernity in seeking remedies for illnesses (Roseman, 2006). This is one of the earliest types of evidence on the global mobility and fluidity of song text creation. In a most recent literature, Cannon (2022) states that creativity in performing nhac tai tu in Clare Suet Ching Chan 85 Vietnam is an ongoing process. Musicians in these ensembles integrate new elements of music inspired by the momentous sounds. For example, inspired by the construction sounds in the building next to the performance venue, Vietnamese musicians match the pitch of the nails hammered into the wall with the pitches on musical instruments (Cannon, 2022). These literatures review that creation occurs in traditional societies in gradual, subtle ways. Therefore, attributing a single “composer” to a traditional piece does not fit into the way traditional music changes over time. Succession Among the Semai community, jenulak is believed to be taught by a gunik to the halak through dreams. The ability to be a halak that receives jenulak from a gunik is an interesting component discussed in this article. In traditional societies, the identification of a potential musician through the inheritance of “talent” or development of musical abilities impinges upon the concept of “ascribed” and “achieved”. Linton defines these two terms as follows: “Ascribed” status is those which are assigned to individuals without reference to their innate differences and abilities. They can be predicted and trained from the moment of birth. The “achieved” status is, as a minimum, those requiring special qualities, although they are not necessarily limited to these. They are not assigned to individuals from birth but are left open to be filled through competition and individual effort. (Linton, 1936, p. 115). There are many literatures that talk about how songs are received from a divine power. On the Pawnee, an American Indian group, Densmore (1929) states: A young man received this song in a dream, while mourning for his parent who had died. He saw a woman coming toward him and said, “Mother is coming.” The woman said, you have seen me, now you must learn this song.” The young man learned the song, lived a long time afterward, and took part in the Bear Dance (Densmore, 1929, p. 37). However, there is also evidence that suggests that there is a process of conscious creation even when there are claims of visitations from supernatural forces. For example, Crashing Thunder, a Winnebago Indian says that he falsely claimed a visitation from the supernatural. Therefore, his “new” song that went with the visitation may have been pre-composed, or perhaps as an aftermath of an unsuccessful petition (Radin, 1926, p. 26). On a recent interview with a Semai musician, Gladis (personal communication, August 10, 2022) stated that the sacred jenulak is also sung by his village folks during secular events. He informed me that the Semai in his village (north Perak) often improvise new song text based on the jenulak tunes related to sacred rituals to sing during different rituals. Some jenulak may have origins from a gunik but over time, these jenulak evolve from sacred to secular contexts. He said this may not be allowed in Kampar, Central Perak, but it is common in his hometown, Pos Kemar, Gerik, northeast of Perak. There are occasions where Semai musicians who are not halak improvise new tunes over current jenulak tunes. Gladis’ testimony shows that jenulak can also be rearranged by any Semai in the community. Methodology The article utilises revisiting ethnography as a methodology to examining current issues in my work on applied ethnomusicology. It is a re-examination of my past fieldnotes, interviews, and experiences acquired during my research on the Semai group from Perak. I divide my findings into four cases studies from different Semai villages in Central Perak including Kampung Ulu Geroh, Gopeng (2011), Kampung Bukit Terang, Kampar (2018), Kampung Batu 15, Tapah (2012) and Kampung Sungai Tisong, Sungkai (2022). 86 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Discussion Case 1: Saripah binti Ngah of Kampung Ulu Geroh, Gopeng From 2011-2012, I conducted research on the traditional music of the Semai of Kampung Ulu Geroh in Gopeng, Perak.1 The villagers introduced me to Saripah binti Ngah, an elderly lady, who led the sewang dance group (Chan, 2011, p. 36). I thought Saripah was a female halak but she informed me that she was an Anglican Christian and had no connections with the supernatural world. Since her husband did not want to learn jenulak, Saripah decided to learn the jenulak titled “Wak Dayang” from her late mother-in- law, Wah Weng. Wah Weng had learned it from her late husband, Bah Tum. Bah Tum was well known as the village halak. Saripah said she could only understand a few words from the “Wak Dayang” jenulak such as tempat dayang (the lady-in-waiting’s abode), guru (teacher), ineng di tah (look above), ineng kuil (look to the right and left) (Figure 1) (Chan, 2012). Unlike Bah Tum, who learned jenulak from visitations by specific gunik, Saripah learned jenulak due to her own interest. This case demystifies the perception that healing songs are directly transmitted from the gunik to the halak and can only be sung by them. It shows that jenulak with origins from a sacred context has evolved into a secular context. Besides “Wak Dayang”, Saripah created her own jenulak known as “Dendang Dendang”. Some of the song texts include “Dendang Dendang (to sing)” and “guru” (teacher) (Figure 2). Saripah said she used a more rancak (energetic) and livelier “samba” rhythm pattern to perform this jenulak. “Samba” is a rhythmic pattern derived from Brazil. I believe Saripah used the term “samba” to relate to a more lively energetic rhythm in her new song. There are some similar musical elements between “Dendang Dendang” and “Wak Dayang” such as (1) the rhythmic pattern of combined quavers and semiquavers conjunct melodies (a) and (2) a perfect 4th interval rise or drop (b) before long phrases of conjunct melody (c) (Figure 2 and 3). Saripah’s testimony demystifies the perception that jenulak is solely transmitted from divine inspiration to a shaman. It shows that jenulak can be transmitted to anyone interested. It can also be sung in a secular context by a common person without summoning the gunik. This testimony also shows that Semai musicians create new jenulak which is inspired by the individual’s local and globally mediated experience through mass media. Figure 1. Ulu Geroh, Gopeng, Perak sewang dancers. From left: Saripah binti Ngah, Long Pinpin d/o Bah Can, Long Baru d/o Bah Gubing, Wak Te Oi, Linda, Waran and Kerelim (Chan, 2011, p. 36). Clare Suet Ching Chan 87 Figure 2. Excerpt from Wak Dayang (Chan, 2012a, p. 64). 88 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 3. Excerpt from “Dendang Dendang” (Chan, 2012a, p. 65). Clare Suet Ching Chan 89 Case 2: Bah Kang Bah Mat of Kampung Bukit Terang, Kampar, Perak From 2011-2012, I conducted research on advocating the music of Bah Kang a/l (son of) Bah Mat (Figure 4) of Kampung Orang Asli Bukit Terang, Kampar, Perak. Bah Kang (Figure 4 and 5) is a pawang, the most powerfully ranked shaman in his village.2 He was born in Kampung Orang Asli Batu 16, Jalan Tapah during the beginning of World War II (1939-1945). His grandmother, the late Enjau, was a well-known pawang, who was able to summon specific gunik to aid in childbirth and the curing of illnesses. Bah Kang inherited the art of shamanship through genuine interest and immersion into the role. Before he was approached by any gunik, he had learned some jenulak mainly from his sister-in-law, who had learned it from Enjau, who was already quite elderly then. Bah Kang says that not everyone can inherit the art of showmanship. It is a role that required strength of heart and mind, sincerity, and integrity (Bah Kang a/l Bah Mat, personal communication, 6 May 2017). Figure 4. From left: Bah Muda, author, Bah Kang. (photo by Clare Chan, May 9, 2004) Figure 5. Bah Kang. (photo by Clare Chan, July 1, 2017) During this research period, Bah Kang allowed me to record and learn to sing four of his jenulak. The four jenulak are “Sangkut Dipulai yang Debor”. “Wak Genamun”, “Wak Jenudi” and “Tok Barat” (Chan, 2019). On a discussion of the jenulak “Wak Genamun”3, Bah Kang said he learned this jenulak from his sister-in-law, who learned it from his grandmother, Enjau. Enjau received the song from the gunik known as Wak Genamun. After he began to learn the jenulak seriously, Bah Kang said that Wak Genamun began to appear in his dreams and friendship is developed. 90 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 On the question of how Bah Kang acquired the songs, he replied: Wak Genamun… nenek saya dulu, dia dapat saya belajar. Wak Jenudi … arwah kakak ipar saya, tapi saya belajar dia punya sewang tu, baru dia masuk. Kalau tak belajar tak dapat pun, mmm teruk, teruk sewang ni. Wak Genamun… from my grandmother, she got it and I learned it from her. Wak Jenudi … my late sister- in-law, I first learned her sewang before ‘it’ (the gunik) came to me. If I didn’t learn, I wouldn’t be able to get it … hmmm difficult … (Bah Kang Bah Mat, personal communication, May 6, 2017). Bah Kang was attracted to learning jenulak from an early age. He stated that a gunik will only choose to approach those who demonstrate genuine interest and diligence in learning jenulak and sustaining a relationship with it. Bah Kang explains how he acquired the jenulak: Bukan saya dapat sendiri, saya belajar dulu baru dia letak dia punya … apa tu … dekat saya, macam ni, dia punya bunga I did not obtain this myself, I learned it first, then only did the gunik place the … what do you call that … in me… like this... her flowers (referring to ornamented melodies) (Bah Kang, personal communication, February 3, 2018). Malam-malam belajar, baru dia letak dia punya benda itu hari-hari, setiap malam, bukan kira bulan, tahun-tahun. Darah kami panas, benda dia sejuk, benda dari gunung, (Bah Kang Bat Mat, personal communication, 1 February 2017). I learned the song for many nights, and then only did it place the song in me every day every night, sometimes over a few months, even years. Our blood is warm, the spirit guide is cool, it comes from the mountains. (Bah Kang a/l Bah Mat, personal communication, February 2, 2017). Initially, Bah Kang had learned “Wak Genamun” by imitating his late sister-in-law. With continued interest and hard work at learning “Wak Genamun”, he stated that the female gunik, Wak Genamun, had begun to approach him in his dream and lay down more verses … not in one dream, but in a succession of dreams. Bah Kang acquired his status as a musician partially through the “achieved” and “ascribed” status. He mainly acquired his musical skills by learning through listening and observing. Bah Kang says he did not alter any of the lyrics and music he learnt from the gunik. Therefore, I acknowledged Bah Kang in my music transcriptions of his jenulak using the term “as performed by” (Chan, 2019). The musical characteristics of “Wak Genamun” are a repeated rhythmic pattern consisting of dotted crochets and quavers played by the centong (bamboo stamping tubes)(a), a typical perfect 4th pitch rise or drop (b) before a long conjunct melody (c) (Figure 6). Bah Kang allowed me to document, record and teach his jenulak to the public because I had come to learn from him to gain a deeper understanding of his jenulak and sought his permission to disseminate his jenulak to the public. He informed me that he had inform his gunik on this matter. Clare Suet Ching Chan 91 Figure 6. Excerpt from “Wak Genamun” (Chan, 2019, p. 21). 92 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Case 3: Alang Bah Kang from Kampung Orang Asli Batu 15, Tapah, Perak Alang a/l (son of) Bah Kang (Figure 7 & 8) is the third son of Bah Kang Bah Mat. He lives in Kampung Batu 15, Tapah. Alang is prolific at playing pensol (nose flute). He learned to play pensol from a relative when he was already an adult. Alang is a self-taught musician who learned to sing jenulak from his father. Alang has no connection with his father’s gunik. He is an example of a musician who learned music based on his own interest and initiative. In 2013, he created a jenulak titled, “Semain” (Chan, 2019, pp. 35–36). He said it was a song of “prayer” for peace and happiness. He offers this jenulak to whom he calls, the ‘Most Powerful/ Omnipotent’ for blessings of goodwill and protection from catastrophe and sickness (Alang Bah Kang, personal communication, March 5, 2017). Alang acquired his musical and creation skills through listening and observing. Therefore, Alang’s status as a musician is “achieved” and not “ascribed. The musical characteristics of “Semain” has some similarities with “Wak Genamun” such as the repeated dotted crochet rhythmic pattern (a) played by the centong and a typical perfect 4th (b) pitch rise or drop sung by the singer. “Wak Genamun” combines conjunct melodies (c) with more “tuneful” melody (d) (Figure 9). Figure 7. Alang Bah Kang (left) on the rebana. (photo by Clare Chan, May 9, 2004) Figure 8. Alang Bah Kang. (photo by Clare Chan, July 1, 2017) Clare Suet Ching Chan 93 Figure 9. Excerpt from “Semain” (Chan, 2019, p. 35). 94 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Case 4: Bah Ajis Bah Labu from Kampung Sungai Tisong, Sungkai, Perak In 2022, my research team and I recorded five jenulak from the Semai of Sungai Tisong, Sungkai, Perak (Chan, 2022).4 The lead singer was Bah Ajis bin Bah Labu, an elderly Semai who often sung for visitors at tourism events (personal communication, August 23, 2022). Bah Ajis clearly informed us that he is not a shaman and has no knowledge of healing. I recorded two jenulak created by Bah Ajis titled “Daun Nipah Mahu Jari Nipan” and “Berjalan di Ulu Liang”. In addition, I recorded two jenulak which Bah Ajis had learned from a deceased elder, Bah Pagar son of Bah Abus —“Dik Dik Berbuai” and “Selamat Guru Lalu”. On a discussion of the fifth jenulak “E Manik Ju Koyan” jenulak, Bah Ajis said: … saya punya pakcik, yang Manik Koyan tu … hujan daripada Koyan tu … pakcik saya la … dulu saya ikut suara dia la … saya belajar, saya ingat, adat budaya kita Orang Assli, kalau saya tak belajar saya punya pakcik, nanti kita pupus, kita lupa, kita takdak tahu apa-apa. … it belongs to my uncle, the Manik Koyan, the rain from Koyan … it is from my uncle ... last time, I imitated his voice... I learned, I remember, the customary traditions of our people, if I don't learn from my uncle, then it will disappear, we forget, we don't know anything then (personal communication, August 23, 2022). Bah Ajis had learned “E Manik Ju Koyan” from a now deceased uncle, Yok Chep. Yok Chep was a well-known halak in their village. Bah Ajis said he memorised the song texts and did not change them. When asked whether Yok Chep acquired it from a gunik, Bah Ajis said: … Itu Yok Chep, itu dia, dia dapat, terpulang sama dia, dari mana dia dapat, saya boleh tak tahula … sebab orang dulu, kita tak dapat sampai, macam mana dia punya nasib … tapi untuk saya, saya ikut juga ... tok halak, memang tok halak. Tapi sampai saya takdak tok halak la. Minat, saya minat lagu … That's Yok Chep, that's him, he got it, it's up to him, where he got it, I don't know... because they are people from the past, we cannot reach them, their luck in life… but for me, I just follow… he was a shaman, really a shaman… but when it got to me, I am not a shaman… I am just interested in the song (Bah Ajis, personal communication, August 23, 2022) Bah Ajis is unsure of the origins of the jenulak he had learned from the people who had already passed on. He said he just imitated the jenulak from Yok Chep because he was interested in it. Bah Ajis’ interest in learning jenulak is also driven by a love and nostalgia for his people. He states that even though Yok Chep has passed away, he misses his voice, the people of the past, the voices of his ancestors. Dah meninggal, tak dak… saya ikut dia punya suara, saya rindu, sebab saya orang dulu, kita, walaupun tidak pakai baju… tapi saya ingat suara kita orang asal juga. He has passed away, does not exist anymore… I just imitate his voice, I miss it, because our people, we, even if we do not wear clothes… but I remember the voices of our ancestors too. Bah Ajis informed us that he had created two of the jenulak that we recorded—“Daun Nipah Jari Lipan” and “Berjalan Ulu Liang”. He said: … saya sendiri bikin, suka hati mau bikin nyanyi la …. belajar sendiri, saya suka cipta lagu, saya takdak ada guna, saya cakap terus terang, bukan berhalak, saya tiada. (Bah Ajis, personal communication, August 23, 2022). Clare Suet Ching Chan 95 … I created them myself; I enjoy creating the music to sing … I learned by myself, I like to create new songs, I tell you honestly, I don’t have any shamanistic ability, I am not a healer, I am not (Bah Ajis, personal communication, August 23, 2022). Itu saya lagu sendiri, itu mula pertama, lepas tu saya, dua … daun nipah itu lagu saya sendiri. Bukan sama siapa, saya dapat, saya cipta la… (Bah Ajis, personal communication, 23 August 2022) It is my own song, my first song, then second … daun nipah is my own song. It is not from anyone, I made it, I created it la … (Bah Ajis, personal communication, August 23, 2022). Figure 10. Bah Ajis a/l Bah Labu. (photo by Clare Chan, June 2, 2022) When I asked Bah Ajis about the meaning of the two jenulak he created, he could give me lengthy descriptions about them. When asked about the meaning of three jenulak he learned from Yok Chep and Bah Pagar a/l (son of) Bah Bei, Bah Ajis says he does not know what the elders wanted to deliver in the jenulak. Bah Aji insists again that he did not change any text from the jenulak he learned from Bah Pagar. On the jenulak “Dik Dik Berbuai”, Bah Ajis said: 96 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 … berbuai saya pun tak tahu … saya ikut juga… serupa biasa juga… saya dengar itu macam, serupa saya nyanyi itu macam juga... serupa penyanyi kalau P. Ramlee... itu macam, orang baru, macam juga ikut ... Kita orang asli juga mana kita punya pakcik nyanyi itu macam, tak boleh, tak mau berubah. … about “berbuai”, I also don’t know... I just follow... just like normal... I heard it like that, so I sing it like that too... like the singer P. Ramlee… everyone also just follows... We are Orang Asli also, our elders sing like that… cannot change, I don't want to change it too (Bah Ajis, personal communication, August 23, 2022) Bah Ajis’ testimony that he is not a shaman and has no healing powers show that jenulak can be learned by anyone interested in singing them. Therefore, learning music is “achieved” and not “ascribed”. Bah Ajis’ insistence that he did not change any of the song text tells us that jenulak that is learned from their predecessors are like lyrics of popular songs that we memorise today. On his own creations, Bah Ajis feels that he has the freedom to alter and change the text of the song. Conclusion This article demystifies the perception created by the Semai and previous academic literature that the transmission of jenulak is limited to spiritual encounters. It also deconstructs the notion that only people with “spiritual” status can learn to sing jenulak. Therefore, the ability to sing or play music among Semai musicians is achieved and not ascribed. A musician succeeds as one through individual efforts, interest, and diligence. The approach in which the four musicians learn jenulak demonstrates that learning is an art that is self-directed. The learner is the most important person in the learning process. This approach adheres to the Semai concept of tulah which states that no human should be forced to practice anything beyond their will This learning method is similar to Hands (2017)’s description of kupingan and Harisna (2010) details on learning with perseverance in Javanese art of learning. This argument is supported by my fieldwork encounters with three Semai musicians—Saripah, Alang, and Bah Ajis. They are Semai musicians who did not have spiritual encounters with gunik when learning jenulak. These testimonies prove that singers who formerly learned sacred jenulak had created new jenulak that was different from the previous sacred version. This proves that there is individual agency in creating songs among in Semai society. Testimonies from the interviewees reveal that they have not changed any of the song text, melody, rhythm, and style from the previous jenulak with supernatural origins. The article also shows that there is a sense of sacredness in jenulak that was taught by gunik to halak. However, this article also shows that Semai musicians who have learned and experienced jenulak that have supernatural origins have created their own new jenulak. These new jenulak are created from their experience of the melody, rhythm, and style of sacred jenulak. Newly composed jenulak demonstrate the inclusion of new rhythmic patterns and broader melodic structures. This article is limited to testimonies from elderly musicians from Central Perak, who learned jenulak from their deceased halak predecessors. The performance of sacred jenulak may change today as the concept of jenulak with sacred supernatural origins becomes a memory of the past. Each time jenulak is performed, it may subtly evolve based on the singer’s habitus—their identity, creativity, and artistic aesthetic as well as their interaction with the local and global forces. As jenulak is passed down to the next generation as an oral tradition, it may be modified based on the musician’s musical aesthetics. Gladis (personal communication, August 10, 2022) informed me that the Semai in his village, Pos Kemar, located in Northeast Perak, often improvise new song text based on the jenulak tunes related to sacred rituals to sing during different rituals. Some jenulak may have origins from spirit guides but over time, these jenulak evolve from sacred to secular versions. These versions may be classified as new “arrangements” of jenulak. (Anthony Seeger, personal communication, July 23, 2022,). However, I have no evidence to affirm this belief at this point of time. This will be research for future researchers who may refer to my music score and recordings of the current jenulak. This article is not able to address Clare Suet Ching Chan 97 intricate details of how music is transmitted and composed. I recommend close observation of these two approaches for future studies. The recontextualisation of music that once served a now declining sacred healing context finds its survival as secular songs performed as identity representation of the Semai today. Culture bearers that continue to perform Semai music today do not necessarily have relations with the supernatural, but they played an important role in the sustainability of the Semai musical heritage. This phenomenon may perhaps be the Orang Asli’s organic, natural, or even subconscious action toward the sustainability of musical heritage. Endnotes 1 This research was titled “Modernization and Tourism: Reshaping the musical aesthetics of the Orang Asli (Semai) of Ulu Geroh, Gopeng (2011)” funded by the Geran Penyelidikan Universiti (GPU), Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. 2 Shamans are ranked by degree of adeptness—from the lowest to the highest are the bomoh, dukun and pawang. 3 This research is titled “Advocating the development of contemporary traditional Orang Asli music as an approach to cultural sustainability” (19 October 2016 - 18 October 2017) and funded by the Geran Penyelidikan Universiti (GPU), Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. Wak Genamun is a mountain princess, a gunik that resides in the mountains of Batu 7, Kuala Woh in Tapah, Perak. In this song, Wak Genamun is gleefully playing among the clouds in the sky with her mother. She swings high and low on a swing in the “heavens”. 4 The music recording was funded by a grant from Cendana Independent Musician (2020-2022). The music album titled “Songs and the Music of the Semai of Tisong” was published online through Apple https://music.apple.com/cy/artist/semai-of-tisong/1644319967, YouTube https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCM0sF0Dl7tq-tpuNqsHw3LQ?themeRefresh=1, and many other channels. References Andersen, J. C. (1933). Maori music with its Polynesian background. The Journal of the Polynesian Society, 42(10), 237-252. Baer, A. (2006). Orang Asli women of Malaysia: Perceptions, situations & aspirations. Center for Orang Asli Concerns. Basden, G.T. (1921). Among the Ibos of Nigeria. J.B. Lippincott. Blacking, J. (1957). The role of music among the Vennda of the Northern Transvaal. International Library of African Music. Cannon, A. (2022). Seeding the tradition: Musical creativity in Southern Vietnam. Wesleyan University Press. Chan, C. S. C. (2023). Songs of ecology, community, and indigenous values: The Mah Meri of Carey Island, Malaysia. Universiti Malaya Press. Chan, C. S. C. & Saidon, Z. L. (2021). Advocating for the sustainability of Semai indigenous music through the collaborative creation of new traditional music: A participatory action research. Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education, 21(1), 9-22. Chan, C. S. C. (2019). Songs and music of the indigenous Semai of Malaysia. Independently published (Amazon). Chan, C. S. C. (2016). Song text composition in pinloin among the indigenous Jahai of Peninsular Malaysia: A local postmodernist approach? Malaysian Journal of Music, 5(2), 70–95. Chan, C. S. C. (2015). Standardizing and exoticizing the main jo’oh for tourist spectacle in Malaysia. Asian Music Journal, 46(2), 89-126. Chan, C. S. C. (2012a). Modernization and tourism: Reconstructing the musical aesthetics of the Orang Asli (Semai), Ulu Geroh village, Gopeng, Perak, Malaysia. Universiti Research Grant Report. Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Chan, C. S. C. (2012b). Heterogeneity in the musical acquisition of Orang Asli children from the Mah Meri and Semai groups. Malaysian Music Journal, 1 (2), 7-21. Densmore, F. (1929). Pawnee music. Bureau of America Ethnology Bulletin 93. Densmore, F. (1930). Peculiarities in the singing of the American Indians. American Anthropologist, 651-660. 98 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 12, Issue 1 (80- 98) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Domhoff, G. (1985). Thy mystique of dreams: A search for utopia through Senoi dream theory. Oxford University Press. Hand, R. (2017). Approaches to learning traditional performing arts in Central Java through a direct encounter. Malaysian Journal of Music, 6(2), 29-48. Harisna, R. (2010). Kesenimanan Suyadi Tejopangrawit dalam karawitan gaya Surakarta. [Unpublished bachelor dissertation]. Institut Seni Indonesia, Surakarta. Herskovits, M. J. (1944). Drums and drummers in Afro-Brazilian cult life. The Musical Quarterly, 30(4), 479-492. Herskovits, M. J. (1948). Man and his works. Alfred A Knopf. Irawati, E. (2019). A transmission of Kêlèntangan music among the Dayak Bênuaq of East Kalimantan in Indonesia. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 108-121. Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli. (2020). Taburan etnik Orang Asli mengikut etnik/ sub etnik mengikuti negeri. https://www.jakoa.gov.my/orang-asli/taburan-etnik-orang-asli-mengikut-etnik-sub-etnik-mengikut-negeri/ Karim, W. J. B. (1981). Ma' betisek concepts of living things. Taylor & Francis Group. Kitley, Y. (1995). Rote learning in Bali: Studying the music of the wayang theatre. Research Studies in Music Education 5, 47-5 Lim, K. (2016). The history of medicine and health in Malaysia. Self-published. Linton, R. (1936). The study of man. D. Appleton-Century. Lord, A. (1960). The singer of tales. Harvard Studies in Comparative Literature, 24. Merriam, A. (1964). Anthropology of music. Northwestern University Press. Mohd. Jalaludin, N. (2003). Hutan sebagai sumber seni muzik suku kaum Semai di Kampung Sungai Odak dan Pos Woh, Perak. [Unpublished Master’s Thesis]. Universiti Sains Malaysia. Nadel, S. (1942). A black byzantium. Oxford University Press. Nettl, B. (1954). Notes on composition in primitive culture. Anthropological Quarterly, 27, 81-90. Nettl, B. (2005). The study of ethnomusicology: Thirty-one issues and concepts. University of Illinois Press. Nketia, J. K. (1954). The role of the drummer in Akan Society. African Music, 1, 34-43. Radin, R. (1926). Crashing thunder: The autobiography of an American Indian. McGraw-Hill. Rice, T. (2017). Modelling ethnomusicology. Oxford University Press Roseman, M. (1991). Healing sounds from the Malaysian Rainforest. University of California Press. Schebesta, P. (1973). Among the forest dwarfs of Malaya. Oxford University Press. Treloyn, S. (2022). Intergenerational knowledge: Changes and continuity in music transmmission and ethnomusicological praxis. Music Research Journal, 3, 1-27. Waridi, R. L. (1997). Martopangrawit, empu karawitan gaya Surakarta, sebuah biografi. [Unpublished master’s dissertation]. Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Biography Clare Suet Ching Chan is an associate professor of Ethnomusicology at the Department of Music, Faculty of Human Ecology at Universiti Putra Malaysia. Prior to this she taught at the music department of Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris from 2002-2022 and held appointments as the deputy dean (research and graduate studies) (2011—2017) and chief editor (2015-2021) of the Malaysian Journal of Music. Clare served as the International Council of Traditional Music (ICTM) national liaison officer from 2018-2019. She is now an executive committee member of the Southeast Asian Directors of Music (SEADOM). Clare graduated with a PhD in Music (Ethnomusicology) from the University of Hawai`i at Manoa (2010); Master of Arts (Ethnomusicology) in 2002 and Bachelor of Arts (Music) in 1998 from Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang. She was awarded a Fulbright Scholarship (2005-2007), the Asia–Pacific Graduate Fellowship in Ethnomusicology from the University of Hawai`i at Manoa (2005-2007), the East-West Center Graduate Degree Fellowship (2008-2010) and the Sumi Makey Scholars Award for Arts and Humanities (2008) for her PhD studies. Her research interests include applied ethnomusicology, sustainability, heritage advocacy, tourism, modernisation, and globalisation of music.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

methods, pedagogy, piano, Rolf-Dieter Arens, teacher

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5033

Organic Concept in Rolf-Dieter Arens’s Piano Teaching Strategy

Rolf-Dieter Arens is a distinguished and revered musical figure with a career spanning more than fifty years as a concert pianist, chamber musician, and educator. His innovative teachings have influenced professional pianists, teachers, and students worldwide. The purpose of this study is to document and explain Arens’s distinct piano teaching approach. Data collection methods were participant observation, interviews with students and communication with Arens. Arens’ teaching strategies involve ideas such as the establishment of goals, modelling, listening, visualisation, deconstruction of the musical structure, and subdivision support. However, a major distinction in Arens’s teaching as compared to others is the notion that techniques and artistic interpretation are a holistic unit and are taught simultaneously rather than compartmentally is common. Another major aspect of Arens’s teaching approach involves what is called the “organic” flow which is an understanding of how the musical structure should regulate the artistic and technical decisions for performance. This study provides a substantial guide and reference to pianists and pedagogues who wish to expand their perspectives in the process of music-making as well as improve their teaching and performance techniques.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5033/3487

A. Yonathan 1 Organic Concept in Rolf-Dieter Arens’s Piano Teaching Strategy Aylwin Yonathan College of Music, Mahidol University, 25/25 Phutthamonthon Sai 4 Road Salaya, Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, 73170 Thailand E-mail: [email protected] Published online: 29 April 2022 Cite this article (APA): Yonathan, A. (2022). Organic concept in Rolf-Dieter Arens’s piano teaching. Malaysian Journal of Music, 11(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol11.1.1.2022 Abstract Rolf-Dieter Arens is a distinguished and revered musical figure with a career spanning more than fifty years as a concert pianist, chamber musician, and educator. His innovative teachings have influenced professional pianists, teachers, and students worldwide. The purpose of this study is to document and explain Arens’s distinct piano teaching approach. Data collection methods were participant observation, interviews with students and communication with Arens. Arens’ teaching strategies involve ideas such as the establishment of goals, modelling, listening, visualisation, deconstruction of the musical structure, and subdivision support. However, a major distinction in Arens’s teaching as compared to others is the notion that techniques and artistic interpretation are a holistic unit and are taught simultaneously rather than compartmentally is common. Another major aspect of Arens’s teaching approach involves what is called the “organic” flow which is an understanding of how the musical structure should regulate the artistic and technical decisions for performance. This study provides a substantial guide and reference to pianists and pedagogues who wish to expand their perspectives in the process of music-making as well as improve their teaching and performance techniques. Keywords: methods, pedagogy, piano, Rolf-Dieter Arens, teacher Introduction Many piano teachers at the tertiary level desire to produce well-trained students who in turn can go forth as performers and teachers themselves. Numerous piano pedagogues and authors have exhaustively examined the components of piano playing including techniques, articulations, stylistic interpretation, memorisation, and performance techniques (Jacobson, 2015). Piano instructors frequently teach these components in a fragmented (Heavner, 2005) or intuitive fashion (as cited in Holmgren, 2020, p. 108). Among some of the problems with teaching these components separately is that the student has disconnected knowledge about these components of piano performance, and they may also struggle to apply them in actual performance. Rolf-Dieter Arens, a prominent piano pedagogue, has an approach that addresses the concern of fragmented piano instruction. His strategy involves a synthesis of the cognitive (musicianship and stylistic interpretation), affective (expressive elements and emotion), and psychomotor (techniques, tone production, and rhythmic impulse) in a holistic manner. His pedagogical philosophies have proven widely influential as evidenced by his responsibilities as a jury in international piano competitions, masterclasses held worldwide as well as his students’ outstanding success. Hence, Arens’s approach to piano teaching merits scholarly attention as it has wide-ranging benefits for performers and pedagogues alike. Nonetheless, there is a dearth of materials that seeks to investigate and explain Arens’s approach to piano instruction. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine Arens’s teaching strategy focusing primarily on how he synthesises different components of piano playing in a holistic manner. This study could benefit piano teachers by providing an alternative way of piano pedagogy for teachers who are helping with their students’ piano performances. Furthermore, this will help students to understand the process of integrating these components into a singular idea for performance. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (1–13) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9 2 Literature Review Rolf-Dieter Arens is a pianist and pedagogue who has influenced many performers and piano teachers through his teaching at schools of music in Leipzig, Weimar, and Salaya, and numerous master classes and adjudication duties involving various music festivals and competitions such as the International FRANZ LISZT Piano Competition. Before this document, there had not been any study undertaken to illustrate Rolf-Dieter Arens’s contributions to piano pedagogy. Information about his life and professional activities are available from various sources on the website such as the International FRANZ LISZT Piano Competition Weimar-Bayreuth (https://www.hfm-weimar.de), Liszt Utrecht (https://www.liszt.nl), Summer Music Academy in Hundisburg (http://www.sma-hundisburg.de), and discographies (https://www.discogs.com). However, these resources gave no information concerning his teaching techniques. The study of Arens’s life, teaching, and contributions will provide invaluable information and acumen for pianists and pedagogues. There is substantial literature devoted to examining the teaching strategy and philosophies of prominent piano pedagogues. Ernst (2012) studied the teaching approach of Marvin Blickenstaff as well as described Blickenstaff’s philosophy, lesson content, and teaching techniques. A complete listing of publications and recording of his lessons, classes, interviews, and surveys were all well documented and discussed thoroughly. Research studies on other eminent pedagogues in the United States of America include Marrienne Uszler by Beres (2003), Jane Bastien by Burns (2011), James Lyke by Choi (2012) and Clarence A. Burg by Owen (1997). The studies of renowned concert pianists who dedicated their lives to teaching include Arthur Schnabel by Sossner (1986), Claudio Arrau by von Arx (2006), Olga Samaroff by van Beck (2004), Mieczyslaw Munz by Lee (2016), and Ann Schein by Gray (2021). Each of these studies has a similar focus to Ernst’s (2012) with an emphasis on the pedagogue’s life, contributions, philosophy, and piano techniques, but only a few of them explain teaching strategies in detail. Surveys on the teaching elements of piano techniques from distinguished piano pedagogues and authors of methods books were evaluated by Knerr (2006). The findings of Knerr’s (2006) study were organised into six technical components of piano teaching with their subdivision, which are: 1) Philosophy: techniques and teaching; 2) Basic components: posture, hand position, tone production, and playing apparatus, contraction and relaxation, mind/body relationship; 3) Exercises: gymnastic exercises and exercises; 4) Movement at the keyboard: physical and lateral movement; 5) Fundamental forms: five- finger pattern, rotation, and scales; 6) Basic musical inflection: articulation (legato and staccato), rhythm, dynamic and tonal control, tone quality, and tempo. This categorisation is used as a guide for organising this research study. Selected studies on prominent pedagogues from South-East Asia also provide valuable perspectives. Santoso (2013) discusses the contribution of Indonesian pianist Iravati Sudiarso with a great deal of information containing biography, professional activities, teaching content, and approach. The multifaceted concert pianist and pedagogue Reynaldo Reyes was examined by Porticos (2017). In the study, Porticos (2017) shared a fresh perspective on Reyes’s concepts and techniques in performance and teaching strategy. The mechanism, position and movements of the playing apparatus (the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder) are extensively discussed as well as the formation of a sound image that is based on stylistic performance practice. Similar to Arens’s perspective, Reyes emphasises the importance of rhythm and pulse, which serves as the driving force for motion (Porticos, 2017). Brown (2009) described the life and professional activities of the German-born Menahem Pressler. Brown (2009) discussed Pressler’s teaching philosophy, technical approach (which includes strong fingers technique), the concept of relaxed arms (which includes exercises), and principles for achieving expressive performance through emotion, phrasing, rhythm, tone quality, and colour. Furthermore, the document includes examples of Pressler’s words and technical instructions that can be used as a performance and practice guide. Pressler’s teaching exhibits some resemblance to Arens’s. Von Arx (2006) elaborated comprehensive discussions on the teaching of renowned performer- teacher Claudio Arrau. The study examines Arrau’s philosophy, techniques, artistry, and interpretation as well as student recollections of Arrau’s teaching. One of Arrau’s major teaching points is that the primary factor in achieving optimal artistic expression is for the performer’s body and mind to work in unison (von Arx, 2006). Arrau’s ability to produce expressive sound, round tone, and flexibility, according to von Arx (2006), is dependent on relaxation. The relaxation which liberates a performer from muscle stiffness lays the groundwork for the emotional and physical responses to work in harmony (von Arx, 2006). Relaxation does not imply weakness but rather a state of firmness without stiffness. Arrau’s concept of a A. Yonathan 3 unified and coordinated flow of physical mechanism, artistic intention and technique served as a critical reference point for the study. According to Sandor (1981), the way a pianist attacks the keyboard or the way the motion is employed will determine the sound production. This implies that technique and music-making are not separate concepts. The ability to use appropriate techniques while performing great compositions is one of the primary goals of performers. Furthermore, the essential factors that transform techniques into artistry include pedalling techniques, the art of practising, memorisation, musical expression, and well-informed public performance (Sandor, 1981). Nevertheless, the most crucial aspect of piano techniques is not only the physical aspect or technical drill but also the mental aspect which includes the clarity of tonal image, musical idea, and listening to oneself while playing (Kochevitsky, 1996). The mental-physical relationship is further clarified by Li and Timmers (2021) who stated that the production of piano timbre is realised effectively only by co-constructing conceptions between the teachers and the students, which are enacted through bodily experience and embodied through performance actions. The conceptual framework of this idea serves as the foundation for this study. Given the strong correlation between artistry and stylistic interpretation, it is critical that this research is connected to performance practice through an examination of various nationalistic piano schools. Lourenço (2010) evaluated technical and interpretative elements, repertoire preference, sonority, tempo, pedal use, and pedagogical approach in three distinct European nationalistic piano schools: Russian, German, and French. In regard to the German school, he stated that this school favoured dynamic balance, consistent tempo, respect for rhythmic structure, clarity of lines, voice leading, phrasing, and articulation (Lourenço, 2010). One of the well-known concert pianist-teachers who represents the German tradition is Arthur Schnabel. In the discussion about Schnabel’s interpretative approach, Wolff (1979) systematised Schnabel’s idea by relating it to technical and interpretative aspects such as melodic structure, musical direction, and articulations, which consist of melodic, harmonic, metric, and rhythmic articulations. Wolff (1979) explained and clarified some interpretative and expressive aspects of Schnabel’s which are difficult and intricate to explain. Schnabel’s approach to teaching which dwells upon the formal aspect of the music rather than piano techniques was examined by Sossner (1986). With the complexity of the physical and mental processes associated with piano playing and instructional strategies, the following research questions are explored in this study: 1. What makes Rolf-Dieter Arens’s approach to pedagogy unique and beneficial for performers and pedagogues? 2. What specific teaching strategies does Rolf-Dieter Arens use to implement his pedagogical approach? 3. How does he implement the teaching strategies in his piano lessons? Methodology Based on the fact that this research does not begin with a hypothesis but rather seeks to explore, describe, and analyse Rolf-Dieter Arens’s pedagogical content and approach, descriptive case study approach is the most appropriate research design. This research comes as a part of the thesis for a doctoral program in performance and pedagogy at Mahidol University. Rolf-Dieter Arens, four of his professional colleagues, and thirteen of his former and current students took part as participants. Interviews and observational data were gathered during the data collection period that began in June and ended in October 2019. There are two types of interviews: one with Arens and one with his students and colleagues. The interview with Arens is categorised into five components: Arens’s personal background, educational background, his career as a performer, his career as a pedagogue, and miscellaneous queries that support the study (e.g., his experience as a piano competition adjudicator). The researcher interviewed Arens at Mahidol University’s College of Music, Salaya Campus, Thailand where he served as a guest professor during this period. This interview was videotaped for archival purposes. The interview with his students and colleagues was designed to elicit respondents’ personal experiences with Arens including thoughts and perspectives on his significant contribution to piano pedagogy as well as a description of Arens's concepts, artistry, performance, technique, and teaching strategies. Thirteen students and four colleagues of different nationalities (Germany, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand) participated in the interview. A single interview session was held with each participant. The interviews took place at the College of Music, Mahidol University Salaya Campus, Thailand. Former students and colleagues who do not live in Thailand as well as students who live in Thailand but were unable to participate in the face-to- Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (1–13) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9 4 face interview were given a written interview. The researcher collected interview responses either in written form or via audio recording. When further clarification or questions were needed, the researcher contacted participants via email, instant messaging platform or video call. The empirical data were gathered by observing Arens’s lessons with other students, master classes, chamber rehearsals, and Arens’s private practice sessions. These observations were documented through written notes and video recordings. The researcher substantiated the findings by collecting commentaries, notes, and marked music scores from the researcher’s three years of weekly private lessons with Arens. The score analysis was selected from the repertoire list of the researcher’s private studies with Arens, namely Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s Piano Sonata No. 10 in C major, K. 330, Robert Schumann’s Faschingsschwank aus Wien, Op. 26, Johannes Brahms’s Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel, Op. 24 as well as Franz Liszt’s Grandes Études de Paganini, S.141 and Sonata in B minor, S. 178. The collected data were classified into two categories: stated and observed. All of Arens’s stated and observed philosophies, concepts, techniques and teaching strategies on performance, and pedagogy were subject to evaluation. Participant observations of Arens’s unstated but demonstrated practical instructions or suggestions were recorded and paraphrased using the researcher’s own terminology, narration, and description. The researcher gained information about Arens’s concepts and techniques by observing him teaching, practising, and rehearsing. Six teaching strategies were identified and decided as a result of these observations. The findings were verified and clarified during the interview with Arens. This interview explained his teaching and performance philosophy, piano techniques, teaching approach, life experiences, and contributions to the piano world. The interviews with Arens’s students and colleagues substantiated the data by providing details about Arens’s performances, piano techniques, life experience working with Arens as well as perspectives on his teaching. Each student mentioned Arens’s teaching strategies, which were collectively represented in six distinct strategies. Result The research finding reveals that Arens’s core philosophy of music-making is distinct and based on the concept of “organic”. This concept refers to a relationship between elements that essentially allows them to coexist harmoniously and exhibits continuous and natural development as a unified entity. This notion implies that technique is a means to express human thought and feeling, and their relationship cannot be done separately from artistic interpretation. This organic concept not only applies to the context of performance (which includes interpretation, artistry, and technique) but also in teaching. The foundation of Arens’s teaching includes the coordination of the playing mechanism with mental image, emotion, listening, and rhythmic impulse. The development of a mental image of the music which also includes stylistic interpretation is associated with the cognitive domain. The translation of the mental image to one’s emotion through expressive elements (dynamics, tempo, and articulation) is related to the affective domain. Lastly, physical coordination along with rhythmic impulses belong to the psychomotor domain. To synthesise and unify the different components, he employs six teaching strategies. These teaching strategies include establishing goals, modelling, listening, visualisation, deconstruction of musical structure, and subdivision support. These six techniques encapsulate the spontaneous flow that Arens advocates in his teaching. Establishing Goals Establishing goals is the process of identifying and setting measurable objectives and time frames to achieve the desired outcomes. This strategy does not mean only learning and dividing the musical piece into sections or movements that the student will focus on during a lesson. For Arens, goal setting is more about the image of the sound one wants before actual playing. This happens through the analysis and assimilation of the structural elements of the music (such as melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic aspects) and the expressive elements (dynamics, time, and articulations). The assimilation process of these components should not be viewed in isolation but rather as a process that occurs in conjunction with one another. As a prerequisite for excellent artistic performance, he reinforces this strategy in every lesson and music-making to ensure that the artistic goal will be vivid in the student’s mind. Arens stated, “Know what you want, know how to do it, know what you are doing, and know how to practise it” (personal A. Yonathan 5 communication, September 13, 2019). Through this notion, it is clear that the body mechanism and their movements are largely determined by the interpretation or image formed by the pianist. The formulation of this interpretation must not be an abstract form but ought to be specific and concrete with musical intent. Without this solid intention, the body would not know how to move accordingly, or it would only move intuitively rather than with clear intention. Thus, unclear goals in the pianist’s mental image, as well as physical movements, may cause nervousness and insecurity during a performance. Modelling Modelling is an instructional strategy in which the teacher demonstrates a new concept or approach to learning while students observe (Salisu & Ransom, 2014). Arens shares his musical ideas by demonstration and explanation at the same time. His instructions are always specific and clear in the context of the music. During the interview, he made his point about the importance and benefit of modelling as a strategy: “It is very important for teachers to be able to demonstrate or perform for the students, so students will learn by listening and seeing the movements” (personal communication, September 13, 2019). The modelling strategy allows the student to learn by observing the working force of the mechanism visually and the outcome aurally as different movements of the playing mechanism affect the sound production. Thus, the student will be able to grasp the various concepts of piano playing as one holistic unit. Nevertheless, it needs to be clarified that the purpose of modelling is not to impose his own musical interpretation or to promote thoughtless imitation and repetition. Arens appreciates each student’s individuality and creativity as long as the principles of natural flow are fulfilled. Thus, thoughtful modelling will synthesise and assimilate what they see and hear into their own playing. Arens frequently imitated the way students played and asked whether this was the intended outcome. If the sound was not what the student intended, he would make an adjustment. Thus, the student can draw comparisons between the sound ideal in mind and the real outcome of the performance. It is necessary to emphasise that the modelling strategy will be successful only if the pianist has a clear understanding of the musical ideal. The role of modelling strategy assists students in hearing and visualising the desired outcome vividly as well as serving as a guide for students’ inner hearing (sound ideal), physical movement, and control, all of which are evaluated through attentive listening. Another kind of modelling strategy that Arens employs to assist his students to improve their artistry and musicality is to have them listen to recordings of great pianists or, more specifically, to have them listen carefully while Arens plays. Through listening, students will internalise an overall concept of the music. Listening Listening is a strategy for acquiring information by paying close attention to the sound production. Arens repeatedly mentioned to his students that “One must learn how to listen for their own playing. Practise by playing the melody alone and control the musical lines. Condition the ear by listening, feeling, and finding the balance” (personal communication, September 13, 2019). Listening to one’s own playing might be very difficult. Many times, the focus of attention is diverted to what one sees rather than the actual produced sounds, especially in highly technical passages. According to Arens, intense listening to each melodic line while practising each hand separately is crucial for gaining control of all musical layers or lines (personal communication, September 13, 2019). Participant TG recalled, “he [Arens] told me to listen to all the lines, which means playing each line with a separate hand and listening until all the individual lines are clear in my mind” (personal communication, February 13, 2019). Listening to one’s own playing is valuable to achieve control, the right nuances, and balance. In other words, the function of listening is to evaluate whether the actual sound produced matches the desired sound. In the interview, Arens stated that attentive listening during a performance is not an easy task. To perform successfully while listening, a performer must have excellent body coordination, a high degree of relaxation, a vivid mental image of the sound ideal, an emotional connection, and the ability to feel the body, mind, and emotions moving in unison. Without these abilities ingrained in the student, the listening process will be disrupted (personal communication, September 13, 2019). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (1–13) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9 6 Visualisation Visualisation is an instructional approach that employs the formation of mental images or pictures in the mind to acquire clarity of musical concepts as well as accuracy in the performance. Visualisation through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas as well as increase critical thinking (Cohen, 2016). To facilitate learning, Arens uses visualisation technique, especially for students who have trouble understanding musical concepts. This strategy is invaluable in assisting students to mentally internalise the musical concept and body movement. Thus, visualisation will promote coordination between the mind and the body. Observation reveals that Arens’s strategies in employing visualisation techniques are established by focusing on three different directions. First, his focus is directed at the score in mind or photographic memory (Ford, 1996). In this strategy, he sees the score in his mind like a series of photos or a clip of film (personal communication, September 13, 2019). All the notes with the details are clearly pictured. Secondly, Arens encourages his students to focus on the tactile and spatial aspects of piano playing by mentally visualising their hand positions and movements including the touch and stroke on the keyboard. Often, pianists rely solely on their eyes to perform accurately. As a result, their ears are closed to listen and their eyes are used exclusively to control their body movement. Accuracy can be improved by mentally visualising the target ahead. Concentrating on sight may impair the flow of piano playing particularly during extremely fast movements. Thus, pianists should avoid relying on their eyes to guide their hands and bodies but rather use their “mind’s eyes”. According to one of his students, “During the difficult sections particularly when there are a lot of skips, Arens told me to visualise where the hands must go and to feel the distance and position of the hands prior to the actual playing” (personal communication, November 27, 2018). Finally, the third aspect focuses on sound production. This involves clarifying the musical intention and strategising about how to achieve the sound ideal which is critical during rehearsals. Arens repeatedly said that “one must learn how to listen to their own playing, condition the ear by listening and at the same time feeling the movement of the body and find the balance to achieve the desired sound” (personal communication, September 13, 2019). Accurate execution, as well as a smooth and powerful performance, can be achieved when the notes, sounds, and body motions are clear in the mind and the hands and body know where and how to go. To improve tactile perception and coordination between the body, ears (listening), and imagery, Arens employs the technique of practising with his eyes closed. The researcher was permitted to observe Arens during his practice sessions particularly when he was preparing for a recital. He practised at a slow, medium or fast tempo with his eyes closed. Occasionally, it was performed with both hands or with each hand separately. To teach the concept of “organic”, Arens teaches his students to visualise the musical design as a whole as well as in detail. He emphasises expressive sounds by looking at their elements which are dynamics, tempo, and articulations. Every contour of melodies and phrases is pictured in the imagination and felt in the heart (personal communication, September 13, 2019). He would ask the student to visualise the harmonic changes to find the direction of the nuances. To demonstrate Arens’s teaching concept, the researcher created excerpts of marked music scores represented in Figures 1 to 10. Figure 1 illustrates the harmonic structure and harmonic changes that Arens wants his students to imagine. To maintain an organic flow, Arens suggested visualising the melodic line and harmonic structure in the inner hearing as illustrated in Figure 2. Figure 3 illustrates how Arens visualises the synthesis of phrase structure and dynamic gradation. Figure 1. Schumann, Faschingsschwank aus Wien, Op. 26, Allegro, mm. 340–347 A. Yonathan 7 Figure 2. Schumann, Faschingsschwank aus Wien, Op. 26, Allegro, mm. 341–346 Figure 3. Schumann, Faschingsschwank aus Wien, Op. 26, Allegro, mm. 276–324 The nature of articulation is always directly related to the shape of the musical structure rather than to the single element of the phrase (Wolff, 1979). The researcher noted that one of the difficulties in achieving organic flow is the disruption caused by the agogic sensation of the finger, arm or even bodyweight. To control this unnecessary accent and refine the melodic line, Arens employs the visualisation strategy. Figure 4 is an example of how he visualises the phrase outline. The encircled notes are the area in which the pianist should exercise control due to the agogic sensation of the thumb. Figure 4. Schumann, Faschingsschwank aus Wien, Op. 26, Allegro, mm. 1–8 To establish the proper tempo and tone production in the opening section, he would instruct the student to visualise himself conducting an orchestra or choir and feeling the cue gesture of the entrance. He described the procedure as follows (with gestures of conducting): feel the tempo inside – preparatory cue – breath – execution. One of his students recalled his advice, “do not be a pianist, but a musician; play as if you are a conductor; listen attentively to what you play” (personal communication, May 26, 2019). Deconstruction of Musical Structure Deconstruction of the musical structure is a teaching strategy that involves dissecting, analysing, and simplifying the basic construction of the piece. This strategy reduces and simplifies the task of the pianist, allowing the mind to focus on a specific task or objective. The focus of the attention may be on a single melodic line, melody-bass relationship, tempo, change of dynamic levels or gradation of intensity. This procedure assists students in internalising musical syntax in great detail, paying close attention to technical detail, and solidifying interpretation. As part of the deconstruction strategy, Arens places the perspective into a vertical-linear relationship while examining details and connecting them to the broader view of the entire score. Participant HY mentioned, He [Arens] aims for his students to see the big picture or big plan of the music first, then focus on little details such as wrong notes. Many teachers focus on the small details first and therefore losing the big picture. But, Arens deals with the difficulties of the meticulous detail later after the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (1–13) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9 8 big picture is established. (personal communication, June 10, 2019) This strategy scrutinises the overall construction of the piece as a whole and then breaks it down into smaller components such as sections, periods, phrase units, and short motives or segments. Following an in-depth examination, the pianist is encouraged to bring back the small components to the broader context. This is the point at which the various components of music-making become unified into a single idea. This strategy serves as a gateway for the formation of a new perspective on musical performance. The deconstruction method is a very essential strategy to achieve a higher level of artistic performance for all the details conveyed and highlighted. Arens would deconstruct the homophonic passage into different layers and articulate each layer expressively as if it were a polyphonic texture. The vertical aspect of harmonic progression—for instance, the bass part—would be perceived horizontally as an inner melody or countermelody. A similar conception featured in Schnabel’s interpretation that seemingly static pedal point must be articulated well because it still has a melodic substance (Wolff, 1979). Figure 5 shows an example of how he deconstructs the homophonic passage into layers. Figure 5. Liszt, Sonata in B minor, mm. 367–369 Subdivision Support Subdivision support is a strategy in which the teacher provides accompaniment in an ostinato pattern that has a smaller value than the part played by the student. This subdivision support may also be played by the student himself by maintaining the melodic line and substituting the original version of accompaniment with a new simplified ostinato in a smaller value. Arens uses subdivision support for the following purposes: 1. To assure the accuracy of rhythm or tempo. 2. To create awareness of the smooth connection between notes and the change of dynamic colour throughout the melodic line. 3. To reinforce the feeling of natural pulse in the body and mind. This strategy is often used when students lose the natural pulse of music or when the long line is disconnected or disrupted by unnecessary accents. One of his students stated, “In music-making, Arens put importance on feeling the hidden pulse. Feeling the pulse within is helpful in solving many musical problems” (personal communication, June 10, 2019). Apart from providing the accompaniment in an ostinato pattern on a second piano, he frequently reinforces the concept by instructing the student to play the subdivision or simplified accompaniment on the left hand and the melody on the right hand, both of which should be played in a very musical manner with all the different dynamic levels and nuance. This strategy assists in conditioning the ear to hear the smooth connections within the musical passage, remembering the natural flow of the body and reducing significantly disconnected lines or unmusical accents. The formation of the rhythmic impulse within will not only contribute to the accuracy of tempo or rhythm and reduce the disruption of the smooth melodic line in one’s performance, but also solve some technical and execution problems such as stiffness of the body and inability to play at the given speed. A. Yonathan 9 Arens regards the formation of rhythmic impulses as part of the expressive element. Figures 6 and 7 demonstrate how Arens applies this strategy. Figure 6. Liszt, Grandes Études de Paganini, No. 3, S.141, accompaniment support Figure 7. Liszt, Grandes Études de Paganini, No. 3, S.141, mm. 21–23, subdivision The interpretation of the opening section of the Sonata in B minor by Liszt is one example of how the visualisation strategy interlinks with the subdivision or accompaniment support strategy. Figure 8 shows the dynamic outline of what Arens suggested. To achieve this visualised goal, Arens employs the subdivision strategy to ensure organic progression of dynamics and inflection (Figure 9). For practice purposes, playing subdivisions in the left hand will assist students to feel the pulse. Although there is a rest in between the notes, the dynamic progression must be perceived as one line. Figure 8. Liszt, Sonata in B minor, mm. 8–11 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (1–13) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9 10 Figure 9. Liszt, Sonata in B minor, mm. 8–11 Discussion In establishing artistic goals in piano playing, Arens would make the student understand the musical concept, tone quality, and how to achieve it. In a way that is similar to what Arens does, Kochevitsky (1996) explained the importance of goal establishment: When a pianist realises a given musical idea, the tonal image, the auditory stimulation (conditional stimulus), must always precede the motor reaction (unconditional stimulus), in performance as well as in practising. The musical incentive has to be a signal provoking the motor activity. Otherwise the latter, the technique, can easily become an end itself. (p. 28) Further, Kochevitsky clarifies his point with a scheme: see  hear inwardly  move  hear actually  control (Kochevitsky, 1996). The second link of the process, which is hearing inwardly, is the starting point for formulating the musical idea and serves as a conditional stimulus that will stimulate body movement to produce the sound. The visualised tonal timbre in piano playing is deeply connected through in-the-moment body movement and sensation (Li & Timmers, 2021). Thus, creating the sound ideal in one’s inner hearing is crucial for physical motion and control. Integrated with this listening strategy, the established sound ideal will be compared and contrasted with the actual sound production. The performance actions and gestures are adjusted and driven by auditory anticipation as an action-perception loop (Li & Timmers, 2021). The activity of matching one’s mental image of sound to the real sound is what Arens understands as control. However, what distinguishes Arens from Kochevitsky is that Arens considers emotion to be one of the most important factors in formulating sound ideals. As he stated, “The sound image or musical concept must be vivid in the mind, experienced in the emotion, and felt in the body motion as a unity of synchronised process” (personal communication, September 13, 2019). In the relationship between the notes and melodic lines, there is a striking resemblance between Pressler’s teaching and Arens. Pressler commented: Pianist must pay careful attention to the relationship of the notes, such as the decay in volume of a long note and matching the following note’s attack to the decay … Always, after a long note, start softly. Otherwise, you accent. (as cited in Brown, 2009, p. 68) In handling the unnecessary accent on a long musical idea, Arens suggests a similar case by visualising a plan for dynamic change. Figure 10 illustrates how he lays out the dynamic plan. Through this visualisation, the vivid musical intention will generate coordination in the playing mechanism. A. Yonathan 11 Figure 10. Mozart, Piano Sonata No. 10 in C major, K. 330, 2nd movement, mm. 1–4 Arens’s interpretative concept belongs to the German tradition exemplified by Edwin Fischer and Arthur Schnabel. In regard to melodic direction, Arens has a very identical approach to Schnabel’s. Schnabel uses three forms of melodic direction, which are upward, downward, and stationary direction (Wolff, 1979). Although Arens did not use those technical terms, Arens was able to elaborate and clarify the concept by employing modelling and subdivision support strategies. In particular, the subdivision support is very instrumental in enforcing the rhythmic pulse and gradation of dynamic change. To create awareness of the smooth melodic line, one should feel the natural pulse in the body and mind. The interaction between rhythmic impulses and body motion is initiated by breathing. Arens stated that “breathing is so important for performance control, tempo setting, nuance making, facilitating body movement to produce a beautiful tone and as a tool for nervousness control” (personal communication, September 13, 2019). The importance of breathing is also mentioned by Arrau in the interview with his pupil Ena Bronstein-Barton: “The tone quality comes from inside, it doesn’t even come from the arms, it doesn’t come from dropping in the arms; it comes from your breathing, through the arms ... So it gives ease and freedom” (as cited in von Arx, 2006, p. 87). Thus, breathing should be visualised in the mind and felt in one’s body before the music is performed. In essence, all of Arens’s teaching strategies are methods for synthesising disparate elements into a unified entity that moves, grows, and flows naturally. This is what he means by the word “organic”, which he repeatedly mentioned during lessons. In the interview, one of Arens’s students stated: “Organic” is the word that I always hear from him in almost every piano lesson. Organic crescendo, organic ritardando, organic ending, etc. It refers to how natural we feel and approach the music, that the music has its own direction and moves in a natural way. (personal communication, May 29, 2019) Limitations and Implications The study of Arens’s philosophy of music-making, pedagogical content and teaching strategy may inspire young pianists as well as piano teachers. In the future, it would be fascinating to conduct a deeper study of Arens’s life in a full biographical document and make it available in print. Data acquisition might be a challenge due to a lack of documentation. However, it is still possible by employing a historical research method. In the area of piano pedagogy, this study can be developed further by focusing on the methodology and curriculum based on Arens’s concept of techniques and artistry. A systematic approach should be laid out so that the implementation of the concepts can be applied at different levels and age groups. Piano pedagogy research that emphasises a balanced synthesis of the various components of piano playing is presently needed to assist piano teachers in structuring their teaching and unifying fragmented instructions. Thus, the documentation of Arens’s teaching, especially the way he translates abstract concepts into practical and detailed teaching strategies, becomes invaluable information that can serve as an illustration and living example to anyone who aspires to be an excellent teacher. Conclusion Rolf-Dieter Arens’s contributions and successes as a mentor and performer serve as examples for serious pianists and piano teachers who would like to apply a holistic approach to performance and piano teaching. Arens’s fundamental concept of music-making is “organic” flows, which implies bringing together the relationship of different elements as a unified entity that moves, connects and develops in a natural flow. To inculcate the “organic” flows of music-making, he employs some teaching strategies that synthesise different components of piano playing into concrete instructions. These strategies are the establishment of goals, modelling, listening, visualisation, deconstruction of musical structure, and subdivision support. These six strategies are invaluable to piano teachers and performers who would like to instil mastery over their playing mechanism and body motion that move in correlation with their mental image (an artistic interpretation), emotions, listening, and rhythmic impulse of the music. The blend between artistry and technical aspect of piano playing takes place when the ideal musical image is vivid in the mind, experienced in the emotion, and felt in the body as one organic flow of a synchronised process. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (1–13) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9 12 The pedagogy of piano, which is based on the synthesis of the cognitive (musicianship and stylistic interpretation), affective (expressive elements and emotion), and psychomotor (techniques, tone production, and rhythmic impulse) should be incorporated into the curriculum and teaching plan by piano teachers. It is the piano teacher’s responsibility to connect the dots of knowledge into one body. By so doing, the components of piano playing will be understood holistically and have direct relevancy to achieving the main goal of excellent performance. References Beres, K. E. (2003). Marianne Uszler’s contributions to piano pedagogy (UMI No. 3082942) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Brown, W. (2009). Menahem Pressler: Artistry in piano teaching. Indiana University Press. Burns, E. (2011). The contributions of Jane Smisor Bastien to piano teaching (UMI No. 3487814) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Choi, C. H. (2012). The contribution of James Lyke to piano pedagogy (UMI No. 3571129) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Cohen, R. (2016). Sport psychology: The basics: Optimizing human performance. Bloomsbury. Ernst, S. M. (2012). The legacy of master piano teacher Marvin Blickenstaff: His pedagogy and philosophy (UMI No. 3547597) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Ford, J. (1996). Many ways to memorize. Clavier, 35(3), 24–26. Gray, A. W. (2021). A long life in music: The career and legacy of Ann Schein (Publication No. 28653090) [Doctoral dissertation, West Virginia University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Heavner, T. (2005). The applied music lesson: Teaching gifted and talented students utilising principles of comprehensive musicianship. International Education Journal, 6(2), 170–174. http://iej.cjb.net Holmgren, C. (2020). The conditions for learning musical interpretation in one-to-one piano tuition in higher music education. Nordic Research in Music Education, 1(1), 103–131. https://doi.org/10.23865/nrme.v1.2635 Jacobson, J. M. (2015). Professional piano teaching: A comprehensive piano pedagogy textbook, Vol. 2. Alfred Music. Knerr, J. (2006). Strategies in the formation of piano technique in elementary level piano students: An exploration of teaching elementary level technical concepts according to authors and teachers from 1925 to the present (UMI No. 3237529) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Kochevitsky, G. (1996). The art of piano playing: A scientific approach. Summy-Birchard. Lee, S. (2016). The life and legacy of Mieczyslaw Munz (ProQuest No. 10110201) [Doctoral dissertation, West Virginia University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Li, S., & Timmers, R. (2021). Teaching and learning of piano timbre through teacher-student interactions in lessons. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 576056. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.576056 Lourenço, S. (2010). European piano schools: Russian, German and French classical piano interpretation and technique. Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts, 2(1), 6–14. https://doi.org/10.7559/citarj.v2i1.7 Owen, L. J. (1997). The contributions of Clarence A. Burg to piano pedagogy (UMI No. 9722746) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Porticos, P. J. M. L. (2017). The vision of Reynaldo Reyes: Erudition in piano performance and pedagogy. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Philippines Women’s University. Salisu, A., & Ransom, E. N. (2014). The role of modeling towards impacting quality education. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences, 32, 54–61. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILSHS.32.54 Sandor, G. (1981). On piano playing: Motion, sound and expression. Schirmer Books. Santoso, M. S. (2013). The teaching legacy of Iravati M. Sudiarso (UMI No. 3605872) [Doctoral dissertation, West Virginia University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Sossner, D. K. (1986). Revisiting Artur Schnabel: Artur Schnabel as performer, teacher, editor, composer, with special focus on seven pieces for piano solo - 1947 (UMI No. 8706266) [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Diego]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. van Beck, P. J. (2004). The pedagogy of Olga Samaroff: A consideration of her artistic legacy (UMI No. 3168152) [Doctoral dissertation, Rice University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. von Arx, V. (2006). The teaching of Claudio Arrau and his pupils: Piano pedagogy as cultural work (UMI No. 3231979) [Doctoral dissertation, City University of New York]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Wolff, K. (1979). Schnabel’s interpretation of piano music. W.W Norton & Company. A. Yonathan 13 Biography Aylwin Yonathan is a candidate of Doctor of Music in Performance and Pedagogy from the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. He received his Master of Music in Piano from the College of Music, University of the Philippines and Bachelor of Music in Piano Performance from the Adventist University of the Philippines. He is currently a lecturer in the Faculty of Arts and Humanities at Asia Pacific International University, Thailand.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

English song lyrics, Corpus computational tools, diachronic study, f-word, spoken English

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5905

Diachronic Analysis of the Profane Words in English Song Lyrics:

This diachronic study aims to explore the linguistic phenomena of the verb

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5905/3489

14 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Diachronic Analysis of the Profane Words in English Song Lyrics: A Computational Linguistics Perspective Flora Goyak1, *Mazura Mastura Muhammad2, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini3 Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris 35900 Tanjung Malim, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim Department of Basic Sciences, Community College, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Saudi Arabia Department of Foreign Languages Faculty of Education, Tanta University, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] Ardi Gunsuh Talent Corporation Malaysia Berhad e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 03 May 2022 Cite this article (APA): Goyak, F., Muhammad, M. M., Zaini, M. F., Ibrahim, W. M. A., Gunsuh, A. (2022). Diachronic analysis of the profane words in English song lyrics: A computational linguistics perspective, Malaysian Journal of Music, 11(1), 14-32. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol11.1.2.2022 Abstract This diachronic study aims to explore the linguistic phenomena of the verb f-word in English song lyrics across genres and time via various corpus computational tools. A specialised corpus named Diachronic Corpus of English Song Lyrics (DCOESL) consisting of Country, Pop, Rhythm and Blues (R&B), and Rock genres from the years 1960 to 2009, was built for the analysis. Linguistics analysis of English song lyrics corpus was used as the research design. Computational corpus instruments were adopted to generate data. The findings reveal that corpus computational tools it has provided an avenue for researchers to explore languages across time. Additionally, the study shows that f-word in English song lyrics experience ascending trend since the 1980s, with highest occurrences in R&B (38pmw). F-word in DCOESL has strong collocational strength with personal pronoun me (17321pmw), MI=3.442. Personal pronoun me is very significant to the node f-word, T-score=3.274. F-word in DCOESL has highest significant lexical association with f-word in the spoken register of Flora Goyak, Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini, 15 Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim & Ardi Gunsuh COCA, G2COCASPOKEN=102.40, df=1, p<.0001. It exhibits that the highest occurrences of f-word in DCOESL reflects social actions and a high preference for simple present tense, and simple sentence structure. In conclusion, the computational corpus analysis of f-word in English song lyrics has found that f-word prominently co-occur with personal pronoun in simple sentence structure and in simple present tense, in order to mirror English conversational discourse. The implication of this study is English song lyrics, especially from R&B genre, are a potentially authentic corpus resource for exploring spoken English. Keywords: English song lyrics, corpus computational tools, diachronic study, f-word, spoken English Introduction Computational Linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that provides a computational perspective of the natural language and it automates various linguistics tasks which previously were carried out manually such as text analysis, lexical mapping and information extraction and retrieval. Researchers are now able to explore and analyse a massive amount of natural occurring language such as song lyrics. Songs are an effective teaching tool through which learners can learn language in an entertaining, active and stimulating way. The combination of language and entertainment shows to learners that language learning can be fun (Domoney & Harris, 1993; Lo & Fai Li, 1998). Besides that, the repetitive nature of songs promotes memory retention since the rhythm and rhyming patterns help students to recall lexis and syntactical chunks (Schoepp, 2001). Additionally, songs enhance the use of English language that learners will face in real life contexts and students are able to hear vocabulary and phrases in a natural and meaningful context (Eken, 1996). Scholars such as Bartle (1962), Richards (1969) and Jolly (1975) have been asserting for use of songs as an affective language learning tool for both their linguistics advantages and motivational impacts that they are capable to generate in language learners. This is aligned with the second language acquisition theory namely the Affective Filter Hypothesis developed by Krashen (1982) as a foundation that relates applied linguistics study as a contribution to teaching and learning practice of the English language. The use of taboo words is a fraction of daily language use. Recent studies by Goddard (2014, p. 55), Ljung (2011), McEnery (2006), and McEnery and Xiao (2003) have addressed the taboo f-word and various aspects of f-word. However, the aforementioned studies focus on written and spoken registers that do not include song lyrics. For instance, McEnery and Xiao (2003) investigated the use of f-word in written section of British National Corpus (BNC) with respect to a subset of the metadata namely domain, author gender, author age, audience gender, audience age, audience level, reception status, medium of text and date of creation (p. 504). The researchers discovered four main characteristics of written f-word; it is used among lower level of audience comparative with speech from the lower class, it is a marker of male readership or authorship comparative to a marker of male speaker, used more frequently by younger writers comparative to as a word regularly spoken by younger speakers, and correlate with more informal types of writing particularly imaginative writing (McEnery & Xiao, 2003, p. 511). Other than that, McEnery (2006) used the 16 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Lancaster Corpus of Abuse (LCA) which is based on the spoken BNC to investigate categories of Bad Language Word (BLW) use and gender. They discovered that male speakers use f-word twice more frequent (68.28pmw) than the females (32.75pmw) with LL value of 48.98 (p. 29). The aforementioned intriguing findings are unlimited to linguistics uses of f-word, by including the elements of social class, gender, and age to their investigation. The current study developed a corpus song lyrics namely the Diachronic Corpus of English Song Lyrics (DCOESL) in massive size to cater for the available slit in including song lyrics for the linguistics investigation of f-word. DCOESL also opens opportunities for exploring the origin of f-word down the history and ways native speakers use the taboo word. Previous corpus studies on song lyrics by Logan et al. (2004) and Taina (2014) include words distributions by genre. Logan et al. (2004) included Country, Reggae, Newage, Rap and Rock, whereby swear words namely nigga and shit are identified in Rap (p. 2). Although Logan et al. (2004) claimed that their study is mainly on semantic analysis, their results and discussions are more towards clusters classification of popular songs through lyrics. A more detailed discussion on linguistics items such as collocations and sentence patterns would be intriguing. For instance, although lyric-specific words such as I’m and love occur in each genre, detailed discussion on describing the semantic reasons behind these occurrences are not provided in their research. The current study employs semantic analysis to identify and discuss in detail the semantic categories and meanings of f-word in song lyrics. Taina (2014) discovered that f-word and shit are common in Thrash Metal, and thus assumed to be the stylistic feature characteristic of the subgenre (pp. 49-54). Note that the study conducted by Taina (2014) is based on metal genre. The disadvantage of a single genre corpus is findings are not able to be wholly generalised to linguistics features in general. While the findings can be representative of linguistics features of specifically metal songs in general, the corpus is not reliable enough to represent similar linguistics features of other music genres or registers in the English language. As asserted by Lindquist (2009), representativity is comparable because it differs among corpora and certainly not absolute. The usefulness of the findings can be submitted for comparative analysis with general reference corpora. For example, the current study utilised BNC for comparative analysis. The grammatical aspects namely collocations and sentence patterns, and statistical test results are used to generalise song lyrics as a spoken-like register of the English language. These studies do include swear or profanity words, but lack of in depth focus on each lexical item. Bridle (2018), Motschenbacher (2016), Saarinen (2013), and Petrie et al. (2008) are among other studies that is based on a single genre corpus. These researchers are focusing on Blues, Pop, Metal, and Rock respectively. For this study, DCOESL was analysed and the focus is on the phenomena of f-word across four popular music genres and time. The use of corpus linguistics in this research benefits teachers who want to use songs as effective authentic teaching and learning materials for their students; more specifically songs to avoid in their teaching. Methodology Flora Goyak, Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini, 17 Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim & Ardi Gunsuh Corpus Description: Diachronic Corpus of English Song Lyrics (DCOESL) Diachronic study of language via corpus-driven approach was employed to analyse f- word that are used in English song lyrics across genres and time. Diachronic study was selected to diachronically study the emerging linguistic changes of most frequent pronouns in English song lyrics across the span of five decades and four music genres. Corpus-driven approach was employed to analyse the large and principled collection of naturally occurring English song lyrics that function as the empirical basis in studying linguistic phenomena of pronouns in the diachronic corpus. Tognini-Bonelli (2001) described that with this type of approach, the “descriptions aim to be wide- ranging with respect to corpus evidence” and linguistic categories are derived systematically from the “recurrent patterns and the frequency distributions that emerge from language in context” (p. 87). In this study, f-word is under lexical category. The f-word was investigated for frequency distribution and collocational analyses. Data interpretation and discussion were carried out in respect to the emerging findings from the diachronic corpus. Diachronic Corpus of English Song Lyrics or DCOESL was built by compiling and organizing a total of 5000 song lyrics from the years 1960 to 2009 comprising of 25 songs for every year of each genre, generating of approximately one million running words. In order for texts to be considered as a corpus, there is no minimum or maximum size required (Sinclair, 2015). DCOESL is intended to be a dense song lyrics corpus for the purpose of covering a wider range of emerging linguistics variations than what smaller corpora could do. Accordingly, DCOESL must be large enough to sufficiently represent the occurrence of f-word in English song lyrics. Specialised corpus type is selected for this study. A specialised corpus is inclined to be domain or genre specific (McEnery et al., 2006). DCOESL consists of four distinct music genres namely Country, Pop, Rhythm and Blues (R&B), and Rock. The song lyrics from the aforementioned genres were selected because of their popularity and free access via the internet. The songs for this study were carefully chosen based on popularity from every decade and genre. Among the many options available in the cyberspace, chart songs rank highly in popularity (North et al., 2004). Hence, the Top 100 Billboard Charts (www.billboard.com), an online extension of the Billboard magazine, serves as a suitable platform for retrieving popular song lists. Billboard is a well-known magazine for publishing pieces such as news, opinion, reviews, styles, videos, and music charts. Song lyrics needed for this study were compiled from MetroLyrics (www.metrolyrics.com), a licensed lyric-based website that provides database of over one million songs performed by over sixteen thousand artists. Table 1 contains numerical description of DCOESL. 18 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Table 1 Numerical Description of DCOESL Research Instruments McEnery et al. (2006) asserted that computer helps to process and manipulate corpus data rapidly at minimal cost, avoids human bias to achieve reliability, and allows further automatic processing to be performed for various metadata enrichment. Computer-aided analysis via the aforementioned five corpus analysis instruments, makes it possible for this research to be carried out. First, AntConc is a freeware corpus analysis toolkit for concordance and text analysis developed by Professor Laurence Anthony. The software comprises of seven corpus tools namely concordance, concordance plot, file view, clusters or n-grams, collocates, word list, and keyword list. In this study, AntConc was utilised to generate frequency lists of f- word and its adjacent collocations, and concordance lines. Second, CLAWS POS Web Tagger is a reliable program for automated part-of-speech tagging that was developed by University Centre for Computer Corpus Research on Language (UCREL) at Lancaster University. Song lyrics in DCOESL were tagged by using C7 Tagset, including f-word, which is tagged as VV0, a tag that stands for base form of lexical verb. Third, Lancaster Statistics Tools online was used to automatically calculate the complex formulae of three statistical tests of significance namely Log- likelihood (G2), Mutual Information (MI), and T-score. The Chi-square (X2) test was conducted via Social Science Statistics online calculator. Last, similar to CLAWS POS Web Tagger, USAS was developed along with its own tagset. USAS consists of 21 major discourse fields. In the current study, USAS functioned to identify semantic categories of f-word and its most frequent adjacent collocates in DCOESL. Prominent discourse fields tagged in DCOESL are S (social actions, states, and processes), B (the body and the individual), and E (emotion). Reliability and Validity To ensure that the occurrences of verb f-word in DCOESL are not mainly based on raw frequencies alone, four statistical measurements were used namely normalization of frequency counts, Log-likelihood (G2), Mutual Information (MI) test, and T-score test. Genres Year Number of song lyrics for every year Tokens Country Pop Rhythm and Blues (R&B) Rock 1960-2009 25 25 25 25 290 278 357 770 460 545 303 828 Total 50 5 000 1 412 601 Flora Goyak, Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini, 19 Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim & Ardi Gunsuh First, the raw frequencies of DCOESL were normalised to 1 million words or per million words (pmw). Second, comparisons of frequency counts between DCOESL and the reference corpora BNC and COCA were conducted to determine the extent the findings can be generalised to the language as a whole. G2 was carried out to measure of strength of associations between f-word in DCOESL and f-word in the reference corpora. Third, to measure collocational strength, Mutual Information (MI) test was carried out. The higher the MI score, the stronger the link between two items (McEnery et al., 2006, p. 56). Finally, T-score test was done to measure the significant of a collocate to the node. T-score test in this study is used to identify words that are vital for the node f-word. Findings and Discussion Distribution of F-word and F-word Variations in DCOESL In this section, both quantitative and qualitative results of DCOESL are presented and discussed. The findings consist of three types namely frequency count, annotation, and comparative analysis. First, the frequency counts of f-word and its adjacent collocates are tabulated in the forms of tables and graphs. Next, song lyrics in DCOESL underwent part-of-speech and semantic tagging for annotations. Last, comparative analysis of frequency counts with general corpora namely the British National Corpus (BNC) and Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). With the aim to begin the analysis, the number of counts for f-word in DCOESL were generated via AntConc. Table 2 shows the frequency and percentage distributions, and Table 3 shows the frequencies of f-word variations in DCOESL. Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of f-word across genres and time in DCOESL. Table 2 Frequencies and Percentage Distributions of F-word in DCOESL Genres RF NF % Country 0 0 0 Pop 15 11 0.0011 R&B 55 39 0.0039 Rock 34 24 0.0024 Total 104 74 0.0074 Note. RF = Raw Frequency, NF = Normalised Frequency, % = Percentage of Distribution. The figures for % are rounded off to the nearest four decimal places. The f-word was searched separately for its variants which are fuck, fucked, fucks, fuckin(g), and fucker(s) in order to attain clearer view of their distributions in each music genre over a span of five decades of the whole DCOESL. 20 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Table 3 Distribution of F-word Variants in DCOESL DCOESL vs. BNC vs. COCA Form POS Tag Genre RF NF G2 Sig. Level G2 Sig. Level fuck VV0 County 0 0 79.55 <0.0001 62.71 <0.0001 Pop 15 11 R&B 55 39 Rock 34 24 fucked VVD County 0 0 10.97 <0.001 10.97 <0.001 Pop 4 3 R&B 10 7 Rock 3 2 fucks VVZ County 0 0 0.25 <1.0 0.36 <1.0 Pop 0 0 R&B 0 0 Rock 0 0 fucking VVG County 0 0 0.95 <1.0 1.06 <1.0 Pop 1 1 R&B 0 0 Rock 1 1 fucker(s) NN1, NN2 County 0 0 7.30 <0.01 5.85 <0.05 Pop 2 1 R&B 2 1 Rock 9 6 As can be seen from the table, for all the word forms under investigation, the lexical verb f-word has the highest occurrences with a total of 74 counts per million words (pmw). The difference between DCOESL against BNC and COCA is statistically significant at the level <0.001. F-word in DCOESL occurs about 24 times more frequently than in BNC, and about 10 times more frequently than in COCA. The second most contrast is found for the past tense form, f**ked, which is used about 12 times more frequent than f**ked in BNC and COCA. Flora Goyak, Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini, 21 Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim & Ardi Gunsuh Figure 1. Distribution of Lexical Verb F-word across Genres and Time in DCOESL. Based on Figure 1, it can be observed that the frequencies of lexical verb f- word in DCOESL are showing an ascending trend. In the 1960s and 1970s, f-word was not used at all in song lyrics across the four genres. However, in the 1980s, the f- word begins to emerge with only one occurrence. This occurrence increases to 8 in the 1990s, before it surges to 63 in the 2000s. The findings also revealed that the lexical verb f-word is most prevalent in the R&B genre with 30 counts pmw, followed by Rock and Pop with 24 counts pmw and 11 counts pmw respectively. Interestingly, there was no occurrence of the lexical verb f-word in the Country music genre. The common description of Rock music genre is that it is a genre of foul language and constant exposure to this genre has led to juvenile delinquency, undesirable attitude, stereotyped sex-roles and sexual violence (Marsh, 1993; Sutcliffe, 2011). The findings in this research have shown that this description is true to some extent. On the contrary, it was found that R&B contains higher f-word, than Rock and as well as Pop. The study showed that the lexical verb f-word emerged in the 1980s, and continued to gain popularity in its use in the following two decades. At a glance of R&B history background, the genre begun from the American African community in the late 1940s. Ripani (2006) stated that R&B, a popular music genre primarily created by and for black Americans, prefers spoken song text and the lyrics contain slurred speech (as in f**k you), with implicit and explicit sexual contents especially since the 1980s (p.129). These explain the high preference of f-word for its adjacent collocates of personal pronouns I, you, me, and ‘em (them), and the high counts of f- word itself in R&B. Tagged with USAS, R&B lyrics in DCOESL reflect mainly social context whereby intimate or sexual relationship is involved. This is because the genre is constantly associated with sexual topics (Hajdu, 2016). Based on the identified collocates of f-word in Table 6, f**k me and f**k ‘em are highly significant to the 0 0 0 1 10 0 0 1 7 30 0 0 0 1 23 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1960-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999 2000-2009 nORMALISED fREQUENCY YEARS Country Pop RnB Rock 22 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 node f-word. The aforementioned collocations possess strong association, and also the collocates me and ‘em are attested to be vital to f-word in song lyrics. The list of songs containing occurrence of these two collocations were retrieved from the diachronic corpus as shown in Table 4. Table 4 List of Songs in DCOESL with F**k me and F**k ‘em No. Collocation No. of Occurrences (RF) Artist Song Title Gender Decade f**k me 1 20 Ludacris Splash Waterfalls Male 2000s f**k ‘em 2 1 50 Cent Ah! Male 2000s 3 1 Ludacris Move Bitch Male 2000s 4 1 Jay-Z I Just Wanna Love You Male 2000s Note. Collocations f**k me and f**k ‘em are well attested for MI score and T-score. Thus, the two collocations have established a prominence feature as vital lexical verb f-word collocations in reflecting English language use in R&B song lyrics. Collocation f**k me is mainly found in Ludacris’ contemporary R&B (or Hip Hop) song; Splash Waterfalls. Meanwhile, collocation f**k ‘em is found in three songs; 50 Cent’s Ah!, Ludacris’ Move B**ch, and Jay-Z’s I Just Wanna Love You. The list illustrates two noticeable similarities in terms of gender and decade. All the song lyrics were sung by male black artists in the 2000s. The song lyrics contain both implicit (splash waterfalls) and explicit (the bitches want me to fuck ‘em) sexual contents, with women as their objects. The hostility of black male singers towards black women in song lyrics can be closely linked back to the 1950s, the era of the Civil rights movement by the African Americans in the United States which lasted until year 1968 (Glasrud & Wintz, 2019). In general, this 15 years-long struggle was dedicated to attain equal rights and treatment of African Americans in the US, with many black female leaders, which brought up sexual politics into the lyrics of R&B (Ward, 1998, p. 71). The matriarchal nature of black society and the emasculation of black male contributed to the aggression towards the black women (Ward, 1998, p. 73). This was explained by Moynihan (1995), whereby he traced the emasculation of black men to slavery when they were perceived as an incapable breadwinner and protector of their families (as cited in Ling & Monteith, 2014, p. 42). As Civil rights movement opened doors in job market for black women, black men struggled for the economic opportunity and political power to restore their patriarchy status. Black women were blamed for their political participations (Burrel, 2004, p.69). Otherwise Flora Goyak, Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini, 23 Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim & Ardi Gunsuh explained, the availability of job vacancies in the US for black women enabled them to be the functional head of their families. This caused resentments by the black males towards black women, which became male blues tradition to degrade black women for their ‘quest for greater riches and better sex’ in an attempt to exert ‘male control’ (Ward, 1998, p. 75). Comparative Analysis of F-word in DCOESL with F-word in BNC and COCA To further investigate on the use of f-word in DCOESL, comparative analysis with the reference corpora of BNC and COCA was carried out. This measure helps to identify which English language register does song lyrics most likely to mirror in general. Values for G2 were calculated and tabulated in Table 5. The interpretation of results is based on the following two hypotheses by taking into account the significance values provided by McEnery et al. (2006, p. 55): 1. Null hypothesis, HO: There exist no significant association between the occurrence of f**k in DCOESL with f**k in the reference corpora. 2. Alternative hypothesis, Ha: There exist a significant association between the occurrence of f**k in DCOESL with f**k in the reference corpora, G2>6.63 at p < 0.01 or 1% level, G2> 10.83 at p < 0.001, G2> 15.13 at p < 0.0001. Table 5 G2 of F-word in DCOESL with F-word in Spoken and Written Registers of BNC and COCA Subcorpora RF NF G2 Sig. Level BNCSPOKEN 106 10.18 54.61 <0.0001 BNCWRITTEN 225 2.56 83.70 <0.0001 COCASPOKEN 4 0.01 102.40 <0.0001 COCAWRITTEN 4266 7.55 62.74 <0.0001 G2 test reveals that the difference between the corpora is highly significant. F-word in DCOESL is highly associated with f-word in the spoken register of reference corpora, G2BNCSPOKEN = 54.61 and G2COCASPOKEN = 102.40, df=1, p<0.0001. F-word in DCOESL is highly associated with f-word in the written register of reference corpora, G2BNCWRITTEN = 83.70 and G2COCAWRITTEN = 62.72, df=1, p<.0001. Based on the scores, the verb f-word in DCOESL shows highest resemblance to spoken register of the English language. To support the aforestated results, the researchers took a closer look at the emerging findings of adjacent collocations provided by the current diachronic corpus. Adjacent Collocations of F-word 24 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 The top three adjacent collocations of the lexical verb f-word in DCOESL were calculated for the Mutual Information (MI) scores to assess the importance of the collocations to the node and show a clearer picture of the relationship between words (collocate + node) than that given by a simple collocation list alone. For BNC and COCA, the MI scores for f-word collocations are retrieved from their freely accessible websites. To be certain that the collocations are the results of more than vagaries, another collocation measurement was calculated; the T-score. To avoid misleading results from the MI scores, T-score is utilised to analyse and validate MI scores by giving clearer insight to which words have a strong attraction to the lexical verb f- word and which do not occur frequently in DCOESL are not given high significance. Table 6 shows the MI and T-score values for f-word collocations in DCOESL. The interpretation of results for MI is based on the following two hypotheses by taking into account the significance values provided by Hunston (2002, p. 71): 1. Null hypothesis, HO: F-word and the adjacent collocate occur randomly with each other, MI < 3. The interpretation of results for T-score is based on the following two hypotheses by taking into account the significance values provided by Hunston (2002, p.72): 1. Null hypothesis, HO: The adjacent collocate is not significant to the node f-word, T-score < 2. Table 6 MI and T-score Values for F-word Collocations in DCOESL (Window Span: -1, +1) Rank -1 RF NF MI T +1 RF NF MI T 1. 2. 3. I you can’t 11 9 3 8 6 2 0.369 0.042 2.261 0.638 0.071 1.119 me it ‘em 18 7 6 13 5 4 3.442 2.124 7.078 3.274 1.723 1.985 As shown in Table 6, the collocate first person singular subjective personal pronoun I occurs most frequent directly to the left of f-word with 8 occurrences pmw. However, collocate I has an MI score of 0.369 and a T-score as low as 0.638. This means that I, is not a significant collocate and it has very weak attraction to f-word. The second most frequent collocate is the second person personal pronoun you with MI score of 0.042 and T-score of 0.071. Although identified at rank 2, you is not a significant and strong collocate of f-word. Similar goes to can’t and it in terms of collocational strength and collocates significance. Table 7 shows the top three most common word forms in DCOESL. Table 7 Flora Goyak, Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini, 25 Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim & Ardi Gunsuh Top Three Most Common Word Forms in DCOESL Rank Word RF NF % 1 I 66637 47173 4.717 2 you 57569 40754 4.075 3 the 45214 32008 3.201 Personal pronouns I and you occupy 4.717 per cent and 4.075 per cent respectively of the entire DCOESL. In other words, the words I and you are very frequent in the English language as a whole. They tend to occur near the top of many collocate lists simply because it is so frequent overall. Likewise, personal pronouns I and you are very common in BNC and COCA. Table 8 shows the distribution of top two pronouns in overall of BNC and COCA and Table 9 shows the distribution top two pronouns in subcorpora of BNC and COCA. Table 8 Distribution of I and You in Overall of BNC and COCA Corpora BNC COCA Word Rank NF % Rank NF % I 14 8660 0.9 11 9797 1 you 19 6787 0.7 14 7869 0.8 Table 9 Distribution of I and You in Subcorpora of BNC and COCA Subcorpora BNCWritten BNCSpoken COCAWritten COCASpoken Word NF % NF % NF % NF % I 6223 0.6 29241 2.9 6650 0.7 3147 0.3 you 4538 0.5 25780 2.6 4148 0.4 3720 0.4 Based on Table 8 and Table 9, the personal pronouns I and you are both in the top 20 of common word forms of BNC and COCA. COCA has the higher occurrences of I and you, with 9797 and 7869 occurrences respectively. For BNC, I and you in the spoken register are higher than written register by 2.3 percent and 2.1 percent respectively. On the other hand, COCA, I in the spoken register is lower than written register by 0.4 percent. You has about the same occurrences, which amount to about 0.4 percent of total occurrences in both registers. The third most frequent collocate to the left of f-word is contraction can’t, which has an MI score of 2.261 and T–score of 1.119. The scores are not adequate 26 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 enough (MI < 3 and T < 2), to prove that can’t is a highly significant collocate of fuck. In DCOESL, can’t amounts to 2820 occurrences overall in DCOESL. Figure 2 shows a concordance set of can’t fuck in DCOESL. Figure 2. Concordance Set for Can’t F**k (Pronoun+VerbBase) in DCOESL. For window span +1, the collocate objective personal pronoun, me, shows significant MI score of 3.442 and T-score of 3.274. The aforementioned scores indicate that me is an important collocate to f-word. The T-score reveals that the occurrences of f**k me are not purely due to chance. In other words, we can be certain that the association of f**k me is highly non-random. The reduced form of third person plural objective personal pronoun them, which is ‘em, has a high MI score of 7.078. The T-score is 1.985, which is not high enough to prove that ‘em is a strong collocate. This means that the association between collocate ‘em and node f-word are highly non-random. However, the T-score highlighted that ‘em is not strongly associated to the node f-word. Figure 3 shows a set of concordance lines for colocation f**k me. F**k me occurs in R&B with 16 counts (lines 2 until 18) and Rock with one count (line 1) within the 2000s. F**k me does not occur in Country and Pop. Figure 3. Concordance Set for F**k Me (VerbBase + Pronoun Word Order) in DCOESL. The collocate impersonal pronoun, it, has an MI score of 2.124 and T-score of 1.723. The aforestated scores are not high enough (MI < 3 and T < 2) to prove that it is a significant collocate. In other words, it has not a very strong association and attraction to the node fuck. Figure 4 below shows a set of concordance lines of f**k it. Flora Goyak, Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini, 27 Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim & Ardi Gunsuh Figure 4. Concordance Set for F**k It (VerbBase + Pronoun Word Order) in DCOESL. The reduced form of third person plural objective personal pronoun them, which is ‘em, has a high MI score of 7.078. The T - score is 1.985, which is not high enough to prove that ‘em is a strong collocate. This means that the association between collocate ‘em and node fuck are highly non-random. However, the T-score highlighted that ‘em is not strongly associated to the node fuck. Figure 4 below shows a set of concordance lines of fuck ‘em. Figure 5. Concordance Set for F**k ‘em (VerbBase + Pronoun Word Order) in DCOESL. Figure 6. Distribution of F-word + Pronoun across Genres and Time in DCOESL. Based on Figure 6, f-word begins to emerge in the 1980s, particularly in R&B. Note that the attested occurrences of lexical verb f-word in DCOESL are mostly combined with personal pronouns such as me and ‘em. This attribute of extremely 0 0 29 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1980-1989 1990-1999 2000-2009 No. of Occurrences (Raw Frequency) Decade Pop RnB Rock Linear (RnB) 28 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 common occurrences of personal pronouns and emotive verbs (f-word is categorized as verb of emotion via USAS) resembles spoken English, which Biber et al. (1999) described as the characteristics of conversation register. The spoken-like characteristics of R&B through the use of lexical verb f-word marks the beginning of transition in vocal style from gospel in early 1980s, to spoken word which became very prominent by late 1990s (Burnim & Maultsby, 2014, p. 266). This explains the surges of f-word + Personal Pronouns phenomena in DCOESL as can be seen in Figure 6. Out of 104 sentences in the lyrics containing the lexical verb f-word, this pattern covers a total of 41 occurrences or 39.42 percent of the sentences. This pattern is found to be significant when the top three collocation of f-word was generated via AntConc. The use of personal pronouns including I and you has been traditionally associated with informality (Wales, 1996, p. 107). The Personal Pronoun + VerbLexical construction is associated with informal talk (Trillo, 2008, p. 71), to express informality and speaker’s personal involvement, which is typical of informal registers such as fiction and informal speech (Březina, 2018, p. 164) as can be found in BNC and COCA. For DCOESL, I and you are frequently used for their significance in illustrating strong personal involvement of the artists with the addressees as they convey their stories through song lyrics, and make the audience feel like they “participate” in those stories (Griffee, 1992, p. 4). Semantically tagged, I f**k and you f**k in DCOESL generally refer to artists’ intimate or sexual relationship, human anatomy and physiology, and carefree attitude. The phrase ‘f**k with’ as in ‘f**k with somebody’ means ‘mess with’ which means to ‘treat somebody badly in a way that makes them annoyed’ (Hornby et al., 2010, p. 605). In DCOESL, can’t f-word means ‘can’t mess’ with something or somebody. The contraction or negation can’t is a sign of colloquialization and it is very common in non-academic language (Iosef, 2013; Biber et al., 1999; Biber et al., 2002). This is true in the case of COCA whereby can’t is the highest with 593pmw in written fiction register, but lowest with 55 occurrences in academic writing register. For BNC, can’t amounts to 1239 occurrences in spoken register and 197 occurrences in written register. Thus, it can be said that DCOESL contains high use of negative contraction can’t and its combination with taboo word f-word (Negation + VerbBase: can’t f**k) proves that DCOESL is a written genre which contains informal speech- like feature. If f**k me was to be interpreted according to literal meaning, it could be defined as a request from someone to have sexual intercourse with him or her. However, this is not the case for f-word me in DCOESL. Table 10 shows semantic categories of f-word in DCOESL. Table 10 Semantic Categories of F-word in DCOESL Flora Goyak, Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini, 29 Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim & Ardi Gunsuh Word POS Tag USAS Semantic Tag Category f-word VV0 S3.2/B1 E6+ S : Social actions, states and processes. S3.2 : Relationship: Intimate/sexual B1 : Anatomy and physiology E : Emotion E6+ : Confident Semantically tagged using the USAS English tagger, f-word mainly refers to social action, states and processes, particularly intimate or sexual relationship. It also refers to anatomy and physiology. Interestingly, f-word as in f**k me also refers to positive emotion, that is to express confidence. This could be black men’s way of exercising their masculinity power. This finding is contrast to the definition given by Stuart-Hamilton (2007), that is to express surprise, although he also noted that ‘f**k me’ is not to be taken literally (p. 94). Conclusion Computational Linguistics provides great possibilities for linguistic investigations as compared to traditional research methods. The corpus computational tools have become indispensable as automatic linguistic annotation, flexible query and quantitative and qualitative analysis of large text corpora can be conducted to gain deeper understanding of the natural language. The lexical verb f-word in DCOESL is proven as a marker for informal spoken English. In term of statistical test of significant against reference corpora, f-word resembles the spoken register of COCA the most. Its frequent collocates are consisting of pronouns I, you, me, it, and ‘em, and colloquial language signs; contractions such as can’t and ‘em. From the semantic tagging applied to DCOESL, f-word in song lyrics generally reflect social actions, states and processes. This taboo verb is very prominent in the RnB genre because lyrics of Rhythm and Blues never stray far from the topic of sex (Hajdu, 2016). The history background of f-word in R&B song lyrics could be traced back to the Civil rights movement which caused black men’s hostility towards black women. From the findings in DCOESL, lexical verb f-word does not necessarily to be defined by its literal definition, but also can be interpreted as an expression of confidence namely f**k it, f**k ‘em, and f**k me. Funding Acknowledgment This work is supported by the research grant 2020-0201-107-01 from Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris under the Research Management Centre entitled ‘The Development of Malaysian National Spoken Corpora (My-SPOCA) in Negeri Sembilan and Malacca Based On Speakers of Different Age, Geolocation and Gender’. 30 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 References Bartle, G. (1962). Music in the language classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review, 19(1), 11-14. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.19.1.11 Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Leech, G. (2002). Longman student grammar of spoken and written English. Pearson Education Limited. Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finnegan, E. (1999). Longman grammar of spoken and written English. Pearson Education Limited. BNC Consortium. (2018). British National Corpus: BNCweb (CQP-Edition). http://bncweb.lancs.ac.uk/cgibinbncXML/BNCquery.pl?theQuery=search&urlTest =yes Březina, V. (2018). Statistics in corpus linguistics: A practical guide. Cambridge University Press. Bridle, M. (2018). Male blues lyrics 1920 to 1965: A corpus based analysis. Language and Literature, 27(1), 21-37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963947017751757 Burnim, M. V. & Maultsby, P. K. (2014). African American music. Routledge. Burrel, B. C. (2004). Women and political participation: A reference handbook. ABC-CLIO. Domoney, L. & Harris, S. (1993). Justified and ancient: Pop music in EFL classrooms. ELT Journal, 47, 234-241. Eken, D. K. (1996). Ideas for using pop songs in the English language classroom. English Teaching Forum, 34, 46-47. Glasrud, B. A. & Wintz, C. D. (2019). Black Americans and the civil rights movement in the west. University of Oklahoma Press. Goddard, C. (2014). Jesus! vs Christ! In Australian English: Semantics, secondary interjections and corpus analysis. In J. Romero-Trillo (Eds.), Yearbook of corpus linguistics and pragmatics 2014: New empirical and theoretical paradigms (pp. 55- 77). Springer International Publishing. Griffee, D. T. (1992). Songs in action. Phoenix ELT. Hajdu, D. (2016). Love for sale: Pop music in America. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Hornby, A. S., Turnbull, J., Lea, D., Parkinson, D., Phillips, P., Francis, B., Webb, S., Bull, V, & Ashby, M. (2010). Oxford advanced learner's dictionary international student's edition (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. Hunston, S. (2002). Corpora in applied linguistics. Cambridge University Press. Iosef, M. (2013). Signs of colloquialization: Three corpus-based case studies [Master's thesis, University of Oslo). University of Oslo Library. https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/37034/iosef_master.pdf?isAllowed =y&sequence=2 Jolly, Y. (1975). The use of songs in teaching foreign languages. The Modern Language Journal, 59(1,2), 11-14. https://doi.org/10.2307/325440 Krashen, S. T. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon. Lindquist, H. (2009). Corpus linguistics and the description of English. Edinburgh University Press. Ljung, M. (2011). Swearing: A cross-cultural linguistics study. Palgrave Macmillan. Lo, R. & Fai Li, H. C. (1998). Songs enhance learner involvement. English Teaching Forum, 36(3), 8-11. Logan, B., Kositsky, A., & Moreno, P. (2004). Semantic analysis of song lyrics. Paper presented at IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo, Taipei, Taiwan. Marsh, D. (1993). Louie Louie: The history ofmythology of the world’s most famous Rock ‘n’ Roll song. Hyperion. Flora Goyak, Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini, 31 Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim & Ardi Gunsuh McEnery, A. M. (2006). Swearing in English: Bad language, purity and power from 1586 to the present. Routledge. McEnery, A. M., & Xiao, Z. (2003). F-word revisited. In D. Archer, P. Rayson, A. Wilson, & A. M. McEnery (Eds.), Proceedings of the corpus linguistics 2003 conference (pp. 504-512). Centre for Computer Corpus Research on Language Technical Papers, Lancaster University. McEnery, T., Xiao, R., & Tono, Y. (2006). Corpus-based language studies: An advanced resource book. Routledge. Motschenbacher, H. (2016). Language, normativity, and Europeanisation: Discursive evidence from the Eurovision Song Contest. Palgrave Macmillan. Moynihan, D. P. (1965). U.S. Department of labor. The Negro family: The case for national action. In P. J. Ling & S. Monteith (Eds.), Gender in the civil rights movement (pp. 42). Garland Publishing, Inc. North, A. C., Hargreaves, D. J., Hargreaves, J. J. (2004). The uses of music in everyday life. Music Perception, 22, 63–99. Petrie, K. J., Pennebaker, J. W., & Sivertsen, B. (2008). Things we said today: A linguistic analysis of the Beatles. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 2(4), 197- 202. Richards, J. (1969). Songs in language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 3(2), 161-174. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586103 Ripani, R. J. (2006). The new Blue music: Changes in Rhythm and Blues (1950-1999). University Press of Mississippi. Saarinen, E. (2013). From war pigs to unsung heroes: The criticism and justification of war in metal lyrics [Master’s thesis, University of Turku). Turun Yliopisto. http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe201306123973 Schoepp, K. (2001). Reasons for using songs in the ESL/EFL classroom. Internet TESL Journal, 2(2). http://iteslj.org/Articles/Schoepp-Songs.html Sinclair, J. M. (2015). How to use corpora in language teaching. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Stuart-Hamilton, I. (2007). An Asperger dictionary of everyday expressions. Jessica Kingsley. Sutcliffe, P. (2011). AC/DC: High voltage Rock ‘n’ Roll the ultimate illustrated history. Voyageur Press. Taina, J. (2014). Keywords in heavy metal lyrics [Master’s thesis, University of Helsinki). Helda. https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/136524/keywords.pdf Tognini-Bonelli. (2001). Corpus linguistics at work. Amsterdam. Trillo, J. R. (2008). Pragmatics and corpus linguistics: A mutualistic entente. Mouton de Gruyter. Wales, K. (1996). Personal pronouns in present-day English. Cambridge University Press. Ward, B. (1998). Just my soul responding: Rhythm and Blues, black consciousness and race relations. UCL Press. Biography Flora Goyak holds a Master's degree in TESL from Sultan Idris University of Education. Her specializations are Corpus Linguistics, Computational Linguistics and TESL. Mazura Mastura Muhammad is a senior lecturer at the Department of English Language and Literature, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris and her areas of specialization are Corpus Linguistics, Language Assessment and TESL. 32 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (14-32) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Muhammad Fadzllah Zaini is a lecturer in the Department of Malay Language and Literature, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI). His areas of specialization are Corpus Linguistics and Computer Applications in Language Education. Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim is a senior lecturer at the Department of Basic Sciences, Community College, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman and the Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Education, Tanta University, Egypt. Ardi Gunsuh holds a Bachelor’s Degree in International Business majoring in International Finance from Universiti Malaysia Sabah and is an integral figure within TalentCorp’s Graduate and Emerging Talent department where he focuses on campus engagement activities, actively engaging with the public and private institutes of higher learning. He co-leads TalentCorp’s Structured Internship Programme, collaborating with employers to ensure that Malaysia’s graduates are ready for the workforce. Since joining TalentCorp in 2013, Ardi has contributed to various departments, including the Industry Partnership team where he established meaningful partnerships with key industry players to benefit Malaysia workplace and workforce via TalentCorp’s initiatives.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

Asian Culture, Asian Minimalists, John Cage, minimalism, Tan Dun

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5600

The Mutual Influence between Asian Cultures and American Minimalist Music: An Essential Channel for Aesthetic Exchange

 

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5600/3663

Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 33 The Mutual Influence between Asian Cultures and American Minimalist Music: An Essential Channel for Aesthetic Exchange Fernando Martin Pastor1 & Ang-Cheng Kris Ho2 Music Performance Programme, Division of Culture and Creativity BNU-HKBU United International College, China e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 4 August 2022 Cite this article (APA): Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. (2022) The mutual influence between Asian cultures and American minimalist music: An essential channel for aesthetic exchange. Malaysian Journal of Music, 11(1), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol11.1.3.2022 Abstract This research aims to show the mutual influence between Asian cultures and American minimalist music. This cultural exchange that started with John Cage, before continuing with Toru Takemitsu and then, Tan Dun, has been a fruitful channel of communication for new compositions in both continents. The paper explores the close connection between early minimalist composers (Reich, Glass, La Monte Young, and Terry Riley) and Asian music and philosophies (Zen Buddhism and Spirituality) as well as some of the ramifications of these traditions over the past five decades. The concept of minimalism was first applied in the arts as a return to simplicity, in tune with Asian philosophies. For some artists, the practice was already present in Asian arts before it appeared in the West. The minimalistic endeavour starts with the experimental works of Cage and Feldman; followed by the movement “Fluxus”. This coincided with what is often considered early minimalism, leading to the great variety of styles and mix of compositional techniques employed by current Asian composers influenced by American minimalism. This paper also analyses the use of minimalism in the Western and Asian curriculum. Keywords: Asian culture, Asian minimalists, John Cage, minimalism, Tan Dun Introduction Minimalism is often considered the most significant musical movement of the late 20th century as it is the contemporary style most performed in concert halls today (Peterson, 2014). The style originated in United States during the 1960s and its roots can be traced to philosophical ideas from Asia. However, despite its popularity in the West, minimalism is somehow new to Asian audiences. This paper aims to fill this gap of research by Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 34 examining its aesthetic ideas and links to Zen Buddhism, Asian visual arts, and culture. In this way, future Asian performers will be able to connect the style to their own musical and cultural experience. The Influence of Asian Cultures in Minimalist Music In recent years, minimalism has been described as “the single most important idea of the last century, the one that made possible virtually all that we now listen to ... from punk and techno to ambient and grime” (Sande, 2010). The term “minimalism” was first used by Michael Nyman in 1971 (Duckworth, 1999, p. 293). The movement began in the 1960s, not as a coherent aesthetic but more as an eclectic practice dominated by the visual arts. Meyer (2001) defined this movement as a practical field in the arts (p. 6). A key feature of minimalism has been the influence of non-Western cultures (Gann, 2004). During the 1960s, four Asian traditions were the main influence of the style: Indonesian gamelan, Indian classical music, Japanese gagaku and the philosophies of Zen Buddhism. It should be noticed that in the last years the style has been under scrutiny and for some Asian artists this practice was already in use in some countries including Japan before it appeared in the West.1 This new aesthetic was adopted in the late 1960’s by several New York-based composers: La Monte Young (b. 1935), Terry Riley (b. 1935), Steve Reich (b. 1936), and Philip Glass (b. 1937). These musicians became the first of minimalist composers at a time dominated by European styles (serialism, neo-classicism, nationalism, and the avant-garde) (Schwartz & Godfrey, 1993, p. 263). These American composers were heavily influenced by the visual arts and brought multiple non-Western influences into their compositions such as: Indian Hindustani music or the Balinese gamelan. Zen Buddhism is also an influential element in their philosophical and aesthetical approach. From the beginning of the movement there has been a strong link to Asian cultures and some of these composers had performed with Asian musicians like Ravi Shankar.2 John Cage and the Influence of the Zen Philosophy Buddhism has been present in the United States from the mid nineteenth century since the arrival of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean immigrants to Hawaii and the West Coast. From the late nineteenth century, an elite group of artists and intellectuals including the philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) became close to Buddhist practices (Burgan, 2012). The 1950s and 1960s saw a “boom” of Zen Buddhism in the United States (Burgan, 2012). Painters like Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, the sculptor and painter Ron Bladen, or the minimalists Tony Smith and Agnes Martin had spiritual practices close to either or both Judeo-Christian and Asian philosophies (Chave, 2008). 1 A recent exhibition, Minimalism: Space. Light. Object, held at the National Gallery in Singapore, re-examined the origins of minimalism in Southeast Asia. A Cambodian minimalist artist, Sopheap, proposed that the Asian tradition of minimalism is far older in Asia than in the West and that minimalism was “happening in Japan way before the word was created” (National Gallery of Singapore, 2018). 2 Ravi Shankar and Philip Glass collaborated in the album Passages in the late 1960s. Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 35 John Cage (1912-1992) was the first Western composer to apply in his music some of the concepts related to Zen Buddhism and other Asian philosophies. His aesthetic ideas had a great impact on American composers and the visual artists, particularly on minimalists. Cage, who had studied Zen with Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki, believed that music’s true purpose of art was to “sober and quiet the mind” (Brown, 2000, p.1). This approach to art is in tune with Zen Buddhism and some techniques of meditation and performance practices in South and East Asia, such as the Japanese Shinto chanting or the Hindu ecstatic devotional music (Kirtan and Namawali Bhajan) (Henry, 2002). Before his learning of Zen, Cage had approached Indian classical music in the 1940s, studying the concept of rasa, the mood or character of a musical scale or raga. His pieces at this time experimented with Indian rhythmic structures, as well as with the different rasas, and have a particular contemplative character. The culmination of this period is his String Quartet (1950) where he introduces concepts related to Indian culture: “the view of the seasons, which is creation, preservation, destruction, and quiescence; also, the Indian idea of the nine permanent emotions, with tranquillity at the centre” (Kostelanetz, 2003, p. 66). During these years, Cage also composed music for mediation imitating the structure and sounds of the Indonesian gamelan music. In his set of works for prepared piano (started in 1938), nine of these pieces are given a gamelan-like treatment and one of them is a short “Prelude for Meditation” (1944) composed only on 4 tones. Cage is also a pioneer in using new technology and collaborating with other artists, mixing music with other media (dance, theatre, and the visual arts). His collaboration with the choreographer Merce Cunningham produced a type of music theatre in which he explores the sound of the prepared piano to imitate the Indonesian gamelan. Music for Marcel Duchamp is his masterpiece of the time and a major influence on the minimalist composers. In the 1950s, after the study of Zen Buddhism, Cage looked inward towards a pure music, emphasising the importance of silence and isolated sounds: “I’ve thought of music as a means of changing the mind. I saw art not as something that consisted of a communication from the artist to an audience, but rather as an activity of sounds in which the artist found a way to let the sounds be themselves” (Kostelanetz, 2003, p. 42). Silence in Cage’s music become pervasive as opposed to areas of sound, in a clear influence of the Japanese philosophy of the simultaneous presence and absence of all things. His passion for silence in music comes both from his interest in Eastern and Western spirituality. His readings on the Hindu mystic Sri Ramakrishna, and on the medieval German mystic Meister Eckhart, who emphasised silence as expression of the divine (Retallack, 2015). For Cage, silence and duration are the essential elements of music structure as opposed to Beethoven’s preference for harmony (Shultis, 1995). In his search for new means of expression during these years, he composed poetic texts that follow musical ideas, creating a clear connection between poetic and music structures. For example, in his Lecture on Nothing (1959), this text is organised musically from a set of durations, proportions, and groups of rhythmic structures or musical measures (Figure 1). The text is written in four columns to show the structure: "There are four measures in each line and twelve lines in each unit of the rhythmic structure. There are forty-eight such units, Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 36 each having forty-eight measures. The whole is divided into five large parts, in the proportion 7, 6, 14, 14, 7” (Cage, 2011, p. 109). Figure 1. Excerpt from Lecture on Nothing by John Cage (Cage, 2011, p. 109) A few years before this text, Cage had started composing music with no intention or goal, following the I-Ching or Book of Changes. This is an ancient Chinese book of divination that provides answers and guidance. Used by Buddhists as well as Taoists and Confucians to make moral decisions, it has a long history of interpretations and is considered a book of wisdom. Cage’s reading of the I-Ching led him to a new style of composition, chance music or indeterminacy, music with no intentionality, as in his Music of Changes (1951). The search for “indeterminacy” or aleatoric music comes directly after his study with D.T. Suzuki and his reading of the Huang Po Doctrine of Universal Mind. Cage realised the inherent opposition between Western and Eastern musical aesthetics, whereas Western classical forms aim for narratives with clear goals and expectations, Eastern aesthetics propose a contemplative (non-goal oriented) experience. At the core of this conflict lies causality and intentionality: “In the course of a lecture … Suzuki said that there was a difference between Oriental thinking and European thinking, that in European thinking things are seen as causing one another and having effects, whereas in oriental thinking this seeing of cause and effect is not emphasised but instead one makes an identification with what is here and now” (Cage, 2011, p. 46). Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 37 The Zen composer needs to free himself of his intentions and the new “chance music” would be Cage’s answer to this aesthetic search (Timmerman, 2009). This doctrine of non-obstruction means that I don’t wish to impose my feelings on other people. Therefore, the use of chance operations, indeterminacy, etcetera, the non erection of patterns, of either ideas or feelings on my part, in order to leave those other centres free to be the centres (Kostelanetz, 2003, p. 224). Cage uses the I-Ching to make musical decisions regarding notes, structure, instrumentation, or rhythm, but not as a book of wisdom (Kostelanetz, 2003 pp. 17 & 83). Pieces like Music of Changes (1951), Imaginary Landscape No 4 (1951), and Cheap Imitation (1969) use the I-Ching to decide the musical components of the compositions. In this aleatoric music the composer is only part of the compositional process, as Cage sets the initial conditions and throws the dice, he is not making decisions but only contemplating the random result of this process. The I-Ching for Cage is also a book to reflect on his music, “Very often you can ask a question and then find out that it gives you an answer that makes you aware of another dimension you haven’t thought of” (Kostelanetz, 2003, p. 17). The aesthetic result of these chance-controlled compositions was foreign to Western ears, as the pieces lack directionality, expectations, or goals. Against this type of criticism, Cage had a favourite quote showing his awareness of the aesthetic differences between the East and the West: “In Zen they say, If something is boring after two minutes, try it for four. If still boring, then eight. Then sixteen. Then thirty-two. Eventually one discovers that it is not boring at all” (Cage & Gann, 2011, p. 93). Like Cage, minimalist composers like La Monte Young, Terry Riley, and Steve Reich continued applying in their compositions, numbers and musical processes, new technology, and an emphatic use of silence as well as aesthetic elements derived from Asian philosophies. The importance of Cage in bridging the gap between Asian and Western culture goes both ways, as in 1961 he visited Osaka to give several lectures on the composers of the New York School of the time (Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff) and his new chance music. Two Japanese leading composers attended these lectures, Toshi Ichiyanagi (1933) and Toshiro Mayuzumi (1929-1997), and they were exposed to a “self-evaluation of their own culture” (Heifetz,1984, p. 451). A young Toru Takemitsu (1930-1996), influenced by Toshi Ichiyanagi, was initially shocked by Cage’s music but later acknowledged that thanks to Cage he had learned to appreciate his own musical culture (Burt, 2001, pp. 92-109). This cultural trip of Cage from West to East and the issue of influence, Takemitsu seems to embrace the dialogue between cultures as he claims, “It has now been agreed that there is not much point in arguing which influenced which first in terms of mutual circulation of cultures” (Takemitsu, 1992, p. 27). From the mid-1950s, some major Asian composers influenced by Cage also applied the Chinese I-Ching and the concept of yin and yang to find variety and create balance in their compositions. This is the case of Toru Takemitsu, as well as the American Chinese composer Chou Wen-Chung (1923-2019), and the Korean composer Isang Yun (1917-1995) (Kim, 2022). These three composers also added other Asian elements to their aesthetics: Isang Yun often applied the yin and yang and Chinese calligraphy in his works. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 38 Chou Wen-Chung composed musical gestures derived from the Chinese calligraphy and used the I-Ching and the yin and yang, as in his piece Metaphors (1961) (Zhang, 2015). Toru Takemitsu also composed music using water in a symbolic way as in his piece Toward the Sea (1981), in which each letter of the word “sea” is associated to a pitch- class set within the scale (Zhang, 2015). Chou Wen-Chung and Takemitsu would play an important part in shaping future generations of Asian composers as both were mentors of Tan Dun and Bright Sheng and other composers of the Chinese New Wave (Chou, 2019). This will be discussed later. The European Avant-Garde’s Discovery of Asian Music It is worth mentioning that the European avant-garde composers at that time had also “discovered” Asian music in the 1950s, but they had focused on sonorities more than philosophies, concentrating on sound and timbre qualities. The influence of Asian music, especially East and Southeast Asia, was widespread use of extreme registers of the instruments, portamento and timbre effects, microtonal fluctuations, extreme dynamic range, and new instrumental techniques (Mayuzumi, 1964). In Asia, these instrumental practices have a clear aesthetic purpose and often a transcendental significance, whereas in Europe the sounds were conceived as extended possibilities of the instruments to experiment with or, in other words, new sounds deprived of their aesthetic content. An example of this type of appropriation is an instrumental technique derived from a Japanese Zen medieval practice, the Suizen ritual practiced by the Komusō (Fuke) monks. In this ritual, the mendicant monks play single sounds on the shakuhachi, focusing on precise breathing control and the tuning of these sounds, as a form of meditation. This instrumental technique used by the monks utilises microtonal inflections of isolated sounds. This technique, as well as many other instrumental techniques used in Japanese traditions or Indian classical music, became part of the extended instrumental techniques appropriated by European composers since the 1960s. This appropriation focuses on the sound quality forgetting the ritual, contemplative, and spiritual meanings that the sounds themselves represent (there are some exceptions, as the Italian composer Giacinto Scelsi (1905-1988), who was close to Hindu and Buddhist philosophies (Kirchert, 1998). The European avant-garde seemed reluctant to a synthesis or fusion of musical aesthetics between both continents, as Pierre Boulez shows in the 1960s, “The musical systems of East and West cannot have any bearing on one another, and this will be quickly realized by experienced composers of character” (Heifetz, 1984, p. 444). American minimalist composers, however, are interested both in the new sounds and the aesthetics behind these ritual practices, although, except for Cage and Riley, do not seem to mention in their works the spiritual value of these sounds. The aesthetics derived from Zen Buddhism is appealing to American minimalist composers as they can be applied to music. Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 39 Spiritual Dimensions in Buddhism and Music Applications in the West The connection between the early minimalists and Asian cultures goes beyond aesthetic preferences or a search of a new musical experience. Comparing minimalist pieces to Japanese and Korean Zen music, we find similar elements: • The use of minimal rhythms and instrumentations, particularly in the accompa- niment of the monk’s chant. • The use of simple rhythmic patterns that can last for a long time. • The use of repetitive melodic or rhythmic patterns Figure 2. Comparison of main features of minimalist and Buddhist Music. Zen music has been part of the Japanese Buddhist repertoire from the Kamakura period (1185-1333) until today. Previously, Mahayana Buddhism had been brought from China to Japan and Korea during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), altogether with a new development in musical performance and the invention of instruments and genres as the Gagaku court music (“Traditional Music of Japan,” n.d.) The spiritual values of Buddhism as well as the religious chants are well present in South and East Asia. These values and traditions include not only the repertoire but many music practices. For example, Japanese music education has historically been linked to Buddhist, Confucian and Shinto aesthetics and practices (Keister, 2008). Below there is a summary of some of the spiritual dimensions and their application to music performance (Figure 3 and Figure 4): • • The full experience of the moment, the here and now, with the aim of enlighten- ment. • Tuning and resonance with the outside and inside. • The flow of consciousness and complete immersion in performance of a task. • Focus on body sensations. • Consciousness and connection with others and oneself. Figure 3. The five dimensions of Spirituality in Buddhism (Hay, 2006, pp. 65-70) • • The music performer is focused on the moment, the production of sounds and nuances of the instrument, as well as the passing of time and the emotional content expressed. • In a group performance each player is in tune with the others and with his own instrument. Resonance is a key element particularly in music for several strings, as sounds of similar frequencies (or natural multiples of them) resonate together, reinforcing tuning and instrumental blending. • • The performance flow enables the players to create an impression of a piece as a whole flux of sounds in time. • The players focus on aural and bodily sensations, the ear perceives and the fingers and body react and adapt to each moment. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 40 • • Consciousness and connection are key elements among performers. Orchestra conductors often refer to “connection” as the state of mind that enables them to anticipate other musician’s responses and interpretations. Figure 4. Application to music of the dimensions of Spirituality in Buddhism This state of consciousness, however, can be easily mistaken with a Western concept, the “aesthetic state”, an idea developed by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) in relation to artists’ creativity. For Nietzsche, the “aesthetic state” is an altered state of consciousness that takes place during the artistic creation. Nietzsche’s philosophy had a great impact on post-modern art and the New York School, becoming mainstream in the 1960s and 1970s, to the point that a US president, Richard Nixon, read Nietzsche with “curious interest” (Crowley, 1998, p. 351). One key figure of the New York School and close to the minimalists, Mark Rothko, was heavily influenced by Nietzsche. These two philosophical influences, Nietzsche’s “aesthetic state” and Zen meditative practices, are often referred to or even interlinked by Western artists in the 1960s. Cage, for instance, explains the meaning of meditation as “to open the doors of the ego from a concentration on itself to a flow with all of creation” (Kostelanetz, 2003, p. 20). Minimalist composers were familiar with Zen Buddhism from their contact with John Cage, but they tend to separate the cultural from the spiritual phenomena and the Zen values (except Terrey Riley). Scores are notated in a more experimental way (Feldman) or in a more conventional way (Reich or Glass), but in most cases the transcendental approach to the sounds, the ritual of meditation, is left aside. Unfortunately, this type of mislead approach to this type of transcendental repertoire is quite common in Western appreciation of Eastern values (Matsunobu, 2011). Early American Minimalism and Asian Music and Philosophies The reception of the first American minimalists has been a mixed bag. The style has often been described as “ritualistic music”. Tom Johnson, a music critic who coined the term ‘minimalism’, described Philip Glass’ music as “hypnotic” (Johnson, 1989). The pioneers of minimalist music (La Monte Young, Terry Riley,1 Steve Reich, and Philip Glass) were initially described as members of the “New York Hypnotic School” (Kostelanetz & Flemming, 1999, p. 114). The ritual element in the music comes from the constant repetition of minimal patterns, extreme simplicity, slow melodic and harmonic unfolding, a pervasive use of silence, long drone notes, sustained dynamics, and avoidance of sharp contrasts. All these elements are often part of trance rituals (Becker, 2004). However, little has been discussed on the spirituality behind this “ritualistic music”. Early minimalism (late 1960s and early 1970s) uses repetition in a stricter way and its aim is to achieve a state of “stasis” (especially Young). This early style is the closest to Asian practices and rituals, as it proposes a search of “static non developmental forms” (Fink, 2005, p.m14). As the style evolves in the 1970s, composers found that the label of “minimalism” was “less satisfactory” (Bernard, 2003, p.112). 1 Riley, although part of this school, was based in California, not New York. Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 41 The ritualistic music composed by the first minimalists was also linked to the output of John Cage and Morton Feldman (1926-1987) at the time, independent forerunners of the new style. Whereas Cage had been close to Asian philosophies aiming to liberate the sound of intentionality, Feldman was aiming to: “Disrupt the dialectical continuity of music by removing all teleological and logical elements: ‘I make one sound and then I move on to the next’, he has said. Traditional causality is replaced by an atomised succession” (Mertens, 2007, p. 106). Feldman’s compositions show a simple notation, sometimes using graphics, and a minimal sonority close to the minimalists. His melodies are often repetitive and slow evolving, using simple harmony and long, soft, and meditative sounds. The spiritual mood in these pieces link them to Buddhist music and had a great impact on minimalists’ works such as Riley’s In C, Reich’s Clapping Music, and Glass’s Strung Out. This commitment to individual sounds, isolated durations and lack of intentionality is a clear influence of Cage and Feldman on La Monte Young, as we can see in his Composition 1960 # 7 (Figure 5). The piece consists of only one sound that can be held for a long (unspecified) duration, in consonance with Cage’s 4’33” and the constructive use of durations and silence in his compositions. Figure 5. Score of La Monte Young’s Composition 1960 # 7 (Young,1960) Apart from minimalism, La Monte Young was also involved with the movement “Fluxus”, initially a visual art movement. “Fluxus”, which in Latin means “flow” or “flowing” was also a network of artists and composers founded by George Maciunas (1931-1978). “Fluxus” and experimentalism were initially interconnected in the 1960s. Only after the influence of John Cage, “Fluxus” became part of experimentalism in New York (Tate, n.d.). This movement was not defined by an aesthetic dogma but by the artists’ sharing of creations and experiences (Revich, 2018). Within “Fluxus”, several artists developed an interest in Zen, like Cage, La Monte Young, or the influential New York art critic Arthur C. Danto (b. 1924) who was inspired by Zen Buddhist Ching Yuan (Best, 2006). La Monte Young explores the connections of “Fluxus” between the arts, sound, and music in the 1970s. He introduces the concept of “stasis” that he defines as sameness. Opposite to this concept is differentiation, variation, contrast, or change, what Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 42 he calls “fluxus”. For Young, “stasis” and “fluxus” are both necessary to achieve a higher goal, the static goal, the triumph of ‘stasis’ or sameness. Young was also inspired by Gagaku music (traditional Japanese court music), imitating in his Trio the timbre structure and colours of this ancient music (Strickland, 1993, p. 125). Terry Riley was influenced by Indian Classical Music, Indonesian gamelan and Jazz. After experimenting with tape loops and recorders he composed in C (1964), considered the first minimalist work. His approach to minimalism is based on short motives or cells that are repeated and superimposed in several musical layers. These cells are conceived as modular, as the player has certain freedom on repeating them more or less times. For Riley repetition aims to “rouse emotional vibrations in the listener” (Mertens, 2007, p. 37). Gamelan music was a source of inspiration to many of his works. His commitment to Indian Music is also present through the use of a very personal modal approach to music. His modes have a peculiar sonority and a mood that, similar to Cage’s works in the 1940s, resemble the Indian’s rasa or mood (atmosphere) of the ragas. Riley’s thought is closer to Buddhism, as he claims: “music has to be the expression of spiritual categories like philosophy, knowledge and truth, the highest human qualities. To realise this, my music necessarily radiates balance and rest” (Mertens, 2007, p. 45). Philip Glass studied yoga and Buddhist meditation in the 1960s. During 1966- 1967 he stayed in Tibet and India, growing an interest in non-Western music (Mertens, 2007). He believes that there are many commonalities between a musician and the teachings of dharma as “both require students to learn the basics, pay attention to details, and make an effort to improve. Buddhist artists often note how their meditative practices bolster their creative efforts” (Burgan, 2012, p. 53). Glass’s music is organised following additive principles of rhythm in Indian Music. He took tabla lessons with Alla Rakha, a performer in Ravi Shankar’s ensemble (Potter, 2006). Steve Reich started his career experimenting with tape loops (like Riley). In the early 1970s he studied Indonesian gamelan and West African drumming techniques, which he soon used in more sophisticated pieces like Violin Phase. The interlocking rhythms of the Gamelan and their repetitive cyclic structures are featured in his works of this period (Tenzer, 2019). From the 1980s, minimalism has continuously evolved and become an international eclectic style, open to individual styles and modifications, and merging with other musical traditions. The term post-minimalism has been often used to describe a style in which diatonic harmony, musical processes, and a strict pulse are in consonance with the “motto” of the early minimalist artists: “Make it pure and simple” (Strickland, 1993). “The idea of minimalism is much larger than many people realise. It includes, by definition, any music that works with limited or minimal materials: pieces that use only a few notes, pieces that use only a few words of text, or pieces written for very limited instruments … It includes pieces that move in endless circles” (Johnson, 1989, p. 5). After all this survey of Asian influences and transcendental values in American minimalist composers, it should be mentioned that in the 1980s a group of Eastern European composers embraced a new type of “mystic” minimalism. The Eastern European and Russian “Mystic” Minimalists Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 43 This group includes the composers Henryk Górecki (1933-2010) (Polish), Sofia Gubaidulina, (b.1931) (Russian) and Arvo Pärt (b.1935) (Estonian). From the 1990s their music has been received more as “mystic” than as minimalist: Pärt’s music “unfolds with a quiet rapture, small units shifting and turning with a ritualistic mysticism” (Rockwell, 1993, p. 24). Pärt’s mysticism is in tune with the Eastern Orthodox Church, Gubaidulina is a Russian Orthodox and Górecki was a Catholic. For all of them the meditative style is clear in their music content: “The ‘spirituality’ inference, however, often comes from clues within the score. The soprano’s text in the second movement of Górecki’s Third Symphony is a plea to the Virgin Mary from an inscription on a wall in Auschwitz, and in the third movement is a poem portraying Mary pleading to Jesus at the foot of the cross. Pärt’s catalogue is dominated by works on Christian texts in a variety of languages” (Potter, 2016, p. 319). These composers’ spirituality is closer to a Christian mysticism than to Asian practices. It is worth noticing, however, how the minimalism style which had long roots in Zen philosophies from its beginning has finally found a mystic expression, as if this repetitive style was waiting for composers to match this music language with its original spiritual content. This music is based on ritual repetitions, long drones, simple melodies and harmonies, a “spiritual” use of silence and the avoidance of contrast. The influence of Zen Philosophy seems to find its own modus vivendi in this type of “mystic music”. Somehow, the success of these mystic composers makes us wonder if musical styles are much more than organised sound or a list of aesthetic preferences, as if the sounds needed to be guided by profound concepts or spiritual philosophies. The Influence of Minimalists on Asian Composers Most Asian minimalists have developed their career in the United States. As the style became widely spread from the late 1990s, composers have used some of these techniques in the last 30 years, especially in orchestral pieces or concertos with orchestra, integrating minimalism with other compositional techniques and their own personal style. Yoshimasa “Yoshi” Wada (b. 1943) is a Japanese composer living in the United States, a student of La Monte Young and a pioneer in the late 1960s of the “Fluxus” movement, after meeting its founder George Maciunas. His music at the time was very close to that of the American minimalists with a particular use of drones (repeated or sustained notes for a long period of time). He has experimented with sound installations, conceptual art, and electronic music (Eppley, 2015). Uzong Choe (b.1968) is a Korean eclectic composer with deep roots in Austria and France. His works have shown a great variety of musical styles and traditions, including Korean aesthetics from early music to more contemporary popular music and he has worked with the street theatre troupe Yo- Hee Dan since 1994 (College of Music Seoul National University, 2015). Minimalism is one of the styles he has made use of in his pieces (Song, 2017). The style is not essential in his creation but one more set of techniques in the palette of the composer. From the 1980s, minimalism has contributed to an open approach to music and arts, free of dogmas and formalisms (Fink, 2005, pp. 16-20). Composers often mix musical traditions and explore individual styles utilising a great variety of compositional techniques. This open approach to arts liberated of dogmas is an indirect influence of Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 44 minimalism in the first Chinese New Wave of composers, who found at this time their own compositional response after being immersed in both American and Chinese cultures. The Chinese First New Wave of Composers The composers Wang Xilin, Zhou Long, Chen Yi, Bright Sheng, and Tan Dun are part of the “New Wave” group of Chinese composers who went through the Cultural Revolution in the period 1966-76 and later became representative figures of the Chinese music scene. Although this is a heterogeneous group with very different styles, the New Wave composers feature the use of traditional Chinese and Western avant-garde musical elements and compositional techniques (Liu, 2010, p. 510). The influence of minimalism is clear in Tan Dun and in some pieces of Wang Xilin, less in the other three composers who have used minimalism occasionally in their output (Dong, 2020). Cage is also a major influence of Tan Dun (van Raat, n.d.). This group of composers became the first generation of Chinese composers to explore Western compositional techniques introduced in twentieth century music. From the mid 1980’s the group was known as a “New Wave” (Xin Chao). Since these techniques were drawn from the Modernist and Avant-garde composers in Europe and USA, the acceptance of this Western influence also meant a loss of some of their music national (Chinese) character. With time, each composer in this group also developed an individual style (Liu, 2010). These individual styles contrast with the previous forty years of “compositions in a similar style” in China (Liu, 2010, p. 516). These New Wave composers attended the Beijing Central Conservatory in the late 1970s and early 1980s and later moved to the United States. At that time, Chou Wen- Chung and Toru Takemitsu had been invited in several Chinese conservatories to give lectures on Western contemporary compositional techniques and both had a strong impact on the New Wave young generation composers (Dong, 2020). Bright Sheng and Tan Dun were mentored by Chou Wen-Chung (1923-2019) at Columbia University (Chou, 2019), who also recruited Chen Yi to study at this prestigious university (Chang, 2007). Chou Wen-Chung became a mentor to these composers and firmly believed in a confluence of Western and Eastern musical ideas (in clear opposition to Pierre Boulez’s thoughts in the 1960s mentioned above), “It is my conviction that we have now reached the stage where the very beginning of a re-merger of Eastern and Western musical concepts and practices is actually taking place” (Chou, n.d.). The New Wave composers reflect this confluence from popular modern styles such as “neo-romanticism or minimalism adapted for Chinese instruments”. For example, Tan Dun uses Renaissance music, a romantic style, and Chinese folk music in his opera Marco Polo (1995) (Dong, 2020, p. 19). Wang Xilin (b. 1937) is a Chinese composer who become well-known since the Mid 1990s. He was heavily influenced by the Amer- ican minimalist John Adams (b.1947) and his piece for orchestra Harmonielehre (1985), in the creation of his Symphonic Cantata Hai de chuanqi (Legends of the Sea) (Op.35) (Liu, 2010). During the Chinese Revolution he was in contact with local folk music that became for him an important source of inspiration. “Wang’s passion for studying and for teaching himself new techniques has meant that he has been able to keep abreast of the times and has become one of the composers most able to communicate between China Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 45 and the rest of the world” (Liu, 2010, p. 502). Wang Xilin believes that the symphonic art tradition is “high art” and regards his production as a “pathway to the edification and purification of Chinese listeners.” (Liu, 2010, p. 640). Among his major works are the symphonic suite Yunnan Tone Poem No 1, Spring Rain in a tea plantation (1963) and the Three Symphonic Murals- Legends of Sea, Op.35 (2009) (Wang, n.d.-a, n.d.-b). Wang Xilin’s music has evolved from a Romantic style in his first two symphonies to modernist techniques in the early 1980s drawn from Schoenberg, Bartók, and Stravinsky. In the late 1980s and 1990s he moved to more contemporary techniques close to Penderecki and John Adams (Liu, 2010). Chen Yi (b. 1953) is a Chinese American composer who was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in Music. She has used a great diversity of compositional techniques, in- cluding serialism and minimalism, combined with the use of Chinese tunes. She has com- posed mainly for orchestra, chamber groups, choir and piano and her style mixes both Chinese scales and Western tonality with other contemporary techniques (Liu, 2010). In her “Sparkle” for octet (1992), Chen Yi blends Western and Chinese cultures by the “per- petual rhythmic motion, the continuously flowing melodic line”, combining a Chinese tune and elements of Western serialism (Xin, 2002). She has also used minimalism tech- niques in the cadenza of the Flute Concerto (1997): “in my mind it’s kind of a minimalism approach: a very long, very even phrase with non-stop repeated patterns. Eventually the outcome was good because I told her (the player) to keep fluently going and she worked it out” (Smith, 2012, p. 68). The Chinese American composer Zhou Long (b. 1953), husband of Chen Yi, also shows an openness to use minimalism techniques in compositions, although he cannot be considered a minimalist composer. He considers minimalism as a style to be as useful in his production as other contemporary styles: “I listened to minimalist music when I ar- rived in New York ... Even minimalism—the wood, those kinds of repeated patterns. So in my music, I don’t reject anything, but you have to do it well” (Smith, 2012, p.79). The music of Bright Sheng (b. 1955) has strong Chinese and Asian influences as in his pieces Tibetan Dance (2000) and Seven Tunes heard in China (1995), as a result of his diligent study of Asian musical cultures for over three decades. Bright Sheng studied at Columbia with Chou Wen-Chung and Mario Davidovsky, and he initially shows influ- ence from Bartók, Hindemith, Ravel, Stravinsky, Ligeti, and Chinese folk music. Finally, he has fully developed his exceptional compositional skills into his own language (Chang, 2006). In 2008, he was invited to compose music for the opening ceremony for the Bei- jing Olympic Games. He has composed pieces for orchestra of Chinese traditional instru- ments as well as pieces mixing Chinese and Western instruments, as his “Three Songs for Violoncello and Pipa” (1999). Among his major works are: H’un (“Lacerations”) for Or- chestra (1988) and his violin concerto, Let Fly (2013) (Sheng, 2016). In his essay “Melodic migration of the silk road: Music samplings of Northwest China”, he claims his influence as a mixture of cultures “from European classical music to jazz, folk, pop, new age, Asian, and African music. This multiculturalisation makes it possible for composers like Lou Harrison and me to have an audience” (Sheng, 2019). Tan Dun (b. 1957) is an American Chinese composer of an international reputa- tion. Famous for his film scores and his symphonic music, his main influences are Cage, Takemitsu, Reich and Glass. In his early works, there is a strong inspiration of using Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 46 unusual sound materials to perform music, in tune with the philosophy and experimental- ism of John Cage, especially in his early operas (Zhang, 2015). For example, while Cage played with water sounds and experimented with noises on his homemade instruments, Tan Dun also experienced with similar sounds recalling back to his life experience while working in the farm with laborers. The influence from Cage, including the use of a prepared piano, is clearly shown in his 1994’s tribute work C-A-G-E. The piece seems to put together a “Chinese voice in an otherwise Western modernist language”. On this occasion, the piano, the most representative instrument of Western music, has been transformed in its sonority. His prepared piano writing includes various skills drawn from the Chinese pipa repertoire, as the pianist has to strike and mute strings, or play with bare fingers on the piano to create different sounds (van Raat, n.d.). He has also experimented with mixing multimedia with the sounds of Chinese folklore to compose his works. He has also mixed Chinese and Western instruments in the form of Concertos. His Ghost Opera blends Western avant- garde and Chinese ritual culture as well as his personal musical experiences to create a very personal atmosphere. This opera was later expanded to become his Pipa Concerto (Smith, 2004). His latest opera, Buddha Passion (2018), shows a clear integration of Western and Asian cultures, in which the main characters speak in Chinese, English and Sanskrit (Los Angeles Philharmonic, 2019). The main theme of the opera is Spirituality, in connection with Zen Buddhism and his mentor John Cage, for whom, music was meant “to sober and quiet the mind, thus rendering it susceptible to divine influences” (Brown, 2000, p. 1). Tan Dun’s film composition has shown an influence from both his mentor Toru Takemitsu and the minimalist composer Philip Glass. As in his concert works, his film music normally shares elements from Western and Eastern cultures. He also applies his Chinese heritage and philosophy as well as Chinese scales and instruments in most of his film scores, as in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (van Raat, n.d.). Tan Dun has made his own explanation of minimalism. For him, his major inspirations start with the letter “M”. The first capital “M” in Tan Dun’s vocabulary stands for “Minimalism”. In 1986, during his years at Columbia University, he discovered minimalist and post-minimalist composers such as Philip Glass and John Adams. The Second capital “M” in Tan Dun’s vocabulary stands for Mozart. He explains, "But Mozart is minimalist” (as in Mozart’s piano sonatas, the music shows clear melodic line and the continuous repetitive left-hand pattern) … and Eastern music (is also minimalist), from the Indian sitar to Chinese monks singing is often just endless minimalist patterns” (Dart, 2006). These New Wave composers have applied their cultural heritage into their works. Their writing normally demonstrates their dual heritage, absorbing Western musical skills on one side and combining them with non-Western philosophy and aesthetics, particularly in their orchestral works (Smith, 2012). Their personal life in China had a strong impact in their later works. For example, Tan Dun adds to his music the scenes and colours of his stay in a farm, Bright Sheng applies Buddhist dance and folk tunes, Zhou Long and Chen Yi acclaim rural surrounding sounds (Smith, 2004). Appendix: Minimalism in the Western and Asian curriculums Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 47 Western music has been widely spread for several generations now in Asia, as “students increasingly attended schools in Japan and Europe, bringing back European ideas and training upon their return home” (Lau, 2008, p. 3). However, minimalist music is new to most students in the continent as it is not part of the curriculum yet (except in some music schools in Japan and South Korea). College students are familiar with Western music history from Baroque to Classical and Romantic music but lack a familiarisation with 20th or 21st century music. For example, teachers of the major and more influential music centres in China like the Central Conservatory of Beijing or the Shanghai Conservatory do not commonly teach this repertoire. On another hand, Asian students are most familiar with Rock or Jazz styles than other contemporary styles in the West (Fung & Chung, 2000). Pedagogically, minimalism has an advantage over other modern and contemporary styles as this style is only relatively new to Asian ears; students are familiar with the style in many current films and documentaries like Philip Glass’s “Dreaming of Fiji”, “Truman sleeps” or “The hours”, as well as other contemporary film music. This last movie soundtrack, “The hours”, was a strong influence for Tan Dun, composer of the soundtrack to “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” (Oteri, 2007). Minimalism is already part of the music curriculum in Europe, Australia, and the U.S. Students at secondary school are exposed to this contemporary style and learn how to analyze basic minimalist techniques like ostinato, layering or phasing. Instructors normally introduce the historical background in class and selected musical works by Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, John Adams, the British composer Michael Nyman (b.1944) or the Dutch composer Louis Andriessen (1939-2021). Students often perform accessible pieces in class like Riley’s In C or Reich’s Clapping Music. It is also common to use minimalism in the classroom to learn basic musical skills even from primary school, due to the simplicity of some of the pieces. Some teachers propose to use this style from primary to tertiary level of music education through composing activities with the aim of applying a “post-modernist perspective in music and its cultural and social context in the teaching strategy and classroom plan” (Blom, 2003, p. 87). Minimalism can build a bridge between contemporary Western and Asian music. It can introduce Asian students to Western contemporary music and help them develop new skills such as aural and instrumental skills or audio recording processing. It is also a relatively simple style to perform with strong connections with Western, African, and Asian cultures. The style can provide a global cultural immersion in a diverse musical world, or a way of connecting with contemporary music in a globalised world. Teachers can introduce minimalist music and composition techniques in classroom activities, as the style contains various musical influences that will enrich a student’s ability and creativity in learning modal and stationary harmony, musical processes, timbre effects, or interlocked rhythms (i.e., rhythms constructed by the interaction of several musical parts to create a complex texture). Performers can also play this repertoire as the required skills are heavily based on conventional techniques. Playing this music not only examines a student’s fundamental techniques and aural training but also improves their physical and mental control abilities. The style requires a good level of training but, most importantly, great concentration and muscle memory. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 48 Minimalist music might initially look simple on the surface, but it requires a particular understanding of the music and a precise technique to interpret it. As Albert Einstein once said: “Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler”. The style aims initially for simplicity and some pieces like Clapping Music by Steve Reich are not complex to perform but others require a high level of proficiency in a new set of skills: tempo mastery, performance of accurate repetitions, high degree of independence of musical parts, or extreme speeds. Minimalist music also demands a high accuracy of intonation and tempo keeping as the music is often based on exact repetitions of short fragments that the listener will easily follow, expecting a high degree of precision in the repetitions. As Moncrieff notices: “The repetitive nature of minimalist music makes it easy to get lost” (Moncrieff, 2009, p. 22). These repetitions (often at a high speed) will also demand a great control of muscle relaxation, tempo accuracy, and concentration, “Concentration is paramount to the success of the playing of minimalist music. It also requires players to focus on the changes that should be made throughout the music” (Moncrieff, 2009, p. 15). Performing minimalist music requires a sharp concentration in both practice and performance. It is different from other styles in which difficult passages alternate with others of lower difficulty. In this style, performers may lose the concentration in counting repetitions or somewhere in the middle of the process, only performing out of muscle memory. Listening is also a key skill to perform this music. According to Philip Glass minimalism proposes a new type of listening to music: “What you hear depends on how you focus your ear. We’re not talking about inventing a new language, but rather inventing new perceptions of existing languages” (Reich, 2018). Listening is also discussed by Steve Reich, who emphasizes the experience of listening to complex textures in his piece Violin Phase, The violinist should regard him or herself as a listener in the practice. All these patterns are really there; they are created by the interlocking of two, three, or four violins all playing the same repeating pattern out of phase with each other. Since it is the attention of the listener that will largely determine which particular resulting pattern, he or she will hear at any one moment, these patterns can be understood as psychoacoustic by-products of the repetition and phase-shifting” (Moncrieff, 2009, p. 26). Minimalism can also introduce students to less conventional playing techniques and skills, enhancing the level of concentration, muscle memory and relaxation, tempo accuracy, or aural perception as, in this music, the technical skills are as relevant as the mental and physical states of the performer. Conclusion The concept of “minimalism” was first applied in the visual arts as a return to simplicity, in an aesthetic search in tune with ancient Asian philosophies (Zen Buddhism). Early minimalist music focuses on the aesthetics of simplicity and contemplation in circular repetitions of time and, consequently, as a means to reach a trance-like state of flow or meditation. Culturally, the minimalist style has created a bridge of communication between Asian and American cultures, as contemporary composers in both contexts have been influenced by philosophies or aesthetics developed in each of their continents. Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 49 References Becker, J. (2004). Deep listeners: Music, emotion, and trancing. Indiana University Press. Bernard, J. W. (2003). Minimalism, postminimalism, and the resurgence of tonality in recent American music. American Music, 21, 112-133. Best, S. (2006). Minimalism, subjectivity, and aesthetics: Rethinking the anti-aesthetic tradition in late-modern art. Journal of Visual Art Practice. 5, 127-142. 10.1386/jvap.5.3.127_1 Blom, D. (2003). Engaging students with a contemporary music – Minimalism – through composing activities: Teachers’ approaches, strategies, and roles. International Journal of Music Education, 40(1), 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/025576140304000107 Burgan, M. (2012). Buddhist faith in America. Chelsea House. Burt, P. (2001). The music of Toru Takemitsu (Music in the twentieth century). Cambridge Uni- versity Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511518331 Brown, K. (2000). John Cage visual art: To sober and quiet the mind. Crown Point Press. Cage, J., & Gann, K. (2011). Silence: Lectures and writings, 50th anniversary edition. Wesleyan University Press. Chang, P. (2007). Bright Sheng’s music: An expression of cross-cultural experience-illustrated through the motivic, contrapuntal, and tonal treatment of the Chinese folk song “The Stream Flows”. Contemporary Music Review, 26, 5-6, 619-633. Chave, A. (2008). Revaluing minimalism: Patronage, aura, and place. The Art Bulletin, 90(3), 466-486. Chou, W.-C. (2019, 8 February). Chou Wen-Chung: Composer of confluence. Spiralis music trust. https://chouwenchung.org/2019/02/08/chou-wen-chung-composer-of-confluence/ Chou, W.-C. (n.d.). East and west, old, and new: Excerpt of keynote speech given at UNESCO International Music Symposium, Manila, Philippines 1966. Spiralis Music Trust. https://chouwenchung.org/writing/excerpts-from-east-and-west-old-and-new/ College of Music Seoul National University (2015). Uzong Choe. https://music.snu.ac.kr/en/profile/uzongchoe Crowley, M. (1998). Nixon in winter. Random House. Dart, W. (2006, January 24). Composer’s music ‘like the & nbsp; mosaic technique of an artist. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/composers-music-like-thenbspmosaic-technique-of- an-artist/XT4YJRKIVIBDO5RHSUIBZNR5YY/ Dong, X. (2020). A performance guide to Tan Dun’s Elegy: Snow in June. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Toronto. Duckworth, W. (1999). Talking music: Conversations with John Cage, Philip Glass, Laurie Anderson, and five generations of American experimental composers. Da Capo Press. Encyclopedia of Japan. (n.d.). Traditional Music of Japan. https://doyouknowjapan.com/traditionalmusic/ Eppley, C. (2015, November 15). “Yoshi Wada and Drone Music as Conceptual Art.” November 11, 2015, Art in America. https://www.artnews.com/art-in- america/features/yoshi-wada-and-drone-music-as-conceptual-art-59946/ Fink, R. (2005). Repeating ourselves: American minimal music as cultural practice (1st ed.). University of California Press. Fung, C. V., Lee, M., & Chung, S.-W. E. (1999). Music style preferences of young students in Hong Kong. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 143, 50–64. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40319012 Gann, K. (2004). Thankless attempts at a definition of minimalism. In C. Cox and D. Warner (Eds.), Audio culture: Reading in modern music (pp. 299–303). Continuum. Hay, D., & Nye, R. (2006). The spirit of the child (Revised Edition). Jessica Kingsley Publishers Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 50 Heifetz, R. J. (1984). East-West synthesis in Japanese composition: 1950-1970. The Journal of Musicology, 3(4), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.2307/763590 Henry, E. O. (2002). The rationalization of intensity in Indian Music. Ethnomusicology, 46(1), 33–55. https://doi.org/10.2307/852807 Johnson, T. (1989). The voice of new music: New York city 1972–1982 – A collection of articles originally published by the village voice. Het Apollohuis. Keister, J. (2008). Okeikoba: Lesson places as sites for negotiating tradition in Japanese music. Ethnomusicology, 52(2), 239–269. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20174588 Kim, E. (2022). Isang Yun: The integration of East-Asian philosophies and Korean traditional Music in his compositions featuring work for solo piano: Shao Yang Yin (1966). Paper presented at the 2022 Virtual MTNA Collegiate Symposium. https://www.mtna.org/downloads/symposium/2022/Isang%20Yun%20Handout.pdf Kirchert, K.-U. (1998). Between worlds: Reflections on ritual in the music of Giacinto Scelsi. The World of Music, 40(1), 79–100. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41699180 Kostelanetz, R. & Flemming, R. (1999). Writings on Glass: Essays, interviews, criticism. University of California Press. Kostelanetz, R. (2003). Conversing with Cage (2nd ed.). Routledge. Lau, F. (2008). Music in China: Experiencing music, expressing culture. Oxford University Press. Liu, C., & Mason, C. (2010). A critical history of new music in China. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. Living Composers P. (2017, January 2). Chen Yi. The living composer’s project. http://composers21.com/compdocs/chenyi.htm L. A. Philharmonic Association (2018). Buddha passion (U.S. premiere, LA Phil commission). https://www.laphil.com/musicdb/pieces/4794/buddha-passion-us-premiere-la-phil- commission Matsunobu, K. (2011). Spirituality as a universal experience of music: a case study of north Americans’ approaches to Japanese music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 59(3), 273–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429411414911 Mayuzumi, T. (1964). Traditional elements as a creative source for composition. Journal of the International Folk Music Council, 16, 38-39. Mertens, W. (2007). American minimal music: La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass. Kahn & Avewrill. Meyer, J. S. (2001). Minimalism: Art and polemics in the sixties. Yale University Press. Moncrieff, C. (2009). Performance and rehearsal practices of minimalist music: Specifically related to Music for Eighteen Musicians by Steve Reich. VDM-Verl. Müller. National Gallery of Singapore (2018, November 16). Minimalism: Space. light. object. https://www.nationalgallery.sg/exhibitions/minimalism-space-light-object. Oteri, F. J. (2007, December 1). Tan Dun: Tradition and invention–Music for film. New Music USA. https://nmbx.newmusicusa.org/tan-dun-tradition-and-invention/5/ Oxford U. P. (n. d.). Zhou Long. https://global.oup.com/academic/category/arts-and- humanities/sheet-music/composers/zhoulong/?cc=cn&lang=en& Peterson, E. (2014, April 8). Which composers are most frequently performed? Minnesota Public Radio. https://www.classicalmpr.org/story/2014/04/08/league-american- orchestras-performance-data. Potter, K. (2006). Four musical minimalists: La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass. Cambridge University Press. Potter, K., Gann, K., & Pwyll, S. (2016). The Ashgate research companion to minimalist and postminimalist music. Routledge. Reich, M. (2018, May 15). The story of minimalism–Part One: A new way of listening. All Pastor, F. M. & Ho, A-C, K. 51 Classical Public Media, Inc.. https://www.allclassical.org/the-story-of-minimalism-part- one-a-new-way-of-listening/ Retallack, J. (2015) The radical curiosity of John Cage—Is the word ‘music’ music?, Contempo- rary Music Review, 34, 5-6, 373-384 DOI: 10.1080/07494467.2016.1150554 Revich, A. (2018, May 5). Fluxus and minimalism and me. Digital Salon Fluxus Blog. https://www.digitalsalon.com/fluxus-and-minimalism-and-me/. Rockwell, J. (1993, July 4). In Eastern Europe, Minimalism Meets Mysticism. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/04/arts/classical-music-in-east-europe- minimalism-meets-mysticism.html Sande, K. (2010, February 1). A brief history of minimalism. http://www.factmag.com/2010/02/01/a-brief-history-of-minimalism/ Schwartz, E., & Godfrey, D. (1993). Music since 1945: Issues, materials, and literature. Schirmer Books. Sheng, B. (2016, September). Biography. Bright Sheng: Composer, conductor & pianist. http://brightsheng.com/bio.html Sheng, B. (2000). Melodic migration of the Silk Road: Music samplings of Northwest China. Bright Sheng: composer, conductor & pianist. https://brightsheng.com/articles/essay- filesbybs/MELODIES%20OF%20THE%20SILK%20ROAD%20.pdf Shultis, C. (1995). Silencing the sounded self: John Cage and the intentionality of Nonintention. The Musical Quarterly, 79(2), 312–350. http://www.jstor.org/sta- ble/742249 Smith, K. (2004, February 29). Cross-cultural characters. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-feb-29-ca-smith29-story.html. Smith, S. (2012). Eastern and western aesthetics and influences in the twenty-first century flute concerti of Chinese-born American Composers. http://purl.flvc.org/fsu/fd/FSU_migr_etd- 5436 Song, E. K. (2017). The development of contemporary music by Korean Composers: Analyses of piano works by Isang Yun, Young Jo Lee and Uzong Choe [Unpublished Master’s dissertation], University of South Carolina. Strickland, E. (1993). Minimalism: Origins. Indiana University Press. Takemitsu, T. (1992). Tooi Yobigoe no Kanata e [Beyond the Fall Calls]. Shinchosha. Tate Gallery (n.d.). Art Terms: Fluxus. TATE. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/f/fluxus Tenzer, M. (2019, May 30). That’s all it does: Steve Reich and Balinese Gamelan. In rethinking Reich. Oxford University Press. https://oxford.univer sitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780190605285.001.0001/oso- 9780190605285-chapter-14 Timmerman, P. (2009). Uncaged: Buddhism John Cage and the freeing of the world. Canadian Journal of Buddhist Studies, 5, 39-57. https://thecjbs.org/archive-document- details/?id=138 van Raat, R. (n.d.). Music of Toru Takemitsu and Tan Dun. [Podcast transcript]. Smithsonian Institution. https://asia.si.edu/podcast/music-of-toru-takemitsu-and-tan-dun-ralph-van- raat-piano/ Wang, X.-L. (n.d.-a). Yunnan Tone Poem. Wang Xilin’s music world. https://www.wangxilin.org/wang-xilin-yunnan-tone-poem/ Wang, X.-L. (n.d.-b). Three symphonic murals-legends of the sea Op 35. Wang Xilin’s Music World. https://www.wangxilin.org/wang-xilin-three-symphonic-murals-legends-of-the- sea-op-35-fullscore-with-cd/ Xin, G. (2002). Chinese musical language interpreted by western idioms: Fusion in the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (33-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 52 instrumental works by Chen Yi [Unpublished doctoral dissertation], The Florida State University] Young, La M. (1960). La Monte Young Composition 1960 # 7 [Score]. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY, United States. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/127629 Zhang, N. (2015). Neo-orientalism in the operas of Tan Dun. [Master Thesis, Dalhousie Univer- sity]. https://dalspace.library.dal.ca/bitstream/hadle/10222/56305/Zhang-Nan-MA-MUS- April-2015.pdf?sequence=1 Acknowledgements This research is sponsored by the BNU-HKBU United International College. Biography Dr Fernando Martin Pastor was a Fulbright Fellow in Music and studied at the University of California and University of Washington. He later received the AHRB fellowship from the UK government at Southampton University to complete his PhD in composition. He also studied contemporary music at King's College London, Conservatorio Superior in Madrid (Spain), and IRCAM Centre Pompidou in Paris. Ang-Cheng Kris Ho is an associate professor in Music Performance Programme at BNU- HKBU United International College, China. She completed her PhD in violin perfor- mance and pedagogy at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Her research focuses on areas of contemporary music history, string pedagogy, and minimalism.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

balungan gending, inner melody, Jawatimuran karawitan, music notation, organology, slendro

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/6363

Slendro Culture, Balungan Concept, and Inner Melody of Jawatimuran Karawitan

This study aims to reveal the development and distribution of the slendro tuning and analyze the concept of

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/6363/4105

Setiawan, A. 53 Slendro Culture, Balungan Concept, and Inner Melody of Jawatimuran Karawitan Aris Setiawan* Ethnomusicology Department, Indonesia Institute of the Arts, Surakarta Email: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 28 November 2022 Cite this article (APA): Setiawan, A. (2022). Slendro culture, balungan concept, and inner melody of Jawatimuran karawitan. Malaysian Journal of Music, 11(1), 53–67. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol11.1.4.2022 Abstract This study aims to reveal the development and distribution of the slendro tuning and analyze the concept of balungan gending and the inner melody of gending in Jawatimuran karawitan. It became essential to do as an effort to build a scientific milestone in Jawatimuran karawitan. This study uses the participant method, which is an effort to involve the researcher in the study he is studying thoroughly. In-depth observations and active interviews were carried out so that the data obtained from the participant method could continue to be contextualized with reality. The researcher tries to place the resource person as a speaking subject, not a passive object. As a result, apart from Malang, almost all Jawatimuran karawitan cultures use slendro gamelan with a unique side and distinctive character. The concept of balungan gending and the inner melody result in the gendings in Jawatimuran karawitan having complex musicality dynamics, in contrast to other musical styles, Surakarta and Yogyakarta, for example. Keywords: balungan gending, inner melody, Jawatimuran karawitan, music notation, organology, slendro Introduction Jawatimuran karawitan in terms of concepts and theories so far has not been fully discussed. The discussion regarding the world of karawitan is more centered in Surakarta and Yogyakarta (Setiawan, et al., 2017). Therefore, efforts to develop the scientific side of Javanese musical instruments continue to be encouraged. One of the main reasons is the absence of a "patron" or "cosmic world" such as the palace in Surakarta and Yogyakarta. As a result, the musical culture in East Java developed communally (Sugiarto 2013). Therefore, various musical styles emerged, such as Surabayan, Malangan, Mojokertoan, Porongan, Pandalungan, etc., not concentrating on one particular style point (Setiawan, 2021a). Not all areas in East Java refer to the Jawatimuran karawitan (Munardi 1983:4–6). This is due to the strong influence of the palace culture in Central Java, Surakarta to be exact, with the areas of East Java being part of the legitimacy of its power. Regarding this, Anderson Sutton wrote: in the “central Javanese” [Jawa pusat], region of the province one finds a continium in musical style from very nearly Solonese, around Madiun. Recording of Solonese pieces from town such as Trenggalek, Tulungagung, Blitar, [Kediri, Ngawi].. scholars and performers from Central Java with extensive experience in the province of East Java, also consider the Surabaya-Mojokerto-Malang triangle as a distinctive region, whose people share the dialect of Javanese language identified “east Javanese” (Jawa cara wetanan or Jawatimuran) along with their own musical style. (1991: 121-122). Sutton tries to identify that the East Java style consists of three main areas: Surabaya, Mojokerto, and Jombang. But in practice, the East Javanese style is broader, covering the areas of Gresik, Jombang, Malang, Mojokerto, Surabaya, Sidoarjo, and Lamongan (in the terminology of the 54 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (53-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 local community known as Gerbangkertasusila) as well as Lumajang, Probolinggo, Pasuruan, Jember (commonly called Pandalungan). Other regions, such as Banyuwangi (Osing culture), have a different and very distinctive musical style, with different techniques and instruments (Rahayu, 2010). Uniquely, almost all of these areas use the slendro-tuned gamelan as their musical expression (Supriyono, 2006). Slendro is a pentatonic tone system without a semitone. The concept is that the distance between the tones (intervals) that are formed is relatively the same (Mistortoify, Haryono, Ganap, & L. Simatupang, 2014). In its implementation, the slendro tone system grows and develops in various types and characters in every cultural area, every sub-culture to communities and individuals. Apart from Malang, almost all regions in East Java that adhere to the concept of Karawitan Jawatimuran (East Javanese) use slendro gamelan. Sukesi Rahayu (2017) explains that the music in East Java (Surabaya, Gresik, Jombang, Lamongan, Sidoarjo, Mojokerto, even Madura) focuses more on the slendro tuning and is classified into four pathets namely sepuluh, wolu, sanga and serang. The existence of this slendro gamelan becomes interesting to study further related to the early traces of its emergence and development (Hastanto, 2016). Jawatimuran karawitan as a musical culture has a unique concept and character, which tends to be different from the musical style in other areas (Nugraha et al., 2009). As in the notion of balungan (gending) and the inner melody, Jawatimuran karawitan has a distinctive conceptualization. Therefore, it is essential to present the Jawatimuran karawitan in other karawitan arenas in the archipelago (Setiawan, 2013). Scientific studies on Jawatimuran karawitan continue to be encouraged to build the ideal foundation of musical science. Of course, it should start immediately. However, this does not mean there is no acculturation between Jawatimuran and Surakarta karawitans. The traces of gamelan-culture-interaction between East Java and Central Java (and even Yogyakarta) have continued for a long time. Regarding this, Sumarsam wrote: In his policy of expansionism, Sultan Agung confronted the mighty state of Surabaya, a powerful and rich state because of its intensive trading (with Gresik as its harbor). It took Sultan Agung five years (1620-1625) to defeat Surabaya. Like any other assault, the treasures and royal princesses became the booty of war. Realizing the importance of Surabaya, however, Sultan Agung brought the king’s son, Pangeran Pekik, to Mataram, married him to his sister, and reinstalled him as ruler of Surabaya. This marriage diplomacy made Surabaya a close ally of Mataram for a long time to come. Continuing his wish to rule all of Java, Sultan Agung, in collaboration with Sunan Pekik, destroyed Giri in 1636. (2014:337) Sumarsam explained that Sultan Agung faced Surabaya (East Java), a strong country, because of its intensive trade (with Gresik as its port). At least it took Sultan Agung five years to conquer Surabaya. Realizing the importance of Surabaya, Sultan Agung brought Prince Pekik (son of the king of Surabaya he defeated) and married him to his sister. After marriage, Prince Pekik was returned to Surabaya, and thus Surabaya directly became an “extension” or ally of Mataram (Central Java). Marriage diplomacy is not only a matter of politics and power but also about cultural issues, where art (in which gamelan is involved) becomes a bridge between the two. After becoming an ally of Mataram, Surabaya in the 17th century was at its peak after previously successfully controlling Gresik (Giri) in 1636. Sumarsam, through his thesis, views that in the context of the conquest, there was a cross- cultural crossing. Because of that, many gendings had the same name, even though they developed locally and had different tastes, adapting to their character and environment. Furthermore, East Java, especially Gresik, according to de Groot (1852), was originally the center of gamelan making in Java. Gresik is an area that has quite advanced arts, including wayang, dance, dance drama, and gamelan. In their analysis, Groot and Sumarsam emphasize that at first, the arts developed quite rapidly in the coastal areas (ports) of East Java because of the contacts that occurred between the natives and immigrants, missionaries and traders. Setiawan, A. 55 Figure 1. Gendings in Gresik (East Java) 17-18 centuries, taken from Groot (1852). These gending names are also commonly found in Surakarta (even Yogyakarta). This proves the existence of a cross between gamelan cultures. It must be admitted that the scientific foundations of Jawatimuran karawitan are not as solid as those of other musical cultures (Surakarta and Yogyakarta). This is partly due to art schools (and colleges) for the first time in Surakarta (Sumarsam, 1995). Meanwhile, in East Java, Surabaya in particular only recently took similar steps (Sutton, 2001). And even then, almost all of the teachers were brought in from KOKAR (Konservatori Karawitan [karawitan conservatory]) Surakarta, so the material taught mainly focused on Surakarta-style karawitan (Soenarto, personal communication, October 24, 2017). The case had significant implications for formulating the scientific concept of Jawatimuran karawitan, which is no longer genuine. The study of pathet, for example, is still widely viewed from a scientific point of view in Surakarta karawitan, so that the original pathet names of East Java are replaced with pathet names in Surakarta (Setiawan, 2021b). Likewise, many researchers are trapped in being unobjective by interpreting balungan gending and the inner melody. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate Jawatimuran karawitan by looking at the most elementary musical problem, namely the tuning system (laras) and the inner melody of 56 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (53-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Jawatimuran karawitan from the insider's point of view. It is hoped that new discourses, concepts, and theories regarding the musicality of Jawatimuran karawitan can emerge as a stepping stone to be developed and elaborated more comprehensively in the form of further research afterward. The culture of slendro, balungan gending, and the depth of musical theme are musical events that do not stop at the problem of sounds. But involve the conceptualization of how Jawatimuran karawitan grows and becomes a musical culture that is believed to exist by the community that owns it. Methodology This study uses the participant observation method, which is an effort to involve the researcher in the study he is studying thoroughly (Kawulich, 2005). Researchers are actively engaged in various Jawatimuran karawitan performances together with resource persons within a certain period to achieve valid data. The "researcher body" is thus a source of data that deserves to be explored (Thomas, 2019). But from the beginning, full awareness has been raised regarding the limits of when to act as a researcher and when to be part of a musical community. This is important, considering that the researcher is part of the music community he is researching. Thus, the awareness to take that position from the beginning must be realized so that the data obtained are not biased. The participant observation is quite helpful in analyzing and understanding musical phenomena (Mohajan, 2018), such as; what musicians think when they are faced with musical notation, how they know the problem of balungan gending. Active participation also has consequences in uncovering issues that have been difficult for the original musicians (native) to explain, such as the difficulties that arise when describing the depth of gamelan melodies. This research is also based on "practice-led research", in which the practice and involvement of researchers are directly used to create an evidence base for something that is demonstrated or found (Mäkelä, 2007). In-depth observations and active interviews were carried out so that the data obtained from the participant observation could continue to be contextualized with reality (Ciesielska et al., 2018). The researcher tries to place the resource person as a speaking subject, not a passive object (Baker, 2006). This approach makes it possible to reveal discoveries that have not yet emerged. In such a context, this research seeks to present a “voice from within” (Oyebode, 2017). Researchers become a bridge by knitting emic data (native) to correlate with the ethics side (Rosa & Orey, 2012). Thus, this research is like experimental space, trying to present data as objectively as possible with measurable scientific considerations. The research results are always returned to the community that owns the music culture, not only as a form of scientific contribution but also to get criticism and suggestions. The data obtained and analyzed, then compiled into research results, are shown to the owner of the music culture. This is done so that the research results are valid from the "researcher's point of view" and get similar confirmation from the people who own the music culture. This continues to be done so that research results can be accounted for and convey what is appropriate to be voiced. Results and Discussions Slendro Culture Tasman Rono Admojo and Diyat Sriredjo recorded Jawatimuran gendings in the early 1980s, the results of which were published in a book entitled Notasi Gending Mojokerto-Suroboyo in 1981. In the book, 156 gendings from various levels were collected. Of the 156 gendings, all of them are slendro-tuned. Soenarto also did the same thing through his book entitled Teknik tabuhan karawitan Jawa Timur Surabaya-Mojokerto (2011), collecting 44, all of which were also in slendro tunes. Recently, Adiyanto through his book Balungan gending Jawatimuran (2016) recorded as many as 142 gendings. Of the 142 gendings, only seven are in the pelog tune, and the rest are in the slendro tune. The pelogs tune are Bango Mati Pathet Nem, Endol-Endol Pathet Barang, Pacol Gowang Pathet Barang, Slukat Pathet Barang, Srundeng Deken Pathet Barang, Sweep Jagat Pathet Nem, Sumyar Pathet Barang. Kunst (1973), in the decade of 1920, recorded East Javanese music, mostly slendro-tuned, and described the Setiawan, A. 57 distribution of gamelan in East Java, including Surabaya, Mojokerto, Jombang, Lumajang, and Malang. The results can be seen in the following figure. Table 1 Distribution of slendro gamelan in five areas of East Java. Source extracted from Kunts (1973: 564-566) In addition to the Malang area, the slendro gamelan seems to dominate the four regions, namely Surabaya, Mojokerto, Jombang, and Lumajang. Even today, in the Klakah Lumajang sub-district and some areas in Probolinggo-Pasuruan, local people regard the pelog gamelan as “gamelan rusak [broken gamelan]” (Hartono, personal communication, September 12, 2017). In other words, the presence of the pelog gamelan has not been entirely accepted, especially by the Pandalungan community (Jember, Lumajang, Probolinggo, and surrounding areas). In some cases, in Sidoarjo, a young, well-known East Java puppeteer named Ki Yohan Susilo. Uniquely, Ki Yohan cannot perform the sulukan or vocals of the puppeteer in the pelog tune. During the performance, all night long, the puppeteer only performed the slendro-tuned gamelan. During an interview with Yohan Susilo (personal communication, May 17, 2018), he explained that when he was studying (nyantrik) with his teachers, namely Ki Surwedi, Ki Bambang Sugiyo, Ki Supeno, and Ki Suleman, Yohan had never received a vocal in the pelog tune. Inheriting the views obtained from his teachers, he considers that puppetry and musical instruments from East Java (except Malang) are slendro tunes, not pelog. Yohan had difficulty when he had to bring the vocals in the pelog tune. The pelog tuning vocals (sulukan) in the Jawatimuran puppetry is allegedly due to the influence of the Surakarta-style puppetry culture. Ki Surwedi (personal communication, September 16, 2017) explained that the existence of pelog vocals in Jawatimuran puppetry began to develop in the early 1990s because some puppeteers considered performing sulukan in pelog tunes was a challenge in itself. Meanwhile, Wartini and Tina (personal communication, February 4, 2018), as waranggana (dancers and vocalists in tayub performances) who are pretty well known in Lumajang and surrounding areas, stated that at first, they had difficulties when they had to sing in pelog tunes. Almost all of the kèjhungan patterns and traditional gendings in the tayuban are slendro-tuned, so the tunings are very familiar to their ears. The rest, they are required to sing in the pelog tuning when there are campursarian (Javanese pop songs). Especially for Tina, a waranggana who was raised in a strict Madurese culture, her contact with the slendro-tuned gamelan is so deep that it still feels when she performs vocals outside of that tone strange. Mistortoify (2015:234) emphasizes that Madurese culture has long practiced the slendro tuning and does not like the pelog tune, so that the pelog tuned gamelan is not found, except in new gamelan groups that are contemporary. Therefore, the view that suggests that the pelog tuning in some Pandalungan communities is considered a damaged or wrong tuning seems to find a justification. Next, in Mojokerto and Jombang there are famous ludruk namely Karya Budaya and Budi Wijaya. Eko Edy Susanto (personal communication, May 21, 2018) as the leader of Ludruk Karya Budaya, explained that ludruk groups in Mojokerto, Jombang, even Surabaya and Lumajang still use the slendro gamelan in their performances. In Ludruk Karya Budaya under his leadership, the slendro gamelan used in the beginning was not as complete as it is now. To find bronze gamelan (because the average gamelan is iron), Eko has to rent it far away in Kedamean District, Mojokerto Regency. Even then, there is only one demung, two saron, peking (saron penerus), bonang barung, bonang penerus, slentho (slenthem), gender penerus, kenong, kempul with the tone ma (5), and gong ageng. Compared to gamelan made of bronze, gamelan slendro of iron has a sound frequency that is relatively loud, shrill, and "crispy" compared to gamelan bronze which is gandhem or soft (Prasetya, Region Slendro Pelog Addition of gamelan from 1920 to 1973 Surabaya 101 16 70 slendro Mojokerto 106 8 40 slendro, 8 pelog Jombang 189 51 98 pelog “miring” Lumajang 131 42 Malang 106 232 54 slendro, 56 pelog Total 633 349 58 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (53-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 2012). Iron gamelan then became the prima donna (idol), although another reason was the relatively lower price to manufacture than bronze gamelan. Almost every ludruk group uses it, and this happened before the 2000s. The iron gamelan used is also considered more flexible and easy to carry anywhere because of its relatively lightweight. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the iron gamelan was seen as not having prestige for the ludruk group. Bronze gamelan is seen as more "dignified" to raise the name and reputation of ludruk. Bronze gamelan is seen as more elegant, beautiful, shiny when compared to iron gamelan. By having a bronze gamelan, the related ludruk is seen as more special or honorable. This was triggered and initiated by using a bronze gamelan called Kiai Macan Putih by the Ludruk group of RRI Surabaya in that decade (Setiawan, 2020). Until now, the distribution of slendro gamelan made of bronze has occurred massively in almost all ludruk and shadow puppet groups in East Java. Sutton (1991:127–129) states four characteristics of slendro gamelan in East Java musical instruments. First, there is the Jekdongan drum (which in Sutton's terminology is called kendang gambyak). Second, there is the ponggang instrument, also known as the penembung. The shape is smaller than kenong but bigger than bonang. Third, a slentho instrument is a slenthem with a mound above the rectangular key (pencu). They are arranged in a device (rancakan) that is assembled like compiling a gender instrument (the simple analogy is gender keys with pencu, but the shape is more oversized). Fourth, there are balungan instruments such as the saron and demung with a resonator like a gambang (xylophone) instrument, with a design like a gravestone. Figure 2. Characteristics of Jawatimuran karawitan instruments. Description in the image above: A. Kendang Jekdong (drum), B. Saron with a wooden body shaped like a traditional Javanese gravestone, C. Slentho, D. Penembung. Photo by Aris Setiawan (2008), and Kukuh Setyo Budi (2022). Meanwhile, Kartamihardja (1978:32) added that at first, the slendro gamelan in East Java consisted of only one kempul with the tone of nem (6) or ma (5) and one gong suwukan with the tone of ro (2) and a gong ageng or gong gedhe. Currently, the slendro gamelan is proliferating, marked by the increasing number of existing instruments. Kempul does not consist of only one tone, but almost all tones— including garap instruments such as gender barung, rebab, siter, and gambang. Musicologically, the placement of the tones on the ricikan key (ricikan is a term for a particular instrument in gamelan) is A B C D Setiawan, A. 59 also different from the slendro gamelan in Surakarta and Yogyakarta styles. In the ricikan saron and slenthem, for example, it can be seen in the figure below. Figure 3. the arrangement of the tones on the saron dan demung keys of the three styles In the figure above, the tones are arranged in the slendro saron instrument in three gamelan cultures. It is necessary to distinguish between tone pitches and scales in this context. Tone pitch is the tones used in slendro gamelan (for example, do not use a tone of 4 because it is a tone in the pelog tune), while the scale is a sequence of tones from the lowest to the highest (one octave). Therefore, the tones are arranged coherently in the scale, using a lower point for low tones and an upper point for high tones. One octave can be interpreted as one interval. The existence tone of 2̇ is interesting to review, considering that in the construction of Jawatimuran musical culture, the high tones of its presence is quite essential. For example, in the shadow puppets tradition, almost all kembangan (patterns) of saron instrument orchestration always reach the high tones, such as in Gending Krucilan, Alap-alapan, Gemblak, and Ayak. The use of high tones also characterizes the Jawatimuran musical style (Supriyono, 2006). Today, gamelan slendro is intertwined with Surakarta culture. In other words, many slendro-tuned gamelan instruments in East Java are imported from Central Java and are tuned and arranged like the slendro gamelan in Central Java, especially Surakarta (Sutton, 1991). Therefore, it is currently quite difficult to trace the traces of slendro gamelan in East Java which are relatively "original" with the arrangement and point of view described above. Surwedi (personal communication, September 16, 2017) and Kartolo (personal communication, August 2, 2017) explained that basically, the slendro gamelan in Jawatimuran karawitan has a lower tuning size than Surakarta or Yogyakarta (see frequency table below). In Jawatimuran karawitan, although it uses many high tones in its vocals, it is still in the low range when applied to the slendro gamelan in Surakarta. In a sense, the tone of 2̇ in Jawatimuran karawitan, for example, is almost the same as the tone of 1̇ in Surakarta, or slightly higher. This becomes a particular problem when a Jawatimuran puppeteer performs using a slendro gamelan tuning from Surakarta. The high tones will feel much more heightened. On the other hand, low tones will feel much lower. This case, for example, was experienced by Ki Surwedi when he had to perform shadow puppets with Surakarta-style gamelan. He found it difficult to reach the high-pitched areas. In this context, Sri Hastanto's book entitled Kehidupan Laras Slendro di Nusantara (2016) is essential to present. In his book, Sri Hastanto explains the range or interval in slendro tones in the archipelago (nusantara), which varies, especially in Java. As a comparison of what Sri Hastantao wrote, this study then tries to measure the ambitus (high and low tones) or the interval of the slendro gamelan (in hertz or Hz) on the saron instrument in Lumajang in the Tayub Panji Laras groups, Tayub Endah Laras groups, and the Ludruk community of RRI Surabaya and Karya Budaya Mojokerto. The results can be described in the following table. 60 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (53-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Table 2 The frequency of slendro tones in Lumajang, Probolinggo, Surabaya, and Mojokerto Compare the frequencies of several slendro gamelans in Surakarta and its surroundings in the table below Table 3 Frequency of slendro gamelan in Surakarta and its surroundings. Taken from Hastanto's book (2016:40–42) By looking at the figure above, it can be emphasized that the slendro gamelan in the East Jawatimuran karawitan culture has a lower frequency than that in Surakarta and its surroundings. Therefore, the Jawatimuran karawitan has its unique slendro gamelan, which is different from the slendro gamelan culture in other areas, especially in Central Java. Setiawan, A. 61 Balungan Concept and Inner Melody Theme of Jawatimuran Karawitan Sumarsam, in his book Hayatan Gamelan, Kedalaman Lagu, Teori dan Perspektif (2002), reviews the possibilities for determining the inner melody. The main question that arises is, where is the depth of the gamelan melody themes? What instruments can be used as a reference in this regard? From the outset, many Western theorists suspected that Javanese gamelan melodies were contained in the saron melody. Kunts (1973:167,274) and Hood (1954:17) view that the instrument assigned to carry the depth of the central theme is a reasonably significant gamelan element. Before the word balungan gending was coined, Western scholars used the terms nuclear theme, cantus firmus, principal melody, fixed melody (Sumarsam, 2002: 12). Of course, the view that places the melodies of saron, demung, and slenthem (commonly called the balungan instrument) as the main melodic theme of gamelan is met with opposition and criticism from indigenous scholars. How is it possible that a saron, which has only a limited range of tones, can cover all the abstractions of the melody of the gending (Sumarsam, 1975). To answer this question, first, the origin of the word balungan will be explained so that the correlation or connection with gending (so-called "balungan gending") can be interpreted clearly (Perlman, 2004). Sumarsam (2003:207–220) describes the history of when the term balungan appeared in the gamelan world. The search carried out by Sumarsam in this context is essential to see and read the traces of karawitan scholarship to penetrate the Jawatimuran sub-style. In addition, to open up other possibilities, the same symptoms in interpreting the balungan gending, the main theme, and the contours of the gamelan melody also occur in Jawatimuran karawitan gamelans. Or are there other dimensions and interpretations, which explain that Jawatimuran karawitan tends to have differences and distinctive characters? Serat Centhini, Serat Sastramiruda, and Gulang Yarya, which were written in the 19th century, cover many gamelan and gending, but the term "balungan" is not found. According to Sumarsam (2003: 211), the term balungan first appeared in the book Layang Anyumurake Pratikele Bab Sinau Nabuh Serta Panggawene Gamelan (1913) by Djakoeb and Wignyaroemeksa. The term balungan gending is used without profound meaning, only mentioned once in the first chapter. In the book, what is meant by balungan gending is the abstraction of the melody played by the slenthem instrument. In other words, balungan gending refers to the range of tones owned by the slenthem instrument. Furthermore, Seolardi, through his book entitled Serat Pradongga (1918), explained balungan gending as the main element of gending, which was realized in the form of notation. The term balungan gending then often appears in books about gamelan. As Hardosoekarto wrote entitled Titi Asri (1925), Wirawiyaga with his books entitled Serat Lagu Jawi (1935) and Serat Mardu Swara (1939). Until the 1930s, the discussion of balungan (gending) became increasingly important to translate the depth of the melody into a series of written numbers that could be read and interpreted further. Can balungan gending be written? When referring to the information above, writing about balungan gending is seen as urgent, which Dewantara (1936:47) calls an effort to learn to play the gamelan. As a result, there are simplifications of the musical complexity of the gamelan into a series of simple songs by the saron, demung, and slenthem instruments. Because of its role and function, the unity of the instrument is referred to as the "balungan instrument." According to Supanggah (1990), although he did not mention in detail how important balungan gending is to be written, it must be admitted that the discussion of balungan gending has sparked other intellectual discourse issues in the gamelan world, one of which is related to notation. The history of notation in the world of karawitan in Surakarta and Yogyakarta has been explained quite well by Sumarsam (2003) and Rusdiyantoro (2019). Gamelan notation is an attempt to document gamelan gendings. Gamelan notation also encountered quite a long polemic, especially on the question of which instrument pattern is appropriate to be notated? Is gamelan notation able to cover all aspects of the musical in gamelan? As explained above, notation is extracted from the instrument playing that is considered closest to the balungan gending, namely saron or balungan. Rahayu Supanggah (2009:31) suspects that balungan gending is a new phenomenon, or at least emerged after the existence of ricikan balungan. Supanggah's explanation is quite reasonable considering that the discussion about balungan gending reached its peak when the art education institution was established so that issues related to discourse and karawitan science were tried to be raised, including the phenomenon of balungan gending. However, it must be admitted that such a discussion made things even more complicated (in other words, it was confusing)—) understanding of a gending. Balungan gending, vaguely though not fixed or precise, are musical notations, whether on 62 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (53-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 blackboards, paper, or traded notation books. The balungan gending notation is created after the gending exists. This means that balungan gending is more effort to find a formulation to read the musical essence of a gending. Then were born notes or notations, which are not intended as standardization of a gending, like today. Initially, the interpretation of the musical notations had sharp differences between one musician and another. This is due to their ability to transform gending into a series of signs and specific codes. Moreover, every musician has an imaginary power that is different in building a musical perception of a piece (gending). A musician who has mastered the rebab instrument will undoubtedly be other from a musician who masters gender instruments. As a result, the casting of balungan gending in the form of a sign or notation becomes different. The notation can only be interpreted, read, and understood by the musician who created it. The same thing also happens to other musicians. When art education institutions were established, methods were needed to make learning gamelan easier and more practical. What is known as the transcription of balungan gending, which is often very personal and in the pocket of the musicians, is then mass-produced with the same contents. At least there is a different work pattern between balungan gending, a musical abstraction from musicians in the form of fixed codes that are very personal with the balungan gending notation currently circulating. The first way of working, the music first exists (fixed), but because a musician's memory is very limited, unsystematic notes are made that only he can understand. These notes are often tucked away in a pocket or purse, usually written on cigarette packs, small pieces of paper, and the like. The second way of working is reversed; although the gending has existed and is present, for today's musicians, the gending is not fully real in their imagination. The gending becomes present and accurate when they read the notation. The activity of reading notation is not just reading numbers, but at the same time, “klenéngan gamelan” or a complete gamelan concert is playing in their imaginations or minds. If the first method of working balungan gending is made when the gending already exists, while the second way of working is reversed, so that the gending exists, it must read the notation. The second way of working becomes urgent to be reviewed because it directly correlates with the concept of balungan gending in Jawatimuran karawitan. The notation of gamelan raises efforts in understanding the reading so that the gending can be interpreted equally between one musician and another. In Surakarta karawitan, the notation is made based on the form, classification, and structure of the gending (for example, lancaran, ketawang, ladrang, ketuk loro kerep, and so on) by accenting the kempul, kenong, ketuk, and gong signs. As a result, a Surakarta-style musician can immediately interpret the gending well by only reading specific notations. Moreover, patterns of a rebab, gender, kendang, and so on are also standardized, or formulas are made. Therefore, a Surakarta Style gending notation can immediately 'become an orchestra' in the imaginary power of a musician or composer. This then gives rise to uniformity of interpretation between one musician and another. If they play outside the existing notation, then it is considered wrong. This way of working is more like Western music's concept (notation), which emphasizes strict accuracy and precision. Art education institutions in East Java such as STKWS (Sekolah Tinggi Kesenian Wilwatikta Surabaya [Surabaya Wilwatikta College of Arts]) and SMKI (Sekolah Menengah Kesenian Indonesia [Indonesian Arts High School]) Must be recognized as agents who “legalize” the abovementioned standards. This issue is not fully understood in the construction of musical culture in East Java or Jawatimuran karawitan. The recording of karawitan notations was done, but the distribution was not as massive as the Surakarta and Yogyakarta musical styles. The recording of Jawatimuran gendings refers to the workings in Surakarta, namely trying to give signs, make classifications, shapes, and structures of gendings. Soenarto (2011), Mudiyanto (1981), Tasman Ronoatmojo, A. (1981), Suwarmin (1984), and Adiyanto (2016) are some of the researchers who carried out this method of work. However, efforts to make musical abstractions in the form of notation did not work as well as in Surakarta karawitan. As explained earlier, a musician in Surakarta can immediately interpret the notation of gending as “the whole gending” in their imagination which is then translated into real gending or klenéngan. But this is not the case in Jawatimuran karawitan. Gending Morosebo Slendro Sepuluh, for example, is a gending successfully notated by Tasman in 1981, but today not many musicians can play it, even by reading the available notation. Setiawan, A. 63 Figure 4. Gending Morosebo Slendro Sepuluh. Teken from Tasman’s book (1981) Many musicians have difficulty when faced with the existing notations. Even though the music classifications have been made in sufficient detail and clarity, musicians have not been able to make it into a "complete gending" in their minds and imaginations. Even just muttering (rengeng-rengeng) is often difficult. This means that the gendings of Jawatimuran carry a unique character and taste from one another even though they have similarities in structure and form. Gending Cokronegoro, Ijo-ijo, and Walang Kekek are examples. Have the same shape and size but are different in presentation. Figure 5. Three gendings have the same structure but differ in their presentation. A. Gending Cokronegoro Slendro Sanga, B. Gending Ijo-ijo Slendro Sanga, C. Gending Walang Kekek Slendro Wolu The three gendings above can be classified in the same form, but uniquely, each musician processes them differently. Gending Walang Kekek, for example, is performed at a relatively faster tempo with a tighter and louder drum pattern. In this context, the differences in musical analysis between the three gendings cannot be explained due to the limited space and the word count. The interpretation made in playing garap instruments is based on the main tones used, especially on heavy beats (seleh abot 64 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (53-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 [Javanese], in karawitan, it is called ulian). For example, if a song has the main tone or sentence: .1.6 .3.2 .6.5 .3.2, the heavy tones are the second tone of each gatra or phrase. More details can be described as follows: Table 4. Heavy beats on the song sentence of the Cokronegoro gending Song sentence 1 6 3 2 6 5 3 2 Light beat (padhang) 1 3 6 3 Heavy beat (ulian) 6 2 5 2 Garap instruments (such as the rebab and gender) can improvise to a certain level, as long as the improvisation leads to heavy tones. One musician may improvise differently than another but lead to the same ending tones. Thus, in this context, the notation above is used as a means of reminder or to provoke the imagination of musicians in doing improvisational work. The ideal measure for musicians to play Jawatimuran gendings among many variations is to be able to present the character and taste of the gending being played. It will be difficult for musicians who have never played related gending, while he only has notation. Armed with only notation, he does not know how slow or fast the tempo must be, at what rhythm the gending is performed, and the mechanics of musical building between the tones (musical interaction and communication on the garap instrument, for example). Returning to the issue of balungan gending, both Sumarsam (2002) and Rahayu Supanggah (1990, 2009), Sri Hastanto (1985) reject the view that the saron melody cannot be considered as balungan gending because of the limited tone area compared to for example gender instruments, bonang, rebab, and gambang. Therefore, the circulating gamelan notations can not necessarily be considered or referred to as balungan gending. On the one hand, the view is true that saron has tone limitations, so the writing of notation refers to the area of ambitus of existing tones. This simple example was once expressed by Becker (1980:83), if there is a melody contour with the tone 1̇ 2̇ 1̇ 6 when played by saron, it will be 1216. As in the example above, the melody contour with a tone that the saron instrument can not accommodate causes simplification. However, there has been no further research on whether the simplification by saron of the gending melody affects the musical quality of the gending as a whole or not. On the other hand, although it has limitations in reaching all gamelan tones, the saron melody can be read implicitly in a definite or fixed interpretation and meaning. In other words, although high and low notes cannot be entirely written in saron tones (high tones, such as 2̇ 3̇ 5̇ 6̇ but musicians who have high virtuosity can interpret them better. Far away, and will play garap instruments with tones beyond the range of the saron instrument, although the saron tones is still used as a reference. The notation of the saron melody does not merely guide the playing of the saron instrument but becomes a form of new numbers waiting to be interpreted. For rebab, gender, gambang and bonang players, for example, by just looking at the saron tones, in their imagination, they will process it into a much more complex one, adjusting the garap on the instrument they want to play. Based on this view, the statements of Sumarsam, Rahayu Supanggah, and Sri Hastanto in this context can be refuted. The saron melody is the ideal medium in writing balungan gending. Alternatively, it can be said that the saron melody is balungan gending, and the notations that base their writing on saron notes (or balungan instruments) can therefore also be called balungan gending. Because of this, Adiyanto even specifically uses the title Balungan Gending Jawatimuran (2016) for his book, which contains notations of Jawatimuran karawitan based on the tones of saron or balungan instrument. The most recent research concerning balungan gending was written by Khafiizh Hastuti through his article entitled "Identification of the note pattern from balungan gending lancaran using Apriori algorithm" (2015: 287-292). In her writing, Khafiizah uses the word balungan gending, which Setiawan, A. 65 is nothing but the notation of saron. Uniquely, balungan gending tries to relate algorithm problems regarding the dictum of time and space precision. What is quite interesting is that, based on the balungan gending, a musical musician within the limits of his imagination can imagine the complete klenéngan process and space and time. Furthermore, more comprehensive research can question whether “imaginary klenéngan” is directly proportional to the “real klenéngan.” Moreover, the statement of the saron melody representing the balungan gending in this context can be justified. The same thing also happens in the Jawatimuran karawitan tradition. The writing of the saron melody is seen as balungan gending. However, the way of interpreting it is different from that of karawitan in Surakarta. The notation (again) cannot be used as a reference in processing, garap, elaborating Jawatimuran gendings. In Jawatimuran karawitan, gending notation is often left as numbers that are too difficult to interpret further. There are several main reasons why notation cannot be used as the primary reference in playing Jawatimuran gending. First, the Jawatimuran karawitan culture is the latest in recognizing the notation system compared to the two major styles, Surakarta and Yogyakarta. Second, no method can accurately summarize the sounds in Jawatimuran musical into notation; so far, the recording or notation still refers to similar steps in Surakarta and Yogyakarta. In fact, every musical culture, including gamelan, has a different unique character and side, so it cannot be forced to be the same. Third, Jawatimuran gendings (as previously mentioned) developed orally, thus allowing the same gending to have different musical compositions between regions, groups, and musicians. As a result, one gending notation can be read or played by musician A but not by musician B. Fourth, because one gending can produce many different characters and musical compositions, the ideal step is not only to notate it but also to the involvement of the musicians' experience directly playing these gendings. It is the same as tasting the taste of food; although one person can read the word "salty," it will be difficult to explain if he has never tasted it. Therefore, the effort to document Jawatimuran gendings, especially for now, apart from the availability of notation, is to take advantage of the development of audio-visual technology. Conclusion The slendro gamelan in karawitan Jawatimuran was not as complete as it is today. Many arts communities, such as ludruk and wayang, use iron slendro gamelan instead of bronze. Iron gamelan is considered to be louder, apart from being cheaper. Several references show that kendang, ponggang, slenthem, saron, kempul, and gong are the main instruments often used as supporting music for dance performances, ludruk, and wayang. Gradually the slendro gamelan instruments became more complete, both in terms of the tones and the number of instruments. The iron gamelan, which was initially an idol, was replaced with a bronze gamelan. The use of bronze gamelan is considered more capable of enhancing the show's image (call it ludruk and wayang) because its shiny shape feels more elegant and expensive. The development of the times and intercultural influences have caused many slendro gamelans to be imported from Surakarta today. As a result, the slendro gamelan with distinctive East Javanese characters is increasingly marginalized. The main characteristic of the East Javanese slendro gamelan is the high notes that can still be tolerated by the vocals of a dalang or tayub singer. In contrast, the ambitus of the slendro gamelan in Surakarta tends to be higher or shrill. The simple analogy is tone 2 in Jawatimuran slendro gamelan, similar to or the same as tone 1 in Surakarta slendro gamelan. The recording or transcription of balungan gending into more massive notation is carried out in Jawatimuran karawitan. This refers to a similar activity in Surakarta, where gending documentation is manifested in numbers (notations). However, the gending notation in Jawatimuran karawitan instruments does not play a significant role in building the melodic theme of the gending. A Jawatimuran musician, for example, will find it challenging to play Jawatimuran gending, even though the notation is already available. This can happen as long as the musician has never previously played and heard the related gending. Such a case is different from the theme of the gending melodic in Surakarta. A musician can instantly imagine a musical concert in his mind by simply reading the notation. This shows that the notation, balungan gending, has not played a comprehensive role in Jawatimuran karawitan. The sensitivity and depth of the melodic theme are built from the experience of the musicians, not the reasoning in interpreting the gending from the notation he reads. 66 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.11, Issue 1 (53-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 References Adiyanto. (2016). Balungan gending Jawatimuran. C.V. Kurnia. Baker, L. (2006). Observation: A complex research method. Library Trends, 55(1), 171–189. https://doi.org/10.1353/lib.2006.0045 Becker, J. (1980). Traditional music in modern Java. University Press of Hawaii. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=JJ4wAQAAIAAJ Ciesielska, M., Boström, K. W., & Öhlander, M. (2018). Observation methods. In Qualitative Methodologies in Organization Studies (pp. 33–52). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3-319-65442-3_2 de Groot, A. D. C. (1852). Bijdrage tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Javanen. Tijdschrift Voor Nederlandsch-Indie, 14(2), 257–280; 346–367; 393–424. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=FQSytgAACAAJ Dewantara, K. H. (1936). Wawaton Kawruh gendhing Jawi. Wasita. Djakoeb & Wignyaroemeksa (1913). Layang anyumurupaké praktikelé bab sinau nabuh sarta panggawéné Gamelan. Batavia: Drukkerij Eertijd H.M. van Drorp. Hardosoekarto, S. (1925). Serat Titi Asri. Budi Utama. Hastanto, S. (1985). The concept of Pathet in Central Javanese gamelan music. Durham University. Hastanto, S. (2016). Kehidupan laras sendro nusantara. ISI Press. Hood, M. (1954). The nuclear theme as a determinant of patet in Javanese music. Da Capo Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=nngHAQAAMAAJ Kartamihardja, R. P. (1978). Kesenian Jawa Timur. Surabaya: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Kawulich, B. (2005). Participant observation as a data collection method. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 6(2), 1–29. Khafiizh Hastuti, A. M. (2015). Identification of the note pattern from balungan gending lancaran using Apriori algorithm. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 71(2). Kunst, J. (1973). Music in Java: Its history, its theory and its technique. (E. E. Heins, Ed.). Nijhoff. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=3OgXAQAAIAAJ Mäkelä, M. (2007). Knowing through making: The role of the artefact in practice-led research. Knowledge, Technology & Policy, 20(3), 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12130-007-9028-2 Mistortoify, Z. (2015). Ong-Klaongan dan Lè-Kalèllèan estetika kèjhungan orang Madura Barat. Universitas Gadjah Mada. Mistortoify, Z., Haryono, T., Ganap, V., & L. Simatupang, G. R. L. (2014). Pola Kellèghãn dan teknik vokal kèjhungan representasi ekspresi budaya Madura dan pengalaman estetiknya. Resital: Jurnal Seni Pertunjukan. https://doi.org/10.24821/resital.v15i1.796 Mohajan, H. K. (2018). Qualitative research methodology in social sciences and related subjects. Journal of Economic Development, Environment and People, 7(1), 23–48. https://doi.org/10.26458/jedep.v7i1.571 Mudiyanto. (1981). Notasi genderan sena’in. Surabaya: Sekolah Tinggi Kesenian Wilwatikta Surabaya. Munardi, A. M. (1983). Pengetahuan karawitan Jawatimuran. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Nugraha Christianto, W., Haryono, T., Lono L. Simatupang, G. R., & -, S. (2009). Pathêt: Di atas kertas dan di atas panggung Wayang Kulit dalam perspektif teori praktik. Resital: Jurnal Seni Pertunjukan, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.24821/resital.v10i2.486 Oyebode, F. (2017). The voices within: The history and science of how we talk to ourselves. British Journal of Psychiatry, 210(2), 170–171. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.116.187252 Perlman, M. (2004). Unplayed melodies: Javanese gamelan and the genesis of music theory. University of California Press. Prasetya, S. H. B. (2012). Fisika bunyi gamelan: Laras, tuning, dan spektrum. Badan Penerbitan ISI Yogyakarta. Rahayu, S. (2010). Musikalitas Karawitan Jawatimuran. LAKON: Jurnal Pengkajian & Penciptaan Wayang, VII(1). Rahayu, S. (2017). Garap sindhenan Jawa Timur Surabayan. ISI Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=S6_UswEACAAJ Rosa, M., & Orey, D. C. (2012). The field of research in ethnomodeling: Emic, ethic and dialectical approaches. Educação e Pesquisa, 38(4), 865–879. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-97022012000400006 Rusdiyantoro. (2018). Kebertahanan notasi kepatihan sebagai sistem notasi karawitan Jawa. Keteg: Jurnal Pengetahuan, Pemikiran Dan Kajian Tentang Bunyi, 18(2), 136–147. https://doi.org/10.33153/keteg.v18i2.2402 Seolardi, R. B. (n.d.). Serat pradongga. Weltevreden: Widya Poestaka nr.2. Setiawan, A. (2013). Konfigurasi karawitan Jawatimuran. Gelar: Jurnal Seni Budaya, 11(1). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.33153/glr.v11i1.1427 Setiawan, A. 67 Setiawan, A. (2020). Jula-Juli pandalungan dan jula-juli Surabayan: Ambivalensi dan garap karawitan Jawatimuran. Sekolah Pascasarjana, Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta. Setiawan, A. (2021a). Kidungan Jula-juli in East Java: Media of criticism and propaganda (From the Japanese occupation era to the reform order in Indonesia). Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education, 21(1), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.15294/harmonia.v21i1.27116 Setiawan, A. (2021b). The concept of the Pathet and avoided tones in Jawatimuran karawitan. Music Scholarship / Problemy Muzykal’noj Nauki, (1), 111–124. https://doi.org/10.33779/2587- 6341.2021.1.111-124 Setiawan, A., Suyanto, S. & Wisma Nugraha, Ch. R. (2017). Jula-juli pandalungan dan Surabayan ekspresi budaya Jawa-Madura dan Jawa Kota. Resital: Jurnal Seni Pertunjukan, 18(1), 1–12. Soenarto. (2011). Teknik tabuhan karawitan Jawa Timur gaya Mojokerto-Surakarta. CV. Cendrawasih. Sumarsam. (1975). Inner melody in Javanese gamelan music. Asian Music, 7(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.2307/833922 Sumarsam. (1995). Gamelan: Cultural interaction and musical development in Central Java. University of Chicago Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=AD8W-9pYj9gC Sumarsam. (2002). Hayatan gamelan: Kedalaman lagu, teori, dan perspektif. STSI Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=L4mfAAAAMAAJ Sumarsam. (2003). Gamelan: Interaksi budaya dan perkembangan musikal di Jawa. Pustaka Pelajar. Sumarsam. (2014). Javanese music historiography: The lost gamelan of Gresik. In E. Tagliacozzo (Ed.), Producing Indonesia: The State of the Field of Indonesian Studies (pp. 327–346). Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications. Supanggah, R. (1990). Balungan. In Jurnal Masyarakat Musikologi Indonesia. Yayasan Masyarakat Musikologi Indonesia Bekerjasama dengan Duta Wacana University Press Yogyakarta. Supanggah, R. (2009). Bothekan karawitan II: Garap. Program Pascasarjana bekerja sama dengan ISI Press Surakarta. Supriyono. (2006). Gadhingan dalam Pakeliran Jawa Timuran. Sekolah Tinggi Kesenian Wilwatikta Surabaya. Sutton, R. A. (1991). Traditions of gamelan music in Java: Musical pluralism and regional identity. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Ie88AAAAIAAJ Sutton, R. A. (2001). Individuality and “Writing” in Javanese music learning. Asian Music, 33(1), 75. https://doi.org/10.2307/834233 Suwarmin. (1984). Klasifikasi struktur gending Surabaya. Sekolah Tinggi Kesenian Wilwatikta (STKW) Surabaya. Tasman Rono Admojo, & Sriredjo, D. (1981). Notasi gending Mojokerto-Suroboyo. Sekolah Tinggi Kesenian Wilwatikta Surabaya. Tasman Ronoatmojo, A., S. (1981). Notasi rebaban gending-gending Suroboyo. Surabaya: Bidang Kesenian Kantor Wilayah Departeman P dan K Propinsi Jawa Timur bersama Sekolah Tinggi Kesenian Wilwatikta Surabaya Yayasan Badan Pembina Perguruan Tinggi Wilwatikta Surabaya. Thomas, M. S. (2019). Teaching socio-legal research methodology: Participant Observation. Law and Method, 14(14), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.5553/REM/.000041 Wirawiyaga, M. N. (1935). Serat lagu Jawi. N.V Sie Dhiam Ho. Wirawiyaga, M. N. (1939). Serat mardu swara. Surakarta: unknown. Biography Aris Setiawan is an ethnomusicologist and lecturer at the Indonesia Institute of the Arts in Surakarta. He is also a journalist who writes a lot about music and culture issues in Indonesia. He graduated in a doctoral program majoring in Performing Arts Studies, Gadjah Mada University (UGM) Yogyakarta in October 2020. Aris has just published his latest book entitled "Semesta Bunyi Kata: Essays on Music and Gamelan" in August 2021. He is currently preparing his latest book on biographies of music maestros in Indonesia.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

Digital Musical Instruments, Human Computer Interaction, Malay gamelan, music interaction, user requirements, virtual bonang

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/6917

Playing Gamelan Bonang in the Air: User Requirements for Designing a Digital Musical Instrument for the Malay Bonang

In recent years, computer technologies have been impactful in the design and development of Digital Musical Instruments (DMIs). As music interaction became prominent in the Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) field, emphasis on user requirement upon the design of musical interfaces has also grown since the last decade. Although designing new DMIs is becoming very popular, it is often determined by the designers and often not reflective of users’ needs.  In this study, we explored user requirements for the design of a virtual musical instrument of the Malay

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/6917/4203

68 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue1 (68-83) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Playing Gamelan Bonang in the Air: User Requirements for Designing a Digital Musical Instrument for the Malay Bonang Khatriza Ahmad Saffian1, Noris Mohd Norowi2*, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah3, Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman4 Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Universiti Putra Malaysia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Ahmad Faudzi Musib5 Faculty of Human Ecology 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Universiti Putra Malaysia [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 21 December 2022 Cite this article (APA): Ahmad Saffian, K., Mohd Norowi, N., Abdullah, L. N., Sulaiman, P. S., & Musib, A. F. (2022). Playing gamelan bonang in the air: User requirements for designing a Digital Musical Instrument for the Malay bonang. Malaysian Journal of Music, 11(1), 68–83 https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol11.1.5.2022 Abstract In recent years, computer technologies have been impactful in the design and development of Digital Musical Instruments (DMIs). As music interaction became prominent in the Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) field, emphasis on user requirement upon the design of musical interfaces has also grown since the last decade. Although designing new DMIs is becoming very popular, it is often determined by the designers and often not reflective of users’ needs. In this study, we explored user requirements for the design of a virtual musical instrument of the Malay bonang, an instrument found in the Malay gamelan ensemble. The requirements were elicited from a group of gamelan experts to establish the bonang playing techniques to be mapped to the virtual instrument which we called Air Bonang. Findings revealed that in designing the Air Bonang that is natural and expressive, the fundamental playing techniques of the bonang should be integrated into the system using mid-air interaction. In addition, exploratory techniques might also be integrated into the Air Bonang to leverage musical expression. The outcome of the study proposes design criteria that encompass three aspects of a natural Air Bonang, namely, embodiment, expressiveness, and feedback. Keywords: Digital Musical Instruments, Human Computer Interaction, Malay gamelan, music interaction, user requirements, virtual bonang Introduction Computational technologies have profoundly influenced many aspects of music. The interaction between humans and Digital Musical Instruments (DMIs), known as music interaction, is prominent in the field of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). Discourse on music interaction is taking place progressively highlighting the trends in various aspects of music interaction including philosophy, design, development, methodology, and evaluation. Designing new DMIs has become very successful and popular among researchers, musicians, and developers, however, they are determined by the designers (Bowen, 2013; Cohé & Hachet, 2012; Wobbrock et al., 2009) and are often exploratory and in a constant state of development (Morreale et al., 2018). This is probably due to various motivations and purposes when designing DMIs Khatriza Ahmad Saffian, Noris Mohd Norowi, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah, 69 Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman & Ahmad Faudzi Musib such as to develop new sounds, improve audience experiences, as well as making DMIs accessible for novices to make musical performances (Emerson & Egermann, 2020; McPherson et al., 2019). In this study, we wanted to reimagine a traditional musical instrument, the Malay bonang, in a virtual environment. We aim to preserve its traditional identity and naturalness by simulating its playing gestures as well as to explore affordances of the bonang DMI. To realize this, we gathered requirements from potential users, namely professional gamelan musicians to give insights into designing the virtual bonang. In music interaction, user requirements are elicited in various types of projects such as mid-air interaction (Brown et al., 2018; Leng et al., 2018), gesture recognition (Françoise & Bevilacqua, 2018), motivations for building new DMIs (Emerson & Egermann, 2020), user-defined gestures (Leng et al., 2017), as well as evaluations of DMI (Brown et al., 2020). In our work, we seek to find out the requirements to design a natural virtual musical instrument of the Malay bonang. Our motivation stemmed from the unique playing gestures of the bonang and the lack virtualization of traditional Malay musical instrument. We hope to design a bonang DMI that is meaningful, engaging, and relevant for all users. The Malay bonang is a knobbed-gong instrument found in the Malay gamelan ensemble, also known as gamelan Melayu. Made from bronze, iron, and wood, in terms of physicality, it is a relatively large, heavy, often custom-made, and expensive instrument as shown in Figure 1. Its unique gestures and playing techniques, often deemed to be technically challenging among beginner learners, has never been explored for the design of a digital musical instrument (DMI). There is a variety of virtual gamelan bonang developed namely mobile applications (Anshori, 2014; Hassan et al., 2020) and hardware-based DMIs (Naber, 2016), however, there is little discussion on how the bonang’s playing gestures and techniques are incorporated in these designs. For example, the mobile application of the bonang would be ubiquitous and accessible. However, the touchscreen interaction of the application does not simulate the hand movements of the bonang gestures due to the limitations of mobile devices (K. A. Saffian & Norowi, 2021). With hardware-based digital gamelan (Naber, 2016), although the striking gesture of the bonang is physically done with the hands, it is only designed as one gong instead of the complete set of gongs found in the bonang. In this study, the roles and techniques of the Malay bonang are explored by gathering user requirements in determining possible mappings for the bonang DMI. The Malay bonang has unique gestural playing techniques where it requires good coordination of both hands, which can be potentially simulated to a DMI. Once a court ensemble, the Malay gamelan has evolved over the last decade where innovations are taking place on its composition, performance, instruments, as well as playing techniques (Mohd Shah & Poheng, 2021). Furthermore, playing techniques from the Western and other non-Western musical instruments have also been explored and incorporated into the Malay bonang, challenging its affordance (Tanaka, 2010), as well as appropriation where performers came to define the identity of the instrument through their working relationships with it (Zappi & McPherson, 2014). These can be further explored in the design of the Air Bonang. From this study, we propose the design criteria for a virtual Malay bonang which we call the Air Bonang to help guide other research in developing a natural yet explorative DMI for the Malay gamelan in general. Figure 1. The Malay bonang also known as keromong 70 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue1 (68-83) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 The Malay Bonang The gamelan is a type of orchestra that originated in Indonesia. There are various types of gamelan ensembles within the Southeast Asia region including the Malay gamelan, which is the gamelan music in the style of Malaysia. Its origin was traced back to 1811 when a group of gamelan musicians and dancers from Riau-Lingga was brought to the state of Pahang to perform at a royal wedding. The Malay bonang, also known as keromong, is a five-tone knobbed-gong instrument found in the Malay gamelan ensemble. It consists of 10 gongs (known as canang) made from iron or bronze which are arranged in two rows, with five pots in each row. In reference to Figure 2, the bottom row is arranged from left to right with ascending tones (12356) while the top row is arranged from left to right with descending tones (65321). The top row gongs have higher pitches than the bottom row gongs, almost in an octave-like relationship but with slight variations in frequencies due to their non-harmonic spectral content (K. Saffian, 2014). The five-tone scale of the Malay bonang is often loosely described as a major pentatonic, known as slendro (Hamdan et al., 2020). All of the bonang gongs are hung on stretched strings across a wooden frame and raised a few inches above the floor. This physical structure of the bonang requires the player to sit on the floor to play it. The bonang gongs are struck with a pair of wooden mallets in unique left-and-right-hand coordination, for example, striking two gongs on different rows simultaneously or alternately. Traditionally, the bonang leads the gamelan ensemble by playing the introduction of the song and giving cues to other gamelan instruments before going into new sections of the songs. Figure 2. Bonang gongs and pitches. Teaching and learning of gamelan music are heavily rooted in oral tradition which differs from location to location and from teacher to teacher (Shah, 2013). Hence, there is no standardization of terminologies pertaining to its playing techniques unlike learning Western musical instruments. The hand gestures made when playing the bonang are not necessarily given names but rather to realize gamelan melodies. Therefore, to design the Air Bonang, gathering user requirements from the gamelan experts will determine and establish the bonang techniques and gestures so that they can be simulated into the Air Bonang. The size and dimension of the bonang are also not standardized and vary from one gamelan maker to another. Despite this, replicating the size and dimension of the bonang instrument as shown in Figure 3a and 3b, will ensure a natural transition from the virtual instrument to the acoustic counterpart. Figure 3a. Bonang wood frame dimensions. Khatriza Ahmad Saffian, Noris Mohd Norowi, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah, 71 Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman & Ahmad Faudzi Musib Figure 3b. Bonang gong dimension. All the top gongs have similar dimension while the bottom gongs vary slightly. Existing virtual gamelan instruments are mostly based on variations of the Indonesian gamelan ensembles, namely the Balinese gamelan (Aryadana et al., 2019; Diatmika et al., 2015; Dwipayana et al., 2019) and Javanese gamelan (Permana et al., 2019; Revana et al., 2020). Virtualizing the Malay gamelan instrument has mostly been focused on the mobile application of the bonang instrument developed for the learning of the instrument (Hassan et al., 2020). Many of these virtual gamelan systems are mostly focused on the learning aspects of the ensemble where the systems are developed to provide only general information about the gamelan, rather than as DMIs. Not much has been discussed about the musical expression aspects as well as the naturalness of these gamelan virtualizations. Despite integrating the different types of technology in developing these virtual gamelans, such as mobile technology, augmented reality, and virtual reality, however, the mapping of users’ gestures is not fully leveraged to optimize natural musical expression and interaction. For example, the virtual reality Gong Kebyar (Aryadana et al., 2019) is a mobile application based on the Balinese gamelan ‘gong kebyar’ ensemble. This VR-Android-based application is developed as a learning tool to introduce the Balinese gamelan through visual displays rather than interactive ones, where the users get to play the VR instruments. Meanwhile, a game-based VR application called the Go-Byar (Dwipayana et al., 2019) incorporated gestural aspects of playing the gamelan instruments where the users can either choose to play in freestyle mode or with accompanied music. Despite being interactive, the details of the gestural interaction are not discussed especially pertaining to its mid-air interaction. Mid-Air Interaction in Musical Performance Mid-air interaction in musical performance is anything but new. It goes back to the invention of the theremin, an electronic musical instrument controlled without physical contact developed in 1920. In recent times, technological advancement as well as commercial production of motion capture and gesture tracking technologies such as the Leap Motion, Microsoft Kinect, and virtual reality displays such as Oculus Quest, has taken mid-air interaction to a new level where it can be experienced by a wider group of people. Mid-air interaction in DMI performances have been explored by many researchers. Some related works include user-defined mapping of musical performance using data glove (Brown et al., 2018), using the Leap-Motion sensor to design a piano-based and a percussion-based DMIs (Han & Gold, 2014), and exploring haptic feedback in AirPiano (Hwang et al., 2017). Considered as a natural and an intuitive interaction, it provides an unmediated form of control with no constraints on human movement (Brown et al., 2018). Despite being unconstrained in movement, other issues arise with mid-air interaction such as lack of control, feedback, tactility, and latency. In terms of feedback, haptics technology has been coupled with mid-air interaction as it can recreate real physical sensations (Rakkolainen et al., 2020). Mid-air technologies such as hand controllers and data gloves, for example, can make up for the lack of tactility, and head-mounted displays (HMD) can provide visualization for more effective mid-air interaction. Many of these technological advancements are constantly addressing latency issues to ensure a more fluid interaction. Mid-air interaction research often includes user requirements study, typically on gesture elicitation to identify appropriate gestures suited to the context of use and design issue (Koutsabasis & Vogiatzidakis, 2019). This becomes the central of this study where the simulations of the potential bonang gestures are determined through this user requirements study which forms the proposed design for the Air Bonang. 72 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue1 (68-83) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Methodology A user study was conducted to elicit user requirements on playing techniques and gestures of the Malay bonang that can be mapped to the DMI that will be developed. The study aims to answer three research questions: (1) what type of bonang playing gestures can be mapped for a DMI, (2) how users determine effective bonang gestures in terms of spatial, angle, and distance with mid-air interaction, and (3) how to design an Air Bonang that is natural. Participants Six gamelan experts were recruited through the purposive sampling technique (Palinkas et al., 2015) together with the snowball sampling technique (Coss, 2018). They comprised gamelan instructors, practitioners, and musicians from various universities, music academies, and gamelan performance groups. The experts involved were three males and three females with a mean age of 42.7 years old. The criteria in recruiting the experts are they must have at least five years of experience playing the gamelan and have played both traditional and contemporary gamelan music, presented in Table 1. The mean years of experience of the experts recruited are 18.3 years. The gamelan experts were invited via text messages using the WhatsApp application. This medium was chosen over other types of invitation as it is the most direct and convenient way of sending and receiving messages. The study was conducted in a remote setting via online interview, due to the restricted movement order of the Covid-19 pandemic. The interview sessions took two days to complete with a duration of an hour for each respondent. Table 1 Profiles of the gamelan experts Expert (E) Sex Age Related Formal Education Gamelan Background (in Years) Gamelan Experience E1 F 46 Doctoral of Education (Music) 23 Musician, judge, facilitator E2 M 32 Bachelor Degree of Music (Arranging and Composition) 25 Music director, musician, lecturer, composer, arranger, tutor E3 F 57 PhD in Music Education 31 Musician, music director, judge, organizer, and researcher E4 F 42 PhD in Ethnomusicology 17 Musician, tutor, judge, lecturer, and organizer E5 M 31 Bachelor Degree (Malay Gamelan) 18 Musician, lecturer, tutor, composer, and arranger E6 M 49 - 26 Musician, reference expert, tutor Interview The study began with an interview followed by a request for the respondents to demonstrate basic techniques of the bonang. The semi-structured interview had three following themes: (1) respondents’ musical background, (2) background and techniques of the Malay bonang, and (3) design ideas and requirements for the Air Bonang. This interview structure was chosen so that a deeper understanding of user requirements can be obtained from the respondents (Lazar et al., 2017). Observation For the demonstration, the experts were requested to demonstrate the hand gestures of playing techniques of the bonang. The hand gestures are video recorded within the same session of the interview displayed in Figure 4. All the respondents had given consent for their participation. The study has also been given an ethics clearance. There were two tasks involved: (1) playing single notes of the bonang in ascending (12356) and descending (65321) in mid-air, and (2) playing the notes along with singing the melody of a Malay Khatriza Ahmad Saffian, Noris Mohd Norowi, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah, 73 Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman & Ahmad Faudzi Musib gamelan tune entitled Timang Burung in mid-air. For both tasks, the experts were asked to repeat their hand movements three times so that movements can be compared. The music notation for the tune was provided. Figure 4. Recorded interview of the study. Data Analysis For the interview, the grounded theory method (Corbin & Strauss, 2014) was used to analyze the interview data to explore any themes from the overall feedback of the respondents. Based on the interview questions, several themes emerged pertaining to the fundamental techniques of the bonang, as well as design requirements which are discussed in the following section. As multimedia information can provide a rich pool of data (Lazar et al., 2017), the images of the experts’ hand gestures were screenshotted and edited using an online photo editor (https://overlay.imageonline.co/) to produce image overlays of the hand poses. This was done to see the difference in alignment of the note-striking position in terms of spatial, angle, and distance between repeated bonang notes. Two images of the hand poses representing two corresponding bonang notation were digitally laid on top on one another. Static objects in the images such as cabinets, chairs, or tables, were used as reference points when overlaying the images to ensure that the alignment is accurate. To measure the difference of alignment between the note-striking positions, an application to measure angles on images called Angulus was used. Results and Discussions The results are discussed and divided into three sections namely the fundamental techniques of the Malay bonang, ergonomic issues in the bonang, and mapping design for the Air Bonang. Fundamental Techniques of the Malay Bonang The study aims to gain experts’ feedback in terms of the roles of the Malay bonang as well as its fundamental playing techniques. Due to its oral tradition, there was no standardization in its technique nor terminology that comes with it. From the experts’ feedback, it is important that the fundamental bonang techniques are clearly established so that they can be simulated into the Air Bonang. From the interviews, four fundamental playing techniques of Malay bonang are identified as the following: serentak, berselang, bertingkah (or meningkah), and bunga which are displayed along with music notation in Figure 5. Each technique may be introduced to beginner players in a sequence displayed in Figure 6 where the level of difficulty of the technique increases. Figure 5a. The first four measures of basic melody for the gamelan tune Timang Burung. 74 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue1 (68-83) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 5b. Serentak technique. Playing two notes simultaneously with both hands. Figure 5c. Berselang technique, demonstrated by the alternating left- and right-hand movements. Figure 5d. Bertingkah technique with additional repetitive notes in circle to create rhythmic variations from the basic melody. Figure 5e. A variation of the bunga technique. Khatriza Ahmad Saffian, Noris Mohd Norowi, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah, 75 Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman & Ahmad Faudzi Musib Figure 6. Fundamental bonang techniques. Ergonomic Issues in Bonang The bonang is played using a pair of mallets, hence, the way the mallets are held by the player influences the way the knobbed-gongs are struck. The bonang mallet is made of wood with curvatures and wrapped in thick red thread at the tip. The bonang knob is struck using the threaded part of the mallet. Two mallets are flexibly held with both hands to ensure that the desired tone can be produced. According to the experts, there is no specific way of holding the bonang mallet, however, one has to be flexible enough to ensure appropriate grip control, force of strike, arms’ reach as well as agility to ensure the desired tone is produced and meet the musical demands of the song. Most of the experts prefer to hold the mallet in the middle displayed in Figure 7 to ensure balance with some variations depending on their styles in Figure 8. Figure 7. The most common and preferred way of holding bonang mallets. 76 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue1 (68-83) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 8. One variation of holding the bonang mallet, by using the index fingers to further secure the grip As with many acoustic musical instruments, the bonang is notorious for being unergonomic. It is played in a sitting position where the player sits on the floor or on a custom-made stool. In this position, both arms are extended in front of the player to strike the gongs as shown in Figure 9. The player’s body tends to bend forward to reach out to the bonang gongs which causes a ‘stress position’ and ‘overuse’ when playing in a fast tempo manner (León et al., 2015). To accommodate people of smaller sizes or with shorter arms, an extension might be added to the mallets so that the gongs can be reached. This was practiced in the past during gamelan lessons at the courts. Figure 9. Sitting position of playing the bonang. Other than the shape and size of the instrument, factors such as instrument quality and musician’s technique could also contribute to ergonomic issues (Fogliano, 2020). Traditional bonang techniques require both hands to move in a contrary motion, according to how the gong pitches are laid out in Figure 10. This hand coordination is deemed to be challenging where the player must ensure striking accuracy only of the knob, therefore moving outward and inward while playing could potentially cause fatigue to the arms and wrists which is known as the ‘gorilla arm syndrome’. The ‘gorilla arm syndrome’ refers to arm fatigue caused by prolonged unsupported arm position commonly found with vertical touchscreen and mid-air input gestures in human-computer interaction (Hansberger et al., 2017; Hincapié-Ramos et al., 2014). Furthermore, contemporary gamelan music challenges this practice by demanding a higher level of playing skills for manipulation of playing techniques to meet the requirement of certain compositions (Mohd Shah & Poheng, 2021) which would implicate more ergonomic issues. Khatriza Ahmad Saffian, Noris Mohd Norowi, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah, 77 Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman & Ahmad Faudzi Musib Figure 10. Left- and right-hand movement of playing the bonang. Mapping Design The mapping design of the Air Bonang is divided into mapping gestures, design features, mid-air interaction, and bonang dimensions. Mapping Gestures In understanding user requirements pertaining to the bonang gestures that will be mapped into the Air Bonang, all the experts agreed that it is important to keep the techniques or gestures to the fundamentals. The experts saw the Air Bonang to virtually preserve and sustain the bonang instrument especially for users who want to learn to play it, therefore, it should incorporate the four basic playing techniques mentioned previously (serentak, berselang, bertingkah, and bunga). It must also allow for users to incorporate the left- and right-hand coordination of playing the bonang as this will be the natural way of playing on the real instrument. Some of the experts are more open to integrating contemporary gamelan techniques such as moving the individual gongs around the wooden frame for exploratory purposes, especially to cater for composers, arrangers, and professional gamelan musicians. However, it must be carefully designed as contemporary techniques are ambiguous depending on the composition. Design Features The experts interviewed were also asked about design features that they would like to include in the Air Bonang. Visuals of the bonang gongs seemed to be the most important feature to have as this will be helpful for novice users to learn to play the Air Bonang along with video tutorials with basic information on the gamelan instruments. Three experts suggested that the system should have a play-along feature where the Air Bonang can be played with pre-recorded gamelan tracks. They believed that this can be an effective way of educating the users on the traditional repertoire of the Malay gamelan. Since the bonang is not a solo instrument, unlike the violin or piano, having a play-along feature will give the user the sense of playing in the gamelan ensemble. In order to design a virtual bonang that is natural, some experts suggested considering the sitting position of the system as well as having control for dynamics. In addition, other features that can be integrated into the Air Bonang include detection of wrong notes or movements, customization features such as changing the key/tuning and/or layout of the gongs, as well as being able to provide physical feedback. Mid-Air Interaction The key feature of the proposed Air Bonang is a DMI that is natural, hence, we believe that the mid-air interaction would be the most suitable interaction as the hand movements are not restricted. With technology such as virtual reality displays, hand controllers can be used to represent the bonang mallet which gives control of the striking gestures. From the interview, the experts agreed that the bonang gestures can be effectively executed with mid-air interaction. In terms of the dimensions of the mid-air gestures, two experts 78 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue1 (68-83) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 emphasized keeping the dimension of the gestures according to the real bonang instrument. They believed that this would ensure a natural transition from virtual playing to playing on the real bonang. Others were opened to the flexibility of re-sizing the dimension of the bonang gestures according to the users’ arms’ reach and body sizes. Mapping of Bonang Dimensions To determine the dimension of the bonang gestures in terms of spatial, angle, and distance with mid-air interaction, the images of the experts’ hand demonstration were analyzed using the image overlays technique. With respect to the expert own self, the overlaid images of him/her ‘striking’ on the same bonang pitches are compared to see if he/she can ‘strike’ on the same note position at every single round of the demonstration or that there is a misalignment of the striking position. Using the angle measuring application, Angulus, the hand positions of the first image and the second image, identified as the hypotenuse and adjacent respectively, determined the cosine (cos θ) or the angle of the misalignment. The angles measured will give an insight into mapping the appropriate dimensions of these gestures into the Air Bonang shown in Table 2. Table 2 Angle (in degrees) of experts’ hand positions Bona ng Pitch E1 (Without mallet) E2 (Without mallet) *E3 (With mallet) E4 (With mallet) *E5 (Without mallet) *E6 (Without mallet) 1 4.9 10.8 2.2 11.9 7.8 24.9 2 7.2 2.7 11.8 28 8.7 23.5 3 3.1 27.8 12.5 15.4 9.3 4.6 5 10.5 4.9 7.8 14.3 19 16 6 3.2 - 4.6 16.5 48.6 11.8 Me an 5.78 11.55 7.78 17.22 18.68 16.16 Out of six experts, only two experts (E3 and E4) used a pair of bonang mallets to demonstrate the bonang techniques as shown in Figure 11. By using the bonang mallets, a clearer position of where the strokes ended can be seen compared to bare-handed as the threaded part on the mallets must touch the bonang knob for effective striking as displayed in Figure 12. For E1 and E2, the angles are measured from their shoulders to their fists which mimic the gestures of holding the mallets as shown in Figure 13. Meanwhile, E4’s angles are measured from the arm to the tip of the mallet where it should represent the mallet touching the bonang knob. This explains the larger angles for E4 in general as holding the mallets requires some control. As the demonstration was done via online video calls, the positioning of E3, E5 and E6 cameras of the interviews had hindered them from displaying the bonang gestures at the proper playing positions, hence the angles might not be accurate. Having been trained to play the bonang for many years, the experts have probably developed some kind of “muscle memory” or automatic motor control, which had enabled them to gauge the positioning of the bonang gongs even when there is no physical bonang presented (Lam, 2020). This explains the relatively small angles of ≤ 28° across all hand positions, which is an accepted value for the hand positions. From this data, it can be concluded that it is rather difficult for the experts to maintain consistent note-striking positions at every round, perhaps also due to the absence of visual cue. Khatriza Ahmad Saffian, Noris Mohd Norowi, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah, 79 Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman & Ahmad Faudzi Musib Figure 11. E4 hand demonstration using bonang mallets. Figure 12. Threaded part of the mallet (in red) touching the bonang knob. Figure 13. E2 hand demonstration without bonang mallets. Proposed Design Criteria From the user requirement study, a set of criteria for designing the Air Bonang is proposed. The experts believed that it has to embody the musical and practical essence of the Malay bonang instrument. The proposed design criteria for the Air Bonang highlight three aspects, namely, embodiment, expression, and feedback. Embodiment Embodiment in DMIs refers to the desired transfer of physical energy into a sound-producing device, typically accomplished through the incorporation of a more nuanced, continuous form of control (Emerson & Egermann, 2020). With the Air Bonang, the embodiment is represented through the bonang playing techniques using the proposed mid-air interaction. We believe it can represent the natural gestures of these techniques more effectively compared to other types of interaction. At this point of the study, the embodiment is imagined through muscle memory when performing the bonang gestures. In addition, the 80 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue1 (68-83) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 mid-air interaction captures a three-dimensional spatial mapping of the bonang gestures according to the bonang’s size and dimensions. Here, the x-axis is mapped to the width of the instrument and the movements between the bonang gongs for different pitches, the y-axis is mapped to the dynamics of the ‘striking force’ in relation to its loudness, and the z-axis is mapped to the different top and bottom bonang registers as shown in Figure 14. In comparison to other forms of interaction such as touch screen, button, or switch, mid-air interaction is not constrained by these components. This way, gestures can be mapped and tracked more naturally and intuitively. Figure 14a. Mapping of gestures for the Air Bonang Figure 14b. 3-dimensional bonang gestures that will be mapped into the Air Bonang Expressiveness Expressiveness refers to aspects that can be controlled by the user in making the Air Bonang more intuitive and expressive. In most DMIs, controllable expressive parameters are mapped to musical elements, such as dynamics, timbre, vibrato, and time (Brown et al., 2018; Tanaka, 2010) which are realized by the gestures made. In the Air Bonang, there are three aspects of expressiveness of the system that is controllable, namely music, visual, and customization. Being able to control the music means having control of the bonang’s musical dynamics by the amount of striking force, as well as having a realistic timbral quality of the Malay bonang that is responsive to the striking gestures and the location of strike. Visuals refer to the visualization of the bonang gongs and users’ preferences on UI/UX of the system. Both music and visuals will influence the third aspect of expressiveness in the sense that the user can customize the system according to their preferences. Feedback Feedback refers to the feedback that can be provided through haptics to ensure accuracy of strikes on different bonang gongs as well as to mimic the tactile sensation of hitting on the bonang knobs. The haptic feedback is responsive to users’ gestural input in terms of force, spatial, time, and position. One of the important questions raised by the experts of the Air Bonang is the purpose of the DMI as well as the target users. The experts foresee the Air Bonang as a virtual musical instrument that is intended Khatriza Ahmad Saffian, Noris Mohd Norowi, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah, 81 Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman & Ahmad Faudzi Musib for the preservation of the Malay gamelan’s tradition and identity, hence, the mappings should be kept to its fundamental techniques. This is to ensure that the users will have a seamless and natural transition to play the bonang instrument. In addition, to make it more intuitive and expressive for those who are already skilled at the bonang, additional or borrowed techniques that are practiced in contemporary gamelan such as using the Balinese mallet as well as applying the Javanese gamelan techniques on the Malay gamelan instruments, which can also be integrated into the Air Bonang so that it can be utilized not only as a musical learning tool but also for creative purposes such as music composition and performance. Conclusions and Future Work In this study, six gamelan experts were interviewed to elicit user requirements for the design of the Air Bonang, a DMI based on the Malay bonang instrument. The main findings of the study highlight the fundamental techniques of the Malay bonang along with mid-air gestures that can be mapped to the virtual Air Bonang. Four fundamental bonang techniques were established to be mapped and simulated into the Air Bonang, namely, serentak, berselang, bertingkah, and bunga. We proposed mid-air interaction as an effective and natural way to execute these bonang gestures. In designing DMIs based on traditional musical instruments, we believe that preserving the original identity of the instrument has to be put as a priority. In the meantime, more flexibility and accessibility can also be offered through explorations of new techniques and gestures to leverage musical expression. The design criteria were proposed for the Air Bonang: embodiment, expressiveness, and feedback, cover the naturalness aspect of the DMI as well as provide expressive features for the users. The current design of the Air Bonang is being developed into a virtual reality musical instrument with two modes of playing: (1) natural mode, where user can play the VR bonang similar to its acoustic counterpart, and (2) exploratory mode, where users can customize the settings of the bonang pots and playing technique in 3-D. These two modes will be able to cater to users of different levels of expertise, namely the novices for basic playing and gamelan experts for more advanced musical creation. Throughout the study, we faced some challenges. The inability to conduct face-to-face observation in a controlled environment had hindered us from obtaining a more detailed observation of the hand demonstrations. From the analysis of the image overlays, although most experts were able to maintain their hand positions of the bonang gestures, however, there were inconsistencies in the demonstration methods as they had to adapt to their surroundings. There were also some issues with camera position and angle, internet connection, study equipment used, and physical environment. Future work will involve prototype testing to determine effective bonang gestures in terms of spatial, angle, and distance with mid-air interaction. References Anshori, F. (2014). Aplikasi "AR-Gamelan" sebagai media pembelajaran mengenal Gamelan Jawa berbasis augmented reality pada perangkat mobile Android (Studi Kasus : MI Ma ’ arif Nu 1 Pageraji ). Jurnal Skripsi. Aryadana, I. P. S., Wiranatha, A. A. K. A. C., & Dharmadi, I. P. A. (2019). Aplikasi virtual reality gamelan gong kebyar tradisional Bali berbasis Android. Jurnal Ilmiah Merpati (Menara Penelitian Akademika Teknologi Informasi), 7(2), 162. https://doi.org/10.24843/jim.2019.v07.i02.p08 Bowen, N. (2013). Mobile phones, group improvisation, and music: Trends in digital socialized music-making [CIty University of New York]. In City University of New York. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004 Brown, D., Nash, C., & Mitchell, T. (2018). Understanding user-defined mapping design in mid-air musical performance. 5th International Conference on Movement and Computing. https://doi.org/10.1145/3212721.3212810 Brown, D., Nash, C., & Mitchell, T. J. (2020). Was that me?: Exploring the effects of error in gestural digital musical instruments. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, 168–174. https://doi.org/10.1145/3411109.3411137 Cohé, A., & Hachet, M. (2012). Beyond the mouse: Understanding user gestures for manipulating 3D objects from touchscreen inputs. Computers and Graphics (Pergamon), 36(8), 1119–1131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2012.09.004 Corbin, J. & Strauss A. (2014). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. In Sage Publications (3rd Edition). Coss, R. G. (2018). Descriptions of expert jazz educators’ experiences teaching improvisation. International Journal of Music Education, 36(4), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761418771093 Diatmika, I. W. I., Darmawiguna, I. G. M., & Sunarya, I. M. G. (2015). Pengembangan aplikasi instrumen gamelan 82 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue1 (68-83) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 semar pegulingan Android. Kumpulan Artikel Mahasiswa Pendidikan Teknik Informatika (KARMAPATI), 4(5). https://doi.org/10.23887/janapati.v4i2.9775 Dwipayana, K., Wirawan, I. M. A., & Sindu, I. G. P. (2019). Go-Byar based on virtual reality for the learning media of gamelan. 25(2), 229–236. https://doi.org/10.21831/jptk.v25i2.26182 Emerson, G., & Egermann, H. (2020). Exploring the motivations for building new Digital Musical Instruments. In Musicae Scientiae (Vol. 24, Issue 3). https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864918802983 Fogliano, F. (2020). NEMI: New ergonomic musical instrument A bridge between the Human-Centred Design and Digital Musical Instrument. UNICAMP - Università di Campinas - Brasile (BRASILE). Françoise, J., & Bevilacqua, F. (2018). Motion-sound mapping through interaction: An approach to user-centered design of auditory feedback using machine learning. ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.1145/3211826 Hamdan, S., Musib, A. F., Musoddiq, I. A., & Sawawi, M. (2020). Timbre spectrum of gamelan instruments from four Malay Gamelan ensembles. Pertanika Journal of Science and Technology, 28(2), 459–476. Han, J., & Gold, N. E. (2014). Lessons learned in exploring the Leap-Motion(TM) sensor for gesture-based instrument design. New Interfaces For Musical Expression, 371–374. Hansberger, J. T., Peng, C., Mathis, S. L., Areyur Shanthakumar, V., Meacham, S. C., Cao, L., & Blakely, V. R. (2017). Dispelling the gorilla arm syndrome: The viability of prolonged gesture interactions. In Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics) (Vol. 10280, Issue August). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57987-0_41 Hassan, W., Rosli, D., Ariffin, A., Ahmad, F., & Jamin, J. (2020). The application of bonang gamelan music based on mobile application. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(6), 1077–1082. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijrte.f7554.038620 Hincapié-Ramos, J. D., Guo, X., Moghadasian, P., & Irani, P. (2014). Consumed endurance: A metric to quantify arm fatigue of mid-air interactions. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - Proceedings, 1063–1072. https://doi.org/10.1145/2556288.2557130 Hwang, I., Son, H., & Kim, J. R. (2017). AirPiano: Enhancing music playing experience in virtual reality with mid- air haptic feedback. 2017 IEEE World Haptics Conference, WHC 2017, 213–218. https://doi.org/10.1109/WHC.2017.7989903 Koutsabasis, P., & Vogiatzidakis, P. (2019). Empirical research in mid-air interaction: A systematic review. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 35(18), 1747–1768. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2019.1572352 Lam, M. (2020). The physicality of music production: Investigating the roles of mindful practice and kinesthetic learning. Music Educators Journal, 106(3), 23–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0027432119895553 Lazar, J., Feng, J. H., & Hochheiser, H. (2017). Research ,methods in Human-Computer interaction (Second). Elsevier Inc. Leng, H. Y., Norowi, N. M., & Jantan, A. H. (2018). Designing an expressive virtual kompang on mobile device with Tri-Axial accelerometer. International Journal of Engneering and Techology, 7(4.31), 414–419. Leng, H. Y., Norowi, N. M., & Jantan, A. H. (2017). A user-defined gesture set for music interaction in immersive virtual environment. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, Part F1293(2), 44–51. https://doi.org/10.1145/3077343.3077348 León, L. R. P., Galindo, J. A. R., & Prado, P. L. Z. (2015). Human factors in musicians: Design proposals. Procedia Manufacturing, 3(Ahfe), 6124–6132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.765 McPherson, A., Morreale, F., & Harrison, J. (2019). Musical instruments for novices: Comparing NIME, HCI and Crowdfunding Approaches. In Springer Series on Cultural Computing, 179–212. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92069-6_12 Mohd Shah, S., & Poheng, J. J. (2021). The changing landscape of the Malay gamelan and its implications on music education in Malaysia. Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal, 6(SI5), 137–141. https://doi.org/10.21834/ebpj.v6isi5.2939 Morreale, F., Mcpherson, A. P., & Wanderley, M. M. (2018). NIME Identity from the performer’s perspective. Naber, A. L. H. (2016). Designing a digital gamelan. ICMC 2016 - 42nd International Computer Music Conference, Proceedings, 191–194. Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., Hoagwood, K., Angeles, L., & Northwest, K. P. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 233–244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y Permana, F., Tolle, H., Utaminingrum, F., & Dermawi, R. (2019). Development of Augmented Reality (AR) based gamelan simulation with leap motion control. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 12, 120–135. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v13i12.9270 Rakkolainen, I., Freeman, E., Sand, A., Raisamo, R., & Brewster, S. (2020). A survey of mid-air ultrasound haptics and its applications. IEEE Transactions on Haptics, 1–1. https://doi.org/10.1109/toh.2020.3018754 Revana, I., Mohammad, Z., & Damastuti, F. A. (2020). Saron hit precision in virtual world. Seminar Nasional Khatriza Ahmad Saffian, Noris Mohd Norowi, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah, 83 Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman & Ahmad Faudzi Musib Terapan Riset Inovatif (SENTRINOV) Ke-6, 6(1), 990–997. Saffian, K. (2014). Pitch analysis of keyed instruments in the Malay gamelan ensemble. International Music and Performing Arts Conference 2014 (IMPAC2014). Saffian, K. A., & Norowi, N. M. (2021). Gestural interaction of gamelan mobile application : A preliminary study. Asian CHI Symposium 2021. Shah, S. M. (2013). Contextualizing the transmission of Malaysian traditional music. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 1000–1004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.318 Tanaka, A. (2010). Mapping out instruments, affordances, and mobiles. Proceedings of the International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (NIME), Nime, 15–18. http://www.nime.org/proceedings/2010/nime2010_088.pdf Wobbrock, J. O., Morris, M. R., & Wilson, A. D. (2009). User-defined gestures for surface computing. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - Proceedings, 1083–1092. https://doi.org/10.1145/1518701.1518866 Zappi, V., & McPherson, A. P. (2014). Dimensionality and appropriation in Digital Musical Instrument design. NIME ’14 Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, 455–460. http://www.nime.org/proceedings/2014/nime2014_409.pdf Biography Khatriza Ahmad Saffian is a PhD student at the Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia. She holds a Diploma in Music and Bachelor’s in Music Performance from UiTM, Malaysia. Subsequently, she did her Masters in Music Technology from New York University, USA. She is also a Senior Lecturer at Fakulti Muzik, Universiti Teknologi MARA where her areas of expertise include music technology, music production, aural skills, and keyboard skills. Her research interest includes music technology, Malay traditional music, teaching and learning of aural skills, and Malaysian independent music. She is currently pursuing her PhD under the supervision of Dr. Noris Mohd Norowi with a research focus on Music Interaction. Noris Mohd Norowi is a Senior Lecturer at the Multimedia Department, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia. She holds a PhD in Computer Music from the University of Plymouth, United Kingdom, as well as a Master of Science in Multimedia Systems and a degree in Computer Science (Majoring in Multimedia), both from the Universiti Putra Malaysia. As a member of the Human-Computer Interaction Research Group at UPM, her research includes Artificial Intelligence in Music, Music Interaction, Immersive Technologies, Sound Cognition, and Sound Synthesis. Currently, she is the Treasurer of the ACM SIGCHI Kuala Lumpur Chapter,known as myHCI-UX. She has a deep passion for traditional Malaysian music, where she had worked on several projects to automatically classify them into respective genres as well as developing virtual musical instruments for the kompang. Lili Nurliyana Abdullah is a Senior Lecturer at the Multimedia Department, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Her areas of expertise include Image Processing, Information Visualization, Virtual Environment, Multimedia Systems, Animation, Human-Computer Interaction, as well as Video Processing. Her research includes image recognition and retrieval in various contexts such as agriculture, clothing, and building among others. She is also an active member of several organisations namely, Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), International Association of Computer Science and Information Technology (IACSIT), and European Association for Signal and Image Processing (EURASIP) among others. Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman is a Senior Lecturer at the Multimedia Department, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia. She holds a PhD in Computer Graphics from Universiti Putra Malaysia. Her areas of expertise include computer graphics and geographical information systems. Other than teaching and research activities, she has also been involved in consultation projects with the industry, namely, Virtual Reality Learning Space (5G use case) with Digi, Cyberview Sdn Bhd and SKMM, CIDB IBS Virtual Reality for Innovasia Sdn Bhd, and Smart Quran Braille for PERTIS to name a few. Ahmad Faudzi Musib is a Senior Lecturer in the Music Department, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia. He graduated with a PhD in Music from Universiti Putra Malaysia. His areas of expertise include Sound Studies, Audio Engineering, Electronic Music, and Sound Preservation. His research works include the timbre spectrum of gamelan instruments from the Malay gamelan ensembles, time-frequency analysis of peking gamelan, and understanding the different tone qualities in a bonang set. As an audio engineer, he has also been involved in music production works with EMI Records as well as LIFE Records to name a few.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

singing achievement, solo-style keroncong, undul usuk

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/6270

The Learning Stages of Ngroncongi/Undul usuk: Achieving the Original Solo Keroncong Singing Style

The hegemony of advanced keroncong figures in keroncong singing has made the Solo keroncong singing style more recognised by the wider community with its lilting characteristics. However, for the Surakarta people (Solo), there is something more essential than that, namely ngroncongi, also known as undul usuk. This term is often given to keroncong singers as an assessment of the quality of their singing. Hence, this research aims at identifying and describing undul usuk and its achievement process by employing descriptive qualitative methods. Observation, interviews, and documentation studies were used to collect the data, while the triangulation technique was used to test the data’s validity. The findings show that the undul usuk concept is a sub-concept of the ngroncongi basic concept. There are various hierarchical stages in the achievement of Solo keroncong singing, which consist of the beginner stage, the average stage, the skilled stage, the specialist stage, and singing ngroncongi as the highest achievement or expert stage. To achieve this, some rules and tips need to be followed, which requires effort and time. Singers are required to be effortless in aligning skills, thoughts, and feelings. This study manifests a society that preserves the essence of keroncong singing through development and preservation dualism.The novelty of this research is on how it can be used as a reference for the performer and connoisseurs of keroncong music.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/6270/4269

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 84 The Learning Stages of Ngroncongi/Undul Usuk: Achieving the Original Solo Keroncong Singing Style Yudi Sukmayadi*, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 31 December 2022 Cite this article (APA): Sukmayadi, Y., Supiarza, H. & Andini, M. (2022). The learning stages of ngroncongi/undul usuk: Achieving the original solo keroncong singing style. Malaysian Journal of Music, 11(1), 84-108. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol11.1.6.2022 Abstract The hegemony of advanced keroncong figures in keroncong singing has made the Solo keroncong singing style more recognised by the wider community with its lilting characteristics. However, for the Surakarta people (Solo), there is something more essential than that, namely ngroncongi, also known as undul usuk. This term is often given to keroncong singers as an assessment of the quality of their singing. Hence, this research aims at identifying and describing undul usuk and its achievement process by employing descriptive qualitative methods. Observation, interviews, and documentation studies were used to collect the data, while the triangulation technique was used to test the data’s validity. The findings show that the undul usuk concept is a sub-concept of the ngroncongi basic concept. There are various hierarchical stages in the achievement of Solo keroncong singing, which consist of the beginner stage, the average stage, the skilled stage, the specialist stage, and singing ngroncongi as the highest achievement or expert stage. To achieve this, some rules and tips need to be followed, which requires effort and time. Singers are required to be effortless in aligning skills, thoughts, and feelings. This study manifests a society that preserves the essence of keroncong singing through development and preservation dualism.The novelty of this research is on how it can be used as a reference for the performer and connoisseurs of keroncong music. Keywords: singing achievement, solo-style keroncong, undul usuk Introduction In terminology, music in every culture is described as a social identity that must be preserved. Every ethnic group in this world has a diverse terminology in musical culture, and the meaning of music in a culture is seen as a social symbol for sustainable meaning creation (Widdess, 2012). This research seeks to examine one of Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 85 the many musical terms in Indonesia by focusing on the achievement of singing the Solo-style keroncong, which is known as ngroncongi (undul usuk). Ngroncongi (undul usuk) has multiple interpretations and is used as a simple diction to express the pinnacle of keroncong aesthetics, especially the Solo-style. In another word, it is a concept with a role in the highest phase, since there are hierarchical building blocks, elements, or layers. The formation of a ngroncongi music aesthetic is supported by individual and collective ngroncongi achievement (Andini et al., 2021). Ngroncongi/undul usuk is a personal and interpersonal musical quality that contributes to the development of ngroncongi musicality (Prabowo, 2018). Its quality is related to the techniques, characteristics, and musical abilities possessed. Meanwhile, the experience is related to how much and how long a person has been involved in the keroncong mentoring and training processes, and other related experiences. Moreover, the experience gained has an impact on the musical intuition that each individual has. It is related to other musical terms in individual ngroncongi achievements, such as nyendaren in flute playing, ngglali in violin playing, mbanyumili in guitar playing, sintiran and gojek in cak and cuk playing, and undul usuk in singing (Andini et al., 2021; Prabowo, 2018). The term undul usuk (or also usuk) is used as a term for singing that achieves the aesthetics of keroncong/ngroncongi (Andini et al., 2021). Furthermore, ngroncongi is collectively formed as a whole unit. There are internal and external factors in its achievements that serve as building and supporting factors. Internal factors are related to intrapersonal skills and interpersonal skills. Meanwhile, external factors are related to the quality of the songs, audio-visual, and socio-cultural environment. Ngroncongi is not only formed by one or two people as individual achievements, but by all players and singers who are involved in an ensemble (Andini et al., 2021). This was also stated by Prabowo (2018, p. 8) that “Every keroncong artist has ensemble awareness, in which the harmonisation of keroncong music is formed on the basis of interpersonal relations.” Therefore, the competence possessed by keroncong artists is not to show personal virtuosity. Judith Becker (Fikri, 2017, p. 259) states that keroncong is directly related to the Javanese gamelan tradition. In Central Java, keroncong is “gamelanized,” both in terms of connotations and associations in terms of music and meaning, which makes keroncong appreciated. The accompaniment tools, in addition to playing “um-ching” as the simplest arrangement of keroncong, also use melodic figurations and patterns like some gamelan instruments (Supiarza, 2019). The development of keroncong music in Indonesia is inseparable from the role of Surakarta City (Solo), which seriously maintains its cultural heritage up to this day. The cultural heritage in Solo is divided into two types, namely tangible and intangible. Keroncong is an intangible inheritance (Nugraha et al., 2016). Solo has hegemonized keroncong music in Indonesia, which is indicated by the emergence of various standards legitimised by previous keroncong figures and maestros (Christy et al., 2019; Supiarza & Sarbeni, 2021). For example, the standard covers the four formats of the keroncong music repertoire, as well as the rules for the style of playing and singing the Solo Keroncong. The keroncong singing styles are divided into two singing styles, namely the Tugu style and the Solo-style (Andini et al., 2021; Soladi, 2019). The Solo singing style is a keroncong singing style, which is generally Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 86 performed at a moderate or slow tempo, giving the impression of a lilting performance (Widyanta, 2017). These two styles are the most dominant singing styles in keroncong singing. The dominance of the Solo singing style occurs due to the holding of festivals and keroncong singing competitions where the judges refer to the Soloan Surakarta singing style. In addition, many keroncong singers from Surakarta dominate the recording industry of keroncong music (Mulyadi & Indira, 2019; Puguh, 2018; Supiarza & Sarbeni, 2021). Meanwhile, the Tugu singing style is explained in the results of research by Prof. Victor Ganap (Keroncong Tugu, 2017), Pinta Resti Ayu Ayunda (Singing style in Tugu kerontjong music “Saartje Michiels style analysis”). At every festival or competition of singing keroncong, the Solo keroncong style is often used as a reference in the judges’ evaluations, in which the rules and regulations are considered the standard for judging (Supiarza & Sarbeni, 2021). Up to now, there is still a stigma about the difficulty of singing keroncong in society, which reduces interest in learning to sing keroncong. Technically, the stigma is related to several rules mastered by someone who wants to sing keroncong music, these technical rules include; breathing techniques, dexterity that must be flexible, peculiarities of ornamentation, and intervals (long range of notes). To stay dynamic, it takes a little liberation without losing the essence (Supiarza & Sarbeni, 2021). The innovation and creativity of the Solo keroncong musicians is one of the factors supporting the rapid development of Solo keroncong music. This evidence can be found in the Solo history of keroncong music (Christy et al., 2019). Many innovations and the new terms that emerged as a result of their inventive and creative ideas are evidenced by the existence of the term ngroncongi. The term is frequently used by Solo keroncong artists and people, particularly when practising or performing keroncong music. Prabowo (2018) explains that ngroncongi is a musicality that indicates the distinctive nature of keroncong music. This will be achieved when it is in accordance with the aesthetics and culture of keroncong music. During a performance, when a singer has reached ngroncongi, he can fully convey musical messages. In addition, for the accompaniment (music player) and audience, they can feel the atmosphere of ngalaras — a feeling of being sumeleh/semeleh (feeling calm, surrendering to God), said Yanti Sapto (personal communication, 18 July 2019). In addition to being known as a way of playing keroncong music, the term ngroncongi is often used to describe keroncong singers as an appraisal of the quality of the Solo-style keroncong singing. There are several figures who explain the stages of achievement for singing ngroncongi/undul usuk. However, an in-depth study of how to indicate a singer has reached the stage of being capable of singing ngroncongi and how the process must be followed has not been found. Therefore, this research examines singing ngroncongi (undul usuk) as an achievement in Solo-style keroncong singing by identifying and describing the process of achieving it, especially in carrying out the original keroncong repertoire. The formation of a Solo-style singing character or style, is related to the creative culture of the people of Solo coupled with Soekarno’s political tendencies, who established Lokananta as the first recording company in Indonesia, so that a mixture of karawitan (classical gamelan music and performance practise in Javanese music) and keroncong music can be published throughout Indonesia through RRI (Radio Republik Indonesia/Radio of Republic Indonesia) (Puguh, 2018; Supiarza, Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 87 2019). Javanese (Solo) karawitan art first lived in the midst of the Solo people, while keroncong music entered Solo around the 1920s (Suadi, 2017). This becomes the reason that Solo has its own characteristics and dominance when compared to keroncong from other regions in Indonesia. This study documents an important example of a community that preserves the essence of singing keroncong in the dualistic process of development and preservation. In particular, this research aims at examining the rules and highest achievements in singing Solo-style keroncong and the social and cultural contexts of Solo people. Thus, the implications of this research are on (a) how it can become a new discourse for the repertoire of keroncong music as hybrid music in Indonesia and (b) knowledge for keroncong singers regarding the highest achievement in singing Solo-style keroncong. How to Achieve Singing Theoretically, the achievement of every singer is to make their presence in every performance able to attract the attention of the audience (Ning, 2017). To achieve this, every singer must go through a long process, including developing technical skills and emotional maturity. In an investigation of a singer’s problem, the singing achievement processes, such as emotion, memory, and knowledge, can be influenced by the singer’s consciousness (Lv, 2018). The basis of a person’s talent in singing or not can be determined from the tone accuracy, which is related to repetitive practice, the exercise performed, age-specific adjustments, and training in playing music, including instrumental training that is independently correlated with singing accuracy (Pfordresher & Demorest, 2021). The research conducted by Meloni (2021) entitled Foreign Sindhen in practice: New teaching strategies and the impact of practice-led research on Javanese female singing adopted a truly participatory ethnographic approach. Since the researcher is a Javanese Sindhen or a female singer who sings in gamelan ensembles and performs arts accompanied by gamelan with certain repertoires and qualities, she positioned herself in this research as a Sindhen, not as a doctor. The research results succeeded in naturally revealing the formulation of the research problem by proving that there is an internal relationship between the achievement of singing ngroncongi/undul usuk in keroncong music and the achievement of singing in Sindhen as a gamelan tradition in Javanese culture (Meloni, 2021, p. 28). The most typical acculturation of keroncong music with Javanese gamelan music is in Solo, especially the adaptation of the keroncong instrument with musical instruments in gamelan (Soladi, Mintargo, & Kiswanto, 2020). The internalisation of gamelan in keroncong music then created a new genre of keroncong music, namely Langgam Jawa (Rachman & Utomo, 2019; Ratnasari, 2015; Skelchy, 2015). It is natural for an outside type of music that develops in a new area to influence and imitate each other, with the potential to create an eclectic type of music (Nuccio et al., 2018). The cultural internalization of Javanese music singing into keroncong music (Javanese style) is explained and proven in the Javanese poetry (Macapat) (Skelchy, 2015). Based on several of the aforementioned explanations in the research, the finding in Meloni’s research is in line with this research. This is supported by an explanation of the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 88 requirements of a Sindhen, such as the ability to sing and elaborate melodic patterns (cengkok), as well as specific ways of behaving to realise the ideals of hyper-feminine Javanese (related to some norms about language, costumes, and manners, such as the way they sit on the stage and interact with musicians and audience) (Meloni, 2021). In Javanese karawitan works, ornamentation is widely used in ngroncongi singing performance. Regarding the achievement, it was actually adopted from a term often used by Javanese karawitan artists. Ngroncongi is a musical sub-concept. The habit of creating diction as an expression in Javanese karawitan was also carried over when keroncong entered Solo. Diction that later became a musical sub-concept term in karawitan includes; nggalali, nyendaren, samenspelen, luk, gojek, and mbesut. While the musical symptoms are technical in nature, they are; mbanyumili, sintiran, isen-isen (Andini et al., 2021; Prabowo, 2019). The research on ngoroncongi has been conducted by Prabowo (2019) entitled Personal quality in achieving the aesthetic of “ngroncongi.” This research examined the relationship between the term ngroncongi and the aesthetics of keroncong music in general. This research found several important aspects in achieving personal quality so that a person can reach the ngroncongi stage, namely knowledge accumulation, song interpretation, competence, and personal disposition. His research also reveals the realisation of total cooperation in the Keroncong music ensemble and how the feeling is manifested into a single entity through the artists’ interpersonal relationships. To achieve a sense of ngroncongi, every individual is required to have (a) accumulated knowledge; (b) competence; and (c) song interpretation (Prabowo, 2018). In fact, in other types of music, these conditions must be met to achieve the aesthetic quality of musical presentation in the form of an ensemble. As explained by Solis, in her book entitled Performing ethnomusicology: Teaching and representation in world music ensembles, she completely describes the requirements of artists in a musical ensemble. In general, the research on ngroncongi conducted by (Prabowo, 2019) is quite interesting, especially with the existence of locals and his findings. However, the research specifically did not find the essence of ngroncongi itself as a peculiarity of keroncong music in the context of ensembles. Hence, this present study seeks to provide a more in-depth study in the context of ngroncongi as the main feature in keroncong music by exploring the term from the perspective of the singing style. Methodology This research employs a descriptive analysis method with a qualitative approach. In this research, the researchers described the phenomena that occurred in the field as a whole and naturally as they are. The research consisted of three stages, namely the early stage, the implementation stage, and the final stage. The three stages of this research were adopted from the qualitative research paradigm as the process of collecting all research data, and the research stages are needed in qualitative research as a way to obtain research data comprehensively (Creswell, 2014; Sukmayadi et al., 2022). In the early stages, the activities consisted of planning, preparation, review, and initial study. Meanwhile, in the implementation stage, the activities consisted of Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 89 data collection, data analysis, and understanding. Lastly, in the final stage, the activities were evaluation and preparation process. Early Stage The researchers prepared a research plan, research guidelines, and everything else needed, reviewed the research site for adaptation, recorded important phenomena, and conducted initial studies by looking for various relevant and credible references. This research was conducted specifically in Solo involving singers, musicians, and keroncong figures both as connoisseurs and activists. Several keroncong singers participated in this research, for example, Mini Satria, Yanti Sapto, Kus Landung, Waldjinah, and Subardjo HS. In addition, the figures and keroncong artists who also participated in this research were Wartono, Ary Mulyono, Sapto Haryono, Danis Sugiyanto, Imoeng Cr., Erie Setiawan, Sapto Ksvara Kusbini, and Soladi. Implementation Stage Data collection in this research was carried out using observation, interviews, and documentation studieswhile the triangulation technique was used to test the validity of the data. During the observation process, the researchers carried out complete participatory observation, in which the researchers were fully involved in what the data sources were doing in a more natural atmosphere. Furthermore, informal interviews were also carried out using questions that depended on the spontaneity of the questioner and used the research objectives as interview guidelines. In this research, the documentation study consists of sound recording documents, discographies of legitimised keroncong singers, especially Mini Satria’s discography in Bintang Radio 1982 and Ismanto’s discography from Album Emas Keroncong Ismanto, scores of keroncong songs, both sheet music, the original and the transcript of Kr. Senandung Bidari song, photos and videos of supporting documentation, keroncong music books, theses, dissertations, journals, and other written works about keroncong music. The criteria used to select the singers came from references given by the Surakarta keroncong community. They state that Mini Satria is considered to have achieved the quality of singing ngroncongi. This data is based on the results of interviews with informants, namely Danis, Yanti Sapto, Sapto Haryono, Kus Landung, and Soladi (personal communication, July-August 2019). The researchers also adopted triangulation for data collection techniques and data collection sources. Analysis Procedure The researchers carried out data analysis procedures by making transcripts of data from observations, interviews, and documentation studies, then sorting and selecting the main and important data, making categorizations to get a clearer description of ngroncongi as an achievement in singing the Solo-style keroncong. Afterwards, the data were presented in the form of descriptive text in a narrative and systematic way so that it was clearer and easier to understand. Furthermore, the researchers made conclusions from the research results, referring to the research questions for Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 90 verification. A conclusion was credible if it was supported by valid and consistent evidence, as well as with considerations from various related parties. Final Stage of Research The evaluation and preparation activities were still related to the implementation stage. The evaluation process was carried out to find out the advantages and disadvantages of the research results, if there was still data requiring supporting data or if there were other shortcomings, it could therefore be completed in tandem with the preparation process. Result Following the completion of the research on undul usuk as an achievement of singing the Solo-style keroncong, the following research findings were obtained: Process of Achieving Singing Ngroncongi Based on the findings of observations and interviews related to the history of keroncong music in Solo, it was discovered that the fluctuating existence of keroncong music in Solo had an impact on the development of the Solo-style; keroncong in terms of playing musical instruments and singing in its own unique way. When the existence of keroncong music was receding, the emergence of Mus Mulyadi and Rama Aiphama had a significant influence on the development of Solo-style keroncong singing. These two singers made a very important contribution to the image of keroncong music in the industry. Mus Mulyadi was a popular singer in the keroncong music genre around the 1970-1990s. He is often nicknamed “The King of Keroncong” because of his vocal ability in processing and improvising songs, which has a distinctive twist as a representation of the Soloan style. At the beginning of his career, Mus Mulyadi changed the original keroncong song entitled Dewi Murni into a pop keroncong style, so that it was more easily accepted by the market (Mulyadi & Indira, 2019). Meanwhile, Rama Aiphama can be said to be a singer who tries to present fresh air for the development of keroncong music by collaborating the reggae style with keroncong music, as well as creating an eccentric performance style (Arbie & Bandung, 2022). With their characteristics, the existence of keroncong music rose again, to the extent that the Solo-style began to develop. Mus Mulyadi with his cengkok keroncong singing pattern became a novelty in the development of Solo-style keroncong singing. Many in the Solo Keroncong community, on the other hand, rejected Mus Mulyadi’s style as unorthodox and far from the standard of singing Ngroncongi. The research participants stated that the term ngroncongi was formed from the culture of the Solo keroncong community and had existed for a long time. Ngroncongi was often expressed by previous people as an image to give a certain musical identity outside of the existing musical terms, because these terms were still considered less representative. This statement is in line with Prabowo (2018) who Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 91 states that ngroncongi is a musicality indicating the distinctive nature of keroncong music. Ngroncongi will be achieved if it is in accordance with the aesthetics and culture of keroncong music. The keroncong performance can be classified based on its purpose, namely the conservative aspect and the entertainment aspect. The conservative aspect is when the rules in singing keroncong music must comply with the five levels of the concept of solo keroncong singing, namely; ngroncongi/expert, specialist, skilled, average, and beginner stages, while the entertainment aspect is just enough to reach four aspects, namely; specialist, skilled, average, and beginner. Both have different targets, and a balance is needed for both the preservation and development of keroncong music. In this case, the keroncong singers need to be aware and able to position themselves based on that goal. In the conservative aspect, there are things that need to be considered as agreed in special provisions, prioritising the preservation of keroncong music without losing its essence. Meanwhile, in the entertainment aspect, it prioritises aspects based on market interests. Figure 1. Ngroncongi Concept Chart (January 2021) Ngroncongi has a conservative aspect, but it can also have an entertainment aspect when it is presented to certain audiences who can enjoy and feel entertained by the ngroncongi music presentation. This can be seen in Figure 1 chart, where it is impossible to create Solo-style Keroncong music by combining just one or two elements. Although the keroncong music is all about singing and music playing, this study discusses specifically on the singing style. Figure 1 shows that there are five levels where ngroncongi is at its peak. The five levels listed above represent the study’s findings based on the results of all interviews conducted. Currently, a National-level singing competition, known as the National Student Art Week (PEKSIMINAS, Pekan Seni Mahasiswa Nasional), which Performance and Aptitude of Keroncong Music Entertainment Conservative Quality Individual Experiences Collective Internal Factors External Factors Ngroncongi Good Capable Learning Correct Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 92 is held every two years, continues to use these levels for keroncong vocal competitions. In our observations, we have not seen developments in the format of the jury’s assessment for the keroncong music competition if the competition is a competition entitled Keroncong music singing competition, said Henrikus Mulyadi (Imoeng), one of the judges for the national keroncong competition (personal communication, 28 August 2019). Thus, ngroncongi is seen as the highest achievement. Therefore, to achieve this, it takes various efforts that require consistency and hierarchical stages. This concept is also formed from the results of interviews that discussed factors, elements, or layers under the ngroncongi with each layer having its own benchmark. This can refer to various theories of the highest achievement, such as the concept of makrifat as the highest spiritual achievemet of humans. Based on this concept, the following describes the stages and benchmarks in singing the Solo-style keroncong. Stage of Learning to Sing (Beginner Stage) The stage of learning to sing is the most fundamental stage in achieving Solo-style keroncong singing. This stage indicates that this stage is intended for people who already have an interest, desire, and intention to learn to sing keroncong and then realise it in the learning process. In this stage, there are no special demands to achieve a certain singing quality because the urgency is to attract interest so that people enjoy learning to sing keroncong. The learning process must continue to be carried out as the foundation of every step towards higher stages. Stage of Being Capable to Sing (Average Stage) After going through the stages of learning to sing, the next stage is being capable of singing keroncong. Regardless of his/her shortcomings, a person can be classified in this stage if he is capable of singing to the accompaniment of keroncong music and various keroncong songs. At this stage, they should have understood the form and structure of the keroncong song that he was singing. Stage of Singing Correctly (Skilled Stage) In this stage, the singer can be considered to have stepped onto the stage of true singing, if he can sing the keroncong song correctly and in accordance with the provisions, especially in the original keroncong repertoire. Singing correctly means that the person can sing the melody of the song according to the notation, use the correct singing technique, use the style of personality and ornamentation, and self- evaluate and realise when he finds mistakes in singing keroncong. Stage of Good Singing (Specialist Stage) This stage is indicated by a person who can sing correctly, beautifully, and alive but still does not have the characteristics of singing ngroncongi. At this stage, they have begun to pay attention to the aesthetic elements of the song rendition and are capable of interpreting the song content, but it cannot be fully enjoyed by the audience. Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 93 Singers already have good musical skills and can use their analytical skills for the aesthetic benefit of a song. However, sometimes there are singers who carry characters from other music genres, for example, pop, jazz, karawitan, etc., hence, the character of the keroncong is dismissed. This stage is the highest in the entertainment field, and many keroncong singers stop at this stage. Stage of Singing Ngroncongi (Expert Stage) As previously mentioned, singing ngroncongi is the highest achievement of the Solo- style of keroncong singing. In this stage, there are various rules, supporting factors, and tips that must be followed to achieve the singing quality that fulfils the sense of keroncong. This stage has reached the highest aesthetic, which the audience can enjoy. Based on the results of observations and interviews, the formation of the ngroncongi quality is supported by its individual and collective achievements. This is in line with Prabowo (2018) who explains that musical quality, both personally and interpersonally, is a supporting element in building a chronological musicality. The achievement of individual ngroncongi is shown by the ngroncongi quality of each musician and singer. It is formed from the quality and experience of each musician and singer individually. The quality in question is related to the technique, characteristics, and musical abilities possessed. While experience relates to the extent to which a person is involved in the field of keroncong music, the process of mentoring and training, and other experiences. Based on the interview results, ngroncongi is seen as the aesthetics peak of keroncong music that needs to be achieved through certain stages and built by certain elements of ngroncongi quality. This term has been used for a long time, but it is not certain when and who first originated it. This is a cultural practise of the Javanese people to give special terms or identities to things. The use of ngroncongi term is more often found in the process of rehearsing and percussion to measure the success of the quality of achievement of a player and singer. People who have the right to say they have reached the ngroncongi level are people who are considered teachers in a keroncong community. For the keroncong community outside Solo, especially in the areas of West Java, East Java, Jakarta and even elsewhere in Indonesia, they do not really put much importance on this. Especially, for today’s young generation, ngroncongi is not a reference in singing keroncong. The younger generation’s desire to learn keroncong does not imply a refusal, but rather that they are unaware of it. Furthermore, ngroncongi are formed collectively as a unity. In collective ngroncongi achievements, there are internal and external factors that are building and supporting factors for ngroncongi achievements. Internal factors are related to intrapersonal skills (positioning and controlling themselves) and interpersonal skills (the ability to interact and respect both in musical and affective). Meanwhile, external factors are related to the quality of the song (the musical elements that make up the song or the composition of the song), audio-visual quality (audio: the influence of organology, room acoustics, sound system settings; visual: appearance, dress, stage style), and the socio-cultural environment (habits carried out for the formation of chemistry, according to the culture of the noble Solo community). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 94 Singing Ngroncongi (Undul usuk) Figure 2. Ngroncongi Singing Concept Chart (January 2021) Singing ngroncongi is a sub-concept of ngroncongi. Singing ngroncongi can be defined as a musical identity in the highest achievement of the conceptual Solo- style keroncong singing. There are several interrelated perspectives to discuss the concept of ngroncongi singing, namely singing ngroncongi as the highest stage; singing ngroncongi as a quality of achievement; and ngroncongi as a characteristic of the Solo-style keroncong singing. The quality of achievement in singing ngroncongi is related to the rules and tips for achieving the Solo-style keroncong singing. This quality can also be referred to as undul usuk/turut usuk, which is used to express the quality of singing keroncong at its highest achievement. From this explanation, it can be concluded that undul usuk and singing ngroncongi have similar meanings. Undul usuk is a term that has multiple interpretations. Undul can be interpreted as heading, bouncing, or towering up high. Usuk is a long piece of wood or bamboo that is installed as the rib roof of the house. Thus, undul usuk can be interpreted as an expression of the high quality of singing keroncong. Undul usuk is related to aesthetics and is built from the values of a singer’s musicality. Ngroncongi/undul usuk is a term of Javanese origins. Keroncong becomes the root word, then at the beginning of the word it gets the prefix “ng-” and at the end it gets the affix “i-” so that initially keroncong is a noun and turns into an adjective. In essence, ngroncongi is a musicality that has characteristic of keroncong music. Ngroncongi will be achieved if it is in accordance with the aesthetics of keroncong Skills Feeling Thoughts Ngroncongi Singing Effortlessness Characteristics Quality of Ngroncongi Singing Accomplishment: Undul Usuk Stages Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 95 music. Meanwhile, the term undul usuk was briefly mentioned by Soladi (2019, p. 33) with the term “tuk usuk”, which is used as a term for singing that achieves the aesthetics of keroncong/ngroncongi. This is in accordance with interviews and the exposure result of Soladi (2019) who expresses that the aesthetic peak of singing keroncong is called turut usuk. This concept is usually multi-interpreted, and can be understood from any point of view related to musical values in singing keroncong songs. Furthermore, turut usuk is a term in keroncong music in which singing achieves the aesthetic of keroncong/ngroncongi (Soladi, 2019, p. 72). The quality of the undul usuk achievement requires the singer’s flexibility in harmonising three elements, namely skills, thoughts, and feelings. The skills are related to musical skills, intrapersonal skills, and interpersonal skills. Then, the thought is related to cognitive abilities in a singer’s musical knowledge and insight, thinking and analytical abilities, and memory. In this case, the singer’s feeling is required to harmonize, ensoul, love the song being sung, and feel the strains of the accompanying keroncong music, so that the character can be enjoyed by oneself and reaches the audience. The concept of achieving undul usuk is based on the results of observations and interviews, and refers to the discussion (Prabowo, 2019), in which the elements that develop personal qualities are knowledge accumulation; competence; interpretation of the keroncong song; and personal demeanor. Based on the observations and interview results, the singing technique used to achieve undul usuk emphasises body posture, breathing techniques, phrasering, intonation, articulation, and voice registers. This is in line with Nafisi (2014), who states that various singing techniques include body posture, breathing techniques, voice positioning techniques, pronunciation techniques, and expressions. In breathing techniques, the “keroncong breath,” or “longer and stronger breaths,” is required. This is related to phrasering, which is the correct technique for decapitating sentences when taking a breath. Then, intonation and voice registers need to be considered when finding extreme pitch jumps to get the tone right and produce smooth characteristics. Singers must be able to connect the process of switching voice registers, so it does not create an uneven or streaky timbre, and is not too loud/rough. In other words, the resulting timbre does not change. Meanwhile, the body posture is closely related to the history of its development, namely the rules for singers’ microphones not to be held during competitions. It is considered an assessment material for posture when singing. Even with a limited range of motion, singing quietly in place by only giving gestures and body movements is considered an advantage for some singers to focus more and prioritise the quality of their singing. Then, this rule is also related to the technical ability to use a microphone. Singers must understand the distance between the mouth and the microphone along with the strength of their voice when singing. Singing the Solo-style keroncong has distinct performance characteristics, which are denoted by the terms cengkok, gregel, portamento and gandul (Soladi et al., 2020). Singing the Solo-style keroncong has special characteristics in its performance, as known by the terms cengkok, gregel, portamento, and gandul. After reviewing various literature, observations, and conducting interviews, various confusions were found in these terms. Various terms adapted from these musical Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 96 terms often lead to misperceptions. Therefore, most of the keroncong practitioners in Solo often mention the tone ornamentation or improvisation named cengkok keroncong accompanied by nggandul. To achieve undul usuk, there are various provisions in interpreting the song. The use of ornamentation and the nature of nggandul must be in accordance with the portion. Nggandul is a term in keroncong music and other music used to refer to an inaccurate pitch twist when the beat falls. Apart from gandul/nggandul, there are other terms, namely; cengkok, gregel, luk and mbesut. These terms only exist in Solo-style keroncong. Cengkok (twist) is an arrangement of additional notes to beautify the song (Soladi, 2019), all forms of tonal arrangements (ornament), or in short, the size of the melody that beautifies and enlivens the song (Fikri, 2017). Specifically, the notes ornament on the main tone that moves up then moves down and returns to the main tone. How to sing cengkok keroncong is different from the typical techniques of other keroncong styles, in general, cengkok is sung quickly but still effortlessly. In original keroncong songs, not all phrases have cengkok, usually in one song, there are only one or two cengkok touches on different phrases. Gregel cengkok is an ornamental cengkok that is sung by slightly lowering the tone by one or half of the intervals, and usually the gregel is performed after the luk. Gregel often occurs at the end of a phrase but can also be found in the middle of a phrase. Luk is an ornamental tune in singing, sung occasionally before gregel. Mbesut is a way to beautify song sentences when singing keroncong by inserting vocal melody ornaments using the glissando technique. In principle, the way to sing mbesut is to propagate from one note to another, either towards a higher note or a lower tone. A singer, when he does mbesut, consciously understands how to cut syllables in a song sentence, which is used as a long note to be filled with the composition. Moreover, if it is too much or excessive, it will eliminate the characteristics of the ngroncongi singing. For example, a nggandul pattern that is too excessive to match the tempo of the accompaniments, usually known as nglewer or kenggandulen. This is in line with Pambajeng et al., (2019) statement that in large orchestras, the Gandul technique tends not to be used often because it will lose the sense and meaning of the song, and the singing tempo will lag behind the tempo of the accompaniment (kenggandulen). Likewise, excessive use of ornamentation will give the impression of “does not sound like keroncong” or even lead to other musical genres. Sometimes, this leads the singer to stray away from the original notation. Singers must interpret without changing the main melody that has been created. The nggadul implementation should be the result of ornamentation use and the singer’s flexibility in bringing the keroncong song. In addition, there is a rule that at the beginning of the song entry (the introduction part), the notes and beats must be correct, and it is not allowed to use ornamentation. This is a challenge for singers, because some keroncong songs start with a high note and cannot be glided, or using glissando or legato techniques. Regarding the technique used in ngroncongi singing ornamentation, Prabowo (2018) introduced it to the term mbesut for the use of the glissando and luk technique for the legato technique. Undul usuk can not only be achieved with skill. In a keroncong music presentation, a singer does not only sing, but is included in the ensembleship and must have a burgeoning position by having a bargaining value on music. All of this must Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 97 be based on musical knowledge, insight, and analytical thinking skills in keroncong music. Singers can provide input and determine what kind of keroncong music game should be presented. For example, in determining the accompaniment pattern used, setting the tempo, and so on, it takes unity between the singer and the accompanist to create a quality ngroncongi. Furthermore, the most essential aspect for achieving the quality of undul usuk is feeling. In other words, singing is not just a physical technique but has entered the realm of human psychology. Singers must be able to ensoul the meaning of the song they are singing. The singer’s flexibility will form the achievement of feeling, where flexibility is formed as an accumulation of experience and process. The characteristics of ngroncongi singing are lilting, smooth, aesthetic, and essential. As the visual of every keroncong music performance, the singer’s appearance is important to consider. In the past, keroncong singers were synonymous with wearing kebaya for women and suits for men. Kebaya, which is also the identity of Javanese women, adds to the essence and aesthetics of keroncong music as a hyper- feminist embodiment (Meloni, 2021). The rules in this way of dressing are in line with those put forward (Mulyadi & Indira, 2019) in which for singers and keroncong musicians, female singers usually wear a kebaya with their hair tied in a bun, and male singers usually wear batik or a suit. Nowadays, it is rare to find keroncong singers with such appearances, but being polite and neat is still prioritised. As the quality of undul usuk has been achieved, if you look inappropriately, it will certainly reduce the essence and aesthetics of the ngroncongi. Several sources found that the quality of singing ngroncongi (undul usuk) can only be achieved in the original keroncong repertoire. Therefore, the researchers are still limited to the realm of the original keroncong repertoire. Based on the observations, the song Kr. Senandung Bidari created by Sapari/WS. Nardi, sung by Mini Satria in Album Bintang-Bintang Radio 1982, was chosen as an example of the achievement of singing ngroncongi (undul usuk). As previously explained, song quality is one of the external factors that form the quality of ngroncongi. As previously explained, the song quality is one of the external factors that form the ngroncongi quality. Prabowo (2018) explains that the composition of the song that forms the feeling of ngroncongi is formed by its song, main melody, and tone interval. The song Kr. Senandung Bidari can be proven as a song that forms the characteristics of ngroncongi. Discussion Keroncong Song Entitled Senandung Bidari The song Kr. Senandung Bidari consists of 28 bars (excluding the intro and coda), 4/4 rhythm with an andante tempo or medium slow. This song certainly has a sentence form consisting of three parts, namely, part A (“Angkatan” or the introduction) on bars 1-6, part B (“Ole-ole” or middle) on bars 11-20, part C (“Senggaan” or end) on bars 21-28, with two sequences. On bars 9-10, there is a middle section called the middle spell (interlude). This is in accordance with the original keroncong repertoire format proposed by Widjajadi (2007). The following is a transcript of the original Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 98 notation Kr. Senandung Bidari with an A major tonality in accordance with Mini Satria’s character. The description of the original score and the researchers’ transcription score are presented in Figure 3 and 4. Figure 3. Original Notation Kr. Senandung Bidari Figure 4. Notation Transcript of Kr. Senandung Bidari (January, 2021) Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 99 The tonal area of the song Kr. Senandung Bidari is quite wide, with a range of almost 2 octaves, from e (lowest note) to c#2 (highest note) in A major tonality. In this song, there are also pitch intervals, extreme pitch jumps, and extreme pitch jumps. For more details, the following is a piece of phrases in the first 4 bars of the song Kr. Senandung Bidari in the forms of a table and graph. This phrase is considered sufficient to represent the whole song. In the vertical column, it describes the beats from bar 1 to bar 4 at every half beat. While the horizontal line describes the notes starting from a small octave to octave 2 (from bottom to top). Figure 5. Tone Region Graphics Kr. Senandung Bidari (January, 2021) The red colour in Figure 5 shows extreme pitch jumps, namely from 5 (sol) in octave 1 to 3 (mi) in octave 2. The leap notes in red appear several times in this song, and indicate major sector intervals that are 4½ notes. Furthermore, the yellow colour in the chart still represents the extreme pitch jump, but the extreme tone is passed gradually past the other helpful notes. The jump in the extreme yellow tone is 6 (la) in octave 1 by going through tones 5 (sol), 3 (mi), 1 (do) to 5 (sol) in small octaves. Then, it is continued from 5 (sol) in a small octave by going through the notes of 1 (do), 3 (mi), 5 (sol) in octave 1 to 2 (re) in octave 2. Furthermore, the green colour in Figure 5 indicates the playing of tonal intervals. In the form of the song, the wide range of notes, the playing of note intervals, and the extreme pitch jumps are found in this song. Therefore, it proves that Kr. Senandung Bidari has the characteristics of a ngroncongi song. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 100 Figure 6. Mini Satria Sings in My Motherland Golden Earth Concert (2019) Based on the results of observations, interviews, and analysis of the study documentation, the researchers used an audio recording of Mini Satria in this research as an example of a singer who was considered to have achieved ngroncongi/undul usuk. The song Kr. Senandung Bidari sung by Mini Satria was used as a text analysis to reveal the principles of building undul usuk achievements. In the audio recording that the researchers used as material for analysis, she has achieved the vocal quality of ngroncongi in singing Kr. Senandung Bidari. His performance is very flexible and in harmony with the principles of developing the ngroncongi vocal quality. The interpretation can be seen in the following comparison. Her interpretative notation is not exactly what it is, but it is close to that. This is because of his flexibility in performing songs coupled with his distinctive character. Interpretation of Senandung Bidari Song Figure 7. Notation Transcript of Bar 11-12 Kr. Senandung Bidari (January 2021) Figure 8. Notation Interpretation of Bar 11-12 (January 2021) From this notation, the interpretation of Mini Satria is in accordance with the principles of ngroncongi vocal, meaning that ornamentation should not be given at Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 101 the beginning of the first beat, and that it is appropriate for stressed beats. At the beginning of the song, she sang right on the 2nd beat of thesis and right on the note of e1 without being glided or given any other ornamentation. For mungkret, her beats used triplets. Almost the whole song, triplets are used. In nggandul, it can be seen clearly from her beats that don’t bring out the same as the beats in the original notation. Several times, at the beginning of a sentence other than at the beginning of the song, she starts with nggandul, which is entered on the 2/4 beat. For example, on bar 3 beat 3, she clears ¼ beats before entering the song. Then, there are many uses of ornamentation symbolised by mordent, one of which is in the syllable “du.” According to Kusbini’s theory, this ornamentation is called gregel, when it is sung as follows: Figure 9. Notation Interpretation of Bar 17 Kr. Senandung Bidari (January 2021) Furthermore, on bar 2, beat 4, Mini Satria provides ornamentation by gliding the tone towards the target tone with the portamento technique or commonly known as luk, and some call it embat naik. Luk is a characteristic of a keroncong singer. The implementation of singing with luk in the context of ngroncongi is different from luk in Javanese karawitan. Luk in the context of ngroncongi is flexible. Embat naik is the term for adding the nearest note above the main note. In writing, appoggiatura is used on one note below the intended tone. In the whole song, it was found that there were many tones, which were given luk ornamentation by her and transcribed with various kinds of writing. As is the case in verse 1, bar 3, beat 4 on the wang syllable, there is a g#1 note marked with a slur leading to the a1 note. The way to sing it is still the same with the ornamentation, but the pronunciation is different. Figure 10. Notation Transcript of Bar 11-12 Kr. Senandung Bidari (January 2021) Figure 11. Notation Interpretation of Bar 11-12 “Senandung Bidari” (January 2021) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 102 The notation above is a transcript of the notation on bar 11 and bar 12. After being analysed, as before, Mini Satria started on the 2nd beat of the thesis again and then used triplets. Then, it was found that there was acciaccatura on bar 11 beat 3, which was sung with the glissando technique to the main note. On bar 12, there was a cengkok keroncong ornamentation, which has also been written in the original notation. She then interpreted it with a difference in beats. For the main melodic notation, there was no difference. If it is not stated in the original notation, cengkok can be written using the grouppetto symbol. Regarding the character of the voice and the style of the stage, Mini Satria is known as a beautiful woman who is cheerful and coquettish. Her vocal performance is more improvisational, she disagrees with how to sing according to the notation. She is more concerned with interpretation by using luk to sound sweeter and more effortless. Someone can definitely guess that it is Mini Satria’s voice when hearing it. In this song, she inserted her trademark, which was so obvious, namely on the 17th bar. With nggandul and ornamentation that is very flexible and has character, it can emphasize the coquettish impression that is the unique characteristics of Mini Satria, even though it only listened to audio without seeing its visual appearance. The following is a transcript of the notation: Figure 12. Notation Interpretation of Bar 17 Kr. Senandung Bidari (January 2021) This 17th bar can also prove Mini Satria’s high musical thinking and analysis skills. From the interval playing and the sound length of the “ra” and “ma” syllables, she used it to provide ornamentation that gave the impression of being coquettish following the lyrics of the song “seirama lenggang,” which could support the atmosphere. Mini Satria always placed ornamentation in the right parts and not excessively so that it had a high aesthetic value. The specialty of Mini Satria is also found in its intonation technique. She also always sings with feelings. She always said that when singing, the song must be loved. Thus, she can enjoy the song, and it also makes the feeling reach the audience and listeners and be memorable and equally delicious. Mini Satria’s appreciation for the song is undeniable, even she can convey the contents of the song with her style and character. There are two sequences of the transcript of Mini Satria’s carrying notation, each with 28 bars. Mini Satria can do a second sequence by using ornamentation in the same place, and it was almost the same as the first sequence. There is only a slight development of ornamentation in the second sequence of the ole-ole section, as shown in the transcript of the notation in bars 11-14: Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 103 First Sequence Second Sequence Figure 14. Comparison of Sequences 1 and 2 “Kr. Keroncong Bidari” (January 2021) There is an ornamentation development carried out by Mini Satria by adding luk ornaments to bar 12 beat 3, bar 13 beat 1½, and bar 14 beat 3½. The rest of the song’s ornamentation was exactly what was performed in the first sequence. Mini Satria proved the use of memory in performing two sequences of songs with the same ornamentation and type placement. This is related to the concept previously explained that memory is one of the factors that form the quality of ngroncongi vocals. In addition, this proves and strengthens Sapto’s statement (personal communication, July 22, 2019) that ancient people could repeat the cengkok that had been sung. ‘Madam, cengkok like earlier’ ‘Sing ngendi toh? Sing iki?’ Yes. Because they have sense/feeling. The important aspect is sense/feeling first. Therefore, it becomes skill, brain, and heart. The transcript of the entire notation of Kr. Senandung Bidari by Mini Satria can be found in the appendix. In performing the song Kr. Senandung Bidari, Mini Satria mostly used glissando and legato techniques with microtomic tones to add to the impression of flexibility in her performance. The character of her voice is very inherent, and she has achieved the quality of ngroncongi vocals with his very flexible demeanor. She can balance the elements of skill, thought, and feeling. Its aesthetic quality has reached its peak, or is called undul usuk. All of that is formed from her long experience in the world of singing, especially keroncong. Mini Satria deserves to be legitimized as a singer who has achieved ngroncongi vocal quality. At the end of this research, the researchers concluded that there are six absolute requirements for a keroncong singer to achieve the ngroncongi/undul usuk level as follows: Original Notation Learning and understanding the original notation is the most important tip because of its urgency, which is often overlooked. Technological advances in music notation software make it possible to clearly see the relationship between written and sound notation (del Mar Galera et al., 2013). The original notation became the initial benchmark in studying keroncong songs. It was known that in singing keroncong, it Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 104 was necessary to harmonise the main melody with the original notation, although the performance and other ornamentations were adjusted based on the singer’s interpretation. Most importantly, there is no original notes that should be changed. However, the majority of singers who study keroncong use the listening method more than understanding the notation first. Listening to Song In the surrounding environment, there are many audio recordings of keroncong songs sung by various keroncong singers. However, sometimes there are singers who change the original notation. Listening to keroncong songs must be from the right source. Understanding the notation can help ensure that the audio samples are chosen correctly. In addition, if you want to have ngroncongi vocal characteristics, it is important to listen to singers who have achieved ngroncongi vocal quality. The impact of learning a song from the wrong source is to be carried away in the habit of listening and singing as an example. Practice Regular practise is also one of the efforts to develop and improve the vocal quality of ngroncongi. In the training process, it is necessary to have a target so that it continues to increase until it reaches the desired quality. The practises can be done individually or with a keroncong music group. Experience As previously mentioned, experience is one of the factors that form the quality of ngroncongi individually. By increasing the experience of singing, it will certainly affect the quality of achievement, especially ngroncongi vocals. Therefore, singers are expected to increase their experiences by following various jam session, singing at weddings, and so on but it is still in the context of singing keroncong. In addition, unique incidents in singing can also be used as learning and affect the quality of someone’s singing. Senior Support The entire learning process cannot be separated from the guidance of senior keroncong figures, both figures who are fluent in keroncong and senior keroncong singers who are considered to have ngroncongi vocal qualities. Singers should be able to learn a lot by discussing and asking for input for improvement if there are still shortcomings. The seniors will also always guide with sincerity, and will feel happy because there are those who want to learn and preserve keroncong music. Concept Understanding As a keroncong singer, it is necessary to understand the concept of ngroncongi and the concept of its vocal. By comprehending this, singers can evaluate themselves, and it will be easier to achieve their achievements quality because they will Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 105 understand what aspects have not been achieved and what factors are needed. In addition, the singers can also position themselves, as stated in the concept. For example, the burgeoning position that a singer must have to achieve ngroncongi vocal quality. Conclusion The history and development of keroncong music in Solo have had an influence on the fluctuating quantity and quality in the realm of solo-style keroncong vocals. Mus Mulyadi, as a reformer, greatly influenced the existence and musicality of keroncong at that time. Every player or singer must have an awareness of the purpose of each keroncong music presentation, which is aimed at the realm of entertainment or conservatives. In the conservative aspect of playing and performing Solo-style keroncong, there is the term ngroncongi as a concept of the highest achievement in keroncong music. The concept is built from various sub-concepts within it. Ngroncongi vocals can be defined as a musical identity in the highest achievement of conceptual Solo-style keroncong vocals. There are several interrelated perspectives to discuss the concept of its vocals, namely ngroncongi vocals as stages; ngroncongi vocals as a quality of achievement; ngroncongi vocals as a characteristic. The concept of ngroncongi vocals as stages explains that there are hierarchical stages of solo-style keroncong vocals. The most basic stage starts from the stage of learning to sing, the stage of being capable of singing, the stage of singing correctly, the stage of good singing, and finally the singing ngroncongi stage. The quality of ngroncongi is formed individually and collectively. Individual ngroncongi is formed from quality and experience. Meanwhile, collective ngroncongi is formed from internal factors, including intrapersonal and interpersonal skills; as well as external factors, including song quality, audio-visual quality, and socio- cultural environment. The concept of the quality of ngroncongi vocal performance is related to the principles and tips for achieving solo-style keroncong vocals. The quality of ngroncongi vocal performance requires the flexibility of the singer to harmonise three elements; skills, thoughts, and feelings. The skills referred to in the concept of the quality of vocal ngroncongi achievement are musical skills, intrapersonal skills, and interpersonal skills. In addition, the cognitive abilities in the musical knowledge and insight of a vocalist, thinking and analysis abilities, and memory also have an important role. Vocalist’ feelings are required to make them able to relate, animate, and love the song being sung, as well as feel the accompaniment of the keroncong music, so that the performance can be enjoyed by not only by themselves and but also by the audience. A flexible nature in singing can create ngroncongi’s vocal characteristics known as lilting, smooth, tender, aesthetic, and essential. Furthermore, the singer’s attractive appearance as the visual element in a Keroncong music performance supports ngroncongi’s vocal characteristics. It cannot be denied that the vocal achievements of ngroncongi cannot be separated from the voice gift from God Almighty. However, there are several tips to achieve ngroncongi vocals, including; (a) understanding the notation and listening to the song from the correct source, then interpreting the song Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 106 while still paying attention to the original notation, (b) doing regular exercise, (c) getting more experiences, (d) learning a lot, discussing and asking for improvement input from seniors, and (e) understanding of concepts. The existence of ngroncongi and ngroncongi concept and vocal is actually to provide a musical identity and as a form of originality of keroncong music. The community believes that the ngroncongi vocals can be used as a benchmark for singing Solo-style keroncong. The most important benefit is achieving peace and equanimity, which is called sumeleh or semeleh. They revealed that the ngroncongi quality of keroncong relieves fatigue and burden after a tiring day’s work. It can have implications for the development and preservation of keroncong music and can be done by enriching the repertoire of Solo-style keroncong music, especially in the vocal domain, with various musical concepts and identities. However, providing a solution to the problem of certain standard claims makes keroncong very stiff. The results of this research provide flexibility for practitioners to adjust the playing and performance of keroncong music based on entertainment and conservative goals in various situations and conditions. Thus, it eases the keroncong singers’ ability to self- evaluate their quality and achievements in singing keroncong, especially in performing the original keroncong repertoire. Singing ngroncongi is the highest achievement in the Solo-style keroncong singing in its conservative aspect, some figures called it undul usuk. This achievement applies especially to the original keroncong repertoire. In addition, further research is needed in other keroncong music repertoires. It takes a process and time to achieve undul usuk with various rules and tips that must be implemented. In the process of achieving it, there are various stages of achievement in the Solo-style keroncong singing that can be used as a reference for singers to measure their abilities. It is important for singers to be able to position themselves to harmonise the preservation and development of keroncong, especially in the realm of singing. This research recommends that the next researchers to do further research on keroncong music, especially in the vocal domain, both in the method used and the material to be studied. From the results of this research, there are several things that can be studied in-depth. This research can be used as a reference and source of information about keroncong vocals, particularly the solo style, by future researchers. References Andini, M., Sukmayadi, Y., & Supiarza, H. (2021). Sumeleh, Semeleh: Signifikansi estetika keroncong gaya Solo. Swara: Jurnal Antologi Pendidikan Musik, 2(1), 23–31. https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/antomusik/article/view/32991 Arbie, R., & Bandung, T. (2022). Folk songs in regional of North Sulawesi as a message of peace to the community. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of Linguistics and Culture (ICLC-2 2021), 623, 122–127. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.211225.019 Christy, D. E., Wasino, W., & Suryadi, A. (2019). Musik keroncong di Surakarta: Perjalanan dari tahun 1960 hingga 1995. Indonesian Journal of Conservation, 8(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.15294/ijc.v8i1.22677 Creswell, J. W. (2014). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Pearson. Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza, Mustika Andini 107 del Mar Galera, M., Tejada, J., & Trigo, M. E. (2013). Music notation software as a means to facilitate the study of singing musical scores. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 11(1), 215–238. Fikri, M. T. (2017). Hibriditas keroncong asli ‘soloan.’ Seminar Nasional Seni Pertujukan: Hibriditas dalam ekologi seni Indonesia. FBS Unesa. Lv, Z. (2018). Exploration on the Importance of Singer’s Emotion and Aesthetic Imagination in Vocal Performance. 8th International Conference on Social Network, Communication and Education (SNCE 2018), 83(Snce), 1024–1026. https://doi.org/10.2991/snce-18.2018.211 Meloni, I. (2021). Foreign sindhen in practice: New teaching strategies and the impact of practice-led research on Javanese female singing. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(1), 25–52. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.3.2021 Mulyadi, R. M., & Indira, D. (2019). Dualisme pelestarian dan pengembangan musik keroncong pada tahun 1970-an. Metahumaniora, 9(1), 76. https://doi.org/10.24198/mh.v9i1.22874 Nafisi, J. (2014). Gestures and body-movements in the teaching of singing: A survey into current practice in Australia and Germany. Australian Journal of Music Education, 2014(1), 77–93. Ning, L. (2017). On the importance of stage performance in vocal music performance. Proceedings of the 2017 4th International Conference on Education, Management and Computing Technology (ICEMCT 2017) (pp. 12–15). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/icemct-17.2017.2 Nuccio, M., Guerzoni, M., & Katz-Gerro, T. (2018). Beyond class stratification: The rise of the eclectic music consumer in the modern age. Cultural Sociology, 12(3), 343–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1749975518786039 Nugraha, L., Harini, S., & Dipokusumo, G. (2016). Upaya meningkatkan daya tarik Kota Surakarta di tingkat internasional melalui warisan budaya. Transformasi, 1(30), 108– 115. Pambajeng, N. R. S., Suryati, S., & Musmal, M. (2019). Teknik vokal dan pembawaan lagu keroncong stambul “Tinggal Kengangan” ciptaan Budiman BJ oleh Subarjo HS. Promusika: Jurnal Pengkajian, Penyajian dan Penciptaan Musik, 7(1), 29–37. https://doi.org/10.24821/promusika.v7i1.3166 Pfordresher, P. Q., & Demorest, S. M. (2021). The prevalence and correlates of accurate singing. Journal of Research in Music Education, 69(1), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429420951630 Prabowo, B. R. (2018). Ngroncongi: Konsep dasar pencapaian musik keroncong. Pascasarjana, Institut Seni Indonesia Surakarta. Prabowo, B. R. (2019). Kualitas personal dalam mencapai estetika “Ngroncongi.” Dewa Ruci: Jurnal Pengkajian dan Penciptaan Seni, 14(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.33153/dewaruci.v14i1.2531 Puguh, D. R. (2018). Perusahaan rekaman lokananta, 1956-1990-an: Perkembangan produksi dan kiprahnya dalam penyebarluasan seni pertunjukan Jawa Surakarta. SASDAYA, Gadjah Mada Journal of Humanities, 2(2), 369–392. https://doi.org/10.22146/sasdayajournal.36457 Rachman, A., & Utomo, U. (2019). The rhythm pattern adaptation of Langgam Jawa in Kroncong. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Arts and Culture (ICONARC 2018) (pp. 99–101). Atlantis Press. Ratnasari, D. (2015). Perkembangan musik keroncong di Surakarta tahun 1960-1990. E- Journal Pendidikan Sejarah (Avatara), 3(2), 139–152. Skelchy, R. P. (2015). If there are stars in the sky: Waldjinah and keroncong in postcolonial Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (84-108) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 108 Indonesia. University of California. Soladi, S. (2019). Setia janjiku sebagai bentuk pembaharuan musik keroncong gaya ismanto. ISI Surakarta. Soladi, S., Mintargo, W., & Kiswanto, K. (2020). Lagu setia janjiku: Bentuk pembaruan musik keroncong gaya ismanto. Sorai: Jurnal Pengkajian dan Penciptaan Musik, 13(1), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.33153/sorai.v13i1.2841 Suadi, H. (2017). Djiwa manis indoeng disajang, musik dan dunia hiburan tempo dulu. PT. Kiblat Buku Utama. Sukmayadi, Y., Sella, F., & Midyanti, H. I. (2022). Heutagogical approach to music learning in vocational schools. Obrazovanie i Nauka, 24(6), 41–59. https://doi.org/10.17853/1994-5639-2022-6-41-59 Supiarza, H. (2019). Rekonstruksi musik keroncong anak muda di Kota Bandung [Doctoral dissertation, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung]. http://repository.unpad.ac.id/frontdoor/index/index/docId/24652 Supiarza, H., & Sarbeni, I. (2021). Teaching and learning music in digital era: Creating keroncong music for Gen Z students through interpreting poetry. Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education, 21(1), 123–139. http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/harmonia.v21i1.28585 Widdess, R. (2012). Music, meaning and culture. Empirical Musicology Review, 7(1–2), 88– 94. https://doi.org/10.18061/1811/52985 Widjajadi, R. A. S. (2007). Mendayung di antara tradisi dan modernitas: Sebuah penjelajahan ekspresi budaya terhadap musik keroncong. Hanggar Kreator. Widyanta, N. C. (2017). Efektivitas keroncong garapan orkes keroncong tresnawara terhadap audiensi generasi muda. Kajian Seni, 3(2), 165–180. https://doi.org/10.22146/jksks.30042 Biography Yudi Sukmayadi is an Associate Professor of the Music Education Study Program at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia in Bandung. His research focuses on teaching and learning music, performing arts, traditional music, and contemporary music. Hery Supiarza is a lecturer at the Film and Television Study Program, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. His research interests are in media implementation music studies, music learning in film and television, and the urban culture of keroncong music. He is also a practitioner of keroncong music as well as film music scoring. Mustika Andini is a master’s student in cultural studies at Universitas Padjadjaran Bandung. She is a keroncong singer and a researcher who focuses on keroncong music as well as women and keroncong music.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

Bespoke Music-Narration, composition, interdisciplinary, methodological design, performance, practice-based research

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7281

Practice-Based Methodological Design for Performance-Composition and Interdisciplinary Music Research

Practice-based research has gained increasing prominence in the field of creative arts enquiry. Its engagement has fueled disruptive discourse on its nature, methodology and application in music research.  Textbooks and journal publications on practice in arts-based research and a host of eminent practitioner-scholars have contributed to this nascent field of study. Several of these publications focus on the creative arts industry with fewer discourse on practice-based research approaches in the subdomains of music.  This article deliberates on the multi-facets of practice-based approaches in performance, composition, and interdisciplinary music research. It shares the process of crafting methodological designs that encapsulate research in and of practice. Keywords that frame practice-based techniques include terms such as praxis, divergent and multi-methodological processes, design thinking, and research about/through/for practice as represented by performative-compositional artefacts and their accompanying discourse. Two exemplars are discussed. It argues that practice-oriented research transcends discipline borders encompassing interdisciplinary domains within multidisciplinary co-creational practice. In the author’s music-health studies, she views the interdisciplinarity of science-arts research as interpolated dimensions of collaborative scientific knowledge within an embodied cultural space that yields transformative creativities of translational research to reach its targeted community of users. Practice-centred research in music therefore embraces spheres of investigations with research-informed practice as its focus and its artefacts and discourse as inputs of and outputs from that research, incorporating the overarching paradigms of practice-led research, practice-based research, and creative research in the performing arts.  

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7281/4270

Valerie Ross 109 Practice-Based Methodological Design for Performance-Composition and Interdisciplinary Music Research Valerie Ross College of Creative Arts, Universiti Teknologi MARA E-mail: [email protected] Published online: 31 December 2022 Cite this article (APA): Ross, V. (2022). Practice-based methodological design for performance-composition and interdisciplinary music research. Malaysian Journal of Music, 11(1), 109–125. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vo11.1.7.2022 Abstract Practice-based research has gained increasing prominence in the field of creative arts enquiry. Its engagement has fueled disruptive discourse on its nature, methodology and application in music research. Textbooks and journal publications on practice in arts-based research and a host of eminent practitioner-scholars have contributed to this nascent field of study. Several of these publications focus on the creative arts industry with fewer discourse on practice-based research approaches in the subdomains of music. This article deliberates on the multi-facets of practice-based approaches in performance, composition, and interdisciplinary music research. It shares the process of crafting methodological designs that encapsulate research in and of practice. Keywords that frame practice-based techniques include terms such as praxis, divergent and multi-methodological processes, design thinking, and research about/through/for practice as represented by performative-compositional artefacts and their accompanying discourse. Two exemplars are discussed. It argues that practice-oriented research transcends discipline borders encompassing interdisciplinary domains within multidisciplinary co-creational practice. In the author’s music-health studies, she views the interdisciplinarity of science-arts research as interpolated dimensions of collaborative scientific knowledge within an embodied cultural space that yields transformative creativities of translational research to reach its targeted community of users. Practice-centred research in music therefore embraces spheres of investigations with research-informed practice as its focus and its artefacts and discourse as inputs of and outputs from that research, incorporating the overarching paradigms of practice-led research, practice-based research, and creative research in the performing arts. Keywords: Bespoke Music-Narration, composition, interdisciplinary, methodological design, performance, practice-based research 110 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (109-125) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Introduction and Overview Creative arts researchers and practitioners thrive on displacing conventional practice in their search for novelty and authenticity, often leaving distinctive hallmarks of their innovation and ingenuity. The quest for originality necessitates a deconstructive mind, a critical reflection of one’s own expertise and reflexive action of research-informed practice. It embodies a skillful articulation of the theoretical, conceptual, empirical, and methodological processes which frames, informs and shapes that practice. In addition to providing evidence of artistic practice, a critique of extant and new knowledge on the exploratory processes in crafting the creative artefact is expected in the form of an accompanying exegesis or thesis for research endeavours that have been declared as practice-based in nature (Candy & Edmonds, 2018; Draper & Harrison, 2011; Smith & Dean, 2011). Definitions and features of practice-led and practice-based research have evolved since its initial proposition as the academic-practitioner divide narrows (Barrett & Bolt, 2019; Nelson, 2013). Generally, practice-led research focuses on the nature and operational significance of practice, whereas practice-based research is primarily represented by creative outputs in the form of original artefacts and artistic endeavours such as performances, compositions, dance, and theatre, which are accompanied by textual analyses, critical reflection, discourse, exegeses, or theses. Nevertheless, the proliferation of terms relating to practice “as” and “in” research may lead to multiple interpretations in higher education awards. For instance, the programme standards for the performing arts published by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency stipulates that the PhD by Research (Practice- led/Lab-based and Creative/Production Work) necessitates the submission of two assessment requirements, namely, a portfolio of original creative works and a thesis as evidence of a high level of practical and critical skills. The ratio of the thesis to the creative work/production is within the range of 40:60 or 30:70 (Programme Standards: Performing Arts, 2014, pp. 21-22). However, the Doctor of Musical Arts award is described as a “practice-based programme” where students are required to undertake research. Presentations/performance of musical/creative works, depending on the area of specialisation, must be accompanied by an exegesis (ibid, p. 23). In view of the different assessment requirements for practice-led and practice-based awards in higher education, questions may be raised as to the scope and depth of practice orientated research. Issues may arise regarding the relationship between the thesis or exegesis and the portfolio of creative works. Queries as to what frames the methodology when adopting practice-led/based research and how is it different to more conventional processes are pertinent. The way in which the outcomes of practice-based research are translated into journal publications is a challenge. Serendipitously, these are anomalies that shape the process and products of practice-based research in music and the creative arts. This article extrapolates the multi-facets of practice-based research which encompasses research-informed practice as its focus and its creative artefacts and discourse as outputs of that research. It posits “practice-centred” research as a collective term which Valerie Ross 111 incorporates the overarching paradigms of practice-based research, practice-led research, and practice-oriented research in the performing arts. It further delineates the process of crafting a methodological design that encapsulates research in and of practice. It argues how performance and composition research are inherently interrelated as one critically informs the other through the engagement of disruptive discourse, praxis in theory building, design thinking and constructive alignment strategies. The result is an overarching methodological model that encompasses the interconnected dimensions of practice-led and practice-based research in the integrated fields of performance, composition, and interdisciplinary music research. Disruptive Streaks of Practice-Based Research Practice-based and practice-led research has gained increasing prominence in the field of creative arts enquiry. Its engagement has fueled disruptive discourse regarding its scope, methodology, outcomes, and significance in music research. In more conventional paradigms of academic investigation, research strategies are purposefully designed to position the researcher as an “outsider looking in”, premised on the belief that researcher-subjectivity may cloud the objective “truth”, thereby compromising reliability and universal replicability of research findings in the traditional sense. As practice-led/ based studies place the researcher at the centre of the investigation, questions as to the reliability of outcomes have been deliberated (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012; Leavy, 2017; Litts et al., 2020). Conversely, it may be argued that such discourse has inadvertently strengthened the engagement of practice-centred research among academics who are also creative arts practitioners. Taking cue from Clayton Christensen’s theory of disruptive innovation (Christensen et al., 2019), the notion of disrupting extant knowledge to drive new knowledge has led researchers and innovators to relook and reposition conventional practice. Petzold et al. (2019) posit that disruptive innovation is fluid and evolving, created as a result of unfolding emergent dynamics that are shaped by the synchronization of events, actions and strategic planning. Hence, disruptive research encourages novel ways of thinking and doing to bring about alternative research pathways and outcomes. This concept is congruent with notions of recognising creative expressions such as music, dance, theatre, and digital media as outcomes of artistic research among the international creative arts fraternity as well as promoting intercultural and community-based research between the arts and sciences (Burnard et al., 2018; Ross, 2016). Therefore, practice-based research incorporates both the process and product of original investigation that leads to new understandings regarding professional practice, thereby advancing knowledge about and within the research-practice itself as evidenced by its creative output. It necessitates a robust conceptual framework that enables researchers to incorporate their creative practice through methods and processes in a custom- designed research framework that illuminates a cogent constructive alignment of processes that shape the research-in-practice creativity. The development of an authentic methodological model that is adaptable to the medium in which the 112 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (109-125) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 practice takes place is critical to assure credibility, validity and reliability when engaging in practice-based research. Applying Praxis: Embedding Theory into Practice Artistic knowledge is intuitive, demonstrative, embedded and personal, often engaging a process of contextualisation and reflection. It lends itself to praxis, a blending of theory with practice in fostering critical dialogue that stems from a desire for artistic expressivity, mastery and cogency (Armstrong, 2010; Freeman, 2010; Griffith, 2021). In practice-based enquiry, the deliberate interplay between imagination and expression necessitates an enaction of praxis strategies where the logical processes of ideation, planning, sequencing, reviewing, executing, and evaluating are summoned. For example, a performer or composer desiring to write an exegesis of his or her own performance or composition would benefit from “stepping in and out” of the creative realm, understanding both the theory and context of one’s own practice to develop self-reflexivity in embodying one’s emotion and intellect during an artistic sojourn. This analogy alludes to Herbert Mead’s theory of symbolic interactionism on how human beings interpret and act, based on meanings, events, and behaviour (Blumer, 1986). In Mead’s distinctive contribution to understanding the social psychology of an individual, he postulated on the duality of the “self” which is made up of the “I” and the “me” in human behaviour. “I”, indicates the active aspect of my consciousness and “me”, indicates the socialised aspect of “I”. As an example, I have just performed in a concert. The audience has heard me play. What did the audience think of my performance and how significant is it for me? The theory of symbolic interactionism also alludes to the importance social beings place on “others” regarding how humans relate and react to members of society as being “significant” or “non-significant”. For example, when a doctoral candidate performs in a recital and s/he is aware that in the audience includes the examiner, then that person represents a “significant other” to the performer. The examiner’s judgement would have been based on his/her evaluation of “me” playing while “I” engineered my cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills in interpreting, performing, and theorising my practice. Therefore, applying praxis and the blending of theory into practice are important considerations when preparing an exegesis, thesis, or critical reflection in practice-based research. Grounded in theory, disruptive in methodology and reflective in practice, the writing of and about the process and product of creativities are key components of research that is deemed practice centred. (Re)shaping the Research Problem Research methodologies are designed to frame the key components of an investigation, explain how data is to be collected, analysed, and interpreted, thereby answering the research questions which in turn meet the objectives of the study. Outcomes of the research are then discussed (Beins, 2018; Hultman & Taguchi, 2010). Practice-based research adheres to such principles. However, the way in Valerie Ross 113 which arguments unfold may differ. In practice-based research, formulating the problem statement may not be a straightforward task as compared to conventional research where the gap in knowledge is identified through the process of literature review, upon which the research questions are formulated. In practice-based enquiry, the research questions may evolve over time along with the development and needs of the accompanying practice. They may change throughout the investigatory path due to a reflection of practice, even at the final phase of the study as the creative products take form, unlike more conventional investigations whereby the research problems are determined at the onset of the study. Tracing the creative journey over the passage of investigatory time and repurposing the practice as informed by developments are also embedded in the methodological process. For instance, in composition studies, even though the new work may have a compositional sketch / plan, it may not be until the piece is near completion that the research problems are affirmed through “looking back” at the artistic journey undertaken. It could also be an autoethnographic experience translated into a musical production over a period. The process of composition may challenge the existing research questions thereby necessitating alterations. In adopting a practice- based approach, the research aims may be redefined as the research process develops. Musical elements and instrumentation of the emerging composition may change. Similarly, the design of a performance programme and its artistic curation may alter as it takes into consideration research that informs its preparation, realisation, and documentation. Therefore, practice-based research has a distinctive approach. It is primarily initiated by and through practice. Problems and issues are identified by challenges of the creative task. The research strategy embodies the process of practice, using established and often multi- methodological approaches that are congruent with the nature of the practice and theoretical standpoints adopted. It involves examining embodied experience, praxis, and epistemologies of practice. It aims to strengthen one’s professional practice and theoretical understandings associated with that practice, in the context of the socio-cultural framework in which the dynamics of action, meanings and perceived boundaries operate. Practice-based approach is particularly suited to interdisciplinary and translational studies due to its adaptability and openness to mixed-methods of data acquisition, analysis and reporting (Amir, 2019; Johnson et al., 2007; Koegeler-Abdi & Parncutt, 2013). Deciphering Interdisciplinary Research-Practice Interdisciplinarity in practice-based research is natural due to the multi-dimensional qualities of skill-based expertise involving scholars and practitioners from two or more distinct scientific disciplines. It may comprise of experts from within the arts and humanities and/or from the science-arts fraternity. Its research is premised on a conceptual model that links or integrates theoretical frameworks from those disciplines, using study designs that are not limited to any one field. Perspectives and skills of the involved disciplines are engaged in the multiple phases of the research process. The mere addition of researchers from different academic and professional credentials is not sufficient to make a research effort interdisciplinary. 114 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (109-125) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 An analysis of the conceptual framework, study design and data analysis undertaken can be used to establish the degree of interdisciplinarity. Teams work collaboratively, drawing together discipline-specific theories, concepts, and approaches to address a common problem. As music research is inherently practice oriented, it is entirely logical to posit a musical output as a product of research following scientific and ethical processes of data assimilation, accompanied by a critical discourse that clearly elucidates research undertaken. The following are two exemplars of how practice-centred enquiry from different perspectives may be considered. The first case is a historical event of global interest in which music played a significant role in the proceedings, thereby lending itself to avenues of research in and through practice. The second case demonstrates the realization of translational practice-based research in science-arts enquiry and the dissemination of research output to intended communities through web-based resources. Exemplar 1: Ceremonial Significance The performance of original music on occasion of the State Funeral of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II could be the subject of a practice-based or practice-centred investigation. The event offers insights into avenues of research from different perspectives. A hymn, ‘Like as the hart’ was set to music by a leading British composer, Judith Weir. The service was sung by the Choir of Westminster Abbey and the Choir of the Chapel Royal, St. James’s Palace under the direction of James O’Donnell, Organist and Master of the Choristers, Westminster Abbey. Of musicological interest, the choir also sang a hymn (Psalm 34:8) which Ralph Vaughan Williams set to music for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. The State Trumpeters of the Household Cavalry were led by Trumpet Major, Julian Sanford. The Fanfare Team of the Household Division Bands was conducted by Lieutenant Colonel David Barringer. The organ was played by Peter Holder, Sub- Organist, Westminster Abbey. The artistic management and curation of this live- streamed audio-visual event was innately interdisciplinary. CNN Business (Cooban, 2022) reported that an average of 26.2 million people in the UK watched the service in Westminster Abbey on TV screens while Reuters reported that 11.4 million people in the U.S. also tuned in (Richwine, 2022). Worldwide viewership and commentary via YouTube channels and social media were staggering. Figure 1 illustrates of how music and the performing arts played a significant role in an event of global impact and interest. The collage of images personifies historical, cultural, and ceremonial meaning that were realised through music as the world watched with grief and admiration, an inspiration for interdisciplinary research at its best. Valerie Ross 115 (Image Source: 7 News, AU, 2022 September 19) Figure 1. Conducting practice-based research from three perspectives This event provides an example in recent memory of the multifarious angles by which performance-composition and interdisciplinary research may be undertaken by assuming the role of a performer, composer or performing arts curator. For instance, a member of the choir would have insider knowledge of the rehearsal process and performative experience. Writing an exegesis that analysed the score and performance would necessitate an in-depth study on the historical, theological, musicological, compositional, and performative features of the event. The cultural, symbolic, and musical significance of the programme as well as the artistic curation of the event command critical reflection. Hence, if the study is performance centred, the micro-domain of the study would concentrate on the performative elements of the compositions, or indeed a selection of compositions and its associated constructs while the macro-domain of the study would be an extrapolation of the significance of the entire programme as a contributory whole. Elements of interdisciplinarity are embedded in the production in view of the scope of coverage ranging from the selection of works to be sung, choice of performers, artistic and programme management, staging and production, technical and media, health and safety regulations, and a host of performing arts curation issues, all of which require elements of research towards its realisation and documentation thereafter. Hence, the application of practice-based approach in music research is not as seemingly simplistic as it sounds. It encompasses both the creative output that has preferably been publicly presented and the documentation of investigatory processes that engaged the same high standards of methodological thoroughness associated with “conventional” research. 116 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (109-125) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Exemplar 2: Bespoke Music-Narration for Health and Wellness The second exemplar offers insights into the design and realisation of practice-based music-health research conducted by the author. It encapsulates the principles and procedures of conducting practice-centred research discussed earlier. The investigations focus on the goals of translational research in producing more meaningful and applicable results that directly benefit human health and wellbeing (Rubio, 2010; Ross & Amir, 2021a). Crafting innovative artefacts of research that are congruent with the aims of its use in supporting community health form the raison d’etre of each investigation. In ensuring sustainability and accessibility, the outcomes of practice-based research have been collated into a collection of creative artefacts and discourse known as Bespoke Music-Narration. This expanding set of audio-visual aids is hosted in a dedicated website for community access and research (www.bespokemusicnarration.com). Its rationale and aims are stated as follows: “Bespoke Music and Narration” is the outcome of translational practice- based research co-created by composer-researcher, Dr Valerie Ross and cardiothoracic surgeon, Dr Abid Amir. The prolonged COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated health concerns among a wide spectrum of affected communities necessitating innovative ways to improve physical and mental wellbeing. This site was created to share research output and resources from the Bespoke Music- Narration Soundbank Collection which comprises a collation of original music, narration, multi-language scripts, poetry and photography crafted to complement established therapeutic techniques and practices aimed at supporting a return to health and wellness in clinical and home-based settings Source: www.bespokemusicnarration.com There are four main types of audio-visual artefacts which are available from the Bespoke Music-Narration (BMN) website. They are (a) music and instruction for deep breathing and relaxation, (b) music and instruction for progressive muscle relaxation, (c) music, poetry, and visuals for positive visualisation and (d) music for movement/exercise series. Figure 2 represents a snapshot of the interactive content all of which are custom designed to support specific types of integrated and complementary healthcare practices. Valerie Ross 117 Figure 2. Bespoke Music-Narration Resources User-centred design strategies were implemented. Logic-Pro and Final-Cut Pro DAW systems were used by the author-composer for the audio-visual production of creativities. SoundCloud Pro enabled high quality online and offline audio access of resources. The creation of each artefact had its own conceptual framework and methodological process that guided and informed the research in and through practice. For instance, the crafting of “Road to Recovery” and its use in a randomised clinical trial comprising of thirty-four (n=34) postoperative cardiac surgery patients, stemmed from two interrelated studies with distinct methodological processes. The digital tool that was created utilised authentic nature sounds sourced from fieldwork at the Royal Belum Rainforest, Malaysia, and original electroacoustic compositions, together with a scripted narrations of instructions that were informed by clinical practice of physiotherapy sessions for Phase 1 post-operative cardiac surgery patients (Ross & Amir, 2019). A unique feature of the research instrument created was its availability in both the English Language and the Bahasa Malaysia Language. There is a distinct lack of bespoke 118 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (109-125) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 digital resources for complementary therapy in the Malay Language. Requests by research participants of the clinical trial for a copy of the intervention tool and the creation of further artefacts of research prompted the setting-up of the BMN web- based resource centre. At the time of writing, the website hosts four types of original creative resources, each with a distinctive name, that is, Road to Recovery, Homecoming, Cusp of Life & Secret Places, and Ethereal Series. The first two types of resources focus on deep breathing techniques, the third on positive visualisation using music, poetry, and images, and the fourth, on music for different forms of movement. User-centred and human centric considerations were considered when crafting content to enable open access of original materials. The instructional design incorporated musical, artistic, and informative content. Discourse and explanations regarding the research and the use of the different resources have been presented at workshops for healthcare workers, community engagement webinars and international conferences. Further information regarding publications and audio- visual presentations on the construct and use of the creative tools to support complementary therapies are also made available via the BMN website (Centre for Intercultural Musicology at Churchill College, 2022; Ross & Amir, 2021b, 2022). To summarise, the two cases illustrated the wide scope of practice-centred research in the creative arts and science-arts disciplines. Regardless of the topic of study, the principles and procedures of good practice and ethical adherence to research processes prevail. Therefore, the methodological framework of practice- based and interdisciplinary studies should encompass the (i) scope and depth of the study, (ii) theoretical, epistemological and artistic considerations, (iii) review of literature in relation to the objectives and research questions of the field studied, (iv) research methods and processes involved, (v) sampling frame and sources of primary and secondary data, (vi) methods of data and textual analysis, discussion and documentation, (vii) intended portfolio of creative works and its public presentation, and (viii) exegesis, thesis, critical discourse or journal publication. A well-constructed methodological design will aid the research journey, demonstrate clarity and authority of subject-matter, improve validity and reliability of practice thereby leading to a fruitful realisation of research plans. Crafting the Methodological Design The term “design” connotates an element of creative thinking. Congruent with the non-linear and innovative approach to problem-solving in performance and composition efforts, an integration of design thinking and constructive alignment strategies is posited. Design thinking advocates cognitive, strategic, and practical processes to promote ideation and action towards an innovative solution to performative and compositional challenges. It engages an analytical and human- centric approach in problem-solving and is therefore well-suited to music research. Constructive alignment embraces constructivist learning theories where the centrality of a learner’s activities is to create meaning for the learner using instructional design concepts which focus on aligning course objectives and Valerie Ross 119 intended learning outcomes with teaching delivery and assessments (Biggs, 1996; Spady, 1994). Constructivism centres on the belief that human learning is constructed, and learners build new knowledge upon foundations of previous learning as propagated by early cognitive development theorists such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. It advocates a systematic framework to guide decision making, aligning objectives to specific cognitive levels and action to elicit intended outcomes. Therefore, integrating design thinking and constructive alignment strategies into practice-based research by systematically and constructively aligning the research processes, data sources and analysis with evolving research outcomes will enhance cogency between and within academic deliberations as the artistic enquiry takes shape. Figure 3 illustrates avenues of data resources from qualitative and quantitative data collection methods within an integrative practice-based research paradigm, leading to the creative output, such as a portfolio of compositions or series of performances, and a critical discourse which is informed by design thinking and constructive alignment principles. The peripheral circle shows a myriad of primary and secondary data collection techniques such as interviews, focus groups, participant observation, action research, case study, questionnaires, experiments and intervention, art-based creativities, audio-visual resources, scores, recordings, live performances, and related content sourced from the public domain. At the centre of the enquiry is its practice, the core of which is symbolized by the creative output and its partnering discourse. This visualization of input and output from an array of data collection methods sets the stage for the development of the methodological model elucidated thereafter. Figure 3. Integrating design thinking and constructive alignment strategies in practice-based research Methodological Model for Practice-Based Music Research The methodological design of practice-based research takes into consideration the multi-faceted and evolving dimensions of research procedural input and intended 120 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (109-125) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 creative output. Planning dynamic conceptual frameworks and methodological trajectories serve to contextualise the protocols of research in and of practice. The framing of practice-based methodological designs adopts epistemologies of practice which cultivate and sustain the nature of the practice itself while honing theoretical understandings of that practice. Informed by design thinking strategies and constructive alignment concepts, Figure 4 represents a practice-based methodological model crafted for performance-composition research. Figure 4. Methodological model for performance-composition practice-based research The methodological model posited illuminates a conceptual mapping of the multi-dimensional trajectories that embody the complexities of performance and composition research-practice. The fundamental research procedures are adhered to but the processes are not necessarily linear in execution due to the concurrent development of the creative practice and its planned output. The model acts as a guide in configurating convergent and divergent perspectives of practice-based music research. It regards performance and composition research as interrelated facets of an investigation as one intrinsically complements the other. Compositions are realised through performance and performers interpret compositions. The socio-historical and musicological context of practice, guides and influences its creative and interpretive stance. Valerie Ross 121 As with any form of academic research, a robust analysis of data is critical to determining the authenticity of research outcomes. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of musical elements using established techniques and technology-assisted tools is vital in deconstructing the complexities of practice-based research. The incorporation of multi-methods in music analysis is an aspect of research that is often overlooked and neglected. For example, the analysis of musical scores requires experience and expertise in identifying and applying appropriate conventional and contemporary analytical methods, such as harmonic and melodic analysis, thematic analysis, functional analysis, set analysis, Schenkerian analysis, graphic analysis, and spectral analysis, based on the genre, style, form, musical elements, performance directions and interpretations of practice. The analysis of electronic music and electroacoustic music necessitate the mastery of technology driven skill sets (Collins & D’Escrivan, 2017). New ways of analyzing traditional, folk, and intercultural music are needed as conventional approaches may be inadequate in deciphering the soundscape and elements of music and musical instruments communicated through the oral and aural traditions. Delineating the transformative role of music in interdisciplinary and translational music-science research offer new challenges in the analysis of practice-based studies where its resultant creativities, discourse and publication form the destination of the research journey. To round-up, the key processes along the research path illustrated in the methodological model are summarized as follows.  The application of design thinking strategies and principles associated with constructive alignment applied to research inform the performance- composition research-practice.  A hallmark of practice-based research, the portfolio of artistic outputs is concurrently planned with its development being influenced by the ensuing research processes.  The objectives and research questions are initially developed and revisited as the research-practice takes form. On completion of the study, the research questions are answered, thereby achieving the objectives of the study.  The review of literature is conducted and documented. Artistic decisions are informed through a survey of historical, socio-cultural, musicological, and epistemological developments in relation to past and contemporary practice associated with the intended portfolio of creative works.  The creativities are informed by the gaps of knowledge identified by the literature review, enabling the construct of the problem statement and significance of the research product.  The methodology incorporates primary and secondary sources related to the compositional or performative features of the creative works and its discourse.  The musical elements should include a study of the genre, form, instrumentation, structure, melody, harmony, time, tempo, expressivity, and style associated with the creative output. The nature of its analysis and analytical framework would depend on the sampling frame and its documentation in addition to whether compositional or performative elements are to be primarily evaluated. 122 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (109-125) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331  Semiotic representations are explored as with creative, interpretative, and performative technicalities, engaging with the abundance of secondary data as points of reference that serve to inform and inspire practice.  The interpolation of primary data may be acquired from both qualitative and quantitative means identified through the sampling frame to enable multi- dimensional interpretations of and about the practice using ethical procedures and protocol.  Multi-methods of data analysis will provide resources for rich documentation of the exegesis or thesis, thereby enabling valuable insights into the creation, realisation, and critical reflection of the creative works towards its intended journal publication. The processes elucidated are by no means static but shaped and reshaped as the practice evolves. The model may also be adapted for use in other fields of creative arts practice including the curation of artistic programmes such as the example provided in the first case study. The interpolation of design thinking strategies and the constructive alignment of objectives, research questions, literature review, methodology and outcome-based creativities apply. Such research-focused approaches in organizing, realising, and writing about arts-based activities empower arts-based practitioners through the engagement of practice-centred research. A dynamic and culturally rich mindset will germinate novel and insightful artistry in the development of a creative arts practitioner-researcher Conclusion At the heart of practice-based research is its innovation. It represents both the beginning (purpose) and endpoint (product) of the investigation. A discourse concerning the crafting of a work of art would both complement the creative process and enhance understanding of its praxis. The development of a distinctive methodological model that is specific to the medium in which the practice takes place is critical in practice-based research. Essentially, the model presented in this article advocates a non-linear, trajectory approach to the mapping of ideas, a holistic engagement of musical literature and practice, and a dynamic approach to data collection that enables multi-dimensional interpolations of data representations followed by mixed methods in data analysis, interpretation, and reporting. Key points that frame the methodological design include the engagement of rich data resources that feed into the research-informed practice which is co- represented by the creative output and its accompanying reflection. Public accessibility to the artefacts of practice-based research adds value to the enquiry. As institutions of higher learning continue to compete feverishly to raise their profile in World University Rankings, academics from the performing arts fraternity are not spared and find themselves seeking innovative ways to publish their practice. Researching practice in the performing arts is fraught with controversies and complexities. There are those who continue to resist the call to publish academic papers with the argument that the composition per se or the act of performance itself Valerie Ross 123 is research. Therefore, practice-based research offers a complementary solution to this dilemma. In conclusion, as musicians seek new ways of expression, innovation and technology-influenced creativities become hallmarks of research in artistic practice. The honing of skills is matched by criticality in writing about and within one’s own practice and that of others. Mastery, imagination, collaborative practice, synergy and artistry, unconditionally spur inspiration, originality, and fame. Acknowledgement The author wishes to thank Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, the organisers of the 4th International Music and Performing Arts Conference, 14-16 December 2022, for its invitation to deliver this keynote paper. The author would also like to thank Universiti Teknologi MARA (re: 600-RMC / Lestari SDG-T5/3 grant) for its support. References Amir, A. (2019). Translational research in music and medicine. International Conference on Musical Intersections in Practice, Keynote, 25-26 October 2019, Churchill College, University of Cambridge, http://cimacc.org/keynote/ Armstrong, K. (2010). Sustaining the sustainable? Developing a practice and problem-led new media praxis, In Hazel Smith & Roger Dean, Practice-led Research, Research- led Practice in the Creative Arts (Eds.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 187-199. Barrett, E. & Bolt, B. (Eds.) (2019). Practice as research: Approaches to creative arts enquiry. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. Beins, B. (2018). Research methods: A tool for life (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108557191 Bespoke Music & Narration for Health and Wellness. (2022). Soundbank Collection https://www.bespokemusicnarration.com/ Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education 32, 347–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00138871 Blumer, H. (1986). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method. University of California Press. Burnard, P., Ross, V., Hassler, L., & Murphy, L. (2018). Translating intercultural creativities in community music, In Brydie-Leigh Bartleet and Lee Higgins (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Community Music, Oxford University Press, 229-242. Candy, L. & Edmonds, E. (2018). Practice-based research in the creative arts, Leonardo, 51(1), 63-69. Christensen, C., Ojomo, E. & Dillon, K. (2019). The prosperity paradox: How innovation can lift nations out of poverty. HarperBusiness. Centre for Intercultural Musicology at Churchill College (CIMACC) (2022). University of Cambridge. http://cimacc.org/ Collins, N., & D’Escrivan, J. (Eds.). (2017). The Cambridge companion to electronic music (2 ed.) (Cambridge Companions to Music). Cambridge University Press. Cooban, A. (2022, September 20) Queen Elizabeth’s funeral draws 26 million viewers in the UK, CNN Business, https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/20/media/queens-funeral-tv- viewing-figures/index.html Draper, P. & Harrison, S. (2011). Through the eye of a needle: The emergence of a 124 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1 (109-125) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 practice-led research doctorate in music. British Journal of Music Education. 28(01), 87-102. Freeman, J. (2010) Blood, sweat & theory: Research through practice in performance. Libri Publishing. Griffith, A. (2021). Embodied creativity in the fine and performing arts. Journal of Creativity. 32(1),100010. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2713374521000108. Hultman, K. & Taguchi, L. (2010). Challenging anthropocentric analysis of visual data: A relational materialist methodological approach to educational research. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. 23(5), 525-542. Jackson, A. & Mazzei L. (2012). Thinking with theory in qualitative research: Viewing data across multiple perspectives. Routledge. Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 112-133. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689806298224 Koegeler-Abdi, M. and Parncutt, R. (Eds.). (2013). Practice meets research. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Leavy, P. (2017). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, arts-based, and community-based participatory research approaches. Guildford Publications. Litts, B. K., Tehee, M., Jenkins, J., & Baggaley, S. (2020). Culturally disruptive research: A critical (re)engagement with research processes and teaching practices, Information and Learning Sciences, 121(9/10), 769-784. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-02-2020- 0019. Nelson, R. (2013). Practice as research in the arts: Principles, protocol, pedagogies, resistances. Palgrave Macmillan. Petzold, N., Landinez, L. & Baaken, T. (2019). Disruptive innovation from a process view: A systematic literature review, Creative Innovative Management, 28, 157-174. Programme Standards: Performing Arts (2014). Malaysian Qualifications Agency. https://www2.mqa.gov.my/qad/v2/types3new.cfm. Richwine, L. (2022). Queen Elizabeth’s funeral watched by 11.4 million viewers in the U.S. Reuters.https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/queen-elizabeths-funeral-watched-by- 114-million-people-us-nielsen-2022-09-21/ Ross, V. (2016). ‘Framing intercultural composition research’, In Routledge International Handbook of Intercultural Arts Research, (Eds.) Pamela Burnard, Elizabeth Mackinlay & Kimberly Powell. Routledge, 431-443. Ross, V. & Amir, A. (2019). ‘Bespoke music and narration: An innovative approach to cardiac rehabilitation- Road to Recovery, Melaka International Intellectual Exposition, Gold Award. In e-Monograph ‘Humanising Technology: Enable the Disabled’, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 25-27. Ross, V. & Amir, A.(2021a). Translational practice-based methodological model for health and wellness in COVID-19 Times, South Asian Journal of Social Science and Humanities, 2(6), 114-124. Ross, V. & Amir, A. (2021b). COVID-19 Pandemic: Innovative digital tool using progressive muscle relaxation to promote mental health among frontline healthcare workers, Annals of Emerging Technologies in Computing, 5(5), 114-119. Ross, V. & Amir, A. (2022). ‘Bespoke music and poetic imagery for health and wellness: Nature Minds’, Cambridge Festival, 31 March 2022, http://cimacc.org/ Rubio, D. M., Schoenbaum, E. E., Lee, L. S., Schteingart, D. E., Marantz, P. R., Anderson, E., Platt, L. D., Baez, A., & Esposito, K. (2010). Defining translational research: Valerie Ross 125 Implications for training. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 85(3), 470–475. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181ccd618 Smith, H. & Dean, R. (Eds.). (2011). Practice-led research, Research-led practice in the creative arts. Edinburgh University Press. Spady, W. (1994). Outcome-based education: Critical issues and answers. American Association of School Administrators. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED380910.pdf Biography Valerie Ross, PhD, MEd, BMus (Hons), DRSAMD, is a distinguished composer and researcher whose works have been featured in major cities in Europe and the Asia-Pacific. She has received fellowships and awards from the Rockefeller Foundation, Japan Foundation, Commonwealth Foundation, Darmstadt International Institute for New Music, Germany and Institute of Musical Research, University of London. Valerie was presented to Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II in London House, UK on occasion of the 40th Anniversary of HM as Head of the Commonwealth when her composition, ‘Tathagata’ was premiered. She has also served on the Board of Accreditation, Malaysian Qualifications Agency. Valerie specializes in interdisciplinary practice-based research in the fields of composition, creative arts, and translational music-medicine/health research. Professor Ross is the Director of the Centre for Intercultural Musicology at Churchill College, University of Cambridge and a faculty member of the College of Creative Arts, Universiti Teknologi MARA.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

formal and informal learning, online music resources, music education, notation and ear, popular music

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7366

An Evolutionary Narrative of Popular Music Learning Cultures:

For a very long time, popular music learning cultures had been characterised as informal and aural traditions. However, literature on the ways popular musicians learnt have documented increasing instances of popular musicians engaging with formal and non-aural modes of learning as time went by. Using the United Kingdom (UK) as a case study, the aim of this article is to establish an evolutionary narrative of how popular musicians learn. It begins with a chronological review of literature that examined the learning experiences of popular musicians between the 1970s and 2010s, and then discusses some observations regarding provisions of higher popular music education. In doing so, it revealed how the formalisation of popular music learning and technological advancements propelled the processes of becoming popular musicians in the UK to expand beyond features of informal learning and playing by ear. It argues that popular music learning cultures today comprise diverse combinations of formal and informal learning modes, notation- and ear-based practices, and resources made available by technological advancements, and thus, the informal and aural narrative pinned onto popular music learning cultures needs to be re-examined. Finally, it hopes to encourage discourses surrounding the learning of popular music to evolve beyond the issues of informal and aural-based learning and allocate more attention towards other means of learning in popular music.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7366/4271

126 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 An Evolutionary Narrative of Popular Music Learning Cultures: A Case Study of the United Kingdom Hueyuen Choong Institute of Music, UCSI University 56000 Cheras, Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 31 December 2022 Cite this article (APA): Choong, H. (2022). An evolutionary narrative of popular music learning cultures: A case study of the United Kingdom. Malaysian Journal of Music, 11(1), 126–144. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vo11.1.8.2022 Abstract For a very long time, popular music learning cultures had been characterised as informal and aural traditions. However, literature on the ways popular musicians learnt have documented increasing instances of popular musicians engaging with formal and non-aural modes of learning as time went by. Using the United Kingdom (UK) as a case study, the aim of this article is to establish an evolutionary narrative of how popular musicians learn. It begins with a chronological review of literature that examined the learning experiences of popular musicians between the 1970s and 2010s, and then discusses some observations regarding provisions of higher popular music education. In doing so, it revealed how the formalisation of popular music learning and technological advancements propelled the processes of becoming popular musicians in the UK to expand beyond features of informal learning and playing by ear. It argues that popular music learning cultures today comprise diverse combinations of formal and informal learning modes, notation- and ear-based practices, and resources made available by technological advancements, and thus, the informal and aural narrative pinned onto popular music learning cultures needs to be re-examined. Finally, it hopes to encourage discourses surrounding the learning of popular music to evolve beyond the issues of informal and aural-based learning and allocate more attention towards other means of learning in popular music. Keywords: formal and informal learning, online music resources, music education, notation and ear, popular music Introduction Much of the literature on rock music has concentrated upon lyrics, youth culture, rock stardom, or the record industry, focusing upon the ideological and theoretical issues involved with rock as mass culture. … Two other important features have been omitted [sic]: the grass Hueyuen Choong 127 roots of the industry … and the actual process of music-making by rock bands. (Cohen, 1991, p. 6) Cohen, in her book published in 1991, captured certain realities of scholarly examinations on popular music before the 1990s; there was an “absence of musicological and ethnomusicological data on Western popular music” (p. 7) which exposed the processes and practices of becoming popular musicians. However, she noted three exceptions: the works of H. S. Bennett (1980), Finnegan (1989) and White (1983). There had since been further such works, including Cohen’s (1991) own book, Green (2002), Robinson (2010), G. D. Smith (2013), Mok (2014), Bruford (2019), and Choong (2021) to name a few. However, such works were often sporadic and isolated examinations that characterised the journeys of selected popular musicians in certain periods of time. These works are informative of how some popular musicians learnt their crafts but lacking from literature was examinations of how these works could contribute to the understandings of popular music learning cultures, specifically of how popular musicians’ learning experiences evolved with the changing world1, and thus, how the ways of becoming popular musicians changed. Categories of popular music are particularly messy because they are rooted in vernacular discourse, in diverse social groups, because they depend greatly on oral transmission, ... yet another factor is that some of the main sites of popular culture are still “the street” and other social spaces where many value their relative independence from or even resistance to social authorities, educational institutions, and the music business. (Holt, 2007, pp. 14-15) In the above quote, Holt credited the challenges in categorizing the varieties of popular music to their informal and aural nature as well as their resistances to institutions. This notion that popular music is an aural tradition that primarily operates in the informal realm has generally remained unchallenged, and numerous studies had further reinforced this perception. As of 4 March 2022, a Google Scholar search with the keywords “‘popular music’ and ‘informal learning’” returned 3,860 results2. Furthermore, Google Scholar also indicated, on the same date, that the book How popular musicians learn by Green (2002) which, among other things, sought to uncover the informal practices of popular musicians, and claimed in the very first sentence that “popular musicians acquire some or all of their skills and knowledge informally”, had been cited 2,566 times. It is only fair to assume that some literature did not intend to portray popular music as purely informal and aural, but rather just limited the scope of their work to the ear-based practices engaged with during informal contexts of popular music-making. Nevertheless, the fact that so many works focused on the informal aspects of learning in popular music promotes the impression that “informal” is a defining trait of popular music. However, it will be demonstrated in the following sections, through an examination of literature on the subject matter in one specific region (the UK), that popular music learning, at least in the UK, can no longer be described as an aural tradition that predominantly operate in the informal realm, and that a general 128 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 evolutionary narrative can be achieved. The examination, which proceeds the clarifications of the terms “formal”, “informal” and “popular music”, consists of two parts: A chronological review of literature that investigates the ways popular musicians accumulated experiences, knowledge and skills that contributed to their developments, and an observation of Higher Popular Music Education (HPME) provisions in the UK. Terminology Formal and Informal Learning Folkestad (2006) identified four common approaches to defining formal and informal learning, each centering on specific aspects of learning: “Situation”, “learning style”, “ownership” and “intentionality”. “Situation” refers to the physical context in which the learning took place, whether inside or outside institutional settings, “learning style” characterizes the learning process, whether by written notation or by ear, “ownership” revolves around the question of “didactic teaching” and “self-regulated learning”, while “intentionality” denotes the intention to learn how to play or to play (pp. 141-142). Though it may seem that Folkestad positioned “formal” and “informal” as opposites, he clarified that such observations were “far too simplistic” (p. 142) and asserted that “formal – informal should not be regarded as a dichotomy, but rather as the two poles of a continuum; in most learning situations, both these aspects of learning are in various degrees present and interacting” (p. 135). Similar proclamations were also made by Green (2002) and G. D. Smith (2013). This article acknowledges and agrees with Folkestad (2006), Green (2002), and G. D. Smith (2013), but clear distinctions between “formal” and ‘informal” are needed to facilitate discussions. Thus, with additional reference to Green’s descriptions, this article draws from Folkestad’s “situation”, “ownership”, and “intentionality” approaches to outline the definitions of “formal” and “informal”. “Formal” in this article describes contexts in which learning takes place in institutional settings, in the presence of a teacher, that uses a defined pedagogy, while “informal” describes contexts in which learning takes place outside of institutional settings, is self-directed, and “holistic” (Folkestad, 2006, p. 137) or “haphazard” (Green, 2002, p. 207). As formal music learning typically encompasses the use of music notation (G. D. Smith, 2013) and playing by ear frequently deemed a quintessential feature of informal music learning (Green, 2002; Robinson, 2013), it often results in delineations that observed learning from notation as a “formal” practice and learning by ear as an “informal” practice. An approach termed “learning style” by Folkestad (2006) and observed in the works of Green (2002) and Robinson (2010). However, the “formal” and “informal” terms used in this article do not indicate the ear or notational practices engaged with during those contexts, these are instead characterised under broad umbrella terms: “ear-based” or “notation-based” practices3. “Ear-based” practices denotes practices that engage the use of the ears without any forms of music notation. “Notation-based” practices on the other hand, Hueyuen Choong 129 denotes practices that involve translating notational representations of music. This article observes learning contexts (formal/informal) and learning practices (notation- based/ear-based) as distinct from each other, for as discussed above (and will be demonstrated below), it was possible for notation- and ear-based practices to occur in both formal and informal learning contexts. Popular Music The term “popular music” generally had been used to describe music, that among many other things, “[required] no prior training to appreciate”, was “shared by entire communities” (H. S. Bennett, 1980, p. 3), and/or was “conceived for mass distribution to large and often heterogenous groups of listeners” (Tagg, 1982, p. 41). It was also used to distinguish one music from another (Finnegan, 1989, p. 104). Birrer (1985, as cited in Middleton, 1990, p. 4) argued that many definitions could be placed into four categories: “Normative”, “negative”, “sociological”, and “technologico-economic”. Definitions could fit solely into one category or combine features of multiple categories, but all definitions were plagued by their own imperfections4 and there had been no unanimous agreement on what popular music meant, for meanings could change, and definitions revised (Jewell, 1980, as cited in Finnegan, 1989). Therefore, it had been used to describe vastly contrasting forms of music that sometimes could include “jazz, ragtime, blues, rhythm and blues, country, rock (and rock ‘n’ roll and rockabilly), pub rock, punk rock, acid rock, heavy metal, bubblegum, and reggae” (Shuker, 2001, p. 6). This article acknowledges that using the term “popular music” is problematic as “it is part of a living language, not a strictly technical term” (Jones & Rahn, 1977, p. 81), but a workable definition is necessary for the examination to move forward. Thus, this study adopted Green’s (2002) descriptions of “popular music”, in which “popular music” refers to “Anglo-American guitar-based pop and rock music” that include “anything from blues to charts pop, music for advertising, country, soul, progressive rock, punk, jazz, pantomime music and many other styles and substyles” (pp. 9-10). This is to distinguish musicians who either sang or played Anglo-American popular/rock music on more traditional musical instruments such as the guitar, bass, piano/keyboards, and drums, from those “involved in purely or largely synthesized/sampled fields of production” (p. 10). DJ decks and other devices such as the Novation Launchpad can and have been configured to be used as musical instruments, but musicians who use such devices as their primary instruments acquire some of their musical skills and knowledge in ways that are different from those that this article intends to examine. Therefore, the boundaries of “popular music” in this article should reflect this distinction. It should be noted that what this article terms “popular” is sometimes referred to as “rock” in the literature reviewed hereafter. While there are inclinations by some scholars and musicians alike to contrast and polarise the terms “popular” and “rock” based on the ideologies of authenticity (Shuker, 2016, p. 99) and identity (Finnegan, 1989), the delineations between “rock” and “popular” are oftentimes ambiguous and the terms used interchangeably, and the literature examined were no exception: 130 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Whereas the sample could reasonably be described as “rock musicians”, I have referred to them throughout by the more general and inclusive term “popular musicians”, except where the context demands more specificity. (Green, 2002, p. 10) These bands all fell broadly within the “rock” and “pop” area, but it became clear both that the boundaries were not clear cut and that wider generalizations were of little interest to the practitioners. (Finnegan, 1989, p. 105) Other examples include White’s (1983) work where “popular musician” in one sentence was immediately followed by “rock musician” in the next (p. 107), and Cohen’s (1991) clarification that the term “rock” includes “a variety of music labelled in many ways, such as ‘alternative’ or ‘pop’” (p. 4). Additionally, Cohen used both terms together in her book title: Rock Culture in Liverpool: Popular Music in the Making. Methods and Materials The literature analysed are those that provided insights into the learning experiences of UK-based popular musicians between the 1970s to 2010s. Though reviews of literature that captured the learning experiences of a more restricted locality or a more narrowly defined social/cultural group at various points in time would result in more valid comparisons, this article could only limit the scope more broadly to the UK in general as longitudinal studies on more defined geography or demography are lacking. Through a chronological review, it will be revealed in the following paragraphs that subsequent studies into the learning experiences of popular musicians captured data that exposed changes which occurred over the years and illustrated how the learning journeys of popular musicians evolved as the world experienced various developments. The literature is divided into three periods: 1970s-1980s, 1990s and 2000s- 2010s. The 1970s-1980s includes the works of White (1983), Finnegan (1989) and Cohen (1991), the 1990s encompasses the work of Green (2002), and the 2000s- 2010s comprises the works of Robinson (2010) and G. D. Smith (2013). The reason for such divisions is that the 1990s, as will be demonstrated hereafter, is arguably a pivotal decade in popular music learning in the UK. The rationale for sampling literature from the 1970s onwards, which Cohen (1991) expressed adequately and noted earlier in this article, was the scarcity of literature on the subject in the 20th century. Thus, the literature selected, in addition to Cohen’s work, were those identified by Cohen: White (1983) and Finnegan (1989)5. Scholarly interests in popular music had grown exponentially since Cohen conducted her study, but texts revolving around the learning practices of popular musicians in the UK only comprised the works of Green (2002), Robinson (2010), and G. D. Smith (2013). Green produced arguably one of the most important texts on the subject which influenced Robinson’s investigative approach into exploring Hueyuen Choong 131 How Popular Musicians Teach, a title adapted from Green’s book. She also played an important role in G. D. Smith’s thesis which was converted into a book titled I Drum, Therefore I Am. There are other literatures such as the works of Cohen and Baker (2007), S. Smith (2013) and Thompson (2012) that examined the music-making practices of other popular musicians in the UK, and they gave deserved attention to “popular electronic music-making” and examined the learning strategies of “DJs, turntablists, dance and Hip-hop producers in their own right” (Thompson, 2012, p. 2). However, their studies fall outside the scope of “popular music” in this article. The examination first characterises the 1970s-1980s, 1990s, and 2000s- 2010s periods respectively, then discusses the changes that occurred. This is followed by a review of literatures examining higher popular music education (HPME)6. Any understandings of popular musicians’ learning practices in the 21st century must consider the role of higher popular music education (HPME) in the narrative. As mentioned above, and will be demonstrated below, the 1990s was a significant decade within the context of popular music learning in the UK as this was when institutions began inducting popular music into mainstream education. This induction was not limited to just primary and secondary school education, but also at a tertiary level. The literatures reviewed hereafter examined broad rages of aspects pertinent to understanding the journeys of becoming popular musicians, but this review only focuses on learning contexts (formal/informal) as well as the learning practices (notation-based/ear-based) engaged in. Findings 1970s-1980s Informal Contexts. White’s (1983) research, conducted during the late 1970s, explored the musical and non-musical conventions and constrains in the operations of a jazz and rock band in the UK. Though not explicitly stated, the general sense from descriptions is that members of the rock band primarily engaged with ear-based practices to accomplish their musical tasks such as learning to play the song, rehearsals, playing at gigs, and recordings: No system of notation was used in the recording studio project. (p. 195) In the actual case of learning to play the required music in the band's repertoire several techniques were employed. The most usual was sheer repetition. (p. 198) …a taperecording [sic] would be made of the material to be learned and members of the group would work individually on their own parts from a copy of the original recording. (p. 198) The learning situation occurs most successfully in the ensemble playing situation. (p. 199) 132 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 In Finnegan’s (1989) book of the varying musical activities, practices, cultures, and learning systems in Milton Keyes during the 1980s, it was reported that most rock, jazz, folk, and country musicians identified as being completely self- taught, and “reliance on notated music was uncommon” among them (p. 139). They developed skills and knowledge through attempts to emulate sounds heard in recorded music, and after acquiring abilities to play some basic chords or rhythms, they continued developing additional skills in group music-making contexts. In Cohen’s (1991) book on the music-making practices of two rock bands in 1980s Liverpool, it was reported that “none of the Jactars had any musical training and none could read music” (p. 138), and the processes of music-making were all done by ear as a collective involving high levels of “repetition and experimentation” (p. 141). Though not explicitly indicated, it was implied that all but one of Crikey it’s the Comptons! members did not have music training as none could “read music” (p. 160). They had a “different style of rehearsal and composition” (p. 155) to that of the Jactars, but their group music-making processes were similarly centred around their ears. Formal Contexts. In all three works, there were mentions of lessons and using some forms of notational systems. Though most musicians in Finnegan’s (1989) study were entirely “self-taught” and engaged in ear-based practices, some reported being “mainly self-taught supplemented or initiated by some private lessons” (p. 137), as well as “initial use of chord charts as a basis for further development, often discarded later, or written or printed lyric sheets” (p. 139). One bassist in Cohen’s (1991) study had piano lessons when he was younger, another taught himself to play the guitar and bass with books, and another used his own personalized notational system. All members of the rock band in White’s (1983) thesis had some music tuition, and though they primarily operated without notation in most of their music-making activities, lyric sheets and chord charts were occasionally used as temporary memory aids during rehearsals and gigs. One observation that should be pointed out is the attitudes toward lessons, notation, and technique. It was unclear if the music tuition these musicians engaged with were popular or classical in nature, but regardless, there was a “combination of prejudices and mysticism” towards “tuition and development of musical skills in a strictly educational environment” (White, 1983, p. 197). In cases where musicians began with classical music, they “sometimes explicitly [reject] their classical experience”, while other times “[made] use of it while aware of the contrasts involved” (Finnegan, 1989, p. 141). The musicians themselves saw the “classical mode” of instrumental learning, which was based on a “framework of acquiring measurable musical literacy”, to be contradicting to their conventions of music- making, which “did not demand written musical theory or notation but the acquisition of performance skills which could be effectively learnt by ear and on the job” (Finnegan, 1989, pp. 133-34, 139). Furthermore, while the “value” of institutionalized music skill learning “was seen for what it was”, the rock band members of White’s (1983) study felt strongly against “excessive technique” and opined that while it was suitable for “certain kinds of music”, it was unsuitable for “developing an overall feel for less specialist types of music” (p. 197). Similar sentiments were found in Cohen’s (1991) Hueyuen Choong 133 study. The Jactars highlighted their “musical incompetence” and contrasted bands like themselves to those that were “particularly concerned with musical techniques and skills” (p. 139). One member even took pride in their “lack of musical ability” (p. 140). For Crikey, “musical incompetence was an integral part of their style as a band”, and of the members that readily admitted to being “musically incompetent”, at least one had no interest in “learning musical notation or terminology” (p. 158). There was one musician who believed instrumental instructions were beneficial and was keen to take lessons, but such sentiments are unusual. It is more common for popular musicians to have “an aversion to show or acknowledge that [they] actually know musical theory. It is part of ‘rock mythology’ and ‘authenticity’ that [they] should not have musical schooling, but come ‘directly from the street’ and spontaneously play [their hearts] out” (Lilliestam, 1996, p. 201). 1990s It was briefly mentioned earlier that the 1990s is a pivotal period in the UK in terms of popular music learning, and reasons for this are succinctly explained by Green’s (2002) account of formal music education changes that occurred in the UK, as well as discussions of how those changes influenced popular musicians’ learning experiences. Popular Music’s Induction into Formal Music Education. In her book, Green (2002) discussed how classroom music lessons went from “traditional music education” (p. 135) where there was a “hegemonic position of classical music, history, and singing in the classroom” (p. 156), to the “new music education” that saw a “vast increase in the diversity of the curriculum content…[occur] during the 1990s” (p. 151), which included the induction of popular music. The journey that “crumbled” (p. 156) classical music’s hegemonic position in the classroom began in the 1980s with the demand for the broader study of music from various quarters, of which Graham Vulliamy is one of many that deserves special mention as his work laid the groundwork for the radical changes that took place. The introduction of the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) in 1986 also had “a major effect on music education in England and Wales” (Green, 2002, p. 155), as the syllabus comprised the study of a variety of non-classical music (including popular music). Five years after implementation, the GCSE heavily informed the syllabus that the Music Working Party proposed for the Music National Curriculum (MNC). The induction of popular music into formal music education through the MNC in the 1990s was also accompanied by the emergence of popular music examination boards such as Trinity Guildhall (now Trinity College London) and Rockschool (G. D. Smith, 2013), as well as a proliferation of higher popular music education (HPME) provisions (discussed later). Thus, making the 1990s an important period in the evolutionary narrative of popular music learning in the UK as the formalisation of popular music led to alternative (to informal and aural) modes of learning in popular music. Formal Contexts: “Traditional” vs “New” Music Education. The impact of popular music’s entrance into formal education on the learning experiences of 134 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 popular musicians was captured by Green’s (2002) contrast of 14 popular musicians. The nine older musicians experienced their secondary school years between 1960 to 1990 (traditional music education) and the five younger musicians from 1990 onwards (new music education). Classroom Music Lessons. The nine older musicians who experienced traditional classroom music lessons, which promoted the study of classical music, found lessons to be “alienating and difficult to relate to” (Green, 2002, p. 142). Though there were inclusions of popular music, they were done in ways that “rendered it implicitly inferior” (p. 142). Nevertheless, the school played a major role in their developments 7; many formed their first bands with schoolmates, rehearsed in school spaces with school’s instrument, and were offered performance opportunities within the school. However, all these took place outside classrooms, were largely unsupervised and without support from the music departments. Their teachers were unaware of, or disinterested in, their passion for music, and the school generally ignored the popular music skills and knowledge they were developing on their own. For these musicians, while the school environment was essential, their classroom music learning experiences did not contribute to their journeys of becoming popular musicians. The five younger musicians experienced the “new music education”, where teaching strategies had undergone radical changes, that placed more emphasis on “classroom performance and composition, integrated with listening” (Green, 2002, p. 159), and included a variety of musical styles including “popular and world musics” (p. 160). Nearly all opted for the GCSE, where they experienced lessons that were in line with the descriptions of the “new music education”. Thus, they viewed the GCSE Music course positively. Outside of classroom music lessons, they received more support, recognition, and encouragement to produce popular music within the school environment. Furthermore, some were even provided with instrumental lessons to help with GCSE Music courses and were part of school- sanctioned musical groups such as the orchestra, classical music ensembles and jazz bands. Therefore, not only did they have more positive attitudes toward formal music education, they also did not find it to be significantly contradictory to their developments as popular musicians but found it beneficial instead. Instrumental Lessons. All but one musician had experiences with either classical or popular music instrumental lessons, or both. Of the nine musicians (five older and four younger) who had classical instrumental lessons (CIL), most abandoned them after four lessons, finding them “boring, the progress slow and the music difficult to relate to” (Green, 2002, p. 148). The sentiments expressed by these musicians toward CIL, akin to those expressed in 1970s-1980s literature, were negative. Thus, signifying that despite the passage of time, CIL was likewise unpopular among popular musicians in the 1990s. A different group of nine musicians (also five older and four younger), experienced popular music instrumental lessons (PMIL), and though PMIL was described more positively, six ended lessons within a year, while the remaining three persisted with lessons for 3-4 years. The older musicians’ engagements with PMIL were akin to their engagements with CIL, lessons did not last long and/or were sporadic. Contrarily, of the four younger musicians who had PMIL, three had Hueyuen Choong 135 extended periods of engagements. It was noted by Green (2002) that the three who had sustained engagements with PMIL received those lessons from peripatetic teachers at their schools, and that this was “a situation which could not have occurred…before the mid-1970s and was still rare in the mid-1980s” (p. 152). Be that as it may, Green’s findings suggested extensive engagements with PMIL may not solely be due to increased accessibility, but may also be a result of positive experiences with the “new music education”. All three who had extended periods of PMIL opined that they benefitted from them and described lessons favourably. Notation. It was not explicitly stated, but Green’s (2002) interview quotes and paragraphs on PMIL implied that of the nine musicians, at least six (two older and four younger) were taught to read and play from notation, and at least one had lessons where notation reading was central. Furthermore, most younger musicians had not only learnt “notational skills” from formal music education, but also acquired “analytical skills” (p. 163). Informal Contexts. Green (2002) also paid attention to the informal learning histories of the musicians, whose developmental stages took place between the 1960s to 1990s. Young popular musicians were able to make connections between many of the skills and knowledge they were acquiring through formal and informal means. In spite of this, from all the evidence so far, their informal learning practices continued unabated. (p. 176) Green’s (2002) findings indicated that, regardless of time period, copying recordings by ear and peer-directed and group learning are central practices to popular musicians. Copying recordings by ear was “solitary and [involved] purposive and attentive listening linked to the close copying of recordings, as well as more distracted listening leading to loose imitation and improvisatory adaptation” (p. 96), while peer-directed and group learning “[involved] learning from each other in pairs and groups, through casual encounters and organized sessions, both aside from and during music-making” (p. 97). In addition to these central practices, some musicians supplemented their learning with notation and/or technical books. While some acquired notation knowledge from prior formal classical music lessons, there were instances of notation being self-taught. 2000s-2010s Green’s (2002) book revealed, due to the induction of popular music into formal education, there were increased engagements, and improved experiences with, formal popular music learning (FPML) since 1990, but informal learning and ear- based practices remained dominant features of learning in popular music. However, as demonstrated below, through the works of Robinson (2010) and G. D. Smith (2013), the dominance of the informal and aural may be losing their steadfast positions in popular music learning. Engagements with Formal and Informal Contexts. G. D. Smith (2013) conducted a study with 127 drummers with the aim to “investigate drummers’ 136 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 identities, what drummers do and how drummers learn to do what they do” (p. 2). The drummers were categorized into teenage (aged 13-19) and adult (above 30 years old) drummers. As the teenage drummers were between the ages of 13 to 19 at the point of data collection (2008-2009), their learning experiences took place in the 2000s-2010s either primarily or entirely. Among the 72 teenage drummers, 12 reported being entirely “self-taught”8, 24 professed having only learnt from lessons, and 36 indicated that they learnt from being self-taught and from lessons. These figures could be translated to 83.3% (n=60) of teenage drummers had FPML experiences. Given the educational developments in the 1990s, such figures were expected. What was fascinating though is that the number of popular musicians learning entirely in the informal realm (16.7%, n=12) during the 2000s-2010s had been eclipsed by those with only FPML experiences (33.3%, n=24). The 24 drummers represent a segment of popular musicians whose learning histories are in stark contrast from those that came before them and imply a shift in how popular musicians were becoming who they are. This shift is observable within G. D. Smith’s own sample through a comparison between the teenage and adult drummers. 10.7% of adult drummers reported having had lessons only, and another 53.6% had both formal and informal learning experiences. In total, 64.3% of adult drummers had experienced FPML. Thus, G. D. Smith’s findings exhibited that the teenage drummers had more engagements with FPML, whether solely (33.3% vs 10.7%) or overall (83.3% vs 64.3%). Formal Contexts. G. D. Smith’s (2013) inquisition of drummers’ experiences with lessons revealed they were generally taught in “‘semi-formal’, hybridized” (p. 38) ways from teachers. Lessons comprised “a mixture of formal and informal practices” that took place “in a school setting with a designated teacher” but did not work towards “qualifications or credits” and included “playing along to recordings” (p. 39). On the other hand, there were also lessons that had “more formal [approaches] to learning” as exemplified by one drummer’s (Ella) experience: I have a book that we work through and if I want to do my grades I would do them, ... so he goes through the book and we play some pieces ... It’s generally just book stuff. (p. 39) For those learning in tertiary institutions, they experienced learning sight-reading, theory, rhythm studies, and techniques in different classes. Furthermore, all materials were taught from books and sheet music, and there was an emphasis on observing music analytically. Robinson’s (2010) thesis examined the ways eight popular musicians taught others to play within formal contexts, and the findings revealed details about the PMIL that their students experienced in the 2000s9. Though Robinson’s musicians incorporated informal learning features that accentuated the importance of ear-based practices, their methods and philosophies generally resembled CIL which included “studying music theory, acquiring ʻcorrectʼ technique, and taking grade exams” (p. 139). Students were registered for graded exams if available, the emphasis on Hueyuen Choong 137 understanding chords and scales were part of regular lessons, and some insisted that technique be the first thing students learn. The study of, and emphasis on learning from, notation was common, but to varying degrees. Some taught notations from the beginning, some did not teach it at all, while others used standard and/or other forms of notation in various ways and degrees. These descriptions offer glimpses into what enthusiast of popular music might experience when engaged with PMIL in the 2000s, which did not diverge much from Green’s (2002) participants’ experiences in the 1990s. All in all, the learning that took place in PMIL were varied and situated at various points of Folkestad’s (2006) formal-informal continuum. However, there seem to be a consensus that though PMIL incorporated features of informal learning and ear-based practices, it is still dominated by features of formal learning and generally comprised, and at times even emphasized, learning music from notation rather than by ear. Whether learners enjoyed lessons or not, or if it contributed to their developments was beyond the scope of Robinson’s (2010) study, but an analysis of G. D. Smith’s (2013) findings revealed adult drummers generally rejected lessons in favour of learning by ear for they felt uninspired after a few lessons and/or perceived that being “taught by someone” (p. 42) hindered developments of individual styles. Others chose to be self-taught either because lessons were unavailable, or they felt that they were not needed as it was “relatively easy to learn to play” (p. 43). On the other hand, as can be seen by some interview quotes of teenage drummers’ experiences in higher education, they were more receptive of lessons and generally perceived them as beneficial to their developments: We play in all different classes, erm, sight reading, theory, aural, rhythm studies …. They had Latin percussion, which was really cool so we learnt a lot. … it’s like, really, really stupidly like magnified technique stuff, and, er, which is awesome, no it’s really, really good but it gets pretty full-on, like, … It’s down to a point where you’re like robots. You go over everything in such detail. (p. 40) Informal Contexts. The descriptions of drummers’ “self-directed learning” (G. D. Smith, 2013, p. 41) generally coincided with Green’s (2002) descriptions of informal learning, where “listening to music that they know and like, tackling whole pieces of music, and imitating and learning by ear” (G. D. Smith, 2013, p. 43) were central, along with a range of peer or group learning activities. For those that had lessons, they also mentioned “subsequent or concurrent self-directed study using books” (p. 43). The descriptions of “self-directed learning” may not be entirely applicable to the segment of musicians who only had FPML experiences. G. D. Smith (2013) did not address the practices of these drummers outside of lessons, but the findings of Choong (2021)10 provided some insights. Choong found that popular musicians who only had FPML experiences11 had more extensive engagements with notation even outside of lessons and significantly lower engagement levels with peer or group learning activities. Thus, there are grounds to presuppose that the music- 138 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 learning practices these drummers engaged in, outside of lessons, were likely to be done solitarily and dominated by notational practices. In addition to learning by copying recordings, and for some, by reading notation, G. D. Smith’s (2013) sample of drummers reported watching “drumming videos” and drum lessons on YouTube (p. 28), as well as learning from instructional DVDs. However, the most frequently cited means of learning was “film footage of other drummers” (p. 45) as it “[helped] drummers understand what it is to be drummers, beyond how merely to play the instrument” (p. 46). Evolutionary Narrative The Dominance of the Aural and Informal in the 1970s-1980s Era. The writings of popular musicians’ learning practices in 1970s-1980s UK suggests it generally comprised aural traditions that primarily operated in informal realms. Music-making processes were dominated by ear-based practices, from learning music by ear solitarily, to group music-making activities such as rehearsals, recordings, and gigs. Although there were some engagements with notation-based practices, these were only used in the initial stages or as temporary forms of memory aid. Generally, developing into a popular musician is a journey that takes place beyond institutional walls. Though some musicians engaged with formal modes of music learning, many found their experiences to be antithetical to their practices in popular music. Furthermore, some musicians with no musical training took pride in their independence from institutionalized learning. The Formalization of Popular Music in the 1990s. In terms of informal learning, the 1990s did not significantly diverge from the 1970s-1980s. The centrality of learning songs and developing music-making skills and knowledge mainly through ear-based practices, solitarily or in group settings, without expert guidance did not diminish as time passed. Literature of the 1970s-1980s did not provide much detail about the formal music education nor the nature/duration of musical instructions their musicians experienced. However, logic dictates that these musicians had experiences akin to those of the older musicians in Green’s (2002) study, as their accounts were based on events that took place during similar periods. Thus, there are grounds to presume their experiences did not diverge greatly from Green’s nine older musicians, and comparisons between Green’s older and younger musicians’ experiences with formal music education are sufficient to illuminate discrepancies between the 1970s-1980s and the 1990s. The core difference between the 1970s-1980s and the 1990s is the increased engagements with PMIL brought about by changes in formal music education. Thus, popular musicians whose learning experiences occurred after 1990 were more likely than those before to have increased access to PMIL provision, extended engagements with learning popular music within formal contexts, learned popular music from notation, and to perceive formal modes of music learning as beneficial to their developments as popular musicians. However, despite being taught to read notation and employing notational skills in various ways during their learning Hueyuen Choong 139 processes, notation remained secondary in their learning practices, and was always used as a supplement to ear-based practices. Green’s (2002) findings indicated that though many ear-based and informal features of learning popular music continued into the 1990s, formal popular music learning, because of music educational changes in the UK, had made headway into popular musicians learning processes. Unlike the 1970s-1980s, where most were self-taught (Finnegan, 1989), all in the 1990s experienced learning popular music in formal music education, and a majority had extensive engagements with PMIL. Furthermore, unlike earlier musicians who perceived formal music education negatively, some in the 1990s perceived such modes of music learning positively and gave it credit for aiding their developments as popular musicians. The Diversity of Learning Practices in the 2000s-2010s Era. Though formal popular music learning contributed to the developments of popular musicians in the 1990s, developing skills and knowledge informally through ear-centric practices was still central. A majority in the 2000s-2010s era had similar experiences with those in the 1990s, but there was now a growing segment of musicians who only developed within formal contexts. These musicians experienced PMIL that comprised features of formal and informal learning, as well as notation- and ear-based practices, but there were general emphases on learning from notation, observing music analytically and acquiring conventional techniques. As indicated by earlier literature, popular musicians of the past, especially in the 1970s-1980s era, generally were apprehensive towards such modes of learning, but those in the 2000s-2010s era were increasingly receptive towards it. Among those with informal learning experiences, the dominance of ear- based practices in solitary or group learning activities continued unabetted, and notation remained in a supplementary role when used. However, the emergence of popular musicians without informal learning experiences, but instead learnt entirely with a teacher in PMIL that were governed by features of formal learning and dominated by notation-based practices, meant that for some notation played more central roles in their practices12. One area that appears unique to the 2000s-2010s era was engagements with technology induced learning resources such as the internet and instructional videos. While all earlier literature had no mentions of such resources in the learning process, Robinson (2010) postulated that “the use of demonstration videos and subscription websites offer audio-visual models which may be replacing (or at least supplementing) purely audio recordings as ‘texts’ for popular music learners” (pp. 263-264). G. D. Smith’s (2013) sample of drummers who reported extensive use of such resources in their learning experiences, not only confirmed Robinson’s postulation, but also indicated the learning practices of popular musicians had expanded even further. The increased availability and sophistication of the Internet is an important feature in expanding the ways in and extent to which people are able to engage with different modes of learning – drummers can now receive tuition, watch concerts and listen to music all for virtually no cost; drummers of all ages are 140 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 embracing this technology. (p. 52) Music-learning and -making resources have since expanded beyond demonstration videos on YouTube, to include websites, softwares and applications. Though some incur a certain cost, many are widely available for free, such as Chrome Music Lab, Groove Pizza, PlayPerfect, GarageBand, Vanido and Riff Station. Observations of Higher Popular Music Education Following the intellectual momentum and the establishment of the International Association of Popular Music in the 1980s, several institutions in the UK began launching HPME programs in the 1990s, some notable pioneers include University of Liverpool, University of Salford, Leeds University, and University of Westminster (Cloonan and Hulstedt, 2013; Warner, 2017; McLaughlin, 2017). The 2012 mapping exercise by Cloonan and Hulstedt (2013) “examined the extent of Popular Music Studies (PMS) undergraduate programmes in the United Kingdom” (p. 63) and revealed numerous other HPME programs had been introduced from 2001 onwards; at the point of the authors’ research, there were a total of 76 PMS degree programmes provided by 47 institutions. Cloonan and Hulstedt’s (2013) research also revealed that rising tuition fees did not deter applicants from applying to these programmes, indicating resilient interests from enthusiasts of popular music to develop within HPME environments. Therefore, characteristics of HPME programmes matter to the discourse as popular music enthusiasts turned to such modes of learning to facilitate their developments as popular musicians. Literature examining characteristics of HPME revealed that “practices of popular music [were] presented as skills and knowledge to be taught and learned” (Parkinson & Smith, 2015, p. 95), faculty-curated canon of songs was “taught in a formal, transmission-style manner” (p. 108), pitch-based skills were disproportionately emphasized (J. Bennett, 2017), learning “often still [relied] on the master-student model” (Lebler & Hodges, 2017, p. 273), and there was a relatively strong presence of notational elements. In terms of notation, Fleet’s (2017) findings indicated that 46% (26 out of 57) of UK HPME programs required students to be familiar or even fluent in music notation reading upon graduation. As for analytical components, Cloonan and Hulstedt (2013) found there was considerable emphasis placed on “the theory and analysis behind broader concepts in popular music, such as cultural and historical studies” (p. 68), as 27 out of 31 programs comprised of between 20%-100% analytical elements. While HPME programs with such characteristics can contribute to popular musicians’ developments, it “may in many instances be ignoring vital elements of traditional ways of learning this type of music” (G. D. Smith, 2013, p. 31). The master-student model in FPME was one where students “cultivated” a reliance on their master’s teaching, “possibly at the expense of the development of autonomy” (Lebler & Hodges, 2017, p. 273). Canon-orientated pedagogy, in rewarding “accurate replication”, implicitly discouraged transgression, thus “such an approach Hueyuen Choong 141 in HPME inhibits the development and expression of a performer’s individual musical voice” (Parkinson & Smith, 2015, p. 109). This concern was similarly expressed by Alper (2007), and he further argued that “formal teaching” might get in the way of popular musicians’ “creativity” (p. 160). The emphasis on notational practices conflicted with the aural features of popular music learning, but Alper further argued that “standard notation” was unable to capture “much of the complexity of popular music” (p. 160). Therefore, popular musicians who engaged with HPME, and in extension formal popular music learning in general, would have experienced learning popular music in ways that were vastly different from those who only learnt within informal contexts. Conclusion As demonstrated through the chronological review of literature and observations of HPME, what was initially a predominantly aural tradition that occurred outside the confines of learning institutions, where notation played a secondary role and was avoided in performance, was gradually joined by diverse and unique learning experiences due to the bourgeoning provision of, and accessibility to, formal popular music education and internet-based resources since the 1990s. As more and more enthusiasts of popular music turn to formal provisions of learning to develop as popular musicians, where the learning of popular music is accomplished in an atomistic and teacher-directed fashion, which often emphasized the study of notation, prescribed techniques and analytical observations of music, the characteristics (aural and informal) that had been so commonly associated with popular music may have lost their dominance. However, as demonstrated, engagements with formal learning did not mean an absence of informal learning, and vice versa; it was common for learning histories to include learning in both formal and informal contexts, and aspects of formal and informal13 learning can coexist in most learning situation. With formal music education increasingly adopting informal features of learning, it is possible for one to learn by ear in lessons with a teacher where one has certain levels of autonomy to negotiate what, how and when to learn. Likewise, with the increased accessibility to information through the internet, learning to play written music, understand music theory and conventional techniques are no longer skills and knowledge that could only be acquired within institutional settings and/or from a teacher, nor is pedagogical learning a feature exclusive to the teacher-student situation. Therefore, it may now be a stretch to say that popular musicians today generally learn to play popular music entirely by ear and without any expert guidance. A more accurate statement would be that some popular musicians do develop this way, while others do not, but for many, their developments comprised diverse combinations of formal and informal learning modes and notation- and ear- based practices. The intention of this article was to demonstrate, though simplistically, how the ways popular musicians developed had diversified from a predominantly aural and informal narrative into one that comprised increasing engagements with formal 142 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 modes of learning in popular music, notation-centric practices, as well as resources made available by technological advancements. This article does not proclaim to have established a clear and precise narrative of popular music learning in the UK, as the sample studied is relatively small. What was achieved instead is a narrative that captured some generic truths but falls short in exposing the nuanced diversities among the variations of popular music learning today. It was the results of scholars’ and educators’ efforts to “[formalize] the informal” (G. D. Smith, 2013, p. 29) practices of popular music that changed the landscape of how popular musicians learned, yet music education still strongly associates popular music with informal learning. Therefore, this article hopes to encourage discourses surrounding the learning of popular music to evolve beyond the issues of informal and aural-based learning and allocate more attention towards other means of learning in popular music, including but not limited to all forms of formal popular music education, notation-based learning and learning enabled by technology induced music-learning and -making resources. Endnotes 1 Green (2002) accomplished this to some extent in her book How Popular Musicians Learn. 2 Skimming through the search results showed that at least in the first three pages, nearly all were literature related to music education. 3 The “learning practices” described here are akin to Folkestad’s (2006) “learning style” consideration. 4 Refer to Middleton (1990, pp. 4-5) for more details. 5 H. S. Bennett’s (1980) work was excluded from this review as his findings were based on conditions in the US. 6 Alper (2007), Cloonan and Hulstedt (2013), G. D. Smith (2013), J. Bennett (2017), McLaughlin (2017), Parkinson and Smith (2015) and Warner (2017). 7 An observation also made by H. S. Bennett (1980, p. 125). 8 The “self-taught” term in G. D. Smith’s (2013) work is akin to the “informal’ label that this article used. 9 His findings regarding their learning experiences did not contribute to this article’s understanding of how popular musicians learnt 2000s-2010s. This is because they were more indicative of learning experiences in the 1970s-1980s era, as their secondary school years coincided with Green’s (2002) older musicians as well as those in the 1970s-1980s literature. Therefore, accounts of learning experiences in Robinson’s work, bore resemblances with accounts of learning that took place prior to, and during, the 1990s. 10 Choong’s (2021) study investigated the relationships between the learning experiences and musical proficiencies of popular musicians. 11 The characterisations of lessons in Choon g’s (2021) study were akin to Green’s (2002) and G. D. Smith’s (2013). 12 The impacts of such learning methods extend far beyond the reliance on notation; refer to Choong’s (2021) study for more information. 13 13 13 The “formal” and “informal” referred here comprised of Folkestad’s (2006) four approaches to “using and defining formal and informal learning” (p. 141). Hueyuen Choong 143 References Alper, G. (2007). Towards the acceptance of a Bachelor of Music Degree in popular music studies. College Music Symposium, 47, 156–166. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40374511 Bennett, H. S. (1980). On becoming a rock musician. University of Massachusetts Press. Bennett, J. (2017). Towards a framework for creativity in popular music degrees. In G. D. Smith, Z. Moir, M. Brennan, S. Rambarran & P. Kirkman (Eds.), The Routledge research companion to popular music education (pp. 285-297). Routledge. Bruford, B. (2019). Learning experiences of expert western drummers: A cultural psychology perspective. In Z. Moir, B. Powell & G. D. Smith (Eds.), The Bloomsbury handbook of popular music education: Perspectives and practices (pp. 83-99). Bloomsbury Publishing. Choong, H. (2021). An exploration into the impacts of music learning experiences on the musical proficiencies of popular musicians. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Westminster]. EThOS. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.837443 Cloonan, M., & Hulstedt. L. (2013). Looking for something new: The provision of popular music studies degrees in the UK. IASPM Journal, 3(2), 63-77. https://doi.org/10.5429/620 Cohen, B. M., & Baker, S. (2007). DJ pathways: Becoming a DJ in Adelaide and London. Altitude, 8. https://thealtitudejournal.wordpress.com/category/volume-8-popular- music-australian-perspectives-2007/ Cohen, S. (1991). Rock culture in Liverpool: Popular music in the making. Clarendon Press. Finnegan, R. (1989). The hidden musician: Music-making in an English town. Cambridge University Press. Fleet, P. (2017). 'I've heard there was a secret chord': Do we need to teach music notation in UK popular music studies? In G. D. Smith, Z. Moir, M. Brennan, S. Rambarran & P. Kirkman (Eds.), The Routledge research companion to popular music education (pp. 166-176). Routledge. Folkestad, G. (2006). Formal and informal learning situations or practices vs formal and informal ways of learning. British Journal of Music Education, 23(2), 135-145. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265051706006887 Green, L. (2002). How popular musicians learn: A way ahead for music education. Ashgate Publishing. Herndon, M., & McLeod, N. (1982). Music as culture (2nd ed.) Norwood. Holt, F. (2007). Genre in popular music. University of Chicago Press. Jones, G., & Rahn, J. (1977). Definitions of popular music: Recycled. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 11(4), 79-92. https://doi.org/10.2307/3332182 Lebler, D. & Hodges, N. (2017). Popular music pedagogy: Dual perspective on DIY musicianship. In G. D. Smith, Z. Moir, M. Brennan, S. Rambarran & P. Kirkman (Eds.), The Routledge research companion to popular music education (pp. 272- 284). Routledge. Lilliestam, L. (1996). On playing by ear. Popular music, 15(2), 195-216. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261143000008114 McLaughlin, S. (2017). Mediation, institutions, and post-compulsory popular music education. In G. D. Smith, Z. Moir, M. Brennan, S. Rambarran & P. Kirkman (Eds.), The Routledge research companion to popular music education (pp. 114- 126). Routledge. Middleton, R. (1990). Studying popular music. Open University Press. 144 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(126-144) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Mok, A. (2014). East meets West: Learning-practices and attitudes towards music-making of popular musicians. British Journal of Music Education, 31(2), 179-194. https://doi:10.1017/S0265051714000126 Parkinson, T. & Smith, G. D. (2015). Towards an epistemology of authenticity in higher popular music education. Action, Criticism & Theory for Music Education, 14(1), 93-128. https://kar.kent.ac.uk/id/eprint/69350 Robinson, T. (2010). How popular musicians teach. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Sheffield]. EThOS. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.538014 Shuker, R. (2001). Understanding popular music (2nd ed.). Routledge. Shuker, R. (2016). Understanding popular music culture (5th ed.). Routledge. Smith, G. D. (2013). I drum, therefore I am: Being and becoming a drummer. Ashgate Publishing. Smith, S. (2013). Hip-Hop turntablism, creativity, and collaboration. Ashgate Publishing. Tagg, P. (1982). Analysing popular music: Theory, method, and practice. Popular Music, 2, 37-67. http://www.jstor.org/stable/852975 Thompson, P. (2012). An empirical study into the learning practices and enculturation of DJs, turntablists, Hip Hop and dance music producers. Journal of Music, Technology & Education, 5(1), 43-58. https://doi.org/10.1386/jmte.5.1.43_1 Warner, S. (2017). Where to now? The current condition and future trajectory of popular music studies in British universities. In G. D. Smith, Z. Moir, M. Brennan, S. Rambarran & P. Kirkman (Eds.), The Routledge research companion to popular music education (pp. 127-138). Routledge. White, A. (1983). Convention and constraint in the operation of two musical groups: Two case studies. [Doctoral dissertation, Keele University]. EThOS. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.319402 Biography Hueyuen Choong is a popular music scholar, drummer, and lecturer at UCSI University, whose research interest primarily revolves around the music-learning cultures of popular musicians, and whose PhD explored the impacts of learning histories on the music-making practices, attitudes, dispositions, and musical proficiencies of popular musicians. Hueyuen’s latest research examines this subject matter within the Malaysian context, and future research plans include a closer examination of HPME, and the disturbances that such modes of becoming popular musicians caused within the popular music-making culture.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

Luk Thung trumpet excerpts, trumpet Luk Thung, trumpet techniques

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7351

Guidelines for creation of a Luk Thung method for trumpet

21st century trumpet players are required to play many diverse styles of music. One of these unique musical styles,

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7351/4287

Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 145 GUIDELINES FOR CREATION OF A LUK THUNG METHOD FOR TRUMPET Patcharee Suwantada1* & Joseph Bowman2 College of Music, Mahidol University 25/25, Phutthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author: Patcharee Suwantada Published online: 31 December 2022 Cite this article (APA): Suwantada, P. & Bowman, J. (2022). Guidelines for creation of a Luk Thung method for trumpet. Malaysian Journal of Music, 11(1), 145-163. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol11.1.9.2022 Abstract 21st century trumpet players are required to play many diverse styles of music. One of these unique musical styles, Luk Thung (a Thai traditional music style) is music derived from Thai folk music culture that describes the Thai rural lifestyle, especially in the lyrics. Learning this style is a crucial part of a trumpet player’s chances for career success in Thailand’s musical industry. For trumpet players, performing Luk Thung music requires fundamental trumpet techniques. Because of the need for training trumpet players in this unique Thai musical style, this research aims to generate the guidelines for a trumpet method design based on Luk Thung music through the study of three categories: (1) fundamental trumpet techniques appearing in Thai Luk Thung music; (2) comparison of fundamental technique approaches between Western pedagogical methods for trumpet and Luk Thung music; and (3) the possibility of using Thai Luk Thung music to develop fundamental trumpet techniques for trumpet players. The purposeful sampling includes official recordings of Thai Luk Thung songs, four major method books for trumpet and in-depth interviews used for collecting data, and analysis. The findings were discussed and presented as the guidelines to design a trumpet method including purpose of the method design, structure of the method, and scope of contents. The generated guidelines will help trumpet players, music teachers or trumpet educators to design their own trumpet methods based on Thai Luk Thung music that suits their needs. Keywords: Luk Thung trumpet excerpts, trumpet Luk Thung, trumpet techniques 146 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(145-163) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Introduction It is necessary for 21st century trumpet players to be able to comfortably perform in a range of styles of music. In a statement by Mark Gould, a former trumpet professor at The Julliard School, in his book Gould on Music, Playing, Studying, Teaching and Preparation for the Future (2021). He said “Trumpet pedagogy is the model used to teach people to play the instrument. The physical components are systematically broken down into their elemental parts including breathing, buzzing, articulation, pedal notes, and the high register called the fundamentals” (Gould, 2021, p.104). In addition, he stated that the demands made of the 21st century trumpet players require players to be able to play many diverse styles of music, so young players who begin to focus on the musical profession must be able to approach the trumpet with both technical and musical versatility (Gould, 2021). Taque (2017) mentioned that the concept of the “crossover performer” is to be able to sound as comfortable and musically authentic as a specialist, regardless of the style being performed. He also mentioned that “professional freelance trumpeters must be competent in styles ranging from baroque clarino trumpet to disco lead trumpet.” The trumpet is an essential instrument in many large ensembles offered by high school and university music programs including jazz big bands, wind ensembles, symphony orchestras, and athletic bands. But for Thailand’s context of trumpet training, as discussed in (Chaiya & Bowman, 2021) have stated that the trumpet career path in Thailand requires players to perform in a range of styles including Thai Luk Thung music. But the music curricula currently offered at the university level provide less opportunity to develop those skills. Luk Thung (a Thai traditional music style) is music derived from Thai folk music culture that describes the Thai rural lifestyle, especially in the lyrics. For all trumpet players, performing Luk Thung music requires fundamental trumpet techniques such as tone production, range development, articulation development, lip flexibility and trumpet special sound effects and characteristics of Thai Luk Thung musical style. From this point on in the document, Luk Thung will be abbreviated as “L.T.” Because of the need for training trumpet players in this unique Thai musical style, the research will study three categories which include: (1) fundamental trumpet techniques appearing in Thai L.T. music; (2) comparison of fundamental trumpet technical approaches between western pedagogical methods for trumpet and Thai L.T. music; and (3) the possibility of using L.T. music to be incorporated into fundamental trumpet techniques for trumpet players. The findings of the study will result in a guideline for the creation of Luk Thung methods for trumpet. The research questions for the study are: 1. What fundamental trumpet techniques are used in L.T. music? 2. What are the fundamental trumpet techniques found in western trumpet method books and how do they compare to those found in L.T. Music? 3. How can a method be created for learning L.T. techniques for trumpet? Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 147 Methodology This research aims to generate the guidelines for a trumpet method design based on L.T. music. The study was conducted with grounded theory by using the procedures of Emerging Design, including the constant comparative coding procedures of comparing incident to incident, incident to category and category to category. The central phenomenon is the fundamental trumpet techniques. The study employed purposeful sampling procedures. The qualitative forms of data collecting included audiovisual materials, documents, and in-depth interviews (Creswell, 2012). Fundamental trumpet techniques appearing in Thai Luk Thung music To answer the first research question ‘What fundamental trumpet techniques are used in L.T. music?’, the researcher collected data by listening to the official audio and video recordings from different singers, albums, and versions which trumpet was included from 1990’s onwards to find what fundamental trumpet techniques appeared in L.T. music. This time period was selected because it is considered the L.T.’s golden period when the music became popular and was steady in form, instrumentation and the performance. The researcher used open coding by collecting raw data including the singers’ lists who have been active as the L.T. performers from 1990’s onwards, their albums and songs, accordingly build up the incidents and categories for analysis through listening to L.T songs. Comparison of the fundamental trumpet technical approaches between Western pedagogical methods for trumpet and Thai L.T. music To answer the second research question ‘What are the fundamental trumpet techniques found in western trumpet method books and how do they compare to those found in L.T. Music?’, the researcher studied four major western pedagogical method books including: (1) Complete Conservatory Method for Trumpet, Jean Baptist Arban; (2) Trumpet Lessons with David Hickman (Volume 1-5), David Hickman; (3) Systematic Approach to Daily Practice for Trumpet, Claude Gordon; and (4) An Intermediate/ Advanced Method in Three Books, Allen Vizzutti in order to compare fundamental trumpet technique approach between western pedagogical methods for trumpet and L.T music. The possibility of using L.T music to be incorporated into fundamental trumpet techniques for trumpet players To answer the third research question ‘How can a method be created for learning L.T. techniques for trumpet?’, the researcher invited ten Thailand music educators who established the theoretical dimension of how trumpet students were taught fundamental trumpet techniques to play L.T. music (theory or concept sampling), as well as their perspective ideas and their expectations about what the trumpet method for L.T. should be (confirming and disconfirming sampling). Five participants were secondary school music teachers, who have at least five years of 148 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(145-163) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 experience teaching trumpet and engaged in teaching L.T. bands at schools located in Thailand. Another five participants were trumpet experts who have experience teaching private trumpet lessons at the university level for at least five years. Lastly, a special group, consisting of professional L.T. trumpet players, also participated in the interview. Researcher recruited interviewees through announcements on social media directed at Thailand music teachers, by directly asking participants who are well known as trumpet experts, and by receiving recommendations from participants. In-depth interviews. Each participant had an online/phone interview session with the same interviewer using open-ended questions and their answers were recorded to analyze. The purpose of the interview process was to collect data for generating the guidelines of designing a trumpet method based on L.T. music. The interview sessions were approximately one hour each. Questions lists. The question lists shown below were the main questions for all participants, but during the interviews other questions were asked or issues raised depending on the conversation. The questions were developed in order to confirm participants’ qualifications; thus, the interview result will be able to represent all levels of trumpet players including trumpet students, amateur trumpet players, professional trumpet players, and music educators involved in L.T. study. The researcher had better understanding following the situations that affected generating the guidelines for a trumpet method design based on L.T. music. • How does the trumpet student develop their fundamental trumpet techniques through their trumpet training system in L.T. music study? • What are the problems of L.T. music study from the interview participant’s teaching experience in L.T. band? • How different is it between playing L.T. music and other styles of music, in the opinion of the trumpet experts? • The suggestions and ideas from people who perform in L.T. industry. • Their experiences and suggestions for designing a trumpet method which relates to the research question: How can L.T. music be incorporated into fundamental trumpet techniques for trumpet players who might be interested in studying L.T. music together with developing their fundamental trumpet techniques? There are five questions for the secondary school music teacher interviews as follows: 1. Please describe your teaching experience in L.T. bands. 2. Do you think L.T. music requires deep understanding about fundamental trumpet techniques to play it well? If yes or no then, why? 3. How did you prepare your trumpet students to play L.T. music? 4. Are there any teaching methods that you use to teach fundamental trumpet techniques in order to play L.T. music? 5. If the researcher designs a trumpet method for trumpet players, would you give any suggestions, comments, or advice?” Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 149 There are five questions for the trumpet expert interviews as follows: 1. Please describe your teaching experience in teaching trumpet private lessons at the university level. 2. Do you have any trumpet students who studied trumpet in the L.T. band setting in your studio? If yes, what do think about their fundamental trumpet techniques? 3. Do you have any L.T. specific lessons or any teaching class including L.T. music to offer to your students? 4. In your perspective, does L.T. music have the potential to improve fundamental trumpet techniques? Please give any specific reasons? 5. If the researcher designed a trumpet method for trumpet players, would you be willing to give any suggestions, comments, or advice? There are three questions for a group of professional trumpet players who have experience playing trumpet in L.T. music industry as follows: 1. Please describe your experience performing L.T. trumpet as a career. 2. As a professional L.T. trumpet player, could you discuss what fundamental trumpet techniques are most often used in L.T. music? 3. If the researcher designed a trumpet method for trumpet players, would you consider giving any suggestions, comments, or advice? Data analysis procedures The researcher used constant comparative data analysis. In addition, the researcher compared fundamental trumpet techniques found in L.T. music with western pedagogical method books to identify the similarities and the differences of trumpet technical approaches and connect the findings with interview results. This is to generate the guidelines for the creation of a L.T. method for trumpet at the finding and discussion sessions ‘The possibility of using L.T music to be incorporated into fundamental trumpet technique.’ Findings and Discussion The findings and discussion of guidelines for the creation of a L.T. method for trumpet are generated through interpreted and analyzed findings including the outcomes of the fundamental trumpet techniques appearing in L.T. music, a comparison of the fundamental trumpet technical approaches between western pedagogical methods for trumpet and L.T. music, and the participants’ interview results. Fundamental trumpet techniques appearing in Thai L.T. music The findings of the fundamental trumpet techniques in L.T. music from 1990 and forward was obtained from collecting data, observations, and interpretation through listening to official L.T. songs which were recorded by music labels that are available on online platforms. There are four prominent fundamental trumpet techniques 150 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(145-163) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 occurring in music as follows: Tone production. The first prominent characteristic of trumpet tone production is the way to start the tone (the attack). The note will not be performed immediately in tune as written, but usually starts from a bending note half step lower than the written note, and then bending up to the original note. This can be labeled as a scoop effect. The second prominent characteristic of trumpet tone production was the bending of notes, which started with the written note, were bent down using the trumpeter’s embouchure as far as a half step, and then returned to the original note. Range development. The findings showed two challenging issues of playing higher register in Luk Thung music. First, there are solo passages which contain many high pitches. Second, the music has precise rhythmic ensemble passages and trumpet players need to develop refined high range skill in order to hit every high note precisely in time, in tune with a good tone. Articulation development. Various articulations play a significant role in L.T. music. The findings show how trumpet articulations are used in Luk Thung music including the use of single tonguing, slurs, and double tonguing. Besides tonguing, L.T. music usually includes accents and sforzandos, followed by crescendos, especially in the passages that are played as a section. The use of single tongue in eighth note groups that consist of a “long-short” pattern can be seen. Most of the articulations heard in recordings are not found in the music scores (except for some staccato markings) but would have been performed by general listening and agreement within the ensemble. The same is true of slurs in eighth note groups, where the first note is long, and the second is short. Lip flexibilities and trumpet special sound effects. Lip flexibility is critical in fundamental trumpet technique because it is the foundation of most trumpet special sound effects including bending and scoops, falls, doits, shakes, turns and vibrato. The findings present the prominent appearances of trumpet special sound effects transcribed. These trumpet special sound effects were combined to make the music more colorful. Characteristics of Thai Luk Thung musical style. Besides the fundamental trumpet techniques, the research findings show some musical elements appear in L.T. music which can identify L.T. musical style that will be listed as follows. • Pentatonic scale, the most used scale. Most major trumpet solo passages rely on the pentatonic scale, both major and minor pentatonic scales. • Strong punctuated rhythmic figures. These strong, punctuated rhythmic figures are often found in Thai L.T. songs during transition melodies which rely on variations of the pentatonic scales. The comparison of fundamental trumpet technical approaches between western pedagogical methods for trumpet and Thai L.T. music Tone production. There is no difference in the technical approach to tone production but there is a different sound concept that differentiates L.T. music. The sound concept of L.T. trumpet tone relies much on matching the singing style of Luk Thung singers, as well as the language and the interpretation of the meaning of the Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 151 song through the song lyrics. In slow tempo L.T. songs, the character of the trumpet sound is either sweet or sad while in fast tempo L.T. songs, the character of the trumpet sound is quite brassy, fun, and lively. Beginning the notes (attacks). Most western pedagogical methods share a similar approach about attacking notes, such as in Arban’s method book that introduces the pronunciation of the syllable “tu,” Clarke’s studies use the syllable “ta” and Vizzutti’s uses the syllable “T”. The conceptual idea is to produce a clean tone with accurate intonation were something that western classical trumpet player learn. Those technical approaches can be applied to some L.T. music as well. The singer’s singing style influenced the way trumpet play the melodies line. Thus, there are some L.T. songs required opposite way by playing a scoop note which start the note by bending the tone down a half step below and scoop the note up to the written note or it can be started with a glissando which fluttered valves up to the hit the written note. These approaches are similar with the way of using Thai Luk Thung’s lyrics that contain high pitched Thai alphabet letters for instance; “ข ฃ ฉ ฐ ถ ผ ฝ ศ ษ ส ห”. When pronounced, it is seemed to have more than one pitch. Ends of the notes. Ending notes are as important as the attacks of notes. It is not just only to stop each note itself but to end the phrase as well. There are two ways that use to stop the note including (1) using air release the note naturally which happens in classical music and (2) using tongue to stop the vibration of the sound. L.T. music also considers these two techniques, but in L.T. song with fast tempo, it is recommended to use tongue-stopped more than air release while the L.T. song in slow tempo using air release to end the note by adding some vibrato. There are different approaches to the vibrato that can be seen in L.T. songs depending on the song and singer’s vibrato style. First, fast frequency and wide vibrato from beginning of the note until the end without dynamic change (refer to Figure 3). Second, play straight tone at first and start narrow vibrato at the end and release the note to stop the tone. Articulations. Articulations play a key role in starting and stopping a note. The findings show some technical approaches to articulations that indicate L.T. musical style through listening L.T. songs compared to western pedagogical method for trumpet with some cases study of the rhythm figures in Luk Thung music. Single tonguing. From the researcher’s observation, the length of repeated notes is not always the same. This is because the L.T. trumpet players usually offer a trumpet score which contain guideline melodies, so they played without concerning the detail of articulations. The researcher found that some L.T. songs, the repetition of a melody was played with different articulations compare to its first statement. However, note duration in repetitions remained the same as the first melody statement. It happens when playing with the same pitch especially in the fast tempo songs. There are no documents on how to use syllables for articulation in L.T. music. However, it could be compared similarly to jazz music that use syllable “Dit” or “Dot” for staccato approach. Slur and tonguing. The next rhythm figure which contains two eighth notes with articulation slur. The first eight note is always played long with more accent and the second eight note is played very short (staccato). Trumpet players should approach tongue-stopped techniques for this kind of rhythm. 152 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(145-163) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Range development and trumpet special effects. The range development itself needs the same technical approaches as western pedagogical methods for trumpet. However, the findings show the challenging technical approaches in L.T. music are the combination of high pitches and various trumpet special sound effects. Compared to the western method books for trumpet which are not focused on teaching each trumpet special sound effect but focused on technical exercises that improve lip flexibilities such as lip slurs, lip trills and lip bends, the characteristics of L.T. music requires trumpet players to play all these techniques fluently. There are three cases where trumpet players are required to use lip flexibilities. Firstly, playing in the high range while using shakes. Secondly, playing in the high range while using turns. Thirdly, playing in the high range while using doits. Lip slurs in different harmonic series are great practical exercises to approach these goals. Besides lip slurs, lip bends should be practiced in daily routine to approach lip flexibilities. There are another three cases that the trumpet part plays in the high range while using special sound effects: (1) playing in the high range together with falls and (2) bending/scoops on high pitches and (3) vibrato, the most often used technique in L.T. music, especially in slow music. These appear in long notes, not only at the end of a phrase, but sometimes inside a phrase. The technical approach is the same as what trumpet experts had taught in various western methods. The wide vibrato usually appears in L.T. music. Hand vibrato is probably the best way to approach vibrato in L.T. music context. The possibility of using L.T music to be incorporated into fundamental trumpet techniques for trumpet players The interview results for the answer to the question ‘How can a method be created for learning L.T. techniques for trumpet?’ The interview result can be classified in topics as follows: Purpose of designing a method. According to the interview result, a trumpet expert mentioned that L.T. music is considered a significant musical style in Thailand, like jazz music or classical music, so it is possible to have its own pedagogical method. He suggested that the person who studies L.T. music should already have a foundation in trumpet techniques so that the method could focus on style (Potavanich, personal communication, May 31, 2022). One of the secondary-school music teachers mentioned that the designed trumpet method should differentiate the level of difficulty from beginner to advanced level (Sukkee, personal communication, June 13, 2022). The designed trumpet method should differentiate the level of technical difficulty from beginner until advanced level but did not suggest classifying the difficulty level of L.T. musical style because each style has its own unique challenges (Sodanil, personal communication, May 26, 2022). The findings of the interview result from a group of trumpet experts who teach at the university level and have been teaching students who have L.T music background for long time. The result identified similar problems of trumpet students from L.T. background who have poor fundamental trumpet techniques. Potavanich (personal communication, May 31, 2022) mentioned that his students lack control dynamic and have poor attacks. Chanoksakul (personal communication, May 27, Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 153 2022) also mentioned that his students usually have problems of tone quality such as on attacks, ending of the note without releasing note, stopping the tone with tongue incorrectly and using too much pressure in their embouchure. Anancharuspat (personal communication, June 15, 2022) pointed out the same issue that most of his students who had L.T. backgrounds usually have bad intonation and attacks. Sodanil (personal communication, May 26, 2022) mentioned that his students have bad tonguing and attack. It was not because they were playing in L.T. style, but because they were not taught to play a fundamental trumpet technique in the right way. The interview result from Kohtong (personal communication, June 13, 2022) and Sukkee, (personal communication, June 13, 2022) specified that their students were trained in fundamental trumpet techniques from the Essential Elements for Band book by Lautzenheiser et al. (1999) which does not cover all fundamental trumpet techniques that appear in L.T. music. However, the interview results from Chaiya (personal communication, May 30, 2022) and Sodanil (personal communication, June 13, 2022) commented that L.T. music has much potential to be a tool to develop students’ trumpet techniques because L.T. music contain many fundamental trumpet techniques that challenge trumpet students especially high register development and trumpet special sound effects. Interpreting the data from the interview results, the contribution of L.T. trumpet method will not only benefit trumpet players who are interested in playing L.T. music, but it would also be useful for secondary school music teachers who have no trumpet skills to guide their trumpet students to develop strong fundamental trumpet skills for L.T. music. Structure design of a trumpet method for trumpet. The interview results from Sodanil (personal communication, June 13, 2022) suggested the idea of including L.T. music historical background in a designed method. He suggested to include L.T. musical background to adjust mindset of trumpet L.T. sound concept. Therefore, including L.T. Musical background will help trumpet players understand L.T. musical context which is the performance guidelines for trumpet L.T. music. The interpreted data through listening L.T. music since 1990 indicated that styles of trumpet playing in L.T. music rely on the imitation of L.T. singers who came from different regions of Thailand which is important to understand this point. The interview results that suggested that trumpet players should begin with an overview of an approach to the necessary fundamental trumpet techniques by using the western pedagogical method for trumpet in order to prepare trumpet players to learn how to adapt those techniques to play L.T. style in the next sessions. Potavanich (personal communication, May 31, 2022) commented that although L.T. trumpet playing uses the same technique as western music but the trumpet tone in L.T music is different, and it is difficult to explain the differences of trumpet tone used in L.T. music by using musical notation. A secondary school music teacher also mentioned that the fundamental trumpet techniques in western music such as classical music led to the success of L.T music performance (Kongwoon, personal communication, June 11, 2022). A trumpet expert suggested that L.T. trumpet techniques should be explained by connecting them with western music pedagogical methods (Chaiya, personal communication, May 30, 2022). 154 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(145-163) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 The interview results from the secondary-school music teachers suggested that the technical exercises for trumpet should be derived from Luk Thung musical elements (Kaewmanee, personal communication, June 11, 2022). Kohtong (personal communication, June 13, 2022) expected to see a trumpet method where students can instantly apply fundamental trumpet techniques to L.T. music playing. Chaiya (personal communication, May 30, 2022) mentioned that L.T. trumpet techniques should be explained by connecting these techniques with western music pedagogical methods. Chanoksakul (personal communication, May 27, 2022) stated that some students who have trained in fundamental trumpet techniques through western trumpet pedagogy might not be able to play L.T. music in the right style. The findings support the guidelines of designing L.T. trumpet technical exercises that connect western pedagogical method ideas for trumpet together with Thai L.T. musical elements. The findings presenting Thai L.T. musical elements include pentatonic scales and rhythmic figures in L.T. musical idioms (see Figure 1). Figure 1. A Luk Thung trumpet excerpt ‘Yak-Jer-Khon-Jing-Jai’, sang by Catriya Marasri (1971 - ). Anancharuspat (personal communication, June 15, 2022), trumpet experts and professional L.T. trumpet players mentioned that not only major and minor scales were used in L.T. music, but there were also blues scales included in L.T. music which researcher will include those scales in Luk Thung trumpet technical exercises. Potavanich (personal communication, May 31, 2022). mentioned that trumpet players should practice trumpet techniques and study L.T. style separately. The researcher argues that L.T. trumpet technical exercises will be designed for trumpet players to approach L.T. music easier. After trumpet players practice these exercises, they will be prepared to study L.T. style through Luk Thung trumpet excerpt studies. Luk Thung Trumpet Excerpt Studies. One part of L.T. trumpet excerpts study is to sample L.T. songs which present prominent fundamental trumpet techniques and characteristics in L.T. style. There were interview results that support the guideline to include this part in the trumpet method based on L.T. music. Firstly, Chaiya (personal communication, May 30, 2022) said that “the prominent trumpet parts in L.T. music should be selected for study.” Secondly, Sukkee (personal communication, June 13, 2022) and Chanoksakul (personal communication, May 27, 2022) suggested that the designed method should provide examples of L.T. trumpet Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 155 excerpts together with performance guidelines for each specific excerpt. A L.T. professional trumpet player suggested listening to sound recordings together while studying and practicing L.T. Trumpet excerpts will serve as a guide to the playing of L.T. music (Khongpraphan, personal communication, June 15, 2022). The findings show the prominent fundamental trumpet techniques that can be used as samples of Luk Thung trumpet excerpts. The details will be explained in ‘technical approach to fundamental trumpet techniques for L.T. music performance’ session. Technical approach to fundamental trumpet techniques for Luk Thung music performance. The interview results show that L.T. trumpet students mostly have similar problems such as intonation control, inaccurately playing attacks, and poor tone quality. Thus, players should solve these preliminary issues at the introduction stage of fundamental trumpet techniques before jumping into the technical approach to L.T. style. For sound concept, there are many trumpet techniques involved, such as articulation and trumpet special sound effects. According to the interviews with L.T professional trumpet players Soisa-ngim (personal communication, June 15, 2022), Khongpraphan (personal communication, June 15, 2022). and Rodsab (personal communication, June 15, 2022) mentioned the same things that the L.T. trumpet sound concept for solo passages depends on: • The interpretation of the song’s story as conveyed by the lyrics and tempo. In fast music, trumpets should produce a brassier sound, which is stronger and more articulated compared to slow music that needs a more expressive tone and more flexibility in the rhythm through rubato playing. • The imitation of singing style from different L.T. singers refer to the findings that mentioned the regional musical background affected differences of singing style. The guidelines to design contents of technical approach to four fundamental trumpet techniques for Luk Thung music performance. Firstly, tone production should focus on the different approaches to start and stop the tone (see Figure 2). The beginning the notes were started by scooping the pitch up to written notes or started by playing the glissando (see Figure 3). Figure 2. A Luk Thung trumpet excerpt ‘Namta-La-Sai’, sung by Jakrapun Kornburiteerachote (1968 - ). 156 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(145-163) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 3. A Luk Thung trumpet excerpt ‘Ab-Du-Khao-Rak-Kan’, sung by Duangta Kongthong (1982 - ). Secondly, range development. A secondary-school music teacher mentioned that L.T. trumpet players must be able to play high notes fluently (Kaewmanee, personal communication, June 15, 2022). The findings indicated the challenge for young trumpet players are that the high pitches are played throughout the whole melody, and the difficulty increases when played together with trumpet special sound effects such as shakes or bending notes. The findings show the highest pitch is concert pitch F octave 6 (see Figure 4). Figure 4. A Luk Thung trumpet excerpt ‘Oi-Oi’, sung by Suthirat Wongtawan (1979 - ). Sodanil (personal communication, May 26, 2022) mentioned that the character of trumpet parts in L.T. music usually includes a wide range, and high notes are usually played throughout rhythmic passages, so students need to improve the accuracy of playing high notes. The guidelines to approach range development for L.T. music is to combine high pitch with another fundamental trumpet techniques such as articulations and trumpet special sound effects. However, trumpet players need to improve their high pitch with excellent quality of tone through the technical exercise that are designed as the introduction of a fundamental trumpet techniques in order to achieve technical approach to L.T. style. Thirdly, articulations development. The conceptual idea to design articulation development for L.T. music is supported by the finding indicating the way of using articulations in various rhythm figures that Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 157 occur in L.T. music idioms. There are constant single tongue and double tongue passages, that all trumpet players should be able to play well. The different way of playing staccato in rhythm figures include: • Figures of two eighth notes which are usually played as long short • Two eighth notes slurred where the first note can be played with more accent while the last note is usually played short with a L.T. accent. The song sample presents trumpet’s articulations approach in L.T music (see Figure 5). Figure 5. A Luk Thung trumpet excerpt ‘Roe-Rak-Nhum-Oe-Boe-Toe’, sung by Mangpor Cholthicha (1983-). This is similar to the rhythmic swing feeling in jazz music which all jazz players are familiar with. Staccato in L.T. music can be applied from jazz articulation as the syllable “Dit” or “Dot” when approaching single tonguing. A trumpet expert, Anancharuspan (personal communication, June 15, 2022) described when discussing articulation that, the staccato in L.T. needs a precise stop tone without a resonant sound. Rodsub (personal communication, June 15, 2022) mentioned that fast tempo L.T. songs need to focus more on strong articulations with precise rhythmic and sharp attacks without delay. Lastly, trumpet special sound effects. The findings indicated that the prominent usage of trumpet special sound effects in L.T. music usually happened together with high register. The findings indicate that trumpet players need to improve their lip flexibility by playing lip slurs and lip bends in the different harmonic series, with added emphasis on the high register. This will help the trumpet player to perform these special sound effects such as vibrato, bends, shakes, falls, turns, scoops, glissando or squeeze and doits. Moreover, the findings show that the appearance of more than one trumpet special sound effects are common L.T. songs (see Figure 6– 9). 158 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(145-163) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 6. A Luk Thung trumpet excerpt ‘Yuem-Chai-Thot-Kani’, sang by Catriya Marasri (1971 - ). According to Figure 6, it presents special sound effects; bending notes and vibrato while the next L.T trumpet excerpt shows another trumpet special sound effects; shakes (see Figure 7). Figure 7. A Luk Thung trumpet excerpt ‘Prode-Tid-Tam-Ton-Toe-Pai’, sung by Jakrapun Kornburiteerachote (1968 - ). The next L.T trumpet excerpt presents special sound effects; falls and shakes (see Figure 8) and turns in L.T music (see Figure 9). Figure 8. A Luk Thung trumpet excerpt ‘Lo-Lane’, sung by Mam Phimanram (-) Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 159 Figure 9. A Luk Thung trumpet excerpt ‘Rak-Mai-Rak-Koe-Bok’, sung by Jakrapun Kornburiteerachote (1968 - ) Anancharuspat (personal communication, June 15, 2022) described that “in a slow music, it contains the ornamentation notes and other trumpet sound effects including vibrato and bending notes. Likewise, Rodsub (personal communication, June 15, 2022) and Khongpraphan (personal communication, June 15, 2022) mentioned that there are four trumpet special sound effects appearing in slow L.T. songs including vibrato, bends or scooped note, ornamented notes, and use of rubato. Therefore, the conceptual idea of design for this content for a trumpet method is that trumpet players should practice grouping trumpet special sound effects together and become familiar with the musical signs that represent each trumpet special sound effect to play them fluently. Although these special sound effects can be explained through western pedagogical method for trumpet, but from the interview result, Soisa- ngim (personal communication, June 15, 2022) indicated that trumpet technical symbols in L.T. look the same as western music but are played differently. A discussion of some different sound concepts according to trumpet special sound effects including (1) slow music which contains vibrato, scoops, and bends. Khongpraphan (personal communication, June 15, 2022) mentioned that L.T music especially slow music requires wider vibrato compared to classical music style. Soisa-ngim (personal communication, June 15, 2022) shared his idea of playing vibrato as similar to coloratura of singers. Likewise, Anancharuspat (personal communication, June 15, 2022) said that there is no strict rule of vibrato, it depends on personal style. Chanoksakul (personal communication, May 27, 2022) mentioned that the vibrato in L.T. music is different from what we see in classical music or jazz music. The vibrato sound represents the character of local people which has no theoretical explanation. Scoops and bends are played with the same concept of vibrato which required imitation of L.T. singers’ accents; (2) fast music which contains shakes, falls, turns, and doits. Anancharuspat (personal communication, June 15, 2022) and Rodsub (personal communication, June 15, 2022) mentioned that most trumpet special sound effects derived from jazz music and the rules are not strict. Sodanil (personal communication, May 26, 2022) mentioned the example of trumpet special sound effects such as bending notes, shakes, and wide vibrato which are much harsher than classical music. 160 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(145-163) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Performance guidelines in playing L.T. music. The findings mention that trumpet techniques rely on L.T. singers’ backgrounds which support the idea to design the performance guidelines that provide L.T. music’s historical background of L.T. singers and songs, especially L.T. songs that are sung by multiple singers, to adjust mindset of sound concept playing. The guidelines for creation a L.T. method for trumpet The findings about fundamental trumpet techniques appear in L.T music and the interview results which present participants’ suggestion to create L.T method for trumpet. The guidelines for creation the method is discussed as follow: Purpose of designing a method. There are two goals of designing a trumpet method based on L.T music including: • to teach trumpet players who are interested in the study L.T. musical style. • to enhance fundamental trumpet techniques through the study of L.T. music. Structure of designing a method. There are four topics designed for a designing method including; • brief information on L.T. Music Background • introduction of Fundamental Trumpet Techniques • L.T. Trumpet Technical Exercises • L.T. Trumpet Excerpt Studies Scope of contents for designing a method This session presents the scope of contents for designing a method based following the topic mentioned in structure above. Brief information on L.T. music background. Brief information on L.T. Background that helps shapes style ideas including trumpet sound concepts and the trumpet’s role in L.T. music including the factors that make the trumpet sound unique such as by imitating the style of L.T. singers from different regions and various styles of L.T. in different time periods. Introduction of fundamental trumpet techniques. Provide an overview to the approach to the necessary fundamental trumpet techniques by using the western pedagogical methods for trumpet in order to prepare trumpet players to learn how to adapt those techniques to play in the L.T. style. After trumpet players practice each fundamental trumpet technique from this topic, they should be ready to learn the differences of playing music in L.T. music style by comparing the technical approaches in this topic with the L.T. context in the next topic “L.T. trumpet technical exercises.” L.T. Trumpet Technical Exercises. L.T. trumpet technical exercises that connect ideas from western pedagogical method for trumpet together with Thai L.T. musical elements. According to the findings presented some differences of the technical approaches between western pedagogical method for trumpet and L.T. music include tone production, articulation, and technical approach to range Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 161 development and trumpet special sound effects, and the presenting of Thai L.T. musical elements which include pentatonic scales, and rhythmic figures in L.T. musical idioms. L.T. Trumpet Excerpt Studies. A part of L.T. trumpet excerpts study is to select L.T. songs which present prominent fundamental trumpet techniques and characteristics in L.T. style. The technical exercises from the third topic can be used for specific L.T. songs, ideas of interpretation of L.T. musical style and suggestions for performance practical guidelines. The selected L.T. trumpet excerpts that present each prominent trumpet technique from Figures 1-9 can be used as a reference. In addition, the reference recordings of full L.T. songs should be introduced for trumpet players to listen to, especially some L.T. songs that have more than one version. Conclusion Trumpet players in the present day are required to play in a range of styles of music which leads them to succeed their musical career path. L.T. music is considered one of the musical styles that trumpet players should explore because it can open doors of opportunity to play in the Thailand music industry. Fundamental trumpet techniques can be studied by using western pedagogical methods for trumpet. Nevertheless, there are differences of technical approaches that create unique characteristics of Thai L.T. music. The generated guidelines can lead to design a trumpet method for trumpet players, music teachers or trumpet educators and include the purpose of designing a method, structure of designing a method, scope of contents for designing a method, and for creating a trumpet method book to develop students’ fundamental trumpet techniques as well as to study L.T. music that suit individual need. These generated guidelines can be a reference for trumpet players, music teachers or trumpet educators to design a trumpet method and study the efficiency of the designed method in future research. The findings derived from all data collection including samples of L.T. songs’ recordings, unpublished L.T. scores, and the interview groups of participants including secondary school music teachers, trumpet experts and professional trumpet L.T. players to develop the guidelines in creating a L.T method for trumpet, reliable and suitable for any trumpet players interested in L.T. music. Those wishing to design a method book based on L.T. music study could refer to these guidelines. Besides the L.T. songs that contain prominent trumpet parts, there are many L.T. songs from previous L.T. time periods that could be used in designing trumpet method and for further study regarding the characteristics of L.T. musical style during those periods. 162 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11, Issue 1(145-163) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge and extend my warmest thanks to my supervisor (Asst. Prof. Dr. Joseph Bowman) who made this work possible. His guidance and advice carried me through all the stages of writing my dissertation. I would also like to thank all the committee members for their comments and suggestions that helped me fill the gaps and made my work strongly practicable, again, a big thank you to everyone. I would like to thank all the interviewees who provided the sampling in this study and kindly allowed me to share their names on my paperwork. Not forgetting, my husband being the best supporter of my life. Finally, I would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, and Songkhla Rajabhat University which supported the scholarship to pursue the degree and sponsored the research budget of this study. References รวมเพลง MusicStation. (2022, June 17). นํ้าตาลาไทร - ก๊อต จักรพรรณ์ หัวแก้วหัวแหวน ชุดที่ 4 มาลัยดอกรัก [OFFICIAL MV] [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSx0F_qB9-o โรส มีเดีย แอนด์ เอ็นเตอร์เทนเม้นท์ Rose Media & Entertainment (2018, September 24). ยืมใจทศกัณฑ์ - คัฑลียา มารศรี (Official Audio) [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4K6CcHoAxqs โรส มีเดีย แอนด์ เอ็นเตอร์เทนเม้นท์ Rose Media & Entertainment (2018, September 14). อยากเจอคนจริงใจ - คัฑลียามารศรี (Official Audio) [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ed5xUN2ayeA โรส มีเดีย แอนด์ เอ็นเตอร์เทนเม้นท์ Rose Media & Entertainment (2017, May 12). แอบดูเขารักกัน - ดวงตา คงทอง (Official Audio) [video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ukj1J0RY5mA Chaiya, J. & Bowman, J. (2021). The development of curriculum content for the study of undergraduate applied trumpet in Thailand, Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(1), 12- 24. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.2.2021 Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Pearson. Gould, M. (2021). Gould on music: Playing, studying, teaching, and preparing for the future. qPress Music Publishing. Hickman, D. R. (n.d.). Clarke studies: Including all four instruction books for the cornet or trumpet: Elementary studies, technical studies, characteristic studies and setting up drills. Hickman Music Editions. Hickman, D. R. (2006). Trumpet pedagogy: A compendium of modern teaching techniques, David R. Hickman, Arizona State University. Hickman Music Editions. Lautzenheiser, T., Higgins, J., Menghini, C., Lavender, P., Rhodes, T. C., & Bierschenk, D. (1999). Essential elements for band: Comprehensive band method. Bb Trumpet (Book 1). Hal Leonard. Suthirat Wongthewan - Topic (2014, August 14). โอ๊ยๆ [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tJb-0Psz4_g Tague, K. C. (2017). Crossover trumpet performance: Jazz style and technique for Classical trumpeters. UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones. 3104. http://dx.doi.org/10.34917/11156823 Vannatham, N., & Ngamsutti, C. (2016). The way to be excellence of secondary school Luk Patcharee Suwantada & Joseph Bowman 163 Thung band in Thailand [Doctoral dissertation, Mahasarakham]. https://www.tcithaijo.org/index.php/jica/article/download/99322/7719/ Various Artists - Topic (2014, December 6). โปรดติดตามตอนต่อไป [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LHDznjtbHhM Vizzutti, A. (1991). The Allen Vizzutti trumpet method book 1: Technical studies. Alfred. Vizzutti, A. (2005). The Allen Vizzutti trumpet method book 2: Harmonic studies. Alfred. Vizzutti, A. (1991). The Allen Vizzutti trumpet method book 3: Melodic studies. Alfred. Biography Patcharee Suwantada is a D.M. candidate in music performance and pedagogy from the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. She has received a Master of Arts (music education) from Rajabhat Bansomdejchaopraya University, and a Bachelor of Music (music performance) from the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand, and Yong Siew Toh Conservatory of Music, National University of Singapore, Singapore. Joseph L. Bowman, D.M.A. is an Assistant Professor of Music at Mahidol University College of Music, Thailand. He has been the Professor of Trumpet at College of Music, Mahidol University since 2003, where he teaches applied trumpet, literature, pedagogy, and orchestral repertoire. He is also a member of the Thailand Philharmonic Orchestra since 2008. Dr. Bowman received the DMA and MM from Arizona State University and the BM from the University of Cincinnati.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 11 No. 1 (2022)

-

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/431

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7592

Editorial

The Malaysian Journal of Music, Volume 11, Issue 1, comprises nine articles that present current issues in performance, musicology, music technology, practice-based research, and ethnomusicology from Thailand, Malaysia, China, and Indonesia.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/7592/4311

Volume 11, Issue 1 2022 ISSN 2600-9366 e-ISSN 2600-9331 Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjong Malim, Perak 2022 ii MALAYSIAN JOURNALOF MUSIC Volume 11, Issue 1, 2022 Editorial iii Christine Augustine Organic Concept in Rolf-Dieter Arens’s Piano Teaching Strategy 1 Aylwin Yonathan Diachronic Analysis of the Profane Words in English Song Lyrics: 14 A Computational Linguistics Perspective Mazura Mastura Muhammad Flora Goyak Muhamad Fadzllah Zaini Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim The Mutual Influence between Asian Cultures and American Minimalist Music: 33 An Essential Channel for Aesthetic Exchange Ang-Cheng Kris Ho Fernando Martin Pastor Slendro Culture, Balungan Concept, and Inner Melody of Jawatimuran 53 Karawitan Aris Setiawan Playing Gamelan Bonang in the Air: User Requirements for Designing a 68 Digital Musical Instrument for the Malay Bonang Khatriza Ahmad Saffian Noris Mohd Norowi Lili Nurliyana Abdullah Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman Ahmad Faudzi Musib The Learning Stages of Ngroncongi/Undul usuk: Achieving the Original Solo 84 Keroncong Singing Style Yudi Sukmayadi Hery Supiarza Mustika Andini iii Practice-based Methodology Design for Performance-Composition and 109 Interdisciplinary Music Research Valerie Ross An Evolutionary Narrative of Popular Music Learning Cultures: 126 A Case Study of the United Kingdom Choong Hueyuen Guidelines for Creation of a Luk Thung Method for Trumpet 145 Patcharee Suwantada Joseph Bowman iv Editorial Cite this editorial: Augustine, C. (2022). Editorial [Editorial]. Malaysian Journal of Music,11(1), iv- v. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol11.1.10.2022 The Malaysian Journal of Music, Volume 11, Issue 1, comprises nine articles that present current issues in performance, musicology, music technology, practice-based research, and ethnomusicology from Thailand, Malaysia, China, and Indonesia. The first article, “Organic Concept in Rolf-Dieter Arens’s piano teaching strategy” written by Aylwin Yonathan highlights the distinguished concert pianist and his pedagogical content and approach towards the uniqueness of the pedagogy; the teaching strategies as well as the implementation in the piano lessons in a holistic manner. This exclusive article also highlights the pianist’s ‘organic’ flow which implies bringing together the relationship of different elements as a unified entity that moves, connects, and develops in a natural flow. The second enlightening article, “Diachronic Analysis of the Profane Words in English Song Lyrics: A Computational Linguistics Perspective by Mazura Mastura Muhammad, Flora Goyak, Muhamad Fadzllah Zaini, Wesam Mohamed Abdelkhalek Ibrahim discusses the linguistic phenomena of the taboo word in English songs of different genres of music. Genres such as Country, Pop, Rhythm and Blues (R&B), and Rock were analyzed mainly in this research using the specialized corpus known as Diachronic Corpus of English Song Lyrics (DCOESL) to exhibit the highest use of f-word, in addition to assist teachers in selecting the effective teaching and learning materials for their students. Ang-Cheng Kris Ho and Fernando Martin Pastor, the writers of the inspiring third article, “The Mutual Influence between Asian Cultures and American Minimalist Music: An Essential Channel for Aesthetic Exchange shares about the bridge of communication that the style has brought between the two cultures. It has also been widely influenced by philosophies of aesthetics developed in each of the continents. “Slendro Culture, Balungan Concept, and Inner Melody of Jawatimuran Karawitan”, the fourth article authored by Aris Setiawan discusses the uniqueness of the concept and character of the specific East Java musical culture. In-depth observation and interviews were conducted as part of the participant observation method has discovered many similarities and differences of musical styles, repertoires, and instrumentations compared to other regions in Central Java. “Playing Gamelan Bonang in the Air: User Requirements for Designing a Digital Musical Instrument for the Malay Bonang” is the fifth article by Khatriza Ahmad Saffian, Noris Mohd Norowi, Lili Nurliyana Abdullah, Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman and Ahmad Faudzi Musib. The designing of a traditional music instrument, specifically, the Malay Bonang into a virtual environment has been highlighted by the authors into preserving its traditional identity and naturalness and importantly engaging to all users. Two modes of playing were designed—natural mode and exploratory mode to cater novice players to gamelan experts for more complex musical creation. Yudi Sukmayadi, Hery Supiarza and Mustika Andini’s article titled “The Learning Stages of Ngroncongi/Undul usuk: Achieving the Original Solo Keroncong Singing Style” aims at examining the rules and highest achievements in singing Solo-style keroncong, known as ngroncongi (undul usuk) and the social and cultural contexts of Solo people. This stimulating study discusses the hierarchical stages in singing, the rules, and tips to achieve it, as well as the significance of preservation and development of Keroncong singing. “Practice-based Methodology Design for Performance-Composition and Interdisciplinary Music Research” the seventh article authored by Valerie Ross, is an eye-opening article that discusses v the multi-facets of practice-based approaches in performance, composition, and interdisciplinary music research. It shares the process of crafting methodological designs that encapsulate research in and of practice. The author has also presented the practice-based methodological model crafted for performance-composition research acts as a in configurating convergent and divergent perspectives of practice-based music research. The eighth article, “An Evolutionary Narrative of Popular Music Learning Cultures: A Case Study of the United Kingdom” by Choong Hueyuen, features the learning experiences of popular musicians between the 1970s to 2010s. This interesting article highlights the ways popular musicians developed had diversified from a predominantly aural and informal narrative into an increasing engagement with formal modes of learning in popular music, notation-centric practices, as well as resources made available by technological advancements. The exciting final article entitled “Guidelines for Creation of a Luk Thung Method for Trumpet” by Patcharee Suwantada and Joseph Bowman discusses about the fundamental trumpet techniques used in the Luk Thung (a Thai traditional music style), comparison with the Western pedagogical methods and using the above mentioned music to develop trumpet players fundamental techniques. The findings also support the designing of the generated guidelines to assist music teachers and educators to design and structure, as well as create a trumpet method book according to their individual needs. Christine Augustine Chief Editor Malaysian Journal of Music

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 2 (2021)

gamelan, leadership, ngemong raos, panjak juru kendhang

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/390

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4583

Ngemong Raos: Aesthetic Leadership Role of Panjak Juru Kendhang in Javanese Gamelan

The leadership of the Javanese gamelan is handled by a

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4583/3092

Afriza Animawan Arifin & Koentjoro 1 Ngemong Raos: Aesthetic Leadership Role of Panjak Juru Kendhang in Javanese Gamelan Afriza Animawan Arifin1 & Koentjoro2 Faculty of Psychology Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 15 July 2021. Cite this article (APA): Arifin, A. A., & Koentjoro, . (2021). Ngemong Raos: Aesthetic Leadership Role in Javanese Gamelan. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.2.1.2021 Abstract The leadership of the Javanese gamelan is handled by a panjak juru kendhang (kendhang player). Although this player is the leader of this ensemble, his function is distinct from that of a conductor in a Western symphony orchestra. Psychological studies on leadership in music have examined the function of conductors in Western symphony orchestras. However, leadership in gamelan ensembles have yet to be explored. This study aims to examine leadership in Javanese gamelan ensembles. This study involved nine informants consisting of three main informants who are panjak juru kendhang, three informants who are pengrawit (gamelan players), and three expert informants who were academicians and gamelan experts. Qualitative methodology, i.e., the phenomenological method, was applied and interpreted through Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Our findings on gamelan leadership is elaborated within four cycles of aesthetic leadership called ngemong raos (soul nurturing) which include sensitivity of niteni (observing), decision-making, gotong royong (egalitarian tasks), and the building a raos. Keywords: gamelan, leadership, ngemong raos, panjak juru kendhang Introduction In gamelan, mad sinamadan and rasa pangrasa refer to observing and listening to one another, keeping the tempo, not crossing one another, and playing respective parts to achieve harmony as a musical ensemble. For this reason, leadership is needed to accomplish unity in playing the gamelan. This function is carried out by a panjak juru kendhang (kendhang player), who is also referred to as pamurba irama (rhythm lead) of ricikan (gamelan instruments) and has the authority to regulate the buka (opening) to suwuk (closing) of a piece. This is similar to the Western symphony orchestra, where the leadership is helmed by a conductor. The conductor is also responsible for the sound produced by the orchestra. However, leadership in a gamelan ensemble is also different. The conductor of a Western symphony orchestra does not play an instrument but uses gestures and musical cues while the panjak juru kendhang uses his kendhang to lead the ensemble. The importance of the panjak juru kendhang was determined through a series of individual interviews, observations, and group interviews with various karawitan (the art of playing the gamelan) groups from professional karawitans, schools/colleges, and hamlet/village musical groups from October 2019 to January 2020. While a gamelan can stand alone as uyon-uyon (a gamelan performance solely with music), it is often used to accompany other art forms such as wayang kulit (shadow puppets), dance, and traditional ceremonies (Supanggah, 2007). As such, the role of the panjak juru kendhang was studied from various perspectives, Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (1-12) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 2 including that of the panjak juru kendhang himself, other gamelan artists, academics, classical Javanese dancers, and puppeteers. Although many gamelan styles can be studied, this research focuses solely on the classical Javanese gamelan. Based on preliminary results, the panjak juru kendhang plays an important role in leading a gamelan performance, both during the practice process and the live performances. A panjak juru kendhang usually has other abilities in playing ricikan (gamelan instruments) thus is able to connect with other players of a gamelan ensemble. The panjak juru kendhang serves the gendhing (repertoire) and presents classical Javanese puppets and dances. One of the functions of panjak juru kendhang is to deliver raos/rasa to other pengrawit and spectators. Benamou (2010) states that rasa (in gamelan music) is translated as “sensation” or “inner meaning” (p. 40). It is often defined as the ability to express, feel, or possess inner meaning (intuition). Many Western theories cannot explain the meaning of rasa. The closest meaning is “feeling” (Benamou, 2010). However, raos in the Javanese context has the closest meaning to “soul” (Sugiarto, 2015). Aesthetic Leadership in a Musical Context Historically, leadership in music has existed since ancient Greece (Carnicer, Garrido, & Requena, 2015). Then, leaders of musical performances known as cheironomy used hand gestures to indicate the type of melody that was to be played. In Rome the music leaders used to the sole of a shoe containing a metal strip called scabellum to beat time. In the 16th and 17th centuries, choirmasters were vocal coaches for church music in Europe. During the Baroque era, musical leadership was taken over by harpsichord players. Today, a conductor leads musical performances. The classical theory of leadership in psychology is one that is closely related to power, authority, regulation, control, and supervision (Yukl, 2010). This theory can be applied to the form of leadership of Western orchestral conductors. Scientific studies of aesthetic leadership in music were developed in the 19th and 20th centuries (Atik, 1994; Beau, 2016; Boerner & von Streit, 2007; Ginsborg et al., 2006; Khodyakov, 2014; Koivunen & Wennes, 2011; Matthews & Kitsantas, 2013; Morrison et al., 2009; Petricic, 2011; Shaw, 2004). Most focused on the music of the Western symphony orchestra. Discussions pertaining to leadership behaviour in music can be categorised according to interactions between the conductor and a musician, the conductor’s leadership style, the conductor’s role, and the way musicians perceive instructions from the conductor. Yaakov Atik (1994) argued that the transformational relationship between conductors and players occurred when the conductor used less hierarchical relations and adopted a more open approach. In turn, a conductor with a transformational leadership style was supported by the positive mood of the orchestra players, positively impacting orchestral performances (Boerner & von Streit, 2007). The success of an orchestral performance was also supported by the practice strategy designed by the conductor. Expressive conductors who stimulate hand movements have a significant collective effect on the efficacy of players (Matthews & Kitsantas, 2013; Morrison et al., 2009). However, when a conductor is an outsider (i.e., a guest conductor), he must first take the initiative to foster trust from players so that he can harness his full authority as a conductor (Khodyakov, 2014). In the Western classical orchestra, the conductor is at the top of the hierarchy and serves as a mentor and coach. His or her main function is listening to ensure that the sound produced by the orchestra is harmonious, the sound settings are balanced, and all instruments can be heard clearly (Shaw, 2004). In another study, a conductor who is directive and charismatic or able to provide a clear musical vision would possess a positive outlook and performance quality (Petricic, 2011). Several psychological studies have also explained how orchestral players perceive a conductor’s hand movements to the production of a harmonious sound (Ginsborg et al., 2006; Luck & Nte, 2008). In orchestras without a conductor or where no vertical hierarchy exists, the leadership role is determined through musical scores. In this case, the melodic lead would determine the leader of a group (Beau, 2016). Usually, this role is taken on by the first violinist, who provides gestures in the form of body language and expressive facial expressions as cues to other players. An empirical research has shown that the role of leadership in relationships between leaders and those who lead have three dimensions: relational listening, aesthetic judgment, and kinaesthetic empathy (Koivunen & Wennes, 2011). Scientific sources have also discussed leadership in gamelan ensembles and indicated that the role can be taken on by a kendhang or rebab player (Brinner, 1995; Kunst, 1949; Palgunadi, 2002; Pickvance, 2005; Sumarsam, 2018; Supanggah, 2007; Yudoyono, 1984). A rebab is a pamurba lagu (direction of the melody) Afriza Animawan Arifin & Koentjoro 3 and is often known to pamurba yatmaka (drive the soul). As such, the rebab is the driving force of the raos of a gamelan performance (Sastrodarsono, in Sumarsam, 2018). Kunst (1949) considered the rebab as a king, the kendhang its prime minister, and the gong ageng the chief justice of the Supreme Court that ensured all sources of power were evenly divided. A kendhang is often referred to as pamurba irama (rhythm lead), and a panjak juru kendhang is required to be wise in order to create a suitable rhythm to a song. He must know when to slow down, speed up, and remain at a certain tempo. He must also determine when to sound ket, thak, thung, ndang, dhet, bem, hen (sounds of the kendhang) as markers for other instruments. Brinner (1995) stated that leadership in a gamelan is flexible, humble, and fluid. A leader of a gamelan does not always play the main role in a musical presentation. Sometimes, he stands out during a performance, but he also disappears completely from the sound of the gendhing. Statement of the Problem Some of the previous studies mentioned above still view leadership from an ethnomusicological point of view. This research aims to describe gamelan leadership from a psychological perspective. Thus far, research on aesthetic leadership has focused on the leadership of Western orchestral groups (Atik, 1994; Beau, 2016; Boerner & von Streit, 2007; Ginsborg et al., 2006; Khodyakov, 2014; Koivunen & Wennes, 2011; Matthews & Kitsantas, 2013; Morrison et al., 2009; Petricic, 2011; Shaw, 2004). The general philosophical, cultural, and aesthetic differences between gamelans and Western symphony orchestras provide a fresh view of the aesthetic leadership construct in music. This gap is addressed by the following research question: What is the aesthetic leadership role of a panjak juru kendhang in a gamelan? Purpose This study aims to explore the aesthetic leadership role of the panjak juru kendhang in Javanese gamelan in order to achieve a harmonious gamelan performance. As stated in the Oxford English Dictionary (Soanes & Stevenson, 2004), harmony is a combination of musical notes played together to produce a pleasing effect. Harmonious unity is thus connected to an aesthetic and beautiful musical presentation. The benefit of this research is to provide theoretical or scientific contributions for aesthetic leadership in music behaviour. Method Phenomenological qualitative research methods were applied to explore the leadership of the panjak juru kendhang. By using phenomenology, we can explore the experience of the subject naturally and focus on individual experiences (Kahija, 2017). In this process, the researcher sets aside personal experiences and related theories (epoche) to gaze the subject's experience more naturally (Creswell, 2013). A phenomenological approach is utilised to interpret aesthetic leadership events experienced by participants (Creswell, 2013). Before this research began, a preliminary study was conducted for approximately 3 months to explore related problems and establish a detailed report with the participants (Herdiansyah, 2015). Participants This study involved nine informants: three main informants consisting of panjak juru kendhang (kendhang players), three significant pengrawit (gamelan performers), and three expert informants consisting of academicians and Javanese art experts. The three main informants are males and have been actively involved in musical activities for more than 20 years, though they have not taken formal/academic musical education. Of the three pengrawit, two participants, Informants 1 and 2, are pengrawit (gamelan players) aged > 55 years and farm laborers who live in a village. Informant 3 (25 years old) is a pengrawit belonging to a student activity unit (UKM) on campus X. These three informants are panjak juru kendhang who have experience in teaching musical groups (karawitan) in their respective ensembles. Informants 4, 5, and 6 are pengrawit who have performed with the main informants. Informants 7, 8, and 9 are an academician, a doctor, and a professor in the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (1-12) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 4 Javanese art of pedhalangan (puppeteering), Javanese dance, and karawitan in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, respectively. This study received ethical clearance from the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Psychology, Gadjah Mada University. All the informants signed an informed consent. Their description is summarised in Figure 1: Main informants (panjak juru kendhang) Informant 1 Informant 2 Informant 3 Significant gamelan performers (Pengrawit/gamelan players) Informant 4 Informant 5 Informant 6 Expert informants (Academicians and Javanese art experts) Informant 7 Informant 8 Informant 9 Figure 1. Research informants Data Collection Procedure Figure 2. Data collection procedures A preliminary study was conducted in the form of interviews, observations, and group interviews between October 2019 to January 2020 among various gamelan groups from professional, school/college, and hamlet/village musical groups. Later, other related studies were reviewed. A proposal and a list of questions were prepared. Data, comprising nine interview transcripts, some photographs and video documentation, were then collected. Semi-structured interviews were carried out to achieve flexibility and focus for interview purposes (Creswell, 2013). The primary data collection method in this study was personal interviews. Data collection was carried out within one month. In this period, the participants’ music practice sites were visited to make observations and collect data. Their residences were also visited during personal interviews. Research questions revolved around the aesthetic leadership of a panjak juru kendhang in gamelan ensembles. Data Analysis Figure 3. Data analysis Data was analysed through interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). This analysis is based on 3 main pillars: phenomenology (the philosophy of phenomenology), hermeneutics (meaning/interpretation), and idiography (the study of humans and their uniqueness) (Kahija, 2017; Smith et al., 2009). In short, IPA was Preliminary Study Literature study Writing proposal Making research questions Data collection Data Transcription Initial coding Emergent theme Psychological dynamics Superordinate theme Afriza Animawan Arifin & Koentjoro 5 used to interpret the experience of the subject naturally. Results generated from interview transcripts were coded using ATLAS.Ti 8.0 for Mac. Initial coding and emergent themes were made to code the early stages. Emergent themes were then grouped into broader themes of superordinate themes (Creswell, 2013; Kahija, 2017; Smith et al., 2009). After the themes emerged, connections and linkages between these themes were determined via psychological dynamics. Results This study obtained four cycles that were run until “harmony” was produced by the gamelan, which was spearheaded by the panjak juru kendhang. These four cycles included sensitivity of niteni (observing), making decisions, conducting gotong royong (egalitarian tasks), and building raos. The cycles emerged from the process of analysing the subject’s experience when playing the gamelan. Ngemong Raos as a Concept of Music Psychology The concept of ngemong raos refers to a typology of leadership within Javanese musical aesthetic leadership. It is a unique concept that emerges and distinguishes itself from Western concepts of leadership. The term ngemong can be translated into English as “nurturing”. The word is taken from the Javanese terms momong, among, ngemong (Dewantara, 2013; Samho, 2013). This information was conveyed by Ki Hadjar Dewantara, an educational and cultural activist from Java, Indonesia. He is also known as the “father of education” in Indonesia. This concept is used to describe the process of caring for children. Momong is the ability to care with sincerity and compassion. Among is the ability to be a good example/role model. Ngemong is the process of observing, caring for, and taking full responsibility. Related to this concept, ngemong is used to refer to the process of observing. Observing is defined as the process of actively looking at the surroundings and responding responsibly. It is the main role of a panjak juru kendhang. Raos is related to the concept of Kawruh Jiwa (knowledge of the soul), which was introduced by Ki Ageng Suryo Mentaram, a Javanese philosopher. Here, man must control kramadangsa (ideal self) to avoid egoism. As a powerful person, a panjak juru kendhang must be able to control his kramadangsa as a leader. One of the concepts of Ki Ageng Suryomentaram’s raos sih is that raos is manifested when someone is able to control his or her desire to pursue personal interests, because his or her basic love is always directed to make others happy (Sugiarto, 2015). The concept of ngemong raos in the role of panjak juru kendhang requires the kendhang player to actively observe the people (pengrawit) around him in order to understand the raos of each individual and achieve the raos (soul) of the group, thereby achieving harmony. The raos should be nurturing because ngemong does not just happen through thought (cognitivism). Rationalities and theoretical considerations also arise, consequently blocking the raos itself. Thus, the gamelan should be played with one’s heart (soul). In simple terms, the concept of ngemong raos aesthetic leadership can be described in the cycle shown in Figure 4. A panjak juru kendhang must be sensitive to the ability of the pengrawit (gamelan player) around him (sensitivity of niteni). After knowing a player’s ability, he adjusts it within the abilities of the team to minimise the gap between the abilities of all other players. This action requires self-control, which in turn enables other players to respond to the harmony of the ensemble. After making observations, the panjak juru kendhang makes decisions on how fast the laya (tempo) should be. The concept of gotong royong is still highlighted here, where being the hero of the group is not the goal. Gotong royong means helping and sharing. A panjak juru kendhang needs to share his knowledge and experiences about musical performances. He also needs patience, because not all players can immediately understand the techniques or skills required. When all technical adjustments and corrections are made, the panjak juru kendhang leads the team to build the raos. This process continues until the musical performances are in the right zone so that they can work harmoniously. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (1-12) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 6 Figure 1. Aesthetic leadership cycle of ngemong raos Sensitivity of Niteni (Observing) Niteni (observing) refers to the act of watching and listening attentively. To ngemong raos, a panjak juru kendhang must observe the players around him with raos (soul). This situation requires the sensitivity of niteni of a panjak juru kendhang. Players are in the middle of an ensemble. The panjak juru kendhang observes the surroundings and responds musically by using raos to achieve harmony. … A person who plays the gamelan should listen to the kendhang or the bonang, so if the feeling that I build is similar to the one when I play the kenong or the gong … it feels like it. Otherwise, you cannot … (Informant 2). A panjak juru kendhang must instil ethics of “listening sensitivity” to other ricikan (gamelan instruments) with raos. The ability to listen is part of observing sensitively because a panjak juru kendhang is the leader of the ensemble. “He should be able to listen to other instruments. He must have mastery in gendèr and rebab virtuoso, or he should at least know how to play the instruments” (Informant 7). In addition, a panjak juru kendhang is also required to master all gamelan ricikan especially rebab and gender. When you hit too hard, you cannot hear the rebab virtuoso. The voice is drowned, and the sindhen (singer) sinks … (Informant 2). Furthermore, niteni allows the panjak juru kendhang to maintain sound balance in the gamelan ensemble. Both hard and soft ricikan must be played according to its portion and duties. Developing an observational attitude requires the ability to be emphatic and submissive so that squabbling among team members can be avoided. The main vision of a panjak juru kendhang is to save the team. Empathy relates to how the panjak juru kendhang can determine the strengths and weaknesses of his ensemble so that he can adjust the laya (tempo) and dynamics of the music. Informant 6, who is head of the Village Gamelan Association at Village X in Yogyakarta was asked to play Gendhing Ngayogjan but Informant 2 said, “No! You cannot play the dhemung variation of that piece. The problem is neng nong neng ngong nong neng [imitating dhemung voice] … if you still look at the notation, it will not be done!” In this case, Informant 2 understood the ability of the group that he led. He musically and personally understood that if Informant 6 played in that manner, the harmony would not be formed. As such, Harmony (1) Sensitivity of "niteni" (2) Decision- making (3) Gotong Royong (4) Building Rasa Afriza Animawan Arifin & Koentjoro 7 Informant 2 did not allow them to play the song. Informant 3 also emphasised that the panjak juru kendhang must know the players’ skills before they practiced a song. … Know the players first, the atmosphere, and the background of the player so that idealism should not be presented … (Informant 3). Panjak juru kendhang must be able to suppress kramadangsa (idealism) and adapt well to the ensemble players’ conditions. Perhaps a panjak juru kendhang has the musical abilities above the other pengrawit. However, he needs to observe who he plays with and how capable he is. Suppressing idealism can help the panjak juru kendhang make those decisions. Decision-Making Decision-making refers to the act of making decisions on the facets that should be observed in an ensemble in order to suppress a panjak juru kendhang's kramadangsa (idealism). Some of the facets that should be addressed include the following: how the panjak juru kendhang determines the laya (tempo) and how they present the atmosphere of kendhangan (i.e., the way a kendhang is played) so that all players can follow the flow of the ensemble. If some players fail to harmonise with the rest of the team, the task of the panjak juru kendhang is to ngemong so that the group can still carry on in harmony even in awkward conditions. Various methods can be performed to slow down the tempo, but I only use one method. I do not apply too many variations. I am trying to follow this method because it is better to save all of my friends (Informant 3). A panjak juru kendhang may also choose to give in so that the group can still carry on harmoniously. He could bring down the tempo and follow the flow of the group. … So, ojo dumeh, just because you have the power as a kendhang player to do whatever you want. Set the tempo selfishly without observing the player’s abilities around you … (Informant 6) Ojo dumeh is a Javanese saying that means “do not be arrogant!” Even though a panjak juru kendhang is superior to other players, he should not think so. He must prioritise the ensemble. The main role of a panjak juru kendhang is to unite the group and to achieve harmony. A panjak juru kendhang interacts and collaborates with many people, so “he needs to have self-control” (Informant 7). This form of self-control is translated into several attitudes, such as having patience and controlling his ego. Informant 7 observed: “The panjak juru kendhang must be patient, because he is nurturing several characters …”. His patience should be similar to that shown by Informant 2 when he was teaching an elderly gamelan group in Region X: …These women are a bit slow, so they should practice properly and be given examples on how to play the gamelan. The theory is as such; it is clear, so the bonang is like this; this one is called mbalung … (Informant 2). Informant 1 also demonstrated patience through the testimony given by his student: “His teachings [Informant 1] can easily be understood. I have never witnessed him being angry with the ensemble” (Informant 4). Likewise, the expert informant (Informant 9) mentioned, “The main criterion for leading the gamelan corps or a gamelan orchestra is patience. This attitude is important because gamelan plays with rasa” (Informant 9). Informant 9 further indicated that rasa would be formed when the players are able to control their ego. Thus, controlling the ego is not only a task for the panjak juru kendhang but also other players. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (1-12) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 8 Gotong Royong Gotong royong in a musical context means that no single person is dominant in the group, i.e., all players collaborate to achieve harmony and respect among one another through their respective duties and roles within the ensemble. This is unlike the leadership of Western music, where there is a need for charismatic leaders (Atik, 1994; Petricic, 2011). In gamelan, this criterion does not always appear. Charismatic leadership in a gamelan ensemble will be more visible in the relationship between teacher/coach and students. The presence of Informant 1 [my teacher] is what I have been waiting for. There is encouragement. Like there is ... there is like a mother figure to me” (Informant 4). Informant 4 felt that the presence of Informant 1 in the gamelan group was important because it could inspire him. “I wouldn’t be able to play gamelan like this without him” (Informant 4). Concurrently, Informant 5 stated that “He [Informant 3] has the ability to train us when the coach doesn't come. He can play the drums, teach the gongs, and all the instruments” (Informant 5). This means that the presence of someone who is able to lead is needed to trigger gotong royong in an ensemble. On the other hand, gotong royong can also occur when there is no charismatic figure. They can just ngeli (flow together), united by their common interests, which then makes a community, chemistry, and a collective peak (Tan et al., 2020). No absolute leadership dominated by just one person needs to exist. Even a panjak juru kendhang cannot arbitrarily adjust the tempo. Gamelan is collective in nature, so no domination exists in one particular group in a collective society (Informant 8). This usually occurs in the context of professional gamelan groups where the players already have high skills and understand their respective duties. The members of a gamelan ensemble emphasise a sense of equality with one another. Naturally, they can play as a group with this sense of gotong royong. In the context of gamelan playing among amateurs, it has its own challenges. “When I lead people who are less capable than me, it is more difficult to maintain rhythm, dynamics should be played softly …” (Informant 3). Therefore, even though a panjak juru kendhang possesses very high skills, he has to try to save his ensemble by ngemong. In the context of a professional gamelan group, ngemong is needed. Sometimes, when all the players are equally clever and skilled, players have to set aside their egos. This situation had been experienced by Informant 1 and Informant 2. One of his players deliberately “tackled” him by speeding up the tempo based on whims. Even under these conditions, to save the group, the panjak juru kendhang had to ngemong. Usually, I give in. Succumbing in the sense of whether you want it or not, we must follow the person who can be called ngeyel (stubborn), so stubborn people must follow. If you do not follow them, you can fall apart in the middle of a song. That is my way, and it is just like that (Informant 1). Sometimes I also have unpleasant experiences. When the kendhang is played well, the other pengrawit may attempt to break the tempo. It makes me hate it as the gamelan becomes inharmonious (Informant 2). From the experiences of Informant 1 and 2, when one person in the ensemble does not have a sense of gotong royong, the ensemble becomes chaotic. Situations like these call for the leadership of a panjak juru kendhang, who tries to go with the flow of the group so that gotong royong can continue. Building Raos Panjak juru kendhang is like a “driver controlling a car” (Informant 2), i.e., the car accelerates or slows down depending on the driver. Passengers feel comfortable or worried depending on kendhangan or the way a kendhang is played. When the car goes over a bump, the driver can step on the brake to slow down, so it does not lose control. “The feeling when playing a kendhang is felt right in the heart” (Informant 2). Energy is Afriza Animawan Arifin & Koentjoro 9 transferred to other players when the panjak juru kendhang can play with soul. “When it is ripe, the rasa is enjoyable …” (Informant 5). The rasa of the panjak juru kendhang must be in line with that of the pengrawit. When playing in a group that does not understand the rasa, a musician usually feels stiff because his ability and rasa are not on the same frequency. “Playing gamelan with juniors who have just started playing is stiff …” (Informant 3). Mastery of various aspects other than musical technique is needed. However, it veers more to the sense of ngemong. Therefore, a player must not stand out from his kendhangan to form the raos of the group. In this context, being stiff is not bad; instead, it means “giving in” to follow the flow (flow of raos) in the group. A kendhang player must know when he must present irama 1, in what character, for example, oh this is sigrak (play with spirit) but alus (soft) … Ooh a little bit dashing … ooh a little bit coarse… similar to irama 1, the leader must know irama, because not all kendhang players know this character … (Informant 7). Irama refers to the rhythmic density. The panjak juru kendhang is vital in delivering raos here. If the kendhangan in accordance with the gendhing (repertoire) character, energy can be responded to by other pengrawit. The panjak juru kendhang gives cues to instruct the pengrawit to play softly or loudly. From the softest wasp like the gendèr to loud percussions like saron or bonang, this must be put together. Players will be required to play rep (softly), with cues coming from the gamelan leader. From the kendhang player. The conductor is the kendhang player (Informant 9). Thus, one of the important roles of a panjak juru kendhang is to build raos, because playing the gamelan is different from a Western symphony orchestra. In gamelan, playing with raos is more important than just reading the notation. A flow is achieved when raos is formed. Discussion This study aims to explore the role of aesthetic leadership in Javanese gamelan. The aesthetic leadership role is described within the concept of ngemong raos, which includes sensitivity of niteni, decision-making, conducting a gotong royong, and building raos. The sensitivity of niteni refers to watching and listening attentively to the pengrawit around the panjak juru kendhang within the ensemble. Decision-making refers to empathetic decision making while considering the ensemble and suppressing a panjak juru kendhang’s kramadangsa (idealism). Gotong royong refers to the act of togetherness, where all players work together to achieve harmony and respect one another in their duties and roles within the ensemble. Building raos is the role of a panjak juru kendhang who delivers rasa in the gamelan. This cycle is carried out sequentially, from niteni sensitivity to building raos. This is a continuous process, where every aspect of the cycle can be experienced through practicing and performing. The role of aesthetic leadership during the rehearsals will be higher than that of a performance. This is because when in rehearsal, communication with the pengrawit is more intimate. The same can be observed of an orchestra conductor who is actively involved in rehearsals (Price & Byo, 2002). Based on the research analysis, there are several musical and extra musical attributes (personality) that panjak juru kendhang have to be able to carry out. This includes listening emphatically, having sensitivity to others, and helping in the process of niteni and gotong royong. Problem solving skills, nurturing skills, patience and self-control make it easier for leaders to make decisions and build rasa. Certainly, a leader of music must have musical abilities above the average of other players and have the ability to teach in order to inspire other pengrawit. Our data suggests that the four cycles of ngemong raos aesthetic leadership is the embodiment of Javanese leadership philosophy, which emphasises the characteristics of a nurturing leader. Furthermore, the attitude of being patient and being ojo dumeh (to not feel arrogant) is a natural part of Javanese leadership (Achmad, 2018). Even in Javanese puppet theatre (seni Wayang) characters, leaders, role models, or central characters are the heroes and not kings such as Sri Ramawijaya, Prabu Basukarna, Sri Kresna or Batara Guru. Rather, role models include the figure of Semar, who works as a clerk (servant) behind the scenes and Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (1-12) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 10 implements tut wuri handayani (to give encouragement in the background) to provide motivation and spirit in the background (Endraswara, 2018). In gamelan leadership, these attributes may or may not appear within the role of the panjak juru kendhang. It is important for the panjak juru kendhang not to be too prominent and dominating among the others (Brinner, 1995). However, his presence is still important and makes an impact on his group. Tan et al. (2020), who studied the concept of flow in Javanese gamelan found that a leader must downplay hierarchy, select music that musicians enjoy, and foster a friendly and relaxed environment to embody a sense of community in the ensemble. Western symphony leadership emphasises the charismatic nature of a conductor, which is the most dominant and influential aspect of a conductor (Atik, 1994; Koivunen & Wennes, 2011; Petricic, 2011). The conductor clearly stands out from the crowd. Standing on a podium, he is in a physically higher position than the other players so that the cues can be seen more clearly; his attire is also distinct from other players, and he controls and assumes full responsibility for the ensemble’s sound quality (Gibson, 2017; Ippolito, 2019; Lisk, 2006; Wittry, 2007). A special tribute is also given to the conductor as he enters and leaves the stage. This situation is different from that of the panjak juru kendhang, who is positioned in the middle of the ensemble. His whereabouts are sometimes unknown because his appearance is visually not any different from that of other pengrawit (gamelan players). Gamelan playing emphasises a sense of equality and cooperation. The dominance of one person is rarely highlighted. A gamelan is not meaningful without harmony among players (Dunbar- Hall, 2011). This phenomenon bodes with gamelan philosophy. According to the teachings contained within Taman Siswa by Ki Hadjar Dewantara (Dewantara, 1959, 2013; Samho, 2013), a panjak juru kendhang is in the centre of an ensemble; his teachings ascribe to the values of ing madya mbangun karsa, where a leader of a society should be motivating and encouraging. This study also discussed the delivery of a raos driven by a panjak juru kendhang. When all players have mastered the material well, raos can emerge. This feeling is related to the raos of the pengrawit, the group, gendhing (repertoire), and of the panjak juru kendhang as leader of the ensemble. All these aspects build raos in a gamelan performance. Previous literature on raos/rasa have yet to connect the significance of gamelan leadership in delivering raos (Benamou, 2010; Brinner, 1995; Kunst, 1949; Weiss, 2006; and Sumarsam, 2013). Before concluding, some of the limitations of this study must be acknowledged. The focus of this research is on leadership within the Javanese gamelan of the Yogyakarta style, where most informants are native Javanese speakers. Most of the interviews were conducted in the Javanese language, and there are words that we cannot simply be translated. Javanese usually adhere to the principle of ojo dumeh (to not be arrogant), and in this study, there are almost no equivalent words to describe those who "glorify" themselves. Even the words of praise and greatness of Informants 1, 2, and 3 all came from significant gamelan performers (Informants 4-6). The main informants of this study were those who learnt gamelan independently, within their own environment, not through formal gamelan schools. Further research can be extended to informants who are products of music school. The aesthetic leadership of the gamelan can also be extended to other styles of gamelan including Balinese and Sundanese gamelan where cultural elements and characteristics of a "song" contain uniqueness of the region that must be learned. As such, there is a possibility that the aesthetic processes of leadership may also be different. Conclusion This research sought to explore aesthetic leadership in Javanese gamelan from the perspective of music psychology. Qualitative research was conducted to explore leadership aspects of the panjak juru kendhang. The findings indicate that the role of aesthetic leadership of the panjak juru kendhang is contained within four cycles of ngemong raos, which includes sensitivity of the niteni, decision making, conducting gotong royong, and building raos. This emergent model may be used as a theoretical framework for future research on aesthetic leadership within a musical context. It also offers practical applications of ngemong raos where leadership is expressed through leader–follower relationships within gamelan ensembles. Afriza Animawan Arifin & Koentjoro 11 References Achmad, S. W. (2018). Falsafah kepemimpinan Jawa: Dari Sultan Agung hingga Hamengkubuwono IX. Araska Publisher. Atik, Y. (1994). The conductor and the orchestra: Interactive aspects of the leadership process. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 15(1), 22–28. Beau, G. (2016). Beyond the leader-centric approach: Leadership phenomena and aesthetics in a conductorless orchestra. Society and Business Review, 11(1), 62–79. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBR-10-2015-0060 Benamou, M. (2010). Rasa: Affect and intuition in Javanese musical aesthetics. Oxford University Press. Boerner, S., & von Streit, C. F. (2007). Promoting orchestral performance: The interplay between musicians’ mood and a conductor’s leadership style. Psychology of Music, 35(1), 132–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735607068891 Brinner, B. (1995). Knowing music, making music: Javanese and the theory of musical competence and interaction. Chicago University Press. Carnicer, J. G., Garrido, D. C., & Requena, S. O. (2015). Music and leadership: The role of the conductor. International Journal of Music and Performing Arts, 3(1), 84-88. https://doi.org/10.15640/ijmpa.v3n1a8 Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. Dewantara, K. H. (1959). Demokrasi dan leiderschap. Madjelis-Luhur Taman-Siswa. Dewantara, K. H. (2013). Ki Hadjar Dewantara: Pemikiran, konsepsi, keteladanan, sikap merdeka bagian pertama: Pendidikan. UST-Press. Dunbar-Hall, P. (2011). Village, province, and nation aspects of identity in children’s learning of music and dance in Bali. In Lucy Green (Ed.), Learning, teaching, and musical identity: Voices across cultures (pp. 60-72). Indiana University Press. Endraswara, S. (2018). Psikologi raos dalam wayang. Penerbit Narasi. Gibson, M. (2017). The beat stops here: Lessons on and off the podium for today’s conductor. Oxford University Press. Ginsborg, J., Chaffin, R., & Nicholson, G. (2006). Shared performance cues in singing and conducting: A content analysis of talk during practice. Psychology of Music, 34(2), 167–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735606061851 Herdiansyah, H. (2015). Metodologi penelitian kualitatif untuk ilmu psikologi. Salemba Humanika. Ippolito, L. M. (2019). Music, leadership and conflict: The art of ensemble negotiation and problem-solving. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13628-4 Kahija, Y. F. L. (2017). Penelitian fenomenologis jalan memahami pengalaman hidup. PT Kanisius. Khodyakov, D. (2014). Getting in tune: A qualitative analysis of guest conductor–musicians relationships in symphony orchestras. Poetics, 44, 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2014.04.004 Koivunen, N., & Wennes, G. (2011). Show us the sound! Aesthetic leadership of symphony orchestra conductors. Leadership, 7(1), 51–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715010386865 Kunst, J. (1949). Music in Java: It’s theory and its technique (Vol. 1). Martinus Nijhoff. Lisk, E. S. (2006). The creative director: Conductor, teacher, leader. Meredith Music Publications. Luck, G., & Nte, S. (2008). An investigation of conductors’ temporal gestures and conductor-musician synchronization, and a first experiment. Psychology of Music, 36(1), 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735607080832 Matthews, W. K., & Kitsantas, A. (2013). The role of the conductor’s goal orientation and use of shared performance cues on collegiate instrumentalists’ motivational beliefs and performance in large musical ensembles. Psychology of Music, 41(5), 630–646. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612441738 Morrison, S. J., Price, H. E., Geiger, C. G., & Cornacchio, R. A. (2009). The effect of conductor expressivity on ensemble performance evaluation. Journal of Research in Music Education, 57(1), 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429409332679 Palgunadi, B. (2002). Serat kandha karawitan jawi mengenal seni karawitan Jawa. Penerbit ITB. Petricic, S. (2011). Artistic quality as leadership success: The conductor’s leadership role in the act of music making. ENCATC Journal of Cultural Management and Policy, 1(1), 12–19. Pickvance, R. (2005). A gamelan manual: A player’s guide to the central Javanese gamelan. Jaman Mas Books. Price, H. E. & Byo, J. L. (2002). Rehearsing and conducting. In R. Parncutt & G. E. McPherson (Eds.), The science & psychology of music performance: Creative strategies for teaching and learning (pp. 335-351). Oxford University Press. Samho, B. (2013). Visi pendidikan ki hadjar dewantara. Penerbit Kanisius. Shaw, R. (2004). Harmonious management: Leadership and communication in an orchestra. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 18(6), 10–12. https://doi.org/10.1108/14777280410564178 Smith, J. A., Flower, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. SAGE. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (1-12) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 12 Soanes, C., & Stevenson, A. (2004). Concise oxford english dictionary. Oxford University Press. Sugiarto, R. (2015). Psikologi raos: Saintifikasi kawruh jiwa ki ageng suryomentaram. Pustaka Ifada. Sumarsam. (2013). Javanese gamelan and the west. University of Rochester Press. Sumarsam. (2018). Memaknai wayang dan gamelan: Temu silang Jawa, Islam, dan global. Penerbit Gading. Supanggah, R. (2007). Bothekan karawitan II: Garap. ISI Press Surakarta. Tan, L., Tjoeng, J., & Sin, H. X. (2020). “Ngeli”: Flowing together in a gamelan ensemble. Psychology of Music, 030573562090948. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735620909482 Weiss, S. (2006). Listening to an earlier Java: Aesthetics, gender, and music of wayang in Central Java. KITLV Press. Wittry, D. (2007). Beyond the baton: What every conductor needs to know. Oxford University Press. Yudoyono, B. (1984). Gamelan Jawa. PT. Karya Unipress. Yukl, G. A. (2010). Leadership in organizations (7th ed.). Prentice Hall. Biography Afriza Animawan obtained his Master’s of Arts in Social Psychology from the Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He has interest in Psychology of Music topics research. He has also been a conductor, pianist, composer, and arranger in Gadjah Mada Chamber Orchestra. Koentjoro is a Professor in Social Psychology at Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He gained his PhD in Social Work & Social Policy from the La Trobe, Australia. He is also a gamelan activist, he has a fostered village in Panggang, Gunung Kidul, Indonesia that contains children and adolescents who plays gamelan every weekend.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 2 (2021)

world music, film, TV, gaming, mashups

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/390

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4844

Scoring Alien Worlds: World Music Mashups in 21st Century Sci-Fi and Fantasy TV, Film and Video Games

This article provides three case studies of the use of world music resources to build alien worlds in mainstream screen media with Sci-Fi or Fantasy settings. The case studies—the TV series

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4844/3120

Jonathan P. J. Stock 13 Scoring Alien Worlds: World Music Mashups in 21st Century Sci-Fi and Fantasy TV, Film and Video Games Jonathan P. J. Stock Department of Music, University College Cork Sunday’s Well Road, Cork, Ireland e-mail: [email protected] Published on: 21 August 2021 Cite this article (APA): Stock, J. P. J. (2021). Scoring alien worlds: World music mashups in 21st century Sci-Fi and Fantasy TV, film and video games. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10 (2), [13-28]. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.2.2.2021 Abstract This article provides three case studies of the use of world music resources to build alien worlds in mainstream screen media with Sci-Fi or Fantasy settings. The case studies—the TV series Battlestar Galactica: Blood and Chrome, the film Avatar and the Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG) video game World of Warcraft— show how composers and associated music professionals in the early twenty-first century increasingly draw on such sonic materials to generate a rich sense of sonic otherness and note the means they employ to sidestep such music’s existing geographical and cultural references. Each case study explores a contrasting subject position—composer, music consultant and consumer—to better trace not only the creation of such soundtracks but also what senses disparate groups of ordinary listeners subsequently make of them. The examples suggest that outside the sphere of big-budget cinema there is a growing confidence in both the creation and reception of such sonic projections, and that, when sufficiently attracted by what they hear, listeners may actively seek out ways to follow-up on the expressive characterisations put forward in such soundtracks. Three broad types of mashup are uncovered, those that work with world music ingredients by insinuation, integration and creolisation. Keywords: film, gaming, mashups, TV, world music Introduction Over the last decade or a little longer, musicians from across the broad area of Sci-Fi and Fantasy screen media have increasingly turned to world music resources in their fabrication of hitherto unimagined worlds. Such musical sounds and sonorities had hitherto been deployed in a wide set of screen media productions to summon up specific (and sometimes stereotypic) geographical and societal settings, furnishing the viewer with clues as to the nature and qualities of the environment in question. In a smaller number of instances, some such sound resources had additionally found use beyond a scene-building role as a distinctive feature in a film’s wider soundtrack: as film music historian Mervyn Cooke (2008) notes, employment of world music sounds was “one of the very few fresh scoring trends to emerge since the 1980s” (p. 504). But the very propensity with which such resources ground its subjects in the specificities of the world around us may also explain why, in Philip Hayward’s (2004) words, “SF cinema has [seen] minimal use of non- Western musical styles and instrumentations” (p. 24). Indeed, many of those usages that did occur in Sci- Fi settings up to that time exoticised and orientalised their subjects.1 In assessing this new trend, then, my aims are, first, to examine how those working within these entertainment formats are turning to music associated with global locales and traditions, and how they strive in their new soundtracks to overcome or repurpose pre-existing geographical and cultural references; and, second, to see what sense audiences are making of the resulting musical representations. Doing so requires Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (13-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 14 evaluation of selected soundtracks, research of composer intentions, contexts and practices, and also study of viewer responses to this new creative work. The term “world music” is, of course, an inherently problematic one, even while it has become widely used. It refers—from a specifically Western subjectivity—to an aggregative category of musics old and new, embracing the traditional music of all continents along with newer hybrid genres that speak of diaspora, culture contact, cosmopolitanism and, sometimes, not-so-benign acts of cultural appropriation. Yet it also sets aside many Westernised styles of popular, experimental and art music, which are also globally distributed and are often produced in distinctive ways in locales around the globe. While Western folk traditions are incorporated, they remain somewhat to the back of the concept, present but often not sonically exotic enough to be immediately brought to mind in many contexts where the term is employed.2 I use it here (typically in constructions like “world music resources”) because it appears to retain some currency (alongside even less appealing terms like “ethnic music”) in the screen media settings that I analyse. As will become clear, my primary reference is not to the genres that are regularly marketed under that label so much as to screen music composers’ use of instruments or vocal styles sourced from traditions other than those of Western art, popular or experimental music. The article makes reference to soundtracks in the Battlestar Galactica TV series, the film Avatar, and the online video game World of Warcraft. The space allocated to world music resources (and so the length of treatment required) is not identical in each, but they collectively represent a fluid contemporaneous cross-section of screen media types.3 The three case studies further contrast in providing perspectives from a composer, from a world music consultant and from ordinary listeners respectively. The result is a set of complementary understandings of world music usages from across the breadth of contemporary screen media. After presenting each case study, I discuss what each contributes to an understanding of broader trends (and voids) in the deployment of world music sounds across this area. Case Study 1: Battlestar Galactica: Blood and Chrome The 1970s TV series Battlestar Galactica has diversified over time into a franchise including films, action figures, books, comics and an online game. Its main narrative concerns ongoing conflict between human colonies in space and their robotic foes, the Cylons. Its 2012 iteration, subtitled Blood and Chrome, is a 91- minute prequel featuring the exploits of William Adama, a major character well established in previously published content. The prequel was originally disseminated via machinima.com in ten segments in November and December 2012. It was subsequently broadcast in complete form, published on DVD and remains available online by subscription at the moment of writing. My concentration in this case study is on the approach to world music resources taken by Blood and Chrome’s composer, Bear McCreary (b. 1979), a focus made possible by McCreary’s detailed and extensive blog.4 Having worked on earlier iterations of the Battlestar Galactica franchise (Papanikolaou, 2008), McCreary had pre-existing music (his own and that of musicians contributing to the series since to its origins) and pre-established sound world elements to draw on. Reflecting in interview on his initial work for the franchise in the mid-2000s, McCreary states: The idea was to use the oldest instruments we could possibly use—a lot of voice and percussion, obviously, but also primitive woodwind instruments. We didn’t want refined and polished; we wanted primal … [I]t became the defining sound of the series. (cited in Fear, 2014) McCreary specifies that he wanted to step outside the then-dominant trope of large orchestral and brass-led fanfares, which he felt had become overused in science fiction soundtracks and even disruptive to a sense of realism: this scoring technique, typified by the music of Star Wars, is what he dubs “refined and polished.” Meanwhile, “primal” sounds are acoustic, and include the timbres of instruments and voices from beyond the spheres of Western art, experimental or popular music. His music for Blood and Chrome provides prominent roles for Japanese taiko drums and the Armenian double-reed pipe named duduk, as well as less prominent writing for gamelan. McCreary is actually on shaky ground in identifying these instruments as primordial as compared to those of the European orchestral tradition: the taiko ensembles familiar today emerged only after World War 2, and researchers believe present day gamelan styles to be markedly distinct from those of only a couple of centuries earlier.5 But it is McCreary’s compositional strategy that matters, not his musicology—he is, after all, writing new music for the instruments. And if his ready equation of sonic otherness with ethnicity and primitiveness (in its sense of rooted authenticity) sounds orientalist, it certainly matches widely shared assumptions in Western society more generally. Jonathan P. J. Stock 15 Setting out to sustain aspects of the earlier Battlestar Galactica soundworld while accommodating the new prequel’s emphasis on “action, adventure, sex and aerial dogfights,”6 McCreary recruited musicians who had contributed to the earlier soundtracks. He also arranged instrumentations that contributed an impression of liveness in the compositional mix. In the same blog entry just cited, he links this sense of liveness to the instrumental timbres in question, beginning with a list of notable contributing musicians: Chris Bleth (woodwinds), MB Gordy (taikos and percussion), Paul Cartwright (electric violin), Steve Bartek (electric guitars), Brendan McCreary (vocals) and Raya Yarbrough (vocals). These performers had a profound impact on my earlier scores and had much to offer Blood & Chrome. Though my two previous scores [the Battlestar Galactica TV series and a prequel series entitled Caprica, 2009–2010] drew influences from around the world and throughout history, their sounds all shared a single trait: every instrument was performed by live musicians. The taikos sound powerful because heavy sticks struck thick hide drumheads. Air escapes from primitive wind instruments and bows creak during screaming electric violin solos. These sounds are acoustic, organic and raw. What this all means in musical practice can now be explored in a representative passage, the opening of Episode 1, which introduces the main character and follows him up to the start of his active service on the Battlestar Galactica. Figure 1 provides a summary of the music in this passage, its counterpart visuals and its non-musical soundtrack. Segments follow my own division of the episode (arguably, one might extend the third to embrace Adama’s assignment to a freighter and first encounter with co-pilot Coker Fasjovic, which also occurs in the hangar space, but this is a similar length again in duration and a significant new step in the drama). Timings follow the Machinima broadcast. Table 1 Summary of Opening of Episode 1, Battlestar Galactica: Blood and Chrome Segment Music Track Speech and Other Sounds Visuals 1: Prologue 0:00-0:09 0:10-1:12 slow-paced, 12-note gamelan motif continues throughout segment, layered under each new entry 0:34 string drone, synced to “friends”; gradually string parts overlaid to form sustained, gradually shifting whooshes, sound pan [Throughout] Adama narrates letter to father justifying enlistment by summarising Cylon threat and stark realities of ongoing war 0:18 sea birds, waves 0:26 assembly of high-tech equipment 0:31 industrial labour and then robot walking 0:38 engine and tracks of heavy military vehicle Machinima channel logos flash on screen 0:10 Earth-like planet seen from space, its sun rising behind: white clouds over blue oceans, green land masses (clearly not those of Earth) 0:18 zoom across sea onto somewhat futuristic city: text on building and shuttle craft show letters from roman alphabet and Chinese characters 0:26 robots under construction 0:31 robots carrying out labour and domestic roles 0:38 robots in armed revolt Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (13-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 16 chords [continues throughout segment] 0:50 reverberating chord: maybe distorted gamelan or synthesiser 1:02 taiko strike as spaceships appear 0:50 Adama asks, “Does it really matter?” 1:04 fighter engine, distant weapons fire 0:46 Cylon Centurion coming to “life”; close up of its face 0:52 city, now at war 0:55 city devastated, spaceships overhead and flying by 1:00 fade out to spacecraft in orbit 1:04 camera follows fighter craft, gradually moving inside cockpit, finally turning to show pilot’s face (synced to Adama giving his name as he signs off) 2: Flight Simulator 1:13-3:17 1:13-14 climactic crescendo; woodwinds added 1:15 [no music] 1:25 taiko and dumbek (Middle Eastern hand drum) tattoos fade in, gradually becoming more extended as segment continues; synthesised sounds added 2:02-2:11 alert sound taken up and then sustained in filtered form 2:06 bansuri (Indian bamboo flute) melody with slow ascent like opening gamelan pattern and florid ornamentations overlaid [continues in remainder of segment] 1:15 emphasised sounds of fighter engines, weapons fire and occasional explosions [throughout segment]; comments to self from Adama and dialogue between him and compressed flight controller’s voice, as if heard by radio [on and off throughout] 1:55-2:01 cockpit alerts 2:12-15 cockpit alert 2:15-18 new repeated bleeping signal as canopy jettisoned with eruption of air 1.13-14 series title 1:15 dogfight: Adama takes series of ever-increasing risks to shoot down his opponents 1:55 cockpit canopy struck by debris from Adama’s first kill 2:15 canopy jettisoned by Adama Jonathan P. J. Stock 17 2:18 distorted electric bass fed in; orchestral texture builds 2:38 high-pitched distorted wail from electric guitar and mid- pitched rock guitar texture added 2:43-47 most of music track drops out until 2:47; bansuri 3:00 orchestral strings with ascending melody on same overall contour as bansuri 3:17 music fades out 2:43 new cockpit alarm; flight controller’s voice increasingly distorted; 2:58-59 gunshots 3:12-3:16 automated voice notes end of flight simulation 3:17 Adama laughs 2:43 weapons panel shows “Warning MECS cannon malfunction” 2:50-59 Adama turns his fighter over; flying above his target, he destroys it using his sidearm 3:12 Adama turns off fighter 3:17 Adama removes holographic helmet 3: The Galactica 3:17-5:37 3:17-4:09 no music 4:09 soft taiko strike and tremolo strings drone fades in 04:11-24 rhythmic tattoo from taiko, reiterated; drone strings crescendo 04:24-5:10 as ship’s nameplate is revealed, string orchestra plays main theme from 1970s Battlestar Galactica series, accompanied by taiko, duduk, bansuri, electric guitar, synthesiser 3:17-4:09 Adama boasts, engaging fellow pilot in sexual banter; background flight engine noises: low drone, higher pitched airy whine, remote military radio 4:09 Adama falls silent 5:05 electric engine from passing vehicle; hydraulics as landing gear extends; 3:17-4:09 Adama discovered seated among other pilots on transport 04:11-59 Adama moves to window; camera swings to his face from outside, then slowly around to reveal Battlestar Galactica, first partial nameplate, then seen close up and in part, and finally zoomed out, but still too massive to fit fully within shot; other space ships pass by; transport, now dwarfed, seen entering Galactica 5:00 cut to inside hangar 05:09 transport lands Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (13-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 18 5:10 strings sustain theme’s cadence; high female voice enters in mawwāl style (Arabic genre of improvised, exclamatory singing); strings and taiko accompany, based on preceding patterns 05:35 music ceases metallic clunk as ship lands; 1970s theme continues 05:10-37 background voices, sounds of machine repair 05:10-23 cut to pilots leaving shuttle by lift; their view of bustling hangar, fighters, shuttles, maintenance crews 05:23-27 close up of Adama’s face as he takes in scene 05:27-37 pilots proceed into Galactica followed by awe- struck Adama The single noteworthy world music usage in the Prologue is that which McCreary identifies as the gamelan, without specifying an exact type. It occurs at the very start, as we see the dim outline of a planet emerging from darkness. As listeners and viewers, we may interpret the limited clues presented as suggesting a world much like but not necessarily our own. The gamelan recorded here is, in fact, just a single instrument, perhaps the high-pitched metallophone saron, rather than the heterogeneous full ensemble with interlocking parts that ethnomusicologists (and Indonesians) might associate with the term gamelan. The saron plays a stately reiterated twelve-note cycle based on the traditional sléndro scale (Figure 1). This breaks down into two units of six (and then four units of three), a characteristic quite unlike that of the usually foursquare metre of traditional Javanese music. The notes are allowed some of their characteristic reverberation, and while its tuning is not aligned to Western notions of equal temperament, the resulting tonalities are not so unusual as to be challenging. The choice of music can be heard as an aural analogue to the cityscape in the visuals—the home planet evidently is not Earth but the city is rather like one on Earth, at once familiar yet foreign. We hear the saron passage twice before other instruments are layered in, so we have ample opportunity to recognise its cyclic nature. These sonic features in combination invest the Prologue with a trancelike or recollective quality, an impression reinforced by the addition of string drones and then discreetly shifting sustained chords. The spoken track and images confirm this sense of looking backward in time: Adama’s narration provides his father with a summary of events leading up to the outbreak of war, and we witness the well-appointed cityscape as it is quickly reduced to smouldering ruins, presumably its present form in the onscreen narrative. The gamelan-led passage thus avoids emplacing this Prologue as one that might occur in Indonesia or even in a specifically Javanese space colony. Note: sléndro intervals can be up to 50 cents (half a semitone) sharper or flatter than their Western equal-tempered counterparts; transcription into staff notation hides this important characteristic. Figure 1. Battlestar Galactica: Blood and Chrome, Episode 1, Prologue cycle played on saron After the climactic Series Title, the musical component of the Flight Simulator segment of Episode 1 comprises a long crescendo, new parts gradually thickening out the texture as Adama’s conflict becomes ever more frenetic. In world music resource terms, the primary constituent is a single Japanese taiko drum. The taiko, like the dumbek and bansuri, endows the scene with raw energy, and points loyal Battlestar Galactica listeners back to earlier episodes in the franchise which similarly equate such instrumentation with moments of galactic conflict. Again, there is no attempt to compose music characteristic of that for this particular Japanese drum ensemble (as noted, it sounds as if a single taiko drum is employed, not a Jonathan P. J. Stock 19 group) or any of the other world instruments—this is screen music using global instruments, rather than the explicit citation of the traditional musical styles of those instruments. The building crescendo is interrupted by Adama’s taking off of his virtual reality headpiece and his cocky interactions with a female pilot at the start of the third segment. But the music rebuilds swiftly once his attention is directed to the Battlestar itself, and several previously heard musical elements are reintroduced as the score swells up to cite the pre-existing Battlestar Galactica main theme. Here is McCreary’s own blog explanation: The next cue of the film is possibly my favorite. Adama peers out the window of his transport and sees the Battlestar Galactica for [the first] time. For fans of the show, this is a nearly religious experience. I wanted to write a cue that would strike a nerve with fans of the 2004 series and the classic 1970s series as well. So, as I did for the ship’s farewell in “Daybreak” [the finale of season 4], I quoted Stu Phillips’ classic “Theme from Battlestar Galactica” for this stunning reveal. I’ve used Stu’s classic theme on several occasions now, but I must admit I think this is the most rousing rendition yet. The full string orchestra, pounding taiko drums and ethnic soloists are all there, but augmented further by heavy synths and soaring electric guitars. Sound designer Daniel Colman told me at the final mix that this cue made him want to stand up and salute. I couldn’t imagine a better review. McCreary sustains this notion of near-religious experience (and perusal of online fan commentary suggests he is not wrong to label it thus) into the final musical part of segment 3, now ascribing it to Adama (and so linking habitual viewers with the lead character at this point—a significant gesture given Adama’s onscreen attitude up to now, which presents him as immature, overconfident and perhaps even sexually predatory). McCreary does this through the addition of a vocal line that I liken in Table 1 to a Middle Eastern mawwāl, a form known for its virtuosic display, elongated vowel sounds and free-time extemporisations. McCreary’s blog provides the lyrics: “Domini ducem dederunt agmen qui ducat caelorum (And the Lords anointed a leader to guide the Caravan of the Heavens)”. To my listening, this exact text is not intended to be clearly audible in the overall mix; as listeners we are only expected to become aware of its broader stylistic characteristics. McCreary adds: “Throughout ‘BSG,’ Raya [Yarbrough, the vocalist] frequently represented the voice of the divine, foreshadowing or prophesying events before they were to unfold.” If so, the dominance of the grain of the voice over the comprehensibility of specific lyrics makes sense: Adama is awe-struck, not receiving a personal Messianic instruction. Now, it is worth emphasising that if this passage is inspired by mawwāl-type vocality, it is like one in terms of its vocal timbre and proposition of emotional ecstasy, not in its language, verse structure or instrumental accompaniment. Again, a highly characteristic music element from another part of the world is deployed to build another world—a mystic and unworldly world, in this case—by being treated in a way that reduces its conventional ability to reference a specific region on planet Earth. Case Study 2: Avatar Avatar (2009) is a film directed by James Cameron, much of which is set on a distant moon (Pandora). Scientists there have devised a means by which a human can temporarily take on the persona and form of a native Na’vi, the better to learn their ways and communicate with them, this in the face of pressure from human mining interests that covet rich natural resources occurring in Na’vi-occupied territory. The composer with primary credit for this film is James Horner, whose previous work includes writing the music for such films as Aliens (1986), Titanic (1997) and A Beautiful Mind (2001). Cameron took a systematic approach to building both the Pandoran ecosystem and Na’vi culture, with assistants working to formalise aspects as diverse as the physics of the planet and the language of its denizens. This same ethos was applied to the generation of the music track. Wanda Bryant acted as the ethnomusicology consultant, responsible for furnishing Horner with world music materials that might provide inspire his representations of Na’vi music culture. Her account of her work in this role sheds light more generally on the appearance (or otherwise) of world music in larger-scale contemporary screen entertainments. Bryant located 270 musical excerpts to discuss with Horner. Some she thought potentially suitable for direct imitation; others had a single stylistic trait that might be portable to Pandora. She writes: Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (13-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 20 Through a process of elimination we came up with 25 workable possibilities, including examples of Swedish cattle herding calls, folk dance songs from the Naga people of Northeast India, Vietnamese and Chinese traditional work songs, greeting songs from Burundi, Celtic and Norwegian medieval laments, Central African vocal polyphony, Persian tahrir, microtonal works by Scelsi, the Finnish women’s group Vârttinä, personal songs from the Central Arctic Inuit, and brush dances from northern California ... Most of the ideas we presented were dismissed by Cameron out of hand, rejected with appropriately blue language as either too recognizable (‘Oh, that’s Bulgarian’) or just ‘too fucking weird!’ Half a dozen examples were approved as possibilities. Our next step was to begin creating alien music that was informed by the timbres, structures, textures, and styles of those samples … We created a library of musical elements and performance techniques that would eventually be melded into a global mash-up, fusing musical elements from the numerous world cultures we had explored into one hybrid Na’vi style. Combining unrelated musical elements could evoke the “otherness” of the Na’vi without bringing to mind any specific Earth culture, time period or geographical location. (Bryant, 2012) Later, Bryant worked with Horner as he experimented with vocalists, including Western-trained session players and experienced world music artists, in the hope of realising Cameron’s desire for songs reflecting elements of Na’vi life: “a weaving song, a hunting song, a funeral lament” (Bryan, 2012). But this material was pretty much all rejected in the end or replaced with sounds far closer to Western film- score norms. Almost the only item that was incorporated finally is an extract for female voices and taiko described in Table 2.7 Here is Bryant’s account once again: Horner was especially fond of a piece based on Swedish cattle herding calls, written by Karin Rehnqvist and sung by Susanne Rosenberg ... He envisioned starting the film that way, with these beautiful cascading heterophonic vocal lines echoing throughout the forest, as the viewer is first introduced to Pandora.... Over a synthesized drone, our singers recorded a demo track mimicking the tumbling quality of the calls using the Na’vi words Utralä (a)Nawm (“the Great Tree”), entering when cued by Horner. To my great surprise and delight, two and a half years later, the first musical sounds heard in Avatar are very reminiscent of those calls, using the primary musical instruments of the Na’vi: voice and drums. (Bryant, 2012) Table 2 Avatar, Opening Soundtrack and Visuals Timing Music Track Speech and Other Sounds Visuals 0:00-0:20 0:21-0:24 0:24-0:36 0:37-0:51 0:52 0:54 drum roll, fanfare silence two female voices: call and echo (sounds digitally manipulated)—step up, sustained note, short fall; low, soft drone underneath; single-strike taiko punctuations taiko: fast, pounding pattern in 12/8 metre—gradually denser; voices drop down in mix silence synthesised drone silence 0:38-0:48 Jake Sully narrates his dream silence, then narration resumes 20th Century Fox logo, spot lit over Hollywood skyline] black screen 0:33 flying fast over rain forest black screen Jonathan P. J. Stock 21 0:58 1:01 Sully breathes close-up: Sully’s eye bathed in blue light as he awakens in cryogenic suspension zoom out and round to full face The taiko usage does not last very long (just 30 seconds) but, as in the preceding example, it is marked for attention by being presented first: an extra-terrestrial setting is constructed through conspicuous use of the sonic “otherness” of a world music resource, in this case even before we see the world in question. In fact, this deployment is unusual in Avatar. Although world music sounds are blended into larger mixes throughout the film’s soundtrack, the film has very few other such prominent deployments of world music sounds overall. This is despite the fact that the narrative remains in an alien setting almost entirely throughout its whole duration, the initial desire to generate a plausible music culture for the Na’vi, and the energetic resourcing of research and development of such cultural components. In a radio interview, Horner provides his own explanation: Audiences seem to be much more capable of absorbing new visuals and things that are much more outrageous or avant-garde visually—aurally, audiences are much more conservative … If I went as far as Jim [Cameron] did visually, and started to use all kinds of weird scales for the music and made it too avant-garde or too out- of-the-box, I would be ungrounding the film. (Radio interview, 28 November 2009; cited in Bryant, 2012) It’s surely true that we’re more conservative aurally than visually (a point I return to below). Nevertheless, we saw that a considerably richer diet of world music components did not appear to alienate audiences for Battlestar Galactica. The comparison thus raises questions about the personal attitudes toward stylistic innovation of those involved (and of those who act as their financial gatekeepers). The scale of funding risk in highly commercialised film projects like Avatar may lead to a conservative stance and a concomitant projection of that sense of caution onto imagined audiences in turn. As Slobin (2008b) notes (in relation to Star Wars), “[it] was designed for a vast, all-purpose global audience, so it is hardly surprising that it leans on tried-and-true sets of identifications and musical conventions” (p. 57). Case Study 3: World of Warcraft World of Warcraft is a Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG) created in 2004 and regularly updated through expansions since then. Its world extends outward into books and associated merchandise, a film (2016), online databases and guides, and cosplay contests, among many other formats. In-game, players take such a role as a human warrior, gnomish mage or orc shaman to battle dragons, demons and other creatures for loot. Divided into two factions, players may also combat one another while exploring, gathering resources and undertaking quests across a map of several planets, each of which is divided into numerous zones with distinctive environments, denizens, back story and background music. Or they can combine into groups to face up to harder challenges: in most of these latter cases, the players then enter an “instance”—a zone temporarily created for them alone so that no other player can interrupt the group’s play. Each such instance features its own background music track, and in a few cases fighting a “boss” (an individually designed opponent intended to be especially hard to overcome) cues a special music track. Further music occurs on login and loading screens and in occasional cut scenes that provide narrative development. When I counted in 2014, there were already over 100 different zones and a similar number again of potential instances in the game world; after further expansions, there may now be twice that number. This means there’s not only a need for diverse music to characterise each location but also that the setting is decidedly multiracial and multicultural (in 2021 there are two-dozen distinct playable races and peoples, plus still further life-forms present as non-player characters). MMORPG soundtracks are thus considerably larger than those of TV or film contexts, but they are also both inherently multileveled and personally malleable. Players chat with one another through one or Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (13-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 22 another of various forms of multi-user chat software to coordinate their efforts in group-based encounters or simply to hang out. They may turn off or alter the relative level of the backing music, ambient sounds, other sound effects or even mute the game sound as a whole. Some players turn off in-game music to enjoy music of their own choice instead. They select their own pathways through each gameplay session, cueing different soundtrack events as those choices unfold. A few even create machinima that combine new or pre- existing music tracks with game video images. In this case study, I focus on player reactions to a distinctive usage of a world musical instrument in the World of Warcraft. The passage in question is part of the background music from the Grizzly Hills zone, part of the Northrend region introduced in the “Wrath of the Lich King” expansion (2008; lead composer Russell Brower). This zone has been widely praised by players for its characteristic music, as we’ll see shortly. It is described in an online guide as “a stunning but sinister pine forest in eastern Northrend” populated by wolf packs, bears, trappers and werewolf-lumberjacks.8 More widely, the Northrend region features further subpolar archetypes, including ice trolls, undead Viking-giants, talking walruses, bison, mammoths, and even penguins. Player commentary on such topics is widely available through the many online forums that accompany games like World of Warcraft. McGonigal (2011) records that more than 65,000 players contributed comments and guides to a website named WoWWiki, which she describes as then “the world’s second largest wiki after Wikipedia” (p. 232). That is just one of a number of prominent sites that cater to the gathering of what McGonigal labels “collective intelligence”, which she describes as an essential part of gaming culture (p. 233). With so many active contributors and a culture that encourages such participation, a researcher gains access to a broad cross-section of participants’ views on numerous in-game topics, including their musical preferences. Here is an extract from a representative online forum where players describe the real-world geographical associations the Grizzly Hills zone brings to their minds: ForestEye: The homey feel of the Canadian logging North. Feels good man. [deleted]: This is exactly why I love Grizzly Hills and Howling Fjord. I grew up in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains and Grizzly Hills is almost a spitting image of home. wetsauce: For me, this song, especially the second half’s use of fiddle and accordion, has reminded me of Nordic folk music. I picture traveling through the mountains of Norway, or boating through the iceberg filled waters of Iceland. CForre12: That’s the exact same feeling I get only only for the second part, the first part of the song definitely makes me think of being in the canadian frontier. for the atmosphere blizz was trying to create the music in grizzly hills is absolutely perfect, favorite music in the game by miles even in spite of the nostalgia I have for vanilla and tbc. anangrybanana: The first thing I said when I first entered Grizzly Hills was “This place looks just like Colorado.” [deleted]: Well Colorado has the Rocky Mountaind as well, so I assume it is the same. I was referring to Alberta, but both places have a similar landscape.9 These statements reveal that Grizzly Hills’s visual design activates essentially similar geographical associations from among the various commentators even as their particular points of reference differ, but let us look now in more depth into the zone’s musical design, which was briefly raised by two contributors here. Table 3 provides a summary of musical components from the start of one of the backing tracks to the zone.10 Two passages from this extract are transcribed as Figure 2. Note use of a Swedish folk instrument named nyckelharpa, a folk fiddle somewhat akin to a hurdy gurdy, with three bowed strings stopped by keys, a drone string (normally only sparingly sounded) and 12 sympathetic strings. Table 3 Jonathan P. J. Stock 23 World of Warcraft, Grizzly Hills Zone Music (Opening) Timing Music Track Other Sounds (excluding those of specific gameplay choices) 0:00 0:12 0:20-1:45 1:03 1:46-1:59 2:00-2:49 2:49-3:57 3:57-4.10 nyckelharpa solo (see Figure 2a); unmetred feel, although flowing, regular pulse; more double-stops and ornamentation as music progresses, leading to thickening of texture soft chordal accompaniment added; gradual addition of further orchestral instruments, e.g., 1:36: harp runs, low D pedal in cellos violin left sustaining high D harmonic as other parts drop out; clarinet enters on same pitch that nyckelharpa began on and takes simplified form of opening phrase as reiterated cadential pattern with string accompaniment bassoon solo (Figure 2b), again starting on same F# of nyckelharpa and clarinet; bassoon closely tracks the melodic outline of the nyckelharpa passage; violin high D sustained still clarinet and strings re-enter to round-off bassoon solo; development of theme by nyckelharpa, horn and string orchestra fade in; high ambient noise, suggestive of leaves in wind, distant streams; distant bird calls lower-pitched noise fed in (very soft) wind audible once again ambient sound only Like the examples discussed in Case Studies 1-2, this extract exemplifies a mashup technique that can be likened to the game’s combination of multiple pre-existing “northern” tropes in its visual constructions. In Fig. 2, the sonority and playing style of the nyckelharpa are blended into an orchestral scoring reminiscent of nineteenth-century nationalist tone poems—the bassoon writing, for instance, recalls the solos one might find in an early Stravinsky ballet score such as the Firebird Suite. Web forum commentaries further reveal that some gamers are interested in discovering more about the prominently used sounds and instruments in extracts like the present one, using game-related networks to seek information or discuss the sounds they encounter in-game. Here are extracts from representative forum conversations, the first from players on US servers and the second from those in China, World of Warcraft’s largest customer base: Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (13-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 24 Figure 2. World of Warcraft, Grizzly Hills Zone Music (Opening), a. Nyckelharpa (Extract) and b. Bassoon Version of the Same Passage A. Grizzly Hills Music11 Paudson (85 Human Paladin): For the love of all things holy, somebody please tell me where i can find music from either the ppl who did it for grizzly hills or a similar band. i cannot get enough and i needs moar Varius (85 Troll Shaman): Youtube Wesley Willis, he’s the artist you are looking for Àeus (85 Night Elf Druid): It is good musics. B. Warcraft Grizzly Hills Bagpipe Background Music; Bambina Easter Egg12 Gentle dreamer (16 Feb. 2014): Do you still remember Wrath’s story where Bambina kills a hunter and…the elegant bagpipe sound? [links video extract with background music] PS: I can’t remember if it’s a Scots or an Irish bagpipe. libra19951012: It’s a typical Scots bagpipe. Irish pipes aren’t as melodic as this; they’re crisper in sound. WoW Henan Province Webmate: There’s someone with the same tastes as me! I like the Grizzly Hills BGM [background music] most of all. WoW Zhuzhou Webmate: I have both Irish uilleann pipes and Scots highland pipes at home. I can tell you for sure this isn’t a bagpipe. It must be a bass penny whistle or clarinet-type instrument…. The background music for the Howling Fjord [zone] is the Irish uilleann pipes. WoW Ji’nan Webmate: You’re right!!!! Gamerlife_zx: Grizzly Hills was my favourite place to go at level 80. Jonathan P. J. Stock 25 Western-Forest Windsong: This.… I like this extract too, but OP, can you really not hear the difference between a bowed instrument and a wind instrument,,,. A bagpipe doesn’t sound like this…. WoW Wenzhou Webmate: that year I played Wrath of the Lich King on a Taiwanese server. In my free time I loved going to Grizzly Hills to listen to the music. WoW Zhengzhou Webmate: Swedish nyckelharpa…. Caper-Always: Suddenly, it was like being taken back to that world In fact, some players seek out areas of the game world simply to pause to listen to their favourite elements of the music track. Listening becomes part of their play.13 When clips of such music are placed online, they can function as a powerful cue to nostalgia once the content in question is no longer that of the latest expansion, and so irregularly visited in the course of usual gameplay, if at all. The music track reaches out of the game at moments like this. Writing about world music in coffeehouses, Kassabian (2012) says it can “entangle” the listener such that they are temporarily both here and there (pp. 102-105); if this is so, when gamers are caught up in the flows of nostalgic reminiscing, they are here (wherever they are while reminiscing), doubly there (inside the game zone and where they were in real life when playing that game expansion), as well as then suspended between senses of now and then. Conclusions Composer, consultant and audience standpoints provide contrasting but complementary kinds of data. McCreary’s blog identifies his creative intentions, and the fact that he uploaded content so close to the composing itself allowed him to reflect on experience that was still fresh, illustrating how his enthusiasms and intuitions became specific moments of sonic practice. His inclusion of short videos of work in progress from recording sessions adds further richness to the account. Bryant’s account of her groundwork for Horner as he worked through world music samples in preparation for writing the music of Avatar captures the hidden labour underpinning the making of film music, reminding us that both composition and film-making are processes not only of creation and selection but also of selective exclusion (Horner and Cameron might prefer the term refinement). World of Warcraft players’ online comments underscore the multifaceted impacts of screen music, even in a game setting where the player’s focus is ostensibly on the direction of their in-game avatar, not on viewing a preshaped narrative provided by a recorded film or TV show. Collectively, these perspectives offer a cross-section of overlapping experiences that help us trace what is at play when such music is created and consumed.14 The three case studies collectively illustrate wider trends in the rise of use of world music resources in Western Sci-Fi and Fantasy screen media contexts over the last decade and a little more. Soundtracks in these genres of screen media represent an increasingly diverse site for our extra-worldly imaginings, even while some of this work also reinvigorates exoticist stereotypes. Taken together, the examples show a growing interest in the possibilities of the sound resources offered by disparate global musical traditions and growing confidence in their adoption. They share some commonalities of practice and also differ in certain respects. The resulting distribution of characteristics suggests an initial typology for mashups that is proposed below in a moment, but first I draw together the key similarities as revealed in these case studies. First, each case study prominently deploys sounds from music that stems from outside the broad category of Western art, popular or experimental music in order to construct for its assumed listeners the alterity of the alien setting in question (or minimally its initial unfamiliarity, as in case study 2). Perhaps this seems almost inevitable in a Sci-Fi or Fantasy setting—the music track has to work alongside the on- screen visuals, after all—but it is ironic to note that this process involves the strategic referencing of potentially recognisable attributes from non-Western or Western folk traditions, a point that is also salient insofar as all these screen media are intended to be marketed to listeners worldwide, including those for whom the sound resources in question might be already quite familiar. Musical orientalism definitely remains at play in such constructions, notwithstanding the considerations added in the paragraphs directly below. Second, the case studies show an emerging tendency among the US composers in question to draw on a particular subset of instrumental and vocal sonorities in their alien world-making: folk fiddles (especially those with sympathetic strings) and bamboo flutes, duduk, taiko and gamelan—what we might call the familiar unfamiliar. The makeup of this list surely reflects the roster of experienced musicians Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (13-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 26 available and equipped for soundtrack recording session work in California where all three soundtracks were produced, but there are also commonalities here in terms of conceptualisations that interrelate alterity with certain qualities of timbre, a point McCreary hints at above when he talks of using organic, raw and primal sounds. Third, and despite the use of somewhat unfamiliar sonic ingredients (or potentially stereotypical ones, depending on a listener’s standpoint), such encounters can establish chains of musically infused nostalgia, whether strategically planned by a composer to add depth to a telling onscreen reveal (case study 1) or activated by players, whose aural encounters with distinctive musical material led them back to in- game vistas they and their on-screen avatars had long since departed (case study 3). Some listeners even build sustained affiliations with the “alien” sounds, tracing them back to their real-world roots. Fourth, in each case the world sound resources are mashedup to avoid too clearly over-writing the medium’s constructions of alienness through presentation of strong ties leading to each sound’s respective global point of origin. The three examples handle the mashup process in different ways, and analysis of them above suggests a typology of mashing-up that may have utility for future studies, including those beyond the genre of Sci-Fi and Fantasy. Starting with the most conservative soundtrack, Horner in Avatar, primarily took up some of the timbral effects of certain world music traditions, using them to modify or re-colour certain aspects of his otherwise conventional, Western-sounding film score. It would take very close listening indeed to hear the source timbres in the majority of his world music usages without the guiding insight of Bryant’s behind- the-scenes observations. This kind of mashup can be labelled a “mashup by insinuation”. Meanwhile, in World of Warcraft’s Grizzly Hills score, the music starts out citing the Swedish nyckelharpa which acts as a specific sonic index to real-world pine forest folk cultures. The solo is then blended into an orchestral mix, leading to a symphonic treatment rich in its references to the Western romantic tradition, one widely used in film music much more generally to depict moments of intense emotion and passion. If the Horner example is mashup by insinuation, this example represents a model of “mashup by phased integration”. Finally, in Battlestar Galactica: Blood and Chrome McCreary’s gamelan usage does not point toward a quintessentially Indonesian ambience or support visuals of a tropical archipelago. Similarly, his taiko passages do not cross-reference Japanese characters or accompany broader East Asian visual tropes. Most of all, the world music elements remain prominent throughout much of the soundtrack: they do not become absorbed into familiar Western idioms, whether at once or after an exotically coloured initial statement. This might be labelled a “creolised mashup”. The existence of these three types of mashup is evidence that, despite the fact that the composers in each case study have relied on a particular subset of world music resources, we are not seeing the rise of an “assumed alterior”, that is, an industry creation that can stand as the backing track for any and all alien societies.15 Notably, musical currents in this regard are moving more swiftly and inventively in TV and gaming than in the larger-budget films, suggesting that it is to TV and gaming that we should look first to discover the most energetic musical projections of life beyond this planet. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Germán Gil-Curiel, Danijela Kulezic-Wilson, Qian Lijuan and James Wierzbicki for feedback on earlier drafts. Endnotes 1 Summers (2013) offers a case study of several such orientalisms across the Star Trek franchise; Halfyard (2012) provides an introduction to music in Fantasy cinema more widely; Donnelly and Hayward (2012) is an equivalent source for music in Sci-Fi TV. 2 Stokes (2012) offers a key entry point to the large literature on this topic; see also Gallope (2020) for a richly referenced recent consideration. 3 Notably, successful franchises today spread across multiple media, transferring audio initially composed for one medium onto the stylistic and technical pallet of the next. The streaming of TV and film on subscription or demand via the Internet collapses pre-existing distinctions between TV and film reception and replay. Meanwhile, the emergence of live performances of game music, the live broadcasting of e-sports contests and the making of films as part of a video game franchise realigns video gaming music in this larger, thoroughly multivalent whole. Yet some important distinctions remain (Cheng, 2012; Collins, 2007; Hart, 2014). Jonathan P. J. Stock 27 4 McCreary’s compositional credits include Battlestar Galactica (Seasons 1-4, 2005–2009), Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles (2008–2009) and The Walking Dead (Seasons 1-5, 2010–2015) among other TV series, films and video games. A biography appears on his blog at https://www.bearmccreary.com, retrieved 25 February 2021. 5 For further on the recent history of taiko ensembles, see Alaszewska (2014) and Fujie (2001). For histories of gamelan in Java and Bali, see Sumarsam (1995) and Tenzer (2000, pp. 86–108). 6 http://www.bearmccreary.com/#blog/blog/battlestar-galactica-3/battlestar-galactica-blood-chrome/, retrieved 20 April 2014. Subsequent blog quotes in this case study are from this entry also. 7 In a study of world music in advertisements, Taylor (2007) notes how often women’s or children’s voices are used, rather than those of men, arguing that they are most readily “convertible to exotic otherness” (p. 185). 8 http://www.wowhead.com/zone=394/grizzly-hills, retrieved 24 April 2014. 9 http://www.reddit.com/r/wow/comments/1696nx/when_im_in_grizzly_hills/, retrieved 24 April 2014. “blizz” in CForre12’s comment refers to Blizzard, game company behind the World of Warcraft, and “vanilla and tbc” to the initial game release and its first expansion pack, “The Burning Crusade”. In citing these forum extracts, I leave variants of spelling, punctuation etc. as they appear on the original source. Some of these pages have since moved or disappeared. 10 The track is available at “WotLK Grizzly Hills Day Music”. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpyInx0ldfo. 11 http://us.battle.net/wow/en/forum/topic/1104140537?page=1, retrieved 24 February 2014. “85” here represents the player character’s level. Don’t expect too much in the way of Swedish tradition if you look up Wesley Willis; Varius aptly plays a troll. 12 http://wow.duowan.com/1402/256485980936.html, retrieved 21 April 2014, my translation. 13 See, for example, Taliesin and Evitel, “What is the Best Music in World of Warcraft? The Top 5” (24 September 2016). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ChyS2WHxmQc. 14 Ideally, performer testimonies would add further insights here. 15 In this construction I refer to Mark Slobin’s work on the “assumed vernacular” that represented foreign and indigenous cultures in early Hollywood film (Slobin, 2008a, pp. 6–7). References Alaszewska, J. (2014). Kumi-daiko. Grove music online. https://doi.org.ucc.idm.oclc.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.49402 Bryant, W. (2012). Creating the music of the Na’vi in James Cameron’s Avatar: An ethnomusicologist’s role. Ethnomusicology Review, 17. http://ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu/journal/volume/17/piece/583 Cheng, W. (2012). Role-playing toward a virtual musical democracy in The Lord of the Rings Online. Ethnomusicology, 56(1), 31–62. https://doi-org.ucc.idm.oclc.org/10.5406/ethnomusicology.56.1.0031 Collins, K. (2007). Video games killed the cinema star: It’s time for a change in studies of music and the moving image. Music, Sound, and the Moving Image, 1(1), 15–19. Cooke, M. (2008). A history of film music. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814341 Donnelly, K. J. & Hayward, P. (2012). Music in science fiction television: Tuned to the future. Routledge. Fear, D. (2014, March 22). From “Dead” to “Demons”: Bear McCreary on 5 TV-show themes. Rolling Stone. http://www.rollingstone.com/movies/pictures/from-dead-to-demons-bear-mccreary-on-5-tv-show-themes- 20140321/battlestar-galactica-0903199 Fujie, L. (2001). Japanese taiko drumming in international performance: Converging musical ideas in the search for success on stage. The World of Music, 43(2–3), 93–101. Gallope, M. (2020). World music without profit. Twentieth-Century Music, 17(2), 161–195. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1478572220000018 Halfyard, J. K. (Ed.). (2012). The music of fantasy cinema. Equinox. Hart, I. (2014). Meaningful play: Performativity, interactivity and semiotics in video game music. Musicology Australia 36(2), 273–290. https://doi-org.ucc.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/08145857.2014.958272 Hayward, P. (2004). Sci-fidelity: Music, sound and genre history. In P. Hayward (Ed.), Off the planet: Music, sound, and science fiction cinema (pp. 1–29). Indiana University Press. Kassabian, A. (2013). Ubiquitous listening: Affect, attention, and distributed subjectivity. University of California Press. McGonigal, J. (2011). Reality is broken: Why games make us better and how they can change the world. Jonathan Cape. Papanikolaou, E. (2008). Of duduks and Dylan: Negotiating the aural space. In T. Potter & C. W. Marshall (Eds.), Cylons in America: Critical studies in ‘Battlestar Galactica’ (pp. 224–236). Continuum. Slobin, M. (2008a). The Steiner superculture. In M. Slobin (Ed.), Global soundtracks: Worlds of film music (pp. 3– 35). Wesleyan University Press. Slobin, M. (2008b). The superculture beyond Steiner. In M. Slobin (Ed.), Global soundtracks: Worlds of film music (pp. 36–62). Wesleyan University Press. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (13-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 28 Stokes, M. (2012). Globalization and the politics of world music. In M. Clayton, T. Herbert & R. Middleton (Eds.), The cultural study of music: A critical introduction (2nd ed., pp. 106–116). Routledge. Sumarsam (1995). Gamelan: Cultural interaction and musical development in Central Java. University of Chicago Press. Summers, T. (2013). Star Trek and the musical depiction of the alien other. Music, Sound, and the Moving Image 7(1), 19–52. Taylor, T. D. (2007). Beyond exoticism: Western music and the world. Duke University Press. Tenzer, M. (2000). Gamelan gong kebyar: The art of twentieth-century Balinese music. University of Chicago Press Biography Jonathan P. J. Stock is professor of music at University College Cork, Ireland. An ethnomusicologist with broad research interests, his primary research focus is the transformation of musical traditions in modern or contemporary China and Taiwan. He is interested in developing theoretical approaches for ethnomusicology and exploring its overlaps with related disciplines, including music education, folklore, music analysis and musicology. He is author of several books, the most recent of which is Everyday Musical Life among the Indigenous Bunun, Taiwan (New York: Routledge, 2021), and is currently co-editing two further volumes, The Routledge Companion to Ethics and Research in Ethnomusicology and the Oxford Handbook to Chinese Music. He has previously served as chair of the British Forum for Ethnomusicology, co-editor of the journal Ethnomusicology Forum and executive board member of the International Council for Traditional Music. He is currently reviews editor for the Journal of World Popular Music.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 2 (2021)

Music education, needs, orthodox and Pentecostal

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/390

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4888

An Assessment of Music Education Needs Among Orthodox and Pentecostal Church Choristers in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

This study assessed the requirements for music education among Orthodox and Pentecostal churches in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. Based on the quantitative research method, multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 367 choristers from Abeokuta metropolis, Ogun State. Structured questionnaires were used for data collection and subjected to descriptive statistics at 5% level of significance. The results indicate that choristers within the age group of ≤ 40 in Pentecostal churches outnumbered their counterpart in Orthodox churches. Although female choristers dominate church music practice broadly, the number of people within the household range of 1–5 among Pentecostal choristers (81.8%) was greater than those found in Orthodox churches (75.4%). Whereas a little more than half of the membership (50.4%) received University education, a majority (80.7%) had ≥ 20 years of experience. A significant relationship existed between the necessity for church music education and choristers’ demographic characteristics such as age (

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4888/3163

Eyitayo A. Soretire & Adebowale O. Adeogun 29 An Assessment of Music Education Needs Among Orthodox and Pentecostal Church Choristers in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria Eyitayo A. Soretire* & Adebowale O. Adeogun Department of Music, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 27 September 2021 Cite this article (APA): Soretire, E. A., & Adeogun, A. O. (2021). An assessment of music education needs among Orthodox and Pentecostal church choristers in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(3), 29–44. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.2.3.2021 Abstract This study assessed the requirements for music education among Orthodox and Pentecostal churches in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. Based on the quantitative research method, multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 367 choristers from Abeokuta metropolis, Ogun State. Structured questionnaires were used for data collection and subjected to descriptive statistics at 5% level of significance. The results indicate that choristers within the age group of ≤ 40 in Pentecostal churches outnumbered their counterpart in Orthodox churches. Although female choristers dominate church music practice broadly, the number of people within the household range of 1–5 among Pentecostal choristers (81.8%) was greater than those found in Orthodox churches (75.4%). Whereas a little more than half of the membership (50.4%) received University education, a majority (80.7%) had ≥ 20 years of experience. A significant relationship existed between the necessity for church music education and choristers’ demographic characteristics such as age (c2 = 5.393), educational status (c2 = 14.722), voice parts used (c2 = 14.883) and years spent as choristers (c2 = 7.132). Similarly, there was significant difference in the mean rating of respondents’ need for music education across churches (t = 1.028; p < .05). Taken together, church music education is strongly advised for all churches. It is recommended that self-discipline must be strengthened particularly among Orthodox choristers for meaningful development as well as meeting the needs for church music education. Keywords: choristers, education needs, music education, Orthodox, Pentecostal Introduction One of the universal needs of all human societies is music education. In many churches, music education is mostly non-formal and encompasses various structured and unstructured activities that are aimed at ensuring that the educational value of musical activities is recognised (Abiodun, 2019). This approach involves teaching and learning musical elements such as pitch, rhythm, dynamics as well as sonic qualities of timbre and texture, some of which may be emphasised, de-emphasised or omitted. As a nation, Nigeria is predominantly inhabited by people of various religious affiliations who have made concerted efforts to advance the tenets and values (Adekola & Amole, 2015) of their faith-based institutions (Brown & Knox, 2017). One of the ways that such religious institutions promote their cause and values is through music. Music essentially functions as a medium for both reflecting and propagating faith-based philosophy and identity (Odendaal et al., 2020). As an important part of worship, music remains a valuable instrument (Dolan, 2017) for evangelisation (Weston, 2020) and the conversion of people to Christianity (Abiogu et al., 2015; Holochwost et al., 2017). Historically, Nwankpa (2018) has suggested that the Methodist Church was the first mission to arrive in Nigeria specifically Abeokuta on September 24, 1842. The general consensus is that church music in Nigeria commenced with a joint carol held by Anglican and Methodist churches under the Agia tree in Badagry, Lagos. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (29–44) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 30 Church music is defined as music written for performance in church or any musical setting of ecclesiastical liturgy or music set to words expressing prepositions of a sacred nature such as a hymn. Christian music comprised all brands and categories of music consumed in the Christendom whether by the church, para-church or non-church organisations (Adedeji, 2007; Udok & Odunuga, 2016; West, 2015). Hence, worship becomes the primary reason for choristers’ focused participation in church or Christian music. As explained by Terra and Passador (2016), Owan (2018) and Abiodun (2019), balancing music teaching-learning needs in churches can be challenging, thus requires self-discipline, teamwork, a conducive environment for personal or group practice of musical instruments, general rehearsals, the ability to sing alone, self-confidence, acquisition of certain singing skills, development of creative thinking skills, better understanding of all that are taught during church music rehearsal sessions and the availability of resource person. According to Odewole (2018), insufficient training personnel for interested members in church music as well as the misinterpretation of scripture by some are among the challenges faced by church choristers. This implies that more information is needed concerning how music instructions work in church music settings (Benz et al., 2016; Dos Santos-Luiz et al., 2015; Rohwer, 2010). Statement of Problem Although there was an increased transfer of musical knowledge across churches in Nigeria, musical performances have remained arguably poor in some churches. There is still a gap between choristers’ performance and the realisation of church evangelical goals through music. Today, the musical activities of some church choristers reflect the lowest ebb of music aesthetics as well as biblical principles and standards of Christian music. Furthermore, Oyeniyi (2019) found that many church musicians are deficient in the foundations of theology, musical appreciation skills, hymn singing techniques, conducting and choir administration, all of which are sequel to a lack of music education. The need to incorporate and integrate discipline, self-confidence, teamwork among other key parameters in music pedagogy vis-à-vis the variability in churches’ denominational beliefs have necessitated this study. Accordingly, this research identifies the areas of needs of choristers in order to increase the standard of church musical performances. Among the music education needs accessed in this research are acquisition of certain playing skills, improvement of auditory skills and self-discipline. Purpose of the Study Broadly, this study assesses church music education needs in selected Orthodox and Pentecostal churches in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study: 1. describes the demographic characteristics of choristers in the study area, 2. analyses the needs of choristers for music education in the study area, and 3. identifies the disparities in the need for music education among Orthodox and Pentecostal choristers in the study area. Research Questions 1. What are the demographic characteristics of respondents in the area of study? 2. What are the needs of respondents for music education in the area of study? 3. What are the disparities in the need for music education among Orthodox and Pentecostal choristers in the area of study? Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were tested at p ≤ .05 level of significance. H01: There is no significant relationship between church music education needs among sampled choristers and their socio-economic characteristics. H02: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of respondents’ need of music education across Orthodox and Pentecostal churches. Eyitayo A. Soretire & Adebowale O. Adeogun 31 Literature Review Education is observed as a veritable resource of continuing economic growth and a critical element in addressing the competition at global level (Ganesh, 2017; Tsarikidou & Stergiou, 2013). Education as a panacea for national issues is an essential element for nation development and the final investment in its youth. However, scholars (Johnes et al., 2017; Tsakiridou & Stergiou, 2013) have emphasised music education as an aspect of educating individuals especially the Pentecostal denomination as a way to education reform. Education reform has emerged as a common tendency in many countries in the effort to make education an effective vehicle for national development (Yang, 2014). In the Arab nation, countries like Egypt, United Arab Emirates (UAE) among others have embarked on major reform in education projects as preparation for their young citizens for the 21st century (Kadbey et al., 2015). Previous studies highlighted that performance-based school reform has been given more thoughts in recent years (Badri et al., 2014). In these regards, researchers gained skills from music and such skills are transferable to other cognitive and social domains (Baker, 2012; Bugaj & Brenner, 2011; Hille et al., 2011; Miendlarzewska & Trost, 2014) which in turn could support students’ education. Dos Santos-Luiz et al. (2011) opined that taking part in musical activities has a significant impact on Pentecostal, Orthodox and academic performances as it helps to develop intellect. There exists a strong link between music and education in terms of melody, intervals, rhythm, harmony, scales, temperaments and tuning. This makes music a suitable form of arts that could be integrated into Orthodox and Pentecostal Church choristers. Han et al. (2010) stated that music education, particularly in the forms of songs and rhymes, provides students with the capacity to retain a substantial amount of information. Furthermore, Pretorius (2017) stressed that music enhances the students’ capacity to learn as it stimulates the brain to process sound waves heard and by transforming them into nerve impulses. Unfortunately, the assessment of music education remains greatly challenged by a lack of quality data. Student outcome data are made available to the public on an aggregate basis and therefore, does not provide clear information on the performance of the schools. Moreover, varying perspectives on the effect of music education on students’ performance in churches and schools had raised the question whether the music component in both churches and schools should continue. The objective of this study is therefore to assess the requirements for music education among Orthodox and Pentecostal churches in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. Generally, scholars such as Abiogu et al. (2015); Holochwost et al. (2017), Nwankpa (2018) and Oyeniyi (2019) have written about church music education in Nigeria; however, none has focused on church music education needs among Orthodox and Pentecostal churches in Abeokuta. The current text explores the need to assess music education among orthodox and Pentecostal churches in Abeokuta. Incidentally, Abeokuta was one of the first cities in Nigeria to embrace church missionaries. Significance of the Study The role of music has been recognised since ancient times. Biblically, Saul, (the first king of Israel) was exorcised of the evil spirit that tormented him when David (a musician) played his harp (1 Samuel 16:23). Elsewhere, as Paul and Silas prayed and sang praises unto God, the prison doors were opened and everyone’s bands loosened (Acts 16:25–26). Also, when strong musical instruments were played, the walls of Jericho fell down flat (Joshua 6:20). Despite the numerous advantages of music to people around the world, the understanding of music studies remains very poor. Music can be taught explicitly or implicitly. It is learned through formal and/or informal means and thus significant to the individual and community (Camlin et al., 2020; Zavadska & Davidova, 2019). The current study demonstrates the need for music education in both Orthodox and Pentecostal churches. We argue that music education will be of immense benefit to the church leaders, education developers, policymakers, students, researchers, church choristers, music directors, pastors, choir leaders among others. Research Methodology Quantitative research method was used for this study. The research was carried out in Abeokuta, the capital of Ogun State in south-west, Nigeria. Abeokuta is located on the east bank of the Ogun River. Abeokuta Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (29–44) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 32 means “Refuge Among Rocks” and was founded around 1830 by Sodeke, a hunter and the leader of the Egba refugees who were fleeing from the Oyo Empire. European missionaries and Sierra Leone Creoles settled there in the 1840s. This settlement made Abeokuta the home of most Orthodox and Pentecostal churches including Methodist, Anglican, Catholic, Baptist, African churches, The Apostolic Church, Deeper Life Bible Church and the Celestial Church of Christ. Also, Abeokuta metropolis comprises four local government areas, namely Abeokuta South, Abeokuta North, Obafemi Owode and Odeda local government areas. Population of the Study The population of this study comprised of all choristers within Orthodox and Pentecostal churches in Abeokuta North, Abeokuta South, Odeda and Obafemi Owode LGAs, Ogun State, Nigeria. Sample and Sampling Technique Multi-stage sampling procedure was adopted for this study. Firstly, 50% of the four local government areas (LGAs) that make up Abeokuta metropolis were purposively selected. This produced two LGAs, namely Abeokuta South and Odeda from where 40% of the 26 churches were randomly selected. This approach then produced 10 churches across LGAs, out of which 13% of the 2,821 choristers were randomly selected. This process eventually produced 367 respondents as the sample size for the study. Instrument for Data Collection A structured questionnaire was employed as the measuring instrument for this research. This structured questionnaire was used to elicit the desired responses from the respondents about the research subject. The data collected was carefully collated, coded and systematically analysed using statistical measures with the intention of relating them to the research goal. Validation and Reliability of Questionnaire Content validity was used to determine the adequacy and relevance of the items in the questionnaire. The questionnaire was thoroughly scrutinised by an expert in music education and statistics at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Observations and critique by independent experts were harmonised, just as the relevant corrections were made and therefore adjudged valid using coefficient of concordance. The split-half method was used to determine the reliability of the instrument. Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was also used to test the result wherein correlation coefficients (r = 0.80) implies that the instrument was reliable. Method of Data Analysis Data obtained for the study were subjected to descriptive and inferential statistics using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Similarly, while frequency distribution, percentages and means were used as descriptive statistics, Chi-square and dependent samples t-test were used as inferential tools. Results and Discussion This section shows the data acquired from the three objectives of the study. An interpretation of the data in each table is provided based our academic opinion. Demographic Characteristics of Respondents in the Area of Study The results of the demographic characteristics of respondents in the area of study are shown in Table 1. Eyitayo A. Soretire & Adebowale O. Adeogun 33 Table 1 Distribution of choristers based on demographic characteristics Socio-economic characteristics Classification of church you belong Orthodox Pentecostal Total f Percentage f Percentage f Percentage Age 20 years and below 49 25.7% 13 7.4% 62 16.9% 21–40 years 106 55.5% 114 64.8% 220 59.9% 41–60 years 29 15.2% 46 26.1% 75 20.4% Above 60 years 7 3.7% 3 1.7% 10 2.7% Sex Male 73 38.2% 68 38.6% 141 38.4% Female 118 61.8% 108 61.4% 226 61.6% Household size 1–5 people 144 75.4% 144 81.8% 288 78.5% Above 5 people 47 24.6% 32 18.2% 79 21.5% Educational Status No formal education 1 0.5% 1 0.6% 2 0.5% Adult education 0 0.0% 2 1.1% 2 0.5% Primary education 0 0.0% 2 1.1% 2 0.5% Junior secondary education 8 4.2% 1 0.6% 9 2.5% Senior secondary education 22 11.5% 24 13.6% 46 12.5% National Certificate in education 19 9.9% 16 9.1% 35 9.5% Polytechnic education 48 25.1% 38 21.6% 86 23.4% University education 93 48.7% 92 52.3% 185 50.4% Which of the voice part do you sing Bass 17 8.9% 24 13.6% 41 11.2% Baritone 1 0.5% 5 2.8% 6 1.6% Tenor 46 24.1% 41 23.3% 87 23.7% Countertenor 0 0.0% 1 0.6% 1 0.3% Alto 42 22.0% 38 21.6% 80 21.8% Contralto 10 5.2% 0 0.0% 10 2.7% Mezzo-soprano 2 1.0% 3 1.7% 5 1.4% Soprano 73 38.2% 64 36.4% 137 37.3% Years in Chorister 20 years and below 150 78.5% 146 83.0% 296 80.7% 21–40 years 37 19.4% 29 16.5% 66 18.0% Above 40 years 4 2.1% 1 0.6% 5 1.4% Field survey, 10th October 2020. Age: The distribution of respondents based on age is presented in Table 1. The result indicates young choristers within the age group of ≥ 40 years in Pentecostal churches outnumbered those in Orthodox churches. The table also shows that the majority (59.9%) of respondents fall within the age bracket of 21– 40 years. This implies that sampled choristers were much younger, stronger, energetic and had the potentials to promote church music education. Moreover, the sampled choristers were resilient and educationally skilful in handling musical equipment. Many people listen, watch, experiment with sounds and movement and eventually, sing, chant and move rhythmically from a very young age. Music in the early years of people acts as a foundation for future learning (Kafol et al., 2015). Early interaction through music education influences life positively and prepares choristers to bond emotionally and intellectually with others (Pan et al., 2019). Early music engagement by younger and innovative minds is central to the cultural practices and circumstances of many youngsters’ experience of the everyday, which has been acknowledged as a powerful tool in early development. Sex: The role attached to either sex (male or female), especially when considered with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones, is an important factor in church music education. As shown in Table 1, there was dominance of female choristers (61.6%) in church music compared with male counterparts (38.4%). The gender of sampled choristers is arguably a determining factor for choristers’ participation in church music. Also, the voice of a matured man is usually low in pitch in comparison to the rather high-pitched female voice. Household size: The household size of the sampled respondents is presented in Table 1. Results show that there were more people within the household range of 1–5 among Pentecostal choristers (81.8%) when Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (29–44) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 34 compared with Orthodox churches (75.4%). The table also reveals that a majority (78.5%) were within the household size category of 1–5 people. The inference is that the choristers had relatively smaller household sizes. Households are instrumental to the music training acquired through teaching and learning in traditional cultures including imitation, involvement and informal music instruction. Educational attainment: Table 1 also shows the statistics on the educational attainment of sampled choristers. Result reveals that whereas a few respondents (0.5%) had no formal education and/or a little form of adult education (0.5%), those with university education constituted the majority (50.4%) across churches, specifically, 48.7% among Orthodox and 52.3% among Pentecostal churches. It was concluded that quality education aids a positive perception and understanding of church music education. Choristers may need to take courses in music education to be adequately qualified for their work (Adeogun, 2015). Also, poor educational background impedes artistic and liturgical skills among choristers. Voice part: As shown in Table 1, results indicate that soprano was the voice part mostly used (37.3%) across churches followed by tenor (23.7%), alto (21.8%), bass (11.2%), contralto (2.7%), baritone (1.6%), mezzo-soprano (1.4%) and countertenor (0.3%). Soprano which recorded the highest percentage had more utilisation among Orthodox choristers (38.2%) compared with their Pentecostal counterpart (36.4%). Results corroborate the notion that church music is a blend of pleasant sounds. It is an art of creating and making pleasant and organised sounds with the human voice and/or other musical instruments. Chorister’s years of experience: The distribution of choristers based on years of experience is as shown in Table 1. Results show that the majority (80.7%) of the respondents were within an experienced group of ≥ 20 years. Also, there was 83.0% of sampled choristers within ≥ 20 years of experience in Pentecostal compared with Orthodox churches (78.5%). This implies that music education is an aesthetic experience which requires several years and involves focus, perception, affection, cognition, consistent training and cultural matrix. Respondents’ Needs for Music Education Table 2(a)–2(e) are the results obtained on the needs of respondents for music education. An academic interpretation and analysis of the data is provided after each table. Table 2(a) Needs for music education across churches Music education need parameters Classification of church you belong Orthodox Pentecostal Total f Percentage f Percentage f Percentage 𝑥̅ Acquisition of certain singing skills Not needed 15 7.9% 3 1.7% 18 4.9% 1.66 Moderately needed 59 30.9% 31 17.6% 90 24.5% Highly needed 117 61.3% 142 80.7% 259 70.6% Acquisition of certain playing skills Not needed 20 10.5% 13 7.4% 33 9.0% Moderately needed 86 45.0% 48 27.3% 134 36.5% Highly needed 85 44.5% 115 65.3% 200 54.5% 1.46 Improvement of auditory skills Not needed 7 3.7% 7 4.0% 14 3.8% Moderately needed 84 44.0% 45 25.6% 129 35.1% 1.57 Highly needed 100 52.4% 124 70.5% 224 61.0% Instructor for personal guidance on the Not needed 16 8.4% 5 2.8% 21 5.7% Moderately needed 56 29.3% 48 27.3% 104 28.3% 1.60 Eyitayo A. Soretire & Adebowale O. Adeogun 35 playing of musical instruments Highly needed 119 62.3% 123 69.9% 242 65.9% A conducive environment for personal practice of musical instruments Not needed 7 3.7% 4 2.3% 11 3.0% Moderately needed 45 23.6% 38 21.6% 83 22.6% 1.71 Highly needed 139 72.8% 134 76.1% 273 74.4% Enough time for personal practice and general rehearsals Not needed 2 1.0% 5 2.8% 7 1.9% Moderately needed 68 35.6% 28 15.9% 96 26.2% 1.70 Highly needed 121 63.4% 143 81.2% 264 71.9% Grace and strength to combining secular, family and academic activities with choir ministry Not needed 23 12.0% 2 1.1% 25 6.8% Moderately needed 78 40.8% 50 28.4% 128 34.9% 1.51 Highly needed 90 47.1% 124 70.5% 214 58.3% Parents, spouse and children’s support for effective participation in the choir ministry Not needed 7 3.7% 16 9.1% 23 6.3% Moderately needed 59 30.9% 47 26.7% 106 28.9% 1.59 Highly needed 125 65.4% 113 64.2% 238 64.9% Good health for effectiveness Not needed 9 4.7% 17 9.7% 26 7.1% Moderately needed 51 26.7% 32 18.2% 83 22.6% 1.63 Highly needed 131 68.6% 127 72.2% 258 70.3% Field survey, 10th October 2020. Table 2(a): Conducive learning environment devoid of physical intimidation and emotional frustration allows for a free exchange of musical ideas. The first part of learning is the physical environment, which includes but not limited to worship houses but musical instruments needed for personal practices. The majority (74.4%) of the choristers need a conducive environment for personal practice of musical instruments across the selected churches. The table also indicates the need for conducive environment among Pentecostal churches (76.1%) than mainline (72.8%). The quest for more conducive environment in the study area brings improvement in the practice of church music education. Also, church music is an expression determined, moulded, interpreted and coloured by physical and cultural environment of the people. Table 2(b) Needs for music education across churches (continued) Music education need parameters Classification of church you belong Orthodox Pentecostal Total f Percentage f Percentage f Percentage 𝑥̅ A closer venue for rehearsals to avoid stress, lateness and absentees at rehearsals Not needed 17 8.9% 26 14.8% 43 11.7% Moderately needed 84 44.0% 61 34.7% 145 39.5% 1.37 Highly needed 90 47.1% 89 50.6% 179 48.8% Two rehearsals weekly for effectiveness Not needed 20 10.5% 19 10.8% 39 10.6% Moderately needed 67 35.1% 54 30.7% 121 33.0% 1.46 Highly needed 104 54.5% 103 58.5% 207 56.4% Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (29–44) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 36 Only one rehearsal per week Not needed 58 30.4% 62 35.2% 120 32.7% Moderately needed 71 37.2% 54 30.7% 125 34.1% 1.01 Highly needed 62 32.5% 60 34.1% 122 33.2% Avoidance of leaders’ preference for certain members of the choir over others Not needed 66 34.6% 48 27.3% 114 31.1% Moderately needed 71 37.2% 29 16.5% 100 27.2% 1.11 Highly needed 54 28.3% 99 56.2% 153 41.7% Prestige and recognition in the church Not needed 58 30.4% 73 41.5% 131 35.7% Moderately needed 74 38.7% 42 23.9% 116 31.6% .97 Highly needed 59 30.9% 61 34.7% 120 32.7% Modification in the musical practices and styles of the church, that is, the need to move along with the societal changes Not needed 25 13.1% 54 30.7% 79 21.5% Moderately needed 81 42.4% 58 33.0% 139 37.9% 1.19 Highly needed 85 44.5% 64 36.4% 149 40.6% Ability to sing alone, especially one’s voice part among many other parts without shifting to other parts Not needed 19 9.9% 6 3.4% 25 6.8% Moderately needed 38 19.9% 22 12.5% 60 16.3% 1.70 Highly needed 134 70.2% 148 84.1% 282 76.8% Ability to compose simple melodies for choir use Not needed 4 2.1% 13 7.4% 17 4.6% Moderately needed 69 36.1% 47 26.7% 116 31.6% 1.59 Highly needed 118 61.8% 116 65.9% 234 63.8% Field survey, 10th October 2020. Table 2(b): The majority (76.8%) across sampled churches were of the view that ability to sing alone, especially one’s voice part among many other parts without shifting to other parts is highly needed. Results show that there was more need for such among Pentecostals (84.1%) compared to mainline churches (70.2%). Choristers usually have ability to sing alone, use instruments and follow a song’s structure with interest, enthusiasm and the support of a music teacher. Table 2(c) Needs for music education across churches (continued) Music education need parameters Classification of church you belong Orthodox Pentecostal Total f Percentage f Percentage f Percentage 𝑥̅ Ability to compose simple harmony for choir use Not needed 6 3.1% 13 7.4% 19 5.2% Moderately needed 70 36.6% 48 27.3% 118 32.2% 1.57 Highly needed 115 60.2% 115 65.3% 230 62.7% Eyitayo A. Soretire & Adebowale O. Adeogun 37 Ability to sight- read or play for self-reliance Not needed 8 4.2% 19 10.8% 27 7.4% Moderately needed 71 37.2% 48 27.3% 119 32.4% 1.53 Highly needed 112 58.6% 109 61.9% 221 60.2% Preference to learn music by imitation (route method) and observation Not needed 9 4.7% 20 11.4% 29 7.9% Moderately needed 95 49.7% 90 51.1% 185 50.4% 1.34 Highly needed 87 45.5% 66 37.5% 153 41.7% Preference to learn music by sol-fa notation method Not needed 5 2.6% 11 6.2% 16 4.4% Moderately needed 83 43.5% 76 43.2% 159 43.3% 1.48 Highly needed 103 53.9% 89 50.6% 192 52.3% Preference to learn music by shape note method Not needed 9 4.7% 25 14.2% 34 9.3% Moderately needed 99 51.8% 79 44.9% 178 48.5% 1.33 Highly needed 83 43.5% 72 40.9% 155 42.2% Preference to learn music by listening to audio/visual recording and then imitate Not needed 24 12.6% 31 17.6% 55 15.0% Moderately needed 91 47.6% 57 32.4% 148 40.3% 1.30 Highly needed 76 39.8% 88 50.0% 164 44.7% I prefer memorisation method of learning music Not needed 24 12.6% 27 15.3% 51 13.9% Moderately needed 88 46.1% 68 38.6% 156 42.5% 1.30 Highly needed 79 41.4% 81 46.0% 160 43.6% Preference for music that involve dancing and shaking of the body Not needed 28 14.7% 47 26.7% 75 20.4% Moderately needed 63 33.0% 71 40.3% 134 36.5% 1.23 Highly needed 100 52.4% 58 33.0% 158 43.1% Preference for classical music performance Not needed 10 5.2% 33 18.8% 43 11.7% Moderately needed 69 36.1% 65 36.9% 134 36.5% 1.40 Highly needed 112 58.6% 78 44.3% 190 51.8% Preference for band music performance Not needed 25 13.1% 51 29.0% 76 20.7% Moderately needed 83 43.5% 67 38.1% 150 40.9% 1.18 Highly needed 83 43.5% 58 33.0% 141 38.4% Field survey, 10th October 2020. Table 2(c): In simple terms, harmony occurs when more than one note is played or sung at the same time. This can be as an interval (two notes, also called a dyad) or chords of three or more notes. The ability to compose simple harmony for choir use was highly needed in Pentecostals (65.3%) than mainline churches (60.2%). The results indicate that composition of simple harmony was highly needed across sampled churches. Music is seen as integrated and comprehensive art involving composition, listening and performance. It is characterised by pitch, duration, intensity and volume. Music is identified through melody, rhythm and harmony. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (29–44) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 38 Table 2(d) Needs for music education across churches (continued) Music education need parameters Classification of church you belong Orthodox Pentecostal Total f Percentage f Percentage f Percentage 𝑥̅ Preference for choral music performance Not needed 23 12.0% 23 13.1% 46 12.5% Moderately needed 82 42.9% 51 29.0% 133 36.2% 1.39 Highly needed 86 45.0% 102 58.0% 188 51.2% Preference for self-composed music for choir performance (composition by any of the choir members) Not needed 5 2.6% 6 3.4% 11 3.0% Moderately needed 64 33.5% 90 51.1% 154 42.0% 1.52 Highly needed 122 63.9% 80 45.5% 202 55.0% Preference for already composed music by other composers outside the church Not needed 13 6.8% 21 11.9% 34 9.3% Moderately needed 108 56.5% 86 48.9% 194 52.9% 1.29 Highly needed 70 36.6% 69 39.2% 139 37.9% Better understanding of all that is being taught in music during rehearsals Not needed 2 1.0% 16 9.1% 18 4.9% Moderately needed 58 30.4% 48 27.3% 106 28.9% 1.61 Highly needed 131 68.6% 112 63.6% 243 66.2% Financial provision for transport fare to rehearsals and purchase of musical instruments for personal use Not needed 17 8.9% 23 13.1% 40 10.9% Moderately needed 79 41.4% 75 42.6% 154 42.0% 1.36 Highly needed 95 49.7% 78 44.3% 173 47.1% Development of conducting skills Not needed 14 7.3% 8 4.5% 22 6.0% Moderately needed 68 35.6% 63 35.8% 131 35.7% 1.52 Highly needed 109 57.1% 105 59.7% 214 58.3% Field survey, 10th October 2020. Table 2(d): Human understanding focuses either on what it means to understand and how understanding develops or on the way knowledge of music is constructed. Better understanding of all that is being taught in music during rehearsals was highly needed among the majority (66.2%) of the sampled choristers. However, 68.6% of the mainline choristers stressed the need for better understanding of all that is being taught in music during rehearsals compared with Pentecostal churches (63.6%). As choristers encounter music, they actually bring their own creativity to the music-learning environment leading to better knowledge, skill, understanding and development. Eyitayo A. Soretire & Adebowale O. Adeogun 39 Table 2(e) Needs for music education across churches (continued) Music education need parameters Classification of church you belong Orthodox Pentecostal Total f Percentage f Percentage f Percentage 𝑥̅ Development of creative thinking skills Not needed 7 3.7% 1 0.6% 8 2.2% Moderately needed 74 38.7% 44 25.0% 118 32.2% 1.63 Highly needed 110 57.6% 131 74.4% 241 65.7% Development of self- confidence for effective musical performance Not needed 16 8.4% 1 0.6% 17 4.6% Moderately needed 54 28.3% 25 14.2% 79 21.5% 1.69 Highly needed 121 63.4% 150 85.2% 271 73.8% Self-discipline for effectiveness Not needed 13 6.8% 1 0.6% 14 3.8% Moderately needed 42 22.0% 19 10.8% 61 16.6% 1.76 Highly needed 136 71.2% 156 88.6% 292 79.6% Development of a teamwork spirit Not needed 8 4.2% 1 0.6% 9 2.5% Moderately needed 54 28.3% 30 17.0% 84 22.9% 1.72 Highly needed 129 67.5% 145 82.4% 274 74.7% To earn money and have a means of livelihood through church music education Not needed 57 29.8% 58 33.0% 115 31.3% Moderately needed 85 44.5% 51 29.0% 136 37.1% 1.00 Highly needed 49 25.7% 67 38.1% 116 31.6% Organising musical concerts and exposure to other churches’ musical concerts Not needed 7 3.7% 12 6.8% 19 5.2% Moderately needed 60 31.4% 51 29.0% 111 30.2% 1.59 Highly needed 124 64.9% 113 64.2% 237 64.6% Field survey, 10th October 2020. Tables 2(e): Self-discipline in church music is self-regulation of chorister’s behaviour to suit society or environment which the chorister belongs to. The majority (79.6%) of the sampled respondents were self- disciplined for effectiveness across churches. Specifically, the percentage was higher among the Pentecostal (88.6%) than the Orthodox churches (71.2%). In summary, results show that self-discipline for effectiveness (1.76) ranked first among choristers. This was followed by development of a teamwork spirit (1.72); conducive environment for personal practice of musical instruments (1.71); enough time for personal practice and general rehearsals (1.70); ability to sing alone (1.70); development of self-confidence for effective musical performance (1.69); acquisition of certain singing skills (1.66); good health for effectiveness (1.63); development of creative thinking skills (1.63); better understanding of the music taught during rehearsals (1.61); instructor for personal guidance on the playing of musical instruments (1.60); parents, spouse and children’s support for effective participation in the choir ministry (1.59); ability to compose simple melodies for choir use (1.59); organising musical concerts and exposure to other churches’ musical concerts (1.59) and improvement of auditory skills (1.57). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (29–44) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 40 Disparities in Choristers’ Need for Church Music Education The results of the church music education need index is shown in Table 3. Church music education is critically needed across churches (54.8%). Significantly, there were more choristers in dire need of church music education within Orthodox churches (55.5%) than in the Pentecostal churches (54.0%). In other words, Orthodox churches should focus more on teaching or learning church music. Table 3 Church music education need index Church Classification Total Orthodox Pentecostal f % f % f % Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Need level Low 85 44.5 81 46.0 166 45.2 20.00 78.00 56.56 9.54 High 106 55.5 95 54.0 201 54.8 Hypotheses Testing H01: There is no significant relationship between the need for church music education among sampled choristers and their socio-economic characteristics. H02: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of respondents’ need for music education across churches. Table 4 Chi-square analysis of the relationship between the need for church music education among sampled choristers and their socio-economic characteristics Need level Low High Total c2 df p value f % f % f % Age 20 years and below 23 13.9% 39 19.4% 62 16.9% 21–40 years 97 58.4% 123 61.2% 220 59.9% 5.393 3 .015* 41–60 years 42 25.3% 33 16.4% 75 20.4% Above 60 years 4 2.4% 6 3.0% 10 2.7% Sex Male 62 37.3% 79 39.3% 141 38.4% Female 104 62.7% 122 60.7% 226 61.6% .147 1 .702 Household size 1–5 people 129 77.7% 159 79.1% 288 78.5% Above 5 people 37 22.3% 42 20.9% 79 21.5% .105 1 .746 Marital status Single 94 56.6% 123 61.2% 217 59.1% Married 67 40.4% 77 38.3% 144 39.2% 7.299 4 .121 Divorced 1 0.6% 0 0.0% 1 0.3% Widowed 4 2.4% 0 0.0% 4 1.1% Separated 0 0.0% 1 0.5% 1 0.3% Educational Status No formal education 0 0.0% 2 1.0% 2 0.5% Adult education 0 0.0% 2 1.0% 2 0.5% Primary education 2 1.2% 0 0.0% 2 0.5% Junior secondary education 2 1.2% 7 3.5% 9 2.5% Senior secondary education 13 7.8% 33 16.4% 46 12.5% 14.722 7 .040* National Certificate in education 17 10.2% 18 9.0% 35 9.5% Polytechnic Education 40 24.1% 46 22.9% 86 23.4% Eyitayo A. Soretire & Adebowale O. Adeogun 41 University education 92 55.4% 93 46.3% 185 50.4% Which of the voice part do you sing Bass 22 13.3% 19 9.5% 41 11.2% Baritone 4 2.4% 2 1.0% 6 1.6% Tenor 42 25.3% 45 22.4% 87 23.7% Countertenor 1 0.6% 0 0.0% 1 0.3% 14.883 7 .038* Alto 44 26.5% 36 17.9% 80 21.8% Contralto 3 1.8% 7 3.5% 10 2.7% Mezzo-soprano 3 1.8% 2 1.0% 5 1.4% Soprano 47 28.3% 90 44.8% 137 37.3% Years spent as Chorister 20 years and below 128 77.1% 168 83.6% 296 80.7% 21–40 years 33 19.9% 33 16.4% 66 18.0% 7.132 2 .038* Above 40 years 5 3.0% 0 0.0% 5 1.4% Field survey, 10th October 2020. *Significant @ 0.05. Chi-square analysis of the relationship between the need for church music education among sampled choristers and their socio-economic characteristics is shown in Table 4. Results indicate that a significant relationship existed between the need for church music education among sampled choristers and socio-economic characteristics including age (c2 = 5.393; p ≤ .05), educational status (c2 = 14.722; p ≤ .05), voice part used (c2 = 14.883; p ≤ .05) and years spent as a chorister (c2 = 7.132; p ≤ .05). Church music education needs depend on age, educational status, voice part used and years spent as a chorister. This implies demographic data which are socio-economic information expressed statistically such age, educational status, voice part used and years spent as a chorister had significant influence on church music education needs. Age determines musical preferences and accounts for varied dispositions to church music among different age categories. Higher level of music achievement may reflect higher motivation for music, greater discipline and/or higher musical skills. Governments, corporations, churches and other non- government organisations use demographics to learn more about a population’s characteristics for many purposes including policy development. Numerous studies have found that music participation is associated with higher scores on standardised academic achievement tests (Dos Santos-Luiz et al., 2015) as well as on assessments of academic-related cognitive competences such as visual and auditory competencies (Benz et al., 2016). Church music education needs are also based on music training and significant variation in quality of training and instruction (Dumont et al., 2017; Foster & Jenkins, 2017; Sala & Gobet, 2017). Also, Elpus (2013) observed that socio-demographic factors such as time used, education in terms of academic achievement and attitudes/motivation are important in church music education needs. A chorister with prior years of engagement, practising and participation in music both in and outside churches have better chances of improved performance and participation. Table 5 Independent samples t-test of difference in the mean rating of respondents’ need for music education across churches Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. T df Sig. Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval Lower Upper Equal variances assumed 0.455 0.501* - 1.028 365 .0305* -1.02374 .99615 - 2.98266 .93518 Equal variances not assumed - 1.031 364.959 .0303* -1.02374 .99324 - 2.97694 .92946 Field survey, 10th October 2020. *Significant @ 0.05. Orthodox 56.0785, Pentecostal 57.1023 Table 5 shows the independent samples t-test of difference in the mean rating of respondents’ need for music education across churches. The results show that there is a significant difference in the mean rating of respondents’ need for music education across churches (t = 1.028; p < .05). By implication, the need for church music education varies significantly across churches. It follows also that there is a need for church music education in Orthodox churches (56.0785) than Pentecostal (57.1023) churches. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (29–44) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 42 Summary This study was designed to assess the need for church music education in Orthodox and Pentecostal churches. Results indicate that there were more young choristers in Pentecostal churches within the age group of ≤ 40 years than in Orthodox churches. Female choristers dominate church music across churches. Also, there were more people within the household range of 1–5 among Pentecostal choristers (81.8%) than Orthodox churches (75.4%). While a majority (50.4%) of the choristers had university education, most (80.7%) of the respondents were within an experienced group of ≥ 20 years. In terms of parts, the soprano was more utilised among Orthodox choristers (38.2%) in comparison to Pentecostal church choristers. There was a need for self-discipline for effectiveness (1.76), development of a teamwork spirit (1.72) and a conducive environment for personal practice of musical instruments (1.71) among others. Conclusion In general, we maintain that church music education needs among sampled choristers varied significantly across church categories and depend on socio-economic characteristics such as age, educational status, voice part and years spent as a chorister. Thus, beyond the focused population, there is a need for discipline in music education across churches. Recommendations Church music leaders, directors, instructors and choristers particularly within Orthodox churches should re- strategise on the modalities of training and re-training their choristers or members to be resilient, disciplined, confident and practicable on the need to adopt a formidable music centre. This is achieved through nurturing, setting expectations and boundaries, fostering a sense of personal responsibility, encouragement and teaching on how to fulfil choirs’ obligations. There is a need for churches to provide adequate free musical training and re-training of choristers in the reading and writing of music. Church management should always consider more participation of young, creative and well-experienced choristers in church music for an overall improvement in relation to the needs of church music education. Music education teachers and experienced music professionals should be employed by churches to maximally improve the teaching and learning of music for choristers and churches. This will improve music literacy, aid simplicity of teaching and learning methods as well as the interchange of methods. Finally, it is strongly recommended that instructors and directors should be musically trained, knowledgeable and skillful for the overall success of music education particularly within Orthodox churches. Talented youths should be given the opportunity to display their real-life experiences and possibly showcase their talents on public platforms and media; this will encourage or drive the interest of other youths. References Abiodun, F. (2019). Choir management in Nigerian schools: Consequences of pedagogical methods. Accelerando: Belgrade Journal of Music and Dance, 4(3), Article 3. https://accelerandobjmd.weebly.com/issue4/choir- management-in-nigerian-schools-consequences-of-pedagogical-methods Abiogu, G. C., Mbaji, I. N., & Adeogun, A. O. (2015). Music education and youth empowerment: A conceptual clarification. Open Journal of Philosophy, 5(1), 117–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojpp.2015.51013 Adedeji, F. (2007). Christian music in contemporary Africa: A re-examination of its essentials. Koers: Bulletin for Christian Scholarship, 72(1), 85–100. https://doi.org/10.4102/koers.v72i1.193 Adekola, O. E., & Amole, B. A. (2015). Inculcating cultural values into Nigerian primary school pupils throughout indigenous music education. Journal of Nigerian Music Education, 7, 87–95. Adeogun, A. O. (2015). African musical knowledge in Africa’s university: The insufficiency of the sufficient. Journal of Nigerian Music Education, 7, 19–41. Badri, M., Mohaidat, J., & El Mourad, T. (2014). Measuring the efficiency of public schools using data envelopment analysis: An exploratory study. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(37), 215–232. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/view/18323/19011 Baker Jr., R. A. (2012). The effects of high-stakes testing policy on arts education. Arts Education Policy Review, 113(1), 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10632913.2012.626384 Benz, S., Sellaro, R., Hommel, B., & Colzato, L. S. (2016). Music makes the world go round: The impact of musical training on non-musical cognitive functions—A review. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 2023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02023 Eyitayo A. Soretire & Adebowale O. Adeogun 43 Brown, S. C., & Knox D. (2017). Why go to pop concerts? The motivations behind live music attendance. Musicae Scientiae, 21(3), 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864916650719 Bugaj, K., & Brenner, B. (2011). The effects of music instruction on cognitive development and reading skills: An overview. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 189, 89–104. https://doi.org/10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.189.0089 Camlin, D. A., Daffern, H., & Zeserson, K. (2020). Group singing as a resource for the development of a healthy public: A study of adult group singing. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 7, Article 60. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-00549-0 Dolan, E. I. (2017). Review: MIMO: Musical instrument museums online. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 70(2), 555–565. https://doi.org/10.1525/jams.2017.70.2.555 Dos Santos-Luiz, C., Coimbra, D., & Andrade, C. (2011). The effects of music tuition on academic achievement in Portuguese 8th year students. In A. Williamon, D. Edwards & L. Bartel (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on Performance Science (pp. 425–430). European Association of Conservatoires (AEC). http://performancescience.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/isps2011_proceedings.pdf Dos Santos-Luiz, C., Mónico, L. S. M., Almeida, L. S., & Coimbra, D. (2015). Exploring the long-term associations between adolescents’ music training and academic achievement. Musicae Scientiae, 20(4), 512–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864915623613 Dumont, E., Syurina, E. V., Feron, F. J. M., & Van Hooren, S. (2017). Music interventions and child development: A critical review and further directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 1694. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01694 Elpus, K. (2013). Is it the music or is it selection bias? A nationwide analysis of music and non-music students’ SAT scores. Journal of Research in Music Education, 61(2), 175–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429413485601 Foster, E. M., & Jenkins, J. V. M. (2017). Does participation in music and performing arts influence child development? American Educational Research Journal, 54(3), 399–443. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217701830 Ganesh, S. (2017). Inclusive education: Perception of parents of students with special needs in segregated settings in Dubai [Master’s thesis, The British University in Dubai]. BSpace. https://bspace.buid.ac.ae/handle/1234/1110 Han, L., Li, J. P., Sit, J. W., Chung, L., Jiao, Z. Y., & Ma, W. G. (2010). Effects of music intervention on physiological stress response and anxiety level of mechanically ventilated patients in China: A randomised controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 19(7–8), 978–987. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- 2702.2009.02845.x Hille, K., Gust, K., Bitz, U., & Kammer, T. (2011). Associations between music education, intelligence, and spelling ability in elementary school. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 7, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10053-008- 0082-4 Holochwost, S. J., Propper, C. B., Wolf, D. P., Willoughby, M. T., Fisher, K. R., Kolacz, J., Volpe, V. V., & Jaffee, S. R. (2017). Music education, academic achievement, and executive functions. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 11(2), 147–166. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000112 Johnes, J., Portela, M., & Thanassoulis, E. (2017). Efficiency in education. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 68(4), 331–338. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41274-016-0109-z Kadbey, H., Dickson, M., & McMinn, M. (2015). Primary teachers’ perceived challenges in teaching science in Abu Dhabi public schools. Procedia – Social and Behavioural Sciences, 186, 749–757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.055 Kafol, B. S., Denac, O., Žnidaršič, J. & Zalar, K. (2015). Analysis of music education objectives in learning domains. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 186, 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.069 Miendlarzewska, E. A., & Trost, W. J. (2014). How musical training affects cognitive development: Rhythm, reward and other modulating variables. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 7, Article 279. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2013.00279 Nwankpa, O. N. (2018, October 14). Church music in Nigeria: The journey so far – Part 1. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://guardian.ng/sunday-magazine/ibru-ecumenical-centre/church-music-in-nigeria-the-journey-so- far-part-1/ Odendaal, A., Levänen, S., & Westerlund, H. (2020). The Mnemonist’s legacy: On memory, forgetting, and ableist discourse in twenty-first-century inclusive music education. Music Education Research, 22(3), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2020.1759518 Odewole, I. O. O., (2018), Singing and worship in an Anglican church liturgy in Egba and Egba west Dioceses, Abeokuta, Nigeria. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 74(1), a4584. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v74i1.4584 Owan, V. J. (2018). Factors affecting students’ poor preference of music as a course of study of secondary school students in Akamkpa Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. SSRN Electronic Journal. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3194800 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (29–44) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 44 Oyeniyi, G. A. (2019). Challenges of music education in Nigerian Baptist Theological Seminary, Ogbomoso. International Journal of Innovative Education Research, 7(4), 114–121. https://seahipaj.org/journals-ci/dec- 2019/IJIER/full/IJIER-D-12-2019.pdf Pan, F., Zhang, L., Ou, Y., & Zhang, X. (2019). The audio-visual integration effect on music emotion: Behavioral and physiological evidence. PLoS ONE, 14(5), e0217040. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217040 Pretorius, M. (2017). A metaphysical and neuropsychological assessment of musical tones to affect the brain, relax the mind and heal the body. Verbum et Ecclesia, 38(1), a1719. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ve.v38i1.1719 Rohwer, D. (2010). Church musicians’ perceptions of music as a lifelong learning activity. Research and Issues in Music Education, 8(1), Article 2. https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/rime/vol8/iss1/2 Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2017). When the music’s over. Does music transfer to children’s and young adolescents’ cognitive and academic skills? A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 20, 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.11.005 Terra, L. A. A., & Passador, J. L. (2016). Symbiotic dynamic: The strategic problem from the perspective of complexity. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 33(2), 235–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.2379 Tsarikidou, H., & Stergiou, K. (2013). Evaluating the efficiency of primary school education. Proceedings in Advanced Research in Scientific Areas (pp. 279–286). EDIS. Udok, E. C., & Odunuga, A. F. (2016). Music and Pentecostalism: The Nigerian experience. Review of Arts and Humanities, 5(1), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.15640/rah.v5n1a5 West, C. (2015). Developing internal musicianship in beginning band by teaching the “Big 5”. Music Educators Journal, 101(3), 101–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0027432114565392 Weston, D. (2020). An ecology of musical livelihoods. Music Education Research, 22(5), 491–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2020.1842304 Yang, K. (2014). Factors affecting internal efficiency of primary schools in Nuer Zone of Gambella Regional State [Master’s Thesis, Jimma University]. CORE. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/29136363.pdf Zavadska, G., & Davidova, J. (2019). Composition of song accompaniment as a form of developing future music teachers’ harmonic hearing. The European Journal of Social & Behavioural Sciences, 24(1), 2865–2876. https://doi.org/10.15405/ejsbs.250 Biography Soretire, Eyitayo Aderonke is a lecturer in music at Federal College of Education, Osiele, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. She obtained her M.A. (Music) from University of Nigeria, Nsukka and currently about to defend her PhD thesis in music education in the same University. She has been working with musical arts education in Nigeria. She has some national and international publications in the area of music education and African music to her credit. Her research interests include areas of Music Education, African music and Ethnomusicology. Adebowale Oluranti Adeogun is a senior lecturer in music at University of Nigeria, Nsukka. He received his DMus degree in music education from University of Pretoria, South Africa. His interest is to bridge music, education, ethnomusicology and the arts. He has been working in music history, musical heritage and musical arts education in Nigeria. He has published both nationally and internationally in the area of African music and music education. He has served as a member of the editorial boards for national and international journals. His research interests include areas of Music Education, Performance, Composition and Ethnomusicology.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 2 (2021)

cultural awareness, local and global communities, sensitivity, social justice, World Music Pedagogy

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/390

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5047

World Music Pedagogy: Gateway to Global Citizenship and Children’s Creative Impulses

In this article, we seek to examine ways in which educators can bring music of world cultures into classrooms of children in a respectful, sensitive manner. Myriad issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion are at the center of the conversation among music educators across the globe. As educators are committed to issues of globaliation, social justice, and cultural democracy, we intend here to discuss World Music Pedagogy (WMP) as a means of fostering children’s musical and cultural awareness in embracing both local and global communities. These involve careful considerations, as WMP is a multi-dimensional learning process that recognises the importance of deep and reflective listening as gateway to knowing the music in order to participate in it, to perform it, to create new works within the style of the studied music, and to know its cultural meaning, context, and function. Lastly, we present three “classroom portraits” through activities with examples from Brazilian, Ugandan, and Canadian Arctic Indigenous cultures that can open pathways that lead learners to a comprehensive experience with music in and as culture.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5047/3197

Juliana Cantarelli Vita & Patricia S. Campbell 45 World Music Pedagogy: Gateway to Global Citizenship and Children’s Creative Impulses Juliana Cantarelli Vita* Music Education, University of Hartford, 200 Bloomfield Ave, West Hartford, CT 06117 e-mail:[email protected] Patricia Shehan Campbell Music Education, University of Washington Music Building, Seattle, WA 98195 e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 25 October 2021 Cite this article (APA): Cantarelli Vita, J. & Campbell, P. S. (2021). World music pedagogy: Gateway to global citizenship and children’s creative impulses. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(1), 45-53. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.2.4.2021 Abstract In this article, we seek to examine ways in which educators can bring music of world cultures into classrooms of children in a respectful, sensitive manner. Myriad issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion are at the center of the conversation among music educators across the globe. As educators are committed to issues of globaliation, social justice, and cultural democracy, we intend here to discuss World Music Pedagogy (WMP) as a means of fostering children’s musical and cultural awareness in embracing both local and global communities. These involve careful considerations, as WMP is a multi-dimensional learning process that recognises the importance of deep and reflective listening as gateway to knowing the music in order to participate in it, to perform it, to create new works within the style of the studied music, and to know its cultural meaning, context, and function. Lastly, we present three “classroom portraits” through activities with examples from Brazilian, Ugandan, and Canadian Arctic Indigenous cultures that can open pathways that lead learners to a comprehensive experience with music in and as culture. Keywords: cultural awareness, local and global communities, sensitivity, social justice, World Music Pedagogy Introduction In a time of global turbulence and transformation, the myriad issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion have permeated the conversation among music educators. Many educators across the world who are committed to issues of globalisation, social justice, and cultural democracy as it is relevant to their professional work as seeking ways to teaching music globally, culturally, and interculturally. While curricular reform of this nature may seem to be explicitly geared to courses for university-level music students, these issues are unquestionably applicable to the musical education of children. Primary school music educators are recognising their powerful role in bridging cultures and communities both locally and globally, even as they continue their dedication to fostering children’s musical development and supporting their creative impulses. Wright (2015) argues that “numerous sociologists have identified the crucial role that education plays in such social reproduction, and key figures have highlighted the role of culture in these cycles of injustice” (pp. 340-341). We are at a time at which we can take seriously the importance of culture in the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (45-53) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 46 music we select to teach, and the ways in which we can fold into our lessons the musical experience and the pathways to cultural understanding and human empathy. Several questions, however, loom large in the educator’s quest to further open the gates to global citizenship: how to do so respectfully, how to embrace music as the culture of the people, the musicians and dancers whose musical treasures we can come to know? In a moment of deep conversations of appropriateness, appropriation, and positionality, it is timely to center music with cultural study when welcoming a diversity of musical forms and practices into the classroom to sing, play, dance, and launch into newly creative expressions. In this article, the authors seek to further examine the ways in which music educators can do so, respectfully, through a specific framework known as World Music Pedagogy (WMP). Here, two music educators who work in collaboration with ethnomusicologists share practical examples drawn from classrooms of children in order to explain World Music Pedagogy as a comprehensive venture for knowing music and culture. We examine the carefulness of “going global” in curriculum and instruction in all circumstances and settings, and what that means in theory and practice. Lastly, we consider social justice and cultural democracy as elemental in the construction of pedagogical practice, so that the musical education of children can lead to decolonisation, the active dismantling of oppressive practices, and global citizenship. Why Global Citizenship? In the quest for the "global citizenship" of their young learners, primary school music educators are taking aim at breaking with “cycles of injustice” by developing children’s intercultural understanding. They are re-examining the cultural meanings of songs for the messages they convey, even as they are pursuing a more global sampling of the musical selections they feature in their lessons. In music education practice, global citizenship is achieved through musical study and experience, and the application of World Music Pedagogy (Campbell, 2004; 2018) is a fitting process for guiding children to a recognition through music of human rights, cultural identity, and the embrace of human musical values within and across cultures. In school settings, there is great potential for fashioning musical studies that embrace both local and global communities. In fact, school music educators are well situated for developing children’s musical and cultural understandings, and for addressing issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion that lead to responsible global citizenship. They are laying the foundations for children’s intercultural understanding, so that at an early age, children are experiencing a wide variety of music’s sonic structures and social meanings. A growing number of school music programmes are successfully introducing children to a wide span of the world’s musical instruments, cultural treatments of melodic and rhythmic dimensions, and of ways in which music functions in song, the important cultural context, instrumental works, and as it integrates with dance and drama. These programmes are drawing children into the worldwide circle of musical communities, and to a sense of a global belonging and a realisation that they are not only in touch with the wider world but also with the capacity to care for people beyond themselves and their immediate families. That music has the capacity to open children’s ears, eyes, and minds to the world is a mark of its contribution to their evolving global citizenship. Childhood is marked by a growing awareness of cultural and societal meanings and symbols, and children use and recognise the multiple aspects attached to music as they mature. Children’s cultural awareness can be furthered in school music programmes by learning “about the music, who performs it, and why, where, when, and how” (Roberts & Beegle, 2018, p. 17). A musical education for children can provide “a platform for minorities and majorities to interact through musical activities” (Omolo-Ongati, 2005, p. 60). It can be both multicultural and intercultural in its embrace of distinctive expressions and values and can open the door to their realisation that “music travels and is continually being created, recreated, modified/refashioned, adapted, and reinterpreted …” (Omolo-Ongati, 2005, p. 60). Importantly, music has the palpable power to build bridges between people, to build social connections, and to foster respect for the people whose music it is (Campbell, 2018; Schippers, 2010). Children are capable of an astonishing expanse of musical expressions to sing, play, and dance, and the new music they create that are quite naturally based in what they know and have experienced. Perceptive and practiced educators know that an expansion of the palette of musical experiences for children can be achieved through the greater diversification of the school music curriculum, which then paves the way to a widening of possibilities for children’s creative musical expressions. Children can therefore know more music more deeply for its sounds and circumstances, both by experiencing the human variety that is out there and by their involvement in the intimate details of pitch, rhythm, and other formal elements that they Juliana Cantarelli Vita & Patricia S. Campbell 47 listen to, perform, and then select out for the new music they will compose and improvise. Thus, this article provides ways in which music educators can bring the world to the classroom in a respectful manner, with particular attention to fostering children’s not only their musical and cultural sensitivities but also their creative impulses. A Means of Fostering Children’s Musical and Cultural Awareness Music educators strive within their individual classroom settings for ways not only to enhance their students’ development in music and through music, but also to make music relevant and meaningful, to facilitate the understanding of near and distant people and places, to offer powerful creative experiences. Cain, Lindblom, and Walden (2013) report that “One result of exposure to different musics and musical sharing across cultures is the expansion of musically creative outputs, as musical cultures borrow and integrate new elements from each other” (p. 82). They have the potential to foster a cultural and musical democracy that honours the expressions of the children they teach as well as the wider world in which they live. Learning happens as educators connect familiar music with culturally unfamiliar music, and as they foster children’s discovery of the essence of the wider world of musicians, listeners, lovers, and users of music. Embracing music from various cultures is at times a courageous act, as teachers and their students tap into music’s cultural contexts and constructs, its new sounds, and its unfamiliar structures. Moreover, the understanding of music as a multiple human expression reflects the diverse perspective of today’s pluralistic society. There are various avenues that support the development of cultural awareness and multicultural- intercultural understandings in music and through music, as there are also various strategies for encouraging children’s awareness of the world’s people and cultures. As they experience diverse musical expressions, children can be encouraged to play with new ideas melodically, rhythmically, and in ways of texture, timbre, form, and style. For example, children may create a piece based on the three-pitched melodies from the Basque region txistu (or fipple flute, a symbol of Basque folk revival) on recorders, or classroom xylophones can be adapted as traditional Basque txalapartas (percussion instrument played with wood knots) so that children create accompaniment with vertical mallets, in the style of txalapartariak. Or they may create a rhythm of interweaving lines, a polyrhythm that features claves, guiros, and bongos, congas, and other hand drums common to an Afro-Cuban matrix of many parts. Or they may discover in a Filipino anklung excerpt the ways in which melodies may consist of five pitches that, through a distribution of just one pitched bamboo instrument to a player, can be creatively combined to make a beautiful fluid melodic. Or they may construct a raga of six pitches, in a tala of six beats, that they can play on the violins, flutes, and clarinets that they are beginning to learn. Or they may collaboratively create a protest song, a song of struggle, a freedom song that conveys their belief in human kindness, equal opportunity, and socially just systems that support the health and welfare of all people in every place. Examples abound, and several illustrations of these pathways are detailed below. Through pedagogical pathways that begin with deep listening and study of music’s cultural meaning, and which develop into participatory musicking and performance, children can create new expressions that extend from knowing well the “origin music”. As they hold some facets of a musical work in place but change something of the melody, or rhythm, or text, or texture, children are creating even as they are growing their respect for the people and cultures from which the music flows. “Going Global” in Music Education Practice Since the middle of the twentieth century, musical expressions from diverse cultures and styles have increasingly been featured in school music classrooms, particularly in those geared to children and their “general music” experiences. Today the music curriculum in many schools in North America, and elsewhere in the world, are tending to encompass musical works of varied styles and cultures. Myriad events have paved the way for the development of rationales and approaches for teaching musics from world cultures. From meetings (such as the 1967 Tanglewood Symposium) to publications (such as the three editions of Multicultural Perspectives in Music Education (1989, 1996, 2010), collaborations between music educators and ethnomusicologists have focused on musical practices from the world’s cultural communities, with attention to cultural contexts and transmission models (Schippers, 2010). These collaborations also include the development of the Education Section of the Society for Ethnomusicology, the Encounters with Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (45-53) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 48 Ethnomusicologists: Teaching Music/Teaching Culture webinars and courses, the instructional sequences designed and available via Smithsonian Folkways Recordings and the Global Jukebox, and the seven- volume World Music Pedagogy Series published by Routledge in 2018-2021. Born out of the intersection of ethnomusicology and music education scholarship, “a newly emergent phenomenon known as world music pedagogy” has risen and is finding its way into school music programmes (Campbell, 2004, 2018; Campbell & Lum, 2019). This pedagogy strives to reach beyond the repertoire and the “what” and “why” questions, to the query of “how.” It follows on earlier attempts to teach music of world cultures but gives particular attention to a multi-sensory sequence that balances the study of music with cultural functions, values, and meanings. The approach to world music experience and study, which is proposed and edited by Patricia Shehan Campbell, honours transmission practices that are widely embraced by cultures across the globe, such as (a) oral/aural techniques, (b) other notational systems (or the inappropriateness of them), (c) improvisatory methods, and (d) common behaviours such as vocalisation prior to instrumental performance, various solmisation methods, and well-synced (conductor-less) group performance via group awareness of the musical sounds of one another (Campbell & Lum, 2019; Coppola, Hebert, & Campbell, 2021). World Music Pedagogy brings students from first listening encounters with music to full-fledged participation and performances of the music, and over to the possibilities for creating new ideas that connect to the music they have learned. The process underscores the study of music for its cultural meaning, and for the potential connections between the culture of the music and the culture of the learner. Carefulness in “Going Global” More than ever, music educators are “going global” in their design and delivery of music that can be understood and appreciated by listening; participating and performing; creating and learning; its cultural meaning and function. Yet these same professional educators do well to proceed with caution, to seek trustworthy sources, and to be culturally responsive (and responsible) to the music, the artists, and the young learners. The enthusiasm of educators for opening the ears (and minds) of children to the world’s cultures can be invigorating and revitalising, even colorful and contagious, but for maximal impact and respect, several safeguards are suggested: (a) Make sure repertoire is available to be used, and that it is permissible and approved by those whose music it is; (b) Create bridges with communities by working with culture bearers in two-way collaborations (via support to their communities by grant-writing, creating recordings; (c) Understand with sensitivity the positionalities of cultural insiders and outsiders. By taking time out to consider music as the cultural property of musicians, music educators can go global with cultural sensitivity, humility, and respect. Global Citizenship via the Dimensions of World Music Pedagogy The curricular inclusion of “world music”, of a global array of song, dance, and instrumental experience, has continued to rise in the wake of a recognition of demographic diversity. Collaboration between music educators and ethnomusicologists, often at the request by the former for the involvement of the latter (but increasingly with respect by each for the other), has forged curricular ideals and advisories that embrace the position that “music education should acknowledge universal musicality, while questioning dominant elitist concepts in musical learning” (Krüger, 2011, p. 208). A conscious attention to musical diversity is evident in classrooms internationally, even as music educators seek greater guidance as to best practices for thorough going encounters by their young learners in the music of both local and global cultures. World Music Pedagogy (WMP) has proven useful to educators at all levels, including primary school children ages 5-12, as a means of fostering global citizenship through music. A multi-dimensional learning process, WMP recognizes the importance of deep listening as means of knowing the music in order to participate in it, to perform it, to create new works within the style of the studied music, and to know its cultural meaning. Although specific musical selections and styles “will warrant greater use of some strategies over others … the general intent of the pedagogy—to teach and learn music of the world’s cultures—is readily realized through these stages” or dimensions (Campbell, 2014, p. 12). Five dimensions of World Music Pedagogy frame the full-fledged learning experience (Figure 1), which can be applied to any of the world’s musical expressions, from A to Z (as in the Afghanistan and Algeria all the way to Zambia and Zimbabwe). Juliana Cantarelli Vita & Patricia S. Campbell 49 Figure 1. Five Dimensions of World Music Pedagogy (Coppola & Campbell, 2021) The dimension known as "integrating world music" is important to the development of global citizenship, in that it honours the power of music to reflect cultural thought and behaviour. It reminds music educators to tell the stories behind the songs, and to help children understand something of the people who make the music, why they sing and play the way they do, and what the music means to them. This WMP dimension is non-sequential, and can be employed first, last, and concomitantly with other dimensions. It can be “interspersed within opportunities along the way for experiencing the music through listening, participating, performing, and creating” (Campbell, 2018, p. 117). The dimension known as "attentive listening" is the first sonic exposure to a musical culture, genre, or particular work. It calls learners to “listen up” to music’s elemental features and serves as the gateway into ever-deepening listening experiences, leading students to “big picture” items within the musical and social structures of the work. Following a series of directive questions (one for each listening to a 30-second excerpt, with 5-7 (or more) listenings—each of which is guided by a question), students are prompted to narrow their focus to an important feature of the music that will lead them toward participation. "Engaged listening" is the WMP dimension that follows attentive listening, and it signals the beginning of interactive engagement with music. Students might naturally be drawn to an involvement with the music from its initial listening, tapping the beat, humming a melodic phrase, but engaged listening happens when students are intentionally invited by the teacher to an active encounter with the sound—to hum the melody, conduct the meter, play a part on an available instrument. Engaged Listening leads to student attainment of a participatory consciousness. Through multiple listenings with invitations for involvement, “the musical engagement advances a musical understanding that is at once aural, analytical, and holistic” (Campbell, 2018, p. 113). "Enactive listening" requires a continuous commitment to multiple concentrated listening experiences. It follows earlier listening, and supports the premise of the oral tradition, that documents the extent to which music of many cultures can be learned entirely by ear (and with little or no notation necessary). The idea of enactive listening is to listen while performing and then to “let the recording go”, to perform without the need any longer for a recording’s support. The teacher’s role within this WMP dimension is to direct students to listening, matching what they hear, correcting and coaching them, until they are able to incorporate in their singing and/or playing the appropriate tone, time, texture, tempo, and every other feature of the musical work that has been entirely learned-by-ear. Performance, then, is the goal of this phase, as a result of concentrated and continuous listening. Invention of extensions, composition, improvisation Continued listening to performance level Active participation while listening Multiple directed listening experiences focused on structures ATTENTIVE LISTENING ENGAGED LISTENING ENACTIVE LISTENING CREATING WORLD MUSIC Connection of music to life (and curriculum) INTEGRATION Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (45-53) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 50 'Creating World Music" is a kind of culminating WMP dimension, and the one which we aim to explore further here. Children’s creative expressions are informed by their attentive, engaged, and enactive levels of listening to a culturally unfamiliar selection, taking the musical and cultural experience to a new level, making that music meaningful and useful in their lives. The extensive previous listening, analysis, and performance of the music, as per World Music Pedagogy, provides children with ideas that might lead to the creation of new expressions. As children are immersed in the music and its sonic and sociocultural structures (and as they are also learning the backstories of the music vis-à-vis Integrating World Music), then the dimension of Creating World Music offers students a safe place that supports their efforts to embrace music as their own. Embracing Global Citizenship: Portraits from the World However, important a well-rounded music curriculum may be, challenges often arise in the moment of preparing and implementing culturally (and musically) unfamiliar material. The following three examples serve to showcase various creative potentials within the world’s musical cultures that inspire children’s creative expressions while also growing their global awareness and understanding (and citizenship). No matter the culture, there are countless opportunities for igniting a conversation about the people, the context, the relationship between children and the world, all of which can be integrated within and around their musically interactive experiences. Thus, music learned through listening, participation and performance can launch children to discover not only new ideas for their own music, but also new ways of being and of making music. These examples below are merely starting points; they demonstrate the reflexivity of World Music Pedagogy at the intersection of various musical traditions. Noteworthy is that while these examples demonstrate ways in which children’s creative impulses can be sparked and supported, “Creating World Music” flows out of the earlier dimensions. Brazilian Samba de Coco Playful, in a satire-like manner, samba de coco is ever present in the festivities of Brazilian people, and its distinct distinguishing feature is community celebration. Blending indigenous, West African, and Portuguese influences, samba de coco is a tradition that hails from the countryside of Northeastern lands. The African influence is prevalent mainly in its polyrhythm and call-and-response form, and the strong indigenous contribution is found in the dance formation and steps (e.g., stomping on the ground). The “leader” singer improvises during the verses and the group responds with a set refrain. The thematic material of the songs varies according to local happenings—from protest to celebratory songs. Participants of the roda (circle) sing, clap, play percussion instruments, and dance altogether. The 2/4 time drives the dance, and rhythms are performed on low drums, pandeiros (Brazilian tambourine), and ganzás (shakers), with all clapping throughout. The opportunity to develop skills such as empathy and understanding/dealing with struggles through this tradition are endless: through continuous listening, students can recognise the pattern, possible melodic contours, and form (call-and-response). Samba de coco songs are based on social justice events, everyday life struggles, and celebrations, such as the song “Seu Maia” by Coco Raízes do Arcoverde (Oliveirah, 2016). Students can be invited to not only understand the struggles of that specific community in Northeastern Brazil, but also write their own samba de coco verses, meaningful to their own lives. Through attentive listening, students will be able to recognise the repeated melodic and rhythmic patterns that happen throughout and engage with the music as they clap the pattern along with the recording, later enacting the response without the recording. They might change the melody in order to adapt to the new words, or even create a whole new melody. Students can also decide on an arrangement and on the adaptability of instruments. They may also add new instruments to the ones found on the recording, maybe to accompany their call and response, or to create an atmosphere that will take us into the content of their invented samba de coco song. Lastly, students can connect to music "they know" that brings up issues of social justice and everyday life struggles. The five dimensions of World Music Pedagogy are in full blossom within the sequence articulated above for the Brazilian samba de coco. The listening between with questioning (“Do you hear this melody?", “What sorts of instruments are playing?”), to invitations to participate (“Clap the rhythm with the recording”, “Sing the response”), to an assembly of instruments that students can take and play along with the recording. Integrating world music often emanates from student curiosity as to the purpose of the music, and who, when, and where the music plays. The creative impulse is nurtured through the provision of time and place for students to explore ways to try something new with the music, to “change it up”, as Juliana Cantarelli Vita & Patricia S. Campbell 51 noted above. (In fact, a sample of this exact lesson—led by one of the authors—can be found at the Society for Ethnomusicology’s Conversations in Ethnomusicology and World Music YouTube channel. Available at: https://youtu.be/8tq9js6BwtM.) Canadian Arctic Indigenous “Qiugauiit” In the artic regions of the North American continent live indigenous people with musical expressions all their own. Canada’s arctic peoples include the Inuit, who have become known for their throat-singing, their “tongue-clucks” in language and song, and the presence of large frame drums to accompany their singing. Contemporary musicians such as Tudjaat have popularized the Inuit styles, and various musicians have contemporised the sound through the addition of various electronics (synthesisers). “Qiugauiit”, as performed by Tudjaat/Madeline Allakarialla (World Music de Gato, 2016), begins with the sounds of the wind, then the loosely tuned frame drum, creating a pulse for the vocal melody. While it does not include throat-singing, the clucking and drumming are clearly present throughout. There is no English translation of the song, but the intended mood is sonically set of the cold wind and wide-open spaces of the artic region. The melody lies in 3/4 time, over eight measures, with repeated phrases and semi- phrases within the song. There are five pitches in the melody, all with the stretch of an octave. In repetitions of the song, other instruments are added: Accordion, acoustic and electric guitars, cymbals, and a hint of other voices in support of the principal singer. Students who weave their way through attentive, engaged, and enactive listening will learn to perform this song vocally and on available instruments. They are then capable of launching creative new inventions that are based upon the song’s elemental features. They may retain all parts of the music, but invent new verses to sing, or they may play the melody on other instruments—violins, recorders, ukuleles, clarinets, trumpets, or they may change the rhythm of the melody slightly, or switch to 4/4 (or 5/8). They may choose any which ways they wish to make something new of a song from the Canadian arctic region that they have learned by listening and performing. Of course, as per usual, students can continue to refer to the original music, the original artist, and the original location of the song, but they may also give their own voice to a re-visiting of the song in a musically creative way. Through creative engagement with the sonic structures of the song, students can discover and thus grow their respect of the music, musicians, and culture of the arctic peoples. For this lesson, it is important to highlight that not all indigenous music (or any other music) is necessarily wide open to creative pathways by those who are outsiders to that culture. Here we are using an example that respects the performers and the intent of their music. The five WMP dimensions are put in play with the intention of conveying the origin and general mood of the music, the multiple listenings for attention to sonic details, graduating to participatory experiences and then performance, and then to suggestions for students to be making the music their own through small changes to the melody, the poetic images, and the instrumentation. The point of World Music Pedagogy is never to remove the connection of the music to the culture; instead, all the way through the sequence of experiences there is a constant reference and return to the recording, as well as to the sound and spirit of the recorded musicians with whom the music resides. Mirembe Kawomera of a Ugandan Coffee Cooperative Africa is a continental mass of an almost infinite diversity of ethnicities and races, languages, and dialects, religious practices, kinship moieties, and social systems, and cultural practices. In Uganda, the farmers of the Peace Kawomera (Delicious Peace) Fair Trade cooperative in Mbale, Uganda are known for their coffee production. According to Moon (n.d.), in her lesson “Delicious Peace: Music of the Ugandan Mirembe Kawomera Coffee Cooperative” (used with permission) found on the Smithsonian Folkways Lesson Plans, the Mirembe Kawomera Coffee cooperative in Uganda promotes not only the sale of Ugandan coffee but also the unity of several cultural groups—Jews, Muslims, and Christians—working together in harmony. “Mirembe” means peace and “kawomera” refers to the high-quality nature of the coffee, as the movement promotes a common cause of world peace. Drawn from the Smithsonian Folkways Recordings album Delicious Peace: Coffee, Music & Interfaith Harmony in Uganda, the song “Hit the Jerrycan” can serve as a gateway into Swahili songs and the social context of coffee cooperatives that are spread across East-Central Africa. While listening to the track, notice two alternating body percussion sounds, one more muted than the other. While clapping along with “Hit the Jerrycan,” use two different movements to reflect Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (45-53) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 52 the sounds you hear (for example, “pat” and “clap”). Invite students to listen for what kind of material the jerrycan is made out of, and how it is played. In the call-and-response nature of the song, ask students to sing the main response line, “koona koona koona koona akadomolo” (which means “hit, hit, hit, hit, play the jerrycan”). The themes of coffee, music, and peace are wrapped together within this selection, and the opportunity to play creatively with the sonic elements of the piece underscore both its musical facets and cultural meaning. World Music Pedagogy is played out in the ways described: there are multiple listening opportunities, first just to get the gist and the groove of the, and then through increasing familiarity to take on some of the rhythmic percussive sounds through movement, to sound the response and eventually the call of the music, and to sing-dance-play the piece in its entirety. Importantly to understanding the music is the integration of its prominence among diverse peoples (in Uganda) who are engaging together in the trade and sale of coffee and in the making of the music. Connecting Children to People through Music As World Music Pedagogy provides children with strong and substantive experiences in “the music of the world’s cultures where the West is just ‘one of them’” (Campbell, 2004, xvi), the teaching-learning experiences suggested here assume that every musical work, no matter where in the world its origin may be, holds facets and features for further development by children of their global citizenship in tandem with their creative musical impulses. An enriched palette of the world’s musical possibilities from which to choose, such as examples from Brazilian, Ugandan, and Canadian Arctic Indigenous cultures, offers music educators pathways for leading their young learners to a comprehensive experience with music in and as culture. Music educators are giving their attention to issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion, World Music Pedagogy fits well as it functions to foster children’s cultural sensitivity while also accomplishing a gamut of musical goals. The presence of music within children’s playful lives and as it is available through media- links enables its malleability within the classroom. Teaching-learning episodes across multi-dimensional experiences can bring to all learners a more relative and relevant connection of music to people and cultures, and ideologies close to them as well as in far flung places across the world. There is plenty of curricular room for the inclusion of musical content that is representative of local and global demographics, as well as for the inclusion of the conversations that will provide opportunities for students everywhere to develop empathy and respect for the diverse peoples of the world in which they live. References Campbell, P. S. (2004). Teaching music globally: Experiencing music, expressing culture. Oxford University Press. Campbell, P. S. (2013). Children, teachers, and ethnomusicologists: Traditions and transformations of music in schools. In B. Alge and O. Krämer (Eds.), Beyond borders: Welt, musik, pädagogik: Musikpädagogik und ethnomusikologie im diskurs. Wißner. Campbell, P. S. (2014). Teaching a multicultural experience: Music, culture, and pedagogy. The Orff Echo, 46(2), 10-14. Campbell, P. S. (2018). Music, education, and diversity. Teachers College Press. Campbell, P. S. & Lum, C.H. (2019). World music pedagogy: School-community intersections. Oxford University Press. Cain, M., Lindblom, S., & Walden, J. (2013). Initiate, create, activate: Practical solutions for making culturally diverse music education a reality. Australian Journal of Music Education, 2, 79-97. Coppola, W., Hebert, D., & Campbell P. S. (2021). World music pedagogy: Teaching world music in higher education. Oxford University Press. Oliveirah (2011, October 22). Seu Maia. [Video] YouTube. https://youtu.be/Cen3Cj8-ltQ Moon, J. (n.d.). Delicious peace: Music of the Ugandan Mirembe Kawomera Coffee Cooperative. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings. https://folkways.si.edu/delicious-peace-music-of-the-ugandan-mirembe-kawomera- coffee-cooperative/tools-for-teaching/Smithsonian Omolo-Ongati, R. (2005). Prospects and challenges of teaching and learning musics of the world’s cultures: An African perspective. In P. S. Campbell (Ed.), Cultural diversity in music education: Directions and challenges for the 21st century, (pp. 59-68). Australian Academic Press. Roberts, J. C. & Beegle, A. C. (2018). World music pedagogy: Elementary music education. Routledge. Schippers, H. (2010). Facing the music. Oxford University Press. Juliana Cantarelli Vita & Patricia S. Campbell 53 Wright, R. (2015). Music education and social reproduction: Breaking cycles of injustice. In C. Benedict, P. Schmidt, G. Spruce, & P. Woodford (Eds.), Oxford handbook of social justice in music education, (pp. 340- 341). Oxford University Press. World Music de Gato Nando (2016, October 27). Tudjaat - Qiugauiit (Inuit, Canadá) [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/ZlBSzFizg0c Biography Juliana Cantarelli Vita is an Assistant Professor of Music Education at the University of Hartford's Hartt School. She is a Ph.D. candidate in Music Education with an emphasis in Ethnomusicology at the University of Washington and a member of The Orff Echo Editorial Board. Blending her interests in music education and ethnomusicology, Juliana has presented papers and given clinics on the topic of multicultural sensitivity, Afro-Brazilian drumming traditions, children’s musical cultures, and gender and music. She has received research grants from the American Orff-Schulwerk Association (for the work on collective songwriting at the Yakama Nation Tribal School) and the Canadian Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (for the work with repatriated recordings). She is a recipient of the Elizabeth May (Slater) Award from the Society for Ethnomusicology for her paper on the topic of archived field recordings featuring children. As a clinician, Juliana has given more than 50 workshops in the United States, Brazil, and Europe. She directs Seattle’s Maracatu de Baque Virado ensemble. Patricia Shehan Campbell is Donald E. Peterson Professor of Music at the University of Washington, where she teaches courses at the interface of education and ethnomusicology. She is the author of Lessons from the World, Music in Cultural Context, Songs in Their Heads, Teaching Music Globally, Musician and Teacher, Music, Education, and Diversity: Bridging Cultures and Communities, co-author of Music in Childhood, and Redefining Music Studies in an Age of Change (2017), co-editor of Oxford’s 28-volume Global Music Series (2004-2018), Oxford’s Global Music Cultures, and The Oxford Handbook on Children’s Musical Cultures (2013). Campbell is recipient of the 2012 Taiji Award (China) and the 2017 Koizumi Prize (Japan) for work on the preservation of traditional music through educational practice and has been engaged in partnerships within schools in Tanzania, Myanmar, and Mexican- heritage and indigenous communities in the Yakama Valley. Educational consultant to Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, the Alan Lomax recordings, and the Global Jukebox, she is editor of the seven-volume series on World Music Pedagogy (2018-2021) for practicing and prospective teachers.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 2 (2021)

children’s songs, lullaby, longoi tanganak, longoi pogondoi, Rungus, multicultural music education, Sabah

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/390

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5126

Bringing the Children’s Songs of the Rungus of Sabah into Malaysian Music Classrooms

The Rungus are one of the indigenous Dusunic ethnic groups of Sabah, most of whom reside in the administrative Districts of Kudat and Pitas. In Rungus culture, many different genres of intangible cultural heritage have been passed down orally over generations. These heritages are valuable resources for teaching cultural awareness and appreciation among children of different ethnicities in Malaysia. They have yet to be introduced in the national music education curriculum. The purpose of this research was to document, transcribe, analyse, and thereafter to select the appropriate

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5126/3226

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 54 Bringing the Children’s Songs of the Rungus of Sabah into Malaysian Music Classrooms Jinky Jane C. Simeon* Academy of Arts and Creative Technology Universiti Malaysia Sabah e-mail: [email protected] Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan Borneo Institute for Indigenous Studies Universiti Malaysia Sabah e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 22 November 2021 Cite this article (APA): Simeon, J. J. C. & Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2021). Bringing the children’s songs of the Rungus of Sabah into Malaysian music classrooms. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10 (2), 54-73. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.2.5.2021 Abstract The Rungus are one of the indigenous Dusunic ethnic groups of Sabah, most of whom reside in the administrative Districts of Kudat and Pitas. In Rungus culture, many different genres of intangible cultural heritage have been passed down orally over generations. These heritages are valuable resources for teaching cultural awareness and appreciation among children of different ethnicities in Malaysia. They have yet to be introduced in the national music education curriculum. The purpose of this research was to document, transcribe, analyse, and thereafter to select the appropriate longoi tanganak (children’s songs) and longoi pogondoi (lullabies) that are suitable to be introduced into the Malaysia primary school music curriculum based on the recommendations of the culture bearers. This research employed ethnographic field techniques including participant observations, in-depth and focus group interviews, as well as audio and video recording. This article taps on the suggestions of culture bearers in developing suitable song repertoires that serve as school music teachers’ resources. Findings show that culture bearers recommended counting songs performed in recited heighten speech, songs arranged in the do- re- mi- so and do- mi- so tone sets, and rhythmic motifs based on the and patterns as beginner repertoire for learning Rungus songs. Keywords: children’s songs, lullaby, longoi tanganak, longoi pogondoi, Rungus, multicultural music education, Sabah Introduction Over the past few decades, many researchers and music educators have been concerned with the importance of multicultural music education (Anderson, 1992; Blair & Kondo, 2008; Campbell, 2002; Chong, 2012; Loong, 2008; Wong et al., 2015; Wong & Chiu, 2017). Multicultural music curricula offer a wealth of rich musical works for children to explore. Through active engagement with new musical ideas, students learn about unfamiliar music and the cultures of other people. As a nation, Malaysia consists of East Malaysia, the large states of Sabah and Sarawak that comprise the larger land area of the country on Borneo Island, and West Malaysia or Peninsular Malaysia. It is a multiethnic and multicultural country of over 150 ethnic groups, with the Malay, Chinese, Indian, and many other indigenous ethnic groups of diverse lifestyles, languages, and cultures. As a result, the educational curriculum has become one of the most important vehicles for the teachers to provide better interethnic harmony and understanding of multiple cultures (Wong & Chiu, 2017, p. 98). Currently, Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 55 Malaysian primary school children are taught to sing and play percussion instruments like the castanet, hand drum, tambourine and others, based on the published composed songs under the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) syllabus. Based on published song books in the local market, it has been found that the present music curriculum in Malaysia contains very few traditional Malaysian songs. Most songs are mainly Western or self-composed songs by the music teachers (Lim, 2019). Thus, it can be surmised that many Malaysian children lack exposure to their indigenous musical traditions, of which traditional children’s songs are vital components. Sabah is Malaysia’s most northern state on the northern part of Borneo and is home to more than 58 different ethnic groups with over 100 local dialects (King & King 1984/1997; Pugh-Kitingan et al., 2018) and mostly speak languages from the ancient indigenous Dusunic, Murutic and Paitanic families of Austronesian languages. They traditionally practice sophisticated rice cultivation with wet rice on the plains and dry rice on the hills, sometimes supplemented with riverine fishing and occasional hunted game from the forests. Coastal communities include the formerly maritime Iranun and the Sama Bajau, among others, who practiced sea fishing. Considering the rich cultural diversity enshrined in the songs of Sabah, Malaysian children will be exposed to a variety of musical expressions that will make them more aware of their indigenous musical traditions. When using folk materials in the classroom, maintaining the repertoire’s authenticity is also essential in our teaching. We need to do research and study in some depth to make sure the materials we choose are true to the culture. Getting materials only from a book without researching authenticity or cultural background is not sufficient preparation for providing accurate information to children. As music educators or teachers should know to choose quality and appropriate music materials for music classroom teaching. (Loong, 2007) Loong emphasises that music educators should know how to choose appropriate music materials of high quality for music classroom teaching. According to Kodály, only the most musically valuable and attractive material is needed in music education. In addition, he hoped to use schools to change society and transform culture. The musical materials of the Kodály approach are authentic children’s musical literature, authentic music of the child’s culture, and authentic folk music of other cultures. These provide excellent and appropriate elementary music teaching materials (Choksy, 1999; Feierabend, 1997; Kodály, 1974; Loong, 2007; Trinka, 1995). Despite Sabah’s rich cultural and environmental diversity and many publications by local scholars and cultural associations, there is still a lack of music teaching materials for children that utilise the unique local Sabah cultural genres. Using the Kodály philosophical approach, that is based on utilising indigenous folk songs as the basis for teaching music to children (Choksy, 1999), it was decided to explore the potential of Rungus children’s songs for classroom music lessons. The Rungus have a rich cultural heritage with many genres of oral literature and vocal music that are still performed today. It was felt that Rungus children’s songs would provide a variety of examples that could be used to enrich the Malaysian Primary School music curriculum. Moreover, the traditional worldview of the Rungus, like those of other indigenous groups in Sabah, is based on wholesome family values, gender balance, a love for children and respect for the natural environment, ideals which are also often reflected in their sung poetry and customary law (Appell, 1991; Appell, 2010). Hence, the adaptation and incorporation of Rungus children’s songs into the Malaysian music curriculum would be appropriate for Malaysian school children of diverse ethnic backgrounds. This paper aims to introduce some Rungus children’s songs that can be utilised for enriching the Malaysian Primary School Music curriculum. The song selection from the field recordings to be developed for this study was based on the suitable vocal singing range for children, simple melodies and appropriate lyrics for children, such as songs about animals, birds, and plants. Each song discussed here will be analysed for its musical characteristics that make it suitable for musical teaching purposes, as well as suggested possible music activities in the classroom. Background of the Rungus People The Rungus are the second largest Dusunic ethnic group in Sabah, with around 120,000 to 150,000 population (Porodong, 2012, p. 11). They are the indigenous people of the Kudat Peninsula in northern Sabah (Figure 1). A group of Rungus people migrated east to the Bengkoka Peninsula (part of today’s Pitas District) around 150 years ago (Figure 2). Today, there are also some mixed Rungus villages in Kota Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 56 Marudu District among the Kimaragang Dusun and other groups (Pugh-Kitingan, 2020, p. 117). The Rungus, whose children’s songs are the focus of this study, belong to the Dusunic Family of Languages which is part of the West Austronesian Super-stock of Austronesian Language (Ethnologue, 2021). Appell (1978) used the term “Dusunic isoglot” for the collective dialects of the Rungus language. In his writing, he stated that the Rungus speak a Dusunic language, one of the many found in Sabah and identify themselves and their language by the autonym Rungus. Some of the Rungus prefer to be known as Momogun (Porodong, 2001; Low, 2013), a term that is also used in other Dusunic languages, and which means “people of the place” to emphasise their indigeneity. The Rungus have different subgroups too, namely Rungus, Nulu, Gonsomon, Pilapazan and Gandahon who speak different dialects of the Rungus language. Of these subgroups, Rungus proper is the largest (Appell, 1963; Porodong, 2012, p.111). Music of the Rungus gong ensemble or ongkob tuntungan, consists of a drum (tontog), a small lap gong or pompoh and six hanging gongs of different types and sizes, namely three tavag, and one each of sandangau, koritikon and soludon (that is often played by one performer with the pompoh). This ensemble accompanies mongigol or Rungus traditional dance performance (Pugh-Kitingan, 2014). The Rungus men play sundatang or boat lutes for personal expression and entertainment in the vinatang or traditional longhouse abode (Pugh-Kitingan, 2020). According to Pugh-Kitingan (2017), Rungus women prefer to play the turali noseflute because novice priestesses traditionally used the turali to help them memorise rinait (long, scared ritual poetry). Over a time, they developed secular turali music that freely imitates the melodies of ritual chants (pp. 15-28). Apart from the instrumental tradition, the oral traditions such as tangon (storytelling), longoi (singing), and bahul (poems), and the sacred rinait, are still practiced among the Rungus today. However, some of these have declined due to the existence and influence of mass media such as radio, television, and other digital media gadgets. Methodology This qualitative study employed ethnographic techniques including field observations, in-depth and focus group interviews, as well as audio and video recording. According to Patton (2015), “Ethnographic inquiry takes as its central and guiding assumption that any human group of people interacting together for a period of time will evolve a culture” (p. 100), Creswell (2014) described the ethnographic design as “qualitative research procedures for describing, analysing, and interpreting a culture group’s shared patterns of behaviour” (p. 436) The researchers often live with a social group and study their culture, behaviour as well as knowledge. This approach allows researchers access to the participant’s culture and enables them to acquire first-hand an understanding of the life and society of a people. As mentioned above, the Kodály philosophy guided the research from recording the original songs sung by Rungus singers in the field, to transcribing the songs and their lyrics, to analysing musical characteristics of the songs, and then to adaptation of the songs for teaching music to children in the classroom. Participants and Setting The key informants in this study were twenty-three Rungus singers between the ages of 47 to 87 who are primarily residing in the Districts of Kudat and Pitas, Sabah. In order to collect and gather related information concerning Rungus songs, the following Rungus people were contacted as gate-keepers: Azlan Shafie Abdullah aka Raymond Majumah, Porodong bin Mogilin, Paul Porodong, Inulisan binti Sasam, Anglene binti Ulad, Edward Modirim bin Mongurog, Jacklyn Motidsi and Natalia Tiffany Charles. These gate-keepers introduced the well-known traditional singers whom they knew, a process often described as snowballing. They also assisted as interpreters during the recording sessions, and aided in translating the lyrics of the songs from Rungus to English. This study focused only on collecting and documenting Rungus children’s songs. Other genres, such as sacred ritual chants or rinait that can only be performed by bobolizan or priestesses of the traditional Rungus religion in specific ritual contexts, for example, were not recorded for this project. The Rungus gate-keepers and the singers in this study, who were selected for their knowledge of traditional children’s songs and their cultural knowledge, were fully informed about the aims of the project and how the recordings of their performances would be transcribed and utilised for developing the Malaysian Primary School music curriculum. These singers were able to recall many Rungus songs from their childhood, and were willing to share them for this study. Since these children’s songs are widely known among the Rungus, the project did not present any ethical issues of violation of privacy or misuse Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 57 of cultural property. The Rungus transcription and English translation of the song lyrics with the gate- keepers in consultation with the singers helped to ensure that the song lyrics and their meanings were accurately presented, so as to avoid any issues of mis-translation, misrepresentation or bias. Data collection Field trips to record Rungus songs were conducted in Kudat and Pitas Districts from January 2015 to October 2017, for a total of fifteen visits. During this period, various kinds of Rungus children’s songs were recorded, including both solo and group singing. The first series of recordings and interviews took place in Kudat District from January 26, 2015 to March 25, 2017, for nine visits. A total of seventeen singers were recorded from the following Kudat villages: Kampung. Tinutudan, Kampung Matunggung, Kampung Tinanggol, Kampung Popot, and Kampung Barambangon II (Figure 1). The second series of field trips took place from March 18, 2015 to July 28, 2017 for six visits. A total of eight singers were recorded from the following Pitas villages: Kampung Ungkup, Kampung Bongkol, Kampung Taradas and Kampung Manduring (Figure 2). The performers included teachers, farmers, handicraft makers, part-time church workers and traditional dancers at homestay tourist centres. A total of eighty-seven Rungus songs were collected. The songs were chosen by the performers, based on those that they could remember from their childhood. These included the broad categories of longoi pogondoi (lullabies) and longoi tanganak (children’s songs). Various genres of these were recorded in this study, including singing games (3 songs), specific lullabies (26 songs), word chain songs (17 songs), counting songs (7 songs), call-and-response songs (4 songs), songs that tell a story (28 songs), and tickling songs (2 songs). These are all authentic Rungus categories of children’s music. Taking an emic approach to retain the authenticity of song classification, this study classified the recorded examples according to the Rungus categories rather than trying to fit Rungus songs into non-Rungus or western categories. Coincidentally, singing games, lullabies, word chain songs and counting songs also correspond to categories of song listed by Kodály, while call-and-response songs, songs that tell a story, and tickling songs have also been used by music educators throughout the world based on the Kodály approach (Choksy, 1999). Figure 1. Five villages in Kudat District used as research sites in the study. (Source: Salbiah Kindoyop, 28 April, 2021) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 58 Figure 2. Four villages in Pitas District used as a research site in the study. (Source: Salbiah Kindoyop, (28 April, 2021) In the analysis of the eighty-seven songs that were recorded in the study, it was found that there was a wide variety of melodic structures and tone sets. Sixteen of the songs were recited in heightened speech. Of the remaining seventy-one songs that were sung, the do- re- mi- so and do- mi- so tone sets were the most common. Most of the songs could be transcribed in a simple duple and quadruple metre. The most common structural form was the a b variant (49.43%) followed by the a b c (19.54%), and a (17.24%). It can thus be established that most of the collected Rungus songs have a simple tone set, form, and metre. Motifs, however, often contain the and rhythmic patterns. Transcribing the Songs The final selected children’s songs were transcribed into standard Western staff notation. There are two basic ways to notate folk songs a) descriptive notation, in which a song is transcribed precisely to convey to a reader the characteristics and the details thoroughly as sung during the performance event, including accidental key shifts, slides, rests for breath, and b) prescriptive notation, in which song is notated in a simplified form so that a trained musician can read and play it (Nettl, 1964, p. 61). In this study, descriptive notation was done to transcribe the original characteristics of the recorded songs. Simplified prescriptive forms of the songs were then developed for educational purposes, such as teaching musical concepts in the classroom, but care was taken to retain distinctly Rungus characteristics such as melodic intervals, rhythmic patterns, and ornamentation. Recurring extractable melodic/rhythmic patterns were identified so that teachers can utilise songs for teaching specific rhythms and melodies. The song selection from the field recordings developed for this study was based on: a) a suitable singing range for children, b) musical characteristics, c) suitable context, and d) authenticity (purely sung by older people who remembered the song(s), that is, not newly composed songs). Some of the songs collected during the field trips were rejected for this study because they were deemed unsuitable to be used as children’s songs, such as long and complicated ritual songs, or songs with wide vocal range, heavy vibrato, and unfamiliar tonalities. In adapting the songs for classroom use, the musical characteristics of the original songs have been maintained as far as possible to ensure authenticity of the Rungus songs in line with the original philosophy of the Kodály approach. The use of hand actions, hand puppets and clapping in some of the songs was added as an aid for classroom teaching by illustrating the meanings of some of the song texts. Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 59 Teaching the Songs After the recorded Rungus children’s songs had been compiled, transcribed and analysed, a pilot study was conducted to introduce some of the selected songs to primary school children and music teachers in Kota Kinabalu. The feedback from the teachers indicated that the collected materials in this study will be an important resource, and valuable multicultural teaching materials for music teachers to teach in the classroom. Rungus Longoi In the Rungus language longoi means “singing” or “song”, and mindolongoi is “to sing”. This is a broad category of secular songs such as work songs, drinking songs, love songs, wedding songs, children’s songs, lullabies, and contemporary Rungus pop songs and sacred melodies for some ritual chants and Christian songs. From 1959 to 2010, George and Laura Appell recorded and documented the main genres of Rungus oral literature and vocal music (Appell, 2010). Appell’s catalogue of recordings and transcriptions of Rungus oral literature included singing and music (Appell 2011). His catalogue includes longoi do Tumoron (singing at Tumoron) 12 songs, dolow do rinait do Rungus (tunes by which ritual chants are performed) 25 songs, dolow sid sundatang (tunes played on the long-necked double-stringed lute or sundatang) 27 songs, mongindolongoi (singing) 21 songs, and miagung (drum and gong ensemble music). However, only one longoi tanganak was catalogued under mongindolongoi in his collection. The following sections discuss the selected six examples of longoi tanganak (children’s songs) and longoi pogondoi (lullabies). Suggested activities to accompany each song when sung in the classroom are also provided. Longoi Tanganak (Children’s songs) Longoi Pongizap (Counting Songs) Blacking (1967) stated that counting songs are amongst the first songs in a child’s musical repertoire, as they are easy to remember. The action of counting with fingers usually accompanies such songs (p. 52). For the Rungus, the children’s counting songs are generally known as longoi pongizap. In the past, Rungus parents taught longoi pongizap to their little children to develop their counting abilities from numbers one to ten—iso, duvo, tolu, apat, limo, onom, turu, valu, sizam, hopod— and to enrich their vocabulary (P. Porodong, personal communication, October 2, 2021). According to Madam Inowoling binti Montuku from Kampung Tinangol, Kudat (Figure 3), the singer of the song in Figure 4, this counting song is a particular kind of longoi pongizap known as pongizap dot rogon meaning counting rogon (devils) or kiraan hantu in Malay. According to P. Porodong (personal communication, October 2, 2021), the words for the numbers in this example traditionally functioned as secret number codes that were sometimes used by Rungus adults when discussing quantities or negotiation of prices in front of non-Rungus listeners. The code words are the names for types of rogon. These words tend to rhyme with or contain the sounds of number names, and would be unintelligible to non-Rungus speakers. Prior to the coming of Christianity among the Rungus in the early 1950s, children were not permitted to play pongizap dot rogon, although they often played longoi pongizap using the usual names for Rungus numbers. When most of the Rungus became Christians and the fear of rogon diminished, children also used these rogon terms as number codes to play pongizap dot rogon. Madam Inowoling explained that in the past, the Rungus children sang this song as a game, without stopping for a breath while they counted from one to ten. To win in the game, the child would sing as fast as they could, which is why these songs have variations in speed. This kind of counting game song was popular and sung by the children as their entertainment in the yard of the longhouse. The longoi pongizap transcribed in Figure 4, which is a pongizap dot rogon, was articulated as a rhythmic recitation by Madam Inowoling, who learned the song as a child. The translation of the song text from Rungus to English and the musical characteristics is shown in the following sections: Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 60 Rungus Text: (Secret code terms for numbers) Korondiso, Koronduo, Kotolunggai, Parapat, Timbou, Badjil, Ponipu, Buntarang, Sarapung nga, Pungguk. English Translation: One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine and, Ten. Figure 3. Inowoling binti Montuku, around 64 years, from Kampung Tinangol, Kudat. (duration= 9 seconds)\ Figure 4. Longoi pongizap, a counting song by Inowoling from Tinangol Village, Kudat District Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 61 Musical Features: Tone set: None Scale/ mode: None Extractable melodic patterns: None Rhythmic patterns: Meter: 2/4 Extractable rhythmic patterns: None Suggested activities: The teacher can introduce children to counting numbers from one to ten in the daily Rungus language, such as iso (one), duvo (two), tolu (three), apat (four), limo (five), onom (six), turu (seven), valu (eight), sizam (nine) and hopod (ten). Next, the teacher can introduce the song Longoi Pongizap to the children, explaining that there is another poetic way to count the numbers from one to ten among the Rungus from Kudat using code words for numbers. This song also can also be used to practice the syncopated rhythm (measure 3 and measure 5). Naru Tinduk di Asat (Sasat’s Beak is Very Long) Naru Tinduk di Asat is sung in a call-and-response style between two people, Madam Jelny binti Borukot and Jomihot bin Sasam from Kampung Tinangol, Kudat, each taking alternate lines (Figure. 5). This song presents a narrated conversation between a sasat or hummingbird with a long beak, and a small grey kokou bird. The sasat bird teases the kokou, saying its nest is loose, and the two birds begin arguing. Finally, the sasat bird loses the argument and cries. This interesting song tells a story, and the lyrics refer to playful and teasing between the two birds. Rungus Text: S: Ranggang rumun di okou, K: Aranggang nga simbanan, S: Simbanan nga apagon, K: Apagon nga ombo no, K: Naru tinduk di asat, S: Anaru nga pampadan, K: Pampadan nga oruol, S: Oruol nga osinan, K: Osinan nga opodi, S: Opodi nga vugan, K: Vugan nga osogit, S: Osogit nga sumalau, K: Sumalau nga olisun, S: … (mogihad) English Translation: S: Kokou’s nest is very loose, K: Although it is loose but it can be altered, S: Actually, it is hard to alter, K: It’s okay even it is hard, K: Sasat’s beak is very long, S: If too long, just cut it away, K: Cutting it hurts, S: If it hurts, put some salt on it, K: Putting salt is painful also, S: If it’s painful, wash it, K: It is cold when washed, S: If it’s cold, warm yourself by the fire, K: If warming beside the fire, the smoke hurts the eyes, S: (crying) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 62 Figure 5. Jomihot bin Sasam (left around 70 years) and Madam Jelny binti Borukot (right, around 57 years) from Kampung Tinangol, Kudat. Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 63 (duration= 51 seconds) Figure 6. Naru Tinduk di Asat by Jelny binti Borukot and Jomihot bin Sasam from Kampung Tinangol, Kudat Musical features: Tone set: d r m s Scale/ mode: Tetratonic Extractable melodic patterns: Rhythmic patterns: Meter: 2/4 Extractable rhythmic patterns: Suggested activities: The teacher can sing the whole song with finger puppets representing the sasat bird and the kokou bird. The teacher can then divide the class into two groups--one group pretending to be the sasat bird, and the other group pretending to be the kokou bird. The teacher should teach the song phrase by phrase and use the finger puppets to cue the children to the phrases sung by each bird. Next, the teacher can ask children to echo clap the rhythmic pattern: sasat, kokou (titi titi in Kodály rhythm syllables), “sasat’s beak” (titi ta in Kodály rhythm syllables), “very long” (titi ta in Kodály rhythm syllables). Then, the teacher can sing the first measure, while the children practice the rhythm with Kodály rhythm syllables (ti-ti ta) by clapping the rhythmic patterns of the song. For example, the teacher could sing “Ranggang rumun diokou” (titi titi ta ta). The Rungus do not normally give general names for particular rhythms in their songs, although they do have rhythmic names for the parts played by gongs in their ongkob tuntungan ensemble. Nevertheless, the Kodály rhythm syllables can be used and understood by children of all ethnic groups, including Rungus children. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 64 Ongkul Paara (The monkey is bouncing around) This song, sung by Mr. Azlan aka Raymond Majumah and Mr. Ranjamal Montuduk (Figure 7) from Kampung Matunggong, Kudat describes a monkey bouncing around happily when seeing a maize plant with cobs of corn, (symbolising a child singing for joy). Suddenly, its eye is stung by a bee and thereafter the poor little monkey cannot see the maize anymore. This is an interesting song to tell story about a monkey stung by a bee (see Figure 8). In the past, Rungus children sang this song with actions for entertainment. Rungus Text: Ongkul-ongkul paara, Kimot indai dalai. Anobo imot, Nosingot timbalabou. Anobo imot, It indai do dalai. English Translation: The monkey is bouncing, After seeing a maize tree. It couldn’t see, after stung by a bee. It couldn’t see, the maize plant. (duration= 14 seconds) Figure 7. Azlan @ Raymond Majumah (left, around 53 years) and Ranjamal Montuduk (right, around 64 years) from Kampung Matunggong, Kudat Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 65 Figure 8. Ongkul paara by Azlan @ Raymond Majumah and Ranjamal Montuduk from Kampung Matunggong, Kudat Musical features: Tone set: m sl d’ Scale/ mode: Tetratonic Extractable melodic patterns: Rhythmic patterns: Meter: 4/4 Extractable rhythmic patterns: Suggested activities: The teacher introduces the children to the song that is related to nature around them, such as animals, trees and insects. The teacher may sing the whole song with movements. Singing with movement enables children to remember the words easily and for a longer period. The teacher can teach the song with the suggested movements according to the text as follows: Line Movement Line 1 Gentle bouncing indicating that the paara (monkey) is happy. Line 2 Both hands near the eyes indicating finding dalai (maize) Line 3 Hands close eyes Line 4 One hand covers one eye indicating being stung by a bee Line 5/6 Hands close eyes The teacher can ask the children to create motions reflecting the words. For example, paara (monkey), imot (to find), dalai (maize). Longoi Pogondoi (Lullabies) Iyang- Iyang The main function of a lullaby or longoi pogondoi is to lull a baby or toddler to sleep through soothing sounds and repeated melodic and rhythmic patterns. This song called Iyang-Iyang is sung by Madam Tinongkihik binti Sogintap from Kampung Ungkop in Pitas District (Figure 9). Iyang is onomatopoeic for the sound produced by little children who are wearing ankle bells and kicking their feet. In Rungus, the word sonit means tortoise. Hence, in this song di onit which rhymes with sonit refers to a cute baby. This lullaby is about the sound of an anklet that is thrown far away towards a fig tree in a fruit grove near the village, meaning that its sound becomes quieter as the baby goes to sleep. For safety reasons, Rungus parents in the past used to track the whereabouts of their toddlers by listening for the sounds produced by Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 66 the anklet rings worn by the children. Many parents still decorate the feet of their little children with anklets. Rungus Text: Iyang- iyang, Bongkol di onit, Nitaam ku sid tuntu do gonunuk. English Translation: Iyang- iyang, Anklet of the tortoise (baby), I throw it towards the shoot of a fig tree. Figure 9. Madam Tinongkihik binti Sogintap (right, around 63 years), from Kampung Ungkop, Pitas District. (duration= 13 seconds) Figure 10. Iyang-Iyang by Tinongkihik binti Sogintap from Ungkop Village, Pitas District Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 67 Musical features: Tone set: d m s Scale/ mode: Tritonic Extractable melodic patterns: None Rhythmic patterns: Meter: 4/4 Suggested activities: The teacher can introduce Iyang-iyang to the children, explaining that the song is for putting a baby to sleep, and about how little Rungus children wear anklets, and describing fig trees that the Rungus grow in their fruit groves near their longhouses. The teacher can sing the whole song softly and teach the children to sing phrase by phrase. The teacher can also shake the simple rhythm pattern Iyang-iyang (ta ta ta ta) with a string of small bells, while teaching children to sing this song. Tung Tung In this second lullaby by Madam Tinongkihik, tung, tung, tung is onomatopoeic for the sound of frogs. In Rungus, the words bambayangan and kolumpisau both refer to a swallow bird or swiftlet. This lullaby is inspired by the sounds of frogs croaking in a lake or drain just after rain has fallen. The dancing imagery of a swallow flying around refers to an active child who likes to move about. Rungus Text: Tung, tung, tung podtungon, Podtung kobobotungan, Tadtaru kogualan, Lingog di kopuntian, Sompunod kukuyutan, Kiolong bambayangan, Pandai minsiling-siling, Tondu do kolumpisau, Turunan-turunan. English Translation: Tung, tung, tung, the sound of frogs, Frogs at the lake, Worm on the yam leaf, Cocoon on the banana leaf, Like a piece of wood, Swallow flying around, Like dancing, Young girls like swallows, Gather together. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 68 (duration= 42 seconds) Figure 11. Tung Tung by Tinongkihik binti Sogintap from Kampung Ungkop, Pitas District Musical features: Tone set: drm sl d’ Scale/ mode: Pentatonic Extractable melodic patterns: Rhythmic patterns: Meter: 4/4 Extractable rhythmic patterns: Suggested activities: The teacher can teach the song with movements according to the lines of text as follows: Line Movement Line 1 Pretend to be listening (with hands near the ears) Line 2 Squatting position (like frog squat) Line 3 Index finger moving like a worm crawling Line 4 Index finger under the hand (palm face up), like a cocoon under a leaf Line 5 Both hands stretch up as in a tree pose Line 6 Both hands flap at the sides and bodies move up and down imitating a bird flying. Line 7 Swaying and dancing Line 8 Hands on cheeks Line 9 Open arms Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 69 Mondiga In this lullaby by Madam Tinongkihik, the word mondiga is a nickname for a lady. The words turu bandu mean seven large metal containers. A bandu is a container used to measure padi grain by the Rungus. One bandu is equivalent to five gantang or five bushels, roughly 14 milk-tins of rice (Sokuroh, 2013). This song is about a mother who asked her child to wake up siblings and other family members in the morning, to go to work in the family’s rice swidden. This song illustrates the traditional Rungus rural lifestyle. Today, the Rungus continue to practice planting their traditional hill padi, and all family members are involved. Women have important roles in Rungus society, and the mother in a family keeps special rice grains that will be the first to be planted in a rice field. Rungus Text: Mondiga, Mondiga, Monsisi ka di ondig, Ka di ondig tarading, Kasok turu bandu, Gopu-gopu di ondong. English Translation: Mondiga, Mondiga, Wake up, said Mama, Go to work, said Mama, Planting hill rice until seven cans, Small farm of my child. (duration = 12 seconds) Figure 12. Mondiga by Tinongkihik binti Sogintap from Ungkop Village, Pitas District Musical features: Tone set: s, dr s d’ Scale/ mode: Tritonic Extractable melodic patterns: None Rhythmic patterns: Meter: 2/4 and 3/4 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 70 Suggested activities: The teacher can teach the song with movements according to the lines of text as follows: Line Movement Line 1 Pretend to call someone Line 2 Hitting a container (metal) Line 3 Thumbs up back Line 4 Bend-down body and pretending to plant hill padi Line 5 Folding arms, in a natural and comfortable way of a self-hug Teachers may present the music as it is sung by Rungus singers (for example, orally), and share ideas with children about Rungus culture and lifestyle. Conclusion In a nation of many peoples and languages, such as Malaysia, multicultural education can provide children with knowledge of the different cultures across the country. It can enhance respect for traditions and heritage both within and between ethnic groups, and promote understanding, tolerance, and respect for peoples of diverse backgrounds. Roughly two thirds of the land area of Malaysia lies on Borneo Island. Sabah and Sarawak, the east Malaysian states, are blessed with many peoples of rich cultures and music. Yet surprisingly, very little indigenous Borneo music has been utilised in developing the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) music syllabus for primary school children. In fact, the syllabus is seriously lacking in indigenous music from Sabah. This study was conducted to address this growing need for multicultural materials in primary school music classrooms of Malaysia. Using the Kodály approach that emphasises children’s enjoyment of learning music through the use of authentic children’s musical literature, authentic music of the child’s culture and authentic folk music of other cultures, Rungus song genres were investigated with a view to developing local music for the Malaysian primary school music curriculum. The Rungus are one of the main indigenous Dusunic groups in northern Sabah. They have a rich culture of living musical traditions. Rungus children’s songs or longoi tanganak encompass many genres of traditional singing. It was found that the Rungus longoi tanganak and lullabies longoi pogondoi are highly suitable for adaptation to teaching music in the Malaysian primary school classroom. They are easy to sing and have relatively simple melodies and rhythms. The eighty-seven children’s songs and lullabies recorded in this study were chosen by the Rungus singers themselves and classified according to Rungus categories. In terms of performance style, some were recited in a form of heightened speech, especially the counting songs. Of the others that were sung clearly, the do- re- mi- so and do- mi- so tone sets appeared the most common. Most of the songs were in simple duple or quadruple metres, and the most common rhythmic motifs were based on the and patterns. The most common structural forms were the a b, a b c and a forms. Considering these characteristics and the traditional function of the songs for entertaining children, teaching them to sing and count or, in the case of lullabies, for calming little children, and also that the songs were selected by the Rungus singers themselves, it was decided to maintain the distinct characteristics of the songs rather than adjusting them to the standardised Kodály sequence as has been done for other songs by other music educationalists (Chong, 2012; Lim, 2019). This preservation of the unique characteristics of these Rungus children’s songs, together with their texts, for teaching music in Malaysian primary schools is also in accordance with the philosophy of Multicultural Music Education. Teachers can adapt the traditional songs for singing with movement to convey the meanings of song texts. This will not only develop children’s physical coordination and musical abilities but will also teach children about Rungus traditional life. Through learning indigenous songs, children from all ethnic groups, including Rungus children, will come to appreciate our indigenous cultures as well as their artistic expressions in the cultural context. Teachers can use additional ideas to create their own activities for teaching the Rungus longoi, so that the young learners will enjoy singing them. This study on Rungus longoi tanganak is but the beginning. It is hoped that many more Malaysian folk songs from other local cultures will be developed and used for teaching music in schools. Indigenous instrumental music can also utilised. The Malaysian primary school music curriculum will Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 71 then be built on the most musically valuable and attractive materials that are authentic children’s musical literature, authentic music of Sabahan children, and authentic folk music for all Malaysian children in line with the Kodály philosophy, for developing young minds to face the future. Glossary anaru- long apagon- difficult bobolizan- priestess of the traditional Rungus religion bongkol- angklet gopu- a second padi crop planted in a swidden in the same year gopu-gopu- a small “play farm” for a child, that does not require a ritual to open the land longoi- singing, song longoi pogondoi- lullaby longoi pongizap- counting song longoi tanganak- children’s song koritikon- Rungus small brass hanging gong with a flat front surface around its boss kolumpisau- swallow mongigol- generic term for dance in Rungus naru- long nga- but nunuk- fig tree ongkul- bouncing osogit- cool oruol- pain or sick paara- monkey podtung- frog rogon- demon rumon- nest (of birds, rats) sid- at sonit- tortoise tavag- large gong (Rungus) tinduk- beak (of birds) tontog- Rungus single-headed drum turu- seven References Anderson, W. A. (1992). Rethinking teacher education: The multicultural imperative. Music Educators Journal, 78(9), 52-55. Appell, G. N. (1963). Myths and legends about the Rungus of the Kudat district. Sabah Society Journal, 4, 9–15. Appell, G. N. (1978). The Rungus Dusun. In V.T. King (Ed.), Essays on Borneo societies. Hull monographs on South-East Asia No. 7. (pp. 141-171). Oxford University Press. Appell, G. N. (2010). The Sabah Oral Literature Project. World Oral Literature Project: Voices of vanishing worlds. Occasional Paper 2. Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge. http://www.dspace.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/226585 Appell, G. N. (2011). Sabah Oral Literature Project. Catalogue of recordings and transcriptions of Rungus oral literature 1986-2010. https://firebirdfellowships.org/PDFs.Rungus-Classes-of-Oral-Literature.pdf Appell, L.W.R. (1991). Sex role symmetry among the Rungus of Sabah. In V. H. Sutlive, Jr., Female and male in Borneo: contributions and challenges to gender studies. Borneo Research Council Monograph Series, Volume 1, (pp. 1-56). Borneo Research Council, Inc. Blacking, J. (1967). Venda children’s songs: A study in Ethnomusicological analysis. University of Chicago Press. Blair, D. V., & Kondo, S. (2008). Bridging musical understanding through multicultural musics. Music Educators Journal, 94(5), 21-55. Campbell, P. S. (2002). Music education in a time of cultural transformation. Music Educators Journal, 89(1), 27- 32. Choksy, L. (1999). The Kodály method 1: Comprehensive music education. (3rd edition). Prentice Hall. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (54-73) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 72 Chong, P. L. (2012). East Malaysian music in the classroom: Kenyah and Kadazandusun recreational songs and jatung utang (Kenyah xylophone). Malaysian Music Journal, 1, (2), 20-43. https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/570/372 Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. Feierabend, J. M. (1997). Music and movement for infants and toddlers: Naturally wonder-full. Kodály Envoy, 23 (2), 7-10. King, J. K. & King, J. W. (Eds.). (1997). Languages of Sabah: A survey report. Pacific Linguistics, Series C, No. 78. Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University. (Original work published 1984). Kodály, Z. (1974). The selected writings of Zoltan Kodály. Boosey & Hawkes. Lim, L.W. (2019). A Kodály based music teaching sequence for teaching singing to year one pupils in a Malaysian Chinese primary school [Master thesis, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris]. https://ir.upsi.edu.my/files/docs/2020/4811_1583914706.pdf Loong, C. (2007). Early childhood music: Repertoire of materials and activities, criteria and guidelines for selecting materials. Kodály Envoy, 33(4), 5-8. Loong, C. (2008). Weaving world musics into early childhood curriculum. Triad, 75(5), 74-76, 78, 80-82. Low, K. O. (2013). Collecting and contextualising Sundait (Riddles) among the Rungus people of Sabah. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 12(3), 897–922. https://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/ Nettl, B. (1964). Theory and method in Ethnomusicology. Free Press. Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice: The definitive text of qualitative inquiry frameworks and options. SAGE Publications, Inc. Porodong, P. (2001). Bobolizan, forests and gender relations in Sabah, Malaysia. Gender, Technology and Development Journal. Special issue on Gender Relations in Forest Societies, 5(1), 63–90.. Porodong, P. (2012). Rungus. In K.Mariappan & P. Porodong (Eds.), Murut dan pelbagai etnik kecil lain di Sabah (pp. 110–128). Institut Terjemahan & Buku Malaysia. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2014). Balancing the human and spiritual worlds: ritual, music, and dance among Dusunic societies in Sabah. Yearbook for Traditional Music, 46, 170-190. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5921/yeartradmusi.46.2014.0170?seq=1 Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2017). Sources, sounds and meanings of turali (noseflute) music in Dusunic cultures of Sabah. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(2), 1-28. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2020). Revisiting the Dusunic boat lutes of Sabah: Disappearing musical traditions. Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 115-137 https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.9.2020. Pugh-Kitingan, J., Miller, M. T., Wong, J. K. L., Petrus Atin, V., Porodong, P., Lajumin, P. & Kluge, A. (2018). Report on the Project ‘Review of Ethnologue® Descriptions of Languages in Sabah’. Borneo Research Bulletin, 49, 221-240. Rungus. (2021). In Ethnologue: Languages of the World (24th edition). SIL International. https://www.ethnologue.com Sokuroh, J. K. (2013). Pu’un do Boros Momogun Rungus. Rootwords (Momogun Rungus-English). Persatuan Penulis Rungus Sabah (PENERUS). Trinka, J. L. (1995). Using folksongs as a means for achieving musical literacy. Orff Echo, 28 (1), 13-15. Wong, K.Y., Pan, K. C. & Mohd Shah, S. (2016) General music teachers' attitudes and practices regarding multicultural music education in Malaysia, Music Education Research, 18 (2), 208-223, https:// 10.1080/14613808.2015.1052383 Wong. K. Y., & Chiu, M. Y. (2017). Issues and challenges in teaching multicultural music amongst primary music teachers in Malaysia. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(1), 98-110. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol6.1.6.2017 Biographies Jinky Jane C Simeon is a PhD candidate in Music Education at Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). She graduated BA (Hons) in Music and served as a tutor in the then UMS School of Arts Studies in 2008, and subsequently obtained her Master of Arts (Music) in 2011. She is a winner of four PEREKA gold medals, two ITEX gold medals, one MTE gold medal, and was named as “Woman Inventor of the Year” in 2013. In 2014 at the Seoul International Invention Fair (SIIF), her project “The Tuniring” under the category of Teaching Research and Pedagogical Items won the gold medal and special awards from Taiwan Invention Association. Her research interests include early childhood music education, multicultural music education, Borneo music and dance. She is currently a music lecturer of the Academy of Arts and Creative Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan is Professor of Ethnomusicology in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, and Head of the Indigenous Culture and Heritage Cluster of the Borneo Institute for Indigenous Studies, at Universiti Malaysia Sabah, where she previously held the Kadazandusun Chair (2003-2016). She graduated BA Honours (Class I) from Monash University (1976) and PhD from University of Queensland (1982) with theses on the music of the Huli of Papua New Guinea. She first came to Sabah in 1977, having married a member of the Kadazan Dusun, Jinky Jane C Simeon, Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 73 Sabah’s largest indigenous group, in 1976, and has conducted ethnomusicological research among many of Sabah’s cultures. Winner of two PEREKA gold medals, her research interests include music and language, music, dance and ritual processes, organology, ethnographic mapping, the sociolinguistic review of Ethnologue® descriptions of languages in Sabah, the megalithic culture of Tambunan, the Sabah Native Courts and customary law, and indigenous ritual responses to the Covid-19 pandemic. She is a Fellow of the Borneo Research Council, a member of the ICTM Study Group on Performing Arts in Southeast Asia, sits on expert committees of Jabatan Warisan Negara Malaysia, was Adjunct Research Fellow of Anthropology in the School of Political and Social Enquiry, Monash University (2009-2010), and is also currently Adjunct Professor in the School of Arts, Humanities and Social Science of Asia e University.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 2 (2021)

creativity, holistic learning experience, music education, music sensitivity, play activities

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/390

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5150

Developing Musical Sensitivity and Creativity through Various Forms of Play Activities

This paper presents the potential of various play activities in developing learner’s musical sensitivity and creativity. The K to12 music education curriculum guide of the Philippine Department of Education advocates the use of experiential learning and outcome-based learning in the classroom. One of the ways in which these methodologies can be promoted is by engaging learners in various play activities. However, there is a lack of literature showing the impact of such methodologies on Filipino learners. Using a priori deductive method, data from a series of interviews, observations, and video and picture analysis from this ethnographic case research were analysed to determine the implications of play activities in classroom music education. The interlocutors of the study are selected Ilonggo children, their parents, and some teachers. This study sought to answer the question of how can play activities be beneficial to classroom music education. Findings suggest that play activities can be a learning tool for the holistic development of the learners. Various forms of play activities provide an avenue for the learners to think or imagine situations divergently and have meaningful musical experiences as they portray various roles. Therefore, play activities provide the learners with a holistic learning experience and the agency to develop their musical sensitivity and creativity.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5150/3251

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (74-89) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Developing Musical Sensitivity and Creativity through Various Forms of Play Activities Hermie F. Cartagena University of the Philippines Visayas e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 3 December 2021 Cite this article (APA): Cartagena, H. F. (2021). Developing musical sensitivity and creativity through various forms of play activities. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(2), 74-89. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.2.6.2021 Abstract This paper presents the potential of various play activities in developing learner’s musical sensitivity and creativity. The K to12 music education curriculum guide of the Philippine Department of Education advocates the use of experiential learning and outcome-based learning in the classroom. One of the ways in which these methodologies can be promoted is by engaging learners in various play activities. However, there is a lack of literature showing the impact of such methodologies on Filipino learners. Using a priori deductive method, data from a series of interviews, observations, and video and picture analysis from this ethnographic case research were analysed to determine the implications of play activities in classroom music education. The interlocutors of the study are selected Ilonggo children, their parents, and some teachers. This study sought to answer the question of how can play activities be beneficial to classroom music education. Findings suggest that play activities can be a learning tool for the holistic development of the learners. Various forms of play activities provide an avenue for the learners to think or imagine situations divergently and have meaningful musical experiences as they portray various roles. Therefore, play activities provide the learners with a holistic learning experience and the agency to develop their musical sensitivity and creativity. Keywords: creativity, holistic learning experience, music education, musical sensitivity, play activities Introduction Music education provides a learning experience that is not limited to the four corners of the classroom. The playground is one of the places wherein various forms of play activities are observed. The playground is a space where the learners learn to identify and develop their potentials (Marsh, 2008). One of the play activities that are directly observable in the playground is singing games. The singing games provide children a musical experience that allows them to develop their musical sensitivity and creativity as they explore and experiment on various music patterns that are not directly taught inside the classroom (Marsh, 1995). The play activities allow children to think divergently and give them the agency to decide on the rules and roles they wanted to portray. Thus, the play activities are purely based on the subjectivity and interest of the learners. Play activities are flexible enough to accommodate the interest of the learners that may lead to the development of the learner’s musical sensitivity and creativity (Marsh, 2008; Carson, 2017; Gonzales-Moreno, 2013; Guastello, 2009; Forehand, 2005; Stefanic, 2014). In the Philippines, the K to 12 curriculum programme of the Department of Education advocates for the implementation of the holistic learning experience by employing a learner-centered or experiential learning approach that will develop learners to be culturally sensitive, creative, and musically inclined individuals (Department of Education; 2016, 2020). In line with the advocacy of the Philippine DepEd, the integration of play activities in the classroom can be viewed as an innovative tool for music teaching and learning. However, there is a lack of literature showing the impact of play activities in developing the musical sensitivity and creativity of Filipino Hermie M. Cartagena 75 learners. The researcher sees the potential of play activities to be integrated into the classroom setting in promulgating the musical sensitivity and creativity of the learners. The Social Cognitive Theory of Bandura and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory supports the idea of the study that various forms of play activities provide an avenue for the children to engage and learn from one another. Play activities provide a direct experience that leads to the understanding of oneself. It is with these activities that the learners can identify their strengths and potentials and may further fine-tune those potentials in the classroom instruction. With that, the social environment acts as a facilitator of learning development (Bandura, 2002; Brock et al., 2009; Campbell & Scott-Kasssner, 2010; Schunk, 2012; Scrimsher & Tudge, 2003). Related to the theories presented above are some of the approaches in music that provide the learners a direct musical experience that encourages musical sensitivity and creativity. The Dalcroze and Orff music approaches highlight the learner’s musical development and sensitivity through improvisation where various play activities are integrated. Children learn to be musically sensitive and creative individuals as they play, socialise, and observe one another. Learner’s direct experience allows them to assimilate and accommodate new information that may lead to the development of their musical and creative knowledge (Anderson, 2012; Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2010; Jensen, 2005). The researcher pursued this study because there is a preconceived notion that play activities are essential in enriching children’s music and creative potentials. By integrating such activities in the classroom instruction, learners will have a nurturing environment, meaningful, and relevant learning experience. Also, this information can be beneficial in elevating the quality of music education in the country. This study sought to answer the question of how can play activities be beneficial to classroom music education. Related Literature Categories of Play Activities There are various types of play activities that children enjoy. These activities, which are crucially important in children’s musical and creative development, learning, and well-being, reflect the fact that the concept of the play itself is infinitely flexible, offering choices and allowing for freedom of interpretation (Brock et al., 2009). Play is not only seen as an aesthetic activity that provides entertainment to children, but this also possesses implicit ideas that are derived from the rules set as various roles portrayed are being played (Antipaso, 1988; Obsuna, 1983). As cited by Brock et al. (2009), Hutt divided play types into three main categories: epistemic, ludic, and games with a rule. Epistemic play is associated with the development of cognitive or intellectual skills. Ludic, on the other hand, is a play associated with the development of social and creative skills. Lastly, games with rules fall under team sports or chess. Meanwhile, Lopez (1980/2001) introduced to the Philippines the term “ordinary games”, which are identified as physical games, games of dexterity or skill, and mimetic or drama games. Physical games are “characterised by energetic motor movements, bodily strengths, and endurance (p. 83).” Games of dexterity or skills are a type of memory game, and mimetic or drama game is a type of role-playing game. Play activity, on the other hand, is not only limited to leisure activities that provide fun and exciting experiences to the children as other aspects also belong to the concept of play. “Rituals, liturgy, sacrament, and mystery would fall within the play concept. The ritual acts have all the formal and essential characteristics of play which transport the participant to another world or dimension (Huizinga, 1980, p. 24).” Huizinga (1980) also explained that “dance is an integral part of the play: the relation is one direct participation, almost of essential identity. Dancing is a particular and particularly perfect form of playing (p. 165).” Dance on this matter is not just a form of art, it is also a type of play that provides agency to the learners to be responsible in creating their movement routine using their body as a medium of expression (Himberg & Thompson, 2011; Ingold, 1994; McIntosh, 2006; Pucihar & Pance, 2014). Benefits of Play Play activities contain musical elements that encourage learners to become more imaginative and explorative individuals leading to their learning development (Jaworski, 2012; Huisman Koops, 2010). Movements and bodily gestures or expressions can be observed directly in various forms of play. With that, children learn to absorb and adapt to the rhythm or rhythmic patterns, timbre, beat, and social norms (Campbell and Scott-Kassner, 2010; Pucihar & Pance, 2014). Consequently, play activities provide a holistic learning experience to learners for such activity may help enhance cognition (Del Carmen et al., 2015; Jensen, 2005; Lopez, 1980/2001; Nicolopoulou, 2010), improve emotional state (Barbosa, 2003; Brock et al., 2009; Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2010; Corral, 1975; Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (74-89) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Delgado-Gallenero, 1977; Jensen, 2005; Huisman Koops, 2010; Lopez, 1980/2001; Ros & Demiris, 2013; Sprenger, 2010), enhance physiological aspects (Campbell and Scott-Kassner, 2010; Brock et al., 2009; Jensen, 2005; Russ, 1998), and establish social awareness (Barbosa, 2003; Brock et al., 2009; Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2010; Colwell, 2006; Lopez, 1980/2001, 2006; Ramos, 1978; Schwartzman, 2012; Theobald, et al., 2015). Giving children the opportunity to play may lead to independent learning, wherein they learn how to process information and find answers to their queries through problem-solving. Learners become more flexible, creative, and productive individuals as they engage actively in their environment leading towards their holistic development (Gray, 2008; Kenny, 2014; Morrison et al., 2008). The absence of play in a child’s life may create a negative impact and may lead them to experience difficulties in adapting to society as they grow old (Brock et al., 2009; Brown, 2010, 2013; Del Carmen et al., 2015). Musical Sensitivity and Creativity in Music Education Musical activities integrated into music education involve listening to music, moving to music, singing musically, playing musical instruments, and creating music. Such activities may provide experiential learning that may tighten the music and creative potential of students (Garnett, 2014). According to Campbell & Scott-Kassner (2010), the creative impulse that is growing in children of all ages can be stimulated in various educational settings beyond the initial stages of exploration and discovery. To deny children the opportunity to work creatively with the materials and structure of music is to limit their capacity to think creatively and, most importantly, to limit the full exploration of what it means to be musical. Enriching music experience is fundamental in the musical and creative development of learners. One of the ways to provide an enriching learning experience to learners is by establishing an environment that can encourage children to improvise, arrange, and compose music and movement (Gonzales-Moreno, 2013; Vitale, 2011). Giving learners the agency to be engaged in their desired play activity could motivate them to further their musical knowledge (Creech et al., 2013; Gonzales-Moreno, 2013). Statement of the Problem The K to12 music education curriculum guide of the Philippine Department of Education advocates the use of experiential learning and outcome-based learning in the classroom. One of the ways by which such can be promoted is by engaging learners in various play activities. However, there is a lack of literature showing the impact of such methodologies on Filipino learners. Purpose This study provides some relevant insights on the role of play in enhancing children’s creativity and musical sensitivity. This will also enlighten other researchers and readers on the importance of play in the development of learners' music and creative potentials. Furthermore, play activities contain music and creative elements that allow children to have diverse music and creative experiences that will result in the development of children’s creativity and musical sensitivity. With that. the study sees the potential of such activities, when integrated into the classroom music education, can be beneficial to both children and educators–(a) providing engaging, meaningful, and holistic music experience to learners, and (b) uplifting the quality of music education in the country. Methodology This ethnographic case study aims to look at the music education possibilities of play activities. Ethnography is the “root of qualitative research” (Colwell, 2006, p. 274). According to Cohen et al. (2013), ethnography “is a portrayal and explanation of social groups and situations in their real-life context” (p. 170). Also, it is the study and systematic recording of human cultures. The emphasis of this study is to know the individual case, knowing each unique and salient feature of the respondents. Furthermore, no generalisation was made in the study. To ensure the reliability and validity of the study, proper research procedures were administered – informed consent (ethics), key informant sampling, series of interviews, informant’s document analysis such as pictures and videos as permitted, member checking, and triangulation of data from various sources. Hermie M. Cartagena 77 Scope and Delimitation The study was conducted at District V-Mandurriao Elementary School (MES), Iloilo City, Western Visayas, Philippines, from March 2018 to October 2018 (Figure 1). Figure 1. Map of Mandurriao Elementray School, Iloilo City, Philippines, “Google Maps” (2018) The school is a typical public school in the Philippines that normally caters to all kinds of students from diverse families of varying economic backgrounds. In the context of MES, students are from the neighbouring suburban barangays and subdivisions. Usually, the population of students per class ranges from 40-60 students. The number of sections depends on the capacity of the school. For MES, there are different clusters or groups of students–English Science Math (ESM) students (2 sections per year level), star section (1 section per year level), and the regular class (10 sections per year level). At present, the school offers various music and dance activities for their students such as drum and lyre, majorette, choir, violin ensemble, cheer dancing, dance sports, and hip-hop dancing. The school also offers summer classes in dance and music. Specifically, in dance, students may choose to learn hip-hop, Latin American dance, and contemporary dance; while in music, students are offered choices of lessons in voice, piano, guitar and violin. Learners are given the opportunity to explore, experience, and discover their music and creative potentials through these activities. The MES was also selected for the study for it offers various musical and movement exposures to students. On a personal note, the school was chosen because of: (a) its proximity to the researcher’s residence, (b) the researcher being an alumnus of the school, (c) the researcher’s teaching experience for one year in the school. This means that the researcher is highly acquainted and immersed with the community or environment. Therefore, this said school may provide a good source of information related to the study. The selection of the students was based on key informant sampling. Teachers in the school have identified students whom they consider musically sensitive and creative. From their selection, the researcher chose a final list of students who later became the interlocutors of the study. The study chose to involve the grades four to six (9-12 years old) students for learners at these ages are highly active in movement activities like dance and play. Moreover, these groups of students can already comprehend and follow instructions, doing things on their own. This means that movement activities can be easily captured and documented in these certain age groups. The primary source of the data was the interviews of the children, and this was supported by the interviews of their parents and teachers. Research Tools, Data Gathering Analysis, and Procedure The data-gathering instruments of the study included an interview guide, audio recordings of interviews, a journal or logbook to record the researcher’s observation through field notes, and a camera to document the pictures and videos. The interview guide contained questions related to the dance and play movement activities of the learners. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (74-89) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 For the interview, the researcher constructed questions based on the literature related to the study. The questionnaire was validated by experts from music and dance education. Validators were one dance professional, one music education lecturer, one ethnomusicologist-composer, and one Dalcroze specialist. Second, a permission letter was given to the Department of Education (DepEd), Division of Iloilo City, and the office of the principal to conduct the study; followed by a selection of interlocutors–key informant sampling. Third, a consent form was given to the interlocutors and the parents of the children. The interview was done via a one-on-one interview with the interlocutor. However, for the teachers, a focused group discussion (FGD) was administered. The recorded interviews were transcribed. Then member checks and triangulation were administered to ensure the reliability of the study. Interviews that have undergone member checks were coded using the theories from the review-related literature. Triangulation processes of pictures, videos, and interview transcripts assured the researcher that the information provided by the interviewee is consistent throughout the study. Meanwhile, field notes were taken from the observations while photos or videos of respondent’s dance and play activities and performances inside and outside the school were analysed. As the researcher, it is part of the study to protect the interlocutors. Hence, the anonymity of the interlocutors was secured throughout the study. Data Analysis A priori deductive and inductive thematic analysis was administered in interpreting the data. According to Ryan and Bernard (2003), some processes for interpreting the data included cutting and sorting, finding theory-related materials, finding similarities and differences, and discovering indigenous typologies. In the field, a group of researchers–three research members–independently analysed the documents and data to construct thematic analyses. Also, procedures by Braun and Clarke (2012) were followed carefully: (a) data familiarisation, (b) generating initial codes (c) searching for themes, (d) reviewing themes, (e) defining and naming themes, and (f) producing the report. Results and Analysis The engagement of the interlocutors, along with other learners, to various forms of play activities has contributed to the development of their creative expression and musical sensitivity. It is with these activities that learners learn new things that may lead to their holistic learning growth. The play activities, which are natural to children, possess great potential in honing the musical abilities of the learners. By integrating such activities in the classroom instruction, the learner's learning experience can be more relevant and can likewise help elevate the learning environment which, in turn, can develop the learner’s musical sensitivity and creativity (Figure 2). Figure 2. Various forms of play activities when integrated in the classroom instruction can lead in the development of learner’s musical sensitivity and creativity. Play activities Classroom Instruction Musical Sensitivity and creativity Hermie M. Cartagena 79 Developing Musical Sensitivity through Play Activities In terms of musical sensitivity, some forms of play engaged in by the children and the interlocutors involved chants and movements embedded with musical elements such as rhythm, timing, beat, and melody. Sometime in June 2018, the researcher visited the school and observed the interlocutors during break time and class time. During recess, lunch break, and dismissal period, learners make use of their time to play with one another. Usually, a group of students was playing inside and outside their classrooms. Also, some children are playing in the playground and the field. In the case of the interlocutors, the researcher observed their various play activities, one of which is langit lupa. As the children recite the spoken rhyme, one of the players points his or her finger to each of the players in a clockwise or counter clockwise direction. The pointing finger synchronises with the tempo of the spoken rhyme. The musical element is embedded in their game activity. The players unconsciously develop their sense of time and rhythm: In langit-lupa, the "It” points to a player at the start of the song. The “It” continues to point to each player at every syllable and stops only at the end of the song. (Ash, personal communication, July 6, 2018) During lunchtime, while everybody is taking a noon break, the researcher noticed a group of grade five students who were playing “I wanna be a tutubi” (Figure 3) at the corner of the room. According to the child (player), the tutubi refers to a small stone. In this game, the children form a circle while seated on the floor. The “it” or the taya will be away for a moment in order not to see where the stone is hidden. As the children recite the lyrics, they would secretly pass the stone around from one player to another. After reciting the lyrics, the players will close their hands and hide the stone. The “it” will try to guess who among the players keeps the stone. The “it” can only guess once. The game goes through the cycle repeatedly until the “it” successfully guesses who is keeping the stone. The song goes like this: I wanna be a tutubi na (I wanna be a dragonfly) Sa aking kamay (Like the one on my hand) Nahulog sa bangin, (It fell off the cliff) Tinuka ng manok (It was pecked by a chicken) Na nanggaling sa bundok (That came from the mountain) Figure 3. Notation transcript of spoken and songs of Ilonggo children A few days after, the researcher went back to the school to further observe the interlocutors. During a lunch break, one of the interlocutors played BINGO (play song) with her playmates in front of their classroom while waiting for their teacher to arrive. The interlocutor was the taya (it) in the game. As the taya, she will recite the lyrics of the game’s chant, while pointing to his playmates one after the other. At the end of the chant, the “it” will try to step on the foot of one of his playmates. They must be able to avoid getting stepped on by the “it.” The chant goes like this: BINGO, nanay mo pala-binggo (BINGO, Your nanay always plays bingo) binato ng beynte singko (She was hit with a quarter peso) akala nya limang piso (She thought it was five-pesos) B-I-N-G-O, bingo. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (74-89) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 4. Notation transcript of spoken rhyme and songs of Ilonggo children As days go by, the researcher was able to document other play activities of the interlocutors. During a lunch break, a group of children [in Grade four ESM] was playing a singing game called isa, dalawa, tatlo (one, two, three). Han (one of the interlocutors) was one of the players. She was moving and performing some body gestures while singing a song mixed with Hiligaynon and Filipino words. In this game, the players should mimic the actions of the “it” while singing the song (Figure 5). The song goes like this: Mag isip-isip ng isa dalawa tatlo, (You count one, two, three) mag isip-isip ng isa dalawa tatlo, (You count one, two, three) sunda ninyo ako. (Follow me) Sunda sunda sunda ako, (Follow, follow, follow me) sunda sunda sunda ako, (Follow, follow, follow me) ikaw naman dason (ikaw naman karon) (You would be next) Figure 5. Notation transcript of play songs of Ilonggo children Hermie M. Cartagena 81 To further support the gathered data, the researcher conducted a Focus Group Discussion with the teachers. During the interview, the teachers unanimously believed that play activities are fundamental in the musical and creative development of the learners. Teachers even cited some examples to justify their claim: ... [ang pag hampang sang Larong Pinoy] makabulig sa pag develop sang musical sensitivity .. like for example ang tin- tin bika (piko) ... may pattern man na siya ... playing Larong Pinoy can help develop the child’s musical sensitivity ... for example, tin- tin bika has a pattern (Teachers’ FGD, 2018). The teachers added that by playing sports, the learners can likewise develop their musical sensitivity. The teachers believe that any type of sport contains musical elements that can help enhance the musical sensitivity of the learners: ... [ang pag hampang sang sports] makabulig, example sa volleyball na bala, di bala may three touches na bag-o mo [isaylo] sa piyak. May pattern, may rhythm and timing man na sya gihapon. Amo man sa music [may pattern]. Ang bata pwede na siya kabuhat sang mga sounds nga ara sa sports nga nagadasig kag nagahinay ... playing sports can help establish musical sensitivity. An example is volleyball, where the players are given three touches to pass the ball to the other side of the court. It has a pattern, rhythm, and timing. Music also has a pattern. A child can create a sound (fast and slow) from these activities (Teachers’ FGD, 2018). Also, the teachers have observed in their classes that the interlocutors considered their dance improvisation as part of the play activity. The interlocutors, together with their playmates, improvise movements as they listen to the music: Ang ila na ya nga way indi lang na play nga daw [hampang gid]. Kundi ang ila na ya nga gina ubra, like for example kung ano ila nga mga stepping, amo man na ila nga gina hampang. Ga play sila music dayon ginasautan nila... Ara na da sila permi sa ibabaw sang stage kay dira man ang amon nga practice area [sa saot]. Their way of playing is not the typical game. For them, dancing is a form of play. For example, whatever steps they learn in their class, they keep on repeating these as part of their play activity (Teacher’s FGD, 2018). The claim of the teachers is supported by the concept of play of the interlocutors. For interlocutors, they considered dance as a part of their play activity. Sa balay kis- a ga saot saot biskan wala music, ga-isip lang..kung may music gina-feel ang beat dapat timing At home, sometimes we dance even though there’s no music, we just count only. If there’s music, you just have to feel it ... should have timing (Pres, personal communication, July 5, 2018) ang hampang ko may kis- a may saot saot man Sometimes my play activity is dance (Han, personal communication, July 18, 2018). Generally, the play activities of the interlocutors have contributed to the development of their musical sensitivity. The play activities of the interlocutors have provided them with direct music experiences that, in one way or another, influenced their musical sensitivity. The various play activities of the interlocutors contain musical elements that are essential in the development of their music potentials. Thus, by experiencing music through play activities, learners will be able to familiarise the different music elements as they sing, make gestures, and move their body. On the other hand, play activity does not only contributed in the development of interlocutors musical sensitivity. The play activities of the interlocutors likewise developed their creativity. The play activity contains learning processes that allows learners to explore and develop their creative ideas. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (74-89) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Developing Creativity Through Play Activities While observing the activities of the interlocutors within the school premise, the researcher has realised that the concept of creativity is formed through various direct and indirect learning experiences of the interlocutors. The interlocutor’s rich play experience provided them the opportunity to become resourceful and imaginative individuals in portraying various roles they play. The interlocutors make use of their prior knowledge in developing creative ideas. Thus, the interlocutor was able assimilate and accommodate information and develop their creative knowledge. Ash, one of the interlocutors, have developed her understanding of the significance of play to children. During the interview, explained that “The children should experience playing so they could learn something from their experiences”. This idea only implies that varied play experiences provide children with the opportunity to learn various concepts that are beneficial for the learning development of the learners. The concept of play is not only limited to physical activities. Other forms of play involved imagination like role-playing or dramatisation that have contributed to the activation of the interlocutor’s creativity which is triggered by their interest. The interlocutors become mabinuhaton (creative) as they portray the various role they choose to represent. As the interlocutors portray the various roles they choose, they also learn to make use of the materials related to their play activity. Furthermore, their resourcefulness indicates how creative they are in using such materials in their play. It was summertime when the interview was conducted with the interlocutors. The interlocutors, at that time, were currently enrolled in their summer dance class. During the interview, the interlocutors mentioned that their play activities allowed them to imagine things and play different roles based on their interests: We are playing as if we are actor. (Franz, personal communication, July 6, 2018) We also do role-playing, sometimes we play cooking. (Mimi, personal communication, July 6, 2018) I play cooking, holding and playing the utensils, and then sell flowers. (Ash, personal communication, July 6, 2018) I dress-up my Barbie when playing with it. I dress it like a princess, I braid her hair, and I sometimes put some accessories on her … I stick the cut-out papers to the dress of my Barbi. (Han, personal communication, July 18, 2018) I also dance when I am at home. Even if there’s no music, I still dance. I just listen to the music in my mind. (Han, personal communication, July 18, 2018) During break time, the interlocutors used to play with one another. If not making some dance routines, the interlocutors would play a “pretend game.” The interlocutors would try to create a scenario in their play activity. As documented in the video in 2018, Ash (one of the interlocutors), together with another child, approached Franz (one of the interlocutors). They stood close together and pretended to be in a photoshoot as if they were models. Ash was the one choreographing the positions of her friends. Furthermore, games that involve imagination are likewise reflected in the play activities of other children in school. As the researcher roams around the school premises, the researcher found a group of children playing on the stage during recess time. The children pretended to mimic how ramp models would walk. The children called this game miss-miss (from the beauty titles that start with Miss, like Miss Universe and Miss International). The above concept of play is likewise supported by the teacher’s interview. Teachers explained, in FGD, that in dramatization, children may be able to explore and experience a lot of characters which may tap their imagination as they portray these roles. Children learn to provide creative and musical inputs in their play activities. Hence, the dramatization taps both the creative and musical aspects of the child: When you do role-playing you use your parents as your characters, as a child. You explore a particular character of a person. When children role-play, they do not limit their role-playing to their parents. They also role play singers. You become the audience. They have their music, especially if the child’s interest is really into music or singing. Usually, they’re really acting as if we have a show (Teachers’ FGD, 2018). Hermie M. Cartagena 83 The role-playing or dramatisation was also reflected and incorporated in classroom activities of other learning disciplines. The researcher observed some classes, during the field study in June 2018, to witness how the concept of play is integrated into classroom activities. In the science class of Ash and Franz (Figure 6), children had their performance activity. They were tasked to portray different roles representing different concepts they learned in their classroom discussion. Aside from role-playing or games that involve imagination, other games triggers the cognitive domain of the learners. Being mapamaagi (strategic and resourceful) is one of the many attributes of creativity. Strategic games require the players to be critical in their game plan to achieve their game objective – to win. Being strategic is closely related to critical thinking which also intertwines with creative thinking. Children or players use their critical thinking as they think of a paagi (way) in solving a problem as they engage in play. The interlocutors mentioned games like ins and panaguay as an example of strategic games. Likewise, the interlocutors explained the process of the game. Usually, such games are played by children during dismissal period in the afternoon in the field or outside the classroom: When you play “ins”, both sides have watchers. There are three lines on the ground. There are groupings, two groups. If you are the taya you should catch the players [of the other team]; if you catch them, then it’s your turn to play the games. (Ash, personal communication, July 6, 2018) In playing panaguay, someone is the taya, then someone would count, then we will hide somewhere. (Pres, personal communication, July 5, 2018) Figure 6. Dance presentation as part of interlocutor’s photo classroom activity. During dismissal time (around 5:00 p.m. in the afternoon), several students can be found in different areas of the school. The researcher found a group of students who are playing strategic games such as basketball and Chinese garter (Figure 7 & 8). In basketball, the player’s objective is to shoot the ball on the ring. Bouncing or dribbling of the ball is required to the player who holds the ball. Meanwhile, the Chinese garter game objective is to cross over the garter or rubber thread. The player tries to jump as high as possible to successfully cross to the other side. Both games require strategic planning to win. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (74-89) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 7. Strategic games of children outside the classroom environment-Chinese carter game Figure 8. Strategic games of children outside the classroom environment-basketball Hermie M. Cartagena 85 In support of the above idea, teachers of the interlocutors also agreed, during the interview, to the idea that strategic games are fundamental in the development of learner’s creative thoughts. The teachers believe that learners may find the relevance of their activities in music-making: It’s true that you have to be critical when you play those mind games. Maybe the same creativity [is activated] in music. When a child thinks critically, she can still use that in music when she creates notes and analyses the beat (Teachers’ FGD, 2018). For example, when she plays Rubik’s cube, she uses timing when she thinks of how to solve the puzzle. The creativity is also there. There’s a technique there before you can solve the puzzle. Technique and strategy are also considered as creativity (Teachers’ FGD, 2018). Generally, the various forms of play activities played by the interlocutors, along with other children, are fundamental in their creative development. Such play activities provide the learners an opportunity to explore and discover their potentials that, in turn, develop their imagination, critical skills, and creative ideas Discussion The findings of the study show that as children engage in various play activities (like role-playing, physical games, mental games, action songs, and dancing), children become creative, strategic, and musically engaged individuals. In turn, they can create their creative outputs out of the various movements that they can generate. This claim is supported by other related studies. While all forms of human activity can be considered as a form of play (Huizinga, 1980), play activities vary according to individual subjectivity. The concept of the play itself is flexible and it offers a lot of choices and allows freedom of interpretation (Brock et al., 2009; Burnard, 2013). Such activities provide an opportunity for children for several interpretations and to distinguish the similarities and differences in terms of style, treatment, music, and strategies. As such, critical and creative thinking among children is developed (Hargreaves, 2012; Stefanic, 2014). Aside from that, engagement in various play activities also allows children to develop musical creativity and musical sensitivity as they explore and experiment with various music patterns in their play activities (Campbell & Scott- Kassner, 2010). As children continue to think more critically and be more musically creative, they can progress from simple to more complex outputs or learning outcomes. This result is also similar to the ideas of Anderson (2012), Campbell and Scott-Kassner (2010), Jensen (2005), Garnett (2014), and Perkins (2013) stating that the learner’s direct experience provides them the opportunity to process information by assimilating and accommodating such information that may develop their music and creative knowledge. Thus, the various forms of play activities provide learners with direct experience that taps their music and creative potentials leading to a more favourable learning outcome. Likewise, the findings also suggest that play activity, if within the context of the learners, provides a meaningful learning experience. Furthermore, using mother tongue or existing music materials that are embedded within learner’s local play activities will provide them with more relevant and engaging learning experiences. Based on the experiences of the interlocutors, their play activities provided them with musical experiences. Aside from that, the local music materials found in the play activities of the learners may generate an understanding of their culture and environment. In effect, the local play (larong Pinoy) activities and music materials (local songs and chants), aside from establishing the learner’s musical sensitivity and creativity, will develop a sense of identity and, likewise, establish cultural awareness. This information is beneficial for the educators to highly engage the learners with local play and music activities to further their interest in learning and, likewise, provide learners with more musical encounters leading to the development of learner’s musical sensitivity, creativity, identity, and socio- cultural awareness. Conclusion Play activities contain implicit and explicit information that is beneficial for the learning development of the learners. The play activities provide learners with authentic learning experiences. With that, learners develop consciously and unconsciously their music and creative potentials as they play and interact with one another. Thus, the integration of play activities in the classroom setting can be beneficial in providing the learners with a relevant and meaningful learning experience leading to holistic learning outcomes. This information can likewise be beneficial in the learning advocacy of the Philippine Department of Education K-12 curriculum program. However, there is a lack of literature in the country supporting the impact of play activities in developing learner’s musical sensitivity and creativity. For Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (74-89) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 that reason, the researcher pursued this study because there is a preconceived notion that play activities can significantly influence the development of learner’s musical sensitivity and creativity. As the Department of Education in the Philippines advocates for student-centered education, the play activity can be one of the learning tools that can be used in classroom instruction to provide learners with a more relevant and encouraging learning environment and experience. Play activities are usually found in children’s playgrounds. The playground is a safe space for children to explore and experiment on various things that will lead to their learning growth, and likewise, develop children’s musical sensitivity and creativity. The experience of children in their play activities provides them the opportunity to understand their learning capabilities and develop their learning abilities. This only suggests that learners have the learning agency as they engaged in various play activities. Play is a highly social activity. The interaction in play activities provides learners the freedom to portray various roles leading to learner’s character development. With that, this study is anchored to Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, and Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory. The study believed that the social environment is the primary factor for learning. Learners gain knowledge as they interact and observe their environment. Learners learn to sing songs and dances as they play with one another. Also, the learners learn to become socially sensitive individuals as they help others in learning the mechanics of their play activities. With that, the foundation of learning can be further strengthened. This can all be in the introduction The findings support the claim of the study that the various children’s play activities, within the context of the interlocutors, have a great potential in developing learner’s musical sensitivity and creativity. The various play activities of the interlocutors, along with other children, allowed them to have diverse learning experiences. This, in turn, encouraged the learners to think divergently and become resourceful individuals in attaining their play objectives. With that, the learners learn to assimilate and accommodate various information and generate new knowledge. Furthermore, the interlocutors develop their learning system by codifying, give meanings, and provide symbols to their various play activities. Another factor to consider in delivering a more musical experience to learners is by employing the existing local music materials found in the play activities of the learners. Thus, the various forms of local play and music activities can provide learners with a holistic learning experience that, in turn, can help generate and develop the musical sensitivity and creativity of the learners and, likewise, establish a sense of identity and socio-cultural awareness. In conclusion, the integration of local play and music activities in classroom instruction can be beneficial for both the learners and the educators. The learners may find these activities fun and enjoyable for it is relevant to them. Learning experiences become meaningful for the learners. For educators, they can engage the students in classroom activities. Also, through local play and music activities, motivation and interest can be tapped. Consequently, by tapping the motivation and interest of the learners, the learners could have a prolonged learning or attention span. Aside from that, the learners learn to socialize and understand different views and perspectives as they engage in these activities. Thus, the children become socially and culturally aware of their environment as they develop their musical and artistic expression. Recommendation Based on the findings, local play activities contain implicit and explicit information that directly informs the learners through their play experiences. The play activities tap the learner’s interest that, in turn, provide learners with an engaging learning experience. The diverse play experiences will give the learners, regardless of age, gender, and sexuality, a holistic learning experience that would lead to a more favourable learning outcome. With that, future researchers could conduct a study on integrating play in the classroom setting to determine the impact of play in the learning development of the learners. References Anderson, W. T. (2012). The Dalcroze approach to Music Education: Theory and applications. General Music Today, 26(1), 27–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/1048371311428979 Antipaso, V. B. (1988). Ethnic games played by Kankana-ey children [Unpublished Master's thesis]. University of the Philippines, Diliman. Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Applied psychology, 51(2), 269-290. https://doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00092 Hermie M. Cartagena 87 Barbosa, A. C. (2003, August 15). In focus: Traditional games in the Philippines. National Commission for Culture and the Arts. http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/traditional-games-in-the-philippines. Braun V., & Clarke, V. (2012). Thematic analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher (Eds.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol. 2. Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological (pp. 57-71). American Psychological Association. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2012). Thematic analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher (Eds.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol. 2. Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological (pp. 57-71). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13620- 004 Brock, A., Dodds, S., Jarvis, P., & Olusoga, Y. (2009). Perspectives on play: Learning for life (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315834399 Brown, S. L., & Vaughan, C. C. (2010). Play: How it shapes the brain, opens the imagination, and invigorates the soul. Avery. P. Burnard (Ed.). Developing creativities in higher music education: International perspectives and practices (pp.1-10). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315885223 Is the page number correct? Campbell, P. S., & Scott-Kassner, C. (2010). Music in childhood. From preschool through the elementary grades. Schirmer, Cengage Learning. Carson, S. (2017, January 17). The unleashed mind. Scientific American Mind–The mad science of creativity, Special edition, 28-31. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-unleashed-mind1/ Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Research methods in education. Routledge. Colwell, R. (Ed.). (2006). MENC handbook of research methodologies. Oxford University Press. Corral, C. P. (1975). The physical fitness of Iloilo public school girls ages 11-15 [Unpublished Master's thesis]. University of the Philippines, Diliman. Creech, A., Lopez-Real, C., Paterson, K., & Sherry, R. (2013). Creative assessment of creativity in musical performance: Lessons for institutional change. In P. Burnard (Ed.). Developing creativities in higher music education: International perspectives and practices (pp. 318-329). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315885223 Del Carmen, M. V., Diano, F., & Ole, A. (2015, March 2-4). Designing validated “laro ng lahi”-based activities in mechanics [Conference paper]. DLSU Research Congress, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines. https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/research-congress- proceedings/2015/LLI/019LLI_Del%20Carmen_MVC.pdf Delgado-Gallenero, L. (1977). The attitude towards physical education of the high students of the University of the Philippines College of Cebu [Unpublished Master's Thesis]. University of the Philippines, Diliman. Department of Education (2016). K to 12 curriculum guide: Music. https://www.deped.gov.ph/wp- content/uploads/2019/01/Music-CG.pdf Department of Education (2020). 2nd national K to 12 conference. https://www.deped.gov.ph/k-to-12/about/2nd-national-k- to-12-conference/ Forehand, C. (2005). To journey into creativity (UMI Number: 3203316)[Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma]. ProQuest Information and Learning Company database. Garnett, J. (2014). Has music happened? The ‘Creative Musician’ and the paradox of experiencing music and learning as creative acts. In P. Burnard (Ed.). Developing creativities in higher music education: International perspectives and practices (pp. 11-22). Routledge. Google map (2018). Map of Mandurriao Central Elementary School, Iloilo City, Philippines. https://www.google.com.ph/maps/place/MANDURRIAO+ELEMENTARY+SCHOO+L/@10.7159142,122.536981, 15z González-Moreno, P. A. (2013). Performance creativities in higher music education. In P. Burnard (Ed.). Developing creativities in higher music education: International perspectives and practices (pp. 87-99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315885223 Gray, P. (2008, November 19). The value of play I: Definition of play gives insights. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freedom-learn/200811/the-value-play-i-the-definition-play-gives-insights. Guastello, S. J. (2009). Creativity and personality. In Rickards, T., Runco M.A. and Moger, S. (Eds.) The Routledge Companion to Creativity (pp. 267-278). Routledge. Hargreaves, D. J. (2012). Musical imagination: Perception and production, beauty and creativity. Psychology of Music, 40(5), 539–557. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612444893 Himberg, T. & Thompson M. R. (2011). Learning and synchronizing dance movements in South African songs–cross-cultural motion-capture study. Dance Research 29 (Supplement), 305-328. https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/abs/10.3366/drs.2011.0022 Huizinga, J. (1980). Homo ludens: a brincadeira como elemento da cultura. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Huisman Koops, L. (2010). “Deñuy jàngal seen bopp” (They Teach Themselves): Children’s Music Learning in The Gambia. Journal of Research in Music Education, 58(1), 20–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429409361000 Ingold, T. (1994). Introduction to culture. In Ingold, T. (Ed.) Companion encyclopaedia of anthropology: Humanity, culture, and social life (pp. 329-349). Routledge. Jaworski, N. (2012). Soundwalks, community, and the secondary general classroom. General Music Today, 26(1), 34-37. DOI: 10.1177/1048371312453842. http://gmt.sagepub.com/content/26/1/34. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 2 (74-89) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Jensen, E. P. (2005). Teaching with the brain in the mind. ASCD Publication. Kenny, A. (2014). Sound connections for institutional practice: Cultivating ‘collaborative creativity ‘through group composition. In P. Burnard (Ed.). Developing creativities in higher music education: International perspectives and practices (pp. 293-315). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315885223 Lopez, M. L. (2001). A study of Philippine games. University of the Philippines Press. (Originally work published in 1980). Lopez, M. L. (2006). A handbook of Philippine folklore. University of the Philippines Press. Marsh, K. (1995). Children's singing games: composition in the playground? Research Studies in Music Education 4 (1), 2- 11. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X9500400102 Marsh (2008). The musical playground: Global tradition and change in children’s songs and games. Oxford University Press. McIntosh, J. (2006). How dancing, singing and playing shape the ethnographer: Research with children in a Balinese dance studio. Anthropology Matters, 8(2), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.22582/am.v8i2.65 Morrison, S. J., Demorest, S. M., & Stambaugh, L. A. (2008). Enculturation effects in music cognition: The role of age and music complexity. Journal of Research in Music Education, 56(2), 118-129. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429408322854 Nicolopoulou, A (2010). The alarming disappearance of play from early childhood education. Human Development 53(1), 1– 4. https://doi.org/10.1159/000268135 Obsuna, I. M. (1983). Laro ng lahi: A historic evolution of Philippine games. Institute of Sports, Physical Education and Recreation. Perkins, R. (2013). Learning cultures, creativities and higher music education institutions. In P. Burnard (Ed.). Developing creativities in higher music education: International perspectives and practices (pp. 223-233). Routledge. Pucihar, I., & Pance, B. R. (2014). Bodily movement as inseparable part of musical activities. Telesni gib kot nelocljivi del glasbenih dejavnosti.Glasbeno–Pedagoski Zbornik Akademije Za Glasbo v Ljubljani, 20, 93-111. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/bodily-movement-as-inseparable-partmusical/docview/1644489609/se- 2 Ramos, D. V. (1978). A survey of leisure time interest of high school students in Bacolod city. [Unpublished Master's Thesis]. University of the Philippines, Diliman. Ros R., Demiris Y. (2013) Creative Dance: An Approach for Social Interaction between Robots and Children. In: Salah A.A., Hung H., Aran O., Gunes H. (Eds) Human Behavior Understanding. HBU 2013. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 8212. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02714-2_4 Russ, S. W. (1998). Play, creativity, and adaptive functioning: Implications for play interventions, Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27(4), 469-48. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2704_11 Ryan, G. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2003). Techniques to Identify Themes. Field Methods, 15(1), 85– 109. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X02239569 Scrimsher, S., & Tudge, J. (2003). The teaching/learning relationship in the first years of school: Some revolutionary implications of Vygotsky's theory. Early Education & Development, 14 (3), 293-312. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15566935eed1403_3 Schunk, D. H. (2012). Social cognitive theory. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick, G. M. Sinatra, & J. Sweller (Eds.), APA educational psychology handbook: Theories, constructs, and critical issues (pp. 101– 123). American Psychological Association. Schwartzman, H. (Ed.). (2012). Transformations: The anthropology of children’s play. Springer Science & Business Media. Plenum Press. Stefanic, N. M. (2014). Creativity-based music learning: Modeling the process and learning outcomes in a Massive Open Online Course (Publication No. 3631459) [Doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/5315 Sprenger, M. (2010). Brain-based teaching in the digital age. ASCD Publication. Theobald, M., Danby, S., Einarsdóttir, J., Bourne, J., Jones, D., Ross, S., & Carter-Jones, C. (2015). Children’s perspectives of play and learning for educational practice. Education Sciences, 5 (4), 345-362. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci5040345 Vitale, J. L. (2011). Music makes you smarter: A new paradigm for music education? Perceptions and perspective from four groups of elementary education stakeholders, Canadian Society for the Study of Education, 34(3), 317-343. http://www.jstor.org/stable/canajeducrevucan.34.3.317. Biography Hermie F. Cartagena is an Assistant Professor at the University of the Philippines Visayas, College of Arts and Sciences, Division of Professional Education, High School Department. He earned his Master’s degree in Music Education at the University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City in 2018. He took up his Bachelor in Music Education minor in Physical Hermie M. Cartagena 89 Education at the West Visayas State University and graduated as cum laude, academic year 2010-2011. Cartagena is a lifetime member of the Philippine Society for Music Education. He is also a rondalla player, choir conductor, and dance instructor/choreographer. Cartagena has mounted various cultural performances showcasing the music and culture of the Philippines. Recently, he mounted tunog-tikang I (2019) and II (2020) cultural shows highlighting Visayan music and dances. Aside from creative works, Cartagena also conducts a series of teacher and regional training-workshop in the Philippines at national levels.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 2 (2021)

-

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/390

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/6173

Editorial

The Malaysian Journal of Music, Volume 10, Issue 2, comprises six articles that present current issues in Ethnomusicology and Music Education from Ireland, United States, Nigeria, Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/6173/3267

MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC Volume 10, Issue 2 2021 ISSN 2600-9366 e-ISSN 2600-9331 Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjong Malim, Perak 2021 ii MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC Volume 10, Issue 2, 2021 Editorial Clare Suet Ching Chan iii Ngemong Raos: Aesthetic Leadership Role of Panjak Juru Kendhang in Javanese Gamelan Afriza Animawan Koentjoro 1 Scoring Alien Worlds: World Music Mashups in 21st Century Sci-Fi and Fantasy TV, Film and Video Games Jonathan Stock 13 An Assessment of Music Education Needs Among Orthodox and Pentecostal Church Choristers in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria Eyitayo Soretire Adebowale Adeogun 29 World Music Pedagogy: Gateway to Global Citizenship and Children’s Creative Impulses Juliana Cantarelli Vita Patricia Shehan Campbell 45 Bringing the Children’s Songs of the Rungus of Sabah into Malaysian Music Classrooms Jinky Jane C. Simeon Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 54 Developing Musical Sensitivity and Creativity through Various Forms of Play Activities Hermie F. Cartagena 89 iii Editorial Cite this editorial: Chan, C. S. C. (2021). Editorial [Editorial]. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10 (2), iii-iv. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.2.7.2021 The Malaysian Journal of Music, Volume 10, Issue 2, comprises six articles that present current issues in Ethnomusicology and Music Education from Ireland, United States, Nigeria, Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. The first article, "Ngemong Raos: Aesthetic Leadership Role of Panjak Juru Kendhang in Javanese gamelan" written by Afriza Animawan and Koentjoro sheds light on the role of the leader in the Javanese gamelan ensemble. The leader's role differs from that of a western classical music orchestra conductor. Through a phenomenological analysis of interviews from nine informants using the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), Animawan and Korentjoro propound that the leader of the Javanese gamelan is not only responsible for the musical performance of the ensemble, but also the holistic development of the ensemble. A Javanese gamelan musician, dancer or performer experiences ngemong raos (soul nurturing) through the development of overall skills such as observing, niteni (observing), decision-making and gotong royong (egalitarian tasks). Javanese music is kept alive through the spirit or raos (soul) of the people. Soretire and Adeogun's article titled, "An Assessment of Music Education Needs Among Orthodox and Pentecostal Church Choristers in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria" broaden our understanding of "music education" to the avenue of the church. In Abeokuta in the state of Ogun, Nigeria, church choristers experience music education from formal to informal approaches from the church. The transmission of musical knowledge through the church is an example of music education that occurs beyond formal institutionalised organisations. In this article, Soretire and Adeogun posit that many of the church musicians lack skills in hymn singing techniques, conducting, choir administration and foundations of theology. This article is a quantitative survey that assesses the music education needs of a groups of church choristers. It focuses on playing and auditory skills, as well as, self discipline among these church choristers. Jonathan Stock, in the third article titled, "Scoring Alien Worlds: World Music Mashups in 21st Century Sci-Fi and Fantasy TV, Film and Video Games" examines the use of world music in musical composition aimed to evoke the aura of an alien world. Stock analyses the use of world music in a: a) TV series, Battlestar Galatica b) film, Avatar, and c) video game, World of Worldcraft. Stocks argues that forms of orientalism, musical stereotypes and mashup insinuations of world music are compositional techniques used in these three musical compositions. These mashups include merging the music from different musical periods, origins and aesthetics into a musical composition. While the music composition may use the musical instruments and sound resources from a traditional musical instrument related to a musical genre from specific origins, the music composed, perhaps, with intention, does not manifest any connection or clue to the origins of the musical genre. This compositional technique manifests the concepts of postmodernism in which iv fragmented musical ideas with no related origins are pieced together to create a musical pastiche or bricolage in music. In "World Music Pedagogy: Gateway to Global Citizenship and Children’s Creative Impulses", Juliana Cantarelli Vita and Patricia-Shehan Campbell highlight the role of music educators in enhancing cultural understanding through World Music Pedagogy (WMP). Addressing current issues of inclusivity, diversity and equity, Cantarelli Vita and Campbell state that music educators have the opportunity to nurture "global citizenship" among young learners. They posit that music educators need to be inclusive, respectful, and mindful of other musical traditions when they teach music in the classroom. The development of intercultural understanding through WMP is an approach to nurturing children with a "global" understanding of the world. While we are increasing aware of global cultures through audio-visual sources from the Internet, experiencing a culture "live" through hands-on musical activities evokes a more direct encounter with the culture. Cantarelli Vita and Campbell also highlight that different levels of listening including attentive, engaged and enactive listening are ways that lead toward the development of creative expression in world music. Jinky Jane C. Simeon and Jacqueline Pugh Kitingan, in the fifth article, "Bringing the Children’s Songs of the Rungus of Sabah into Malaysian Music Classrooms" gives agency and voice to the culture bearer in determining the sequence of learning Rungus children's songs. These songs include ngoi tanganak (children’s songs) and longoi pogondoi (lullabies) which were recorded, transcribed and notated in western music notation. This article is one of the pioneer interdisciplinary articles (Music Education and Ethnomusicology), that recognises the knowledge of culture bearers, in education. It decolonises Music Education from the hegemony of subscribing to standardised teaching traditions practiced by institutional organisations. In the sixth and final article, Cartagena in the article titled, "Developing Musical Sensitivity and Creativity through Various Forms of Play Activities" uses singing games from the Ilonggo children's songs repertoire to facilitate the development of musical sensitivity and creativity. Cartagena explores experiential learning and outcome-based learning through "play activities" that is aimed toward enhancing creativity. Through ethnographic fieldwork and interviews with teachers, Cartagena affirms the usefulness of play activities in enhancing creativity. Clare Suet Ching Chan Chief Editor Malaysian Journal of Music

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 1 (2021)

emotional skill, secondary school concert band, SEL, social and emotional learning, social skill

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/366

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3854

Developing Social and Emotional Learning Skills through Secondary School Concert Bands

This research aimed to investigate the social and emotional skills of students through participation in secondary school concert bands. Using a qualitative approach, the study involved a focus group interview of 10-12 students who are section heads, and a semi-structured interview with the band director of each secondary school concert band that made it to the final round of competitions held in Thailand over the past five years. The result revealed that students exhibited strong self-learning capacities with respect to their social and emotional learning (SEL) skills in the following ways; a) self-awareness―they knew their strengths and weaknesses, knew how to improve themselves and were able to deal with their own feelings, b) self-management―they demonstrated effective management in their own practice routine, dealing and overcoming stress and pressure, c) social awareness―they empathised with and understood the perspectives of others and recognised their diverse backgrounds and cultures, d) relationship skills―they built strong relationships with other members, band directors and band alumni, negotiated conflict among other members and sought and offered help when necessary, and e) responsible decision making―they learned to make decisions responsibly and reasonably on behalf of their bands.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3854/2809

Skowrung Saibunmi, Nantida Chandransu, & Surasi Chanoksakul 1 Developing Social and Emotional Learning Skills through Secondary School Concert Bands Skowrung Saibunmi1, Nantida Chandransu2, & Surasi Chanoksakul3* 1,2 Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia, Mahidol University, Thailand 999 Phuttamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand 3Department of Music, Faculty of Humanities, Kasetsart University, Thailand 50 Ngam Wong Wan Rd, Ladyaow, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 28 February 2021. Cite this article (APA): Saibunmi, S., Chandransu, N., & Chanoksakul, S. (2021). Developing social and emotional learning skills through secondary school concert bands, Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.1.2021 Abstract This research aimed to investigate the social and emotional skills of students through participation in secondary school concert bands. Using a qualitative approach, the study involved a focus group interview of 10-12 students who are section heads, and a semi-structured interview with the band director of each secondary school concert band that made it to the final round of competitions held in Thailand over the past five years. The result revealed that students exhibited strong self-learning capacities with respect to their social and emotional learning (SEL) skills in the following ways; a) self-awareness―they knew their strengths and weaknesses, knew how to improve themselves and were able to deal with their own feelings, b) self-management―they demonstrated effective management in their own practice routine, dealing and overcoming stress and pressure, c) social awareness―they empathised with and understood the perspectives of others and recognised their diverse backgrounds and cultures, d) relationship skills―they built strong relationships with other members, band directors and band alumni, negotiated conflict among other members and sought and offered help when necessary, and e) responsible decision making―they learned to make decisions responsibly and reasonably on behalf of their bands. Keywords: emotional skill, secondary school concert band, SEL, social and emotional learning, social skill Introduction Social and emotional learning or SEL has been discussed widely in the educational context. SEL consists of five core competencies; self-awareness, self-management, social-awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2005). SEL is considered as an important factor in success at school and in the workplace and also in maintaining positive relationships with families and friends (Elias & Weissberg, 2000). Consequently, when SEL has been integrated into the curricula of schools students are prepared for success at both school and in life in order to foster social and emotional competencies that allow them to be more actively involved in the learning process and develop necessary skills (Weissberg et al., 2015; Zins & Elias, 2007). SEL can not only be incorporated into academic subjects, but also other activities aimed at developing students’ ability to get along and manage their emotions in order to be successful in work and life (Jones & Bouffard, 2012; Weissberg et al., 2015; Zins & Elias, 2007). Music activities such as Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (1-11) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 2 school music ensembles seem to be a good example. Studying a musical instrument can help in developing various psychological and social skills as well as self-perception (Devroop, 2012; Ros- Morente et al., 2019). The development of Western music bands is a challenge for secondary schools in Asian countries (Hebert, 2012). As for Thailand, Western music activities are quite popular among secondary school students, and a number of secondary schools there have developed large musical ensembles that go by various names such as wind band, wind symphony, symphonic band, and philharmonic wind. Some of these ensembles were established to serve activities at the school or in nearby communities, while others were formed for competitive purposes both locally and internationally. In Thailand, the number of primary and secondary schools under the Office of The Basic Education Commission (OBEC) is approximately 39,970 (Office of The Basic Education Commission, 2013). Each school mostly arranges music activities for students, especially larger schools where concert bands are often organised as one of the activities. These bands usually comprise one full-time music teacher and/or one coach, depending on the budget, and approximately 30-80 students. In addition, various government and private agencies organise and continuously support music activities in order to provide students with opportunities to perform and improve their musical skills. However, from available statistics, there are approximately ten school bands which have achieved consistent success at national and international competitions and are acknowledged among secondary school music band management. The success of music bands depends not only on musical mastery, but also various aspects, such as SEL and the well-being of band members (Carlisle, 2013; Edgar, 2016a). SEL is involved in effective music practicing and performing, for example regulating one’s own emotions during practice, before and after performance, managing performance anxiety and establishing and maintaining relationships with members of the band and the band director (Farrington et al., 2019; Zhai et al., 2015; Zins & Elias, 2007). In Thailand, SEL was implemented in the study of specific group of students, for example, students with special needs, gifted students, or the study of students by ages and levels which mostly emerged in educational disciplines (Songnuan, 2008). For example, the study by Nilrat (2010) on the development a social and emotional learning program for fourth to sixth grade students, the study by Wongupparaj and Khayankij (2018) about the guidelines of social and emotional learning in preventing and solving emotional and behavioral problems of preschoolers and the study of SEL on the secondary school students under the Office of the Basic Education Commission by Inta and Sakulsriprasert (2018). However, no research regarding SEL has been carried out related to music disciplines and the potential of group music such as music ensembles to improve students’ SEL, it is interesting to examine to what extent participation in a school music ensemble can help students develop SEL. This study, therefore, aimed to investigate the SEL of students through participation in secondary school music ensembles. The results will provide a valuable guide for education institutions or music band directors who are looking to modify their music programs towards helping students develop SEL. Additionally, the result will be beneficial in Thailand’s context in rationalising music study at school and why music activities like concert bands should be arranged in all schools. What is Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)? Social and emotional learning or SEL is the capacity to recognise and manage one’s own emotions, solve problems effectively, set and achieve positive goals, demonstrate caring and concerning for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, make responsible decisions and handle interpersonal situations effectively (Payton et al., 2008; Zins & Elias, 2007). The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (2005) has categorised core social and emotional competencies into five groups as follows:  self- awareness: knowing one’s own strengths and weaknesses; being able to assess own feelings, interests and values; maintaining as well-grounded sense of self-confidence; and being optimistic with a growth mindset  self-management: regulating one’s own emotions and managing stress effectively; controlling impulses; expressing emotions appropriately; and motivating oneself to set and achieve goal Skowrung Saibunmi, Nantida Chandransu, & Surasi Chanoksakul 3  social-awareness: empathising with and understanding the perspectives of others; and recognising their diverse backgrounds and cultures  relationship skills: establishing and maintaining relationships with others; resisting inappropriate social pressure; negotiating interpersonal conflict; and seeking and offering help when needed  responsible decision making: making constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, social norms and respect for others; and applying decision-making skills to academic and social situations SEL has a positive impact on many areas, for example, improving academic performance and physical health, regulating emotions, fostering healthy behaviors, building good relationships among students as well as between students and teachers (Doikou-Avlidou & Dadatsi, 2013; Zhai et al., 2015; Zins & Elias, 2007). Also, SEL competencies have connections with 21st century skills, for instance, creativity, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, adaptability, flexibility, initiative and self- direction, social and cross-culture skills, productivity and accountability and leadership and responsibility (Rácz et al., 2015). The 21st century skills are core elements that are important for social interaction and career as well as of quality citizens of society. SEL & Music Education Music education and SEL are complementary to each other by their nature (Edgar, 2013). In addition, SEL can be developed through music education (Edgar, 2016b). Pellitteri (2006) discussed five ways that music education and SEL learning are compatible as follows:  music can be used as an emotional stimulus: This can be in the form of listening to music and discussing emotional qualities.  music can be used as an aesthetic experience: This is because music is connected with perceptions and feelings.  music can be used for relaxation and imaginary: By playing slow music, students can relieve their stress.  music-making can be a form of self-expression: Performing music can be defined as an expression of emotion.  music-making can be a form of group experience: Making music together as a group can strengthen relations among group members. Pellitteri (2006) suggested some music activities that can be used in the classroom to foster SEL. The first one is improvisation which helps students to release their tension and express their emotions while performing music. Playing in an ensemble by gathering students and having them perform music together can raise their social awareness. Furthermore, when students are asked to play to the right beat, this is a form of impulse control. In a band with a soloist, other members need to stop playing or play softer in order for the soloist to be heard, which can be considered as self-control. Identifying emotions in music is another example. Students can learn to identify their emotions and manage their impulses through recognising emotional qualities in music and participating in music ensembles. Through music-making, while students acquire the ability to express music, they also develop social relationships (Ros-Morente et al., 2019). Apart from the students themselves, teachers play an important role in students’ SEL development. Music teachers can help students improve their SEL skills by encouraging them to set goals for the music by themselves, encouraging them to find solutions to problems, helping to release performance anxiety and realising the power of music that can effect social change (Edgar, 2015). Furthermore, through music instruction, students as musicians are taught to be both self-aware and socially-aware. From the studies of Edgar (2016a) and Carlisle (2013), when music teachers adapt their music classes to incorporate SEL principles and allow students to set their own goals along with the teacher’s suggestions, students tend to develop their SEL skills and have better relationship with the teacher. Besides, the adjustment encourages students to persist in their music activities. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (1-11) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 4 In terms of performing, Higdon (2017) suggested ways in which SEL could be introduced into the music classroom. Teachers can help students to manage performance anxiety and educate them on how to cope with feelings before, during and after the performance. Students need to be guided on how to deal with disappointment when the performance does not go as well as expected. Teachers also need to encourage students to use music as a pathway to appreciate diversity; learn about other cultures and accept those who are different. Moreover, teachers can enable students to develop leadership skills by being section leaders or lead players in ensembles. Limitation of the Study This study focused only on students who were section heads of each school band. The researchers did not interview all students in the bands. Furthermore, the selected bands in this study had finished their competitions not over than one month. Methodology Participants The participants in this study were five Thai secondary school concert bands which had reached the final round in competitions in Thailand over the past five years, namely HW, RNB, RNM, TUN and WST. Representatives from each school band comprised 10-12 students who were section heads and had experiences in performing with the band at least two years. They were asked to participate in a focus group interview and one band director from each school was asked to participate in a face-to-face interview. However, as this study gives prominence to the students’ focus group interview, the face-to- face interviews with the band directors were merely supplementary for a better understanding of the overall band management process. Instrument The tools used in this research for data collection were interview questions. The literature related to social and emotional learning was reviewed in order to create a framework for both the focus group interview and face-to-face interview. The questions corresponded to five core social and emotional competencies according to the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (2005): self-awareness, self-management, social-awareness, relationship skills and responsible decision making. A pilot study was conducted in order to determine whether the prepared questions were effective, reliable and suitable for participant selection. The interview questions were then adjusted before being submitted for approval by the Ethics Review Board. Procedure After receiving the Ethics Review Board’s approval to conduct the study, the band directors were contacted via telephone to make an appointment for both themselves and the students. Both focus group interviews and face-to-face interviews took place at the interviewees’ schools and were conducted in Thai for ease of communication. Each interview lasted approximately one hour. The researcher used interview protocol to guide the interview process, with open-ended questions to allow participants to convey their views and perspectives in their own words (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Additional questions could then be asked in response to information offered by the interviewee. Before the interviews, all participants were informed in advance and asked to sign an informed consent document and since all students are minors, an information sheet for parent or guardian needed to be signed as well. The researchers also asked for permission to record. The interviews were logged using recording equipment and the researcher took notes on the important points during the interview. After the data was collected, the researcher transcribed it from the recording to text and the transcription was sent to the band directors and the student representatives by e-mail to check for Skowrung Saibunmi, Nantida Chandransu, & Surasi Chanoksakul 5 accuracy. The participants were given one week to proofread the transcripts, and if no responses were received from participants, it was assumed that they were satisfied with the data. After the data had been verified and approved, the coding process was carried out. This process indexes or maps the data to provide the researcher with an overview of the relationship between research questions (Elliott, 2018). The transcription was coded based on topics that corresponded to the five core SEL competencies and the topics recategorised according to each competency. To better understand the findings, the researcher reread the transcriptions and reviewed the literature to help explain the findings and attempted them to put them into context. Results The results reveal that the students exhibited strong self-learning capacities with respect to their emotional and social skills. Categorised following the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning’s five core competencies, they are presented as follows: Self-awareness Students from the interviews became conscious of their strengths and weaknesses, were able to evaluate themselves and knew what and how to improve. One student mentioned that all of them, as musicians, used their listening skills to judge everything he/she was playing to determine whether the quality was satisfactory or not (RWB School). One student believed that their ability to self-evaluate derived from their performance and practice experiences (RWB School). The weaknesses that students exhibited were mostly to do with skills, such as sound quality (HW School, RNM School, RWB School and TUN School), tone color (HW School), fingerings (HW School), articulations (HW School and RWB School), tempo (HW School and WST School), dynamics (RNM School), intonations (HW School and RNM School) and sight reading (RNM School). Also, psychological issues such as stress, excitement and performance anxiety were found to be common among students (RNM School, RWB School, WST School). After students had become aware of their weaknesses, they were able to find solutions or ways to ameliorate those problems by themselves. For example, discovering new practice exercises (RWB School), recording their own performances (RWB School, WST School), creating their own exercises (RWB School), practicing different sections separately (RWB School), consulting teachers, friends, or seniors (HW School, RNM School, RWB School and WST School), watching performances on YouTube (HW School, RNM School and WST School), practicing in slow tempo (TUN School and WST School), practicing with different techniques (HW School, RNM School and TUN School), rehearsing in front of others (RNM School) and reviewing basic skills (HW School and RNM School). From the viewpoints of the band directors, participating in a band required self-evaluation by the students. After the competition, one band director mentioned that they had a talk with all the band members and had them evaluate themselves: what the problems were, what needed to be corrected or improved, their level of satisfaction and what to do next (TUN School). Apart from the competition, the pleasure of playing music and being in the band was also important and students needed to take this matter into consideration (RNM School and TUN School). One band director stated: I try to manage everything that makes students feel happy to be in the band. I always tell them that they need to think for themselves and if they are unhappy or don’t enjoy being in the band, they can tell me. I won’t be upset because music is a form of art that depends on the individual. (RNM School) Self-management From the interviews, students were capable of managing their own practice routine. Most of the students mentioned that, because they were section heads, they needed to practice separately (HW School, TUN School and WST School). However, they also noted that they practiced by themselves after school or after finishing practice with the band. Their practice mostly started with a warm-up and basic skills. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (1-11) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 6 Apart from dealing with performance skills, most of the students said that they had to manage the stress and anxiety that occurred during their practice sessions, but could handle and overcame these issues. Some students explained: When I’m not happy with my practice, I stop and try to relax by getting something to eat, going for a walk, or doing anything I can to recover. I’ll come back to practice when I feel better because if I’m not ok, I won’t be able to play well. (RWB School) I get stressed when I can’t play a scale with right fingerings. My solution is to keep practicing until I can do it. (RNM School) In my keyboard section, there are many young members who seem to be better than me because they’ve been participating in many competitions and won prizes. I then wonder whether I’ll be able to do like them. It’s pressure. So, I resolve this by thinking that it’s alright, we’re in the same section, we need to help each other. I practice harder and regularly to improve myself. (HW School) As section heads of their school band, students who took part in the interviews demonstrated effective management on behalf of their group. They started by analysing the given pieces, assigning the scores for the part each individual member had to practice first. They then got together to practice as a unit in order to check for accuracy (HW School, RWB School and TUN School). In addition, they emphasised that they set practice schedules for the band, which everyone needed to follow to achieve their goals. They decided what and how to practice, how long to practice each part and how to overcome problems that arose (HW School, RWB School and WST School). Playing in a band together and studying at the same time requires self-discipline on the part of students and they needed to regularly manage the stress that they experienced (RWB School). Some band directors explained that students in the band were able to effectively balance their studies and practice by visiting tutors in the evening and returning for practice later (HW School). They needed to carefully schedule their practice so as to be ready for every performance (RWB School). One band director remarked that he taught his band members to be responsible, and if they were unable to perform at any event, they needed to arrange things themselves and find someone who was able to replace them on that occasion (RWB School). In addition, one band director commented that many students who played in the band were especially bright and had gained admission to study engineering at university level (HW School). Social awareness Students in this study showed empathy and consideration for all their bandmates regardless of how accomplished they were at music. One student stated that he understood that younger members of his section could not play some parts because when he was their age, he could not play everything well either (WST School). Additionally, students were accepting of those from different backgrounds and cultures and even when younger students demonstrated better skills, they were not envious but admired them instead (HW School, RNM School and TUN School). Some commented are as follows: I realise that one younger member in my part can play jazz very well. I admire him and we exchange and share our knowledge quite a lot. (TUN School) I joined this band a few years ago and there is one younger member who had joined before me. He was the better musician, but I am more mature, which means that I can handle everything in my part. So, when it comes to teaching, both of us help other members. It doesn’t mean that only the section heads can teach. (HW School) Furthermore, some students in this study tried to understand individual differences: someone is good at this but not at that. This understanding has led to the use of different methods to help them reach their goals. Skowrung Saibunmi, Nantida Chandransu, & Surasi Chanoksakul 7 There is one younger member that I need to be strict with or she won’t improve, whereas with another I need to be kind and gentle so that she can do better. For me, learning to understand other members in the part is important. (RWB School and TUN School) Female students seem to be more sensitive than male students. So I need to be careful what I say or which words I use. (TUN School) In order for students to understand the diverse perspectives of others, the band directors of some schools invited music experts from various backgrounds to talk, teach and share their experiences with the students (HW School, RWB School and WST School). Besides that, some band directors invited band members to watch various kinds of musical performances at different venues, which was an opportunity for students to experience the wonderful sounds of music (RWB School and TUN School). Also, one school director hosted a concert involving students from other school bands and had them perform together in order for students to learn about diversity (RWB School). Relationship skills From the interviews, it became clear that the students were able to build positive relationships with others and develop their communication, negotiation and problem-solving capabilities while practicing with the bands. They also sought and offered help when needed. Many students mentioned that they helped each other during practice and whenever someone encountered problems (TUN School and WST School). One student pointed out that everyone needed to be prepared to adjust him/herself in order to work together as a band (RWB School). Furthermore, students from almost all the schools claimed that, as section heads, they needed to negotiate conflict among members of the band (HW School, RNM School, RWB School and WST School). Their comments were as follows: There are some arguments among the band members. It’s all about emotions. If I need to face someone who is hot-tempered, I need to be steady and calm. (RWB School) There are some fights between younger members. I talk to them and solve the problems. I also say that if there are more fights in the future, they will be punished. (WST School) In my section, younger members always compete with each other. So, I gather them together and tell the whole section that we are here to enjoy music together and not to compete. We should help by teaching each other rather than competing. (HW School) The band directors of all schools confirmed that playing in a band could help students develop social skills. Some students did not have many friends and were lonely, but when they were in the band, they could perform together and seemed to be happier (HW School). Likewise, many band directors affirmed that band members had good relationships with senior and former students of the bands because the senior students helped teach younger members and former members regularly returned to help and teach current students. This became a tradition of school bands (RWB School, WST School). When students joined the band, the band directors agreed that they all needed to adjust themselves in order to live together (WST School). Whenever there were disagreements among students, the band directors acted as middlemen; they had students sit down and talk it through together and tried to find the best solutions for everyone (HW School, RWB School, RNM School and TUN School). Responsible decision making The interviews revealed that as section heads, the students learned to make decisions responsibly and reasonably. The decisions they needed to make included when to practice, the structure of each practice session, song selection, part assignments for each piece, exercise assignments for each member, the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (1-11) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 8 number of members for each piece and rules for the band (HW School, RNM School, RWB School and TUN School). Although the students themselves decided most issues, sometimes they dared not make certain decisions, preferring instead to seek the advice of band directors. One student put it this way: I’m a section leader and also a leader of this band. I need to decide everything about the band. When I first accepted this position, I didn’t dare to make decisions on many things, so I asked the band director whether this was ok or what we should do. Later, the band director told me to decide by myself and only then did I dare to make decisions such as setting the rules for the band. (TUN School) The band directors mostly allowed students to select their own section heads (HW School and TUN School). When there were events for the bands, the band directors asked other members whether they wanted to participate in those events (WST School). This allowed students to decide responsibly. As one band director explained: Whenever there is an activity, I first tell the students about it and let them decide whether to accept this event or not. At my school, there is a concert every three months for which students themselves decide what songs are to be played, how to promote it and what to do at each stage of the process. (WST School) Discussion Secondary schools in Thailand arrange concert bands as one of the school activities that students can choose to participate in. This is consistent with studies which found that schools today must not only offer academic subjects but also other activities that can develop students’ ability to get along and manage their emotions in order to be successful in life and work (Jones & Bouffard, 2012; Weissberg et al., 2015; Zins & Elias, 2007). However, Thai schools in broader view do not really emphasise improving students’ social and emotional skills and concert bands for them are only activities that they do for competitions. Despite this, the results confirm clearly that participating in concert bands can help students fully develop their SEL skills. When students were required to practice in order to be able to play in the band, students claimed that as members of the band, they were more self-aware: they assessed their strengths and weaknesses, knew how to improve and were able to deal better with their feelings. In addition, students seemed to have strong self-management skills in managing their own practice routine as well as dealing and overcoming the stress and pressure that occurred during practice. Also, they were then able to arrange things for other band members. This subsequently taught other students how to organise their own lives by honing the skill set necessary for the 21st century, consisting of personal responsibility, accountability, self-direction, and personal productivity (Rácz et al., 2015). This proves that participating in school bands can enhance various skills necessary for student’s life. Since participation in a school concert band is a form of music activity that brings together students from different backgrounds to play music, this clearly helps them develop social awareness, which enables them to empathise with and understand the perspectives of others and appreciate their diverse backgrounds and cultures. This supports Pellitteri (2006) who argued that gathering students and having them perform music together can be regarded as social awareness and the study by Higdon (2017) and Rácz et al. (2015) that music can be used as a pathway to recognise diversity and improve social and cross-culture skills; learn about other cultures and accept those who are different. Participating in a concert band requires communication skills which can improve students’ relationship skills. Students are able to build strong relationships with other members, band directors and band alumni, negotiate conflict among other members and seek and offer help when necessary. When students need to make decisions regarding any issue, critical thinking skills are required, which means that students must think responsibly. Notwithstanding this, the band directors in this study played an important role in developing their students’ decision-making skills because, although students were section heads, they were not confident in making certain decisions. This reflects Thai culture in which younger people respect their elders, so it is the band director’s responsibility to help his/her students overcome particularly difficult issues. This finding agrees with Edgar (2015) who concluded Skowrung Saibunmi, Nantida Chandransu, & Surasi Chanoksakul 9 that listening, discussing and planning with students were the three most important recommendations for teachers. Band directors are key to promoting a pleasant environment and activities that help students develop SEL skills. In helping students develop their self-awareness and self-evaluation, the band directors took time after competitions to let students evaluate themselves and to survey students’ feelings. Higdon (2017) said that teachers could educate students regarding how to cope with feelings after a performance and students needed to be guided on how to deal with disappointment when the performance does not go as they expect. Moreover, it serves as an opportunity for band directors to learn from the students and evaluate the performance so as to improve the next one. Regarding self- management, the band directors taught students to be responsible for their own practice, and many band directors mentioned that they arranged concerts to help students develop both social awareness and their relationship skills. It is clear that participating in a concert band can improve students’ SEL skills in all five competencies. Furthermore, SEL skills are vital in this 21st century, especially in education and work. Therefore, it is highly important that students be equipped with universally applicable skills that prepare them to be valued members of society, ready for the challenges of the future. In Thailand’s context, music is still an elective subject that parents do not fully appreciate; most parents in Thailand seemed to pay more attention on school’s academic subject. In addition, there are no Thailand-specific publications that provide information regarding developing SEL skills through musical activities. This study answers the questions as to why we should study music and why musical activities like concert bands should be arranged in all schools. Conclusion Participating in a concert band can help students thoroughly develop their SEL skills. As a member of a concert band, students gain self-awareness by assessing their strengths and weaknesses, learning how to improve themselves and strengthening their capacity to deal with their own feelings. Students also develop self-management, through which they are able to manage their own practice routine, regulate their emotions and organise issues related to the band and its members. Playing with members from different backgrounds raises their social awareness, enabling them to empathise and understand other points of view, while better appreciating the value of diversity. Being a member of a band allows students to build positive relationships with others, and at the same time, develop communication, negotiation and problem-solving capabilities during practice with others. Furthermore, students acquire responsible decision-making skills that benefit their own circumstances and those of others in the band, not just academically, but also in other domains throughout their life. Implications For institutions and teachers, the results of this study as well as SEL framework itself can be used and adapted in designing music programs and curricula. Moreover, the principles of SEL can be applied in general music education classes and other music and non-music activities, both inside and outside classroom. Since the results of this study illustrate that music can help students develop their SEL skills, it is useful for band directors seeking more support for these kinds of activities. In addition, the information from this study can enhance the knowledge and skills of music teachers regarding social emotional learning and as consequence, they can select and utilise certain techniques that are most suitable for their students to help them acquire SEL skills. Since this is a basic research, this study can be applied into an experimental research for further studies. The results from this study can be used to set and plan a rehearsal that covers all SEL competencies which aims to use for all band members, not only section heads. In addition, this study can be expanded more in terms of other aspects that are relevant to band rehearsal and SEL competencies. The final results can lead to a handbook for band directors or teachers. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (1-11) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 10 Acknowledgement This paper is a part of Social and Emotional Learning Skills: Implications for Development of Musical Skills and Continued Participation in Western Music Activities at Thai Secondary Schools research. This research received an ethical approval from IPSR-Institutional Review Board (IPSR-IRB), IRB Number: IRB0001007. References Carlisle, K. (2013). A study of teacher formative influence upon and student experience of social-emotional learning climate in secondary school music setting. British Journal of Music Education, 30(2), 223- 243. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0265051713000053 Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. (2005). Safe and sound: An educational leader’s guide to evidence-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs, Illinois Edition. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. Devroop, K. (2012). The social-emotional impact of instrumental music performance on economically disadvantaged South African students. Music Education Research, 14(4), 407-416. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2012.685456 Doikou-Avlidou, M., & Dadatsi, K. (2013). Enhancing social integration of immigrant pupils at risk for social, emotional and/or behavioural difficulties: The outcomes of a small-scale social-emotional learning programme. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 18(1), 3-23. http://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.675137 Edgar, S. N. (2013). Introducing social emotional learning to music education professional development. National Association for Music Education, 3(2), 28-36. http://doi.org/10.1177/8755123313480508 Edgar, S. N. (2015). Preparing secondary school instrumental music educators to respond to the social and emotional challenges of students. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 24(3), 67-82. http://doi.org/10.1177/1057083713514980 Edgar, S. N. (2016a). Approaches of secondary school instrumental music educators in response to student challenges. Research Studies in Music Education, 38(2), 235-253. http://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X16668679 Edgar, S. N. (2016b). Music education and social-emotional learning. https://nafme.org/music-education-social- emotional-learning/ Elias, M. J., & Weissberg, R. P. (2000). Primary prevention: Educational approaches to enhance social and emotional learning. Journal of School Health, 70(5), 186-190. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2000.tb06470.x Elliott, V. (2018). Thinking about the coding process in qualitative data analysis. The Qualitative Report, 23(11), 2850-2861. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol23/iss11/14 Farrington, C. A., Maurer, J., McBride, M. R. A., Nagaoka, J., Puller, J. S., Shewfelt, S. … Wright, L. (2019). Arts education and social-emotional learning outcomes among K–12 students: Developing a theory of action. Ingenuity and the University of Chicago Consortium on School Research. Higdon, W. H. (2017). Social and emotional learning in the performing arts classroom. https://nafme.org/social-emotional-learning-performing-arts-classroom/ Hebert, G. D. (2012). Wind bands and cultural identity in Japanese schools. Springer. Inta, M. & Sakulsriprasert, S. (2018). Social and emotional learning based on CASEL concept of the secondary school students under the Office of the Basic Education Commission. Srinakharinwirot Research and Development (Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences), 10(20), 98-116. https://so04.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/swurd/article/view/166778/120415 Jones, S. M., & Bouffard, S. M. (2012). Social and emotional learning in schools from programs to strategies. Social Policy Report, 26(4), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2379-3988. 2012.tb00073.x Nilrat, R. (2010). The development of a social and emotional learning program for fourth to sixth grade students [Master’s thesis, Chulalongkorn University]. Chulalongkorn University Intellectual Repository. http://doi.org/10.14457/CU.the.2010.1980 Office of The Basic Education Commission. (2013, May 26). Education management information system: EMIS. http://data.bopp-obec.info/emis/ Payton, J., Weissberg, R. P., Durlak, J. A., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., Schellinger, K. B., & Pachan, M. (2008). The positive impact of social and emotional learning for kindergarten to eighth-grade students: Findings from three scientific reviews. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. Skowrung Saibunmi, Nantida Chandransu, & Surasi Chanoksakul 11 Pellitteri, J. S. (2006). The use of music in facilitating emotional learning. In J. S. Pellitteri, R. Stern, C. Shelton, & B. Muller-Ackerman (Eds.), Emotionally intelligent school counseling (pp. 185-199). Erlbaum. Rácz, A., Rácz, K., Mártonfi, G., & Zsolnai, A. (2015). An introduction. SELVET Social and emotional learning in vocational education and training. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.19376.87041 Ros-Morente, A., Oriola-Requena, S., Gustems-Carnicer, J., & Guiu, G. F. (2019). Beyond music: Emotional skills and its development in young adults in choirs and bands. International Journal of Music Education, 37(4), 536-546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761419853634 Songnuan, S. (2008). A comparison of early-childhood children’s social skills between organization of learning by using folk-game playing activities and using conventional activities [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Mahasarakham University, Thailand. Weissberg, R. P., Durlak, J. A., Domitrovich, C. E., & Gullotta, T. P. (2015). Social and emotional learning: Past, present, and future. In J. A. Durlak, C. E. Domitrovich, R. P. Weissberg, & T. P. Gullotta (Eds.), Handbook of social and emotional learning: Research and practice (pp. 3–19). The Guilford Press. Wongupparaj, R. & Khayankij, S. (2018). The guidelines of social and emotional learning to preventing and solving emotional and behavioral problems of preschoolers. Journal of Education, 19(1), 160-173. http://ejournals.swu.ac.th/index.php/jedu/article/view/10383/8685 Zhai, F., Raver, C. C., & Jones, S. M. (2015). Social and emotional learning service and child outcomes in third grade: Evidence from a cohort of head start participants. Children and Youth Services Review, 56, 42- 51. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.06.016 Zins, J. E., & Elias, M. J. (2007). Social and emotional learning: Promoting the development of all students. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 17(2-3), 233-255. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474410701413152 Biography Skowrung Saibunmi is a lecturer at Master of Arts Program in Cultural Studies, Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia, Mahidol University, Thailand. She is also a piano instructor teaching at Yamaha Music School and her private studio. She finished her Ph.D. (Music) from College of Music, Mahidol University. Her research interests include music education research, piano pedagogy, music for children, music teaching methodology, higher education, doctoral education, popular music, and social psychology. She has published various articles regarding those issues. Nantida Chandransu is an Assistant Professor and a chairperson at Master of Arts Program in Cultural Studies, Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia, Mahidol University, Thailand. She completed her Ph.D. in Music from Mahidol University. Her research focuses on the issues of music education, ethnomusicology, and cultural studies. She is the principle investigator of ‘Learning Management through Cultural Diversity for Children, Youths and Community’. Her works engage the issues of music learning in a multicultural context and ethnomusicology. She has published articles on music education including cultural studies and education issues. Surasi Chanoksakul is a lecturer at Bachelor of Arts Program in Western Music, Faculty of Humanities, Kasetsart University, Thailand. He finished his D.M. (Performance and Pedagogy) from Mahidol University. He is also a former Principal Trumpet of the Thailand Philharmonic Orchestra, since he was appointed in 2007, he has served as Co-Principal Trumpet of the Thailand Philharmonic Orchestra, since November 2016 until present. Prior to his appointment he performed with the Bangkok Symphony Orchestra and the Chao Phraya Symphony Orchestra. One of the most in-demand trumpet artists in Thailand today, Chanoksakul has given performances and master classes throughout the region. He has taught thousands of music students in clinics, workshops and master classes. He has extensive experience in both concert and marching band, and regularly adjudicates festivals and competitions. Chanoksakul is an active chamber musician, who gives numerous performances both in Thailand and internationally.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 1 (2021)

curriculum development, music education, Thailand, trumpet, trumpet curriculum

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/366

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3699

The Development of Curriculum Content for the Study of Undergraduate Applied Trumpet in Thailand

In Thailand, the trumpet is a popular instrument that is utilised in various types of musical genres and styles. These styles include Western classical, jazz, Thai pop, Thai country and Thai fusion, which combines traditional Thai music with popular styles. Thai trumpet players are often required to play in more than one style, however, there are little opportunities to study these skills at the university level. The purpose of this study was to create curriculum content for the study of undergraduate applied trumpet performance in Thailand that will make it appropriate for Thailand. A qualitative methodology was employed for a developmental research approach through the process of collecting curricula from Thai universities and international experts; conducting interviews with four expert Thai trumpet instructors; and analysing and synthesising this curriculum data to create a new core curriculum that reflects international standards yet relevant to the Thai music scene. The resultant curriculum consists of: description of the curriculum, objectives of the curriculum, undergraduate curriculum plan and content description, expected results of a study of outcome-curriculum-design theory, curriculum content guidelines, learning activity subjects, student assessment, and recommendations. Discussion points include possibilities and limitations in curriculum development, the process of curriculum development that is suitable for studying trumpet at the undergraduate level in Thailand, and trumpet curriculum development for future career paths.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3699/2810

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (12-24) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 12 The Development of Curriculum Content for the Study of Undergraduate Applied Trumpet in Thailand Jakaphan Chaiya1* & Joseph Bowman2 College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published online: 28 February 2021. Cite this article (APA): Chaiya, J. & Bowman, J. (2021). The development of curriculum content for the study of undergraduate applied trumpet in Thailand, Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(1), 12-24. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.2.2021 Abstract In Thailand, the trumpet is a popular instrument that is utilised in various types of musical genres and styles. These styles include Western classical, jazz, Thai pop, Thai country and Thai fusion, which combines traditional Thai music with popular styles. Thai trumpet players are often required to play in more than one style, however, there are little opportunities to study these skills at the university level. The purpose of this study was to create curriculum content for the study of undergraduate applied trumpet performance in Thailand that will make it appropriate for Thailand. A qualitative methodology was employed for a developmental research approach through the process of collecting curricula from Thai universities and international experts; conducting interviews with four expert Thai trumpet instructors; and analysing and synthesising this curriculum data to create a new core curriculum that reflects international standards yet relevant to the Thai music scene. The resultant curriculum consists of: description of the curriculum, objectives of the curriculum, undergraduate curriculum plan and content description, expected results of a study of outcome-curriculum-design theory, curriculum content guidelines, learning activity subjects, student assessment, and recommendations. Discussion points include possibilities and limitations in curriculum development, the process of curriculum development that is suitable for studying trumpet at the undergraduate level in Thailand, and trumpet curriculum development for future career paths. Keywords: curriculum development, music education, Thailand, trumpet, trumpet curriculum Background and Significance In recent decades, Western classical trumpet has become a well-known and popular instrument and performing style in Thailand. There have been many activities, including regular conferences and master classes, that were initially inspired by the International Trumpet Guild Conference which was held in Bangkok in June 2005. Since then, there have been several annual events focused on enhancing the level of performance for trumpet players in Western classical performance style in Thailand. The shared goal of these events has been to support Thailand trumpet players in developing to an international standard of playing and teaching. In addition to the development of classical trumpet playing in Thailand, the instrument is popularly employed in various other styles of music including jazz, Thai popular music, Thai country music and Thai fusion, which combines Thai traditional music with popular styles. The trumpet is also featured in a popular local tradition of small informal marching bands known as trae-wong, which are used in weddings and other ceremonies. According to Charoensook (2018), musicians in Southeast Asia need to blur the boundaries of genre, while still reflecting the music of the region. This is evident in the largely diverse nature of trumpet playing in Thailand (p. 4). Jakaphan Chaiya & Joseph Bowman 13 Trumpet players in Thailand often find success by being competent in more than one of these styles of playing. “Mostly, our Thai musicians are not professional and cannot rely on only one career. They have many jobs simultaneously because doing only one job gives inadequate earnings” (p. 56). Additionally, Puengpreeda said that “I myself play trumpet in the TPO [Thailand Philharmonic Orchestra] and sometimes I play jazz and pop piano to earn extra income” (Chitrangsan, 2011, pp. 33, 56). These issues reflect the career path of musicians after graduation who studied trumpet at university. It also reflects the local job market in Thailand. In addition diverse musical studies for trumpet players not being offered, there are other issues with studying trumpet performance at the tertiary level in Thailand. A survey of undergraduate programmes in Thailand reveals that there is shortage of music performance emphasis majors in general. According to Thuntawech & Trakarnrung (2017), there are 94 different undergraduate level programmes in music, but only three of these programmes emphasise on performance; Mahidol University, Rangsit University and Silpakorn University. These programmes were designed using a Western music curriculum structure. Furthermore, most undergraduate music programmes in Thailand were not created with input from performers, but were instead written by music academicians with backgrounds in music education and musicology. “Today, we still lack the appropriate performance personnel who have knowledge and understanding of writing music curricula and to make it [music] an interesting subject. Many institutions also have music teachers who did not specifically study music at university” (Luepradit, 2015). Biographical information from university websites retrieved on 6 June 2020 of the qualifications of trumpet instructors at 37 Thai universities revealed that only 63% of those teaching trumpet are trumpet players, and only 49% have a performance degree (Bowman & Laosaichuea, 2020). These obstacles affect students' trumpet development in Thailand and show how the educational system is not systematically developed. These problems reflect the reality of music education in Thailand and as a result most learners are not able to develop their musical skills to an international standard and their performance skills are not diverse enough to find success in the job market that exists in Thailand (Suttachit, 2011). The problems mentioned lead to the purpose of this study which is to generate an undergraduate- trumpet-curriculum-content framework to develop trumpet performers with strong knowledge and skills and can work successfully in the diverse professional music market of Thailand. The results of this study will benefit university administrators in designing appropriate performance programmes for the trumpet. It can also be used as a model develop curriculum content, courses, or lessons in other performance areas. This study will also benefit the future generation of students, performers, teachers, or freelancers. Appropriate curriculum content could strengthen the background and skills of the trumpet students leading to an increase in their quality and enhancement in their career opportunities in the future. Literature Review Curriculum Design and Development While there are many ways to create a curriculum, one basic cycle for curriculum development is analysis, design, implementation, and evaluation (Wiles & Bondi, 2015). The focus of this research covers the analysis and design of curricula. Analysis. The fundamental areas that were analysed included needs, goals, and purposes/objectives.  Needs, which is the starting point of a curriculum, this focuses on the student’s inherent desire to improve themselves. Needs are crucial as the impetus for one to develop themself. Whether instructor or student, both have needs from the curriculum, and it should lead to the design or the development of the study programme that can serve those needs.  Goals are the educational targets that have been set as such that the student can reach the desired outcomes. Educational goals are generally recognised as having dual purposes; a) to prepare individuals to be productive members of society, and b) to enable individuals to develop their own potential (Saylor et al., 1981; Wulf & Schave, 1984). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (12-24) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 14  Purposes/Objectives―the purpose of the curriculum creation is to support the needs and goals that were recognised at an early stage of curriculum design. An operational definition for objectives by Wulf and Schave (1984, p. 51) states: 1. Objectives graphically describe the terminal behaviour―that is where the student will stand or what he will be doing at the time he has achieved the objective. 2. Objectives include any qualifying condition or restrictions that must exist for the terminal behaviour to be acceptable. 3. Objectives state the criteria of an acceptable performance; time limits, productivity levels, quality control standards, minimum essentials, thresholds, and cut off scores. Design. There are varieties of curriculum design depending on the nature of each education field. The outcome, or result of the degree should be the focus. In fact, one might consider using the “backward design” curriculum design tool developed by Wiggins and McTighe (2006) rather than start from the beginning. According to Wiggins and McTighe (2006), the idea of designing curriculum from the end to the start is composed of three stages, including identifying desired results, determining acceptable evidence, and planning learning experiences and instruction. Thus, there are many ways to design a curriculum depending on the concept of the responsible educator, along with the requirements of the national framework, university requirements, and faculty/area requirements. Trumpet Curriculum Content at the Undergraduate Level One teaching resource for creating trumpet curricula that is generated from the experience and expertise of many national instructors called “A Common Approach” (Federation of Music Services (FMS), Royal College of Music (RCM), National Association of Music Education (NAME), 2015). The “Common Approach” provides a framework to design teaching and learning strategies, activities, and experiences and supportive course work that will help a student to reach the minimum competencies expected from a person completing a programme. In a framework for performance-based degrees such as brass instrument performance, there are four suggestions for students that should be offered so they will have an opportunity to exercise the following skills: 1. Express their musical ideas and feelings 2. Use their creativity, imagination, and intuition 3. Develop their skills, knowledge and understanding 4. Reflect on and evaluate their progress (FMS, RCM, NAME, 2015, p.12) Trumpet Curriculum Content in Thailand The Thailand Qualification Framework, or TQF, is the system of curriculum design and implementation mandated for use throughout the country by the Thailand Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation. It features an outcome-based backward design in which each curriculum contains outcomes in the domains of morals and ethics, knowledge, cognitive skills, interpersonal skills and responsibility, analytical and communication skills, and psychomotor skills. Also, Buddhist concepts exist in all levels of education in Thailand (Thai Qualifications Framework for Higher Education, 2009), and can be seen in the TQF in several domains, including morals and ethics as well interpersonal skills and responsibility. The researchers gathered and studied trumpet curricula available in Thailand. Most of the curricula in Thailand are based on the United States models including programme structure, design and content. Thailand college/university course content was collected by accessing publicly available trumpet course information available on individual university websites and via direct requests from individual instructors at these institutions where materials were not readily available. The investigation revealed three types of documentation, which had related content on trumpet; a) course descriptions, b) course syllabi, and c) curriculum course handbooks. Course Descriptions. The content of course descriptions generally provides sequential steps to help students develop specific skills and concepts, for example the Brass subject course description of Chiang Mai Rajabhat University, which progresses from Brass 1 to Brass 6. Presumably, this represents six Jakaphan Chaiya & Joseph Bowman 15 semesters of trumpet instruction. The course description of these subjects appeared in the core curriculum in 2016 with the following details. Brass 1; “The education of brass instruments that focuses on the development of the ability in an instrumental practice to help the student in reaching higher skill with understanding of the components of musical instruments, instrumental playing position and body posture, care and maintenance, breathing, mouthpiece placement, articulations and intonation, tone quality, techniques, musical expression, etudes and music literature, musician philosophy and music instrumental practice” (Chiang Mai Rajabhat, Music Education Programme, 2016, pp. 70-71). Brass 2 to Brass 6 has the same content as Brass 1 with the additional sentence of “training student at a higher-level content from previous level throughout the course” (Chiang Mai Rajabhat, Music Education Programme, 2016, p. 70-71). Course Syllabi. Course syllabi in Thailand that were selected were written under the TQF format. Kamwachirapitak (2010) further defined the contents and structure of a course consisting of significant elements such as; a) general subject information such as a name of the subject, code, and credit, b) essential elements such as course description, purposes, and lesson times, c) topics for teachings throughout the semester, d) assessment system, and e) facilities or the accessories for teaching (Kamwachirapitak, 2010, p. 1). Curriculum Course Handbook. A curriculum course handbook is a document that provides information specific for a course in a programme. It will generally include information related to policies and procedures, course content and degree requirements, materials needed, and other curriculum course content information for students and teachers about a specific programme of study (Summers, 2004, p. 734). One university in Thailand utilises a trumpet curriculum course handbook designed by the trumpet instructor. International Trumpet Curriculum Content Models Included in the study were model-trumpet-curriculum-content documents at the undergraduate level from representative trumpet university programmes in the United States. The selection criteria were specific to well-regarded trumpet professors who had designed trumpet curriculum content at the undergraduate level and lead vibrant and successful trumpet programmes. The information was requested via email. Three responded (from twenty contacted) with shared materials. Curriculum content models from the United States were targeted due to the similarities in both education systems and programme structures relative to Thailand. Those contacted were trumpet performers and pedagogues who have established a strong reputation for both performing and teaching. Curriculum content received included trumpet history, pedagogy, and performance skills in different types of ensembles. Curriculum content information was analysed for content. The study found that all documents of the three professors have a systematic curriculum structure. They all contain explanations of learning objectives, curriculum requirements, and learning processes which students can use as a guide to study. For the learning content, there are differences according to the characteristics and ideas of each instructor, for example, choosing exercise books for developing a singing- style technique or lists of suitable literature for studying each semester to provide students with opportunities to select the pieces that they want to study. Methodology The purpose of this study was to collect curricula in Thailand and abroad, conduct interviews with Thai trumpet experts and synthesise a new curriculum that will answer the research question “What is the suitable content of a trumpet curriculum that will support an undergraduate student’s trumpet development to have employment success in the diverse musical context of Thailand?” The researchers conducted qualitative research where data collection can be divided into two parts; documents and interviews. The first phase of analysis was to collect and review curricula documents for content including requirements, design, structure, and content for study. The documents were studied and collected from different places including books, journals, internet databases, and documents from well-known international trumpet instructors' curricula, as well as from Thai universities. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (12-24) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 16 The second phase of this study consisted of face-to-face in-depth interviews with trumpet professors in Thailand who met the following criteria; full-time trumpet instructors with a minimum of eight years of teaching experience, and who perform trumpet regularly. Eight years of experience represents a reasonable amount of time for the participants to develop, refine, and evolve pedagogical skills, teach through the entire curriculum process multiple times, and are more likely to have a strong understanding of the curriculum within the context of the Thai music market. Also, participants should have experience in regular public performance including performances such as solo recitals, master classes, workshops, or performances with ensembles. Four Thai trumpet professors met all the criteria. Participants were full-time trumpet instructors from the Faculty of Fine Arts, Songkhla Rajabhat University; College of Music, Mahidol University; Conservatory of Music, Rangsit University; and the Department of Music, Kasetsart University. The instructor participant from Mahidol University was not the co-author of the study, but a departmental colleague. After gathering information from curriculum documents and interviews, the information was synthesised under the research purpose. This process was divided into three steps. Firstly, the content of trumpet curriculum documents collected were placed into the general framework of “The Common Approach” FMS, RCM, NAME (2015, p. 12). Secondly, interview results were translated from Thai to English and analysed according to three main theme topics, as follows: 1. Perspectives on the trumpet curriculum at the undergraduate level in Thailand. 2. The process of teaching. 3. Perspectives on teaching styles, availability of study resources, and lesson management in the undergraduate level from past to present and future. Descriptive analysis was used in this qualitative study to explain information that the researcher gathered. Interview transcripts were sent to participants to for approval of content. If the participants did not respond within a week, the researcher assumed that the text was verified and approved, and it was then translated into English. Information from interview subjects who have experience in diverse performance areas or allied music fields were also included (i.e., one interview subject has a strong marching band and Thai pop music background). Finally, with the results of the literature review, the conclusions of the review of Thai and international curricula, interviews with prominent Thai trumpet teachers, analysis and synthesis of the data, a new model of trumpet curriculum was created that could be appropriate for students in Thailand. Results Thai Trumpet Instructor Interview Results The following summary of the Thai interviews was considered for synthesis in the new trumpet curriculum. Important themes from the interviews include the importance of being a well-rounded trumpet player, having morals, and being a contributing member of society. According to Aksornteang (personal communication, January 27, 2017), the term “trae” is usually used for the trumpet in Thailand. The trumpet is used for various ceremonial occasions, such as ordination ceremonies, wedding ceremonies and so on. It serves as one of the instruments in trae–wong, a small marching band. In the Thai context “trae” is the word widely used for this instrument. Potavanich stated that the trumpet curriculum content should not be fixed because students from different backgrounds have a wide variety of musical skills (personal communication, January 27, 2017). It would be difficult to create one curriculum and apply it to every student. Aksornteang (personal communication, January 27, 2017) explained that the content should be categorised into two-parts. Firstly, it should focus on the basics and principal knowledge and secondly, it should focus on the creativity of new ideas by applying knowledge in combination various music styles. Puengpreeda mentioned that in addition to musical and pedagogical training for students in the curriculum, the courses should emphasise on moral training as well (personal communication, February 9, 2017). The interviewee believes that moral training for the student would lead to both musical excellence and excellence for society. “For me, I will train students on morals as well, I think apart from being an Jakaphan Chaiya & Joseph Bowman 17 excellent musician, being a good person is also important and I have a mission to achieve this” (Puengpreeda, personal communication, February 9, 2017). Potavanich (personal communication, January 27, 2017) states that the trumpet curriculum in the context of Thailand, he thinks that focusing on one instrument or specialty is quite good in terms of skill and competency, however playing only one style can be a limitation in competing in the Thai music job market. He further clarified that the university music courses provided in Thailand are quite specific and adopt content from Western countries, but the job market is based on the Thai musical market. If the student has limited skills, then they cannot be competitive. The job market in Thailand is such that a variety of skills to earn income might serve students better. Chanoksakul states “The trumpet curriculum in the context of Thailand should be modern and have a connection between the past, the present and the future” (personal communication, February 25, 2017). Thus, with private lessons, the teaching content should be prepared in the most modern ways to support students who will graduate and can get a job. Students with a strong sense of music history can utilised that to update themselves effectively. No matter what kind of music a student prefers to perform, they must play with understanding and know how to contribute to their society. According to Aksornteang (personal communication, January 27, 2017), under his concept of “Shining in a corner where you live,” this will make the student a useful person in their place in society. “The goal is to try to fill in what they are missing and solve the problem that they have, to have the right knowledge and to get a job” (Chanoksakul, personal communication, February 25, 2017). His statements then went on to emphasise that all Thai students have a desire to get a job and have a good career. Finally, Puengpreeda mentioned: I will not teach them to have knowledge only in trumpet, but I will have to teach otherwise about life skills. To let them have knowledge of both playing trumpet and living a good life. They will realise that the trumpet is not the destination. I will guide them toward the right way appropriately. Thus, we must spend some time with them to know what they are like and what their goals are (Puengpreeda, personal communication, February 9, 2017). New Curriculum for Trumpet in Thailand A curriculum plan for undergraduate trumpet studies appropriate for Thailand was developed from the relevant documentation review, interviews, and synthesis of this information. All acquired materials studied were analysed and synthesised to create a content framework for a trumpet curriculum using an outcome- based curriculum design, or “backward design method” developed by Wiggins and McTighe (2006). Therefore, curricular choices were made based on the expected results of the entire programme. The process, as shown in Figure 1, is composed of objectives, content description, expected results, assessment practices, and year-by-year activities. Description of the Curriculum This curriculum is intended to develop potential trumpet instrument performance skills for undergraduate students in Thailand. Students who successfully complete this degree will have comprehensive knowledge and skills that should prepare them for a career in the diverse professional music market of Thailand. Figure 1. “Backward design” outcome-based curriculum content developed by Wiggins and McTighe (2006) 1 • Identify the results • Consider goals or outcomes 2 • Determine acceptable levels of evidence • Consider culminating assessment tasks and methods 3 • Plan learning experiences and instruction. • Create learning activities, consider teaching methods, content, materials and supplemental activities Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (12-24) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 18 Objectives of the Curriculum The objectives of the curriculum are to: 1. develop student trumpet performance skills in a variety of styles, including both Western and Thai- specific styles, as well as knowledge of instrumental practice, music theory and analysis skills. 2. promote the development of knowledge and skills of students to cover standardised, comprehensive content in trumpet performance skills, trumpet history and literature, trumpet pedagogy, principles of instrumental performance, music interpretation, and practicing. 3. enhance the experience, morals, including discipline, responsibility, respect and service to others, as well as application of problem-solving skills needed to be an effective professional musician. Undergraduate Curriculum Plan and Content Description The objectives led to the design of the curriculum content with a 4-year study duration as follows. Table1 Curriculum plan and annual content description Study Year Plan Content Description First year Consider the student’s stated goals and integrate into the teaching plan to be consistent with the student needs. Develop musician morals (discipline) and the ability of trumpet practice by focusing on correct technical skills and musical expression. Enhancement of the fundamental instrumental skills and providing knowledge on a proper methodology in practicing trumpet, including techniques, musical style and performance through the lessons, the exercises as well as variety of repertoire. Second year Further develop musician morals (responsibility) and performance skills focusing on both technical and expressive skills. Students will also perform in public within the styles found in Western classical music and popular music genres. Extending the development of both technical and musical skills from the first academic year, adding related content that supports in applying to the Western classical music performance and other music styles and genres as well as the capability in performing in public. Third year Continued development of musician morals (respect) and skills and concept development will be supplemented with additional direct and ancillary content including Thai/Western trumpet history, important repertoire works by Western and Thai composers, pedagogy, performance skills, analysis, interpretation, and jazz performance styles. Continue the development of instrumental skills to higher level along with providing the various musical knowledge contents that include trumpet history and literature, trumpet pedagogy, important repertoire, performance skills, analysis, and interpretation. Fourth year Continued development of musician morals (service to others) and Thai music styles of Thai fusion and Thai country (Luk Thung), culminating experiences including professional auditions, competitions, and recitals, as well as the creation of music projects, special works, or performances that are beneficial to oneself and society. Demonstrate various styles of music along with preparing students to be ready to compete in various professional music job markets with plans and suggestions for post- graduation. Expected Results of a Study of Outcome Curriculum Design Theory The expected competencies of students each year have been developed from the objectives of the curriculum. In each academic year, content should be determined to achieve the goals thus meeting the targets from the first year of study through programme completion. Jakaphan Chaiya & Joseph Bowman 19 Table 2 Expected student competencies Yearly Expected Student Competencies First year First-year content focuses on correct fundamental skills such as breathing, embouchure formation and development, tone quality, technique, articulation, intonation along with exercises, etudes, and musical pieces. Various additional content is included such as the introduction to trumpet history, parts of the trumpet, basic instrument care and maintenance, improving practice skills, time management, and demonstrating personal discipline. Second year Second-year content continues skills and concepts from the first year and focuses on content enhancement to a higher level. This includes elements such as tone quality, technique, articulation, intonation, and includes musical knowledge and skills such as form and analysis, as well as interpretation of repertoire from various time periods. Transposition and use of the C, E-flat trumpet and cornet are necessary to study the repertoire at this level. Additional content such as Thai/Western trumpet history, parts of trumpet and maintenance or the literature that improves practice skills like music analysis and interpretation should be emphasised. Other important musical content, Thai popular or commercial music styles should be taught instructors as supplementary teaching, as well as personal responsibility. Third year Third-year study builds upon second-year content by increasing the level of difficulty with emphasis on the performance skills of exercises, etudes, transposition and musical skills from various repertoire, including the practice of C, E, E-flat/D trumpets, flugel horn, and cornet. In addition, the performance of jazz should be supplemented for the student, along with the study of Thai/Western trumpet history and literature, trumpet pedagogy, form and analysis, and interpretation, as well as respecting others Fourth year Fourth-year content extends skills and concepts developed during the entire programme. Content consists of exercises, methods, etudes, transposition, and musical skills. The student will also learn more repertoire including contemporary pieces from the 20th and 21st centuries including the practice of C, E-flat/D, and B-flat/A piccolo trumpets. Additional content in Thai/Western trumpet literature and history, trumpet pedagogy, form and analysis and interpretation or other related trumpet performance skills, as well as Thai fusion and Thai country (Luk Thung) styles, as well as a service mind for helping others. Curriculum Content Guidelines The guidelines in adopting the curriculum content are presented to support the instructor in guiding students in achieving the required competencies and skills. Table 3 summarises the outcomes of the curriculum content. Table 3 Annual outcomes of curriculum content Yearly Outcomes of Curriculum Content First Year  Establish and demonstrate strong fundamentals of breathing, embouchure, and characteristic tone quality  Establish and demonstrate strong fundamentals of articulation, intonation, lip flexibility, finger dexterity, technique, and musicianship  Introduce transposition techniques  Develop initial knowledge of related literature, theory, history, and composition  Gain performing experience on the B-flat trumpet  Demonstrate personal discipline Second Year  Make continual improvement of tone quality through all ranges and dynamic levels  Make continual improvement of articulation, intonation, lip flexibilities, range, finger dexterity, techniques, and musicianship Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (12-24) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 20  Demonstrate basic transposition techniques  Gain performing experience on B-flat and C trumpets and the cornet  Discuss music literature related history, composition, and musical forms  Gain basic performance ability in Thai popular or commercial music  Demonstrate personal responsibility Third Year  Make continued development of characteristic tone quality throughout increased range and dynamic levels  Make continued development of articulation, intonation, lip flexibilities, range, finger dexterity, techniques, and musicianship  Make continued development of transposition skill  Gain experience performing on B-flat, C, E-flat/D trumpet, flugel horn and cornet  Introduce topics related to Thai/Western trumpet history and literature, composition, musical forms, etc.  Gain basic performance ability in jazz styles  Demonstrate respect for others Fourth Year  Make continued development of characteristic tone quality  Make continued development of all technique and musical skills  Make continued development of transposition  Gain experience on B-flat, C, E-flat/D, flugel horn, cornet and B-flat/A piccolo trumpet  Develop stronger awareness of music literature related to history, composition, and musical forms  Gain basic performance ability in Thai fusion and Thai middle/Northeaster Thai Country (Luk Thung) styles  Demonstrate service for others Learning Activity Topics For learning activities in lesson class, the researcher proposes the activities created referring to the curriculum outcome process as shown in Table 4. Table 4 Yearly content of learning activity topics Yearly Learning Activity Topics First Year Warm-up studies, tone development, position development, technical studies, musical studies, literature studies and discussion, assessment, feedback, and personal and professional discipline. Second Year Technical studies, musical studies, transposition studies, literature studies, performance studies, sharing feedback and discussion, self, peer assessment, and personal and professional responsibility. Third Year Technical studies, musical studies, interpretation studies, transposition studies, literature and pedagogy studies, performance development, improvisation development, sharing feedback and discussion, self, and peer assessment, and respect for self and others. Fourth Year Technical development, musical development, interpretation development, transposition studies, literature and pedagogy studies, performance development, improvisation development, sharing feedback and discussion, self, and peer assessment, and service to others. Jakaphan Chaiya & Joseph Bowman 21 In addition to learning activities topics as mention above, instructors should arrange a weekly class meeting, e.g., “studio class”, that brings together all trumpet students as a curricular activity to provide opportunities for students to gain more relevant knowledge and share knowledge and techniques in various musical styles found in Thailand. These studio classes could be organised in various formats including, but not limited to peer-to-peer presentations lecture classes, student performances, improvisation demonstrations, daily routine group sessions, mock solo competitions, mock orchestral audition, orchestral excerpt discussions, etc. Studio class activities can strengthen the academic experience of all students as these can supplement activities taught one-on-one as well as give students opportunities to play for one another and learn together in a group setting. Student Assessment Evaluation was organised according to expected curricular outcomes as with any assessment protocol, and detailed performance expectations and rubrics should be provided to students to clarify specific expectations whenever possible. Table 5 Student assessment Yearly Assessment First Year Class participation, technical tests, musical tests, literature quizzes, studio class recitals, student self-assessment and teacher assessment and feedback, jury examinations. Second Year Class participation, technical tests, musical tests, transposition tests, literature quizzes, studio class recitals, student self-assessment and teacher assessment and feedback, jury examinations. Third Year Class participation, technical tests, musical tests, transposition tests, literature and pedagogy quizzes, paperwork or presentations, studio class recitals, improvisation performance tests, student self-assessment and teacher assessment and feedback, jury examinations. Fourth Year Class participation, technical tests, musical tests, transposition tests, literature and pedagogy quiz or paperwork, presentations, studio class recitals, improvisation performance tests, lecture and/or performance recitals, student self-assessment and teacher assessment and feedback, jury examinations. Remark: Since there are many forms of assessment, students and teachers should discuss and design the assessment together to identify the assessment that satisfies the student's needs and achieves stated goals. The evaluation should also be made on the student’s practice to reflect their musical performance skills. The teacher should also consider the assessment of the surrounding environment such as participation in various activities, behaviour, and assignment. In addition, students should be able to assess their own study progress or exchange evaluations between their peers to train students on how to give constructive comments. Recommendations The following recommendations are for both instructors and students. While these recommendations are based on extant data, contexts of specific schools and programmes needs to be factored in. For instance, in the first year of study, instructors should assess student trumpet performance and practice skills to develop meaningful and relevant student goals and to develop a mutual understanding of expectations. These initial assessments and discussions can be used to inform the curriculum design expected competencies. Instructors can set the basic criteria to assess skills in different topics such as tone quality, technical skills, and musical skills and select appropriate resources that will help the student reach the expected level of performance and knowledge. This differentiated instruction approach allows the professor to select any method or exercise books needed to address individual student needs. Regular assessment periods can be utilised to determine specific areas of focus for each subsequent semester. These will help to determine the scope of studying and help to organise the content of outcome-based curriculum design. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (12-24) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 22 In addition to the guidance, there are suggested ideas for teachers and students as follows: Recommendations for instructors. Instructors should advise and encourage students to be creative and apply their musical knowledge to instrumental practice. They should update their teaching content, books, method books, and musical repertoire regularly. Each semester, the instructors should create a lesson plan according to each student’s development level and specific areas of need. During the lessons, instructors should be able to demonstrate playing on the trumpet with a high standard of performance skill for students. Instructors should have knowledge and experience in various styles such as classical, jazz, Thai pop, commercial, Thai country, or Thai fusion music as well as performing in a variety of large and small ensembles. Institutions or instructors should have enough resources, such as instruments, music scores, textbooks, recordings, and online resources. Also, instructors should own the most-often-performed trumpets in various keys, the related equipment (e.g., mutes, mouthpieces, metronomes, etc.) and be proficient with this equipment such that can be sued to demonstrate and teach students the skills necessary to utilise said equipment. In addition to private lessons, instructors should support students to participate in various activities such as master classes, workshops, and ensemble classes as well as attending live concerts. These activities will help students develop their potential in trumpet skills. It is the responsibility of instructors to teach morals and ethics in addition to music students. Recommendations for students. Before the learning process begins each semester, students are encouraged to discuss and plan with their instructors. In order to design a lesson plan together between instructors and students, which makes the content of the lesson meet the needs of students. During the lessons, students should demonstrate responsibility and self-discipline in studying and practicing. As well as demonstrate a desire to improve through regular practice, active engagement in studio activities, and rehearsals. Students should participate in a variety of different music events featuring different styles of music. By participating in activities, students will gain knowledge and experience that can be applied to develop their musical skills. It is also important to have quality instruments and equipment to help support study (e.g., mutes, digital recorder, tuner, metronome, etc.). Discussion The result of the development of curriculum content for the study of the undergraduate applied trumpet in Thailand brings three issues for discussion and consideration as follows. Possibilities and Limitations in Curriculum Development The development of a curriculum model for trumpet at the undergraduate level in Thailand gives insights into the past, present and possible futures for trumpet curricula in the country. The curriculum can be used as a planning aid and as a path for students and teachers to use in developing both practical and academic development. It is also a tool for teachers to consider in helping students to prepare for development throughout the study duration and to achieve the set goals as suggested by Wiles and Bondi (2015). The results of the study support the development of an outcome-based curriculum design as an effective and efficient way to develop undergraduate trumpet performance majors in Thailand. For one, this approach necessitates frequent communication of goals and expectations between student and teacher and can function to develop a positive and open student-teacher relationship much like the information provided by Puengpreeda (personal communication, February 9, 2017) who mentioned that many students were being taught trumpet fundamentals incorrectly early on, thus leading to difficulties in advancing at the university level. These fundamental deficiencies can hinder a student’s ability to compete and succeed as a professional musician in Thailand. Potavanich (personal communication, January 27, 2017) also recommended that students develop a variety of skills as a basic requirement in order to be employable in a variety of musical genres. In Thailand it is necessary to supplement the curriculum with additional skills (e.g., improvisation, jazz styles, etc.) to help broaden student’s potential and achieve higher employability. An appropriately designed curricular structure is not a guarantee of success. There are many other factors involved in the successful development of a professional musician (Puengpreeda, personal communication, February 9, 2017) including the need for highly qualified teaching personnel, consistent and purposeful attention to teaching activities, consistent establishment of student expectations, quality of Jakaphan Chaiya & Joseph Bowman 23 student discipline (e.g., time management, self-discipline), and the availability or lack of proper equipment. These factors can affect the results of any curriculum design. Curriculum Development Suitable for Undergraduate Trumpet Study in Thailand It is important to develop a trumpet course at the tertiary level to suit the context of Thai society. Although there are quality curricula from outside of Thailand, mainly from the West, if they are used without applying them to the context of the Thai society they would not be able to develop students to find work in the local market. However, the results of this research show that there can be harmonisation between Western music programmes and the context of Thai society, as a major priority of every curriculum is to develop quality in students. Furthermore, in Thailand it is necessary to embrace musical genres of the past, most notably Thai traditional music, and its future in Thai fusion music. These genres, along with the ability to play other music styles, as well as adherence to other local traditions, for example the importance of Buddhist morals, can develop students to be successful in the job market of Thailand. Trumpet Curriculum Development for Future Career Paths Consistent with the view from Potavanich (personal communication, January 27, 2017), it is possible to develop a trumpet curriculum to meet the market needs and future careers within the context of the Thailand music market. However, this can be a challenge due to limitations such as current music consumption trends, available performance opportunities, and working to develop more acceptance of music as a career choice in society, among others. Despite these limitations, there has been an expansion of the number of music programmes offered in the country over the last two decades. Therefore, in order to support and prepare students to enter a career in music, as well as opportunities for students to further their study in music in higher education, instructors must seek the appropriate curriculum content and methods to support students in both skills and knowledge so that their capacity can be built and their potential can be enhanced to have the best chance to be gainfully employed in the context of Thailand. There are still many pathways of work in music that can be developed in Thailand. There are various careers that can be developed such as in the performance of classical music, including professional orchestras or wind bands, as well as jazz music, professional pop and commercial music, Thai fusion and Thai country music, or freelance professionals (i.e., studio recording musicians, musician backup artists, performing in various events, teachers or professors, and freelance instructors, among others) as well as careers in allied music fields such as music technology, music business, conducting, and composition to name a few. Further research in needed to determine societal trends and needs in Thailand to prepare Trumpet students for careers beyond university. Conclusions This study suggests several important points in the development of the curriculum for the trumpet performance in Thailand. Students and instructors should together identify the targets and needs of students before each semester to formulate and revise the student’s academic plan as it relates to the student’s post- graduation goals. They should determine acceptable levels of student achievement that supports demonstrable student progress towards semester goals. According to the outcome curriculum design, acceptable levels can be classified into two groups; (a) practice skills and (b) knowledge skills. Also, the criteria in student assessment must be consistent with the semester goals and objectives. Design learning activities intended to achieve desired results. This is the process of defining the content of the lessons that students must learn, both academic and practical skills, including activities that will deepen students’ knowledge. These should be incorporated in both core and extracurricular content to support student goals. Therefore, content must be consistent with goals, including the criteria that are used for learning evaluation as well. The teaching and learning method and the assessment should be designed to suit student needs in the context of a private lesson. It should have both lecture and practice-based courses under the supervision of the instructor. Through their study in this ideal outcomes-based curriculum, the goal is for students to develop the skill of “teaching themselves” by diagnosing playing problems and working to solve them. They should study technical and musical studies through important repertoire and arranged classes like studio class which allow students to discuss and share feedback among the group. The class could be organised to include mini-recitals, orchestra excerpts, academic presentations or seminars, Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (12-24) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 24 demonstrations of various playing styles, and discussion of any other topics which are appropriate for the student expectations and skill level. In the evaluation, both instructors and students should discuss indicators for the assessment of their progress since students will have opportunity to perform self-assessment of their skill development. This curriculum framework was created to include appropriate core content for all trumpet teaching in an undergraduate programme as well as develop individual student skills of each student. Instructors can adapt, apply, and revise specific course and programme content to suit the needs of their students and programme. This curriculum is designed as a framework that allows for flexibility and revision of content and experiences to meet the changing needs of the students, the area’s musical context and the needs of the university, however, within the context of Thailand. As a result, this could be adapted to the context of the music career market in Thailand. References Bowman. J. L., & Laosaichuea, A. (2020). A survey of undergraduate university trumpet instructors [personnel survey]. Unpublished raw data. Charoensook, S. (2018). เสียงใหม่ในอุษาคเนย์ [New voices in Southeast Asia]. Mahidol Music Journal, 1(1), March- August. https://www.music.mahidol.ac.th/mmj/files/mmj-01-01.pdf Chitrangsan, W. (2011). The origins and development of trumpet teaching in Thailand from 1868 to 2010 (pp. 33- 56). Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University. Federation of Music Services, Royal College of Music (Great Britain), National Association of Music Educators. (2015, April 26). A common approach (p. 12). https://www.musicmark.org.uk/marketplace/a-common- approach/ Kamwachirapitak, R. (2010, August 2). Meaning of curriculum, course syllabus, course outline and lesson plan. http://dcil.kbu.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Lesson_Plan.pdf Luepradit, A. (2015, December 24). หลักสูตรดนตรีในโรงเรียน โจทย์อยู่ที่คนไม่ใช่เครื่อง [Music curriculum in school, problem lies with students, not instruments]. http://www.bangkokbiznew.com/news/detail/680029 Music Department, Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. (2016, June 13). Music education programme, Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. http://www.academic.cmru.ac.th/web_curr58/pdf2559/WMS59.pdf Saylor, J. G., Alexander, W. M., & Lewis, A. J. (1981). Curriculum planning for better teaching and learning. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Summers, D. (2004). Longman dictionary of contemporary English: The living dictionary. Pearson Education Limited. Suttachit, N. (2011, August 3). ทัศนะเกี่ยวกับดนตรีศึกษาและการศึกษาในประเทศไทย [Perspectives on music education and general education in Thailand] [Web log post]. http://narutt-suttachitt.blogspot.com/2011/08/blog-post.html Thuntawech, S., & Trakarnrung, S. (2017). The ideal characteristics of higher education music institutes in 21st century Thailand. Malaysian Journal of Music, 6(1), 30-49. http://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol6.1.3.2017 Wiggins, G., & Mctighe, J. (2006). Understanding by design. Pearson Education–Merril Prentice Hall. Wiles, J., & Bondi, J. C. (2015). Curriculum development: A guide to practice (9th ed.). Pearson. Wulf, K. M., & Schave, B. (1984). Curriculum design: A handbook for educators. Scott, Foreman. กรอบมาตรฐานคุณวุฒิระดับอุดมศึกษาแห่งชาติ [Thai qualifications framework for higher education]. (2009, April 18). http://www.mua.go.th/users/tqf-hed/news/FilesNews/FilesNews1/7.pdf Biography Jakaphan Chaiya is a D.M. candidate in music performance and pedagogy from the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. He has received a Master of Arts (music) in performance from the College of Music, Mahidol University, and a Bachelor of Arts (music) from the Music Department, Payap University, Thailand. He is currently an instructor at the College of Music, Payap University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Joseph L. Bowman, D.M.A. is an Assistant Professor of Music at Mahidol University College of Music, Thailand. He has been Professor of Trumpet at College of Music, Mahidol University since 2003, where he teaches applied trumpet, literature, pedagogy, and orchestral repertoire. He also a member of the Thailand Philharmonic Orchestra since 2008. Dr. Bowman received a DMA and MM from Arizona State University and a BM from the University of Cincinnati.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 1 (2021)

female singing, Javanese music, practice-based research, sindhen, teaching methodologies

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/366

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3887

Foreign Sindhen in Practice: New Teaching Strategies and the Impact of Practice-Led Research on Javanese Female Singing

Practice-led research has a long history in ethnomusicology and is currently reconsidered in many academic contexts all over the world. There has not been much literature written on the effects that a long-term active immersion in the music culture investigated can have on the “researched”, the “researcher” and the “research” itself. I experienced some of these effects as a native Italian who spent seven years learning, performing and researching in Java, Indonesia. I conducted my research led by the practice, inspired by the bi-musicality approach. Learning, performing and researching are approaches interrelated with each other and determine some interesting developments of investigation, not only within the research context, but in the research methodology itself. In this paper, I discuss the pros and cons of the practice-led research experience within the Javanese singing framework, considering the following specific aspects—new teaching strategies adopted by Javanese teachers to transmit knowledge to a foreign researcher; challenges encountered by a foreign singer on a shadow puppet theatre stage; the way in which local artists and audience take part in the research process and how the fieldwork might affect the researcher’s mentality and shape her/his approach. This article reflects on new outcomes produced by the encounter of practice and research, opening a debate about the possible collaborations and methodological exchanges between teachers, artists and researchers. It suggests that performing and understanding music should be heard and be included in the debate based on personal experience as performer and researcher.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3887/2923

Ilaria Meloni 25 Foreign Sindhen in Practice: New Teaching Strategies and the Impact of Practice-Led Research on Javanese Female Singing Ilaria Meloni Musicology Department, Faculty of Literature and Philosophy La Sapienza University of Rome Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, RM, Italy e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 21 April 2021 Cite this article (APA): Meloni, I. (2021). Foreign sindhen in practice: New teaching strategies and the impact of practice-led research on Javanese female singing. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10 (1), 25-52. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.3.2021 Abstract Practice-led research has a long history in ethnomusicology and is currently reconsidered in many academic contexts all over the world. There has not been much literature written on the effects that a long-term active immersion in the music culture investigated can have on the “researched”, the “researcher” and the “research” itself. I experienced some of these effects as a native Italian who spent seven years learning, performing and researching in Java, Indonesia. I conducted my research led by the practice, inspired by the bi-musicality approach. Learning, performing and researching are approaches interrelated with each other and determine some interesting developments of investigation, not only within the research context, but in the research methodology itself. In this paper, I discuss the pros and cons of the practice-led research experience within the Javanese singing framework, considering the following specific aspects—new teaching strategies adopted by Javanese teachers to transmit knowledge to a foreign researcher; challenges encountered by a foreign singer on a shadow puppet theatre stage; the way in which local artists and audience take part in the research process and how the fieldwork might affect the researcher’s mentality and shape her/his approach. This article reflects on new outcomes produced by the encounter of practice and research, opening a debate about the possible collaborations and methodological exchanges between teachers, artists and researchers. It suggests that performing and understanding music should be heard and be included in the debate based on personal experience as performer and researcher. Keywords: female singing, Javanese music, practice-led research, sindhen, teaching methodologies Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 26 Background In recent years, “practice-led research” (Penny, 2014; Smith & Dean, 2009) and “practice- based research” (Candy, 2006) methodologies seem to have acquired more and more relevance amongst scholars of ethnomusicology and ethnochoreology. Learning to perform, meaning to participate actively in the music culture investigated, seems to have become part of many academic programmes from the United States (Giuriati & Hood, 1995; Solís, 2004) to Australia (Penny, 2014, p. 85). According to Baily (2001), “Learning to perform has quite a long history in ethnomusicology” (p. 86). It is a crucial part of the research methodology. Not only musical education but also live performance should be considered a primary resource, on the same level of other academic outcomes (writings, multimedia etc.) (Baily, 2008). It is safe to say that this approach has been adopted by earlier ethnomusicologists such as Blacking (1967, 1973, 1977), Hood (1960) and Jones (1934) many others until the newest generations. The aim of this approach is that of better penetrating into the processes of music-making as well as related cultural factors in the practices investigated. As Sumarsam notices: The commonly required “field study” for students in ethnomusicology, with an emphasis on “participant observation”, has created ethnomusicologists capable of performing and teaching the musics they study; some of them have even become accomplished musicians (Sumarsam, as cited in Solís, 2004, p. 88). However, this methodology has revealed pros and cons over the decades, and some scholars such as Babiracki (1997) expressed concerns about the way in which merging into practice might affect the analytical thinking of the researcher. Can the three aspects of learning, performing, and researching be equally distributed in what is called “practice-led research”? How has this methodology developed since Hood’s bi-musicality and what impact does it have on the “research field” and on the protagonists of the musical traditions investigated? How do learning and performing contribute to the research? What are the pros, contras, the consequences and effects on the research, on the ‘researched’ and on the “researcher”? In this article, I would like to discuss and reflect on some aspects of this approach, the consequences and the impact that it had not only on the “research” and on the “researched”, meaning people and contexts involved in the inquiry, but also on the mindset of an individual who is both a performer and researcher. Quoting Penny (2014): The findings of these projects transcend personal development as they draw the intimate, internal world of the performer out into the public domain, generating knowledge, inciting new ways of thinking and provoking further discussion and exploration (p. 91). The person who “learns”, “performs” and “researches” (and then “analyses” and “revises” the outcomes of the research) is someone who brings his identity, history, background and mentality to the “field”, determining a mutual adaptation with the hosting context and becoming an active contributor to the processes of transformation and development of the discipline itself. In the current era, when concepts such as “transcultural Ilaria Meloni 27 musicology” (Giuriati & Giannattasio, 2017) start to be debated in a multicultural and global society, ethnomusicologists need to reflect on the effects of their research methodologies, especially if they involve the “practice”. What this paper proposes is not a definite solution or a firm statement on how research should be conducted, considering the existence of diverse methodologies, all equally valid, that contribute to make the field of ethnomusicology active and in a continuous dialogue. Rather, the article would like to offer a contribution to the “practice-led-research” debate by presenting my personal experience of seven years living, learning, performing and researching Javanese singing, showing the possible implications and consequences of a long- term applied “bi-musical” approach. Performing and understanding music should be included in the research methodology not only as a mean to better understand a music culture but as a tool for shaping the mind-set. Methodology Practice-led research has been a significant determinant in my academic career. Why have I decided to adopt this methodology? I have undertaken my PhD programme in Italy, studying with Professor Giovanni Giuriati, one of the former students and academic heirs of Ki Mantle Hood, the father of bi-musicality. I have been reared within this conceptual framework and, consequently, I have decided to base my research on practical musical experience. I follow the principles of the so called bi-musicality “challenge”, but also keep in mind two of the questions addressed by Ki Mantle Hood (1960), “How far can we go?” and “How much time do we have?” (p. 58). I accepted the challenge and I moved to Java, for the first time, in September 2013. Since then, I’ve spent seven years studying, living, researching, practicing and experiencing sindhen or sindhenan, the Central Javanese female singing style. I have moved beyond merely “participant observation” (Rice, 2014; Solís, 2004) and emic perspective (Bartz & Cooley, 1997). Rather, my fieldwork has turned into a full immersion in Javanese life, not only within the musical community but under every aspect. Yogyakarta has become my second home, my informants has become my friends, academic peers and colleagues. Therefore, I often faced a certain difficulty to separate the imaginary boundaries between “research” and “real life” (Kisliuk, 1997). Discussing with my colleagues, I understood this is common when one really merges into another culture. Many of them have made definitive choices as changing nationality, getting married with locals and starting over with a new life or becoming experienced performers and teachers of what was initially their “research topic”, in their original “research field”. Counting on technological resources and the rapidity of transport in the current era, it is easier to merge life and fieldwork (more than it was indeed at the dawn of bi-musicality). Therefore, a “strong identification with the chosen culture” (Abu-Lughod as cited in Solís, 2004, p. 11) is a more and more widespread phenomenon which inevitably cuts the barriers between the “foreigner” and the “local”, as well as, in many cases, between the “scholar” and the “artist”. What consequences does it have on the research? Some scholars such as Babiracki (1997) acknowledge that total immersion in the culture investigated might distort a researcher’s point of view when analysing data. Risks not only include assuming the perspective of the practitioner (lacking a critical point of view) but also losing the focus of the research, privileging the practice over the analysis. It might be true on the one hand but, on the other, it also offers the chance to witness some new Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 28 phenomena and to be part of some interesting processes and changes within the practice, having a look at 360 degrees, rather than one single perspective. Bi-musicality shaped my research in many ways, starting from the way of approaching Javanese music. It also affected the relations with the other musicians in many ways. Before leaving to Java, I used to take part in Javanese gamelan rehearsals in the KBRI (Indonesian Embassy in Rome, Italy). It is a workshop often included in the Asian Music course of our Music department, thanks to the diplomatic relationship between La Sapienza University and the embassy. The workshop (often ending with a concert) is proposed by Professor Giovanni Giuriati to his students in line with the bi-musical approach inspired by Mantle Hood. It is great chance in the Italian academic framework also considering that, unlike the United States and United Kingdom, only few gamelan sets are available in the whole national territory (and only very few of them are in good condition). Playing gamelan at KBRI has been indeed the “bridge” (as intended by Hardja Susilo as cited in Solís, 2004, p. 60) for many of my colleagues who eventually decided to move to the “fieldwork”. This choice is in general, among other reasons, motivated by the need to deeply understand music elaboration and the way Javanese “think” music. In fact, with the KBRI gamelan group we often performed lancaran (the 8-beats per gong cycle form) without singing parts, using cypher notation scores, with a limited chance to improve our elaboration skills or to play more challenging instruments. Once in Java, I started taking female traditional singing (sindhen) classes with several teachers, exploring diverse learning strategies. Interestingly, I found some methodologies were not very different from the ones used at the embassy (including the use of notation). Even more interestingly, I understood as some methods where expressly conceived for foreigners and researchers who had started merging significantly into Javanese arts over the last decades. On the other hand, I found myself divided between the “critical”, academic approach and the feeling inspired by practicing Javanese music which led me to achieve a more emotional rather than rational sentiment. Especially within the Javanese music framework, being a musician often implies achieving the rasa (Benamou, 2010), a “musical feeling” that often clashes with the restraints of scientific analysis. Another interesting aspect, connected with my training as a sindhen, has been the embodiment of the Javanese female ideal and the way of enacting that ideal on the shadow puppet theatre stage. This double nature of “foreign researcher” and “traditional female singer” has been the key to better understanding internal processes of transformation within the traditional performing arts. But, indeed, it has also caused some problematics both in my relationship with the other artists and in the urge to produce results in the limited time of the PhD programme. In the following paragraphs I am going to discuss more specifically the findings of my experience in learning and performing Javanese traditional female singing, adding empirical evidence and considerations. Studying Sindhen: New Teaching Strategies for Foreign Practitioners Sindhen is a Javanese female singer who sings in gamelan ensembles and the gamelan- accompanied performing arts, and similar to shadow puppet theatre, has a specific repertoire and a specific voice quality. Moreover, sindhen is supposed to embody an ideal of femininity, of “refinement” (alus) and manners in line with courtly aesthetic principles. In fact, this practice is supposed to have been developed in the central Javanese courts around the 18th– Ilaria Meloni 29 19th century (Sutton, 1984) during a period of reformation and epuration of courtly ethics and customs (Di Bernardi, 1995). Despite several transformations that affected repertoires and performance practice, especially in the last decades, the key features of the sindhen, in the Javanese imaginary, are still the ones related to the court canon. In my research, I have mostly focused on three key aspects that still distinguish the sindhen from other types of Javanese singers. Those that I define as “primary requirements” of a sindhen are: • The ability to sing and elaborate melodic patterns (cengkok) in gamelan classical pieces; • The vocal quality, similar to the one classified as “twang” (McDonald, 2005) meaning using pharyngeal constriction to obtain a sharp and metallic sound, resonating on medium-high frequencies; • A certain way to behave to embody the Javanese hyper-feminine ideal (connected with several norms regarding language, costume and manners, as the way they sit on stage and interact with musicians and audience). When I started practicing vocal singing in Yogyakarta, I had to deal with the aforementioned requirements, necessary to properly embody the sindhen character on stage (and, sometimes, in real life). After the first two years, mainly spent among Central Javanese artistic communities, I moved to other areas of West and East Java, and I started to join other performing contexts, still applying the same methodology of learning and performing to eventually produce some research outcomes based on my personal experience, complemented by ethnography (audio- visual production), interviews and music transcriptions and analysis. Thus, these three aspects have always been strictly interdependent in my research and the real challenge has been to make them equally distributed during my fieldwork and my daily life as sindhen. The hardest task was to prevent the love for the practice (which I think is common for every scholar who uses this approach) to not overwhelm the necessity to elaborate concrete data, in order to be able to call it “research” or :practice-based research: and not just “practice” (I will define this aspect in more detail below, presenting concrete examples from my personal experience). Another difficult task was to conciliate my double identity of sindhen and researcher, especially during the learning process. As I could notice, the challenges of the performer/researcher duality are often encountered also by graduate students from local academies of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. During the past years, I have studied sindhenan with several teachers and I have noticed the existence of two different teaching methodologies, also confirmed by the many interviews (or I should more properly call them “talks” or “communications”) to other sindhen, friends and colleagues. The first methodology can be defined with the Indonesian term alami, meaning natural. It means learning by imitation and “by ear” (or “by heart”, Benamou, 2010), often directly on stage. Learning through performance has been common for many sindhen in the past and is still common. Usually, it requires the mentorship of a teacher or a senior singer. It is also possible to learn from other colleagues or a member of the family, in the case of keturunan seni (artistic descendance). In the past, it might happen also via radio or cassettes. Nowadays, it may involve the use of other media, such as YouTube videos or WhatsApp Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 30 voice notes. Especially since April-May 2020, during the Covid-19 pandemic which reached the Javanese island in March, more and more artists are relying on the Internet to spread their knowledge, via online classes and dedicated YouTube channels. The second methodology is called akademi, literally “academical”, because of its connection with local academies (like ISI, the Indonesian Institute of the Arts).1 This methodology implies written supplemental learning material such as cyphered notation and booklets with lyrics. Despite this fact, oral transmission still covers an important percentage, especially in the memorisation of melodic patterns in vocal pieces. Most of my teachers including Pak Parto (Petrus Suparto) in Yogyakarta, Ibu Kesi (Sukesi Rahayu) in Suarkarta, Ibu Narsi (Narsihati) in Banyumas, and Pak Broto (Subroto) in Surabaya—prevalently used an oral approach to teach me how to elaborate sindhenan for gamelan pieces. They used to play the skeleton melody of a piece on a gender (a metallophone) and sing the vocal part, which consists in a semi-improvisation of melodic patterns on the main cadences. I had to listen, record and try to imitate their execution. The majority of the methods still seem to largely rely on oral transmission, since local academies have been established, written methodologies have started to be used to a large extent. Furthermore, the constant presence of researchers going to central Java to study gamelan music determined the necessity, felt by some teachers, to adapt the teaching methodology to analytical purposes and to add a critical approach to their teachings. This is the case of one of my teachers: Pak Abdal. Pak Abdal and the Mathematic Method Mohammad Abdal (for his students simply Pak Abdal) has studied gamelan at ASKI (now ISI) the musical academy of Surakarta, and has at a young age started teaching gamelan to both local and foreigners in several cities, from Surabaya to Yogyakarta. He currently teaches in Yogyakarta in a central-Javanese (mainly Solonese) style. Beside karawitan (gamelan music practice and theory), he has taught Mathematics in junior-high schools for quite a long period. As he shared with me, his pragmatic mentality brought him to find interesting strategies to teach sindhenan to foreigners and researchers. His strategy is intended to be used with practitioners who aim to analyse vocal patterns and their application on the instrumental pieces. In Pak Abdal’s opinion, since many teachers only teach how to sing the melodic patterns “by heart” (Benamou, 2010) without any analytical insight, researchers tend to apply “western” theories and concepts to analyse Javanese pieces, instead of relying on the ilmu karawitan (‘the science of karawitan’ which has its rules and prescriptions as other music traditions). For Pak Abdal, and the other teachers (like Pak Didik, gender and rebab teacher in Bantul district) who adopted his methodology, “karawitan science” might be used as an analytic tool as well: I know that foreigners have a different learning methodology, I have taught people from Belgium, Germany, America, The Netherlands and my method worked with them because it is scientific, analytic. After me, other Javanese teachers started to apply my method also for teaching local students, when they couldn’t learn simply by oral transmission. (Pak Abdal, 2015, personal communication, November 7, 2017). Ilaria Meloni 31 The increasing number of foreign students and researchers, according to Pak Abdal, has created the necessity to adopt a new approach. His method, according to him, can also be used to teach local students, especially those who were already used to learning “akademi” (in Indonesia or abroad) and do not have a family background in traditional music. This way, the world of the orality and that of the academia can be joined together to understand sindhen singing from various perspectives, not only having to choose between the performer or researcher’s angle, but with the possibility of a versatile application. Classifying Cengkok with Alphanumeric Formulas Female singing for gamelan pieces consists of a semi-improvisation of vocal patterns (cengkok) on a skeleton melody (balungan) (Walton, 1987). For example, in a piece in the form of ladrang (32 beats for every gong cycle, divided in 8 groups of 4 notes each called gatra), the sindhen cengkok (vocal patterns) should be distributed as follows, according to my Yogyanese teachers, Pak Parto and Pak Abdal (the brackets indicate that the elaboration of the vocal pattern under that specific gatra is optional) (Table 1): Table 1 Distribution of the vocal patterns on a ladrang musical structure I gatra (sindhen cengkok) II gatra sindhen cengkok III gatra (sindhen cengkok) IV gatra sindhen cengkok V gatra (sindhen cengkok) VI gatra sindhen cengkok VII gatra (sindhen cengkok) VIII gatra sindhen cengkok Cengkok are melodic patterns consisting of a combination of notes and lyrics, elaborated on strong selèh (cadences) of a gamelan piece. When improvising on a fix melody, sindhen should be able to create their own vocal ornamentations based on memorised cengkok. The way to memorise cengkok is disparate. Some teachers make the student memorise all the possible basic patterns for all the pitches of the Javanese scales (slendro and pelog) before applying them to a musical piece. Other teachers make the student listen and imitate their elaboration, until mastering the melodic contour “by ear” or “by heart” and, consequently, automatically internalising cengkok patterns. On average, most of these methodologies may be classified as oral, meaning that teachers do not explain the nature or the elaboration process of the melodic patterns themselves, but only their application on a piece. The aim is to let the student develop the ability to sing as many pieces as she can in a short time. However, Pak Abdal’s method is conceived as a useful analytic tool rather than a singing practice. It consists of learning a number of cengkok in their basic form, without embellishments, classifying them with letters and numbers like mathematical formulas, to apply when needed on a written melody. This way, each melodic pattern is easily identifiable and allows the student to fill his/her own score with the formulas learned and recognise the formulas when transcribing and analysing a musical piece. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 32 Before our lessons, Pak Abdal always prepared the musical score of the pieces in cyphered notation, already divided in the main musical sections (for example ompak– low register section–and ngelik–high register section) with gatra’s subdivision. Firstly, he asked me to identify the main selèh on which the vocal pattern should end, according to Javanese karawitan rules. Further, I had to write down the basic formulas identifying those vocal patterns, instead of the vocal pattern’s extended notation (Figure 1): Figure 1. A first draft of the melodic formulas’ classification on Ladrang Wilujeng How to classify vocal patterns with mathematic formulas? Pak Abdal made me start from the lyrics. Sindhenan lyrics, used in the classical gamelan pieces, consist in ancient riddles called wangsalan, made of 24 syllables each, divisible in a 12-syllable question (cangkriman) and a 12-syllable answer (batangan). The question and the answer can be further divided in groups of 4 and 8 syllables each. Beside wangsalan, sindhen can use short phrases, called isen-isen (literally ‘filling’) of 4 syllables, such as: yo mas yo mas, rama rama, etc. Pak Abdal showed me how to classify the wangsalan and isen-isen. For example, using the riddle: Kawi sekar, sekar pepundhen Sri Kresna. Lir puspita, warnane kusumeng pura,2 one can operate the following segmentation (Table 2): Table 2 Syllabic segmentation of a wangsalan riddle WANGSALAN 4 syllables 8 syllables Total of the syllables Cangkriman (question) Ka-wi se-kar, se-kar pe-pun-dhen Sri Kres-na (12 syllables) Batangan (answer) Lir pus-pi-ta, war-na-ne ku-su-meng pu- ra (12 syllables) Total 24 syllables Ilaria Meloni 33 According to Pak Abdal, this syllabic segmentation could be easily simplified in alphanumeric formulas, as following (Table 3): Table 3 Attribution of the alphanumeric formulas to the syllabic segmentation of a wangsalan Cangkriman (question) 4 syllables cengkok (first segment of the sentence) C ½ 8 syllables cengkok (second segment of the sentence) C Batangan (answer) 4 syllables cengkok (first segment of the sentence) B ½ 8 syllables cengkok (second segment of the sentence) B Isen-isen (optional filling) cengkok of a variable number of syllables used as a filling Is Thence, a 4 syllable segment of a wangsalan could be identified by the formula C ½ or B ½, depending on its function (answer or question). Similarly, the 8 syllable segment will be identified by B or C. If one wants to use the full 12 syllable line (which is also possible, in according with karawitan principles) the formula will be Br or Cr, the “r” standing for racik or ngracik. Finally, Is identifies isen-isen. If we write these wangsalan and isen-isen formulas under the skeleton melody of a ladrang, we obtain the following score (Table 4): Table 4 Application of the wangsalan and isen-isen formulas on a ladrang musical structure I gatra Is II gatra C ½ III gatra Is IV gatra C V gatra Is VI gatra B ½ VII gatra Is VIII gatra B This way, the student can quickly recognise the lyrics distribution on the instrumental melody, which correspond to the hierarchical importance of the cadential notes (usually a 4 or 8 syllables wangsalan is sung on stronger cadences, while isen-isen are sung on the weaker cadences). If we write the complete wangsalan under each gatra, we have the complete outline of the lyrics partition in a sindhen vocal elaboration or semi-improvisation (Table 5): Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 34 Table 5 Wangsalan and isen-isen formulas and lyrics on a ladrang musical structure I gatra Is (yo mas yo mas) II gatra C ½ (Ka-wi se-kar) III gatra Is (Ra-ma Ra-ma) IV gatra C (se-kar pe-pun-dhen Sri Kre-sna) V gatra Is (yo mas yo mas) VI gatra B ½ (Lir pus-pi-ta) VII gatra Is (Ra-ma Ra-ma) VIII gatra B (wa-rna-ne ku-su-meng pu-ra) After being able to segment and classify the lyrics used in sindhenan, Pak Abdal showed me how to complete the formulas with the individuation and classification of the musical patterns. To do that, we looked at a specific piece: Ladrang Wilujeng. Studying and Analysing Ladrang Wilujeng with Pak Abdal’s method Ladrang Wilujeng in the pathet (modes of the Javanese music scale’s system) of slendro manyura (the highest-pitched mode of slendro scale) is often the first piece chosen by teachers to approach the gamelan repertoire. As Sutton observes: Ladrang Wilujeng is often chosen as a beginner’s piece by teachers, not because it is simpler than any other, but because it contains a variety of commonly used one-and-two-gatra passages. Aside from its associations with security and safety, its musical construction makes it a useful gendhing to study (Sutton, 1987, p. 71). How did I study Ladrang Wilujeng with Pak Abdal’s method? Starting from the balungan, that he already divided in sections on a cyphered score, I was required to apply the wangsalan, isen-isen and cadential pattern formulas based on the gatra subdivision and the cadences, as shown in the previous paragraph. In order to elaborate melodic patterns, it is important, in Pak Abdal’s opinion, to take into account the preselected segment or lyrics and pay attention to the single sèleh and the melodic contour (Table 6): Table 6 Application of the wangsalan and isen-isen formulas on the skeleton melody of Ladrang Wilujeng 2123 Is (yo mas yo mas) 212ny C ½ (Ka-wi se-kar) 33.. 653n2 C (se-kar pe-pun-dhen Sri Kre-sna) 5653 Is (yo mas yo mas) 212ny B ½ (Lir pus-pi-ta) 2123 Is (Ra-ma Ra-ma) 212g6 B (wa-rna-ne ku-su-meng pu-ra) Ilaria Meloni 35 On the third gatra there is no isen-isen because it is a specific combination called ngantung, usually instrumental. However, a vocal “sliding” to another note towards the following gatra called plesedan can be added. It is a common technique, often used by senior sindhen (see Figure 3). Thence, once we have the lyrics formula, we should add the melodic formulas. Similar to the procedure for creating wangsalan and isen-isen formulas, the cadential pattern formulas are created with the initial letters of the pitches in slendro scale, as spelled in Javanese. The strategy of identifying musical patterns with letters corresponding to the selèh note, has been used already by the gendér teacher Panji Sutopinilihh in the conservatory of Surakarta (Sumarsam, as cited in Solís, 2004, p. 79). Another interesting method of teaching music patterns in gamelan music (specifically on the gendér) has been adopted by R. L. Martopangrawit. This method associated a name to melodic patterns to help the students recognise and classify them (Sumarsam, as cited in Solís, 2004, p. 79). Considering that Pak Abdal is a former graduate at the music conservatory of Surakarta, as he confessed to me, and he has been in touch with some great teachers of the past (currently, he is almost seventy years old) he might have taken inspiration from Pak Pandji and Pak Marto’s methodologies and applied it to singing (Table 7): Table 7 Attribution of the alphanumeric formulas to the pitches of slendro scale Notes in cyphered system Name of the note in Javanese Formulas 1 Siji S 2 Loro L 3 Telu T 5 Limo M (“mo”, since the L is already used for the 2) 6 Nem N Each sèleh (cadential note) determines a melodic pattern (cengkok). If we apply these cadential formulas on Ladrang Wilujeng’s balungan, we obtain the following score (Table 8): Table 8 Application of the cadential pattern formulas on Ladrang Wilujeng 2123 T1 212ny N1 33.. 653n2 L1 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 36 5653 T 212ny N 2123 T1 212g6 N1 The first gatra ends with the note 3 (Telu = T). Consequentially, the student should choose a cengkok ending on the pitch 3. Since we start from basic patterns, we use the T1 (the number in subscript indicating the complexity level of the pattern) which in cyphered notation is equivalent to: T1 = 2 z2x x1c2 3 3 The second gatra ends on the low 6. Similarly, the student writes N as Nem, choosing the basic pattern N1, equivalent to: N1 = 2 3 z3c1 z2x1cy The same happens with the vocal pattern on the fourth gatra, ending on 2 (Loro = L). The basic form of this cengkok, showed by Pak Abdal, is: L1 = 6 ! 6 @ 6 3 z2c1 2 This last cengkok appear longer than the other two, because it is associated with the 8-syllable wangsalan (see Table 5). In order to decide whether the cengkok should be long or short, the student shall consider the previously applied lyrics formula, so that an isen-isen and a 4-syllable wangsalan correspond to a short cengkok, while an 8 or 12 syllable wangsalan corresponds to a long cengkok. Of course, the choice of which segment of lyrics and melodic pattern to use on a cadence, which here appears mechanical and calculated, constitutes a “natural” elaboration for a senior sindhen who sings “by ear” or “by heart”, not using any written support. Eventually, applying both lyrics and melodic formulas, as shown in the previous paragraphs, on the skeleton melody of the piece, we obtain the final score with the complete cengkok formulas (Table 9): Table 9 Application of the complete cengkok formulas on Ladrang Wilujeng 2123 Is T1 212ny C ½ N1 33.. 653n2 C L1 Ilaria Meloni 37 5653 Is T2 212ny B ½ N1 2123 Is T1 212g6 B N1 If we resolve the cengkok corresponding to each formula we have (Table 10): Table 10 Cengkok corresponding to the formulas of Ladrang Wilujeng Is T1 2 z2x x1c2 3 3 yo mas yo mas C-B ½ N1 2 3 z3c1 z2x1cy Ka- wi se- kar Lir pus- pi- ta C L1 6 ! 6 @ 6 3 z2c1 2 Se- kar pe- pun- den Sri Kre- sna Is T2 5 6 z6x!c6 z5c3 Ra- ma Ra- ma B N1 3 3 2 2 1 3 z3c1 z2x1cy War- na ne ku- su- meng pu- ra Thereupon, the Ladrang Wilujeng full score with Pak Abdal’s basic cengkok, identified by the above-mentioned formulas. (Figure 2): Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 38 Figure 2. The ompak section of Ladrang Wilujeng with Pak Abdal’s melodic patterns corresponding to the formulas. The full score is the last result of a long session of classification, segmentation and analysis of the musical piece, which helps the student to understand the structure and the composition (or elaboration) process, before starting to sing it. This way, the student doesn’t only learn how to elaborate vocal patterns on a fixed melody, but she learns how to deconstruct a piece to reveal the theory behind the vocal practice. It is fundamental to learn new pieces and be able to analyse pieces sung by other singers or teachers, especially considering the fact that every sindhen can make her own version of a piece, varying the cengkok, as long as she respects the karawitan principles. Thence, according to the purpose (studying, performing, analysing) the student can use the cengkok in their extended form in cyphered notation or with their formulas. Once the student has mastered a piece, she can use more elaborate cengkok taken from other singers or heard in recordings, or make her own ornamentations. She can also choose to not use the score anymore for performative purposes. Instead, if the purpose is the analysis, writing the formulas in the place of the extended cengkok might be a useful tool to detect similar cengkok and ornamentations sung by another sindhen. I show an example in the next paragraph. Knowing the basic melodic patterns of a specific piece can be a helpful guideline when transcribing and analysing the same piece sung by another singer. For instance, I tried to transcribe the same piece, Ladrang Wilujeng in slendro manyura, executed by the Yogyanese sindhen Titik Sumiarsih (May 2014)(Figure 3).3 Ilaria Meloni 39 Figure 3. Transcription of the ompak section of Ladrang Wilujeng with cengkok elaborated by the sindhen Titik Sumiarsh, [min. 0:13-1:10] As shown in the transcription, I wrote down the extended version of each cengkok in cypher notation. Once I transcribed all the cengkok under the skeleton melody, I could classify them with Pak Abdal’s mathematic formulas. This way, I could find out how a senior sindhen embellishes and elaborates a pattern (Table 11): Table 11 Formulas of the cengkok used in Ladrang Wilujeng by the sindhen Titik Sumiarsih II gatra C ½ N1 - The cengkok is variated from the basic form, using wiletan (embellishment) and gregel (a large vibrato) on the last syllable (“-wa”). III gatra plesedan - Titik uses a plesedan. IV gatra C L1 - Even in this case, the cengkok presents an embellishment on the penultimate syllable (“-ko”), reaching the pitch 5 followed by wiletan and gregel. V gatra Is T2 – Here, Titik uses another version of the cengkok on the sèleh 3. VI gatra B ½ N1 - On this gatra, we find the same cengkok of the second gatra, similarly ornamented. VII gatra Is T3 - Titik uses another version of the cengkok on the note 3, starting from the low 6 instead of the high 6. VIII gatra B N1 - In this case, the same basic cengkok with a descending melodic contour on the pitch 6 is ornamented on the syllable“-dhen”, adding a wiletan and a gregel on the penultimate syllable “- dang”. Pak Abdal thought this kind of analysis might be a good compromise between my western musical theory and the local karawitan practice. Deconstructing the vocal melody using formulas constitutes a logical way to analyse a piece, still respecting the karawitan science while using the appropriate vocabulary (for example: “A gregel is a gregel, not a Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 40 vibrato as you mean in seriosa (opera)” (Pak Abdal, personal communication, November 7, 2017). Summing up, Pak Abdal’s teaching methodology aims to help the music analysis of the piece beyond the vocal elaboration itself. That is why Pak Abdal, contrary to other teachers, gave me basic formulas and not ornamented vocal patterns to learn. The point is to understand what I have to sing in order to be able to analyse more pieces and not simply imitate a teacher’s style. I should be able to recognise melodic patterns reconducting them to their basic forms. It is interesting how, with his method, Pak Abdal created a solid bridge between the local teachers and the researchers, urged by the necessity to fulfil “academic” sindhen and researchers’ needs. Figure 4. The author and Pak Abdal during a vocal class (January 2015). Like Pak Abdal, many teachers are shifting from oral methodologies to written methodologies, but still lying in the middle, halfway between orality and writing, meeting several requirements and enlarging their student capacities. This is necessary in the current century where, often, performers are also researchers and vice versa. Learning how to sing the traditional vocal pieces through different methodologies necessary implies, in Java, the parallel practice in performance. What does it mean performing as a “Javanese traditional female singer”? Clearly, a foreign singer is not going to become “Javanese” (not by birth, at least) and this is not the aim, but there are some ways in which, over time, foreign researchers and musicians have found their space within traditional performances. Comparing Methodologies: Learning by Heart as the “Old Time” Sindhen Ilaria Meloni 41 After my first year in Java and achieving some acquaintance with the sindhenan technique, I felt that I was still missing something. In fact, despite the fact that I collected a wide repertoire of both lagu (song), gendhing (classical gamelan compositions) and other vocal genres as langgam and jineman, I still needed the use of notation (or the formulas taught by Pak Abdal reminding me of the right cengkok to use) to sing the most difficult pieces. What I was missing, in a word, was rasa. Rasa is a term which literally means “feeling” but it encloses a variety of other meanings which Benamou (2010) describes as “aural sensation”, “impression” or “aesthetic effect” (Benamou, 2010, p. 47). Musically speaking, rasa is: Being able to express the right feeling musically […] not only knowing how to produce the right effect through details of garap or “interpretation”, but also on sensing what is appropriate to a particular situation. This might mean, for instance, knowing when to sing plainly or to let loose with ornaments, depending on whether a piece was solemn (regu) or jovial (bérag), or on what the genre or context were called for (Benamou, 2011, p. 49). Rasa is the key of expert Javanese musicians to be able to improvise the simultaneous variations on a skeleton melody (balungan), in accordance with the others, mixing creativity and shared music knowledge. For the female singers, rasa is essential to create their own cengkok style within a garapan. In order to do that, they have to intimately “feel” the elaboration of the melody (thence, the musical mode or pathet) basing on the parts of the other instruments, and the changes of tempo (irama). Writing beautiful cengkok on a cyphered score, copied by a teacher or transcribed from famous recordings, might work for a singular performance but not for being a good sindhen in the long run. In 2014, I conducted some interview-rounds in the districts of the DIY (Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta) in order to know the background and learning processes of as many sindhen as I managed to meet. After weeks of questions, talks, discussions with many singers, their families and their teachers, I classified and organised the outcomes: sindhen alami (natural sindhen) and sindhen akademi (academic sindhen). The first were the ones prevalently reared within families of artists or village music communities. They learned naturally how to sing, by ear or by heart without the aid of any scores or titi laras (solfège). The second where coming from a higher education background, most of them from ISI Yogyakarta or ISI Surakarta, and shared a similar music training (for example the widespread use of notation and the inability to improvise on a given balungan). An interesting factor was the age. Apparently, the alami singers were, mostly, the oldest, while amongst the akademi were many youngsters. This led me to an additional subdivision: jaman dulu (old time) versus jaman now (current century) (Meloni, 2021). Some of my teachers confirmed the assumption: to become a good sindhen I should be able to sing with rasa, alami, as an old-time vocalist. Facing aural transmission is a sort of trauma for someone who has been educated in Western art music since a young age (I never joined Italian conservatories but I studied the conservatory programme for piano at local music schools for nearly ten years). During my long permanence in Java, after joining many gamelan sessions and shadow puppet theatres, I had started to get accustomed to the more common use of “listening” instead of the written page and of improvisation rather than “prescription”. However, I felt uneasy being totally deprived of even a few spared papers with roughly written cengkok under a melody. Among other teachers, the two I spent more time with, mastering the alami methodology, are Ibu Kesi (Sukesi Rahayu) in Surakarta and Ma’ Narsih (Narsihati, a singer-dancer of Banyumas). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 42 Ibu Kesi is a college teacher in pedalangan (puppetry) department at ISI Surakarta and one of the most popular sindhen in central Javanese shadow puppet theatres. It is interesting how Ibu Kesi uses both a “written” and “aural” methodology, depending on the singular case. She is also a researcher and author of the first monograph about sindhenan in the style of Surabaya (East Java, see Rahayu, 2017). While in the curricular classes, Kesi often relies on notation and theory, when holding a private lesson, she privileges learning by imitation and “feeling”. The training with Ibu Kesi was pleasant and relaxed (santai aja as Javanese would say). At the beginning I felt scared and confused without my notebook and Kesi allowed me to keep the balungan with the main selèh notes in front of my eyes. However, after two encounters, I felt ready to completely forget the written page and memorise the cengkok, trying to imitate her voice and follow the patterns that she played on gender. The methodology was similar to that of Pak Abdal and other teachers (like Pak Suparto at ISI Yogyakarta etc.). It consisted of memorising a certain number of cengkok to use on different pieces. But this time, I had to sense when to start singing, when to fall on the ending note and which cengkok version to choose (she gave me few variants for every ending note, adding ornamentations). All of this without reading the part. We started with a simple piece, the srepegan in the style of Surakarta, an average gendhing lampah (“walking pieces” see Brinner, 2008, p. 127) common in shadow puppet performances. I faced an additional difficulty due by the fact that I already learned how to sing Playon (the yogyanese equivalent of the srepegan) and I memorised the cengkok in Yogyakarta style (which actually were those of Pak Suparto). According to Kesi, I should be able to distinguish the different types of cengkok styles and use them appropriately, according to the piece and context, still with a margin of personal creativity. The cengkok might follow a style of an academy, a teacher, a famous singer or of a region (Sutton, 1991). Since I was studying with her, I should master her own style (cengkok ala Kesi) before being able to elaborate mine and taking inspiration from other styles. Among these personalised cengkok, I vividly remember the cengkok seksi (the “sensual effect” given by an ascending glissando between notes 2 and 5 in slendro tuning). This was a huge difference with, for example, the Pak Abdal method. He gave me “plain cengok” not individual style cengkok. That is the main difference between studying for analysis purpose and studying for performative purpose. Pak Abdal’s cengkok were a tool for the analysis. Ibu Kesi’s cengkok were a real demonstration of the subtle details of personal style. With Ma’Narsih the situation was radically different. As a village woman, almost unalphabetised, who has become a maestro lenggér (the social dance typical of Banyumas area, see Lysloff, 2001) thanks to the indang (the gift), I had the chance to experience an alami, aural teaching. I spent few months, in 2018, in the Pegalongan village, aimed to master the so called banyumasan style (the sindhen style typical of Banyumas, Central-West Java). It was my fifth year in Java and I already started to introduce myself as the sindhen manca (foreign sindhen) from Yogyakarta, rather than the ‘foreign researcher’ from Italy. I also changed my name to Ria Saraswati (a shortening of my first name plus a homage to the goddess of music and art guiding me in my path). I thought this would be useful for both me and my interlocutors to cut the geographic and cultural distance. I was wrong. The first words of Ma’ Narsih welcoming me had been, “Sorry if we are not ‘refined’ as in Yogyakarta”. She was treating me as an important guest coming from a Central Javanese academy and felt initially uncomfortable because of her “alami” education. Despite the initial uncertainties, I managed to interweave a wonderful relation with Ma’ Narsih during the time of my staying Ilaria Meloni 43 in Pegalongan. She was glad that a “foreign, Central-Javanese adopted sindhen-researcher” felt comfortable in village living. I used to wake up early and help the village community in their daily tasks, cutting few hours in the morning for learning sindhen with Narsih in the public sanggar (artistic workspace) and then practicing in the afternoon with the other musicians of the village. Ma’Narsih didn’t follow a specific method, as she warned me before starting to teach. She didn’t even feel like “teaching”, she’d rather sit beside me during calung (bamboo gamelan) sessions and show me how to sing by imitation. When we sat alone in the sanggar, without the calung players, she used to sing the pieces coming up in her mind (Ricik Ricik, Sekar Gadung, Ilo Gondang etc.) and give me guidelines on how to improvise the parikan (“riddles”), seasoned with nostalgic digressions on her glorious past as singer-dancer. I had no other chance but to try to imitate her as best I could while waiting for the evening rehearsals to better fix the tempo and the tuning. It worked. Not only was I able to sing some of the most popular Banyumas repertoire in a short time, but I did it without notation and, for the very first time, enjoyed the spontaneity of the semi-improvisation and the music interaction in a relaxed, Javanese way. Nevertheless, the aural method revealed to be highly successful to become a proper Javanese singer. On the other hand, academically, it was a bit misleading. All I could do was record hours and hours of lessons with Ma’Narsih, plus the evening gigs, and try to write down what I could, cross-checking with some of the musicians, few of whom came from the SMKI (the local music high school). Among all the methodologies, all useful to diverse purposes of both performance and research, the singing sessions with Ma’Narsih are those which better trained me as a sindhen jaman dulu an old-time singer. With Pak Abdal I could achieve a Javanese critical mindset, a respectable alternative to my Western-musician critical mindset when transcribing and analysing music. With Ibu Kesi I could touch the difference between singing with rasa and singing with ratio (meaning using “rational thinking”, from the Latin terminology, the opposite of being guided by “sentiment”), other than observing a true case of performer and researcher from a local perspective. With Ma’Narsih I experienced what it means to merge in a totally different reality and totally embody the old ideal of the female singer. According to Ma’ Narsih it was necessary for an aspiring sindhen to master the aural learning and she negatively judged modern sindhen, too attached to written notation and more attracted by new gamelan music. It is surprising how, in light of many years in central Java and only a few months in Banyumas, the banyumasan repertoire is still the one I could sing at any time in any occasion with closed eyes. On the other hand, Banyumas repertoire is still the one which is giving me a harder time in the course of revision. While analysing central Javanese repertoire has become easier, thanks to the large amounts of both local and foreign manuals, and a well-established practice at the academies in Indonesia as well as abroad, for areas like Banyumas (as well as some areas of East Java) the analysis is still mostly guided by “the ear” and the personal experience, and cannot be always cross-checked and verified theoretically. I often found myself without any written notation or guideline to disclose some obscure passages.4 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 44 Figure 5. Calung sessions in Pegalongan village with Ma’Narsih (December 2017). What I would like to highlight with these accounts is the variety of teaching methodologies and how they have evolved over time also because of the presence of foreign “bi-musical” researchers and the determinant role of institutional interrelations. Furthermore, another aspect to highlight is how all these methodologies can shape the researcher/performer’s mindset and guide him/her in both the revision and analysis and the performance practice. What mostly enriched me as a researcher is the different way of thinking when analysing a piece, not relying on “conservatory-like” prescriptions but thinking: “What would I have done if I were singing this piece myself”? In the final analysis, “learning by heart” or “alami” led me to achieve useful performing skills, other than gaining new understandings of the music-making itself. The aspect of performance is not secondary, but rather central in practice-led-research because it allows the researcher to fully embody the musician’s identity and self-representation on stage (hence, in the society). Learning and performing are two aspects necessarily interrelated, especially in Java, and often one does not exclude the other. In a highly “participatory” (Turino, 2008) and “collaborative” (Sedana, 2005) music such as gamelan, mastering the very essence of the elaboration processes, its determinant. Using Rice’s words, “to learn how the music is structured and how it is brought to life in performance” (Rice, 2014, p. 36). Indeed, performance is also a powerful tool to understand subtle and internal causes of transformation processes. For this reason, becoming a foreign sindhen allowed me to take an active part in these processes to be able to rethink and revise them under a different light. On the other hand, becoming an active singer changed my perception of Javanese music and Ilaria Meloni 45 Javanese stages as well, putting me in-between the researcher and the performer. In the following paragraph I will elucidate this aspect. Performing Sindhen: Foreign Singers and the Impact on the Wayang Stage The phenomenon of foreign sindhen, is not totally new.5 Such scholars as Susan Walton and Nancy Cooper have already plunged into the sindhen practice, studying with some of the most legendary sindhen such as Ibu Supadmi and Nyi Tjondrolukito. However, in the last decades, foreign sindhen are becoming more and more in demand, especially for shadow puppet theatre. A great impulse has been given by the opening of some scholarship programmes as Darmasiswa, among the most renown. Since 1974, students from every part of the world can come to Java to learn traditional music and arts in local academies, sponsored by the Indonesian government. Foreign women are often encouraged to study dance or singing and once they have reached a sufficient proficiency (it is enough to master one or two pieces for starting) they are invited to join the performances, side by side with local artists. For researchers, this constitutes a valuable opportunity to apply the practice-led methodology. Therefore, we find a mutual exchange: local artists can count on “spectacular” foreign sindhen to promote their shows and researchers can freely experience as many performances as they want in return. In the current century, tagged as jaman now, sindhen play a determinant role in popular performing arts like wayang, especially in the comic interludes (Meloni, in course of publication). “Jaman now” has become a slogan used to refer to the latest innovations, often boundaryless, happening with impressive speed. There is even a proper hashtag on Instagram, often used by artists when posting some videos breaking “traditional” paradigms. Sindhen play a pivotal role in humour and vocal challenges, enacting witty dialogues with puppeteers, showing off vocal abilities, and often dancing to the newest hits. The humour is based on the interaction between sindhen and a male comedian or the puppeteer himself. In these sketches, the female singers have to maintain a submissive yet coquettish attitude that confirms the male power and re-establish the ideal of Javanese femininity (Cooper, 2000). How can a non- Javanese woman contribute to this type of entertainment? “Foreignness” as a humouristic element in wayang comic interludes is a well- documented practice since the Narthosabdho era (Mrázek, 2005). Exoticism seems to be one of the features Javanese appreciate the most. For this reason, starting from the ‘70s, when the hiburan culture (the culture of entertainment, Lockard, 1998) started to highly influence the wayang world, sindhen coming from outside Java became determinant to the show, “And if they are not actually foreign or even markedly foreign, their exotic qualities will be exaggerated in performance” (Mrázek, 2005, p. 411). Engaging with a foreigner offers a great deal of linguistic jokes and acting out misunderstandings, the most fertile ground for dalang (puppeteer) ’s humour. Ki Narthosandho seemed to be the precursor of this practice: In a number of Ki Nartho Sabdho recorded performances, the dhalang has a longish comic conversation with a singer (pesindhen) from Banyumas, and then asks her to sing a song or two from Banyumas. The singer, as well as the dhalang, speaks in the Banyumas dialect of Javanese, which is easily understandable to speakers of other Javanese dialects, but is different enough to sound funny to them (Mrázek, 2005, p. 406). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 46 Still nowadays, some of the most famous and requested sindhen are those who manage to embody outstanding entertainment characteristics, often involving an element of ‘foreignness’. A remarkable example is that of a dear friend of mine, Lisa (Elisha Orcarus Allasso), guest star sindhen of the celebrated Yogyanese dalang Ki Seno Nugroho (who recently passed away). Elisha, born and raised in Yogyakarta, graduated from ISI in pedalangan and is a Javanese native speaker. She conquered her audience by pretending to be a native of Sulawesi island. During comic interludes, she stands up and interacts with the puppeteer imitating Sulawesi speakers’ accent, generating numerous linguistic mistakes and double meanings. Some people firmly believe that she comes from outside Java and talk about “the funny sindhen from Sulawesi”. However, in the multicultural globalised world of “jaman now”, coming from outside Java seems to be not enough. Due to the high inflow of foreign sindhen and changes in the performance practice (new popular repertoires, the request of social dancing, the involvement of new media) the presence of a “sindhen from abroad’” (sindhen mancanegara) has become a real trend. In 2018, I had several talks with some of the most famous foreign sindhen (Hiromi Kano, Agnes Serfozo, Megan O’Donoghue Williams) and I gathered diverse points of view. By what emerged from the talks I assumed that, in the current century, becoming a sindhen is a choice. Each woman artist chooses which model of femininity she wants to embody. She can follow old norms of tempo dulu (‘old times’) like Hiromi (pers. comm. May 15, 2018); she can become a contemporary extrovert superstar, like Megan (personal communication, May 13, 2018); she can lie in the middle adapting multifacted sindhen characters for diverse Javanese territories, like Agnes (personal communication, May 27, 2018). That said, the questions are: How should you behave if you are also a researcher? Which ideal of femininity should you embody? And, moreover, which role do local artists expect you to play in their performances? To discuss this latest issue, I can bring as an example my personal experience on stage. The case study that I am going to discuss is based on some brief extracts of a comic interlude (gara gara) in a shadow puppet theatre performance that I joined in East Java on September 3, 2016, with the famous dalang, Ki Warseno Slenk.6 The dialogue between me and the dalang during the comic interlude is as follows: [min. 0.05] Ki Slenk: “Halo, mbak Lia?” Me (in English): “Yes” Ki Slenk (in English): “You tired?” Me (in English): No. Ki Slenk (in English): “No? No tired? Wah, You fresh?” Me (in English): “Yes, fresh”. Ki Slenk (in English): “No lazy?” Me (in English): “No”. [min. 0.23] Ki Slenk (in Javanese): “If I speak Javanese can you understand?” Me (in Indonesian): “Just a little” Ki Slenk (in Javanese): “But you can dress up as a Javanese, who helped you?” Me (in Indonesian): “I did it by myself” Ki Slenk (in Indonesian): “How long have you studied?” Ilaria Meloni 47 Me (in Indonesian): “I have been doing it for two years, and now I can do it by myself”. Ki Slenk (in Indonesian): “But you are beautiful tonight” Me (in Indonesian): “Thank you”. Ki Slenk (in Indonesian): “Really. You are beautiful, smart, a doctor. I have a request: are you here on the 6th of September? When are you going back to Italy?” Me (in Indonesian): “Tomorrow!” Ki Slenk (in Indonesian): “Don’t come back! I still have many jobs...” [min. 1:20] Ki Slenk (in Indonesian): “I have still one request. Please tell everybody that Indonesia is not a country of terrorists. But Indonesia is a place of kind people and a worldwide known culture. And you can see by yourself the people of east Java. How they are extraordinary… aren’t they?” Me (in Indonesian): “Yes”. Ki Slenk (in Indonesian): “Yes, that is. You have to share this message. Indonesia has not to be considered extreme. No! A country of war… no! Indonesia doesn’t like war. Indonesia likes friendship and humanism”. It is evident from this dialogue how Ki Slenk stressed the fact that I was not only the sindhen cantik (“beautiful sindhen”, an epithet often used to describe female singers of all sorts), but I had an educational background. This was determinant in order to add credibility to the message that he wanted to convey. A message directed to Indonesian and foreign audiences (the performance was transmitted via live streaming). He used resonant terms like “worldwide culture” and “humanism”, in line with the slant that he wanted to give to the discourse. The switch between three languages (English, Javanese and Indonesian) is other evidence of his will to make his speech “world-embracing”. Another video, this one showing a performance by Ki Seno Nugroho, the most famous Yogyanese dalang, uploaded on YouTube by one of Ki Seno’s fans, constitutes an interesting case study. This video, showing the limbukan comic interlude, in which I was taking part, is entitled: “Calon doctor luar negeri membuat Ki Seno semakin bangga seni budaya Jawa!” (A PhD candidate from abroad made Ki Seno very proud of the Javanese culture!). Again, my academic title was preferred to the usual “sindhen cantik” and it was connected to the idea of ‘proudness of Javanese culture’. The video description reports: “Illary, a PhD student from Italy, is carrying out a research about Javanese culture, specifically on karawitan and wayang kulit, so that she joins the comic interlude hosted by dalang Ki Seno Nugroho”. The description ends with: “We feel proud that our Javanese culture is admired and researched abroad”. This was exemplary to me, about the determinant role that us researchers play when we gain access to the practice. For the artists, our interest and dedication to their performances is a way to legitimise their “culture” and “tradition”, with the hope that it can reach a worldwide appreciation through academic channels, stressing their “cultural” relevance and not only “folkloric fascination”, as it might represent for tourists. It is possible to analyse this phenomenon under several aspects. On the one hand, I adapted to a way of joking as the female singer, submissive and coquettish. On the other, the puppeteer used the fact that I was a foreigner to make humour about the language, to remark cultural diversity and to spread social messages and ideologies. The fact that I was a “doctor’” (actually, still a PhD candidate at the time) reinforced, in Ki Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 48 Slenk’s opinion, the power of my assertions. I could become a powerful means to convey puppeteer’s ideologies and messages, my words legitimised by my academic background. This, on the one hand, put me in a difficult position, since I felt the responsibility of what I should or should not say. Should I be honest and open in discussion based on my studies and knowledge or should I just agree with the dalang claims? In that specific performance, I decided to not expose myself too much, afraid that starting an open debate on politics and religion would not be polite on a wayang stage. Usually, these matters are filtered by the puppets on the screen and only explicated through their dialogues. Thence, I acted passively, as the average sindhen do, not bringing further argumentations to the topic, but just supporting the dalang, smiling and acting manis (sweet). I thought that, in this specific case, what the dalang wanted from me was just a reinforcement of his propaganda, validated by my academic position. However, in other performances, with other puppeteers and in different contexts, I decided to play the sindhen doctor role and to talk, for example, about vocal qualities or to teach Italian folksongs. It always depended on what the artist expected from me and how far could challenge the audience. What didn’t change was my attitude, still sopan santun (polite and graceful), a firm requirement for a sindhen, whatever her role played on stage. Therefore, in my experience, the adaptation came from both sides. On the one hand, I embodied a mannered, feminine singer yet maintained my foreign researcher feature, which was also the key through which the puppeteers could make jokes and promote their ideas. On the other hand, the puppeteer allowed me to investigate from inside stage mechanisms, helping my research not only offering me a direct insight into the practice but becoming an active part of it. To quote Baily (2001), “At the end of the day, the researcher becomes the researched” (p. 96). Discussion Besides learning and performing, I conducted classic ethnographic research, involving interviews (or “talks”), data processing and field recordings. The practice-led research has been useful to me to deeply understand how the vocal semi-improvisation on gamelan works and to make accurate transcriptions and analysis using Javanese musical vocabulary and theories or proper ilmu karawitan. It helped me investigate knowledge transmission, having a wider comprehension of learning processes and observing new critical and theoretical approaches adopted by some Javanese teachers, who started to use written/analytical methods aimed at addressing the needs of researchers/practitioners (local and foreigner). Furthermore my merging into the performance practice of shadow puppet theatres created continuity between my researcher and performer roles so that: “The research becomes an extension of the performance” (Penny, 2014). It allowed me to conciliate two different identities (sindhen and dokter) and to deeply modify my way to conceive music and performing arts. Also, my vocal technique has been dramatically affected by the sindhenan training. In 2018, during a class with my Italian vocal teacher, he looked a bit upset because I put too much “twang” (McDonald, 2005) in the voice and I tended to sustain the final note of every musical phrase with prolonged vibrato in a Javanese way. He asked me to sing “less Indonesian”. This request, other than making me unashamedly proud for mastering sindhenan until that point, gave me interesting causes for reflections on the diversity of the Western and Javanese vocal practices. The fact that I inserted all sorts of Javanese music (from gamelan to Ilaria Meloni 49 dangdut) in my music playlist, might be another factor that has contributed in modifying my music aesthetical perception. Enacting the role of foreign sindhen has been determinant to understand the current developments of Javanese music and performing arts, to discover who is the female singer in the current century and what meets the contemporary audience demand. In order to achieve a full comprehension of the Javanese contemporary art context, it has been very important to become an active performer and not just an “observant” or a “guest”, to experience what does it mean to be an embodiment of “Javanese femininity” (despite not being Javanese) and the ways sindhen interact with the male artists and audience. I could witness in first person how gender ideology is determinant in the Javanese arts. Since my first year at ISI Yogya, I had been encouraged to learn singing instead of rebab or pedalangan, which were considered more appropriate for males in a traditional environment. Also, the jokes with the dalangs on stage were often sexually-oriented and put me in a critical position, between the emancipated Western woman mindset and the Javanese traditional feminine-ideal, coquettish and submissive. This compromise made me continuously re-negotiating my identity and I could notice the huge gap between the diverse conceptions of “femininity”. Another determinant consequence of the “bi-musical” or “performance-led” approach has been that of rethinking myself as a “musical being” and not as a separate entity from “fieldwork”. This is necessary for a discipline studying, “Why and how human beings are musical” (Rice, 2014, p. 1). Most of all, learning and performing have been necessarily intertwined with the research in order to cut barriers and to exchanging/sharing knowledge, methodologies and perspectives. Nevertheless, it is fundamental to define the object of study, in which way the practice contributes to the investigation and decide to what extent one can go. But even in doing this, the collaboration of teachers and artists is determinant, it is a solid point of reference that can also change the research targets and totally overturn her/his theoretical assumptions and mindset. Being a sindhen and not only a researcher helped me to interweave solid relationships with artists and teachers and to have great accessibility to performative frameworks. I always introduced myself as a “sindhen”, rather than a “researcher”, and that made my interlocutors feel at “home”, without the embarrassment that one can feel in front of a foreign scholar. For the artists I collaborated with, my title was a means to increase the prestige of their performance and to look for a link with the outside world to promote their culture through reputable channels. For my teachers, it was a tool to improve and widen their teaching methodology. Giannattasio (2017) states: But it is also true that the human community has never been as close as now to the possibility of exchanging and sharing values, knowledge and symbolic practices, including the musical one (p. 20). It is also true that I was conscious that I could not always properly balance learning, practice and research, especially for a matter of time. My PhD programme had a very strict duration of 3 years, with a maximum of 6 months extension for major reasons. In this short amount of time, joining the world of shadow puppet theatre has not been easy. Evening performances have an average of eight hours duration and once you are in the sindhen clothes you cannot hold a camera (it’s not polite), you can only record and take notes. I had to alternate Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 50 the sindhen and the researcher’s outfits and, I admit, I often preferred the sindhen one. On this point, I have to agree with Baily’s statement: “The person who uses learning to perform as a research technique is unlikely to stop once fieldwork is over. On the contrary, you tend to take on the music as your own” (Baily, 2001, p. 96). I want to make the last remark about the foreign sindhen issue. One might argue that it is a practice that can determine changes in the traditional performing context but this is a very debatable issue. I believe that more than determining the changes in action we just become part of them, contributing to cutting barriers in a more and more globalised and “transcultural” (Giannattasio & Giuriati, 2017) world. Conclusion In the contemporary, cosmopolitan era, I assume that the main challenge for an ethnomusicologist is no longer to adapt to other musical traditions. Many researchers do not even need to go to Java for playing gamelan, they can do it in their universities and embassies. The real challenge is to define our object of study to the degree the practice helps the actual research and vice versa. Moreover, it is determinant to find mutual exchanges with those who have always been defined as informants or researched, but that we would rather start to call colleagues or collaborators. Eventually, I can state that in my experience, practice-led research is not only helpful to access the investigated environment, but it is a way to put a bridge, not only between modes of analysis (Rice, 2014, p. 34), but also between diverse identities and mentalities of the “researcher” persona. This contributes to create an encounter of cultures and shared methodologies, to widen the perspectives and start taking into consideration analysis methodologies suggested by teachers and performers. This is determinant, in order to decolonise the research perspective and to create a solid base for what Italian scholars define as “transcultural musicology” (Giannattasio & Giuriati, 2017). A discipline which does not divide the scholars from the artists or the east from the west, which does not create borders and dichotomies but, rather, creates new ways to study and divulge knowledge in the world of music and performing arts, from multiple points of view. Ultimately, practice-led research is a useful tool for shaping the mindset of the researcher. By actively merging in the fieldwork and in the investigated practices, an individual coming from a different musical education background can overcome those initial prejudices indicated by Hood (1960). When revising and analysing data, I could switch from the insight view of the musician to the outside view of the researcher, counting on both practical musical skills and critical speculative thinking. This multi-sighted approach contributed indeed to the quality of the research without limiting the result to a pure speculation or, on the contrary, on a technical conservatory-like manual. All the planning, acting, reflecting and revising over the situations I encountered in learning as a sindhen changed my approach so that the bridge was not only put between a researcher and a collaborator/informant but between personal ways to intend the music and the musical research itself in a cross-cultural and interdisciplinary way. If we start from the assumption that music is made by individuals, therefore, I believe that individual experiences in making, performing and understanding music should be heard and be included in the debate, to guide future ethnomusicologists in the study of music, first of all as “musical beings” themselves. Ilaria Meloni 51 Acknowledgements Thanks to all my Javanese teachers – Pak Abdal, Pak Parto, Ibu Kesi, Ma’ Narsih, Pak Broto – who had the patience to help me learn so much during these years and to all the Javanese artists – Ki Seno Nugroho, Ki Warseno Slenk, Ki Puguh Prasetyo and many others – with who I had the pleasure to collaborate. Endnotes 1 In January 2020, the Pakualaman Palace in Yogyakarta opened the Pawiyatan Sindhen Muryawidyaswara, a specific school in which teachers from the main Yogyanese and Solonese academies train future sindhen. 2 The question of the riddle is translatable as: “The ancient Javanese word for “flower”, the flower belonging to Sri Kresna”. The answer is: “The word is puspita, the colorful flower in the palace”. The key of the riddle lies in the linguistic game between the first short sentence of the question (Kawi sekar) and the first short sentence of the answer (Lir Puspita). A clue of the answer is given in the second part of the question (Pe-pu-ndhen, in which the syllable -pu is the same starting the word pu-spita) and in the second part of the answer (pu-ra). A great corpus of the ancient Javanese riddles is constructed on these linguistic puzzles. What is important is not the meaning but the metrical structure which makes the sindhen able to elaborate the cadential patterns (cengkok). 3 Gong'n'Roll. (2020, June 29). Sindhen Titik Sumiarish Ladrang Wilujeng [Video].YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pQYCu9RTG48 . 4 Especially with the lyrics in ngapak (another dialect different from that of central Java) which every musician doodled on my notebook, after desperate requests, in slightly different versions, all equally accepted in the practice. Indeed, the case of standardisation and cultural hegemony of some areas is a related and interesting topic, which emerged from several researches (see Sutton 1991, Sumarsam, as cited in Solís, 2004), but it will be not further discussed in this paper. 5 Javanese have different ways to address foreign sindhen: sindhen bule (literally “white” or “albino” sindhen, a less refined terminology often used to address tourists or foreigners in general); sindhen asing (“foreign” sindhen); sindhen manca (sindhen “from afar”) or sindhen luar negeri (sindhen “from abroad”). Sometimes, I also heard the more ironical expression sindhen import (“imported” sindhen) or the specification of the native country, for example: sindhen Amerika, or sindhen Itali. 6 Gong'n'Roll. (2020, June 29). Sindhen Docor Goro Goro [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RNF4QSJx2c References Babiracki, C. (1997). Reflections on gender and research in village India. In G. Bartz & T.J. Cooley (Eds.). Shadows in the field: New perspectives for fieldwork in ethnomusicology (pp. 121- 136). Oxford University Press. Baily, J. (2001). Learning to perform as a research technique in ethnomusicology. The British Journal of Ethnomusicology, 10 (2), 85-98. Bartz, G. & Cooley T. J. (Eds.). (1997). Shadows in the field: New perspectives for fieldwork in Ethnomusicology. Oxford University Press. Benamou, M. (2010). Rasa: Affect and intuition in Javanese musical aesthetics. Oxford University Press. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (25-52) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 52 Blacking, J. (1967). Venda children's songs: A study in ethnomusicological analysis. Witwatersrand University Press. Blacking, J. (1973). How musical is man? University of Washington Press. Blacking, J. (1977). An introduction to Venda traditional dances. Dance Studies, 2, 34-56. Brinner, B. (2008). Music in Central Java. Experiencing music, Expressing culture. Oxford University Press. Candy, L. (2006). Practice-based research: A guide. http://www. creativityandcognition.com/resources/PBR%20Guide-1.1-2006.pdf. Cooper, N. (2000). Singing and silence: Transformations of power through Javanese seduction scenarios. American Ethnologist, 27(3), 609-644. Dean, R. T. & Smith, H. (Eds.). (2009). Practice-led research, research-led practice in the creative arts: Research methods for the arts and humanities. Edinburgh University Press. Di Bernardi, V. (1995). Introduzione allo Studio del Teatro Indonesiano: Giava e Bali. La Casa Usher. Giannattasio, F. (2017). Perspectives on a 21st century comparative musicology: An introduction. In Giannattasio F. & Giuriati G. (Eds.). Perspectives on a 21st century comparative musicology: Ethnomusicology or transcultural musicology? (pp. 10-29). Nota, Intersezioni Musicali. Giannattasio, F. & Giuriati, G. (Eds.). (2017). Perspectives on a 21st century comparative musicology: Ethnomusicology or transcultural musicology? Nota, Intersezioni Musicali. Giuriati, G. & Hood, M. (1995). La voie du gamelan. Entretien avec Ki Mantle Hood. Chaiers d’ethnomusicologie, 8, 193-214. Gong'n'Roll. (2020, June 29). Sindhen Titik Sumiarish Ladrang Wilujeng [Video].YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pQYCu9RTG48 . Gong'n'Roll. (2020, June 29). Sindhen Docor Goro Goro [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RNF4QSJx2c Hood, M. (1960). The Challenge of Bi-Musicality. Ethnomusicology 4(2), 55-59. Jones, A. M. (1934). African drumming. Bantu Studies 8, 1-16. Kisliuk, M. (1997). Undoing fieldwork: Sharing songs, sharing lives. In G. Bartz & T.J. Cooley (Eds.). Shadows in the field: New perspectives for fieldwork in ethnomusicology (pp. 23-44). Oxford University Press. Lockard, C. A. (1998) Dance of life: Popular music and politics in Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. Lysloff, R. (2001). Rural Javanese “tradition” and erotic subversion: Female dance performance in Banyumas (Central Java). Asian Music, 33(1), 1-24. McDonald, M. K. (2005). Estill voice training system level one: Compulsory figures for voice control, think voice series, Estill Voice Training System International, Pittsburgh. Meloni, I. (2021). Show time for the sindhen or the time of limbukan: New performance practices and musical repertoires in the comic interlude of Yogyanese wayang kulit. In G. Giuriati (Ed.). Patterns of change in the traditional music of Southeast Asia. Nota, Intersezioni Musicali. Mrázek, J. (2005). Phenomenology of a puppet theatre. KITLV Press. Penny, J. (2014). Reflections on practice-led research methods and their application in music performance research. Malaysian Journal of Music, 3(2), 84-92. Rahayu, S. (2017). Garap sindhenan Surabayan Jawa Timur. Penerbit ISI Surakarta. Rice, T. (2014). Ethnomusicology. A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. Sedana, I. N. (2005). Collaborative music in the performance of Balinese shadow theatre. Asian Music, 36(1), 44-59. Solís, T. (Ed). (2004). Performing Ethnomusicology: Teaching and representation in world music ensembles. University of California Press. Ilaria Meloni 53 Sumarsam. (2004). Opportunity and interaction. The gamelan from Java to Wesleyan. In T. Solis (Ed). Performing Ethnomusicology. University of California Press. Sutton, R. A. (1984). Who is the pesindhen? Notes on the female singing tradition in Java. Indonesia, 37, 119-133. Sutton, R. A. (1987). Variation and composition in Java, Yearbook for Traditional Music, 19, 65-95. Sutton, R. A. (1991). Traditions of gamelan music in Java: Musical pluralism and regional identity. Cambridge University Press. Turino, T. (2008). Music as social life: The politics of participation. University of Chicago Press. Walton, S. (1987). Mode in Javanese music. Ohio University Press. Biography Ilaria Meloni completed her PhD programme on September the 19th, 2019, at La Sapienza University of Rome, with summa cum laude. She has been living, researching and performing traditional female singing in Java (Indonesia) since 2013 in different contexts (karawitan, wayang kulit, kroncong), collaborating with the Institute of the Arts of Yogyakarta. She has been active in gamelan rehearsals and concerts organised by the Indonesian Embassy in Rome and the Indonesian Embassy to the Holy See (Vatican). Currently, she is conducting an internship in karawitan to the Sultan Palace of Yogyakarta and carrying out a team research on sindhen voice quality with a specialised phoniatrician.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 1 (2021)

music education, elementary schools, Yangon, Myanmar

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/366

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3899

The Current Status of Elementary Music Education in Yangon, Myanmar

Public schools in Myanmar have offered music education as part of the regular curriculum since 2000; however, very little information is available about the current teaching practices of music education as well as differences and problems regarding music education in different types of schools. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the current status of elementary music education in Yangon, Myanmar in three different types of schools: Public schools, private schools, and international schools. A mixed-method design was employed to achieve the purposes of the study. Qualitative data were collected using in-depth interviews with seven key informants. Quantitative data were collected from 93 respondents—33 music teachers and 60 classroom teachers responsible for teaching music—using a web-based questionnaire and telephone interviews. Both the quantitative and qualitative results indicated that compared to private schools and public schools, international schools receive more practical support in terms of qualified music teachers, standard music programmes, and excellent facilities. Although the Ministry of Education in Myanmar has commenced curriculum reform to include music as a compulsory subject in public schools at the elementary level since the 2016-2017 academic year, there are still many challenges regarding music training for teachers, the effectiveness of music curricula, and adequate support for music facilities and other necessities such as musical instruments, teaching aids, musical equipment, and educational resources. The findings of the study also confirm that the support of the government is crucial for music education policy and partnership in Public schools and Private schools.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3899/2866

Saw Moses 53 The Current Status of Elementary Music Education in Yangon, Myanmar Saw Moses1, Kyle Fyr2 College of Music, Mahidol University Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, 73170 Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Natee Chiengchana3 Ratchasuda College, Mahidol University Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, 73170 Thailand e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published : 21 April 2021 Cite this article (APA): Moses, S., Fyr, K., & Chiengchana, N. (2021). The current status of elementary music education in Yangon, Myanmar. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10 (1), 53- 71. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.4.2021 Abstract Public schools in Myanmar have offered music education as part of the regular curriculum since 2000; however, very little information is available about the current teaching practices of music education as well as differences and problems regarding music education in different types of schools. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the current status of elementary music education in Yangon, Myanmar in three different types of schools: Public schools, private schools, and international schools. A mixed-method design was employed to achieve the purposes of the study. Qualitative data were collected using in-depth interviews with seven key informants. Quantitative data were collected from 93 respondents—33 music teachers and 60 classroom teachers responsible for teaching music—using a web-based questionnaire and telephone interviews. Both the quantitative and qualitative results indicated that compared to private schools and public schools, international schools receive more practical support in terms of qualified music teachers, standard music programmes, and excellent facilities. Although the Ministry of Education in Myanmar has commenced curriculum reform to include music as a compulsory subject in public schools at the elementary level since the 2016-2017 academic year, there are still many challenges regarding music training for teachers, the effectiveness of music curricula, and adequate support for music facilities and other necessities such as musical instruments, teaching aids, musical equipment, and educational resources. The findings of the study also confirm that the support Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (53-71) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 54 of the government is crucial for music education policy and partnership in Public schools and Private schools. Keywords: elementary school, music curricula, music education, Myanmar, Yangon Introduction As music education impacts child development at an early age, many countries provide music as a compulsory subject in their elementary schooling. Although there is very little accessible research data on the current status of music education in Myanmar, elementary music education is offered in three different types of schools: public schools, private schools, and international schools. Public schools introduced music as a co-curricular subject under the topic of aesthetic education at the primary level in the 2000-01 academic year (Ministry of Education [MOE], 2012). There are no exact details about the introduction of music education in private schools and international schools. However, Onishi & Young (2012) reported the international schools with a music programmes in their research study as follows: 1. Horizon Kindergarten, Taunmwe Township, Rangoon/Yangon, 2. International Language and Business Center (ILBC), Rangoon/ Yangon and Mandalay, 3. International School of Yangon, 4. Network Primary School, Sanchaung Township, Rangoon/Yangon, 5. Yangon International Education Centre, 6. Yangon International School (YIS) (Onishi and Young, 2012) According to the information provided by the websites of all these schools above, the oldest international school is the International School of Yangon (ISY), founded in 1955, so music education in international schools can be said to have begun in 1955. “The Private School Registration Law” was enacted by Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, the Assembly of the Union, Myanmar, in December 2011 (Myanmar Law2, 2011). It was the first such legislation since private schools were nationalised in 1965 at the time of Ne Win’s government (Kyaw, 2015). Therefore, it can be said that 2012 marked the beginning of music education in private schools, which have to follow the guidelines of the MOE. There were just over 50 private schools in the 2012-13 academic year, but the number of private schools quickly increased to 585 in the 2016-17 academic year following the enactment of the Private School Registration Law (Oxford Business Group, 2018). A general overview of music education in Yangon is that the approach toward music education in all types of schools varies in terms of curriculum Saw Moses 55 design, teaching methods, and support. Most of the private schools follow the same music curriculum used in public schools provided by the MOE, but with the additional enrichment of music programmes. International schools mostly use an international music curriculum, but a self-developed music curriculum is used in some international schools. The effectiveness and benefits of music education in elementary schools in Yangon are locally varied according to their support and encouragement. Background of the Study The beginning of Western music education in Myanmar was recognised as the practice of all students singing hymns at mission schools during the daily Christian worship, regardless of the religious background of the students’ families. There were some embryonic marching bands in those schools that typically played marching music and the Myanmar national anthem at school events, assemblies, and some special occasions. Although The Rangoon State School of Fine Arts attempted to have Western music education in their curriculum by appointing a pianist, Ms. Doris Htoo, who is a Karen (currently known as Kayin, an ethnic minority group in Myanmar), as a curriculum organiser of music in 1950, this project was terminated at the time of Ne Win’s government, which was from 1962 to 1988 (Onishi & Young, 2012). Christian communities were considered the crucial societies for the early Western music education in Myanmar. People in these societies had a chance to be in touch with music in regular church service activities—singing hymns, choirs, sing-song-service, and Sunday schools for young adults and older people. The majority of the Christian people could not be found among the Burmese, but in other ethnic groups—Karen, Palaung, Chin, Kachin, Anglo-Indian, and some Shan and Mon communities. Christian Karen was generally regarded as the group of people who were most familiar with Western music among all people in Myanmar. Other Myanmar people, on the other hand, explored Western music differently by listening to miscellaneous songs from the Burma Broadcasting Service, BBS (currently known as Myanmar Radio and Television, MRTV), which presented Western music programmes once a week with descriptions and explanations (Onishi & Young, 2012). Although music education was not included in Myanmar school curricula in the past, there has been one option for the students to explore Burmese traditional music in the So-Ka-Ye-Ti annual competition for every age level from kindergarten to high school and above in two types: amateur and professional (Onishi & Young, 2012). The So-Ka-Ye-Ti competition’s name derives from a shortened form of a Myanmar word which means “Myanmar nationalities singing, dancing, composing and instrument playing Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (53-71) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 56 competition” (Soe, 2016). This annual event commenced in 1993, entirely supported by the government. The government has been supporting this event with the purpose of preserving and inspiring the intrinsic nature of the national culture in Myanmar. It also aims that the competition will bring the people from different states and divisions to engage in the national unity process. This competition, however, focuses only on Burmese traditional and classical music, Mahagita, with ethnic minority music not included (Douglas, 2001; Soe, 2016). Purpose of the Study In Myanmar, many people in the society of music and education can describe the general view of the current music education in public schools, private schools, and international schools. However, there is a lack of detailed information and research studies to be found in this area. At present, music is a part of the educational system in Myanmar. However, the fundamentals of teaching methods, teaching materials, and curriculum design are inadequate in public schools (UNICEF Myanmar, 2018). International schools, by contrast, usually provide the essential principles of a standard music education since they have higher budgets. Private schools are in different categories due to their budgets. Some private schools can provide educational resources adequately, but not all (Kyaw, 2015). Nevertheless, there have been no previous investigations to describe the details of current music education in Myanmar. As the impact of music education on child development is highly significant at the elementary level, the study on this topic is perceived as an essential part of reforming, advancing, and developing future music education in Myanmar. The purpose of this study was to investigate the current status of elementary music education in three different types of schools in Yangon— public schools, private schools, and international schools. For logistic reasons, this research was limited to studying music education at the elementary level attached to high schools—Basic Education High Schools, BEH (public); Private High Schools, PHS; and International Schools, IS (K-12). Elementary schools that were not connected to the high school level were excluded from the study. The purpose of this study is to (a) address currently existing characteristics of elementary music education—demographics, curriculum design, teaching content, teaching materials, assessments, parent-teacher relationship, extracurricular activities, and the instructors’ perception of teaching music—in public schools, private schools, and international schools in Yangon, Myanmar; and (b) examine educators’ perspectives on elementary music education at these schools. Furthermore, this study aims to provide an Saw Moses 57 essential awareness of music education to the teachers in these schools who have no formal music training. Literature Review The Importance of Music Education at the Elementary Level Music education is widely considered to benefit young children in their growth, development, and maturation. Music can raise levels of physical development, emotional development, intellectual development, and social development for young children. Music can be used as a tool to promote social skills and aptitudes for the children in their early education. The experience of music in childhood effectively aids the progress of child development (Wood, 1996). Music and movement are vital activities for physical development in children. Musical movements can be considered as a child’s first language in learning music (Blythe, 2014). Listening and responding physically to music in terms of clapping, marching or other physical movements with tempo variation is significant for training the psychomotor abilities of the children (Anderson, 2013). Productive and enjoyable learning in the classroom can be enhanced by using music, as subjects that are collaborated with music can help students to learn more actively and comfortably during the teaching and learning process (Flohr & Trollinger, 2010). Music can be considered a subject for the students to enjoy and relax while other subjects keep them under high pressure (Swanson, 1969). There is a relationship between humans and music in the responding and reaction of every musical experience such as “tension and release, density and transparency, a smooth or angry surface, the music swellings and subsidings, its pushing forward or hanging back, its length, its speed, its thunders and whisperings” (Copland, 1952). Many research studies suggest that music can encourage the development of the sense of hearing, which can interact with the process of typical sound related to language development, reading skills, and excellent communication skills (Bergland, 2013; Gersema, 2016; Locker, 2014). There is an effect of building the brain while children play musical instruments, and composing and improvising can be valuable tools for children to develop their creativity (Sullivan, Willingham, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). Children can express their feelings of happiness or sadness by playing musical instruments or singing. Campbell & Scott-Kassner (1995) also stated that “Teaching music without allowing children to compose would be like teaching art without allowing children to draw or paint, or teaching writing by having children copy other people’s work.” Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (53-71) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 58 Music Teachers and Classroom Teachers at the Elementary Level Classroom teachers are very often responsible for teaching music although music teachers are sometimes available in schools. Students spend most of their time in learning with the classroom teachers rather than with music specialists, which can be problematic as these classroom teachers have generally not been trained to be music teachers. The skills of teaching music for classroom teachers at the elementary level are paramount because they are responsible for teaching music and they spend a greater amount of time with the students than other teachers (Anderson, 2013). In addition, a research study by Hash (2010) on classroom teachers’ attitudes toward music in the elementary curriculum indicated that most classroom teachers did not feel comfortable teaching music as a subject. They believed that a specialist should teach music. They also disagreed with the idea that classroom teachers should be able to teach music. Music and Education in Myanmar In the tradition of learning Myanmar classical music, the method of rote learning is fundamental and common. Although the lyrics of a song can be written down, the melody, the pitch, and the accompaniment must be taught by a teacher verbally. The songs are chosen carefully and systematically by the teachers for the students. There are 13 songs, (13 kyou), for the students to begin learning Myanmar classical music. Using voice symbols or oral notes has been the primary approach of teaching and learning methods to study Myanmar music (Myaing, 2004). The Ministry of Education (MOE) is the central organisation responsible for providing education in Myanmar, operating with a concept “to create an education system that will generate a learning society capable of facing the challenges of the Knowledge Age” (MOE, 2004). In 2014, the CREATE Project (The Project for Curriculum Reform at Primary Level of Basic Education in Myanmar) was established by the MOE and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The objective of the project was to develop new textbooks for primary education, teacher’s guides, and assessment, including the introduction of new primary education to in-service and pre-service teachers. The new curriculum has been applied to Kindergarten in 2016, Primary 1 in 2017, and Primary 2 in 2018 (CREATE, 2018). Painting and music were introduced into the curricula of primary schools and middle schools as aesthetic education in the 2000-01 academic year by the MOE (Lwin, 2002; MOE, 2004, 2012). It was a campaign to revise and upgrade the former curricula and syllabi by adding not only aesthetic Saw Moses 59 education but also general studies, social studies, and other school activities. The objective of including aesthetic education in the curriculum is to promote nationalism, synergism, and getting involved in school activities, social activities, and some events of the government (MOE, 2012). The enrichment of Western music education is privileged in the environment of Myanmar’s international schools. Every international school provides a variety of musical experiences through classroom education, annual or occasional activities, and exclusive music events. Due to the high rate of school fees in international schools, most middle-class people are unable to support their children to study in those schools. The International Language & Business Centre (ILBC) has the highest population of students among all international schools in Myanmar (Onishi & Young, 2012). Methodology In this study, a convergent parallel design was used to investigate the current status of elementary music education that attached to the high school in Yangon, Myanmar. A mixed-method design, employing both quantitative and qualitative methods, was used in this study. The researchers divided the study into two strands in order to get in-depth information on elementary music education in Yangon. A total of 100 respondents, seven key-informants for the qualitative strand and 93 teachers for the quantitative strand, participated in this research study. One-to-one interviews were conducted with seven open- ended questions in the qualitative strand. In the quantitative strand, web-based questionnaires and telephone interviews were used to collect the data. Qualitative Strand In the qualitative strand, the researchers gathered data through interviews with seven key informants. Based on the interview questions, the researchers selected seven key informants who (a) were concerned with the development of music education in public, private, and international schools, and (b) have at least ten years’ experience in music education. The participants for the qualitative interviews were a (a) managing director from one of the IS (b) head of school from one of the BEHS (c) director from one of the PHS (d) managing director of a music business company (e) government official who was responsible in developing music curricula (f) freelance education consultant of the MOE, and (g) department head of music from the National University of Arts and Cultures. The researchers used seven open-ended questions in these qualitative interviews that were in part based on a previous study by Cajas (2007) and the core results were determined through inductive data analysis. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (53-71) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 60 Quantitative Strand In the quantitative strand, web-based questionnaires and telephone interviews were conducted with elementary music teachers and elementary classroom teachers who were responsible for teaching music. As a means of acquiring extensive information about the base and framework of elementary music education in Yangon, the researchers arranged a survey questionnaire established on research studies conducted by Cajas (2007), Mundle (2008), Lee (2013), and May (2015) in the quantitative strand. Adapting the ideas and formats of the preceding studies, the researchers modified the present survey and added some related questions suited to the specific aspects of elementary music education in Yangon, Myanmar. The survey questionnaires were sent to three outside experts for evaluating the validity of the research instruments, and the survey questionnaires were revised in reference to the comments and suggestions from the three experts before the data collection. Elementary music teachers and elementary classroom teachers who were responsible for teaching music in Basic Education High Schools (BEHS), Private High Schools (PHS), and International schools (IS) were contacted to participate in the study. Based on the overall number of schools, there were 93 participants in this research survey from 18 townships in Yangon: 61 from BEHS, nine from PHS, and 23 from IS. The inclusion criteria of questionnaire participants in this study were: (a) at least two years’ experience or responsibility in music teaching; (b) singing or playing at least one musical instrument; (c) willingness to participate in the study; and (d) recommendation by head or director of school. According to the recommendation from head of school from BEHS, however, two respondents had teaching experience of less than one year. A total of 45 survey questions were comprised of multiple-choice questions, checklists, closed-ended questions, semi-closed-ended questions with short answers, and Likert-type questions. The survey was conducted both in English and Myanmar languages. Usually, the medium of instruction in IS was English; however, the Myanmar language was common in BEHS and PHS. All of the survey questionnaires were created in a Google Form and sent to all the participants through email, Facebook Messenger, and Viber. The information about the consent form was attached to the survey questionnaire. The responses to the 45 survey questionnaires were gathered as the quantitative data for this study using a Google Form. SPSS software was employed to analyse descriptive statistics, including standard deviation, frequency, and percentage to present the quantitative findings. Saw Moses 61 Qualitative Results The Importance of Music All of the interview participants in this investigation valued music education as a compulsory subject at the elementary level. Although their views on music education varied, they firmly asserted that music education was necessary at elementary schools in Myanmar. Some interviewees emphasised that music is a tool for child development at the elementary level. The goal of teaching music in schools was not for the students to become musicians, but it is a tool to emphasise the importance of music. Music education is also a tool that can help develop people’s abilities to express their feelings. Music at the elementary level is suitable for intellectual development and music can support the students in their elementary education through listening and responding activities. Emotional development is one of the essential benefits of music education mentioned by interview participants. They stated that when children have a music class, they look happier than in other classes. They all enjoy doing musical activities. Some students even want to stay longer in music class because they feel happy. Moreover, building teamwork is one of the benefits of music education. Music activities such as choir, dance, and movement can allow students to learn how to work cooperatively. Some of the key-informants strongly believed that creativity is one of the essential goals for teaching music at schools. Arts and sciences have different objectives in the school curriculum. Music Programme According to the results of the interviews, the current situation of music education in BEHS, PHS, and IS differs in terms of facilities, government support, teaching methods. The lack of cooperation between the music societies and the government was also cited as one of the factors in the current state of music education. At the present time, music is a compulsory subject in BEHS. Nevertheless, it is still weak in most of the schools. Some of the schools from BEHS have to struggle to hold a regular teaching period for music. Although the new music curriculum has been implemented in BEHS, the teachers did not have enough training for music classes. The current music education in PHS is similar to BEHS as they are attached to the MOE. Based on the budget, the quality of the music programme is different among PHS. On the other hand, most of the PHS include the music class for commercial use to attract the parents’ interest. Music education in IS is more prominent than in BEHS and PHS. Almost all of the IS have enough budget to Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (53-71) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 62 support their music programmes in terms of music facilities, teaching aids, and teaching methods. Although the curriculum objectives can be controversial in IS, they have significantly achieved a goal of developing music instruction independently. Main Challenges in Music Education The main challenges of current music education in BEHS, PHS, and IS can be classified into three categories: music teachers, awareness of music education, and budget. Most of the key-informants pointed out the lack of music teachers as the primary issue for the development of music education in Myanmar. One of the significant issues in supporting music education was the awareness of music education for government officials and parents. This significant issue results in the lack of budget in many public schools and private schools. Quantitative Results There were 93 respondents in this research survey from 18 townships: 61 from BEHS, nine from PHS, and 23 from IS. As the total population was 123 teachers, the return rate was 75.6%. The following results and interpretations were analysed from those 93 participants. Demographic Information The majority of the participants in this study were female (86%), and most of the respondents were between the ages of 50-59 (28.3%), 30-39 (25%), and 20-29 (23.9%). The largest portion (64.5%) was classroom teachers from BEHS and the rest were music teachers from PHS and IS. Most of the classroom teachers (47.7%) had to teach all subjects including music. There were (65.6%) full-time teachers and (34.4%) part-time teachers in this investigation. The current teaching grade of the majority of the teachers was primary 6 (41.4%), succeeded by primary 5 and primary 2 with the same rate (40.2%). Many teachers (48.3%) had to teach multiple grades, often ranging from two to four grades, and some teachers were even responsible for teaching all the grades at the elementary level from kindergarten to primary 6. A large number of teachers (47.7%) had total years of teaching experience between 1-5 years. Most of the teachers (46.2%) received the salary range between 200,000-399,999 MMK (approximately 155-310 USD). Only 8.8% of the music teachers from IS and PHS earned a high salary above 1,000,000 MMK (approximately 776 USD). Almost all of the teachers obtained a bachelor’s and master’s degree; only 1.2% did not have a degree. There were 5.8% of the teachers who received a Bachelor’s Degree in Music and another 5.8% teachers gained a Saw Moses 63 Master’s Degree in Music. More than half of the respondents from BEHS (56.7%) did not have a chance to receive formal music training but 41.7% received music training from an education college or university of education. On the other hand, almost the entire population from PHS and IS obtained formal music training from the National University of Arts and Cultures, church music centers, private music centers, private music teachers, and music college or university (Abroad). Teachers from BEHS did not have an opportunity for any training in music teaching methods such as Orff, Dalcroze, Kodaly, and Suzuki but 11.5% experienced Private Lessons. Voice or singing was the most frequent field of teachers' specialisation in music (41.3%). Almost all of the teachers (90.2%) from BEHS did not have music activities outside the schools, but all the music teachers from PHS and IS had the music activities such as singing in a choir, playing in the orchestra, music band, and most had experience in teaching private lessons. The majority of the research participants (65.6%) were from BEHS, (24.7%) from IS, and (9.7%) from PHS. The largest percentage of schools (72.2%) were full-day (1 section) and 27.8% of the schools were half-day (2 sections). The student population among all schools most frequently ranged from 500-999 (28.6%) and 2000 and above (27.5%). Many BEHS had a large ratio of students to teachers, even 60:1 in 12.5% of the schools. Myanmar language was the primary language at 90.2% of the schools in BEHS while most of PHS and IS used English and a combination of both. Music Programmes The highest rate of regular music schedule in all schools was once a week (47.3%) and the most frequent class duration was 31-45 minutes (75%). The MOE was the central organisation for curriculum development in BEHS (85.2%), and music teachers and director or head of music were the most responsible people for the music curriculum. The most important reason for using music as a subject was for enjoyment and recreation (41.6%) and the essential achievement objective was to develop motor skills (29.3%) and to promote creativity (26.8%). Only Myanmar songs or music was used in (68.9%) schools from BEHS. Most of the teachers (40.2%) applied the recorder playing in Primary 2. All of the teachers from BEHS (100%) never used Orff-Schulwerk, Dalcroze, and Kodaly in their music class as they did not receive training for such music teaching methods. However, most of the music teachers from PHS and IS applied those music teaching methods sometimes or often. Almost all of the music activities were used in BEHS with different portions except Talking about and recording composition. The majority of the teachers from Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (53-71) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 64 BEHS used “singing melody” as a daily activity (18%), weekly activity (49.2%), and monthly activity (11.5%). In PHS, “singing or playing along with the music” was mostly used by the music teachers as a daily activity (11.1%), weekly activity (66.7%), and monthly activity (11.1%). Unlike BEHS and PHS, the music teachers from IS used “exploring sounds (Environmental/Vocal/Body Percussion/Instruments)” as a daily activity (13%), Weekly activity (65.2%) and Monthly activity (13%). Across all schools, the majority of the teachers (71%) used observation of musical behaviours, tasks, and participation as their assessment methods. There was no assessment for music subjects in 31.1% of BEHS. The assessment results were shared with administrators (65.8%), parents (54.8%), teachers (34.2%), and students (41.1%). Most of the schools (51.6%) could not provide extracurricular music activities but choir (23.7%) and kabyarlut (Myanmar Dance) (23.7%) were the most frequent extracurricular activities in the rest of the schools. The schedules of the extracurricular music activities were mostly once a week (50%). The relationship between elementary music classroom and students’ families were mostly parent-teacher conference (25.8%) and performance or concert (21.5%). Music Facilities A yearly budget for the music equipment was available in 29% of the schools and 21.5% of the schools could apply Music Technology such as computers with music software. However, Internet access for music was only available at PHS (33.3%) and IS (39.1%) but not accessible at BEHS. Almost all of the teachers from BEHS (93.3%) used the music textbooks provided by the MOE. Most of the teachers from PHS and IS used a variety of general music textbooks from foreign countries. A large number of schools possessed percussion instruments (40.9%), electronic keyboard (36.6%), guitar (25.8%), and pattalar (Myanmar xylophone) (23.7%). The audio types of equipment CD or Audio Player were adequate in 67.7% of the schools and Educational Resources such as curriculum and teacher’s guide were adequate in 65.6% of the schools. Educators’ Perspectives The main problems perceived by the respondents in carrying out the music programme in the schools were lack of resources such as facilities, instruments, etc. (73.7%) and lack of money/ budget (52.6%). Musical instruments were the basic needs in many schools (57.6%), and Music Teachers were required at 34.8% of the schools. Music room, teaching aids, and music equipment were also essential in some other schools. Awareness of Saw Moses 65 Music Education and the appreciation from society for job satisfaction were also highlighted as primary issues in music programmes from some PHS and IS music teachers. Discussion This study serves as the initial research of not only the status of current teaching practices in elementary music classes but also of the differences and main problems regarding music education in all types of schools in Yangon, Myanmar. Both the qualitative and quantitative results help provide an overview of the current music education situation in Myanmar. In the qualitative strand, the outcome revealed the viewpoints and evaluations of key- informants on the current status of music education in Yangon that covered the importance of music education in Myanmar, the overall setting of current teaching music in schools, and the main obstacles in carrying out music programmes in BEHS, PHS, and IS. The quantitative strand reported the demographic information about teachers and schools, the current teaching practices and context regarding elementary music classrooms in different types of schools, the support for the music facilities, and the educators’ perspectives on the problems and the needs of the music education in Yangon, Myanmar. Shortage and Training of Music Teachers As noted above, 64.5% of the respondents were classroom teachers who were responsible for teaching music in BEHS. Among them, 56.7% of classroom teachers did not have a chance for formal music training. All of the remaining respondents were music teachers from PHS and IS. This finding confirms the comment of Interviewee 6: “There are no music teachers in government schools. No music teacher training is also available for teachers.” This fact also reveals the needs reported by 47.7% of the respondents from BEHS that music teachers were required at the school music programme. However, there were 2% of music teachers among the participants from BEHS, which corroborated the statement of Interviewee 2: There are no music teachers in BEHS. But some BEHS can hire part-time music teachers who are graduated from NUAC (National University of Arts and Cultures), and some marching band directors who are retired from a military band. It is a deficiency of HR and salaries. (Interviewee 2, 2018) Based not only on the dearth of government support but also the government’s policy which restricts collecting money from the parents, the majority of the BEHS in Yangon could not hire music teachers. However, quite a few schools with substantial financial support from the parents could hire Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (53-71) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 66 some music teachers and provide the music programme with some amount of qualities and facilities. In contrast, all PHS and IS had the respondents with the title of the music teacher. Moreover, most of the classroom teachers (47.7%) from BEHS were responsible for teaching all subjects, including music. This result also reveals the burden of classroom teachers in teaching music. Most of the classroom teachers mentioned this issue during the visit to their schools by the researchers from June 2018 to May 2019. As they had a heavy workload in their daily schedule, not only in teaching many subjects but also in other activities, the responsibility of teaching music was a double burden for them. Since most of them (56.7% of the respondents from BEHS) did not receive formal music training, they were unconfident in teaching music. All these facts revealed that music teacher training was perhaps the most important factor in the development of music education in Yangon, Myanmar. Regarding the shortage of music teachers and the scarcity of music training in BEHS, on the other hand, music teachers from PHS and IS can incorporate music training if they are asked. Government and private sector collaboration can aid in the development of music education in BEHS. As there were part-time music teachers in PHS and IS, those types of teachers might be available for helping the classroom teachers in their general music classrooms. The technique of learning by doing with those music teachers is highly recommended for classroom teachers in this setting. Parental cooperation is also crucial in this case, as the government support has limitations. The role of the parent-teacher conference or meeting is imperative for hiring part-time music teachers. BEHS can invite some music educators to these conferences or meetings to deliver the awareness of music education for parents and teachers. Moreover, the critical finding concerning the experience of formal music training for classroom teachers in BEHS was highly significant in this investigation. More than half of the participants from BEHS (56.7%) did not have a chance to receive formal music training. It means that the classroom teachers in BEHS were responsible for teaching music without regular training. This fact was mentioned by Interviewee 4: “They (BEHS) have started music education in schools but have no proper or effective training for teachers for teaching music.” As a result, the classroom teachers from BEHS were not well prepared for teaching music as a subject. Many of them (47.7%) believed that music teachers or specialists were the most suitable persons for the music classroom. This finding aligns with the study by Hash (2010), in which the data indicated that most of the classroom teachers did not feel comfortable teaching music as a subject. They believed that a specialist should teach music, and they disagreed that classroom teachers should be able to teach music. This finding highlighted the fact that music teacher training in Saw Moses 67 Myanmar is urgently required not only for helping the current music teachers but also for the classroom teachers who are responsible for teaching music. Furthermore, even though 62% of the participants experienced formal music training, only a small percentage of respondents (15.1%) obtained training in music teaching methods such as: Orff-Schulwerk (17.2%), Dalcroze (16.1%), Kodaly (16.1%), and Suzuki (10.8%). Regarding educational background, formal music training, and knowledge of prominent music teaching methods, it is clear that most of the respondents did not have an opportunity to be well-trained as music teachers. This fact was also highlighted in the statement of Interviewees 1 and 6 as a big issue in music education: “The no.1 problem is the shortage of music teachers.” “There are no music teachers in government schools. No music teacher training is also available for teachers.” Music Programmes In BEHS, the MOE was the central organisation for curriculum development (85.2%), while Music teachers and Director or Head of Music were the most responsible people for the music curriculum in PHS and IS. Although PHS were supposed to follow the curriculum provided by the MOE, all of them developed their music curriculum based on the market demands (Interviewee 3, Interviewee 4, 2018). As the music curriculum was confidential in most of the schools except BEHS, this survey’s results on curriculum objectives represent only the respondents’ opinions. The most important reason for using music as a subject by the majority of the participants (41.6%) was for enjoyment and recreation. This fact is congruent with the statement of Interviewee 3: “I want the children to have relaxation and recreation by learning music. It is the main target for me for teaching music. It’s good for the affective domain.” The comment of Interviewee 2 also supports the idea that students have to spend the whole day learning many subjects, which makes them tired. Using music as a tool to release tension and arouse the feeling of relaxation thus aligns with the writings of Copland (1952), Swanson (1969), and Flohr and Trollinger (2010). Music teaching methods varied between BEHS and the two other types of schools. All of the teachers from BEHS Never used Orff-Schulwerk, Dalcroze, and Kodaly in their music classes as they had no experience with these methods. The questionnaire from this study thus served as a tool for providing awareness of music teaching methods for those teachers. There were questions about the teaching methods by these participants during and after the quantitative data collection. It was one of the successful outcomes of this study as it aimed to provide an essential awareness of music education to teachers with no formal music training. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (53-71) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 68 The highest average of teaching methods used in BEHS was Myanmar traditional style (M = 2.60, SD = 1.29). Myanmar traditional style is the method of rote learning. Using “voice symbols” or “oral notes” has been the primary approach of teaching and learning methods to study Myanmar music (Myaing, 2004). On the other hand, all the music teaching methods listed above were used in PHS and IS. In PHS, Orff-Schulwerk teaching methods had the highest average (M = 2.55, SD = 1.33) use by the music teachers. Similar to PHS, the highest average for teaching methods used in IS was Orff- Schulwerk (M = 2.69, SD = 1.45). There was no assessment for music subject at BEHS which was checked by (31.1%) of the teachers. However, as the assessment for music is applied in the new curriculum since the 2016-17 academic year, the teachers from BEHS who follow the new curriculum are responsible for music assessment. Across all schools, the majority of the teachers (71%) used observation of musical behaviours, tasks, and participation as their assessment methods. Facilities and Budget Concerning the yearly budget for musical equipment, music technology, and internet access, IS had the most substantial support in music facilities among the two other types of schools. PHS had an average support rate, and BEHS received the lowest support. Despite the fact that recorder instruments were beginning to be used at most of the schools in Yangon, 28.3% of the survey respondents did not use them in their elementary music class. The largest group of the participants (40.2%) applied the recorder playing in Primary 2 followed by 29.3% in Primary 1, 28.3% in Primary 4, 27.2% in Primary 5, 21.7% in Primary 3 and Primary 6, and even in Kindergarten (5.4%). In PHS and IS, the students were responsible for buying a recorder on their own, and parents can also afford it. But in BEHS, it was noted by the researchers that there was no permission from the MOE to ask the parents to buy a recorder or palwe (similar to a recorder) for their children. MOE provided a recorder for every BEHS but not adequately. According to the researchers’ field notes, most BEHS received 10 to 15 recorders though there were more students (from 30 to 60 students) than the number of recorders. The students had to take their turn to play the recorder by sharing each other around the class. It was a huge issue for the personal hygiene of the students. Fortunately, in some BEHS, they discussed this issue with the parents and solved the problem through the parents’ support. Interviewee 2 stated that this issue in BEHS should be taken seriously by the government: Saw Moses 69 There are a lot of limitations in music education at BEHS. They are not independent to make the development as they want. They need to follow the instruction of the MOE. They have to be careful in working cooperatively with parents. Unless the parents are interested, the school can't get support from them. As there is a limited grant by the government, the awareness, and support of the parents are very important for the musical instruments and salary of the music teachers. (Interviewee 2, 2018) The support from the parents is critical in BEHS since the government budget is highly insufficient for music education. Parents will need to be responsible for some educational resources and teaching aids either in music or other subjects. The awareness of parents about music education and the government’s policy are thus very important for future music education in Myanmar, especially in public schools. The inadequacy of government support is considered a lack of appreciation for music education by some key informants. The development of music education cannot happen without serious support from the government. It is a massive issue for the improvement of future music education in Myanmar. Accordingly, the lack of awareness about music education mainly affects the budget deficit. Although the budget can be raised for the music programme, government policy is vital for a long-term plan. Conclusion In all, IS receive more practical support than PHS and BEHS in terms of qualified music teachers, standard music programmes, and excellent facilities. Although the MOE in Myanmar has commenced curriculum reform including music at the elementary level since the 2016-17 academic year, there are many challenges regarding music training for teachers, the effectiveness of music curricula, and the adequate support for music facilities and other necessities such as musical instruments, teaching aids, musical equipment, and educational resources. Support from the government is essential for music education not only in public schools but also in private schools in terms of policy and partnership. Moreover, public awareness of music education and cooperation between a small number of local music educators are vitally essential for the development of elementary music education in Myanmar. References Anderson, W. M. (2013). Integrating music into the elementary classroom: Cengage Learning. Blythe, S. G. (2014). Well balanced child: Movement and early learning: Hawthorn Press Limited. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (53-71) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 70 Bergland, C. (2013, November 13). Musical training optimizes brain function. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201311/musical-training- optimizes-brain-function Cajas, E. G. (2007). Music education in Central America: A comparative study of educational policies and practices in Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica. [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Oklahoma]. https://search.pro quest.com/docview/304834478?accountid=46528 ProQuest Dis-sertations & Theses Global database. Campbell, P. S., & Scott-Kassner, C. (1995). Music in childhood: From preschool through the elementary grades. Schirmer Books; Prentice Hall International. CREATE. (2018). Welcome to new primary curriculum website. https://createmm.org/en Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (Fourth ed.). Pearson Education, Inc. Copland, A. (1952). Music and imagination. Harvard University Press. Douglas, G. D. (2001). State patronage of Burmese traditional music. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Washington. Flohr, J. W., & Trollinger, V. L. (2010). Music in elementary education. Prentice Hall. Gersema, E. (2016, June 20). Children’s brains develop faster with music training. ttp://news.usc.edu/102681/childrens-brains-develop-faster-with-music-train-ing/ Hash, P. M. (2010). Preservice classroom teachers’ attitudes toward music in the elementary curriculum. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 19(2), 6-24. doi:10.117 7/1057083709345632 Kyaw, P. W. (2015, May 18). Lining up for private schools. Myanmar Times. https://www.mmtimes.com/specialfeatures/207education2015/14525liningup-for-pr ivate-schools.html Lee, S. (2013). The current status of music education in Korean preschools in New York and New Jersey. [Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University]. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1430906904?accountid=46528 ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global database. Locker, M. (2014, December 16). This is how music can change your brain. http://time.com/3634995/study-kids-engaged-music-class-for-benefits- northwestern/ Lwin, T. (2002). Issues surrounding curriculum development in the ethnic nationality areas of Burma. Paper presented at the Burma Studies Conference, Gothenburg, Sweden. http://www.thinkingclassroom.org/uploads/4/3/9/0/43900311/4._issues_surround- ing_curriculum_development_in_the_ethnic_minority_areas_of_burma,_2002.pdf May, B. N. (2015). A survey of early childhood public school music in the district of Columbia: Assessing content and teacher preparation. (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Utah]. MOE. (2004). Development of education in Myanmar. International Bureau of Education http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_Reports/ ICE_2004/myanmar_ ocr.pdf MOE. (2012). Education for all: Access to and quality of education in Myanmar. United Nations Information Centre Yangon. http://yangon.sites.unicnet work.org/files/2013/05/Education-for-All-in-Myanmar-Final-2012-FEB-2.pdf Mundle, O. N. A. (2008). Characteristics of music education programmes in public schools of Jamaica [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Texas at Austin]. https://search.proquest.com/docview/230719 387?accountid=46528 ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global database. Myaing, K. S. (2004). Mahagita Myanmar classic. Mandalay Myoma Amateur Music Association. Saw Moses 71 Myanmar Laws. (2011). Myanmar Laws (2011). Union Attorney General's Office. https://myanmar-law-library.org/IMG/pdf/myanmar_laws_2011.pdf Onishi, H., & Young, K. (2012). Western music education in post-World War II Burma/ Myanmar. In C.H. Lum & P. Whiteman (Eds.), Musical childhoods of Asia and the Pacific (pp. 215-235). Information Age Publishing. Oxford Business Group. (2018). The report: Myanmar 2018: Oxford Business Group. Soe, H. K. (October 31, 2016). In the Sokayeti song contest, an out of tune nation-building project. Frontier Myanmar. https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/in-the-sokayeti-song- contest-an-out-of-tune-nation-building-project Sullivan, T., Willingham, L., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). Creativity and music education: Canadian Music Educators' Association. Swanson, B. R. (1969). Music in the education of children (3rd ed.). Wadsworth Pub. Co. UNICEF Myanmar. (2018). Education. https://www.unicef.org/myanmar/ education Wood, D. (1996). Move, sing, listen, play: Preparing the young child for music, Gordon V. Thompson Music. Biography Saw Moses is a candidate for M.A. (Music Education) at the College of Music, Mahidol University. He graduated from Dagon University with English specialisation. His background also includes more than ten years of teaching general music, choir, piano, and music theory. He is currently working as a Head of Music Department at the International Language & Business Centre (ILBC) in Yangon, Myanmar. Kyle Fyr is the musicology department chair and the Doctor of Music programme chair at the College of Music, Mahidol University (Thailand). He received a PhD in music theory with doctoral minors in music history and piano performance from the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music in 2011, writing a dissertation focusing on proportionality and performance issues in piano works of John Adams. He has presented papers at a variety of conferences in the United States, United Kingdom and Taiwan, and has published research in Music Theory Online, Music Theory and Analysis, the Journal of Music History Pedagogy, the Malaysian Journal of Music, and Notes. Natee Chiengchana is an assistant professor in Music Education at Ratchasuda College at Mahidol University in Thailand. He has extensive experience as a music educator and music therapist in the area of exceptional children. His research interests focus on inclusive music education and music therapy, music for children with autism, children with behaviour or emotional disorders, and children with hearing loss.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 1 (2021)

gestalt, Maceda, perception, Spahlinger, sublation

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/366

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4650

Before Their Ears and Minds: Sublation in the Musical Praxis of José Maceda and Mathias Spahlinger

The objective of this article is to construct an analytic framework for new music based on Hegel’s dialectics and focusing on José Maceda’s

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4650/2939

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 72 Before Their Ears and Minds: Sublation in the Musical Praxis of José Maceda and Mathias Spahlinger Jonas Baes University of the Philippines College of Music, Osmeña Street, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines, 1101 e-mail: [email protected] Published: 28 May 2021 Cite this article (APA): Baes, J. (2021). Before their ears and minds: Sublation in the musical praxis of José Maceda and Mathias Spahlinger. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(1), 72-90. doi: 10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.5.2021 Abstract The objective of this article is to construct an analytic framework for new music based on Hegel’s dialectics and focusing on José Maceda’s Music for Gongs and Bamboo (1997) and Mathias Spahlinger’s Gegen Unendlich (1995). This unlikely opposition between two important composers, José Maceda (1917–2004) from the Philippines and Mathias Spahlinger (b. 1944) from Germany, becomes an entry point into discussing the nature of the dialectical process in Hegelian thought, which is rooted in the principle of sublation (German aufheben or aufhebung). Music is seen as a potent human endeavour that underscores sublation when musical works are experienced and the transformations of musical material emerge in the ears and the minds of the listeners. It is for this assumption that the matter of perception pervades through the analysis and the discussions in the paper. Examining the unique compositional processes in both works demonstrates how sublation is a most effective tool in the understanding of the praxis and the composer’s mind-work, especially in both cases where each uniquely challenges the Western traditional harmonic gestalt. Keywords: gestalt, Maceda, perception, Spahlinger, sublation Introduction The purpose of this article is to construct an analytic framework for new music composition based on the Hegelian principle of sublation.1 Its main focus is José Maceda’s Music for Gongs and Bamboo (1997–1998) and Mathias Spahlinger’s Gegen Unendlich (1995).2 Both works present challenges to the gestalt of traditional European harmonic practice, though each in its own and rather unique way; the ramifications on the respective creative consciousness on the material and the musical structure of each of the pieces will be the basis in demonstrating how sublation is underscored in the very praxis of music composition. Maceda and Spahlinger seem to be an unlikely pair to be the subject of a single analytic inquiry such as this one. While both are modernist late twentieth century composers, they each come from rather distinct and in many ways, incommensurable Jonas Baes 73 socio-cultural and economic milieus; differences that result in their varying worldviews. However, both are critical of capitalist-induced modernity—a fact that is reflected in many of their musical compositions and their writings. They both stand out as composers whose works conflate critical concepts and perspectives with artistic creation in a manner that is rather seamless so that the total creative product that results from concept and music naturally or powerfully interlocks concept with music. It is for this reason that I find Maceda and Spahlinger to be just about as much similar as they are different, a fact that leads this inquiry into the very nature of Hegelian dialectics.3 In Hegelian thought, a dialectical process is more complex and non-linear than the mere simplistic or triangular formulation of thesis +/- antithesis = synthesis. Hegelian dialectics are rather about the process of transformation which comes from within the very entity in question, a fact that I give much emphasis on the analytic framework I am presenting. It is grounded from a basic postulate that every entity contains within itself its own negation and contradiction. Its nature, therefore, results in what Radnik (2016) describes as a “double movement”, where thesis and anti-thesis equally determine and define each other (p. 194). The nature of this transformative process is, therefore, more dynamic and even ambivalent in that there is always a potential for an entity to negate itself and become something other than what it initially was, while at the same time maintaining its true nature, which Hegel labels as its “essence” (see Blunden, 2019, p. 78). With that in mind, the transcendence between difference and similarity that I have earlier described with regards to Maceda and Spahlinger—which simultaneously “cancels out” and at the same time “upholds” their similarity into difference and vice-versa— points to one very significant principle that is at the helm of the dialectical transformation according to Hegel: sublation (German: vb. aufheben or n. aufhebung). This inquiry is therefore theoretically framed according to that Hegelian principle to be further illustrated in the analysis sections below. Moreover, it is likewise within this principle that I intend to cover the discourse of music composition as praxis, in other words, as the theoretical consciousness that defines and gives direction to the process and practice of creation. Sublation is the conceptual mechanism by which the Hegelian dialectic is realised. This concept is rooted in the notion that self-contradiction is at the heart of everything—both material and immaterial. For Hegel, this dialectic is the formal structure of reality and the essence of everything that exists, and this essence refers to the belief that every entity is in a constant process of change by means of self-contradiction, an aspect that has a significant bearing on the analytic process I wish to propose. While the basic understanding of Hegelian dialectic is the formulation of thesis + anti-thesis = synthesis, sublation further nuances this rather simplistic formulation. As a dialectical process, sublation goes even deeper and further towards understanding the result when a thesis and an antithesis interact. This principle has been elaborated on the whole by Hegel in Phenomenology of Mind (1807/2009). Robert Fine (2001) sees in the process the relationship between preservation and transcendence in both simple and complex contradictions within itself (p. 33). As a result, the loss of certain qualities become the gain of others in this constant transformative negotiation. The original German word for the concept, aufheben (vb.) or aufhebung (n.), when translated into English carries the double and contradictory meaning of “lifting up or preserving” as well as “abolishing or cancelling”—a fact that points to the very nature of the dialectical process as one of transformation. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 74 Sublation, therefore, refers to that very mechanism by which the transitions in the dialectical process are enabled. As it is a process that goes even deeper into the transformation that occurs when a thesis and an anti-thesis interact, the mere fact that for Hegel, everything material or immaterial contains within itself its own contradiction resonates the nature of sublation as occurring and I emphasise, within the entity itself, therefore underscoring its very nature as self-transformative. My reading of sublation goes further to be an understanding of the process of “becoming”. The development of how in Europe the binary dance forms of the Renaissance becomes the sonata-allegro form in the 18th century and reaching its apotheosis in the hands of Beethoven in the early 19th century exemplifies this transformative process. The rather simplistic binary structure of the dance forms of the Renaissance—generally featuring a departure from a home key to a contrasting key and a return to this home key in the end—becomes a more complex process that entails a deeper sense of cognition in the sonata-allegro form. Borne out of the Weltanschauung of the Enlightenment, the sonata-allegro form becomes a pre-determined framework of a creative process that has an emphasis on logical interaction through the sublation of its components or its thematic materials. This formal process comes into the composer’s consciousness and in turn, is transmitted into the ears and minds of the listener as an aesthetic experience. The sonata-allegro form exemplifies how self-contradiction—in fact, sublation—is central to the creative and perceptive process of music in this era of the Enlightenment. In this mode of creation and perception, the experience of the binary dance form of the Renaissance cancels out its former function for dancing, into the sonata- allegro, which is experienced by listening and appreciating. In this article, I will show how that same principle of sublation is also useful in the understanding of the creative processes and the perception of “new music”, especially by the likes of José Maceda and Mathias Spahlinger. I have utilised sublation as an analytical tool in an article about a celebrated case of intellectual property rights in the 1930s in Manila (Baes, 2017). Transcending the main actors of that dispute, my study drew out an understanding of the transformative conditions of modernity in the Philippines, especially in the process of music composition of that period where traditional, communally-owned “folk” music is appropriated into individually-owned notated music within the backdrop of an emerging capitalist market- driven economy. As that study has shown, sublation allows one to see development and change as dynamic and transformative processes, resulting from how entities contradict themselves and, as a result, “transform” and thus, “become”, albeit temporarily. In that view, the process of becoming is also intermingled with environmental and socio-political forces that take part in the transformation. In this paper, however, I will apply sublation in a different way: by gazing on the analysis of the creative process of music composition. Since musical modernity from the early twentieth century has been bent into challenging the gestalt of European musical praxis, the very notion of making such a challenge may also be useful in developing an analytic framework for the study of music by Maceda and Spahlinger. Similar to the visual field, gestalt in music refers to how elements are organised into groups of unified “wholes”, the elements of which have to do with tonal and temporal organisations: i.e., “scale” and “key” in the harmonic aspect of music; and then “beat” and “metre” in the temporal aspect of music. At the turn of the twentieth century, most especially with the work of the Second Viennese School (Schönberg, Berg and Webern), the traditional frames of organisational references have Jonas Baes 75 been eradicated, leading to what is known in the early 1900s as “atonality”. This later developed into the 12-note system of Schönberg in about the 1920s, which, to a great extent, became “serialism” in the hands of Anton Webern. Such a development gave a strong impact on music during the post-war period to about the end of the twentieth century. Both Maceda’s and Spahlinger’s music are however strongly bent on post- serialist developments for their more critical stance regarding the approaches to musical modernity in the 20th century. However, one might still ask how sublation as an analytic framework serves the purpose of understanding the compositional processes of such works as those of Maceda and Spahlinger. In the next section, I explore how the principle of sublation characterises the very nature of the creative process of music, especially in the modernist sense. Also, despite its analytic and technical bent, making the paper more appropriate to address the discourse of modern music composition and analysis, I believe this paper might also touch on significant aspects of musical perception, as it makes many references to how things might appear cognitively in the minds of listeners, especially with the works in question. Music and Hegel’s Sublation In the chapter “Form and the Reconstruction of Form”, Adorno articulates how Beethoven’s practical notion of structure is essentially dialectical: “a true synthesis … arises from the collision between the act of composing and the pre-existing schema” (Adorno, 1998, p. 60). This kind of synthesis is immediately qualified by Adorno as sublation (aufheben), where such pre-existing schema while being in the very roots of the genre and musical structure, is at the same time altered, abolished and at times even cancelled in the works of Beethoven (Adorno, 1998, p. 60). In this section, I would like to describe the nature of music creation as a dialectical process and, in doing so, build a theoretical framework from which to draw perspectives in the analysis of Music for Gongs and Bamboo and Gegen Unendlich. The theoretical perspective I intend to advance builds from the dialectical principles in music creation— with reference to Adorno’s take on Beethoven—which serves as the underlying impetus in the analysis of Maceda and Spahlinger. Music, because of its temporal nature, is perhaps one of the most significant human creations where the principle of sublation is inherent to its experience and appreciation. Because the experience of music occurs within the passage of time, sublation as a principle potentially unfolds before one’s ears and mind, a process in its creation that is carried over in its perception and its aesthetic experience. In this regard, it just might be important to suggest that the classical concert experience—with its behavioural preferences for an audience to sit and listen to performers on stage—is an important enabler that facilitates a mode of perception in which music is experienced as sublation. I might as well add that the same is potentially possible in this current age where musical perception is also made via earphones attached to gadgets that stream music from platforms like YouTube or Spotify, as the listener hears this music privately even in public spaces like trains, buses, restaurants or libraries. Such modes of perception potentially provide the condition of listening privately and intently to underscore the dialectical processes that lead towards an appreciation and possibly an understanding of musical works in a way that might give one a glimpse of the composer’s cerebral process and musical praxis. The consciousness of this musical process on the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 76 part of the listener might come in varying levels but the end product of the experience is one of appreciation and some level of understanding. The deeper level of consciousness obviously comes initially from the composer as the creator of the musical work, but the understanding and appreciation will always come from the listeners. The selection of the particular pieces by Maceda and Spahlinger for this inquiry is primarily based on how each deliberately foregrounds some kind of liminality in the identities of the very basic elements of music: the tonal (pitch, key) and the temporal (beat, metre). The gestalt of traditional European harmony defines the identity of pitches (i.e., what part of a key it is: a root, a third, a fifth, a seventh, etc.) and the identity of beats (i.e., what part of a metre it is: a downbeat, a weak beat, etc.). At the same time, and in a broader sense, gestalt also defines its larger parts like syntactic phrases or even whole “macro structures” in terms of how one part differs from another. In the perception of music, I assume that listeners somehow consciously group those elements in the mind, so that they can derive what I would like to refer to as “structural meaning” when experiencing the identities of those elements in relation to those of their opposing elements. Discarding the gestalt of traditional harmonic practice for more than a century has discarded that notion of structural meaning in the traditional harmonic and temporal sense. However, as I will attempt to show in the following analysis, other categories of structural meaning may potentially be derived from constructions and negations that are outside the gestalt of traditional European harmony, if seen within the gaze of sublation. My application of gestalt, a concept in psychological theory, stems from Spahlinger’s use of this concept mainly to denote the aural perception of harmonic elements in the European tradition up to the 19th century. As the meaning of gestalt even in popular dictionaries is, “an organised whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts” (see for instance in the Oxford Languages online or the Cambridge Dictionary) and the fact that in German, the word for “shape” or “form” brings the notion of perceiving a given harmonic key to be a “whole” which results from the hierarchical significance of its component parts (tonic, subdominant, dominant, etc.). As a “whole”, therefore, any given key can function as a reference from which a perceiver can define the place of any pitch within this whole; a fact that entails the further notion that it is the mind that organises pitch entities within such “reference whole”. Spahlinger refers to this in his discourse of development in twentieth-century music, whereas he has always stated, the (traditional) gestalt is in effect “annihilated” with the emergence of atonality, opening the possibilities of constructing other processes and parameters outside it (Spahlinger, 2015, pp. 131–133). This is expounded in Spahlinger’s paper in English on the materials of new music, in the section “tonal and atonal chords” (Spahlinger, 2015, pp. 133–136). This notion of gestalt is also used as a reference in a number of Spahlinger’s talks in German. Subsequent sections will further illustrate gestalt in relation to the analytic process of sublation in the discussions on the two selected pieces by Maceda and Spahlinger. Music for Gongs and Bamboo In Music for Gongs and Bamboo, Maceda creates layers of a variety of gong and metallophone sounds from the Javanese gamelan tradition in combination with those of a variety of Southeast Asian bamboo instruments, then with a mixed choir singing haiku texts and set to a Japanese scale, plus a Japanese traditional flute ryūteki (which can also be replaced by a Western piccolo) and finally, a Western concert bassoon. This work Jonas Baes 77 results from Maceda’s fascination in the 1990s with the phenomenon of difference in and of tonal categories in music cultures; and as such, it is an exploration into combining together those various pitch and scale constructions made unique by culture. The instrumentation derives its aesthetics from the resulting sound colours when the various pitch and scale constructions “cancel-out” each other in the process of layering and combining. Music for Gongs and Bamboo is therefore bent towards the mixing together of cultural-specific tuning and/or tonal systems that derive new meaning when seen within the “macro structure” of the piece. Within such a conceptual framework, the layering of the various unique sounds from different tonal or sonic constructions (Javanese instruments, Japanese scales, Southeast Asian bamboo sounds and a Western equal temperament) is the most significant aspect of its compositional process. While Maceda relies mainly on the sound colours of the indigenous instruments to defy Western tonal principles, he also constructs his compositions by means of procedures that defy conventional metrical systems associated with the Western tradition, despite the fact that most of his works are still notated in the Western system. The most remarkable of these procedures is what Maceda himself refers to as the “odd notes on even beats” procedure. This utilises tuplets in a larger proportion, for instance, “3 in 2” (three quarter notes fitted equally within a frame meant for two quarter notes) or “5 in 4” (five quarter notes fitted equally within a frame for four quarter notes). However, those two examples are relatively simple ones. Maceda systematically diagrams the procedure for the performers, for instance, in “3 in 2” (Figure 1), performers are to make each of the two beats in triplets, therefore the two beats having a total of six equal portions (three portions per beat); then each of the beats that are asked for occurs at points where the six portions are divided equally into three (therefore each of the three beats occurring every two portions). In “5:4”, shown in Figure 2, each beat is divided into quintuples, resulting in twenty equal portions, then each of the five beats is asked to occur after every four portions. Figure 1: Configuration of 3:2. Figure 2: Configuration of 5:4. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 78 As mentioned earlier, the above examples are in fact just the simplest formulations of Maceda’s “odd notes on even beats” principle. Certain more complex formulations like “7:4” or other even more complex formulations are utilised. These single entities are then subjected to methods of layering. A common procedure of Maceda is to have the figures imitated by each instrument in what he calls “time delays” (played a beat or two apart, as shown in Figure 3 taken from Music for Gongs and Bamboo), reminiscent of an interlocking pattern in indigenous music practices in Southeast Asia. This is quite different from the notion of traditional Western polyphony where contrapuntal parts are framed by and as a result, builds up the harmonic structure in reference to its gestalt. In Maceda’s music, the resulting displacement of beats and cancellation of metric feeling and accent associated with metre in Western music rather produces some semblance of “arbitrariness”, from which the density of parts can be within his control; this in fact is one significant aspect of Maceda’s aesthetics. Figure 3. Time delays in Music for Gongs and Bamboo indicated by descending lines (used with permission, University of the Philippines Center for Ethnomusicology). It should however be noted that with regards to the manner of execution, the effectiveness of cancelling a metric feeling in the “odd notes on even beats” principle paradoxically relies very much on the performer’s very steady feeling of the metre. This is to say that the achievement of that aesthetic for a semblance of arbitrariness is Jonas Baes 79 dependent on how skilled the performer is with regards to having a steady (or “non- arbitrary”) beat. This semblance of arbitrariness, which in my observation is carefully crafted and utilised by Maceda so as not to have any suggestion of completeness is also very much felt when he employs what he calls “hanging melodies” with regards to his vocal lines. In earlier works like Pagsamba (1968), Kubing (1967), Aruding (1981) or even in Ugnayan (1974), all of which employ singers and are notated in the Western system, melodic materials come as fragments that are however not subject to any syntactic structure that would have alluded to a notion of completeness. Rather than to syntax, and again to give a semblance of arbitrariness, more emphasis is given to the layering of these melodic materials. All those procedures are employed in Music for Gongs and Bamboo. What I find very striking however is how on a microcosmic level, Maceda composes parts for particular instruments based on—or at most times taken directly from—actual musical patterns of particular indigenous instruments. Looking back for instance on the piece Agungan (composed in 1965), the gong parts are actually patterned after actual gong playing traditions from among the Maguindanao, Tirurai and Kalinga peoples in the Philippines. This observation has as well been noted in all the other works of Maceda that utilise indigenous instruments. In closely examining micro elements of Maceda’s work, therefore, I gain the impression that he has translated into actual live performance the methods used in musique concrete, where recordings of gong music or other traditions would have been spliced and then layered or processed in various ways. Micro elements taken indigenous music cultures of those residing in the rainforests from the rural backlands are processed into broader macro structures and then, in performance, brought into modern landscapes. Such is the dialectic of Maceda’s creative consciousness and aesthetic. In Music for Gongs and Bamboo, the variety of sound materials come from: (a) the various bamboo instruments, (b) the gamelan instruments like the saron (metallophone), gender (metallophone with a “fainter” sound), kethuk (small gong whose sound quality is unique in that it is played with a mallet that is used to immediately mute the sound), suwukan (large gongs), (c) the Japanese ryūteki (a small bamboo flute with a piercing sound/may be replaced with a Western piccolo), (d) the Western bassoon and (e) a mixed chorus divided into male and female parts. Gamelan instruments are tuned to the pelog scale, the ryūteki and the voices utilise the hirajoshi scale, adding up to the palette of a Western-tuned bassoon and then the sounds of bamboo instruments. Maceda constructs further groupings and combines these into what I would call two general layers that oscillate one after another. The first layer is instrumental in nature, combining punctuating sounds from bamboo instruments with Javanese kethuk and suwukan plus melodic sounds from the Javanese saron with the ryūteki (or piccolo) and bassoon. There are no contrapuntal relationships with all the instruments in this layer. The second layer is more vocal in nature, featuring the mixed chorus singing Japanese haiku verses layered with the sustaining metallic sounds of the gender (Figure 4). Those two layers generally alternate with each other, the first one serving as sort of an instrumental prelude or interlude to the second where verses are sung. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 80 Figure 4. Basic subgrouping layers in Music for Gongs and Bamboo. There are two levels of describing the structure of the whole piece. It is necessary to construct these two levels to understand Maceda’s creative process from the perspective of self-negation or sublation. First is by constructing a “General Graph”, which is a rather sketchy rendering of the flow of events as they occur, minute by minute. This General Graph is merely a skeletal outline of the musical events, excluding much of the details of the actual music. Figure 5 represents the General Graph indicating the general opposition between the beginning (Minute 1) and the ending (Minute 14) of the music and the general alternate appearances between Layer 1 and Layer 2. Figure 5. General Graph for Music for Gongs and Bamboo where numbers in the left column stand for minutes of the piece, dots in the next two columns stand for bamboo instruments and various punctuating instruments (kethuk, etc.), respectively; S stands for saron, P for piccolo (or Japanese ryūteki), B for bassoon, C for choir and G for gender. The circles on Minute 1 and Minute 14 indicate the dialectical opposition between the opening section (which is relatively empty) and the closing section (which is full, in tutti). Jonas Baes 81 Figure 6. Actual Graph of Music for Gongs and Bamboo, showing its “inconsistencies” such as “screens” (represented by dotted arrows) and “sublations” (represented by a parenthesis). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 82 In reality, however, the macro structure of Music for Gongs and Bamboo exhibits what I would call, for lack of a better term, “inconsistencies”. Some of those inconsistencies include what Maceda refers to a “screens”, or residual sounds that represent a decay of musical material, vocal or instrumental sounds. These screens are a significant indicator of musical development that connects one section from another coherently. I have also noted sublations of the musical material (indicated in parenthesis in the graph) which represent the contradictions in the appearances of specific musical parts within the general pattern that had been established. This is where the second level of description is called for. The graph in Figure 6 shows the actual occurrences of musical events, including inconsistencies. Those inconsistencies that are rather foregrounded seem to cloud the basic oscillations (or, alternate appearances) between Layer 1 and Layer 2. However, that would not be the case. I would argue that this basic oscillation remains persistent as a kind of recurring pattern—or what Maceda would refer to as a “drone” (Maceda, 1979, p. 164)—that would have been embedded in the minds of the listeners. The inconsistent occurrences of the other instrumental groupings paradoxically render this basic drone (or the oscillation or alternate appearances of Layer 1 and Layer 2) a kind of metaphysical existence. The oscillations between the saron and gender groups, each occurring within their respective layers actually persist. At the same time, those inconsistencies cancel out the rather simplistic and mechanical “machination” of the simple alternating pattern of Layer 1 and Layer 2. That kind of machination would have rendered the piece too predictable, leaving us to conclude that the major aesthetics of the piece is its way of contradicting its own established basic pattern (of oscillations between Levels 1 and 2). The “life” of the piece, so to say, actually emerges from those inconsistencies—a matter I attribute to the principle of sublation. In effect, those inconsistencies also transform the general graph of this piece into what we might consider to be, for lack of a better term at the moment (and I know I am taking a great risk saying this here), “music”.4 Gegen Unendlich If the macro structure in Maceda’s Music for Gongs and Bamboo appears to be rather complex with oscillations of drone patterns appearing as metaphysical, in Spahlinger’s Gegen Unendlich however, the “macro structure” appears to be rather simpler. There are just two opposing main sections: the first focusing on the notion of pitch and of relative stasis, while the second on beat elements and perpetual movement. With this particular work, Spahlinger goes even deeper into the most minute configurations of pitch and beat as “objects”, therefore its “micro structures” (as opposed to Maceda’s piece whose construction gravitate towards its “macro structure”). Stating that the gestalt of traditional Western music has essentially been eradicated with the advent of musical modernity, Spahlinger (2015) builds from the resultant infinite number of possibilities that occur in the construction of new music (p. 33). A priori to this is the knowledge that the traditional harmonic gestalt strongly determines structure in the development of European music. Gegen Unendlich however builds from an open field, where the very identity of pitches and beats—of them being identical or being in opposition with each other and of being one section or another—becomes rather fluid. This is facilitated by the use for instance of microtones in the first section and of what he describes as a doppio movimento in the latter section. Jonas Baes 83 To begin with, the title Gegen Unendlich appropriately describes the nature of the material itself in this work. If we consider the title to translate as “going against infinity”, Spahlinger here confronts infinity by using it as a backdrop, or as a pre- condition, from which he builds his material in such a way that defines the very ontology of the work. If this were so, I would like to see this work to be about “power”, for it addresses infinity as some kind of gravitation from which to build his materials. Moreover, in such precondition, the micro entities used in the work would have been rendered as identities that are also “non-identifiable” because one pitch is never repeated exactly the same as another. This is exemplified at the very start of the piece, which opens with various articulations of the single note D. This indicates that the very existence of those micro entities is rather transient, so that we can see them all as mere isolated moments within a continuum, that are en route to, or within, this powerfully unending condition of transformation. This is, I believe, how Spahlinger shows the impact of the annihilation of the traditional harmonic gestalt through its ramifications on the identities of the most basic elements of music. And such also embodies the process of sublation. As a result of this annihilation, the pitch and temporal materials in this work struggle to go “against” infinity and their rather transient identities hinder their capacity to be reproduced. A priori to this assumption, again, are the basic premises that the traditional Western harmonic gestalt produces a specific identity of each of the pitches, as well as points in time, therefore rendering those entities reproducible. For instance, the pitch D5 remains to be a D5 not only because of its being itself, but also because it is not an E♭5, nor an E4, nor a C#2, etc. nor any other thing but itself. Just the same, the “downbeat” in a metre remains to be felt as stressed and used as a reference to a metric structure. Other beats in a metre have less stress in reference to this downbeat. In any occurrence of this D5 or this downbeat, they shall respectively have the same identity and function given that they remain within their gestalt. The nature of pitch materials being rather transient or non-reproducible in Gegen Unendlich is expressed in Spahlinger’s visual representation of pitch material as plotted out in a peculiar six-lined staff with the lines coming from a common point of origin but progressing further away from each other. In Figure 7, taken from Spahlinger’s own visual graph of this six-lined staff (Spahlinger, 2015, p. 142), we assume that this common point of origin is this rather off-tangent pitch “D5” rendered in turns and layers by the four different instruments in the first six bars that open the piece (Figure 8).5 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 84 Figure 7. Six-lined staff representing the pith material of Spahlinger’s Gegen Unendlich (used with permission from the composer). Again, as mentioned earlier, that first part of Gegen Unendlich opens with the four instruments taking turns playing in various densities on a pitch that roughly suggests this “D5” with pauses in between those moments. In subsequent measures, we find pitches that seem to move away in both directions from this point of origin, with occurrences of roughly E♭ and C# in the next few measures from this D5. As this progresses, other pitches appear in subsequent measures. The pitches appear as microtones, owing to the very rich use of articulations and advanced playing techniques on all four instruments. Those articulations render those single pitches infinitely transforming and appearing to be rather unique and non-reproducible, in the sense that the pitches can never occur exactly the same twice. Transforming towards what one cannot predict, as any kind of transformation appears to be possible at any point in time, a general progression of “moving away” however seems to be the general pattern of the occurrences. While one can sense this general direction, there is also a semblance of an arbitrariness, combined with a bit of restraint. This means that Spahlinger chooses every pitch and articulation rather delicately, so one can sense that each event connects to another within a musical coherence. Jonas Baes 85 Figure 8. Some examples of articulations in the opening bars of Part 1 of Gegen Unendlich. Pauses that come from time to time seem to suggest some kind of syntactic structure, though, at the same time, their occurrences also look rather arbitrary. The dialectical construction of such occurrences—pitch gestures against pauses—defines the nature of those two opposing elements, which as a result gives the listener a semblance of a pre-determined compositional structure. By its nature, the music might need several hearings to be able to feel or determine this character; or perhaps it is also possible for one to just allow for the sensation of ambiguity. When pauses are no longer used, a certain kind of build-up is suggested, such as in the second system of page 3, especially when the trombone and the piano continuously render semblances of C#, then culminating in some kind of convergence in the last four bars of the first system and into the second system of the fourth page. At the last five bars of the first system of page 7, we feel some kind of “urgency” seemingly indicating preparation for some forthcoming musical event. This continues to Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 86 another convergence at the last five bars of the first system of page 8, building up to what would be a transition into the second part of the piece. The strongest indication of a transition into the second part is this semblance of a cadence (though theoretically not actually a dominant-tonic progression, see Figure 9) marked by the trombone (posaune) on the last note of the fourth measure (G♭, or an off-tangent dominant because G♭ is not really the dominant of E, but the gesture of going from this note in the low-register of the trombone to a middle E suggests a dominant-to-tonic resolution) to the first note of the fifth measure (E). Figure 9. Semblance of a cadence in the transition to Part 2 of Gegen Unendlich. The second part of Gegen Unendlich begins with lines in a virtual unison on all four instruments consistently moving in sixteenth-note values. Virtual unison is how I would put it because it shows varying images of inconsistencies and non-togetherness, despite the suggestion that they are moving together. A piano solo emerges from the last four bars of the first system on page 10, followed by punctuations on the other instruments; then all seem to be set loose into another round of this virtual unison, where some instruments catch up with the others. This culminates into a “break” at the second system of page 16, where longer held notes surrounding the note E3 seem to prepare for the subsequent motion that is to follow. Glissandos suggest an infinite number of pitches that surround this E3 (Figure 9); it is then from this E3 that a constant (yet still inconsistent) movement follows. This consistency/inconsistency is further broken up at the first system of page 19, where some instruments vary their speed even within the framework of a consistent tempo. Returning to total synchronisation, it then breaks up into the surrounding pitches of E5, while at the same time the consistent temporal aspect is also broken down. Subsequently, the whole thing returns to the same temporal motion, though no longer in the pitch of E5, then breaks up once again at the end, but this time with longer notes that seem to slightly suggest Part 1. Jonas Baes 87 Figure 10. Converging pitches in Part 2 of Gegen Unendlich. There appears to have two distinct ways by which both works by Maceda and Spahlinger become “works” or become “music”; both ways unique, but still rooted in sublation. While the inconsistencies of the main structural graph and the metaphysical presence of a basic structural pattern in Maceda’s Music for Gongs and Bamboo transforms this graph “into music”, it is, on the contrary, in the seemingly determined events (transitions, convergences, etc.) that transform that infinity or arbitrariness alluded to in the micro entities of Spahlinger’s Gegen Unendlich into “music”. In both cases, we see the workings of sublation in the respective creative processes of each composition. As I have therefore attempted to show how sublation figures out in the creative process of the two compositions in question, I have also alluded to how those two pieces become “wholes” or “complete”; in other words, how these two compositions become “works”. I must however clarify that with those statements, I run the risk of encroaching upon grounds where the perennial problematic question of what music “is or is not” is invoked. I have no intentions whatsoever of addressing that problematic question. I merely want to show how in the creative process of music composition, works become what they are by contradicting themselves. In a more expanded version of this inquiry, I attempt to push the boundaries of this analysis by exploring further the aspect of perception, particularly on how conceptual and material (or musical) elements are interlocked to become a seamless creation, a quality that I would like to consider as being natural or musically coherent. I however would conclude this present paper focusing on the analysis aspect of the study. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 88 Conclusion In the analysis of Music for Gongs and Bamboo and Gegen Unendlich, I have attempted to show how Maceda and Spahlinger respectively construct those works through various levels of negation. We find those in the way Maceda has deliberately combined Javanese, Japanese and Western tunings, which along with bamboo instruments cancel out each other to create a unique tonal environment. We further see this in the way Maceda layers those sonic forces to create musical events that recur, or more appropriately, oscillate as drone patterns, which define the listening experience of this piece. We further find such negation in the way Spahlinger in the first part of his piece utilises non-reproducible pitches, the nature of pitch identity being negated by displacing these within an infinite number of possible placements, in turn within the infinitely progressing range and spectrum, as shown in his diagram in Figure 7. This kind of non- reproducibility of pitch identities is also demonstrated in the second part (which I did not tackle much in the analysis) in terms of “beat identity”, where a “perpetual motion” clouds any sense of metre, even further developing into a doppio movimento towards the latter portion of the piece. Spahlinger’s Gegen Unendlich is paradoxically a piece in unison, though the instruments are not really “together”. What I find further striking is how both pieces become constructed within what I would consider as “perfect” constructions (for lack of a better term at the moment) precisely because of their “imperfections”. I find what I have termed “inconsistencies” in Music for Gongs and Bamboo the appropriate ingredient that enables the transcendence of the oscillations between the two basic layers of this structure; so that in the perception of the piece, these oscillations remain persistently present, despite those inconsistencies. In Gegen Unendlich, the occurrences of pitches that are “transient” within an unseen, yet ever-present infinite possibility, makes the nature of the materials rather indefinite, even as the very structure of the music uses these materials in the utmost precision. My analysis shows that in both cases, the principle of sublation is an important lens for the understanding of their respective constructions and the appreciation of the level of praxis that both Maceda and Spahlinger espouse. What I have further realised in the course of this inquiry is the metaphysical aspects that seem to find their way in the construction of both pieces: first in the persistence of a drone pattern of oscillations between the two layers in Music for Gongs and Bamboo (Figure 6); and second with the imagined movement represented by a six- lined staff that diagonally progresses as representing the position of the materials in Gegen Unendlich in relation to the reality of infinity (Figure 7). These significant aspects show how both composers negate the very constructions that they had laid out in doing these particular works. The key element in the understanding of such, I believe, is sublation. Admittedly, a more pertinent factor in realising those metaphysical phenomena in musical creation through the principle of sublation is the conditions of perception. I have mentioned time and again that one can experience the process of sublation in music when one listens to a certain level as to journey “with” the music. It is for this reason that I have also assumed earlier that a classical concert hall setting or a private listening with earphones through gadgets tuned in to streaming music via platforms like Spotify, might be the best venues for this level of perception and understanding. I have yet to find out if Jonas Baes 89 this analytic framework would have any use in the context of music performed in other social contexts like a rock concert, or with elevator music. Finally, this analytic framework based on the principle of sublation might also be useful in the analysis—and even as importantly—the perception and understanding of musical works outside the new music category; and in fact, even revert to such musics that expand (rather than expunge) the traditional harmonic gestalt. This level of analysis and understanding might perhaps shape a listener’s deeper appreciation of those musics in question. When one experiences music perhaps within a classical concert hall or possibly even on earphones through streaming platforms like Spotify, it is possible that layers of thought emerge in the minds of the listeners as the experience unfolds. Those layers of thought on the part of the listener might expand exponentially, with either his or her knowledge of the artist (composer or performer), with the kind, genre, style or form of any music, even potentially invoking the musical experiences of the listener stored somewhere in the listener’s mind. Building again from Adorno’s dialectical interpretation, one might possibly determine and appreciate how Beethoven rather transcends the sonata-allegro form in, let’s say his Opus 110. With this kind of awareness, one might potentially understand the intricacies of the Chick Corea Akoustic Band’s rendition of Joseph Kosma’s “Autumn Leaves” in their self-titled album (GRP Records, 1989), or how Donald Fagen of Steely Dan created the song “Josie” (ABC Records, 1977) from basic blues progressions. The perception and the analysis of such examples, through a realisation of the principle of sublation, does much to heighten the level of awareness of the creative process and in turn, the appreciation and the aesthetics in the musical works as they are revealed before the listener’s ears and minds. Endnotes 1 This paper is part of a research project that is supported by the University of the Philippines through its Enhanced Creative Work and Research Grant (ECWRG 2019–2020). The discussions presented in this paper are but part of a more extended study that will be published as a book. This article version is dedicated to Feliz Anne Macahis. 2 Biographical data on José Maceda (1917–2004) and Mathias Spahlinger (b. 1944) can be obtained through many different online sources. I would however recommend Maceda’s entry in The Living Composers Project (http://www.composers21.com/compdocs/macedaj.htm) and Spahlinger’s personal webpage (https://mathiasspahlinger.de/biography/?lang=en). 3 José Maceda and Mathias Spahlinger were both my postgraduate teachers at the University of the Philippines (1982–1985) and the Staatliche Hochschule fuer Musik in Freiburg, Germany (1992–1995) respectively. I have always imagined myself to be a product of my dialectical experience with both great masters. 4 I have basis for this argument however, from Maceda himself when he said, “Mas nagiging musika yan dahil hindi nag-u-ugnay, o binabadya ang inaakalang pag-uugnay” (“That becomes more as music because it transgresses what is expected as coherence”); he said this to me verbally during one of our discussions of another composition of his in 1998. When I mentioned to him this observation of inconsistencies in Music for Gongs and Bamboo, he smiled. 5 I am discussing particular portions of Gegen Unendlich in reference to its published score, printed in facsimile by Peer Musikverlag (1995) © Copyright 1997 by Peer Musikverlag GmbH International Copyright Secured. Reprinted with Permission. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (72-90) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 90 References Adorno, T. W. (1998). Beethoven: The philosophy of music: Fragments and texts. Stanford University Press. Baes, J. (2017). On the Estella-Santiago dispute: Sublation and crisis in intellectual property rights in 1930s Philippines. In J. S. Buenconsejo (Ed.), Philippine Modernities: Music, performing arts, and language, 1880–1941, pp. 95–110. The University of the Philippines Press. Blunden, A. (2019). Hegel for social movements. Brill. Fine, R. (2001). Political investigations: Hegel, Marx, and Arendt. Routledge. Hegel, G. W. F. (1956). The philosophy of history (J. Sibree, Trans.). Dover. (Original work published 1837) Hegel, G. W. F. (2009). The phenomenology of spirit (The phenomenology of mind) (J. B. Baillie, Trans.). Digireads. (Original work published 1807) Maceda, J. (1997). Music for gongs and bamboo [Unpublished manuscript]. (Premiered in Kyoto, Japan in November 1997) Maceda, J. (1979). A search for an old and new music in Southeast Asia. Acta Musicologica, 51(Fasc. 1), 160–168. https://doi.org/10.2307/93218 Palm, R. (2009). Hegel’s concept of sublation: A critical interpretation [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Radnik, B. (2016). Hegel on the double movement of Aufhebung. Continental Thought & Theory. 1(1), 194–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.17613/M6MW6Z Spahlinger, M. (1995). Gegen unendlich (for bass clarinet, trombone, violoncello and piano) [musical score]. Peer Musikverlag. Spahlinger, M. (2015). Political implications of the material of new music. Contemporary Music Review, 34(2–3), 127–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494467.2015.1094212 Biography Jonas Baes, composer, ethnomusicologist and cultural activist; studied at the University of the Philippines and the Freiburg Musikhocschule in Germany. In 2004, he completed his doctorate at the University of the Philippines with the dissertation Modes of Appropriation in Philippine Indigenous Music: The Politics of the Production of Cultural Difference. His compositions mostly utilise Asian instruments and vocal techniques, and have been widely performed in contemporary music festivals in Asia, the United States, Europe, Australia and New Zealand. These compositions also explore the participation of the audience as integral to the performance. He has published numerous academic writings, especially on the Iraya-Mangyan of Mindoro in the Philippines and their peripheral place in the global political economy. Baes is currently a professor at the University of the Philippines. He is also the founder of the Manila Composers Lab, an organisation that provides annual workshops for young composers in Southeast Asia.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 1 (2021)

cultural heritage, cultural studies, musical instruction, pedagogy, rote learning, Suntaraporn

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/366

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4707

A Case for Rote Learning: Conserving the Ramwong Saxophone Culture of Suntaraporn

The  Suntaraporn  band is one of the most successful and influential groups in Thai cultural history. They transformed Thai musical culture throughout the twentieth century, typified by their adaptation of

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4707/2950

Pramote Phokha 91 91 A Case for Rote Learning: Conserving the Ramwong Saxophone Culture of Suntaraporn Pramote Phokha Faculty of Education, Phuket Rajabhat University, 21 Thepkrasatree Rd, Ratsada Sub-District, Mueang District, Phuket Province, 83000, Thailand. e-mail: [email protected] Corresponding author: [email protected]. Published: 31 May 2021 Cite this article (APA): Phokha, P. (2021). A case for rote learning: Conserving the ramwong saxophone culture of Suntaraporn, Malaysian Journal of Music, 10 (1), 91-106. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.6.2021 Abstract The Suntaraporn band is one of the most successful and influential groups in Thai cultural history. They transformed Thai musical culture throughout the twentieth century, typified by their adaptation of ramwong, a local genre of music that is difficult to learn. The objectives of this investigation were to discuss the process of developing and educating learners in ramwong saxophone in the Suntaraporn style, by giving insights derived from interviews from expert saxophonists and student ramwong music practitioners. Data from interviews and evaluation forms from three purposively selected research informants were analysed. Findings showed that learners of saxophone music for ramwong songs must be familiar with modern saxophone techniques and possess basic knowledge of musical techniques played in traditional Thai music. Four sets of saxophone practice drills were subsequently developed by the researcher and approved as suitable for instruction of ramwong music techniques by the three informants. One practice set was tested by undergraduate musicians. The results and feedback corroborated the beliefs outlined by the three professional saxophonists that rote learning is a necessary component of traditional Thai music teaching. Keywords: cultural heritage, cultural studies, musical instruction, pedagogy, rote learning, Suntaraporn Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (91-106) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 92 Introduction National governments increasingly realise the importance of cultural conservation at the local, regional and national levels as a means of strengthening national identity and securing popular support. Since 1951, Thailand’s membership of UNESCO has led to a progressive attitude towards cultural conservation, which has been driven domestically by the Office of the National Education Commission. It is the job of this organisation to analyse culture, education and science within Thailand, and help overcome problems that prevent further national development. Culturally, the direction of government policy is determined by the National Education Plan, 2017-2036 (Office of the National Education Commission, 2017). This strategy outlines the national objective of using traditional customs and practices to boost and strengthen local society as a bedrock of the nation. One challenge to cultural conservation is globalisation. Western culture is playing an increasingly prominent role in everyday Thai society, prompting the government to intensify its attitude towards preservation of national culture. Government culture strategies are viewed as a legitimate method of enhancing the Thai collective identity and strengthening traditional culture. In the latter part of the twentieth century, so-called “musical globalisation”, in effect the Westernisation of traditional music, prompted a government reaction in Thailand. On one hand, there was increased production and commercialisation of Thai pop music to meet consumer interests and boost the economy, on the other hand, there was greater emphasis on the revival of traditional music genres in educational institutions (Green, 2017; Maryprasith, 1999; Pitupumnak, 2018). A Thai Identity? Centralised and focused government policies have resulted in increased interest in traditional music nationwide, which is viewed as an integral element of national heritage. Traditional Thai music is an embodiment of ancestry, cultural traditions, customs, economy and lifestyle in Thai communities. People’s stories are retold through the melodies, dances and lyrics of traditional musical performances. As such, performers and their instruments play a vital role in continuing the memory of the nation. Following social acceptance, music becomes a fixture in national culture. Once embedded, music soon assumes responsibility for systematic transmission of generational knowledge. Thailand is rich in musical heritage, each region can claim a unique musical identity, each recounting new and fascinating stories of Thailand’s past. Occasionally, local attempts to maintain musical culture through conservation go mainstream. Suntaraporn is one such example. They are a hybrid jazz group who became famous for adapting classical Thai and Thai folk music. The band has a rich history in adapting and composing musical innovations, songs and techniques that remained true to Thai culture. Suntaraporn was formed during World War II, on 20 November 1941. The founder and lead musician was Khru Eua Sunthornsanan, who subsequently became recognised by UNESCO as a world personality on the 2010-11 UNESCO list of World Personalities and Historic Events. Suntaraporn became the official band of the newly established Public Relations Department of Thailand and it was their job to compose and perform music for the official Thai Public Relations Department radio station. The band was also entrusted with recordings for special events and live performances. This was an important point in Thai musical history. Suntaraporn is not an ordinary band. The band was notable for its membership of multiple, nationally-recognised musical talents who Pramote Phokha 93 93 composed a substantial and diverse repertoire of music in a variety of styles suited for different occasions. Their collection includes classical, folk, jazz, traditional Thai and Western music. The band became extremely popular and they composed over 2,000 songs that were well-received by audiences (Eimtal et al., 2020). Suntaraporn composed music that can be broadly categorised into ten distinct groups: (a) psalms; (b) music for educational institutions, provincial songs and music for provincial agencies; (c) music for youth; (d) music from literature; (e) songs communicating proverbs and teachings; (e) songs of nature and beauty; (f) music of love and disappointment; (g) music reflecting society; (h) songs that retell drama or other stories; and songs related to traditions, religion and local games (Suwat, 2019). Their music became popular with middle class citizens, and particularly appealed to government officials, teachers and tradesmen. It was also very popular on the Bangkok dance scene, and the band developed songs to accompany traditional dance performances. Suntaraporn is recognised as being the band to have composed the most traditional Thai music in the world, with one of their most significant contributions being the popularisation of the ramwong circle dance from rural Thailand (Lichinda, 2014). Despite their prominence and importance for Thai musical heritage, there is no method or set of exercises developed specifically for learning the ramwong style of the Suntaraporn band, which is unique in its use of non-traditional instruments. Research Objectives The main objective of this paper is to discuss the process of developing and educating learners in ramwong saxophone in the Suntaraporn style, by giving insights derived from interviews with expert saxophonists and students practising the ramwong form. The research required the development of saxophone practice materials for the ramwong songs of Suntaraporn, which were then used by undergraduate saxophonists. Results from this process were analysed to discuss the particular characteristics of learning Thai music, with an emphasis on rote learning. Literature Review Suntaraporn and Cultural Heritage in Thailand Given the additional emphasis placed by the government on maintenance of traditional Thai culture, recent domestic academic studies of musical inheritance have been plentiful. Much of the literature concerns differences between the musical identities of different regions in Thailand (Deecharoen & Chullasap, 2018) and generational obstacles to continued traditional musical inheritance (Putipumnak, 2018). In a seminal English- language paper on the cultural significance of Suntaraporn et al. (2018) claimed, contrary to the government intention of popularising traditional Thai culture, the band was integral to the process of Westernisation in Thailand and responsible for repressing values in rural Thailand. In the analysis, Suntaraporn is considered a “state puppet” who acted contrary to the interests of rural Thai society. They were “used as a tool to reconstruct new values and lifestyle for all commoners” (Photikanit & Sirasoonthorn, 2018, p. 344). Although not explicitly directed at Suntaraporn, this opinion is shared by Maryprasith (1999). Domestic assessments of Suntaraporn tend to steer clear of the political debate and focus on their role as trend-setters, emphasising their lasting impact on Thai society, which is Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (91-106) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 94 undeniable. They were able to transform outdated traditional music for new audiences and, apart from criticisms of Suntaraporn as a mechanism of the state, research has also showns some concerns with the content of their songs (Ajharn, 1992), linguistics (Junlaprom, 2008; Phakkhaphanon, 2017; Phakkhaphanon, 2018) and structure (Worawanit, 2016). Nevertheless, there is a dearth of academic literature concerning the composition of Suntaraporn music and their legacy in Thai education, particularly regarding the ubiquitous ramwong. A traditional circle dance performed in pairs, ramwong was originally conceived in Thai villages. The style is an evolution of ramtone and was traditionally accompanied by local percussion instruments resembling drums, clappers and cymbals, as well as traditional wind instruments such as the pi. Ramwong was promoted by the Thai government during World War Two as a way to increase inner-city morale and divert public attentions from jazz and swing music. The music grew a large fan-base among middle-class citizens and benefitted from the influence of the Suntaraporn band, who were responsible for its evolution by adding the popular Western instruments found in jazz. The music was progressive enough to appeal to modern tastes and traditional enough to satisfy government nationalism, which became a key feature of the new lyrics, if not the melodies (Mitchell, 2011). “The Ramwong Songs of Suntaraporn” is a catalogue of Latin-ballroom-inspired music created by Suntaraporn that further illustrates the modernisation of traditional Thai music by Suntaraporn, who added different instruments and textures. In doing so, Suntaraporn made traditional sounds fashionable. The band appealed to new urban tastes by rearranging folk music with a Western edge, while retaining certain recognisable folk elements, such as melisma (Maryprasith, 1999). Over time, this new 1930s-40s genre would become the Western-style popular music that is appreciated by today’s society. Saxophones were the major addition to traditional ramwong performances by Suntaraporn. The band recognised the versatility of the saxophone and it would become a signature piece in their armory. “With a saxophone you can go from jazz to classical music, from Latin to rock and soul. As you can influence the sound of the instrument to a large extent, saxophonists can be equally at home in all those styles (Pinksterboer, 2007, p.2). Thanks to this introduction by Suntaraporn and its acceptance in wider Thai culture, the saxophone has subsequently been included in other traditional Thai ensembles, such as mor lam and lae. Yet there is no systematic means of marrying modern saxophone tuition with traditional ramwong melodies that retain homage to the original wind instruments. The Cultural Pedagogy of Traditional Thai Music What is the nature of Thai music instruction? Actually, there is very little guidance from the Ministry of Education about a preferred pedagogy, with only content being stipulated (Narkwong, 2000). The problem with implementing a consistent vision is the disparate nature of Thai schools, some of which are richly resourced and staffed, while others lack both instruments and music teachers (Laovanich, et al., 2020). Not unlike surrounding Southeast Asian societies, Thai music pedagogy is consequently dependent on the instructor. Similar to maguru panggul, an Indonesian teaching methodology for gamelan instruction, the Thai master-apprentice dichotomy is governed by heavy demonstration from the expert and absorption by the novice (Jocuns, 2007). Rather than presenting the material in its entirety, it is typical of Thai music pedagogy for the teacher to “transmit Pramote Phokha 95 95 each new composition orally, phrase by phrase” (Miller, 2002). This is irrespective of instrument and is also true for Thai students learning Western instruments from Thai instructors (Rosen, 1999). The learning-by-rote pedagogy is a common feature of traditional Thai education, but in the music sphere can be traced to the inheritance of traditional musical styles by local people in rural villages. This is particularly true for folk music, where teachers would instruct their disciples in their homes or at the local temples (Moro, 2019). Learners and teachers rarely made a written record of their music, which had much to do with illiteracy in the country at the time. Indeed, to some in Western music circles this method of learning-through-imitation may not even be considered teaching at all (Bakan, 1993). As education became Westernised, higher education institutions played a greater role in the transmission of traditional musical culture. It should be noted though that the teachers employed by these institutions were existing players who had learned by “talking, remembering, observing a demonstration and copying a model” (Eambangyung et al., 2012). The traditional pedagogy was thus continued within higher education institutions. There have been sporadic attempts to Westernise the pedagogy, such as the introduction of the Kodály method by Mrs. Carolyn Kingshill at Payap University, but these have been isolated and temporary (Narkwong, 2000). Actually, there are elements of accepted international music education theory to be found within Thai music education. Alongside the oral/aural transmission, Thai music instructors are expected to instill personal characteristics in their pupils and assume a familial role not unlike the methods advocated by Shinichi Suzuki (Chaingam and Onlamul, 2018). Moreover, the incorporation of Western music within traditional Thai music education points to a “reverse world music pedagogy” (Anderson & Campbell, 2010; Chandransu et al., 2020) that merits further study. Yet, while there are developed curricula that include learning about musical history, musical theory and musical notation, the practical aspect of musical pedagogy for formal Thai musical education has been “superimposed upon traditional methodologies: and remains very similar to informal pedagogy (Frank, 2014; Santos, 2007). With this and the absence of Suntaraporn-specific literature, the researcher saw fit to examine the process of learner development in closer detail through the use of practice material for saxophonists in the ramwong style of Suntaraporn. Methodology This qualitative investigation was conducted in three stages. In the first stage, academic articles, books, periodicals and other related literature were reviewed to gain understanding on the development of ramwong, the history of the Suntaraporn band and their influence on traditional Thai music. Once data had been synthesised according to the research objectives, the researcher identified informants for data collection in the second stage— research and development of practice material for saxophonists learning the ramwong style of Suntaraporn. The criteria for selection of informants were professional saxophonists with over ten years of playing experience and links to the Sutaraporn band, either by performing in the group, collaborating with the group or covering Suntaraporn songs in the ramwong style. The three saxophonists selected and consenting to participate in the research were: (a) Thamrong Somboonsin, a member of Suntaraporn specialising in Saxophone performance for ramwong. Somboonsin worked with: (a) Suntaraporn founder, Khru Eua Sunthornsanan; (b) Yot Wisetsan, a professional Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (91-106) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 96 saxophonist with a national reputation for excellence in saxophone playing; and (c) Sekpon Oonsamran, a professional saxophonist known by the stage-name “Go Mr. Saxman”, who has covered many Suntaraporn compositions in his professional career. The work locations of the three respondents were consequently selected to comprise the research area for the second stage of this investigation. Each of these venues was located in Bangkok. Each of the informants was interviewed to learn how they developed their ability to play ramwong saxophone and gather their opinions on the steps student saxophonists must take when practicing the genre. All data was validated by source triangulation to compare the responses of each of the informants and subsequently analysed through analytic induction and typological analysis according to the research objectives. During interviews, the informants were also asked to recommend suitable songs for practising ramwong saxophone. Based on these findings, the researcher developed practice materials for saxophonists wishing to learn the ramwong style of the Suntaraporn band. Firstly, four compositions played by Suntarapornand suggested by research informants were identified as possible material for saxophone ramwong practice. The four songs were: “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk”, “Pleng Ramwong Mai Long Euy”, “Pleng Reung Songkran” and “Pleng Ramwong Loy Krathong”. The main melody, saxophone melody, chords and techniques used during these songs were then analysed and used to inform creation of song-specific practice material for ramwong saxophonists. Two sets of instructional material were presented to the three informants for verification and and evaluation by email. The informants were asked to evaluate the material on a five-point Likert rating-scale from 1-5 (Lowest to highest). The experts were asked to evaluate the material in five categories: (a) the ability of the practice sets to meet the research objectives; (b) the accuracy, clarity, and suitability of practice sets; (c) suitability of format and process of practice sets for learning ramwong saxophone; (d) quality of practice sets; and (e) benefits of practice sets for the development of academic music instruction. Upon approval, one of these practice saxophone sets was selected by the researcher for the third stage of the investigation. The chosen set was presented to saxophone undergraduate students to be trialled over a ten-week period. The students were purposively selected from a masters-degree cohort taught by the researcher. All students were saxophonists achieving above-average academic grades on the Woodwind Skill 5 master’s programme with the Faculty of Education, Phuket Rajabhat University. They were observed by the researcher during practice sessions. The researcher was present as a participant (instructor) during the practice sessions, and the sessions were also video recorded for further analysis. Following the practice sessions, students were interviewed to give feedback on the practice experience. Observations and interview feedback were then analysed and compared to initial expert recommendations to understand the process of developing and educating learners in ramwong saxophone in the Suntaraporn style. The results of the research are presented below as a descriptive analysis. Pramote Phokha 97 97 Results Culture of Local Pedagogy and Selection of Songs Interviews with the three informants revealed that full knowledge of traditional Thai music is vital for the success of ramwong saxophonists. Specifically, respondents emphasised the importance of familiarity with specific characteristics that differentiate each traditional Thai musical genre. Listening was deemed one of the most important skills during practice: “To practise this particular form, it is necessary to understand and remember the main melody. Traditional saxophone education in Thailand requires the learner to watch, listen and remember” (Somboonsin, personal communication, June 3, 2019). These sentiments were echoed by Sekpon Oonsamran and Yot Wisetsan, who considered it “vital to listen to repetitions of the ramwong music until it has been understood thoroughly and fluently” (Wisetsan, personal communication, July 3, 2019). Knowledge of the specificities of each traditional musical genre is important, “but especially the melodies, scales and rhythms, including techniques or tricks of the original Thai form that can be incorporated” (Somboonsin, personal communication, June 3, 2019). After interviews had been conducted, four songs were selected for development of saxophone practice sets: “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk”, “Pleng Ramwong Mai Long Euy”, “Pleng Reung Songkran” and “Pleng Ramwong Loy Krathong”. “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk” is a song with melodies from traditional Thai music, which were originally played with regional wind instruments. The researcher selected this song to epitomise the proliferation of traditional Thai influences on ramwong music and the consequent familiarity of saxophonists with traditional playing techniques. “Pleng Ramwong Mai Long Euy” was chosen because it is a comparatively easy song to learn and can be practiced using the pentatonic scale common in many Thai folk compositions. Even though “Pleng Reung Songkran” and “Pleng Ramwong Loy Krathong” are both newly composed songs and not based on folk or traditional Thai music, they are familiar to all Thai people because of their connection to the annual Thai New Year and Loy Krathong festivals. As agreed by Thamrong Somboonsin, “Ramwong music is derived from folk music and traditional Thai music designed for villagers. The concept is ‘easy listening’, so the main melodies of any practice material or new compositions must fit this mould” (personal communication, June 3, 2019). Development of Saxophone Drills The process for creation of saxophone practice sets in the form of ramwong was as follows: First, data from interviews with the three expert ramwong saxophonists was analysed to extract pedagogical concepts for saxophone learning in Thailand. The results revealed that prospective ramwong saxophonists must have a basic understanding of folk song and the characteristics of traditional Thai music. The experts also insisted that listening was a crucial part of the learning process and trainees should be expected to listen to their teacher play the melody before attempting the tune themselves. In addition, the student must be familiar with “the melodic intricacies, scales, chord positions and techniques of traditional Thai music” which are incorporated throughout ramwong songs (Oonsamran, personal communication, November 17, 2019). Following this analysis, the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (91-106) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 98 researcher learned how to play ramwong songs on the saxophone and selected four exemplar ramwong compositions for further development. The main melody, saxophone melody, chords and techniques used during these songs were then analysed. Results informed the creation of practice materials. From the set of four drills, two were randomly shown to the three experts. The two songs selected for verification and further evaluation were “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk” and “Pleng Ramwong Mai Long Euy”. The sample set was refined to these two songs because they had stronger links to traditional Thai and folk music playing styles than the festival songs. Experts felt these saxophone practice drills met the research objectives and awarded a high suitability level. All respondents concurred that this practice material was highly suitable for the acquisition of practical saxophone skills. Informants added the comment that this study addressed a gap in modern literature by developing educational material for ramwong saxophonists that did not previously exist. Evaluation results are included below in Table 1. The only category with an average evaluation result less than the highest satisfaction level was the accuracy, clarity and appropriateness of the material. This was accompanied with the feedback that some techniques require the learner to have specific listening and playing experiences, thus they felt that ‘written instruction without teacher guidance may never be fully appropriate for this genre’ (Somboonsin, personal communication, June 3, 2019). Table 1. Evaluation of practice material for ramwong saxophonists by academic and professional experts Criteria Expert Level of Satisfaction Lowest Low Medium High Highest Practice material is comprehensive and consistent with research objectives Thamrong Somboonsin X Yot Wisetsan X Sekpon Oonsamran X Practice material is accurate, clear and appropriate Thamrong Somboonsin X Yot Wisetsan X Sekpon Oonsamran X Practice material is conducive to the learning of ramwong for saxophone Thamrong Somboonsin X Yot Wisetsan X Sekpon Oonsamran X Practice material is of a high quality Thamrong Somboonsin X Yot Wisetsan X Sekpon Oonsamran X Practice material is beneficial for the development of academic music instruction Thamrong Somboonsin X Yot Wisetsan X Sekpon Oonsamran X Pramote Phokha 99 99 The researcher considered “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk” to be the song with the closest links to traditional Thai songs. This practice set was thus selected and presented to undergraduate students. The subjects practised during the second academic term for ten consecutive evenings. The “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk” Practice Set The “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk” materials and each of the other practice sets were developed with the same four-part structure: (a) History; (b) The ramwong form; (c) Sheet music; (d) Practice drills. Specific details for “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk” are given below. Part I – Cultural History of Suntaraporn and Ramwong. Ramwong is an evolution of traditional ramtone. It is the preferred musical genre of rural Thai people. Its name is derived from the Thai words meaning to dance (ram) and circle (wongklom). Dancers usually partner with members of the opposite gender and dance to percussive rhythms, provided by drums, cymbals and clappers. The theme of the music revolves around courtship, and the lyrics add to the flirtatious atmosphere created by the dance and music. All dancers improvise their movements, and these are determined by the personal style of the performers and their current mood. This particular form of dance gained popularity in urban centres during World War Two and the music was promoted by the government as a method of fostering a national unity and spirit. Ramwong appealed to modern tastes and was soon a fixture in social gatherings among all classes. The widespread acceptance of the dance led to adaptation for the stage, which included the addition of music and costumes. These developments led the government, specifically the Thai Public Relations Department, to establish a musical group to merge traditional music and the equally popular musical tastes of the West. Suntaraporn was created as the consequence of an advertisement posted in 1941 by Mr. Vilat Osatanon, Director-General of the Thai Public Relations Department. Mr. Osatanon sought a band that could play regularly on the radio station set up by the department, and at occasional, formal, government-sponsored events. Khru Eua Sunthornsanan, an established musician of the era, responded by forming Suntaraporn, who played under the department name on the radio and at official events and under the name Suntaraporn privately. Suntaraporn gained great popularity because it was made up of the most skilled musicians who could blend and harmonise multiple genres, sounds and styles. Suntaraporn became famous for their ability to transform outdated traditional music into contemporary, innovative compositions that simultaneously complimented Thai dance movements. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (91-106) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 100 Figure 1. The main melody (concert key) for “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk”. Main melody Pramote Phokha 101 101 Part II - Understanding Ramwong. Suntaraporn ramwong performances mixed traditional domestic and international styles. The musicians transformed Thai melodies and structures into modern compositions. Therefore, it is important that musicians using this training material first comprehend some basic principles: 1. Players must first have a foundational working knowledge of musical theory, which is necessary for the analysis and explanation of ramwong form and structures. The musician must be able to read modern musical notation and should possess a strong comprehension of minor, major and pentatonic scales in addition to knowledge of chords and intervals. 2. Considering the intention of this material is advanced training of saxophonists, the musician must first have appropriate skill in saxophone playing. 3. Suntaraporn ramwong performances require the musician to understand the traditional music techniques of Thailand in addition to the tone of original Thai ramwong. 4. Improvisation is a key component of ramwong that has been retained from its roots in folk traditions. The performer must therefore develop improvisational skill that enables the variation of melodies to suit the atmosphere. In addition to understanding modern musical theory, the saxophonist must have a complete education in Thai musical concepts and theory. Part III - Saxophone for Suntarapornramwong: “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk” “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk” is based on traditional Thai music. The tempo is fast and the time signature is alla breve (cut time), with two minim beats per measure. The metronome mark is = 95. The song is played in a G scale (concert key) with the majority of the melody played in a G pentatonic scale (G, A, B, D, E), although there is a C# in the 17th bar. The chords used are I, VI, Vi6 and V (G, Em, Em6 and D7/A). Sheet music for the main melody and saxophone are included below (Figure 1). Part IV - Saxophone Practice Material: “Pleng Ramwong Dao Prasuk” The saxophone melody was analysed and specific learning points identified within the music. For example, there is a disjunct melodic motion as shown in the third bar of the saxophone melody where the player is required to skip from G to D (Figure 2). Figure 2. The 3rd bar of the saxophone melody Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (91-106) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 102 Perhaps most interestingly, the saxophone melody incorporates syncopation, which is notably absent from conventional ramwong music. This is evident in the seventh and eighth bars (Figure 3). Figure 3. The 7th and 8th bars of the saxophone melody Findings were used to compose nine practice sets for lead saxophone, ten sets for the melody and eleven more sets for solo saxophone. Extracts from each set are illustrated below (Figures 4-6). These drills are to be played by the teacher and imitated by the student, as is common in traditional Thai music pedagogy. Figure 4. Practice 1—lead saxophone. Figure 5. Practice 10—melody. Figure 6. Practice 20—solo saxophone. Pramote Phokha 103 103 The practice material was then presented to undergraduate students, who worked through the drills over ten consecutive weekly sessions. When the practice materials were played by saxophone undergraduate students, the researcher observed an ability to reconstruct the required notes properly, but an inability to incorporate accents, techniques and methods associated with traditional Thai performances. The students showed that they could do this only after having been shown or after having listened to an example. This reflection corresponds to the original interviews with key informants who separately attested that “the musician must learn from rote learning and memorisation” (Wisetsan, personal communication, July 3, 2019) and that “the aspiring performer must observe their teacher and copy that style” (Oonsamran, personal communication, November 17, 2019). Interviews revealed that the students were encouraged to learn the ramwong music due to prior knowledge of the song. This certainly supports the original selection of familiar songs and reinforces the sentiments of the professional teachers who described familiarity with the melody as a significant advantage for prospective ramwong saxophonists. However, the learner needs to know more than the tune before learning to play a ramwong song: “It is important for the performer to be familiar with common scales, especially the pentatonic scale, and chord positions for ramwong-style music” (Wisetsan, personal communication, July 3, 2019). The origins of ramwong are found in the traditional music of indigenous people. Therefore, before learning ramwong songs, “the performer must first understand the traditional playing methods” (Oonsamran, personal communication, November 17, 2019). Initially, the interviewees felt unable to use the traditional styles without listening to examples. The students concluded that listening to or, better still, watching a demonstration was a major factor in playing success because the style was so unfamiliar. Discussion Thai music is driven by its melody and although there are multiple parts in a single song— these are not harmonised in the same way as the West. Instead, they each play a variation on the main melody that is unique to that particular instrument class. These simultaneous sounds are layered and meet at stressed beats to coincide with the main melody (Morton, 1976). They diverge on unstressed beats. Thai music therefore ebbs and flows from stress point to stress point guided by the percussion instruments (Wright, 1968). The primary reasons for difficulties in self-teaching saxophone melodies for traditional Thai music are the differences between the Thai and Western notation and tuning systems. Traditionally, Thai notation is a memory tool and not something that is strictly adhered to—normally the melody is only written as an outline. As Volk (2006) explains: The Thai tuning system divides the octave into seven equidistant intervals and there is no standard pitch level … To learn the complete song with its proper ornamentation, idioms and style, a student must work with a teacher … Western notation can easily be used to transcribe this as long as the performer realizes that the pitches written are symbolic of the intervallic distances only and not the actual sounds of the pitches since the tuning systems are so different (p. 245) Therefore, to play Suntaraporn ramwong melodies on the saxophone, the musician must first have a working knowledge of traditional techniques. The accents and methods of traditional music are too difficult to explain in abstract terms to learners with Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (91-106) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 104 no prior experience of their sound and style. Individuals must listen and watch to develop an appreciation of the musical and technical requirements. This supports many of the advocates of the Thai rote learning system, which is a pedagogy practiced throughout Thai education. Imitation enables the student to develop not only the sounds of their teacher, but also their posture, manners and techniques (Campbell, 1987). Despite being frowned upon by many teachers and scholars in the West and regarded as outmoded (Nolte, 2019), Thai music expert Terry Miller argues that, although “the rote system is very time-intensive … it's also very thorough—you never forget the music” (Campbell, 1994, p. 22). In support of his opinion, research by Finney and Palmer (2003, p. 51) showed that “auditory feedback during learning significantly improved later recall.” Saxophone training material developed during this research project was standardised using modern international notation but it remains necessary for learners to possess knowledge of traditional music so that they are able to accurately represent authentic ramwong sounds in their performance. Historical knowledge of ramwong will also accelerate their learning. Following examination of Thai classical music education, Wisuttipat (2020) concluded that “oral transmission and rote learning are key to transmitting ideas about cultural identity.” The inclusion of a holistic cultural approach in these practice sets is a nod towards national strategies for the maintenance of traditional culture. In order to ensure continued inheritance, it is suggested that the history of significant musicians, such as Suntaraporn, is woven into music curricula at the higher level. Suntaraporn are particularly important due to their huge influence on the evolution of traditional music in Thailand. Clearly there are nationalist connotations associated with the band, but their importance in the evolution of Thai music cannot be overlooked. It is recommended that undergraduate music students become familiar with the basics of Thai music, regardless of their musical major, to ensure that this national cultural heritage is conserved. This has the potential to generate interest and stimulate young musicians to innovate alternative versions of traditional music, as Khru Eua Sunthornsanan did so successfully. The research informants all identified the importance of recognising characteristics of different genres of traditional music. Consequently, it is recommended that listening activities accompany the practice sets as part of an overall learning method. There should be further investigation of listening as a pedagogical approach in order to incorporate such activities into a complete method that could teach both technique and style. The sets developed during this investigation may be used for saxophone instruction in the ramwong style. To secure more accurate results and further suggestions for improvement, it is important that the drills are tested with a greater number and wider variety of students. The researcher would also like to suggest that further research is conducted about other ground breaking developments made by Suntaraporn and how other genres of traditional music have been transformed towards modernity. It is hoped that findings from this investigation could be used in the field of cultural conservation and contribute to the process of standardising saxophone education in Thailand, especially with the inclusion of saxophone musicians in traditional Thai bands. Pramote Phokha 105 105 References Ajharn, W. (1992). An analytical study of modern Thai songs by “Suntaraporn” [Unpublished Master’s thesis]. Chulalongkorn University. Anderson, W. & Campbell, P. S. (2010). Multicultural perspectives in Music Education: Vol. 3. Rowman and Littlefield. Bakan, M. B. (1993). Lessons from a World: Balinese applied music instruction and the teaching of western "art" music. College Music Symposium, 33(1), 1-22. Campbell, P. S. (1987). The oral transmission of music in selected Asian cultures. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 92(2), 1-14. Campbell, P. S. (1994). Terry E. Miller on Thai Music. Music Educators Journal, 81(2), 19-25. Chaingam, C. & Onlamul, K. (2018). Implementing Isan folk music for practicing violin performance skill based on Suzuki method concept. Humanities and Social Sciences Journal, 9(1), 156-166. Chandransu, N., Chanoksakul, S., & Saibunmi, S. (2020). The direction of world music pedagogy: Definition, principles, and suggestions. Journal of Education Studies, 48(1), 142-163. Deecharoen, N. & Chullasap, E. (2018). The cultural heritage of “ram tone” (tone dance). Mekong-Salween Civilization Studies Journal, 9(1), 277-296. Eambangyung, S., Chareonsuk, S., Amatyakul, P., Chaisuwan, P., & Banjongsilp, O. (2012). Khim in Thai Educational System. Warasarn Silpakamsart [Fine Arts Journal], 15(2), 58-71. Finney, S., & Palmer, C. (2003). Auditory feedback and memory for music performance: Sound evidence for an encoding effect. Memory and Cognition, 31(1), 51-64. Frank, A. (2014). "“That’s the way I’ve always learned”: The transmission of traditional music in higher education" (2014). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 2381. https://dc.etsu.edu/etd/2381 Green, L. (2017). Music education as critical theory and practice: Selected essays. Routledge. Jocuns, A. (2007). Semiotics and classroom interaction: Mediated discourse, distributed cognition, and the multimodal semiotics of maguru panggul pedagogy in two Balinese Gamelan classrooms in the United States., 2007(164), 123-151. https://doi.org/10.1515/SEM.2007.022 Junlaprom, N. (2008). Unity strategies in “Suntaraporn”'s provincial and place songs. University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce Journal Humanities and Social Sciences, 28(3), 196-211. Laovanich, V., Chuppunnarat, Y., Laovanich, M., & Saibunmi, S. (2020). An investigation into the status of Thailand’s music education systems and organisation. British Journal of Music Education, 1-14. doi:10.1017/S026505172000032 Lichinda, J. (2014). Suntharaporn and the process of achieving acknowledgement in the culture of international entertainment culture concept in Thailand during the decade of the 2490s’ B.E. Journal of Letters, 43(2), 27-60. Maryprasith, P. (1999). The effects of globalization on the status of music in Thai society. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of London. Miller, T. (2002). Learning how to learn: Lessons from diverse traditions in music and dance. College Music Symposium, 42(1), 76-88. Mitchell, J. (2011). Red and yellow songs: a historical analysis of the use of music by the United front for democracy against dictatorship (UDD) and the People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) in Thailand. South East Asia Research, 19(3), 457-494. Moro, P. A. (2019). Religion and the transmission of Thai musical heritage in Thailand and the United States. In: A.A. Kallio, P. Alperson, and H. Westerlund (Eds.). Music, Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10, Issue 1 (91-106) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 106 education, and religion: Intersections and entanglements (pp. 87-98). Indiana University Press. Morton, D. (1976). The traditional music of Thailand. University of California Press. Narkwong, T. (2000). The possibility of using the Kodály method to teach music literacy in Thailand. Manusya: Journal of Humanities, 3(2), 23-31. Nolte, B. (2019). In support of requiring two semesters of class piano prior to music theory 1. College Music Symposium, 59(2), 1-3. Office of the National Education Commission, Ministry of Education (2017). The National Education Plan, 2017-2036. Prig Whan Graphics. Phakkhaphanon, S. (2017). Lotus: Simile meaning in “Suntaraporn”’s songs. University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce Journal Humanities and Social Sciences, 37(2), 139-151. Phakkhaphanon, S. (2018). Figures of speech of love in Suntaraporn songs. University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce Journal Humanities and Social Sciences, 38(1), 90-105. Photikanit, K., & Sirasoonthorn, P. (2018). Reconstruction of social ideology through the power of music: Case study of Suntaraporn band, Thailand. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 39(2), 343-350. Pinksterboer, H. (2007). Tipbook saxophone: The complete guide. Tipbook. Pitupumnak, K. (2018). Paradigm for the development of a Lanna music curriculum in higher education in Northern Thailand. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7(1), 38-57. Rosen, D. A. (1999). Music training and cultural transmission: A study of piano pedagogy and the transmission of culture in Vietnam and Thailand [Unpublished doctoral dissertation], The Claremont Graduate University, California. Santos, R. P. (2007). Transmission, pedagogy and education: A critical study of Asian traditional music cultures in post-colonial and modern times in Thailand and Indonesia. In The Nippon Foundation, Asian transformations in action: The work of the 2006/2007 API Fellows, (pp.70-78). Abeno Printing. Suwat, N. (2019). Patriotic songs of Suntharaporn Band: Persuasive tools to Western values. Valaya Alongkorn Review, 9(3), 173-186. Volk, T. M. (2006). An application of Thai music for general and instrumental music programs. International Journal of Music Education, 24(3), 243-254. Wisuttipat, N. (2020). No notation needed: The construction and politics of transnational Thai identity through the oral transmission of classical music. Asian Music, 51(2), 5-38. Worawanit, O. (2016). Management of Thai popular big bands in Thailand: Case study of Kasemsri, Keetasil and Supaporn popular big bands. Institute of Culture and Arts Journal, 16(2), 36-47. Wright, M. (1968). Polyphonic stratification in traditional Thai instrumental music. [Unpublished master’s thesis], University of California at Los Angeles. Biography Pramote Phokha is an assistant professor of music education within the Faculty of Education at Phuket Rajabhat university. He received a master of arts in Music Education from Mahidol university in 1998 and was subsequently awarded a PhD in Music Education in 2013 from the College of Music, Mahasarakham university.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 10 No. 1 (2021)

.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/366

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5450

Editorial

The Malaysian Journal of Music, Volume 10, Issue 1, comprises six articles that present current issues in ethnomusicology, music education and composition from Thailand, Philippines and Italy. Four articles on music education emphasise the importance of musical activities in enhancing social and emotional skills, the importance of integrating local approaches to teaching traditional music and the development of the music curriculum in public and private institutions. This volume presents one article on practice-led research which highlights the art of practice as research. This methodology is an approach to research that is gaining popularity among music researchers. An article that frames the compositional techniques of two composers from different regions of the world under a western philosophical concept is also presented.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/5450/3041

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`>!+75"L8F-!WE*F!)J77F,5!/5+5J>!6K!38FCF,5+7H! GJ>"L!34JL+5"6,!",!a+,A6,-!GH+,C+7[!=76<"4F>!",>"A*5>!56!CJ>"L!F4JL+5"6,!K76C!+! *"A*8H!J,4F7>5J4"F4!L6J,57H.!E*76JA*!S65*!VJ+,5"5+5"<F!+,4!VJ+8"5+5"<F!CF5*64686AH-! 5*">!+75"L8F!FO+C",F>!5*F!>5+5J>!6K!CJ>"L!",!=JS8"L!+,4!=7"<+5F!F8FCF,5+7H!>L*668>!",! GH+,C+7.!E*F!7F>F+7L*!=6>"5>!5*+5!5*F7F!">!+!8+LR!6K!CJ>"L!K+L"8"5"F>-!5F+L*",A!+"4>-! VJ+8"K"F4!CJ>"L!5F+L*F7>!+,4!7F>6J7LF>!K67!CJ>"L!F4JL+5"6,!",!GH+,C+7.!E*F!+J5*67>! >5+5F!5*+5!5*F7F!">!+!,FF4!56!>57F,A5*F,!5*F!CJ>"L!F4JL+5"6,!=68"LH!+,4!=+75,F7>*"=! SF5TFF,!=JS8"L!>L*668>!+,4!=7"<+5F!CJ>"L!>L*668>!",!GH+,C+7.!! Cite this editorial: Chan, C. S. C. (2021). Editorial. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(1), iii-iv. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.7.2021 ! !#" N,!!WQ67F"A,!'+,4*%,&",!P7+L5"LF?!bFT!EF+L*",A!/57+5FA"F>!+,4!5*F!NC=+L5!6K! P7+L5"LF;8F4!cF>F+7L*!6,!I+<+,F>F!QFC+8F!/",A",A[-!N8+7"+!GF86,"!7FK8FL5>!6,!*F7! 8F+7,",A!FO=F7"F,LF>!+>!+!I+<+,F>F!7%5+,4*%,!0KFC+8F!>686!>",AF72&",!a6AH+R+75+.! E*76JA*! =7+L5"LF4;8F4! 7F>F+7L*-! GF86,"! 4">LJ>>F>! 5*F! 5F+L*",A! >57+5FA"F>! J>F4! SH! I+<+,F>F!5F+L*F7>!56!57+,>C"5!R,6T8F4AF!56!+!K67F"A,!8F+7,F7-!5*F!=+75"L"=+5"6,!6K!86L+8! =7+L5"5"6,F7>!",!5*F!7F>F+7L*!=76LF>>!+,4!5*F!",K8JF,LF!6K!K"F84T67R!6,!5*F!7F>F+7L*F7.! E*">! 7FK8FO"<F! +==76+L*! 56! 8F+7,",A-! 46LJCF,5F4! 5*76JA*! 5*F! =7+L5"LF;8F4! CF5*64686AH!LJ8C",+5F>!56!,FT!R,6T8F4AF!+S6J5!5*F!=7+L5"LF.!E*">!+75"L8F!6=F,>!+! =+5*T+H!K67!CJ>"L!7F>F+7L*F7>!56!4">LJ>>!=7+L5"LF!+>!+!K67C!6K!7F>F+7L*!T*"L*!T"88! AF,F7+5F!,FT!R,6T8F4AF!K67!KJ5J7F!=7+L5"5"6,F7>.!! I6,+>!]7F5+!Z+F>!",!WZFK67F!E*F"7!3+7>!+,4!G",4>?!/JS8+5"6,!",!5*F!GJ>"L+8! P7+O">!6K!I6>d!G+LF4+!+,4!G+5*"+>!/=+*8",AF7[!4">LJ>>F>!eFAF8`>!4"+8FL5"L>!+,4!5*F! ,65"6,!6K!W>JS8+5"6,[!",!G+LF4+!+,4!/=+*8",AF7`>!L6C=6>"5"6,>-!5T6!L6C=6>F7>!6K! T6784>! +=+75\Q"8"=",6! +,4! fF7C+,.! eF! 4F<F86=>! +! K7+CFT67R! K67! ,FT! CJ>"L! L6C=6>"5"6,!S+>F4!6,!eFAF8`>!=*"86>6=*H.!Z+F>!4F>L7"SF>!*6T!5*F!8+HF7",A!6K!>6J,4>! K76C! 5*F! L6CS",+5"6,! 6K! I+<+,F>F! CF5+886=*6,F>! T"5*! /6J5*F+>5! U>"+,! S+CS66! >6J,4>-!I+=+,F>F!>L+8F>!=8+HF4!6,!5*F!$8G)%.+&+LL6C=+,"F4!SH!+!S+>>66,!+,4!L*6"7! >",A",A! ",! *#+.(& 5FO5! L7F+5F>! 5*F! ,65"6,! 6K! W>JS8+5"6,[.! E*F! 4"KKF7F,5! ="5L*F>! +,4! 5"CS7F>!5*+5!L6,<F7AF!+L5!+>!5*F!5*F>">!+,4!+,5"5*F>">!",!eFAF8`>!4"+8FL5"L>.!E*F>F! >6J,4>!F<F,5J+88H!L+,LF8!6J5!6,!F+L*!65*F7!56!L7F+5F!+!,FT!L6C=6>"5"6,\5*F!,FT! 5*F>">.! /JS8+5"6,! +8>6! 6LLJ7>! ",! G+5*"+>! /=+*8",AF7`>! H%-%,& A,%,4"+@*! T*F,! +,,"*"8+5"6,!FCF7AF>!K76C!5*F!>57JAA8F!6K!="5L*!+,4!5FC=67+8!C+5F7"+8>!56!A6!+A+",>5! W",K","5H[!+,4!5*F"7!",+S"8"5H!56!7F=764JLF!4JF!56!5*F"7!57+,>"F,5!"4F,5"5"F>.!E*">!+75"L8F! F,8"A*5F,>!L6C=6>F7>!6,!*6T!5*F67"F>!6K!=*"86>6=*H!L+,!SF!J5"8">F4!56!K7+CF!CJ>"L! L6C=6>"5"6,+8!5FL*,"VJF>.! N,!WU!)+>F!K67!c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

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

creativity, innovation, intellectuality, moderen, new music, tradisi

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/2715

Answering Questions, Questioning Answers: Understanding Tradisi and Moderen in the Intellectual Process of Balinese New Music Creations

In Bali, compositional process in music was traditionally more intuitive than conceptual. The recreation of beauty in nature through musical expression and melodic ideas was and is still thought to be sufficient for many to form a musical repertoire. However, these examples may be perceived as naïve, straightforward, or simplistic expressions in comparison to newer styles of Balinese musical composition. This article discusses how the terms ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ are understood by academic and non-academic Balinese artists (both musicians and composers alike), and the extent to which they influence the aesthetics of Balinese composers’ musical creations. Initially, I examine the historical dimension of Balinese compositions with all of its challenges, considering the terms ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ as important to the understanding of the development of Balinese musical creations. I explore some new works for gamelan by Balinese composers, and further address some of the problems that arise in the development of Balinese music. Senior Balinese musicians/composers believe that local wisdom provides the foundation of Balinese music while the assimilation of global culture allows young musicians to innovate and develop their music without abandoning their indigenous identity. Younger Balinese composers are not only accepting, recreating, and changing established traditional/older music and ideas, but are now developing deeper, more intellectual methods of composition, expanding possibilities, and individual creativity to new levels. Older music is part of a new musical construction tailored to the way that composers create their works.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/2715/2499

I Wayan Sudirana 1 Answering Questions, Questioning Answers: Understanding Tradisi and Moderen in the Intellectual Process of Balinese New Music Creations I Wayan Sudirana Music Department, Faculty of Performing Arts Institut Seni Indonesia Denpasar Jalan Nusa Indah, Sumerta, Denpasar, Bali, 80235 e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 1 July 2020 Cite this article (APA): Sudirana, I. W. (2020). Answering questions, questioning answers: Understanding tradisi and moderen in the intellectual process of Balinese new music creations, Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.1.2020 Abstract In Bali, compositional process in music was traditionally more intuitive than conceptual. The recreation of beauty in nature through musical expression and melodic ideas was and is still thought to be sufficient for many to form a musical repertoire. However, these examples may be perceived as naïve, straightforward, or simplistic expressions in comparison to newer styles of Balinese musical composition. This article discusses how the terms ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ are understood by academic and non-academic Balinese artists (both musicians and composers alike), and the extent to which they influence the aesthetics of Balinese composers’ musical creations. Initially, I examine the historical dimension of Balinese compositions with all of its challenges, considering the terms ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ as important to the understanding of the development of Balinese musical creations. I explore some new works for gamelan by Balinese composers, and further address some of the problems that arise in the development of Balinese music. Senior Balinese musicians/composers believe that local wisdom provides the foundation of Balinese music while the assimilation of global culture allows young musicians to innovate and develop their music without abandoning their indigenous identity. Younger Balinese composers are not only accepting, recreating, and changing established traditional/older music and ideas, but are now developing deeper, more intellectual methods of composition, expanding possibilities, and individual creativity to new levels. Older music is part of a new musical construction tailored to the way that composers create their works. Keywords: creativity, innovation, intellectuality, moderen, new music, tradisi Introduction American ethnomusicologist McGraw (2013) states that there has been a prolonged polemic amongst academic and non-academic musicians in Bali, that claims that modern choreographies and compositions carry ‘the wind of fear’ to ‘destroy tradition’ merusak tradisi. McGraw wrote, In the background, a radio transmitted frequency 96.5, Radio Global Bali, and on a call-in discussion about Balinese dance, a long-time listener, first-time caller speaking in clear, urbanized Indonesian free of the usual peppering of Balinese complained that modern choreographies and compositions were threatening to ‘break tradition’ merusak tradisi (McGraw, 2013, p. 68). The discussion on ‘Global Bali Radio’ is interesting because it involved not only musicians and composers, but also a wide range of art-loving communities as well as a diversity of ordinary people within the modern Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 2 Balinese community. The discussion led to the argument that the presence of modern choreographies and compositions in general is directly disrupting the continuation of Balinese traditional arts. On the issue of merusak tradisi, Balinese musician and composer, I Wayan Gde Yudane, expressed his disapproval in the strongest terms with the existence of the very categories ‘tradition’ and ‘modern’ when used in the context of new musical creations. Yudane said the terms were actually illusory, unrelated to music-making and have a destructive effect on a composer’s creativity. He claimed that the terms should be avoided with respect to the creation of new works, since they form a barrier to the development of new ideas by composers and choreographers who have exerted this power for decades. He likened their effect to a kind of intellectual constipation that serves the existing political/governmental order (Yudane, personal communication, May 2018). After completing my studies in Canada and returning to Bali in 2013,1 I encountered somewhat critical subjective comments from senior Balinese musicians regarding a new piece for gamelan that I had composed.2 The issue of merusak tradisi was indirectly expressed to me after the concert.3 Some of the senior musicians thought that I disobeyed pakem (traditional musical rules) in my composition. However, I fully understood the need to value the inherited musical traditions. Indonesian philosopher and literary critic Sumardjo (2000) states that traditional arts as living traditions are very rare, and artists as ‘value-free’ human beings deserve to care about the values of inherited art works (p. 338). Following this encounter with my own work, I began to consider several questions—how should Balinese composers and musicians engage this artistic inheritance? Should we use the elements of traditional artwork to create modern art? Should we continue the tradition of art as it was created within its original context? Should we interpret and give new values to our traditional art? This article discusses how the terms ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ are understood in the context of academic and non-academic Balinese musicians (both performers and composers), and the extent to which they influence the mindset of the Balinese composers’ musical creations. The first part of this article will examine the historical dimension with all of its challenges. The investigation of the concepts of ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ and how they are defined in contemporary Indonesian society is important to understanding the development of Balinese musical creations. This article will then go on to analyse new works for gamelan, and address some of the problems that have arisen in the development of Balinese music. Senior Balinese musicians/composers believe that local wisdom is a foundation while the assimilation of global culture allows young Balinese musicians to innovate and develop without leaving their indigenous identity. Tradisi vs Moderen Tradition is generally defined as a habit that has been carried out continuously for a long time and becomes part of the life of a group of people in the same country, culture, time and religion. Sudirana quoted that, “tradisi adalah adat kebiasan turun temurun dari nenek moyang yang masih dijalankan oleh masyarakat; penilaian atau anggapan bahwa cara-cara yang telah ada merupakan yang paling baik dan benar (tradition is a hereditary custom which is passed down from ancestors and still used by the community; the assessment or belief that existing methods are the best and correct ones)” (2019, p. 129). Both of these understandings usually underlie the mindset of the Indonesian people in literally understanding the meaning of the word ‘tradition.’ The perception of ‘tradition’ as static or a non-continuous process of development is still an obstacle that may restrict creativity for most Indonesians. Composer and ethnomusicologist Dieter Mack, who has lived, studied, and taught in Indonesia since 1978, states: For most Indonesians, awareness of its history is less of a continuous development process from time to time (understanding of linear development). Tradition is more like something that does not change (circular or even ‘round’ and without a dimension of time travel), something more static with absolute values. (Mack, 2001, p. 34) Mack notes that many Indonesian musicians tend to be overprotective of their long-inherited habits. For him, Indonesian musicians should recognise when to protect their inherited habits. Are these practices still in accordance with today’s environment? Do they continue to have useful values for the development of human civilisation? Moderen comes from the Latin word which means ‘now.’ If we restrict our understanding to the literal meaning of the word, the scope of moderen becomes very narrow. Even though moderen in the I Wayan Sudirana 3 broadest sense—in this case the word moderen has turned into an official term, ‘modern’, and it is used widely in formal and informal discourses—is a change in the system of civilisation that has gone through a long process. When did this change begin? This is rather difficult to trace because every civilisation has its own historical dimensions based on the social complexity of its people. When viewed from the historical dimension of Indonesia, modernisation in Bali, can be said to have occurred after Indonesia’s independence in 1945 or at the beginning of the emergence of the ‘New Order’ after the mass killings of 1965-66 (Vickers, 2005, pp. 142-168). This was a time when modern identity was somehow imported directly from Western countries after Indonesian independence (Supanggah, 2003). From this point onwards, everything began to be viewed in terms of its benefits, its ease of being attained by the community. ‘Modern’ came to signify being rooted in pragmatic thinking, considering scientific concepts based on theory and law. In other words, ‘modern’ was equated with being rational and expunging irrational beliefs. In the 1930s the term ‘modern’ was adapted in the Indonesian language to moderen. At the same time, the the word traditie became tradisi. In Bali, the use of the term moderen was associated with the imagination of life outside the caste system that was put in place by the Dutch. That is, “Bali's modern subjectivity is a state that frees its people from colonial control and caste rule systems, links Western humanism and Indian theosophy, and demonstrates various kinds of inspiration within the modern Balinese society” (McGraw, 2013, p. 18). From the 1930s onwards, Balinese society has been influenced by Western life which emphasised equality and the social function of human beings, along with the application of religious doctrine and mysticism. Merusak Tradisi (Breaking Traditions)? The fundamental aspect to think about now is to return to the notion that the emergence of Balinese modern choreographies and compositions threatens the continuation of Balinese traditional art. What causes many senior Balinese academic artists to have this opinion? Is this merely an attempt to protect the continuity of traditional Balinese arts? Or is there another reason behind it? Simply speaking, does ‘tradition’ really mean an ‘absence of changes’? How do most artists (and also intellectuals) understand tradisi? Is there a clear mapping in understanding tradisi and moderen? All of these questions arise out of a misunderstanding that has been prevalent amongst young Balinese artists for decades.4 After graduating from Institut Seni Indonesia (ISI) Denpasar in 2002, I felt afraid to express, innovate, or just simply to start new things to forge my personal identity. This feeling of fear was also expressed by Putu Adi Septa Suweca Putra, one of the young composers who came to work seriously on new music for gamelan (personal communication, 25 February, 2018). There are many Balinese musicians and composers who now understand that tradition will always change. They understand the linear and historical dimensions of tradition, and this provides them with a visionary view. However, there still are Balinese musicians and composers who advance only by ‘copying/accepting’ and who embrace a circular paradigm for history, this perspective may result in confusion in deciding their next steps. The influence of authority actually plays an important role in shaping the direction or development of tradition. There have been times when Indonesian government bureaucrats fear the influx of profound foreign influences. Most of these influences are considered by Indonesian government officals to be disrupting the continuity of traditional art forms. The bureaucrats state: “if this situation continues, our traditional arts will fade away.” Contrastingly, Indonesian clarinetist and composer Hardjana answers this statement in a straightforward way, writing, “the traditional arts of a nation that have been pioneered for centuries will not die, unless the tradition is buried with his people” (Hardjana, 2004, p. 63). This dialogue provides context for the two different perceptions between national cultural (ruler/authority) and academic (practitioner) cultural observers. But both national authorities and cultural practitioners actually aim for the continuation of inherited cultural heritage. Understanding the concepts and goals of modern art is an urgent matter. The realm of conceptualisation is indeed fraught. We cannot only say that the things we create are in accordance with our own will. In the area of conception, music is not only an intuitive thing that allows our minds to be unfettered to enjoy the beauty and sounds of nature, the singing of birds, or the leap of a frog, all of which are only translated into simple and natural expressions. Music, as a concept, is a portrait of a human and intellectual view of life, which is translated by measurable methods and experiments with clear directions to project the time with the music itself (Wayan Gde Yudane, personal communication, March 28, 2018). In Balinese Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 4 music, we have inherited this mindset from the era of the emergence of the kebyar (flashy) style in North Bali, and it is a milestone in the modern era of Bali. In the realm of tradition, people are accustomed and comfortable listening to (or witnessing) something they have inherited from generation to generation; something that has been agreed upon for decades. Their imagination has been directed to appreciate ‘safe’ artistic choices, and usually without knowing deeply the textual and contextual analysis of the arts. In the modern (new/recent) realm, by contrast, the creation of art often implies an updated consciousness. This often makes most audiences confused about how to enjoy contemporary modern art. On the contrary, today art (including music) is often associated with entertainment, which ‘spoils’ the listener’s ears. In Sjukur (2012), Jero Wacik, the former Indonesian Minister of Tourism in the reformasi era (1998 until today) states: […] culture can bring in foreign exchange; so it’s like merchandise. That is dangerous. Art is a materialistic need. For example, in Bali there are many tourists. Many performances are summarised because tourists don't have much time. If it is performed all night, the tourists will not enjoy it. In Solo (Central Java) there is also the short version of Wayang Kulit (puppet shadow performance), or it is called pakeliran padet. But, besides that, how do we preserve the tradition? Tradition is considered as wisdom that is no longer needed…today, people only want something easy/instant/practical. (p. 24) Composer Slamet Abdul Sjukur echoes this assertion, While the important part for most people is what can be held or seen, and if this view is still there, it remains difficult. During this time, art, including music, is nothing more than entertainment. As long as people still think about it that way, we are still an ‘orphan.’ We are oppressed by our ignorance if we still consider the art solely as entertainment. (Sjukur, 2012, p. 24) What is the important part in projecting our art? Is art projected as a commodity in fulfilling materialistic needs? Or is art an identity that projects the intellectual values into the modern realm? Ironically, many cultural observers still have an opinion that tends to ‘dwarf’ the conceptual domain of art. Art is often regarded as merchandise to be sold to a consumer. Making art a valuable asset in the world of tourism is a natural thing. But whatever is done should go through stages of development with a clear vision. I am sure that Jero Wacik, with his expert staff, has considered this. But we must realise that Indonesia is actually facing a very heavy ‘stream’ of the impact of global world competition. Commercial culture (art) is deliberately raised as a powerful weapon of capitalists who have changed the mindset of people today. This is related to practical culture—that which is instant, easy, and can be manipulated in all circles. In this context, art seems to be a ‘whore’ of consumers’ tastes. Meanwhile, in the realm outside of commercial art, art is created seriously and with visionary conceptualisation. This new form of art is often difficult to find a place within the environment built by the capitalists (Sjukur, 2014, p. 310). This is the dilemma that is often found in the Indonesian (Balinese) art scene today. Traditional art (or that which is labeled tradisi), as previously stated, is sometimes easy to sell because of its naïve expressions. In response to the capitalist competition in this global era, government programmmes tend to emphasise the kearifan lokal (local wisdom) in the craft objects making procedures. (Comaroff and Comaroff, 2009; Picard, 1990). Traditional art is believed to be able to compete in a straightforward manner because it is considered part of national identity. In fact, in accordance with Sjukur’s statement above, most of the steps taken by the government tend to present traditional art as an object that can be ‘polished’ or ‘packaged’ to fulfill the needs of the consumers. The motto of kearifan lokal seems to be a widely applied label meant to evoke the unique flavour of Indonesia’s best-selling merchandise. However, art should be placed as a subject that can take advantage of the kearifan lokal motto to become the basic foundation for creating the arts with a thoughtful intellectual conception adapted to this new era. According to Mack’s research in Indonesia, contemporary is considered a standard form, a ‘certain style’ or ‘freestyle’: just as there is a general understanding of the term ‘tradition’ as something that cannot be changed. In other words, tradition (first point) is something that must be preserved and must not be changed or damaged. He concludes, “Therefore, it is not surprising that artists who want to develop a type of traditional music are often accused of ‘destroying traditional values.’ Even though they do not want to erase the existing ones, they just want to add something” (Mack, 2001, p. 34). From this statement, it is clear that there is a strong fear about the extinction of a tradition. Things that are contemporary (second point) are interpreted as having a certain style, which is free, or even arbitrary. When viewed from the understanding of tradition as explained in the first point above, I Wayan Sudirana 5 we are reminded of the awareness of the historical dimension of Indonesian society which tends to think of tradition as circular, even without the dimensions of traveling time (round). This is understandable because it is directly related to politics, tourism and power. The second point is based on ignorance of the understanding of the historical dimension of Westerners who view history from the perspective of linear progression (traveling from time to time). This is fatal, and a solution to improve this misleading mindset should begin to be considered. Reflecting on the Predecessors Bali has had great, modern and visionary artists since the 1920s who understood that tradition is a continuous process. These visionary artists included the late visionary painter I Gusti Nyoman Lempad,5 the sculptor Ida Bagus Njana, and the great composer I Wayan Lotring.6 Lempad and Njana were two artists who founded the Pitamaha Ubud, the organisation of artists facilitated by the Ubud palace, the painter Rudolf Bonnet, and Walter Spies. Both Lempad and Njana had a visionary mindset on the aesthetic patterns of painting and sculpture, which were born from the artists’ own consciousness. The traditional puppet (wayang) paintings that were previously non-realist (Figure 1), were broken down and ‘dismantled’ by Lempad’s persistence in utilising his own skill as a painter, imagination, and interpretations of Balinese philosophy of life. In Lempad’s paintings, traditional wayang was transformed into a realistic form and realist vision as a Balinese human in the context of philosophy. The wayang figures drawn by Lempad tend to be thin and long, interpreting thematic daily life of Balinese, Hindu mythology, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and local legends (Figure 2). \ Figure 1. Traditional Wayang Painting (Source: I Gusti Made Bagus Putra Atmaja (Great Grandson of I Gusti Nyoman Lempad, 2019. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 6 Figure 2. Work in Lempad’s Style (Source: I Gusti Made Bagus Putra Atmaja, Great Grandson of I Gusti Nyoman Lempad, 2019). Along with Lempad, the work of the late Njana evoked a specific concept related to this process: ape ade anggo (whatever is available in front of us, that is what we are going to use as an artwork). Thematic visualisation also inspired the work of Njana. The figures displayed in his sculptures adapt to the natural shape of the wood in front of him: if the available wood was large, the statue was adjusted to the anatomical shape of a human body at a larger scale. If the available wood was small and long, the resulting sculpture was a very thin and long statue, but the anatomical structure of the human body was perfectly visualised (Figure 3). Figure 3. The sculpture of Ida Bagus Njana (Source: Ida Bagus Alit, the son of Ida Bagus Njana Tilem, 2018) I Wayan Sudirana 7 Figure 4. The sculpture of Ida Bagus Njana (Source: Ida Bagus Alit, the son of Ida Bagus Njana Tilem, 2018) Lotring, a gamelan teacher and composer, presented patterns of kotekan (interlocking figurations) and unique or distinctive melodic progressions that are believed to have never been heard before. Lotring also proclaimed himself as the first composer for Balinese gamelan in the 1930s—something that individual composers had rarely done prior to him. Most of Lotring’s compositions break the pakem (musical rules) of the traditional pieces, such as the pakem of legong (a court dance tradition) and lelambatan, (a traditional temple music), into a more expressive form and non-restrained melodic progressions in a free style. The structure of the pieces and melodic patterns from Lotring’s compositions are mostly flexible with unpredictable dynamic and tempo changes, and the application of some odd meters in some transitions of the pieces. Because of these innovations, Lotring became a composer whose works have so far been respected not only in Bali, but also internationally. How did Lempad, already have this mindset in the 1920s? Why do we, as the generation born in the era that is said to be the modern era, tend to experience stagnation or ‘drought’ of visionary and brave ideas that differ from what Lempad, Njana and Lotring did in their era? Indeed, there are times when stagnant conditions can occur at certain times. Nevertheless, will we just accept this stagnation and be resigned to only being a well-behaved audience? An open mindset towards outside influences and the ability to assimilate these influences are the starting point of the restoration. Balinese artists are now expected to open themselves and occasionally selehin umahe uli disisi (see your house from the outside)—because when we get out of our own house that is where we can objectively see our house (Sudirana, 2013, p. 15). Lotring lived and studied in Surakarta for a few months. Arriving in Bali, he composed a song entitled ‘Gonteng Jawa’ (now popularly known as ‘Solo’), with a Javanese melody integrated with Lotring’s characteristic ornamentation. A visionary, open, and purposeful mindset is the path of hope that is awaited for today in addressing the development of Balinese new music in the era of globalisation. While cultural and artistic conservatives argue that tradition requires protection from outside forces, some composers often reject classical specialisation and persistently defend the local traditions ‘against’ the modern with its universal and global values. A novelty that transcends innovation, similar to the global avant-gardism is considered to be found in its own territory, while ideas that are deemed sophisticated and advanced in the world of Western-style modernism may look like the ancient work commonly described in lontar (Balinese palm leaf writing or traditional scriptures). This statement emphasises that the global is not a hegemonic force and that only has the potential to destroy. We, as a generation of Balinese artists, must always assume that contemporary global culture will not only put pressure on and destroy cultures that are outside its path (Sudirana, 2013, p. 183). How can we understand what is ‘tradition’ and ‘modern’ using our own skill and intellectual abilities to address the progress of this fast-paced and sophisticated era? Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 8 Imaginasi and Nalar In 2006, senior composer Slamet Abdul Sjukur gave an analogy of the process of creativity in music: If you wait for the command from your brain, in martial arts, you will lose the momentum or be hit first. Firefighters must move quickly without waiting for orders. It is a similar situation for the pick-pocketer. They should not hesitate when finding the right moment to act (personal communication, 2012, p. 12). The process of creation starts from an intention to create, all the way through to the completion of the work. Sjukur reminds us to quickly respond to all forms of imagination that comes into our minds. Inspiration cannot be planned or designed. It comes suddenly. This is the case with composers. Composers need to be ready to process what they imagine into concrete musical forms using their experiences and technical skills. No matter how big the imaginings are, if the mind does not have sufficient ability to process them, no concrete musical ideas will be established. The ability to process imaginings and inspirations into some patterned musical languages needs nalar, a logical reasoning of the composer: Nalar shapes imaginings of the unconscious minds into the concrete forms of musical ideas. As Yudane said, “Imaginings will not be able to form concrete musical ideas. We need ‘nalar’ or intellectuality, which leads the process of realising all forms of imaginations or inspirations” (personal communication, July 12, 2018). ‘Nalar’ for Yudane is the knowledge he has earned from developing his critical thinking, research and experiences in life. Knowledge is important in realising and organising ideas imparted into the unconscious mind. Imagination also plays an important role in the creative process. Einstein and Shaw (1931) states that “Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited, whereas imagination embraces the entire world, stimulating progress, giving birth to evolution” (p. 31). This quote is precious and most people would agree with it. While we are nothing without knowledge, imagination is the source from which new knowledge springs. Yet, imagination is a waste if it is not transformed into something useful. It is like unlocking hidden doors that inventions lay behind; both play important roles in the human creative process. Most Balinese academic composers at ISI Denpasar formally follow the four stages of creative processes set out by Wallas (1926): preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.7 These stages became popular in expressing their creative processes on paper. They convey close cooperation between the conscious or rational/logical/analytical thinking brain (preparation and verification), and the subconscious or intuitive/imaginative thinking brain (incubation and illumination). Setiawan (2015), an Indonesian musician, critic and writer from Jogjakarta, states that intuitive thinking plays a prominent role in solving problems of composing music, not inferior to rational thinking. Intuition is responsible for 50-70 % of the creative process, while logical and cognitive considerations occupy the rest. In composing music, determining the proportion and the character of the work is far more important than just thinking systematically (pp. 39-43). Thinking systematically is akin to following standard instructions or compositional techniques, while intuition is the source of ideas for previously unknown compositional techniques. As Hardjana (2003) explains, Great music can only be born out of talent, intelligence, and hard work. We know that inspiration is only a sprinkling of dew that spills on talent. That is not everything. Intuition, inner instinct and feeling is merely a determinant of intelligence. (p. 89) Accessing both intuitive and rational (analytical) thinking in the creative process of composing is inevitable. Imagination and intellect always interact together in the musical experience, just as aesthetic considerations and intuition are always intertwined with artistic knowledge. Answering Questions, Questioning Answers: Composers’ Methods Traditionally in Bali the compositional process in music was more intuitive than conceptual. The re-creation of beauty in nature through musical expression and melodic ideas was and still is enough for many to form a musical repertoire. For example, renowned senior composer Nyoman Windha argued that almost all of his works are based on intuitive exploration of the beauty of nature and the process of intuitively imagining melody and rhythm: I Wayan Sudirana 9 The process usually begins with contemplation [imagining] in accordance to the selected theme [usually natural beauty]. These [imaginings] can happen at the beginning or when the work is realised. I usually write the music with or without initial themes. Everything is a result of contemplation. (personal communication, July 14, 2018) One of his works entitled ‘Wahyu Giri Suara’, the first piece he composed for the gong kebyar competition, is claimed to be inspired by the abstract “celestial sound of the great mountain,” with the exploration of new musical ideas at the time. Windha explains that wahyu means revelation or inspiration (also the name of his first-born child), giri means mountain, and suara means sound. According to Windha, with the intention to create new musical ideas, ironically, he started writing the music without clear musical concepts in mind. He followed the ‘flow’ while writing the music, depending on his experiences and direction of the beauty of nature perceived by his mind (personal communication, July 16, 2018). The source of his musical ideas was intuitive thinking. When investigating the conceptual process of transforming his intuitive thinking into a concrete form of musical ideas, Windha faced difficulties in expressing his concepts or analytical thoughts. His form may be perceived as intuitive, straightforward, or simplistic expressions in comparison to newer styles of Balinese musical composition. For many contemporary Balinese composers, dissatisfaction with what has been obtained from the past and the need for change and new ideas is a reflection of cultural development. When questioned about how to compose, senior musicians typically respond, “It has always been that way” or “by seeking inspiration in nature.” But young composers are no longer content with these responses and are questioning these answers. When questioning conceptual processes, that of music making, the image of the composer, is often intellectual and spiritual. However, Yudane states that those who wish to become composers must be aware that the composers are ‘the condemned’— those doomed to an endless search throughout life; innovation is relentless (personal communication, July 12, 2018). Most Balinese composers voice ‘innovation’ in composing new music. Innovation is usually linked to creativity and intellectuality. These two closely depend on how composers translate their intuitive thinking into concrete works—compositional works are actually intuitive works (Setiawan, 2015, p. 45). Windha’s compositional processes also involve intuition, although he was consciously unable to break down his steps in composing. Balinese traditional composers usually have a passive knowledge. It can be argued that the combination of intuitive, spiritual, and intellectual thinking underlies the compositional processes of Balinese traditional composers. Hardjana (2004) said that composers have confidence in their character, are mysterious, and full of curiosity and surprises. This leads them to always focus on subjectivity, uniqueness, and breakthrough—an important trilogy to measure the composers’ personal responsibility (Setiawan, 2015, p. 47). Subjectivity is reasoning within the composers’ mind, which absorbs all experiences and knowledge. From here, ideas are melted down and reconstituted into a concrete form of work by referring to uniqueness and breakthrough as the primary intention. Uniqueness is a quality of the composer’s own identity, while breakthrough in composing is the innovation. Composing new music for gamelan for most Balinese contemporary composers requires subjectivity, uniqueness, and innovation. Moreover, technical skills, taste, and inspiration also play an important role in realising unique and innovative works. In other words, composers must formerly master the technical skills and optimise their musical senses, equipped with imagination, before being able to seamlessly perform compositional mechanisms. Komponis Kini In order to achieve the above-mentioned trilogy, Balinese contemporary composers often question the compositional theory acquired from their seniors; young composers are more critical of the answers that they learnt from elders or in school. One of the well-known traditional texts entitled prakempa has recently become an authoritative source of compositional theory and required text at the governmental collegiate arts conservatory in Bali. Prakempa maps the tones of Balinese scale systems (pelog and selendro) into the pengider bhuana, the concept of the revolving world or nine directions of the universe (Sudirana, 2019, p. 128). Explanations in the Prakempa tend to be abstract and beyond human reasoning. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 10 As McGraw (2013) explains, The prakempa revels in mystical taxonomy without ever explicating the exact relation between theory and practice. Music is presented as an aspect of the divine or an expression of its agency; gods express unique aesthetic preferences and are associated with specific ensembles and tunings. Syllables associated with pitches are imagined to be intrinsically rather than arbitrarily related to their meanings. (p. 116) Young composers privately question the nature of the text. They do not understand when professors direct them to use prakempa as a compositional tool. For young composers, the theory elucidated in prakempa is irrelevant to their practical experiences in gamelan. As they were not satisfied with the responses they received, contemporary composers continuously explore their unique identities and innovate based on their own self-exploration. With the belief that identity is innate and constructed, and with modern technology providing easy access to information, they are exposed to the wide range of world musical cultures and, directly or indirectly, form their own understanding of compositional methodology. These composers want to be ‘true composers,’ composers who dare to face challenges and seek their own identity and methods of innovations as opposed to the penata tabuh or music arrangers associated with kebyar and tradisi forms (McGraw, 2013, p. 125). In 2016, a new movement entitled ‘Komponis Kini’ emerged in the Balinese compositional scene, held in ‘Bentara Budaya Bali’ (Kompas Gramedia Cultural Institution).8 This movement was conceived as an attempt to give new formats, meanings and re-interpretations of classical and existing music, in addition to forming entirely new musical creations. This event is open to young composers to pour out their thoughts in composition. Together with the curators I Wayan Gede Yudane, Dewa Alit, and myself, this event became the only music event that focused entirely on the musik baru untuk gamelan (new music for gamelan) movement in Bali. ‘Komponis Kini’ is a planned and sustainable educational event and also a ‘contest arena’ of new ideas for young composers. This planned and sustained effort is intended to not only provide enlightenment, but also to share appreciation for the community to celebrate new art forms with high quality artistic achievements. ‘Komponis Kini’ is also an arena for new gamelan composers to express their latest achievements that reflect the authenticity of their creative journey. In addition to musical performances, the events are also enriched with post-performance dialogues with the composer as an educational forum for learning about the new works and discussing their methods of creation The mission of Komponis Kini is to contemplate the future music of Balinese gamelan today. In other words, Komponis Kini provides a place in facilitating young composers to developing their creativity and search for their own unique identity. Komponis Kini is also a place for discussion and showing appreciation for these arts, and ideally it serves as a birthplace of new ideas in music for the gamelan. The boundaries of musical creativity are not limited by textual or contextual barriers, but they are located at the intellectual level of the composers themselves. The staging format is designed not only to display music works, but also to present the conceptual theories behind the work. From here, a discussion is opened after the performance as an opportunity for critics and corrections from audiences. The first Komponis Kini was held every month from the beginning until the end of the year 2016 by presenting selected young Balinese composers. These selected young composers include: Sang Nyoman Arsa Wijaya (Denpasar, South Bali), Wayan Diana Putra, Putu Adi Septa Suweca Putra, Anak Agung Bagus Krishna (Gianyar, the middle part of Bali), Putu Gede Sukaryana (Tabanan, the west part of Bali), etc. They performed new works in their respective formats and responded to visionary composing methods of the legendary Balinese composer, I Wayan Lotring — the theme of first Komponis Kini event was Tribute to Lotring. The curators of Komponis Kini also have the opportunity to perform their works in the event. This was held in the three-consecutive month finalising the event. I presented my own work entitled Kasus Lima, Dewa Alit presented a new work entitled ‘Ngejuk Memedi’, and Wayan Gede Yudane presented Journey. These three composers-curators explore all forms of possibilities to organise the pitches, rhythms, intervals, Balinese laras (modes), dynamics, and rasa (musical senses/feelings). My own Kasus Lima raises five issues presented coherently in the piece: experimenting with reng or the sustainable notes, exploitation of polyrhythmic structure, pitch range availability within the new gamelan, organisation of uneven meters, and the equality of instrumental functions. Kasus Lima was staged using a gamelan called Yuganada, a brand- new gamelan that I built myself. This gamelan gives a wider pitch range compared to the traditional gamelan: three octaves on each instrument.9 I Wayan Sudirana 11 In the work entitled Ngejuk Memedi, Dewa Alit changes the perceptions and feelings of listeners by deliberately expanding the tuning system in his own gamelan Salukat. Alit rearranges the scale and tuning by following his intellectual taste combining (or processing) the possibility for a gamelan scale featuring eleven new pitches: the metallophone (gangsa) and suspended gongs (reong) are divided into two sets that have different pitch arrangements. This is done for the purposes of Alit’s own compositional needs by looking for a vertical (top-down) pitch interval relationship to produce a new and distinctive combination of heterophonic combinations of traditional gamelan. Figure 5. Two 7-tone Scale System of Gamelan Salukat Figure 5 shows Alit’s 11-tone system: a combination of two 7-tone scale systems. There are three tones that are shared (F#, C#, and E), and four independent ones on each scale: B, Bb, D, and G on scale 1, and G#, A, C, and F on scale 2. The reference of this tuning is the 12-tone tempered Western tuning system but it is deliberately tuned according to a Balinese traditional procedure. The instruments in gamelan Salukat are divided into two groups: half is tuned to scale 1, and the other half is tuned to scale 2. These two different tuning systems are often used independently and sometimes together. The two scales produce a unique sound that differs from other Balinese gamelan in general. Alit uses a layout combination of both cipher and Western notation for ‘Ngejuk Memedi’ (Figure 6). The numbers represent the pitches of the two scales mentioned earlier and are placed vertically and horizontally. This allows him to clearly see all of the layers of musical patterns for every section of the piece. Ngejuk means ‘chasing’, and Memedi means an ‘astral creature’. ‘Ngejuk Memedi’ is an analogy to the creation of new music that felt like looking for something astral, invisible, intangible, and can only be communicated by people who understand the astral world: reimagining the future of new music for gamelan. The unique and special tuning system of gamelan Salukat allows Alit to explore unusual possibilities of pitch arrangements. In other words, the two scales, when they are combined or played together or even when they are played separately, already sound unusual compared to the traditional Balinese scale system. Furthermore, the use of uneven meter throughout the piece adds a new flavour and an unusual feeling for the listeners. ‘Ngejuk Memedi’ displays ideas of polyrhythm, stratified melodies, and interwoven layers.10 Recalling Slamet Abdul Sjukur’s analogy above about the process of creativity reflects a clear and systematical methodology in any given situation. Composers have to be ready to put down ideas and systematically transform them. Putu Adi Septa Suweca Putra (ala Kuprit), a young multi-talented musician and composer, explained, “ide-ide bisa saja datang secara tidak terduga, kapan saja, dan dimana saja.” (ideas come in unexpected ways, anytime, and anywhere) (personal communication, July 12, 2018). These ideas, for Kuprit, come in abstract form. He then compiles and assimilates them into more concrete forms of musical elements. Experiences as a music appreciator and knowledge and understanding of other musical cultures (or composers) methods are the key to success. Discovering a unique and innovative approach to creating melodies, rhythms, harmonies, elaborations, etc. depends on, and are limited to the composers’ own nalar. From there, new musical creations for gamelan generate their own authenticity: subjectivity, uniqueness, and breakthrough. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 12 Figure 6. Sample of Ngejuk Memedi Notation by Dewa Alit I Wayan Sudirana 13 As stated above, one of the pieces premiered at the Komponis Kini event was entitled ‘Journey’, a new form of music for gamelan composed by Yudane. Yudane has garnered a reputation for his breathtakingly diverse music, cutting across Balinese gamelan, western string ensembles, electro- acoustic performances, choir, film, art installation and theatre. He has created pieces for ensembles as diverse as ‘The New Zealand Trio’; ‘New Zealand String Quartet’; ‘Australian Art Orchestra’ and ‘Theft of Sita’; gamelan ensembles such as ‘Gamelan Wrdhi Swaram’ and many more. His composition embraces an open exploration of new ideas, crossing musical and cultural boundaries and referencing both Eastern and Western traditions. In his compositions, often characterised as fast moving, sweeping soundscapes, he continually experiments and explores the creative processes of new music. Yudane introduces the concept of a new gamelan orchestra with a truly new achievement; utilising the space of silence, and breathing in rhythm with the music to create musical union. Thus, for Yudane, the Balinese gamelan succeeds in becoming an art form that continues to live and breathe with the 21st century. Yudane’s works are result of creatively exploring a wide range of new musical creations to enrich the possibility of gamelan music, and reflect the courage of the creator to address something that has been standardised and traditionalised, in order to give birth to original (authentic) work. Yudane makes comparisons between his work and Feldman's music as well as the gamelan tradition of Central Javanese gamelan, with the soft and very slow melodies revealed in the first part of this piece (Figure 7). This concept utilises elasticity: stretching time, tempo, and sonority (Morton Feldman, personal communication, July 12, 2018). Responding to the waves/vibrato in the concept of ngumbang-ngisep (the higher and lower frequencies of paired pitches) in ‘Gamelan Semarandana’,11 he creates a meditation space where the pitch organisation of the melody is connected in the mind of the listener. The first part of the piece is marked at various points with a soft beat on jegogan (the bass metallophone). He also added floating tones and a flute (see figure 6: bar 7 to bar 21) that created an aural ‘halo,’ while kantilan and pemade (high-pitched metallophones that elaborate the core melody) added elements of nervous squeaks and suggestive tremolos. He feels that these subversive sounds are meant to prevent the work from becoming too flashy or ‘precious.’ Traditionally, Balinese music has been known for ostinato elements as the basis for its music (Bandem, 2013; Dibia, 2017; Gold, 2005; McPhee, 1966; Sudirana, 2013a; Tenzer, et al. 2011 and Tilley, 2019). This is also a common element found in the music of numerous Southeast Asian traditions. Filipino composer José Maceda noted that: “One unifying factor in the music of Southeast Asia is the element of repetition, which has become a musical form of itself, one which may be called drone, ostinato, or punctuation in solo instruments as well as complex ensembles including the gamelan and the pii phaad.” (2007, p. 153) Yudane works systematically in organising musical elements used in his piece. The element of repetition is somehow avoided. The selection of pitches, tempo, and rhythm is thoughtfully organised, and in accordance with the idea planned from the beginning; the intentions of melodic movements are fit to the specified theme. This is the result of Yudane’s subjectivity in composing. The uniqueness of Yudane's compositions lies in the new form and structure of his pieces, the unusual rhythmic and melodic patterns of semarandana instruments, and the new function given to the standardised roles of each instrument within the ensemble. Moreover, we are discussing a compositional method in an oral tradition, where music is traditionally passed down without the use of musical notation. The aural experience of performance interaction and groove is paramount. However, Yudane’s breakthrough lies in the combination of the use of complete Western notation in writing and teaching his music and the synchronisation of bodies and groove in new kinds of interaction, resulting from the use of musical notation. This is a key achievement of this form of art music. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 14 Figure 7. The first 21 bars of Journey by Wayan Gde Yudane ‘Journey’ is a piece that includes listeners beyond their expectation, and it breaks new territory with innovation and passion. Often this kind of music introduces new techniques for traditional instruments as well as presenting traditional instruments in new ways. This music challenges the traditional foundations of melody, rhythm, structure, dynamics, notation, timbre, length, size, and form. I Wayan Sudirana 15 Conclusion In the creation process of finding musical innovations, Balinese composers are overshadowed by a strong institutional intimidation in regards to the continuation of Balinese gamelan traditions. For many years, Balinese gamelan scholars have emphasized traditions over innovations. Old gamelan pieces have to be preserved, and new innovative works were labeled as ones that merusak tradisi (destroy tradition). Fearfulness of losing tradition is the main cause of this situation. Understanding the meaning of ‘tradition’ in this situation is paramount. Murgiyanto (2004), a respected Indonesian scholar from Java, states “sesuatu yang diwariskan tidak berarti harus diterima, dihargai, diasimilasi atau disimpan sampai mati” (something that is inherited does not mean that it must be accepted, appreciated, assimilated or kept to death) (p. 2). The people who accept the inherited activities/material objects/beliefs/societies/phenomenon do not see them as inherited ‘tradition.’ The accepted ‘traditions’ are part of the people’s daily lives. They have been maintained until now and have the same position as new innovations. With this understanding, tradition should not be placed against innovation. Tradition changes and develops, and it has to be placed in parallel to innovation. Musical innovations in Balinese gamelan, especially by Balinese composers like Yudane, involve an intimate cooperation between the accepted, ongoing traditions of compositional methods and a new flourishing/innovative compositional method. Both require ‘imagination’ and ‘intuition’ as an initial compositional process. The difference is whether the composers actively or passively understand the imagination and intuition. Yudane introduces two terminologies in addressing new compositional method: ‘productive imagination’ and ‘intellectual intuition.’ Yudane stated that “intuition is the presentation of imagination, and the development of the concept of ‘productive imagination’ to explain the actual art creation. Whereas ‘intellectual intuition’ is an object of reason that can be accounted for and not human cognition” (personal communication, December 12, 2018). By transforming this transcendental concept into cognitive exploitation and explaining all cognition experience. Therefore, the role of the productive imagination lies in the artistic creation of new artworks, and the role of intellectual intuition, as a form of productive imagination, lies in the scientific discovery of the new scientific hypotheses. In pragmatic epistemology, artists use their productive imagination differently to build various ways of representing reality. Endnotes 1 I completed a Master’s degree (2009) and a PhD in Ethnomusicology (2013) at the University of British Columbia Canada under the supervision of Professor. Michael Tenzer. 2 I composed a piece for the ‘Gamelan Gita Asmara Bali’ tour, called ‘Bhaskara.’ The piece adapted traditional music system and developed it into a new work. 3 Gamelan Gita Asmara, the Canadian-based gamelan group, performed at the ‘Nretya Mandala’ stage of Institut Seni Indonesia, (ISI) Denpasar as part of their Bali Tour in 2013. Most of Balinese master musicians and teachers were invited to watch the performance. 4 This is based on my own experience as a Balinese student, musician, and composer, and also my recent research in this topic. 5 Examples and information about Lempad can be found on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/user/lempaddotnet 6 Examples of Lotring’s compositions can be found on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCZgHkO8KFeqGaEiJsYih43A 7 This is based on my experiences in studying at Institut Seni Indonesia (ISI), Denpasar from 1998 to 2002, and also teaching from 2014 until now. 8 Bentara Budaya is a cultural institution of Kompas Gramedia, which means cultural messenger. As cultural envoys, Bentara Budaya accommodates and represents the nation's cultural developments, from various backgrounds and horizons, which may be different. The institution seeks to display cultural forms and works that may have traditionally been created or popular and populist art forms, as well as new works that seem to have no place and do not deserve to appear in a respectable building. Bentara Budaya serves as a meeting point between existing aspirations and growing aspirations (Warih Wisatsana, the director of Bentara Budaya Bali, personal communication, August 7, 2018). 9 A full recording of Kasus Lima can be found on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SqNv9oqlF-c 10 Excerpts of ‘Ngejuk Memedi’ can be found on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-p4dZSVjqOw Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(1-16) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 16 11 ‘Gamelan Semarandana’ is a new type of gamelan introduced around 1980 by the most respected Balinese gamelan guru, I Wayan Beratha. The gamelan combines the five-tone gamelan gong kebyar and the seven-tone gamelan samara pegulingan. References Bandem, M. (2013). Gamelan Bali di atas panggung sejarah. BP Stikom Bali. Comaroff, J. L. and Comaroff, J. (2009). Ethnicity, Inc. University of Chicago Press Dibia, W. (2017). Kotekan: Dalam musik dan kehidupan Bali? Bali Mangsi Foundation. Einstein, A. & Shaw, G.B. (1931). Einstein on cosmic religion and other opinions and aphorisms. Covici- Friede, Inc. Gold. L. (2005). Music in Bali. Oxford University Press. Hardjana, S. (2003). Corat-coret musik kontemporer dulu dan kini. Ford Foundation & Masyarakat Seni Pertunjukan Indonesia (MSPI). Hardjana, S. (2004). Musik antara kritik dan apresiasi. Penerbit Buku Kompas, Kompas Media Nusantara. Maceda, J. (2007). A concept of time. Arcana II musicians on music. Hips Road. Mack, D. (2001). Musik kontemporer dan persoalan interkultural. Artiline, Jalasutra Offset. McGraw, A. C. (2013). Radical traditions reimagining culture in Balinese contemporary music. Oxford University Press. McPhee, C. (1966). Music in Bali: A study of form and instrumental organisation in Balinese orchestral music. Yale University Press. Murgiyanto, S. (2004). Tradisi dan inovasi beberapa masalah tari di Indonesia. Wedatama Widya Sastra. Picard, M. (1990). Cultural tourism in Bali: Cultural performances as tourist attraction, Indonesia, 49, 37-74. Setiawan, E. (2015). Serba-serbi intuisi musikal dan yang alamiah dari peristiwa musik. Art Music Today. Sjukur, S. A. (2012). Virus setan: Risalah pemikiran music Slamet Abdul Sjukur. Art Music Today. Sjukur, S. A. (2014.) Sluman slumun Slamet: Esai-esai Slamet Abdul Sjukur. Art Music Today. Sudirana, I. W. (2013). Borrowing, stealing, and transforming: Cross cultural influences in Balinese neo traditional composition. In Stepputat, K. (Ed.), Performing arts in postmodern Bali: Changing interpretation, founding tradition (pp. 165-185). Shaker Verlag. Sudirana, I. W. (2013a). “Gamelan Gong Luang: Ritual, time, place, music, and change in a Balinese sacred ensemble [Doctoral Thesis, University of British Columbia]. https://open.library.ubc.ca/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/24/items/1.0071979 Sudirana, I. W. (2019). Tradisi versus modern: Diskursus pemahaman istilah tradisi dan modern di Indonesia. Mudra Jurnal Seni Budaya 34(1), 127-135. Sumardjo, J. (2000). Filsafat seni. Institut Teknologi Bandung. Supanggah, R. (2003). Campur sari: A reflection. Asian Music 34(2), 1-20. Tenzer, M., Moja, I. M., & Tenzer, M. (2011). Balinese gamelan music. Tuttle Publications Tilley, L. (2019). Making it up together: The art of collective improvisation in Balinese music and beyond. University of Chicago Press. Vickers, A. (2005). A history of modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. Wallas, G. (1926). The art of thought. Solis Press. Biography I Wayan Sudirana, born in Ubud, Bali, is one of Bali’s most renown musicians and composer. He teaches and performs across Bali and internationally. He is a professor at the Indonesia Institute of the Arts in Denpasar. After graduating from the Indonesian Arts Institute, Denpasar, he studied at the University of British Columbia (UBC) where he received his MA and PhD in Ethnomusicology. He was commissioned by the Canadian government to perform at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Canada. He also performed at the opening ceremony of the Asian Games held in Jakarta in August 2018 and Carnegie Hall, New York in 2008. He has published a book about the future of Balinese sacred ensemble (2019), and recently produced three CDs of his new works for Gamelan with Gamelan Yuganada (2019 and 2020). His current research is focused on the development of new music in Bali.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

collegiate instrumental teacher, estimation, instrumental lesson, music practice, practice habits

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3643

Assessing Practice Habits: A Study of Collegiate Instrumental Teachers’ Estimation of Students’ Practice Habits Versus Students’ Self-Report

This survey research aims to assess the collegiate instrumental teachers’ ability to estimate students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the students’ performance during the instrumental lesson and to collect collegiate instrumental teachers’ suggestions on estimating students’ practice habits in the practice room. A questionnaire in two forms was designed for 15 collegiate instrumental teachers and 30 music performance undergraduate students who were selected through a convenience sampling approach. The percent agreement (P

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3643/2536

Lau Chooi Wee 17 Assessing Practice Habits: A Study of Collegiate Instrumental Teachers’ Estimation of Students’ Practice Habits Versus Students’ Self-Report Lau Chooi Wee College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, 73170 Thailand e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 26 August 2020 Cite this article (APA): Lau, C.W. (2020). Assessing practice habits: A study of collegiate instrumental teachers’ estimation of students’ practice habits versus students’ self-report, Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 17-28. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.2.2020 Abstract This survey research aims to assess the collegiate instrumental teachers’ ability to estimate students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the students’ performance during the instrumental lesson and to collect collegiate instrumental teachers’ suggestions on estimating students’ practice habits in the practice room. A questionnaire in two forms was designed for 15 collegiate instrumental teachers and 30 music performance undergraduate students who were selected through a convenience sampling approach. The percent agreement (PA) and Cohen’s kappa ( ) were utilised to examine the inter-rater reliability between the results of both participants on the practice habits that focus on the practice time, practice sessions, goal setting, focused attention, mental practice, technique practice, metronome practice, practise with an electronic tuner, and practise with other practice strategies. The low average results, 31.50% on the percent agreement and .0437 on the Cohen’s kappa revealed that collegiate instrumental teachers cannot effectively estimate their students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the students’ performance during the instrumental lesson. However, an interesting observation was made from the suggestions given by the teachers, that is, the importance of communication of practice habits as well as observation of them in the private lesson studio. To improve, a system that teaches the key indicators of estimating students’ practice habits or a training package or method to observe students’ use of practice habits in the practice room is recommended to develop for future teachers. Keywords: collegiate instrumental teacher, estimation, instrumental lesson, music practice, practice habits Background Music teachers listen to students’ performance during their weekly instrumental lessons and provide guidance and formative feedback to improve students’ playing ability and technique. Students are expected to practise and demonstrate some improvements in the following lesson (Kostka, 2002). However, the results of the practice are not always as expected. Some students showed significant improvements after a week of practice, but others’ playing remains relatively unchanged week after week although they claimed that they did practice (Pike, 2014). As teachers cannot observe how their students practice in the practice room, it is possible to estimate the students’ practice habits based on the performance during the weekly instrumental lessons and then provide feedback or develop suitable practice strategies for the students to improve their skills (Pike, 2014; Scott, 2012). Some music teachers think that they can estimate their students’ practice habits correctly based on their teaching and learning experience, although their prediction might sometimes be inaccurate. Mills (2007) realised that her teacher could not tell whether she had practised during the week due to Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(17-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 18 the false estimation of her teacher. She mentioned that sometimes she had spent more time practising but her teacher thought she had not practise, whereas the teacher occasionally praised her for a good performance when she had not put in any effort in her practice. An example of false estimation like this can cause serious consequences for both teachers and students. Teachers’ competence will be questioned and what they said will sound unconvincing while students will feel frustrated and unmotivated with the comments they received. There is little information written on the teachers’ ability to effectively estimate students’ practice habits in the practice room during the weekly instrumental lessons. The only information was from Conrad (2012), who discussed 10 clues for music teachers to detect during music lessons when a student had not practised. However, the clues provided were general and the method to estimate students’ practice habits in the practice room had not been included. Therefore, this study aims to i) assess the collegiate instrumental teachers’ ability to estimate students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the students’ performance during the instrumental lesson, and ii) collect collegiate instrumental teachers’ suggestions on estimating students’ practice habits in the practice room. This is the first study to clarify the instrumental teachers’ ability to estimate students’ practice habits in the practice room during the instrumental lesson. This study attempts to create a sense of awareness to all experienced and non-experienced instrumental teachers on the importance of estimating the students’ practice habits in the practice room accurately during the weekly instrumental lessons since there is a lack of attention, information, and training on this topic. Literature Review Practice habits in this study imply practice time, practice sessions, and a series of practice behaviour that was used to achieve mastery and fluency while rehearsing or performing a musical instrument. The word, ‘practice’, is defined as “repeated performance or systematic exercise for the purpose of learning or acquiring proficiency” (Barry & Hallam, 2002, p. 151), while ‘habit’ is the repetition of the practice behaviour that can be developed through three elements of habit loop: The cue, the trigger of repeating action; The behaviour, the routine that one exhibits; and The reward, the motivator to continue the behaviour in the future. One can cultivate a habit triggered by a goal but eventually it will become an automatic action without being conscious (Duhigg, 2012; Neal et al., 2006). Research indicates that music experts require a period of 10 or more years of preparation to develop and refine their skills to the mastery level (Ericsson et al., 1993). Besides, the daily practice schedule was suggested to college music majors. Schuring (2009) proposed that college music majors should practise three to five hours daily, with five hours as maximum to prevent body and mind exhaustion. One should spend a minimum of forty-minutes on warming up and at least ninety-minutes to maintain the progress of the work. The more the time can be extended, the more improvement will take place in practice. Schuring (2009) also suggested to split the practice time into several sessions per day, take a break for each practice hour, and try to practise just before (for warming up and reviewing repertoire for the lesson) and just after (for revision and reviewing new knowledge) the weekly instrumental lessons. Although the time spent on practising is important, it is not a decisive factor for musical achievement (Madsen, 2004; Miksza, 2007). Practice must be deliberate, informed, and ‘mindful’ in order to be useful. According to Madsen (2004), 89% of the respondents believed that their performance achievement was closely associated with the total amount of deliberative practice. Also, results in Platz et al. (2014) showed that long-term deliberate practice is the fundamental for attaining expert performance in music. Many articles discussed effective practice habits in instrumental practice. Among them, Bynum (2019) stated that the best way to produce productive practice habits on trombone playing was to keep the practice consistent, goal-oriented, simple, and positive. Besides, Johnson (2009) thought that practice would become effective when it was goal-oriented, multifaceted, when it included a variety of problem-solving strategies, and when it involved reflection or self-evaluation. Also, in an article written by Miksza and Tan (2015), five categories of practice processes were suggested by the faculty studio teachers and collegiate music students in an open-ended questionnaire: i) analyse the music and prioritise goals before practice, ii) decide which practice strategies or techniques to execute, iii) form positive habits, iv) self-evaluate during and after practising, and v) perform as a concluding activity. Lau Chooi Wee 19 The repetition of these practice processes is believed to be able to form positive or good practice habits during the practice sessions. However, there is no information to discuss music teachers’ ability to estimate students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the observations during the weekly instrumental lessons and to suggest how practice habits in the practice room could be observed. Thus, this study aims to serve these purposes. Methodology Participants Two groups of participants were selected through the convenience sampling approach in one of the music colleges in Thailand. First, 15 collegiate instrumental teachers. Among 29 faculty members from the Strings and Chamber Music Department, Woodwinds Department, and Brass and Percussion Department of the music college that participated, only 15 of them were recruited as they fulfilled all the requirements set. The requirements include an instrumental teacher who plays classical music, whose major instrument is a string, woodwind or brass instrument, and who is keen on participating in the study. Besides this, each of them has to have at least two music performance undergraduate students and hold a Master’s or Doctoral degree in the music-related field. The background information of the collegiate instrumental teacher is summarised as follows. Gender. 14 male teachers (93.33%) and one female teacher (6.67%) among the 15 teacher participants. Nationality. Five teachers (33.33%) from the United States, two teachers each (13.33%) from Poland, Latvia, and Thailand, and one teacher each (6.67%) from Greece, Germany, Japan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan). These teachers are full-time faculties from the music college that was participated. Teaching qualifications. 10 teachers (66.67%) that hold a Master’s degree in performance, performance and pedagogy, or performance and chamber music, and five teachers (33.33%) that hold a doctoral degree in performance, or performance and pedagogy. Years of teaching experience. Five teachers (33.33%) have 11-15 years of experience teaching at the university level, followed by four teachers (26.67%) with 16-20 years, three teachers (20%) with 6-10 years, 2 teachers (13.33%) with 1-5 years, and one teacher (6.67%) with 21-25 years of experience teaching at the university level. The second group of participants consist of 30 music performance undergraduate students, formed by two students recruited from each collegiate instrumental teacher mentioned above, who play classical music, whose major instruments are strings, woodwind or brass instruments, and who agreed to take part in the study. Again, background information for the music performance undergraduate students was summarised and listed below. Gender. 19 male students (63.33%) and 11 female students (36.67%) involved in this study that makes up a total of 30 students. Nationality. Among the 30 students, 27 students (90%) are from Thailand, two students (6.67%) from China, and one student (3.33%) from South Korea. Academic years in music performance undergraduate program. Nine first- and third-year students (30% each), seven second-year students (23.33%), and five fourth-year (16.67%) music performance undergraduate students were involved in this study. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(17-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 20 Only a limited number of participants who met the requirements took part in this study. However, according to Bujang and Baharum (2017), Cohen’s kappa “minimum required sample size is proposed from more than 10 to less than 30” (p. 9). Therefore, the number of participants in this study is relevant to the inter-rater reliability results. Questionnaire The survey research design was utilised in this study. A questionnaire in two forms, one for the collegiate instrumental teachers, and another for the music performance undergraduate students was designed based on the research objectives to collect the data. The questionnaire for the collegiate instrumental teachers was designed to i) collect the background information of the teachers (e.g., gender, nationality, teaching qualifications, years of teaching experience), ii) discover the number of complete semesters held between the participants, iii) estimate the students’ practice habits in the practice room based on their performance during the instrumental lesson, iv) rate teachers’ own ability to estimate their students’ practice habits in the practice room, and v) give suggestions on how to estimate the students’ practice habits in the practice room during the instrumental lessons. The questionnaire was presented in English. At the same time, the questionnaire for the music performance undergraduate students was designed to i) collect the background information of the students (e.g., gender, nationality, academic years in music performance undergraduate program), ii) self-report their practice habits during the practice sessions in the previous week, and iii) obtain students’ perceptions of their teachers’ ability to estimate their practice habits. This questionnaire was presented in English and Thai, in which the Thai version was translated by a Ph.D. music education student who plays flute as her major instrument, to help the Thai undergraduate students to understand the questions better. Development and validation of the questionnaire. To examine the first research objective, practice habits that were suitable for the music performance undergraduate students were listed by the researcher. Then, only those practice habits that were believed able to be observed through the students’ performances by the instrumental teachers during the lessons were selected, categorised, and turned into questions (see Table 2) during the discussions between the researcher and the major advisor. Besides this, for the second research objective, open-ended questions in the teachers’ questionnaire were designed to give suggestions on how they know whether their students i) set goals, ii) stayed focused on their playing, iii) practised the repertoire mentally, iv) applied the practice techniques, v) practised with a metronome, vi) practised with an electronic tuner, during the practice sessions between lessons, and to provide other suggestions to estimate students’ practice habits in the practice room. After the proposal defence and the approval of the Institutional Review Board (IRB), the questionnaires for the collegiate instrumental teachers (in English) and music performance undergraduate students (in English and Thai) were sent to three experts for content verification. An index of Item-Objective Congruence (IOC) was used to evaluate the questions in both questionnaires based on the score ranging from +1 to -1. The questions that scored an average of lower than 0.5 were revised, the questions that scored an average of higher than 0.5 were either revised or not revised based on the suggestions of the major advisor, and the questions that scored 1 remained unchanged. After that, a pre-test was conducted among three collegiate instrumental teachers and students from the same college to evaluate the clarity of each question in the questionnaire. Appropriate modifications were made based on the comments given. Scores assignment. Scores were assigned to the survey questions related to the students’ practice habits. Scores 1 to 3 for the students’ days of practice in the previous week (1=1-2 days, 2=3- 5 days, 3=6-7 days), scores 1 to 5 for the students’ average of practice time per day in the previous week (1=0-60 minutes, 2=61-120 minutes, 3=121-180 minutes, 4=181-240 minutes, 5=241 minutes and above), scores 1 to 2 on whether having a practice session just before the lesson (1=Yes, 2=No), and scores 1 to 5 for the 21 five-point Likert-type scale questions about goal setting, focused attention, mental practice, technique practice, metronome practice, practise with an electronic tuner, and practise with other related practice strategies (1=Never, 2=Rarely, 3=Sometimes, 4=Almost always, 5=Always). Lau Chooi Wee 21 Data Collection and Data Analysis The data was collected during the sixth week of the second academic semester of 2018/2019 after the participants agreed to participate. Paper questionnaires were given to the participants after their instrumental lesson was over. All the participants had to fill in and return the questionnaire in an enclosed envelope within a week. Then, the answers in Thai language were translated by the same Ph.D. music education student who translated the Thai questionnaire. After the data has been collected, the researcher applied the percentage (%) to analyse the demographic data of both participants, to discover the number of complete semesters held between the participants, and to explore participants’ perceptions of the teacher’s ability to estimate the student’s practice habits during the weekly instrumental lessons. Then, the percent agreement (PA) and Cohen’s kappa ( , lower-case Greek letter) were utilised to examine the inter-rater reliability, which is, the extent of agreement, between the estimation data of collegiate instrumental teachers and self-report data of music performance undergraduate students on the 24 survey questions that are related to the practice habits. Also, collegiate instrumental teachers’ suggestions on estimating students’ practice habits in the practice room during the weekly instrumental lessons were summarised accordingly. Percent agreement (PA). PA was used to assess how well two groups of participants identify a variable or set of variables. It will be reported in percentage (%) with the formula below. Cohen’s kappa ( ). Although PA provides the measure of agreement, it does not take into account the agreement that would be expected purely by chance. Thus, is here to consider the chance agreement and to calculate the ‘true’ agreement between the data. The formula for was stated below, where Pr(a) represents the actual observed agreement and Pr(e) represents the chance agreement. According to McHugh (2012), the results of can be range from -1 to +1, where =1 represents complete or perfect agreement between the teachers and students, =0 represents the amount of agreement between the teachers and students that can be expected from random chance, and =-1 represents no effective agreement or disagreement between the teachers and students, or the agreement is worse than expected. This disagreement data is more like random data than properly collected research data which is unlikely in practice. After the kappa value has been obtained, 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated to clarify whether the kappa result of each variable is reliable as it was gained from the rater’s estimation or guessing. The formula for the 95% CI was stated below where 1.96 represents the value of the desired confidence interval level, and SEK represents the standard error of kappa. CI = – 1.96 × SEK to + 1.96 × SEK Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(17-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 22 Table 1 Interpretation of the Cohen’s kappa (McHugh, 2012) Results Two research questions were formed based on the research objectives: First research question: Are the collegiate instrumental teachers able to estimate their students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the students’ performance during the instrumental lesson? Twenty-four survey questions that are related to the students’ practice habits were designed to examine the first research question (see Table 2). Collegiate instrumental teachers were requested to estimate how their students practised in the previous week based on the students’ performance during the lesson and music performance undergraduate students were required to self-report their practice habits in the previous week. Table 2 The results of the percent agreement (PA), Cohen’s kappa ( ), 95% confidence interval of the kappa value (CI) and the level of agreement between the collegiate instrumental teachers and music performance undergraduate students on the students’ practice habit questions Categories Practice Habit Questions PA CI Level of Agreement Practice Time My student/I practised how many day(s) in the previous week 55.17% .164 -.1735 to .5015 None My student/I spent an average of how many minutes per day in the previous week 21.43% -.0441 -.246 to .1578 Disagreement Practice Session My student/I had/not had a practice session just before the lesson 50% 0 -.3702 to .3702 None Goal Setting My student/I set weekly goals for the practice 51.72% .2495 -.0331 to .5321 Minimal My student/I set specific goals for each practice session 31.03% .06 -.1693 to .2893 None My student/I kept a record of the practicing goals 25.93% .0254 -.192 to .2428 None Focused Attention My student/I stayed focus on what was being practised until the goal had been achieved 43.33% .1994 -.0509 to .4497 None My student/I paid attention to the sound while playing 30% .014 -.2171 to .2451 None My student/I tried to avoid distraction while practising 51.72% .2852 .0157 to .5547 Minimal Mental Practice My student/I ‘mentally went through’ the music before playing it 20.69% -.0106 -.1986 to .1774 Disagreement Lau Chooi Wee 23 My student/I sang important parts during the practice session 20% -.0682 -.2593 to .1229 Disagreement Technique Practice My student/I identified mistakes immediately when they arose 31.03% .0252 -.2124 to .2628 None My student/I practised slowly during error correction for accuracy 20% -.2141 -.4315 to .0033 Disagreement My student/I practised difficult spots in isolation 30% -.0606 -.3093 to .1881 Disagreement My student/ I repeated difficult sections until they had been mastered 23.33% -.1076 -.3259 to .1107 Disagreement My student/I varied the rhythms to practise the difficult passagework 23.33% .0099 -.1851 to .2049 None Metronome Practice My student/I used the metronome for slow practice 23.33% .0129 -.1821 to .2079 None My student/I used the metronome to increase the speed up to performance tempo 10% -.1096 -.2425 to .0233 Disagreement My student/I used the metronome throughout the whole piece 33.33% .1177 -.1057 to .3411 None Practise with an Electronic Tuner My student/I used the electronic tuner during the practice 20.69% -.0706 -.2696 to .1284 Disagreement My student/ I used the electronic tuner for drone effect 43.33% .2376 -.0009 to .4761 Minimal Others My student/I recorded own playing for self-reflection 40% .1497 -.099 to .3984 None My student/I listened to recordings of pieces that he/she is or I am learning 26.67% .0922 -.1038 to .2882 None My student/I performed the whole piece as part of the practice session 30% .0922 -.1207 to .3051 None All collegiate instrumental teachers in this study agreed (86.67%) and strongly agreed (13.33%) that they could estimate their students’ practice habits in the practice room during the weekly instrumental lessons and 70% of the music performance undergraduate students (with 30% of them stayed neutral) agreed (53.33%) and strongly agreed (16.67%) with their teachers’ ability to do so. Further, students’ perception about their teachers’ ability were elaborated in words. One of the students stated, “When mistakes occur during the performance, my teacher will know immediately that I was just playing through the whole piece without stopping to correct my mistakes while practising”. Another three students stated, “I seldom practise with the metronome. Therefore, when I struggled with the steady tempo, my teacher would notice that I did not practise with the metronome”, “My teacher knew how well I prepared my songs by listening to the clarity of the notes, the fluency of the music, and the quality of my performance”, and “My teacher knew my problems although I did not tell him. He could tell what I was thinking in the class. I think it’s because what or how I practised was shown through my performance in the lesson”. However, the results obtained from the percent agreement (PA) and Cohen’s kappa ( ) reported that collegiate instrumental teachers could not effectively estimate their music performance undergraduate students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the students’ performance during the instrumental lesson. Overall, PA demonstrated a middle to a low percentage of agreement between the estimation data of the collegiate instrumental teachers and self-report data of the music performance undergraduate students, which at the same time, indicated a middle to a high percentage of erroneous agreement. The highest PA scored between the collegiate instrumental teachers and their students was 55.17%, on the question, my student/I practised how many day(s) in the previous week, with 44.83% of incorrect data. Next, two questions: my student/I set weekly goals for the practice and my student/I tried to avoid distraction while practising, showed 51.72% of agreement and 48.28% of irrelevant agreement, and the question, my student/I had/not had a practice session just before the lesson, demonstrated 50% of agreement and erroneous agreement at the same time. Then, the rest of the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(17-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 24 questions (20 of them) scored lower than 50% of agreement, which indicated an erroneous agreement that is higher than 50%. There is a 43.33% of agreement on two questions: my student/I stayed focus on what was being practised until the goal had been achieved and my student/I used the electronic tuner for drone effect; 40% of agreement on my student/I recorded own playing for self-reflection; 30% to 33.33% of agreement on six questions, listed from a higher to lower agreement score: my student/I used the metronome throughout the whole piece, my student/I identified mistakes immediately when they arose, my student/I set specific goals for each practice session, my student/I paid attention to the sound while playing, my student/I practised difficult spots in isolation, and my student/I performed the whole piece as part of the practice session; and 20% to 26.67% of agreement on 10 questions, again, in order from high to low: my student/I listened to recordings of pieces that he/she is or I am learning, my student/I kept a record of the practicing goals, my student/I repeated difficult sections until they were mastered, my student/I varied the rhythms to practise the difficult passagework, my student/I used the metronome for slow practice, my student/I spent an average of how many minutes per day in the previous week, my student/I ‘mentally went through’ the music before playing it, my student/I used the electronic tuner during the practice, my student/I sang important parts during the practice session, and my student/I practised slowly during error correction for accuracy (see Table 2). Lastly, the question, my student/I used the metronome to increase the speed up to the performance tempo showed the lowest PA score, which was only 10% of agreement, with a great amount of misrepresenting data (90%) at the same time. The low PA score obtained from the estimation data of the collegiate instrumental teachers and self-report data of the music performance undergraduate students on the 24 practice habit questions, with an overall mean of 31.50%, concluded that the collegiate instrumental teachers cannot effectively estimate their music performance undergraduate students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the students’ performance during the instrumental lesson. On the other hand, Cohen’s kappa ( ) was used to calculate the possibility of the chance or random agreement. Among the 24 questions, results showed minimal agreement (.21–.39) on three questions (12.5%), none agreement (0–.20) on 13 questions (54.17%), and disagreement (< 0) on eight questions (33.33%), which involved the three lowest levels of agreement on the interpretation of (see Table 1 and 2). According to McHugh (2012), “Any kappa below .60 indicates inadequate agreement among the raters and little confidence should be placed in the study results” (p. 279). Also, “For kappa values below zero, although unlikely to occur in research data, when this outcome does occur it is an indicator of a serious problem” (p. 279). Based on the statements above, all the results in this study was unsatisfied as none of them was above .60, with eight of them showing negative values. Although McHugh (2012) did mention that the kappa statistic will lower the estimation of agreement very much and it is common for the researchers to accept low kappa values in their inter-rater reliability study, but, the kappa values obtained in this study is way too low, with an overall mean score of .0437 among the 24 practice habit questions. In conclusion, the collegiate instrumental teachers cannot effectively estimate their music performance undergraduate students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the students’ performance during the instrumental lesson. All the results of are reliable under the verification of the 95% confidence interval (CI) (see Table 2). Second research question: What are the collegiate instrumental teachers’ suggestions on estimating students’ practice habits in the practice room? In this study, all the collegiate instrumental teachers were requested to give suggestions on how they know whether their students, i) set goals, ii) stayed focused on their playing, iii) practised the repertoire mentally, iv) applied the practice techniques, v) practised with a metronome, vi) practised with an electronic tuner, during the practice sessions based on their observations during the instrumental lessons. Besides this, teachers could include other suggestions that they would like to share at the end of the questionnaire. However, the suggestions given by the teachers were not only based on the observations but also, the communication between the teachers and students during the lessons. A summary of the suggestions given by the teachers were discussed accordingly. Collegiate instrumental teachers assumed that their students had set goals for the practice sessions when they improved on performing difficult passages or when they improved from the previous lessons. One teacher stated, “When my student plays difficult spot considerably better than the previous week, I assume that she set some goals during her practice sessions”. Besides this, teachers assume that their students had set goals when they completed the assignments given. “I will give my student Lau Chooi Wee 25 assignments and see whether he completes it”, mentioned by one of the teachers. Also, many suggestions related to the communication or discussion between the teachers and students during the lessons were given. For example, “I asked my student what he had practised in the past week”, “I usually ask my student to give me a summary of what we had discussed last week and what she needs to prepare from the last lesson”, and “We set goals in the class together and I will observe the results in the next lesson”, suggested by some of the teachers. Besides, one teacher said he will set long-term goals for the students at the beginning of the semester and the students will decide the progress at their own pace. If his students are making good progress week by week, then he knows they have set short-term goals before reaching the long one. Collegiate instrumental teachers knew their students stayed focused during the practice sessions when they performed better or improved after the previous lessons. One teacher said, “Focused practice leads to greater results. If there are better results or outcomes, I assume that the student had spent quality time during the practice sessions”. Another teacher mentioned, “When my students do not repeat the same mistakes, I assumed that they stayed focused during their practice”. Besides this, teachers made assumptions based on the students’ personality. One teacher stated, “I know my student’s character and the ability to concentrate at work. Also, I can see the result in the next lesson”. Another teacher mentioned, “I can guess from the students’ personalities. If the student is very focused during the lessons, I think he/she will be focused on his/her practice as well”. Students were assumed to practise mentally during the practice sessions when they performed their music musically with nice phrasing. One teacher commented, “I can see it when my student shows phrasing, directions, tempo changes, or new ideas confidently during the performance”. Another teacher stated, “When my student plays the music smoothly, but not mechanically or in a choppy way”. Besides this, teachers assume students had mentally practised when they were able to perform with accurate intonation and good memorisation, and when they can sing through the music while playing. Instead of guessing what practice techniques that the students applied in the practice room, collegiate instrumental teachers in this study felt that increasing students’ knowledge of practice techniques was more important. “Introducing students to ‘how to practice’ is a core component of most lessons”, quoted by one of the teachers. Teachers believed that when the ‘tools’ in the students’ practice toolbox is filled, they would naturally know which practice technique is suitable for specific improvement. One of the teachers said: I spent the first year of lessons providing the students ‘tools’ for their practice toolbox. Students were reminded to use it regularly. Also, I suggested the students on how to improve the problematic passages. The improvement would show if those suggestions were followed accordingly. Besides that, teachers would also determine students’ use of practice techniques by asking the students how they practised during the practice sessions. One teacher said, “I will ask my student to give me a detailed description of what she had worked on since her last lesson and why”. In addition, teachers could estimate students’ use of practice techniques through the observations of the performance. “When a student can play some passages with different tempi, dynamics, articulation, and is able to transpose the passage to different keys, it shows that his/her practice method is flexible”, or “When a student can perform the running notes evenly, it shows that he/she did some slow practice or practise with varied rhythms”, mentioned by two teachers. Teachers thought that students’ habits of using a metronome during the practice could be seen obviously. When the students could keep the tempo throughout the music, keep the tempo and rhythm accurately with or without the metronome, aware of the unstable tempo, and were able to maintain the tempo and coordination between hands accurately, they were considered to be practising with a metronome. To know whether the students have practised with an electronic tuner, collegiate instrumental teachers can observe through students’ awareness of intonation and the ability to fix the tune correctly. One teacher stated, “I can see when my student played the song in tune and is able to adjust the tune if it is not correct”. However, this practice habit was not suggested by most of the teachers in this study. One of the teachers commented that the flexibility of the intonation was more important as intonation problems might arose during the ensemble playing if the students practised with an electronic tuner frequently. Besides this, some string teachers in this study preferred their students to use their ears Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(17-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 26 (listening to the music) instead of their eyes (looking at the cue of the electronic tuner) to control or adjust the intonation while playing, and an electronic tuner would be used only when they tune their instruments. This statement was supported by Millican (2011) in the article ‘Turn Off the Tuner for Better Ensemble Intonation’. Millican (2011) thought that ensemble intonation will be accurate if the players turn off the tuner and tune the pitches with each other. He also stated that one who always relies on the cue of the tuner or conductor signals (visual reference) will not be able to adjust the pitch during the performances. Other suggestions were shared by the collegiate instrumental teachers. One of the teachers mentioned: It is dangerous to judge students’ practice hours and methods solely based on their performance. In lessons, teachers should have frequent conversations with their students, encourage them to have concrete ideas about the music they play, let them express the ideas in words, and try to find the best way of practising together. Besides this, “When the students performed confidently, it shows that some practices were done”, “Keeping a lesson record tracker every week will improve the teachers’ ability to estimate students’ practice habits”, “Teacher’s teaching experience and the time spent with a student will give a strong indication of the student’s practice habits”, and “Know your student well. The better you know your student, the easier it is to determine his/her practice quality” were suggested by some of the teachers in this study. Discussion Although two-thirds (ten) of the collegiate instrumental teachers in this study are experienced teachers who have more than 10 years of teaching experience at the university level and a total of 76.67% of the music performance undergraduate students have considerable instrumental lesson experience with their teachers ranging from 2-11 complete semesters (with some of the students started the instrumental lessons with their teachers since they were studied at the Pre-College Program before they pursuing their undergraduate degree) that would help the teachers to understand the students better, negative results were still obtained. This might be because collegiate instrumental teachers in this study think that communication between the teachers and students is as important as the observation of the students’ performance during the instrumental lessons in terms of practice habits. Therefore, negative results were obtained when the teachers were instructed not to communicate with their students aurally about how they practise in the practice room and all the judgments were based on the observation of the students’ performance. Besides this, the negative results might be influenced by other factors such as: i) Lack of importance in this topic. No previous literature has been found to assist teachers on estimating students’ practice habits in the practice room during the instrumental lessons. ii) Lack of teachers’ training. The highest qualification obtained by the collegiate instrumental teachers in this study mainly focused on the performance, performance and pedagogy, and performance and chamber music. These programmes do not emphasise much on the subject of music education. Although most teachers learn to observe their students intuitively over time, not all of them are doing it accurately. iii) The data that was reported by the music performance undergraduates might not aligned with what they exactly did in the practice room. This is supported by the results in the article entitled ‘An Analysis of Practice Room Behaviour of College Music Students’ by Geringer and Kostka (1984). Geringer and Kostka (1984) comparing the results obtained from the college music students’ self-reports with the observations in the practice room. They found that the students’ behaviours in the practice room were not the same as what was reported by the students as they tended to spend more time in non-performance activities and overrated their performance behaviours in the practice room. Lau Chooi Wee 27 Recommendation This is an introductory study on estimating students’ practice habits in the practice room based on the students’ performance during the weekly instrumental lessons. It was done in one-time survey research design, to limit participants due to the restricted availability. Therefore, it would be interesting if this topic can be examined in qualitative research design for a longer time frame; invite more experts to participate, i.e. competition judges, music examiners, or teachers with a good reputation, and make comparisons with non-experienced teachers; increase the number of participants; investigate the practice habits in different styles of music, e.g., jazz music or popular music; and use different performance settings for estimation, e.g., competitions, recitals, and auditions, in the future. For future development, it would be beneficial if a system in either music pedagogy or music education programmes that teaches the key indicators of estimating students’ practice habits can be developed. Also, a training package or method to observe students’ use of practice habits in the practice room is recommended to develop for future teachers. References Barry, N. H., & Hallam, S. (2002). Practice. In Parncutt, R. & McPherson, G. E. (Eds.), The science and psychology of music performance: Creative strategies for teaching and learning (pp. 151-165). Oxford University Press. Bujang, M. A., & Baharum, N. (2017). Guidelines of the minimum sample size requirements for Cohen’s kappa. Epidemiology Biostatistics and Public Health, 14(2), e12267-1-e12267-10. https://doi.org/10.2427/12267 Bynum, J. (2019). Productive practice habits. International Trombone Association Journal, 47(4), 32-34. Academic Search Complete. (Accession No. 139177185) Conrad, C. (2012, May 10). Top ten clues your student hasn’t practiced. https://blog.musicteachershelper.com/top-ten-clues-your-student-hasnt-practiced/ Duhigg, C. (2012). The power of habit: Why we do what we do in life and business. Random House. Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363-406. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033- 295X.100.3.363 Geringer, J. M., & Kostka, M. J. (1984). An analysis of practice room behaviour of college music students. Contributions to Music Education, 11(1), 24-27. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24127283 Johnson, D. (2009). More than just minutes: Using practice charts as tools for learning. Music Educator Journal, 95(3), 63-70. https://doi.org/10.1177/0027432108330675 Kostka, M. J. (2002). Practice expectations and attitudes: A survey of college-level music teachers and students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 50(2), 145-154. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345818 Madsen, C. K. (2004). A 30-year follow-up study of actual applied music practice versus estimated practice. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52(1), 77-88. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345526 McHugh, M. L. (2012, October 15). Interrater reliability: The Kappa statistic. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232646799_Interrater_reliability_The_kappa_statistic Miksza, P. (2007). Effective practice: An investigation of observed practice behaviors, self-reported practice habits, and the performance achievement of high school wind players. Journal of Research in Music Education, 55(4), 359-375. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429408317513 Miksza, P., & Tan, L. (2015). Predicting collegiate wind players’ practice efficiency, flow, and self-efficacy for self-regulation: An exploratory study of relationships between teachers’ instruction and students’ practicing. Journal of Research in Music Education, 63(2), 162-179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429415583474 Millican, S. (2011). Turn off the tuner for better ensemble intonation. School Band & Orchestra, 14(8), 34-40. Education Source. (Accession No. 66173462) Mills, J. (2007). Instrumental teaching. Oxford University Press. Neal, D. T., Wood, W., & Quinn, J. M. (2006). Habits—A repeat performance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(4), 198-202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00435.x Pike, P. D. (2014). Behind the practice room door: A case study of second-year piano majors. MTNA e-journal, 5(3), 11-23. (Accession No. 2014-07085) Platz, F., Kopiez, R., Lehmann, A. C., & Wolf, A. (2014). The influence of deliberate practice on musical achievement: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00646 Schuring, M. (2009). Practice. Oboe art and method (pp. 70-92). Oxford University Press. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(17-28) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 28 Scott, S. J. (2012). Rethinking the roles of assessment in music education. Music Educators Journal, 98(3), 31- 35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0027432111434742 Biography Lau Chooi Wee is a candidate in Master of Arts (Music) from the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. She has received a Bachelor of Music from the University Putra Malaysia.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

learner-centred, self-directed learning, teacher education, action research, music teacher education

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3241

Self-directed Learning in Music Teacher Education: Perspectives from Pre-service Music Teachers in South Korea

This aim of this study is to investigate the perspectives of Korean pre-service music teachers on self-directed thesis seminar conducted in the graduate teacher education program. This research focused on 1) the attitude of pre-service music teachers towards self-directed thesis seminar and 2) the impact of self-directed thesis seminar on the progress of the pre-service music teachers’ performance. Ten pre-service music teachers participated in the researcher’s thesis seminar. The results demonstrated that most of the participants were anxious and insecure in managing the various educational resources as well as monitoring the progress of their study. However, the self-directed thesis seminar has indirectly provided the participants with a new learning environment to manage their own goals, initiate their own learning, and responsible for their own progress and outcomes. The findings also showed that collaborative learning is essential as an instructional approach in self-directed learning to enable the participants to share their views from different perspectives and develop critical thinking.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3241/2551

Jihae Shin 29 Self-directed Learning in Music Teacher Education: Perspectives from Pre-service Music Teachers in South Korea Jihae Shin Ewha Womans Univeristy #363 Education building B room, 52, Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760 Republic of Korea e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 2 September 2020 Cite this article (APA): Shin, J. (2020). Self-directed learning in music teacher education: Perspectives from pre-service music teachers in South Korea. Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 29-41. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.3.2020 Abstract This aim of this study is to investigate the perspectives of Korean pre-service music teachers on self-directed thesis seminar conducted in the graduate teacher education program. This research focused on 1) the attitude of pre-service music teachers towards self-directed thesis seminar and 2) the impact of self-directed thesis seminar on the progress of the pre-service music teachers’ performance. Ten pre-service music teachers participated in the researcher’s thesis seminar. The results demonstrated that most of the participants were anxious and insecure in managing the various educational resources as well as monitoring the progress of their study. However, the self- directed thesis seminar has indirectly provided the participants with a new learning environment to manage their own goals, initiate their own learning, and responsible for their own progress and outcomes. The findings also showed that collaborative learning is essential as an instructional approach in self-directed learning to enable the participants to share their views from different perspectives and develop critical thinking. Keywords: action research, learner-centred, music teacher education, self-directed learning, teacher education Introduction Educators have considered self-directed learning (SDL) as an important platform for teacher education and professional development (Slavit & McDuffie, 2013; Tillema, 2000). The definition of SDL is as follows: Learning in which the conceptualisation, design, conduct and evaluation of a learning project are directed by the learner. This does not mean that self-directed learning is highly individualised learning which is always conducted in isolation. Learners can work in self-directed ways while engaged in group-learning settings. (Brookfield, 2009, p. 2615) According to Zepeda (2013), the understanding of teaching practices develops when the teachers are directly involved in their learning processes and mooted by their personal interest. Generally, teachers preferred to initiate their own professional learning activities (Louws et al., 2017) and enjoyed considerable autonomy in directing their own capacity in learning (Garrison, 1997; Knowles et al., 2015). Therefore, SDL is an important concept in the study and practice of teacher education. John Dewey was one of the first scholars who emphasised the concept of SDL (Williams, 2004). He explained that teachers should be able to control their own learning process (Dewey, 1938). Similarly, Knowles (1975) highlighted that adult learning needed to include learners’ active Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(29-41) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 30 involvement and the collaboration between professors and students. When defining SDL, many scholars tended to overemphasise the external management of SDL (Garrison, 1997). As a result, learners’ independence in deciding what to learn and how to achieve their learning goals was only considered in promoting SDL environments, which caused the restriction of SDL implementation in an educational setting (Candy, 1991). In this regard, Garrison (1997) suggested that the concept of SDL should include elements of the cognitive and motivational dimensions of learning as well as the external management of SDL. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the learning process of SDL through learners’ contextual control, internal monitoring, and motivation to enter a task. Within this context, this study is expected to investigate the learning process of pre-service music teachers who were involved in SDL environment where external management, internal monitoring, and motivational dimensions were incorporated. Background of Research I have been working as a teacher educator at a university in Seoul, South Korea for seven years. Improving on the teacher education programme in music was my primarily concern as an educator and a researcher. I have always aspired to empower my students to work independently on their thesis seminar project. After much consideration, I decided to shift from traditional teaching practice to student-centred learning. In this research, I introduced SDL in the graduate programme for pre-service music teachers. This new approach to learning enabled the pre-service music teachers to reflect and analyse on their own learning outcomes consistently (Simms, 2013). This graduate programme required pre-service music teachers to complete 30 credits hours for a successful completion. The students have to enrol in a thesis seminar after completing their comprehensive examinations. Every student has an advisor to guide them in writing their thesis at end of the third semester. They have to complete the writing of their Master’s thesis (60-150 double-spaced pages in length) and present their thesis in the fifth semester. Problem Statement Kim (2016) acknowledged that Asian students were generally quiet, passive, and they were more accustomed to teacher-centred learning. This submissive attitude may be influenced by the teachings of Confucius. Recently, the Korean government has introduced student-centred learning via SDL in schools to promote creativity and individuality. However, majority of the students in Korea still favoured teacher-centred learning and struggled to acclimatise to the new learning environment (Lee & Park, 2014). The writing of Master’s thesis in the graduate program is an individual project, which required the pre-service music teachers to work independently on the project. However, most of the graduate students in my thesis seminar were not confident in managing their own research project. They faced difficulty in assessing their own learning progress, and determining the field of their study. They relied immensely on their advisors to help them solve their learning issues and advancement of their thesis. As a result, independent learning hardly occurred in the thesis seminar. The need to develop independent learners in a thesis seminar is pertinent to enable the pre- service music teachers to embrace new knowledge and improve on their teaching practice. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives of Korean pre-service music teachers on self- directed thesis seminar, which they participated in their graduate program. The research questions are as follows: 1) What is the attitude of pre-service music teachers towards self-directed thesis seminar? and 2) What is the impact of self-directed thesis seminar on pre- service music teachers’ performance? Jihae Shin 31 Literature Review Self-Directed Learning (SDL) Self-directed learning (SDL) is a process where learners are responsible in 1) identifying their own needs and objectives, 2) finding appropriate materials, 3) implementing learning strategies, and 4) evaluating outcomes (Knowles, 1975; Loyens et al., 2008). There are three dimensions in SDL: self- management, self-monitoring, and motivation (Garrison, 1997). Firstly, learners are engaged in self- management. They administer their own learning goals, devise their own learning methods, and determine their own learning resources. They are responsible in monitoring their own progress and outcomes, as well as finding new strategies in improving their learning concerns. The success of self- management and self-monitoring in SDL depend on the individual’s motivation which includes the readiness to commence and adhere to the task until it is completed. The aspects required in designing SDL environment for teacher education encompassed individual learners’ personal attributes, teaching efficacy, knowledge level, past experiences, motivation, course content, and relevant skills in studying (Beitler, 1998; Greveson & Spencer, 2005). The external factors such as adequate resources and compelling vision of instruction in education programs play a vital role in regulating the learners’ task motivation (Bullock, 2013; Slavit & McDuffie, 2013). Also, authentic learning environments where learners have opportunities to construct knowledge and find solutions of real-life problems help them develop efficacy and self-directed learning skills (Hursen, 2016; Loyens et al., 2008). A gradual paradigm shift from teacher-centred approach to self-directed learning is integral to facilitate SDL among teachers (Bull, 2017; Levett-Jones, 2005; Williams, 2004). There are several strategies to promote SDL. Collaborative learning among peers, teachers and experienced learners played a distinctive role in determining the success on SDL. The learners attained assistance, guidance and assessment from their collaborative partners in the SDL environment (Jin, 2015; Loyens et al., 2008; Silen & Uhlin, 2008). According to Garrison (1997), collaborative learning allowed an individual to work independently on a task besides gaining constructive comments from their collaborators. The process of collaboration helped the learners to evaluate the progress of their study (Silen & Uhlin, 2008) as well as to develop professional practice (Shin, 2018; Trust & Horrocks, 2017). The use of appropriate tools and resources aided by technology as well as virtual support are also evident in the SDL environment (Bullock, 2013; Haidari et al., 2019). These technologies driven tools enabled the students to design fun, easy and quick learning activities (Haidari et al., 2019) besides enhancing collective learning (Rana et al., 2016). Researchers in education often argued that the SDL environment affects the learning practice of the individual. Teachers are responsible for their own learning process and outcomes in SDL (Bullock, 2013; Seo, 2010). A positive SDL learning environment enhanced the teachers’ teaching practice (Haidari et al., 2019; Slavit & McDuffie, 2013; Tillema, 2000; van Garderen et al., 2017; van Wyk, 2017). Teachers who have successfully achieved fruition in their teaching practice through SDL will eventually impart the similar approach to their students (Lai et al., 2013). There are many studies pertaining to self-directed learning for teachers. The research primarily focused on digital technology teacher (Bullock, 2013), preschool teacher (Seo, 2010), mathematics teacher (Slavit & McDuffie, 2013), primary school teacher (Tillema, 2000), economics teacher (van Wyk, 2017), English teacher (Haidari et al., 2019) and special education teacher (Van Garderen et al., 2017). However, there are very limited resources related to music teacher education program on SDL. The knowledge on SDL is instrumental for pre-service music teachers who played a principal role in developing the education system. These teachers tend to feel difficulty in monitoring their own thinking and seeking for improvement (Parsons & Stephenson, 2005), so they need to experience SDL in teacher education programs in order to develop responsibility and accountability in teaching practice. There is also a need for pre-service teachers to experience SDL as a continuous professional development (CPD) in the teacher education program. CPD is essential in developing the teachers’ responsibility and accountability in their teaching practice. Therefore, it is pertinent to examine the perspectives of pre-service music teachers on SDL during their participation in the graduate education program. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(29-41) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 32 Method I used the action research methodology to investigate pre-service music teachers’ experience in a self- directed thesis seminar. Harris (2000) said: In many aspects, this is an extension of a teacher’s professionalism, where reflection and development of one’s practice is crucial. Action research, though, takes this further by combining theory and practice in a powerful way. It is practical, based on one’s own needs, and designed to improve one’s practice. (p. 65) The process of action research consists of nine steps (Mertler, 2016). The first step in action research is to identity and limit the topic. In this step, I reflected on my teaching experience and identified that SDL environments are necessary for music teacher education in Korea. Step 2 indicates gathering information, so I discussed the importance of SDL to pre-service music teachers with other professors, which confirmed that the research topic is necessary. The third step means reviewing the related literature, so I reviewed the information and knowledge closely related to SDL in books, research journals, and website. This related literature provided guidance for developing research design. In the fourth step, I developed a research plan. After defining research questions, I designed self-directed thesis seminar and recruited the participants in the study. Step 5 indicates implementing the plan and collecting data. In this step, two groups participated in self-directed thesis seminar, and I collected participants’ perspectives on this seminar using data from participants’ reflective journals, researcher's reflective journal, and artefacts. In step 6, I analysed the data, and in step 7, I developed an action plan by proposing strategies for implementing SDL in music teacher education. Step 8 means sharing and communicating the results, so I wrote this research article to share the results with other colleagues in music education. In the final step, I reflected on the overall process of this action study. Self-Directed Thesis Seminar A self-directed thesis seminar is designed to ensure a better learning environment for the student teachers’ culminating thesis project. This seminar enabled the pre-service music teachers to 1) seek their own research interests in education, 2) source their own resources and 3) execute their research in the fourth semester. This research methodology adapted the seven steps of self-directed professional learning outlined by Shurr et al. (2014), as shown in Figure 1. In self-directed thesis seminar, step 2 and 3 of self-directed professional learning are integrated into deciding individual research topics because both steps are closely related to making plans for identifying professional learning needs (Shurr et al., 2014). Also, step 5 and 6 are compressed into self-reflection because they frequently happen together. Jihae Shin 33 Figure 1. Seven steps of a self-directed thesis seminar. In the first step, the learners conduct a self-assessment to evaluate their abilities and skills in a specific field (Shurr et al., 2014). My graduate students conducted a self-assessment on the progress of their research study. It is vital for them to reflect on the ideas and concepts of their research study. Before the inception of the seminar, the students were introduced to the basic research methods on music education in a course entitled ‘Introduction to Research in Music Education’. We met on the first week of the seminar to recapitulate the topics learned. I tried to engage my students to assess their current progress and examine the needs to conduct their study. In the second and third step, the students identify their learning needs (Shurr et al., 2014). My students identified the focus and objectives of their study based on their research interest. Upon completion, they presented their research topics and objectives to their peers, and received constructive criticism from them. In the self-directed learning process, it is important to receive continuing support and comments from peers (Silen & Uhlin, 2008). Finding trustworthy peers who can provide both constructive criticism and words of encouragement are essential in Step 4 (Shurr et al., 2014). In this recruiting- support step, each participant presented what they studied about their research topics to their peers and received constructive comments from them. Collaborative approach enhanced one’s learning process. Specific individual research topics are given to two groups as shown in Table 1. Table 1 Individual seminar topic Schedule Topics Group 1 (September to December, 2016) Group 2 (March to June, 2017) 1st week Orientation I All participants All participants 2nd week Orientation II All participants All participants 3rd week Quantitative study Group seminar (Donna’s presentation) Group seminar (Mary’s presentation) 4th week Self-reflection Individual work Individual work 5th week Qualitative study Group seminar (Betty’s presentation) Group seminar (Linda’s presentation) 6th week Self-reflection Individual work Individual work 7th week Introduction Group seminar (Ruth’s presentation) Group seminar (Kim’s presentation) 8th week Self-reflection Individual work Individual work Self-directed learning process Conduct a self-assessment Evaluate a self-assessment Determine objectives Recruit support Collect data on progress Monitor growth Celebrate success Self-directed thesis seminar Check current progress Decide individual research topics Group discussion with peers Self-reflection Final presentation Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(29-41) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 34 9th week Research method Group seminar (Laura’s presentation) Group seminar (Susan’s presentation) 10th week Self-reflection Individual work Individual work 11th week Data analysis Group seminar (Jean’s presentation) Group seminar (Helen’s presentation) 12th week Self-reflection Individual work Individual work 13th week Final presentation All participants All participants In step 5 and 6, learners constantly check and monitor their progress to improve on their research plans in SDL (Shurr et al., 2014). Between the series of group seminars, my participants reflected on their thinking, knowledge, and understanding about their topics and identified a problem in learning. They also gathered befitting information and resources related to their own study to address the problems. Constant monitoring is needed to regulate the participants’ academic progress and self- assessment on their learning strategies and resources used. The constant support, critical feedback, and stimulating challenges from the peers during group seminars enabled the participants to reflect and improve on their research progress. In the final stage, step 7, the learners review the progress of their study and assess their utmost achievement (Shurr et al., 2014). All the participants in my thesis seminar presented their final projects and commended on each other’s success in the last session of the seminar. Besides, they also reflected and discussed their experiences gained throughout the process of SDL. Participants The participants comprised two cohort groups of students who participated in my thesis seminar on the fourth semester of their program. I intentionally recruited two groups of students to gather rich data about pre-service music teachers’ various attitudes and perspectives of their participation in SDL. The purposeful samplings (Tomal, 2010) is used to achieve the objectives of my study, which is to improve the participants’ skills in conducting and administrating their own research study as well as teaching practice through SDL. The participants received notification on the purpose of the study and the research procedures through e-mails. All the ten, preservice teachers need to experience SDL in teacher preparation programs in order to develop responsibility and accountability students assigned to my seminar agreed to participate in my research study voluntarily. Donna, Betty, Ruth, Laura, and Jean (pseudonyms) participated in the first thesis seminar from September to December 2016; and Mary, Linda, Kim, Susan, and Helen (pseudonyms) joined the second thesis seminar from March to June 2017. These participants majored in music performance during their undergraduate schools; and they decided to enroll in the graduate program to become music teachers in the middle or high school. Data Collection For this study, I used multiple data collection methods such as participants’ reflective journals, researcher’s reflective journal, and artefact collection. Participants’ Reflective Journals. Journal writing is a tool used to assist pre-service teachers to reflect and assess their current practice (Goker, 2016). By putting their thoughts, feelings, expressions, and reflections into writing, these teachers are able to 1) examine the current progress in their study, 2) consider alternatives to solve their problems, and 3) source new knowledge and methods to improve on their study (Al-karasneh, 2014; Goker, 2016). In this study, participants are required to write regular reflective journal twice a month and send it to me via e-mail. Each participant wrote six to nine journal entries. I provided the pre-service music teachers with broad guidelines on how to write a reflective journal, which was adapted from previous research studies (Al-karasneh, 2014; Goker, 2016): 1. What main events happened today or this week? What were your decisions in terms of good learning practice? 2. What went well? What makes you think so? Jihae Shin 35 3. Record your thoughts and feelings during individual work and group seminars. 4. Describe and reflect your negative learning experience as well as positive experience. 5. What did you do to sustain the positive and avoid the negative? Researcher’s Reflective Journal. Besides collecting the participants’ reflective journals, I also kept my own reflective journal. I recorded my observations, thoughts, and reflections on each participant in my journal. Documentation includes the progress of each individual participant as well as their learning process and accomplishment between theory and practice in the graduate program. Artefact Collection. Artefacts enabled researchers to gain new insights on observations, journals, and interviews (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993). In this study, I collected participants’ research proposals, presentation handouts, and e-mails to examine the perspectives of their participation in this thesis seminar. Analysis Data analysis on the learning process of SDL among the pre-service music teachers in South Korea (Bernard & Ryan, 2010) are conducted by using content analysis. At the initial stage, I read all the data collected to gain a holistic understanding of graduate students’ experience in SDL. Then, I re-read the data to identify useful codes. The 10 codes established were joy, anxiety, confidence, peers, attitude, responsibility, critical thinking, collaboration, frustration, and improvement. Using constant comparative method, six clustered categories found encompassed joy in the learning process, frustration in SDL, responsibility, development of critical thinking, benefits from peers, and improvement in peer collaboration in SDL. Comparative study among the categories were done to identify the relationship between each group, and finally, five main themes were aggregated. The five themes include 1) attitude about SDL, 2) responsibility for learning process, 3) various perspectives from peers, 4) development of critical thinking, and 5) the way for effective collaboration in SDL. The main themes were refined according to the research questions 1) the attitude of pre-service teachers towards SDL and 2) the impact of self-directed thesis seminar on pre-service music teachers’ performance. Data analysis comprised the similarities and differences among the participants. Analysis on the coded data and its related texts were sent to the participants for verification (Tracy, 2010) to minimise errors and prejudice in analysing and interpreting the data as I am directly involved in the education program. To establish credibility in this study, I used peer examination to receive feedback on participant recruitment, methodology, data collections, research findings and interpretations (Merriam, 1998). Besides, peer debriefing allowed me to re-analyse emerging new categories and clarify the participants’ attitudes towards SDL. Findings and Discussion The findings comprised two categories: (1) the graduate students’ attitude on SDL and (2) the impact of SDL on graduate students’ performance in their thesis seminar. Each category concluded with a discussion on SDL pertaining to pre-service music teachers. Attitude about SDL The findings demonstrated that most of the pre-service music teachers do not favour SDL at the beginning of the thesis seminar. They were apprehensive to conduct their studies in the new environment. The same stance also prevailed in my second observation. Refer to the researcher’s reflective journal as stated below: It is still difficult to implement SDL in the seminar… I have tried my best to gain the pre-service music teachers’ confidence in working on their thesis by designing specific steps in SDL; but they were still apprehensive to learn in this new learning environment…What should I do? Do I need to revert to teacher-centred approach? What have I done wrong as their thesis advisor? Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(29-41) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 36 They lacked confidence in choosing reliable and suitable learning resources from the various references. For example, Linda expressed her concerns in managing the materials and resources found in books, the internet, and databases: It is difficult to find appropriate contents and materials for my study, especially when there is enormous information on the field of my study. Besides, I also faced difficulty in deciding the most relevant materials and information pertaining to my study. Most of the participants lacked confidence in monitoring their own learning progress. In SDL, the participants were required to examine their progress and improve on their learning strategies constantly. However, most of the teachers were perplexed with their own ability in making decisions and assuring the correct learning outcomes. As reflected in Kim’s journal below: During the preparation of my work, I have to change my research variables constantly. At one moment, I decided to focus on music teachers’ attitude towards music teaching and teaching anxiety. Nevertheless, I am not sure whether these variables are significant and related to the previous studies. Through my observation, I think there is a need to modify my research topic. Again, I am not sure whether I have made the correct decision. The findings showed that only two out of ten participants enjoyed the journey of SDL. In her fourth journal, Susan, from the second group, mentioned that she enjoyed learning, found that the process interesting and discovered new learning strategies in improving herself: I decided to focus on a specific research question, and it helped me in designing the questionnaire. I was able to complete the outline of the survey quite easily. While studying on the research methods, I found two useful references as a guide. I chose the participants in my study and designed the survey instrument based on the references. It was quite an interesting experience for me. Of course, I realised that I might need to modify and re-design my survey; however, the learning process itself was rewarding and enjoyable. The initial stage of SDL proved a burden for all the participants. However, a few of them began to appreciate the process of SDL after experiencing progress in their study. As discovered by Donna in her journal: At the beginning, it was difficult for me to read all the resources related to my study and it was a great pressure on me. However, as my study progressed, I began to enjoy the new learning environment. I really liked the learning process where I could study independently. That experience motivated me to participate in other learning activities more confidently and actively. The findings contradicted from Lai et al. (2013), and showed that there were constant anxiety among most participants (except two) towards the process of SDL since its inception. As the thesis seminar progressed, I realised that most of the participants lacked experience and confidence in SDL. The complexity in their research project and thesis writing further doubted their confidence in participating in SDL. After observing the graduate students for almost four months, I realised that they should have started SDL in topics familiar to them. The participants kept complaining that SDL was new to them. Explaining the purpose and the process of SDL at the beginning of the seminar was not sufficient to boost their confidence in this new environment. I should have designed a more detailed and specific plan to engage them in SDL. As said in Bull (2017) and Levett-Jones (2005), an abrupt change from teacher-centred learning to SDL might trigger anxiety, fear, and criticism among the learners. It is more effective to implement SDL to the learners by introducing collaboration with a teacher to set up goals and assess learning progressively (Bull, 2017; Williams, 2004). Most of the music courses offered in the teacher education program at my school focused on teacher-centred approach. The pre-service music teachers were unacquainted to setting up their own goals, working independently and finding suitable learning Jihae Shin 37 materials. Besides, the challenges encountered in their research projects further restrained them from enjoying the fruition of SDL since its inception. Therefore, I suggest that the students should be motivated to SDL through familiar and easier topics offered in the program (Greveson & Spencer, 2005). Progressive introduction of SDL is essential to enable them to understand its purpose and methods (Levett-Jones, 2005). SDL should be introduced successively to develop personal and cognitive skills as well as improving the process of learning. Furthermore, it is significant that participants with positive attitude towards SDL also noticed the favourable outcomes from SDL. According to Lai et al. (2013) and Levett-Jones (2005), participants who have had achieved assuring outcomes from SDL are affirmative towards its learning environment. This finding suggests pre-service music teachers to discern their own progress in their study in SDL. The Impact of SDL on Graduate Students’ Performance in a Thesis Seminar This study showed that self-directed thesis seminar helped graduate students become more responsible in their learning process, get various perspectives from peers, and develop their critical thinking. Responsibility in Learning Process. All the participants agreed that they were responsible in setting and managing their own goals during the learning process. As expressed by Jean in her reflections on the SDL: While I was in a graduate school, I had a lot of opportunities to work on various projects. I took on the tasks given by my professors without questioning the reasons to work on those assignments and projects. As for my research, I had the opportunity to decide on my own study. I decided to analyse quantitative and qualitative findings. It was a good experience for me to initiate my own learning experience. During this learning process, I became more responsible in making decisions pertaining to my own study. The respondents opined that the experience in deciding their own goals enabled them to manage their own study more effectively and self-sustaining. Betty mentioned the responsibility in learning in her reflective journal: While participating in the seminar, I realised that I need to improve on my knowledge in research. Therefore, I proceeded to study on research methods, data analysis and qualitative methods by myself. This experience differed from the teacher-centred learning. As a responsible learner, I worked very hard and it helped me to remember what I have learned. As stated by Bullock (2013), Lai et al. (2013) and Seo (2010), this study also showed that pre- service music teachers were responsible for their own learning process and outcomes in the SDL environment. In the SDL process, it is important to create a positive learning environment that encourage learners to engage in their own study confidently (Bullock, 2013; Slavit & McDuffie, 2013). Thus, I put into consideration the pre-service music teachers’ needs and interest when designing this self-directed thesis seminar (Beitler, 1998; Hursen, 2016; Slavit & McDuffie, 2013). The teachers enjoyed learning new knowledge while managing their own goals and initiating their own learning experience. This finding supported the concept of SDL (Brookfield, 2009; Garrison, 1997). The pre- service music teachers decided on their own learning during the self-management process; were responsible for establishing their own professional knowledge; and were motivated to continue to work hard. Various Perspectives from Peers. The pre-service music teachers also valued the comments and feedback given by their peers from different perspectives in the seminar. At the beginning of the seminar, they were hesitant to participate actively in group discussions. However, they picked up the momentum in the second meeting. In their reflective journals, these respondents commented on meaningful learning through active peer discussions. They acknowledged the positive feedback given by their peers to enhance their research topics and thinking process. As acknowledged by Betty the advantages of peer collaboration in her reflective journal: Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(29-41) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 38 Today all of us read Ruth’s research introduction and give her some suggestions. In fact, I have not written on my introduction yet, and it is quite difficult for me to comment. However, it is interesting to note that different suggestions and opinions were raised during peer discussion although we read the same thing. I think that was useful during peer collaboration. Through peer discussions, the pre-service music teachers modified their research focus and find alternative resources to collect and analyse their data. For example, in Mary’s reflective journal, she showed her appreciation on the various suggestions given by her peers in choosing samplings for her study: “During my presentation, my peers asked me about the frequency of attendance during weekly woodwind band practice and the duration of practice. I couldn’t answer those questions… Helen highlighted to me that the school’s learning environment played an important role in determining the quality of the school band. I haven’t thought of that, and I need to consider those issues before choosing my samples.” In the researcher’s journal, I also noted that the collaboration in SDL enabled the pre-service music teachers to consider different perspectives to improve on their research topics: It was very interesting to observe the conversations among the pre-service music teachers. Especially, Helen seemed to gain various ideas to analyse her qualitative data from others’ perspectives…Today, I realise the importance of collaborative process in SDL. This process is very effective in helping them to be more self-directed learners. All the pre-service music teachers in this study agreed that collaboration among peers was an integral factor in helping them to conduct their own research in the SDL process successfully. As said in Conway et al., (2010) and Shin (2018), the pre-service music teachers also enhanced their thoughts and developed their learning process based on the perspectives given their peers. These participants also managed to monitor and improve on their research methods as well as strategies. Development of Critical Thinking. It is interesting to note that the participants managed to think and evaluate their own topics, resources, and progress more objectively and critically after reading their peer’s assignment and participating actively in the discussion. As mentioned by Kim in her final reflective journal about her experience in the self-directed thesis seminar: One of the most important advantages of this seminar was that I could look at my work objectively beyond bias. After reading others’ work and considering others’ perspectives, I could monitor the progress of my work more critically. Echoing the same sentiment, Helen, in the second group, agreed that the opportunity to view and reflect on others’ research work enabled her to monitor and improve the quality of her own research study: I tried assessing my colleagues’ work objectively and posted critical comments as well as quizzing questions to them. I tried to recall and reflect on those questions during my own study. I noticed that I could concentrate more on managing resources and organising my research plan through recalling the comments from peer group’s discussion. For example, What if this works ... if I were to write it this way? I think collaborative learning is imperative to assist me in learning critically. It is also inspiring to learn that the participants gained deeper understanding of their own work after participating actively in the peer group’s discussion as well as reading their peer’s assignments. Peer collaboration in SDL promotes objective perception of their research process. The pre-service music teachers gained deeper insights into their own learning process, which eventually led them to perform well in the self-directed thesis seminar. Goodloe (2015) argued that “one way to demonstrate critical thinking is by examining one’s own values through reflecting, questioning, writing, and analysing personal beliefs and the perspectives of others” (p. 47). Participants in this study showed that they learned to assess the quality of research Jihae Shin 39 work by reading objectively, reflecting and questioning others’ assignments as well as their own. Throughout this process, these pre-service teachers were able to assess and improve the quality of their own work in SDL. During my observation, I realised that questioning others’ work is pertinent in promoting critical thinking among the pre-service teachers’ in SDL. This process enabled them to manage, monitor, and assess their learning progress more critically. The Way for Effective Collaboration in SDL. All the participants consensually agreed to the advantages of the collaborative learning in SDL thesis seminar. They also gave their suggestions to improve peer collaboration in SDL. Donna commented that it was difficult for her to read her peers’ work in a short period during the seminar: I was not confident in giving feedback to Laura’s assignment because I was not sure whether I have fully understood her work and intentions… Therefore, I hope that we could get the materials earlier so that we could have ample time to read and think about it before peer group discussion. Laura further suggested that the participants post their work before peer group discussion through social network services such as Facebook and blogs to enable effective group discussion and collaboration: I think Donna has worked very hard on her assignment, however we were not ready to comment in the seminar. It would be more effective if the participant post their work for us to read earlier through Facebook or blogs. I think this method saves time and enables us to participate more actively and confidently. This study distinctively showed that the pre-service music teachers also valued virtual space besides face-to-face seminar meeting. Online meetings played an important role in facilitating music teachers’ group discussions. Shin (2018) argued that both face-to-face meetings and online communications facilitated interactions among music teachers, and Trust and Horrocks (2017) confirmed that “blending informal and formal learning activities optimise the overall learning experiences” (p. 658). The pre-service music teachers also concurred that virtual meetings provide them with more time to read and evaluate their peers’ work for group discussion. Therefore, it is necessary to encourage the participants to post and review their peers’ work in the virtual platforms without restraining to time constraint. Conclusion and Recommendations SDL is primarily important to enable pre-service music teachers to pursue continuous professional development throughout their teaching careers (Zepeda, 2013). SDL in a teacher education program empowered pre-service music teachers in managing their own learning. The participants were responsible for their own learning process and outcomes besides enjoying the new learning environment. As suggested by Bullock (2013) and Slavit and McDuffie (2013), I encouraged pre- service music teachers to decide on the field of their study based on their interest, initiate and manage their own goals and take responsibility in their own learning process. However, the participants faced difficulty in engaging into the new learning environment. Most participants felt insecure in managing their learning resources and monitoring the progress of their learning. Hence, my suggestion is to incorporate the learning process in SDL progressively to enable participants to benefit from it. The course content should be familiar to the participants to enable them to develop positive attitude in designing, conducting, and assessing their learning confidently. The findings also showed that collaborative learning is an effective instructional approach to elicit peers’ comments and feedback from various perspectives besides developing critical thinking among the participants. The ability to read and question others’ work indirectly helped the participants to reflect and review their own learning progress in SDL. The ability to focus and understand the context of others’ research eventually helped the participants to self-monitor their own studies critically (Goodloe, 2015). Therefore, it is vital to encourage participants to review and comment their peers’ task collaboratively in SDL to generate critical thinking and constructive self-monitoring. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(29-41) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 40 Furthermore, virtual spaces are also significant in engaging collaborative learning among the pre-service music teachers besides in-person meetings in SDL environment. The use of technology is prevalent among the pre-service music teachers in the teacher education program. Therefore, there is a need for music educators to consider incorporating technology in SDL to assist pre-service music teachers in managing and monitoring their learning successfully and independently. References Al-karasneh, S. M. (2014). Reflective journal writing as a tool to teach aspects of social studies. European Journal of Education, 49(3), 395-407. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12084 Beitler, M. A. (1998). Mid-career adults in self-directed graduate programs. In H.B. Long & Associates (Eds.), Developing paradigms for self-directed learning (pp.179-193). College of Education, University of Oklahoma. Bernard, H. R., & Ryan, G. W. (2010). Analyzing qualitative data: Systematic approaches. SAGE Publications. Brookfield, S. D. (2009). Self-directed learning. In R. Maclean & M. Wilson (Eds.), International handbook of education for the changing world of work (pp. 2615-2617). Springer. Bull, B. D. (2017). Adventures in self-directed learning: A guide for nurturing learner agency and ownership. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Bullock, S. M. (2013). Using digital technologies to support self-directed learning for pre-service teacher education. The Curriculum Journal, 24(1), 103-120. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2012.744695 Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. Jossey-Bass. Conway, C. M., Eros, J., Pellegrino, K., & West, C. (2010). The role of graduate and undergraduate interactions in the development of pre-service music teachers and music teacher educators: A self-study in music teacher education. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 183, 49-64. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Collier Macmillan. Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1), 18-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/074171369704800103 Goker, S. D. (2016). Use of reflective journals in development of teachers’ leadership and teaching skills. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 4(12A), 63-70. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2016.041309 Goodloe, J.-E. (2015). Promoting critical thinking and reflection in a capstone course for adult learners [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Walden University, Minneapolis. Greveson, G. C., & Spencer, J. A. (2005). Self-directed learning-the importance of concepts and contexts. Medical Education, 39(4), 348-349. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02115.x Haidari, S. M., Yelken, T. Y., & Akay, C. (2019). Technology-enhanced self-directed language learning behaviors of EFL student teachers. Contemporary Educational Technology, 10(3), 229-245. https://doi.org/10.30935/cet.590003 Harris, R. (2000). An action research project to improve the quality of A Level history writing. Prospero, 6(3&4), 65-79. Hursen, C. (2016). The impact of curriculum developed in line with authentic learning on the teacher candidates’ success, attitude and self-directed learning skills. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17(1), 73- 86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-015-9409-2 Jin, D.-L. (2015). A study on the development and application of program utilizing e-portfolios for the improvement of self-directed learning within underachieving undergraduate students [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea. Kim, J. Y. (2016). Group work oral participation: Examining Korean students’ adjustment process in a US university. Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 56(3), 400-423. Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Association Press. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2015). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (Vol. 8). Routledge. Lai, C., Gardner, D., & Law, E. (2013). New to facilitating self-directed learning: The changing perceptions of teachers. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 7(3), 281-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2013.836208 Levett-Jones, T. L. (2005). Self-directed learning: Implications and limitations for undergraduate nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 25, 363-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2005.03.003 LeCompte, M. D., & Preissle, J. (1993). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research (2nd ed.). Academic Press, INC. Lee, J., & Park, D. (2014). Do American and Korean education systems converge? Tracking school reform policies and outcomes in Korea and the USA. Asia Pacific Education Review, 15(3), 391-399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-014-9325-x Jihae Shin 41 Louws, M. L., Meirink, J. A., Veen, K. V., & Driel, J. H. V. (2017). Teachers’ self-directed learning and teaching practice: What, how, and why teachers want to know. Teaching and Teacher Education, 66, 171-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.004 Loyens, S. M. M., Magda, J., & Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2008). Self-directed learning in problem-based learning and its relationships with self-regulated learning. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4), 411-427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-008-9082-7 Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. Jossey-Bass Publishers. Mertler, C. A. (2016). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (5th ed.). SAGE Publications. Parsons, M., & Stephenson, M. (2005). Developing reflective practice in student teachers: Collaboration and critical partnerships. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 11(1), 95-116. https://doi.org/10.1080/1354060042000337110 Rana, S., Ardichvili, A., & Polesello, D. (2016). Promoting self-directed learning in a learning organization: Tools and practices. European Journal of Training and Development, 40(7), 470-489. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-10-2015-0076 Seo, M. S. (2010). Strategic changes of preschool teachers’ structuring of knowledge in self-directed learning. Journal of Early Childhood Education, 30(2), 357-380. Shin, J. (2018). Using interactions among in-service music teachers in a graduate programme for teacher support. Music Education Research, 20(1), 114-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2017.1301413 Shurr, J., Hirth, M., Jasper, A., McCollow, M., & Heroux, J. (2014). Another tool in the belt: Self-directed professional learning for teachers of students with moderate and severe disabilities. Physical Disabilities: Education and Related Services, 33(1), 17-38. https://doi.org/10.14434/pders.v33i1.4855 Silen, C., & Uhlin, L. (2008). Self-directed learning-a learning issue for students and faculty! Teaching in Higher Education, 13(4), 461-475. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562510802169756 Simms, M. (2013). A teacher-educator uses action research to develop culturally conscious curriculum planners. Democracy & Education, 21(2), 1-10. Slavit, D., & McDuffie, A. R. (2013). Self-directed teacher learning in collaborative contexts. School Science and Mathematics, 113(2), 94-105. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.12001 Tillema, H. H. (2000). Belief change towards self-directed learning in student teachers: immersion in practice or reflection on action. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(5-6), 575-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742- 051X(00)00016-0 Tomal, D. R. (2010). Action research for educators (2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Tracy, S. J. (2010). Qualitative quality: Eight “Big-Tent” criteria for excellent qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 16, 837–851. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800410383121 Trust, T., & Horrocks, B. (2017). ‘I never feel alone in my classroom’: Teacher professional growth within a blended community of practice. Professional Development in Education, 43(4), 645-665. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2016.1233507 Van Garderen, D., Hanuscin, D., Thomas, C. N., Stormont, M., & Lee, E. J. (2016). Self-directed learning to improve science content knowledge for teachers. Intervention in School & Clinic, 52(4), 236-242. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451216659476 Van Wyk, M. M. (2017). An e-portfolio as empowering tool to enhance students’ self-directed learning in a teacher education course: A case of a South African university. South African Journal of Higher Education, 31(3), 274-291. https://doi.org/10.20853/31-3-834 Williams, B. (2004). Self-direction in a problem based learning programme. Nurse Education Today, 24(4), 277-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2004.01.008 Zepeda, S. J. (2013). Professional development: What works (2nd ed.). Routledge. Biography Jihae Shin is an assistant professor in a graduate school of education at Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea, where she teaches music education courses. She earned her master’s degree at the Ohio State University and doctoral degree at Teachers College, Columbia University, USA. Her research interests focus on teacher education, professional development, string music education, and music teaching and learning.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

balinese gamelan, contemporary composition, cultural matrices, innovation

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3922

Innovation and Change in Approaches to Balinese Gamelan Composition

This article addresses newly developed approaches to gamelan composition among Balinese composers by focusing on changes and innovations within tradition. Balinese composers today represent a cross-section of arts communities who collectively have produced some of the most innovative gamelan compositions in nearly half a century. Subjected to increasingly cosmopolitan reviews from both conservative and progressive audiences, these composers encapsulate the shifting ideals of a generation who value new aesthetic paradigms that increasingly diverge from the history, tradition and legacy of their traditional Balinese predecessors. In the fiercely competitive world of gamelan group rivalry, struggles and triumphs between contemporary composers have always seen creative boundaries pushed to their limits. I examine some of these triumphs and limitations by examining the creative output of six representative Balinese composers who contend with innovation and its reception in local contexts. I argue that innovations in gamelan serve as benchmarks that demarcate creative spaces and approaches while simultaneously testing the real-world confines of changing traditions.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3922/2553

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(42-54) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 42 Innovation and Change in Approaches to Balinese Gamelan Composition I Komang Sudirga Music Department, Faculty of Performing Arts Institut Seni Indonesia, Denpasar Jalan Nusa Indah, Sumerta, Denpasar, Bali, 80235 e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 10 September 2020 Cite this article (APA): Sudirga, I. K. (2020). Innovation and change in approaches to Balinese Gamelan composition, Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 42-54. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.4.2020 Abstract This article addresses newly developed approaches to gamelan composition among Balinese composers by focusing on changes and innovations within tradition. Balinese composers today represent a cross-section of arts communities who collectively have produced some of the most innovative gamelan compositions in nearly half a century. Subjected to increasingly cosmopolitan reviews from both conservative and progressive audiences, these composers encapsulate the shifting ideals of a generation who value new aesthetic paradigms that increasingly diverge from the history, tradition and legacy of their traditional Balinese predecessors. In the fiercely competitive world of gamelan group rivalry, struggles and triumphs between contemporary composers have always seen creative boundaries pushed to their limits. I examine some of these triumphs and limitations by examining the creative output of six representative Balinese composers who contend with innovation and its reception in local contexts. I argue that innovations in gamelan serve as benchmarks that demarcate creative spaces and approaches while simultaneously testing the real-world confines of changing traditions. Keywords: Balinese gamelan, contemporary composition, cultural matrices, innovation Introduction Audiences who support new compositions may feel confident that the presentation of contemporary music can, at the view least, provide some new ideas and innovations to existing music traditions. However, many new ideas may be controversial and bring to the surface mixed reactions and responses particularly from conservative audiences on the Indonesian island of Bali. Although sometimes less conceptually understood, contemporary gamelan composers may be abrasive and challenge the status quo in their attempts to be entertaining. Audience members who reject composer’s radical ideas in a creative work apply critiques that alienate gamelan artists because they feel radically new compositions to be strange, not accessible and lacking established musical references. In order to carry out an investigation of these issues, this article examines recent innovative works from six Balinese composers who are challenging tradition and spawning new art forms. I Wayan Sudiarsa is regarded as a ‘community composer’ who attributes his innovations and inspirations to two general categories: environmental themes and making social impact. As a grassroots composer he is less concerned with notions of recognition and stardom and focuses on composing to make a positive impact on his local community. I Nyoman Windha is a veteran in kebyar innovations. He innovates by using the geo-cultural location of his composition as an impetus for creating his works. For Windha innovating involves evaluating where you are, the musicianship of the group, and how best to compose for them. I Wayan Darya from the village of Singapadu got his idea to create an entirely new gamelan only after collaborating with the dancer Guruh Soekarnoputra. This reaffirms that music composition I Komang Sudirga 43 in Bali does not operate in a vacuum but has a symbiotic relationship with performing arts. Bona Alit and I Made Subandi each have explored diatonic music and pan-Asian instruments such as Indian tabla and Chinese erhu for collaborations for composition. And finally Dewa Ketut Alit has become a visionary by continually testing the boundaries of tuning, orchestration and instrumental possibilities for gamelan. Each composer innovates new ideas while negotiating what changes affect their personal directions and traditions they represent. Using the notion of cultural matrices (Brinner, 1995) as the intersection of reference points that dramatically shape innovation in gamelan works, this article looks at what informs composer’s choices for gamelan compositional reconfigurations. It also examines how innovations are justified and qualified to demarcate space within a composer’s pallet of expression while simultaneously assessing the boundaries of changing traditions. Balinese composers have been innovating new ideas for generations. There is a long lineage of Balinese composers such as I Gede Manik and I Wayan Beratha who are considered pioneers of the revolutionary 20th century style of gamelan called kebyar. We now look back at how gamelan traditions have been passed down and how composers adhere to their teacher’s style while innovating their own idioms and approaches. Histories of Innovation in Balinese Performing Arts The idea of innovation among composers and choreographers for contemporary Balinese gamelan music and dance is not new. Each inheriting generation in Bali has made efforts to renew their ideology to express their concepts and worldviews through gamelan music (Dibia, 1999). Many examples of innovation in the history of Balinese performing arts are worthy of note in this discussion of innovation. In 1915, the North Balinese dancer, Pan Wandres from the village of Jagaraga in Buleleng district used the classical court dance called legong kuntir as a basis for innovating movements in the fast and flashy style that would become kebyar and the classic dance called kebyar legong. This dance would inspire composer/choreographer I Gede Manik to compose the revolutionary dance and music called kebyar truna jaya that is today considered a benchmark of dance and music (Tenzer, 2000). In 1925, the dance maestro from the district of Tabanan, I Ketut Mario (1897-1968) used the agility of the gandrung to innovate it into the now classical choreography called kebyar duduk. Later in 1952, he would create a duet for male and female dancers called oleg tamulilingan. Each of these examples were innovative in their time but have since become staples of a codified tradition. This process of innovation becoming codified tradition also occurred in instrumental gamelan music. I Wayan Lotring (1898-1982) from Banjar Tegal in Kuta village, Badung regency combined compositional ideas from the classical court ensemble called gamelan palegongan together with repertoire from the quartet of metallophones called gender wayang to create his very own innovative compositions such as Sekar Gendot, Sekar Setaman and Kulicak (Bandem 2013). Historically, gamelan composers employed a great deal of ‘musical borrowing’ as methodology for innovation. Inter-genre borrowing has been common since the mid-20th century in Bali. For example, gong kebyar composers have traditionally borrowed from ensembles such as the stately temple music of gamelan gong gede, the seven-tone gambang and ritual ensembles like the gong luang. The sweet, melodic repertoire of instrumental music from the melodious and sweet-sounding court orchestra called semar pagulingan borrowed repertoire from the chamber ensemble of long end-blown flutes called pagambuhan. By the 1960s, the folk-inspired bamboo ensemble joged bumbung and the 4-tone bronze gamelan angklung adopted the flashy, fast paced style of kebyar. Cross-genre borrowing as a methodology for innovation was not limited to musical ensembles. The late theorist and music scholar, I Gusti Putu Made Geria from Buagan village in Denpasar, who was also a composer of the generation of Nyoman Kaler and Wayan Lotring, had the skill and ability to create the long, extended musical compositions of instrumental music for tabuh lelambatan pegongan klassik based on his wealth of musical knowledge about vocal music (tembang Bali) using poetic verse forms such as Ginada, Pangkur, Dangdang, and Sinom. Not unlike I Wayan Lotring's new percussion works cited above, I Gusti Putu Made Geria also mastered the palegongan and kakebyaran forms composing complicated interlocking parts because he had a strong base both in terms of seamlessly fusing gender wayang, pagambuhan, and palegongan percussion techniques. He was also a lecturer in music at the then ASTI Denpasar and had students such as I Nyoman Rembang, I Wayan Sinthi, and I Wayan Beratha. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(42-54) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 44 Composition lineage continued in the hands of Geria’s student, I Wayan Beratha, a figure who earned the reputation from his peers and the wider community in his generation as the reformer of kebyar style gamelan. In addition to creating new instrumental music in the style of temple orchestras called kebyar lelambatan, he was influential in choreography for the nationalist farmer’s dance called tari tani because during the presidency of Sukarno, “… Balinese artists were encouraged to write music that expressed themes of national interest in a social realist style” (Steele, 2013, p. 186). Innovations from the lineage of Balinese composers continued when I Wayan Beratha then handed down his expertise to his pupils such as I Wayan Rai. S, I Nyoman Astita, I Ketut Gde Asnawa, I Wayan Sinti, I Nyoman Windha, I Nyoman Sudarna, Desak Suarthi Laksmi, and others who are considered great composers of this era. Among the most productive and prominent students of Beratha was I Nyoman Windha. Never resting on his laurels, the results of his work adhere to his teacher’s style, but have led to his own innovative idioms in his language of music. His strength is strongly rooted in the structure of his melodies enriched by a virtually endless repository of melodic nuance and variation. In the 1990s, a new generation of young composers emerged such as I Gde Arya Sugiartha, I Made Arnawa, I Gde Yudana, I Nyoman Sutama, I Wayan Widia, I Wayan Darya, I Made Subandi, I Wayan Wiriadi (Kiung), Dewa Ketut Alit, Sang Nyoman Arsa Wijaya, I Ketut Suandita, I Wayan Sudirana, and I Wayan Sudiarsa (Pacet). The exciting developments of contemporary composers Wayan Gde Yudana, Dewa Ketut Alit, Wayan Sudirana, and Sang Nyoman Arsa Wijaya bring even more radical new challenges in the composition of Balinese gamelan. The next section of this article explores some of the theoretical frames contemporary composers consider when creating compositions. Unlike their predecessors, today’s composers in Bali depart from tradition to create forms and structures that previously have not been done before where “breaking existing molds” is part of the process of generating new ones (Brinner, 1995, p. 452). Innovation Conceptualised Innovation constitutes a strategic move that intentionally departs from tradition to update a particular culture to be more functional for its audience. Often glossed as an invention of tradition (Hobsbawm & Ranger, 1983), innovations also involve developing solutions to artistic problems. If the invention takes the form of a working model or prototype, then the concept of innovation relates to creations that are generally new tools, products, methods or processes that inform new perspectives. Riandi (2016) defines innovation as a way of dealing with challenging issues and sees “technical solutions to a technical problem” (p. 1). From the perspective of psychology, a new composition is perceived as original if its ideas, structures or forms have never been seen or heard before. The creator himself is ‘cognitively convinced’ something new has been generated; despite the fact that he may be unaware that elsewhere a new composition bearing similar traits may already exist. From a cultural perspective, a new composition is meaningful if it previously did not exist in the cultural practice of the composer whose “contemporary explorations look outward, breaking molds rather than filling them” (Brinner, 1995, p. 452). These expressions are not inferior to tradition nor are they considered less than other contemporary compositions that combine cross-culture elements to form music (McGraw, 2009). In this case, innovations are cultural encounters reconfigured, modified and changed to suit existing categories of cultural production such as musical form, tuning system, dramatic character, movement vocabulary or regional costume variations. These are just some of the many distinctive performing arts subsets that form cultural matrices, “[ ... ] a set of categories created by the intersection of two or more sets of distinctions” (Brinner, 1995, p. 434). Indonesian historian and archaeologist, Edi Sedyawati (1981), describes intersecting approaches between classical and contemporary modern art in the 20th century. She says, “In the classical approach, art is a statement of intellectual idealism, based on a set of permanent symbolic systems, which can vary according to the ability of each artist’s choice of motives, expressions and presentations, and ultimately how its appreciated” (as cited in Lindsay, 1991, p. 50). The contemporary approach emphasises the assessment of uniqueness in an art work. New works are considered truly “art” if born from an artist’s personal insight unbound by any limitation. The main strategy of modernists of the 20th century were built upon freeing themselves from dependency on the basic concepts of tonal harmony, rhythm, and melody (Harjana, 2003). Therefore, in modernism, one of the artist’s aims is emancipation and liberation from bondage, attachment, and restriction. I Komang Sudirga 45 Over the past 20 years, I have observed both intellectual idealism and sonic emancipation through modernism in the gamelan compositions of my conservatory students. Let me briefly provide an anecdote as an example. In 2005, I served as composition thesis portfolio advisor for Sang Nyoman Arsawijaya. The title of his composition was Geräusch. Named after the German word for “unpleasant noise”, the composition did not use conventional musical instruments. Instead, the composer chose to write for pieces of crude metal pipes, grinders, and cracked bronze gongs. During the final recital at the then Indonesian Academy of Higher Arts in Denpasar (Sekolah Tinggi Seni Indonesia, Denpasar) spectators were somewhat shocked and almost terrorised by the deafening sound. Many audience members unfamiliar with this kind of ‘sonic emancipation’ from tradition covered their ears. Oddly enough I remember that some of Arsawijaya’s examiners requested ear protection devices but these were not permitted. After the performance, several examiners questioned whether or not Geräusch actually constituted a musical composition suitable for examination? Some audience members were surprised, angry and even considered my student’s composition blasphemous. As his supervisor, I felt worried but remembered John Blacking’s ‘music as organised sound’ so of course for me, it was music as a representation of the expression of an artist through the media of sound. At that moment I realised our gamelan community and most of its academic artists were not really prepared to accept a radical and somewhat extreme new music. Looking back on this event makes evident that intellectual idealism and sonic emancipation are part of a process where meanings about Balinese gamelan compositions must be contested, destructed and reconstructed from scratch (Tenzer, 2011). This type of sonic emancipation in gamelan composition also occurred after the performance of a new percussive creation called Candra Klang at the Gong Kebyar Festival at the 2007 Bali Arts Festival. Similar to my student’s composition using metal pipes, grinders, and cracked bronze gongs, Candra Klang challenged the aesthetic boundaries and audience expectations, including well-respected senior gamelan composers. At that time, the late maestro I Wayan Beratha made the comment, “apa ya gaena totonan jeg sing kena baan ningeh aji kuping ... cara dedaarane lalah bin misi pakeh sing nyidaang ben ngerasaang” (what in the world are they doing, this cannot be enjoyed by my ears … just like food that is both too spicy and salty cannot be tasted as delicious) (Sugiartha, 2012, p. 6). Beratha’s indigestible food analogy speaks to aesthetic gaps between generations. When listening to these expressions, Beratha and the general public often accuse contemporary gamelan composers of being selfish, egotistical and only seeking self-satisfaction. From this uninitiated perspective, when contemporary composition changes aesthetics, it seems to be exclusive, only understood by “insiders”, namely the experts in the field, the artists and their supporters (Harjana, 2003). Developing new aesthetics needs to be given a space for continually cultivating an appreciation for new ideas in order to make a connection between artist and audience. In this regard, Balinese composer’s innovative efforts in local and regional arts arenas must be reinforced and supported in order to accommodate their creative ideas. Balinese artists who have grand ideas should be able to implement them so that increasingly composers can renew audience’s interest in developing traditions at the regional, national and international levels. The basic properties of new music in both past and present contexts has not changed dramatically. It is only that innovation is actually needed as a means to question the past, push aside irrelevant and obsolete art forms, and make aesthetic space for itself. Forms of Innovation In Balinese society today there has been a noticeable shift in interpreting the aesthetic value of karawitan art forms. In the past, a well-composed karawitan composition earned notoriety if it was original, contained philosophical references, or used a high level of virtuosic skill judged primarily on musical phenomenon. Today, the aesthetic value is not just musical sounds pleasing to the ear, but draw from a cross-cultural musical language that contains a “clearly articulated ideology present in new musical arrangements” (Harjana, 2003; Sugiartha, 2012, p. 2). In this section, I review the importance composers place on technical ability, post-modern ideologies, the reassignment of instrumental functions within the gamelan orchestra, and the deconstruction of traditional structural concepts. Increasingly, contemporary Balinese composers have a strong practical ability as a drummer, melodic leader or orchestral director where technical capability becomes the foundation for crossing- Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(42-54) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 46 cultures. For example, I Wayan Sudirana’s Korean percussion fusion piece Jinggong from Gamelan Yuganada and I Made Sidia’s Dewi Sri – The Quest for Balance theatrical multimedia collaborations with Peter Wilson are examples of contemporary composer’s practical skills invested in cross-cultural resources. With these musical skills, Balinese composers are increasingly encountering concepts of modern and postmodern artforms that serve as rich resources for them to break traditional musical moulds. Although there are exceptions, most composers aspire to have their creative works be received and accepted by some real or virtual audience. I Gede Arya Sugiartha (2012) has elaborated at length on three ideological matters artists consider including dedication, self-actualisation, and commercialisation. These three ideologies draw on postmodern aesthetics’ close affiliation to “form follows meaning”, “form follows function”, and “form follows fun”. When “form follows meaning” in the world of traditional gamelan composition, historical and religious ideologies reflect royalty, the pantheon of Hindu deities, and society. When “form follows function” the composition fulfills an aesthetic function that is more personal, social, or commercial. But when the ideology leans toward “form follows fun” a self-indulgent aesthetic distorts the logic of the previous two ideologies. There is also the issue of theories about gamelan constructed external to tradition that prove to be too “rigid and incompatible” with the practical and fluid approaches Balinese composers use (Wakeling, 2010, p. 2). One of the most significant innovations in Balinese gamelan concerns the reassignment of instrumental functions within the gamelan orchestra. Traditionally, instrumental function has formed the basis for approaching music compositions. Hanging gongs were designated as punctuating colotomic markers, lower pitched single-octave metallophones provided nuclear melodies, and higher pitched multi-octave metallophones and kettle gongs were assigned elaborating melodies. Drummers played leadership roles within the orchestra. Today, however, instrumental functions are diverse and multiple, going beyond these traditional roles. In contemporary compositions all instruments have expanded functionality. These functionalities include supporting, leadership, elaborating, melodic, percussive roles. Assigning equally important status and a range of supporting and leadership functions to sections of the orchestra has led to new playing techniques such as double mallets, “dichord/trichord clusters, and alternative/juxtaposed voicing” (McGraw, 2009; Steele, 2013). Craft of composition includes the deconstruction of traditional structural concepts. Traditionally, gamelan compositions have been based upon the analogy of the human body as a framework for tripartite musical form. Balinese gamelan music is analogous to the non-material components of the human body including bayu (physical and spiritual energy), sabda (emotive utterances of sound), and idep (aesthetic taste/cognitive logic). There is also a correlation between the upper, middle and lower parts of the physical body called tri angga. According to the Hindu concept, the triangga superstructure is related to the cosmological orientation of vertical and horizontal lines forming the macrocosms (bhuawana agung) and microcosms (bhuwana alit). The triangga reference serves as a basis for the Balinese gamelan form called jajar pageh which basically consists of three musical composition sections called kawitan (head) pangawak (main body), and pangecet (feet). Extending the analogy to the “head” as the controlling component, the first section of a musical composition is similar to the brain. Therefore, the function and character of the kawitan “head” in music is to establish recognition and identification similar to the brain’s function in recognising people's faces and physical identities. Kawitan puts into operation, the functional organs or structural components of the body that constitute the second section of a composition called pangawak. In this way, the pangawak section in the analogy contains the vital organs of the human body (heart, liver, lungs, kidneys) which are mechanisms for the body to work as a whole. In this section music is arranged in accordance with orchestration methods such as patterning of melodic structures, and colotomic structures in a gong cycle which provide indicators of melodic form. The third and final section called pangecet is an inseparable part of the pangawak. It is a condensed form of the pangawak that determines the pathway towards the compositional climax (Asnawa, 2007, pp. 43-44). Just a generation ago, composers relied on this concept to frame their creative works. Today, contemporary composers replace the concept of triangga with fragmented and juxtaposed ordering of musical sections using the term sungsang (overturned, reversed, flipped). This deconstruction of traditional compositional concepts may be observed in other musical elements. For example, incorporating binary and odd meters, symmetrical and a-symmetrical melodic groupings; stepwise melodies paired against melodies with large intervallic leaps; or harmonious voicing that suddenly I Komang Sudirga 47 transitions to disruptive cacophony. That said, changes to instrument function and using the sungsang approach may not always be easily understood by lay audiences. A composer who deconstructs traditional compositional architecture risks having the roof collapse around him if both “text and context” are totally abandoned. Innovations should still have a musical sensibility, not simply incorporate any random change or modification. Instead, it is necessary to understand the text and context of the art form by building aesthetic innovation through renewal of tradition with experimentalism and fusion forms. Innovation in Artist’s Creative Work Giddens (2003) states that although there is a tendency to associate “globalisation” with Western domination in politics and power that weakens local cultures, it simultaneously makes local cultures painfully aware of the need to resurrect threatened cultural forms. It may be said that Bali is experiencing a “glocalisation process” where reassigning meaning to local cultural forms is necessary in the face of globalisation. Numerous cultural outputs including urban contemporary visual, plastic and sonic arts are responding to perceived threats from global cultural flows to ignite and encourage initiatives towards Ajeg Bali, a kind of Balinese revivalism (Hood, 2016). Ajeg Bali as a movement has been appropriated as part of a tourist centered promotional agenda picking up where “cultural tourism” or pariwisata budaya left off (Picard, 2008). However, there is also a grass roots movement (Bali kuat) that tends to strength social and cultural bonds and reaffirm Balinese identity in a sea of surging local identities in the nation (Kumbara, 2008). From this glocalisation paradigm Balinese artists think critically about creative innovation. There are several examples of Balinese art forms that were revitalised from the brink of extinction through reconstruction efforts. It is on this basis that although the gamelan tradition has been regarded as having a stable and healthy development, there is still a need for using radical approaches. As Wayan Dibia states: In general, artists in Bali do not allow their traditional arts to be frozen in time where every generation continually tries to innovate their art. Balinese artists are selective and incorporate new ideas into their inherited traditions because creativity is inherent in the art form. This turun-menurun process has the aim of breathing new life into the art and allowing the inheriting generation to create meanings within it. (Dibia, 1999, p.7) For Balinese people, traditional and modern art exist side by side. Both art forms occupy a myriad of contexts. Both are given spaces and places according to their form and function. Although the people of Bali are very fanatical with their art traditions they can receive and appreciate works that breathe new life into stagnant forms. New Composers, New Gamelan In the following section, I present the innovations and achievements of six accomplished contemporary Balinese composers. I have made my selection based on what each composer brings to the discussion of innovation approaches to composition. In this way I hope to evidence the range of approaches from grassroots forms of reinventing tradition to radical departures from gamelan forms, tunings and instrumentation. As Peter Steele writes of hybrids and fusions in Balinese music, “ … Balinese fusion musics occupy multiple transcultural spaces … as a formerly local art form transposed beyond place into a transnational multitude of artistic memes” (2013, p. 1). For this article on innovations in Balinese gamelan, I sat down with my composer colleague and friend, I Wayan Sudiarsa whose nickname is “Pacet”. As a “community composer”, Pacet is heavily involved with local artforms and he gestures out beyond to the transnational to enrich the local artistry around him. He attributes his innovations to two general categories: environmental themes and social impact. He also utilises a three-part strategy which includes his approach to developing tradition, hybridising tradition and composing in a non-traditional style. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(42-54) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 48 Instrumental Music Dance Compositions Innovation Concepts Source of Inspiration Sir Selisir Sekar Gayot Gairah Busa Manik Pering Solah Jangkrik Ngapat Cita Ulangun Develop from Tradition Banyuling Murda Langon Social Impact Memargi 1 and 2 Janger Ngapat Hybridising Tradition Gita Salsa Songket Wali Environmental Themes Hredaya Poleng Kesiman Non-Traditional Tetamanan Pertiwi Jati Renggong Manis Legu Gondong Sanghyang Sekar Patemon Truna Daha Gelung Agung Legong Jaya Baya Meong-meong Murtining Panji Pulsinoge Figure 1. Social impact and environmental themes as sources of inspiration for innovative concepts guiding the repertoire of I Wayan Sudiarsa (Pacet). Pacet is one of the principal leaders of Suling Gita Semara Gamelan Studio based in the village of Peliatan, just south of the tourist centre of Ubud. There are 35 active members of the Gamelan Gita Semara Studio. Pacet’s initial capital investment of Rp 50,000,000 (approximately USD$3,500.00) has allowed the group to maintain a schedule of monthly performances generating a modest income from wedding receptions, cultural events, religious ceremonies, festivals and tourist shows. The group charges a fee of between Rp 5 to 7 million (USD$350-500) for music and dance performances. Pacet has been actively composing musical works since 2004. He is well versed in composing for instrumental and dance compositions. The instrumental music he has composed for the gamelan gong suling includes such works as Sir Selisir, Sekar Gayot, Manik Pering, Ngapat where he combines the traditions of three types of vocal-based music including janger, the ritual chant called kecak and acapella folk music called genjek (Figure 1). He uses three principal innovation concepts: 1) develop from tradition; 2) hybridise tradition; and 3) non-traditional. The titles of his works include Tabuh Banyuling, Memargi 1, Memargi 2, Gita Salsa, Hredaya, Giri Putri, Tetamanan, Renggong Manis, and Sanghyang Sekar. An example of “non-traditional” innovations include Gelung Agung, Meong-meong and Pulsinoge, a suite of collaboration pieces between gamelan music and Western music. Pacet collaborated with Jakarta-based jazz producer and composer, Indra Lesmana and they have played together on several occasions including the Sanur Mostly Jazz Festival at the Griya Santrian Hostel on Sanur Beach in 2017. In Figure 1 in the second column are examples of Pacet’s creative innovations for dance. These include such works as Murtining Panji dedicated to the 2nd Anniversary of ARMA Museum in 2017 and Gairah Busa in support of the final examination of Institut Seni Indonesia - Denpasar students on behalf of Ary Sintya Dewi from Sibang - Badung. Unlike his contemporaries who have achieved commercial recording contracts, collaborations with prestigious international universities, and generous government grants, Pacet thrives at the level of inter-group community networking. As a grassroots composer, his creative output may be viewed on social media and YouTube clips. The following is a partial listing of video recordings of innovative gamelan compositions by I Wayan Sudiarsa (Pacet): 1. Sekar Gayot https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YLJIiw7-Abc 2. Tetamanan https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qQa_qYjF368 I Komang Sudirga 49 3. Janger Ngapat https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VqNvvt6NgPY&list=RDIkVkoPJNIsA&index=5 4. Oyod-Oyod https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dBGl2vPOkJo 5. Ngapat https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkVkoPJNIsA Inspiration for innovation in Pacet’s compositions is attributed to two general categories: environmental themes and social impact (Figure 1). Besides actively working in his own studio, Pacet accepts commissions from other regencies in Bali such as Karangasem regency, particularly if the commission connects to the environment and has a social impact. As an example he composed Cricket Cage (Sangkang Jangkrik) dance music inspired by the dry season hobby of fighting crickets. This commission was for the Children’s Kebyar Gong Ambassador competition from Karangsem in Rendang District in 2014 and helped with competitions, socialising, and education about the environment for children. Pacet feels that innovating with social impact in mind is critical for composers who care about passing down gamelan to subsequent generations. As mentioned above, Pacet’s approach to innovation utilises a three-part strategy which includes: 1) development of tradition; 2) hybridising tradition; and 3) non-tradition. He strives to make technical innovations by developing orchestration without drastically compromising aesthetic identity. He does this by relying on the method of reinterpretation rather than revolution. For example, rather than abandoning kotekan altogether, he chooses to reinterpret traditional interlocking melodic figuration patterns called ubit-ubitan and reapply them in new orchestrations with new instruments. That said, he is not a traditionalist who shies away from more radical ideas in gamelan. He does enjoy displacing patterns of predictable colotomic markers such gongs, and writing challenging drum patterns that depart from tradition. Pacet’s thematic approach to the creative process includes social impact and the natural environment. Most ideas or inspirations for Pacet arise from needs of the social circumstances that contextualise the performance of his pieces. He considers how the process of composition may have an impact on the people who inspire him to write in the first place. He asks himself, “who am I composing for?” His creative process begins with reflecting upon the needs of his audience so that his composition has social impact and engagement, rather than just being self-consumed with his own egotistical intellectualism. Supporting understanding his audience who supports him is critical to his innovation process. His ideas and concepts developed in tandem with the composition’s social context will greatly affect the presentation of the work. As a creative and productive artist, Pacet is very concerned about nurturing the younger generation with a spirit of devotion. In addition to actively fostering and creating works in several other arts organisations, to this day he also remains dedicated to fostering the younger generation in his village. Through his studio, he mentors four different groups fostering their growth and development without compensation. He donates his time because taking action, rather than just using words about making changes is important to him. Many composers isolate themselves away from the very communities from which they came. For Pacet, taking the time out of his schedule to foster elementary, junior high, and high school students, and a group of young women from junior and senior high school students in the village of Peliatan is like planting seeds in the soil from where he grew. He can harvest ideas for his own compositions, not just by mimicking international trends, but by simply giving back locally to his community and paying attention to the environment around him. The next innovative composer is one of Bali’s most accomplished kebyar innovators, I Nyoman Windha. Windha’s approach to innovative music involves several elements including geographic setting, group musicianship, notation, melodic finalis and variations. The conceptual innovations of Balinese composer, I Nyoman Windha, clearly reflect the geographical setting of where he is composing. Often the location and setting inspires the title of his work and he may draw from local instruments such as rebana frame drums from Sumatra or erhu bowed lute from China. Innovation for him involves referencing geo-cultural aspects of where he is composing. Another approach to innovating involves evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of a group in terms of musicianship, and Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(42-54) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 50 how best to compose for them. For example, Windha may compose special techniques for a gamelan group who have a talented quartet of reyong kettlegong musicians. Notation also becomes a crucial step in stages of his compositions, particularly with regards to melody. By first notating a melodic idea and arranging it for various instruments such as reyong kettlegongs, kendang drums or gangsa metallophones, his initial concept can expand and develop to the instruments in the gamelan. This melodic concept will coalesce through his feeling and taste for where the large gong should fall. In other words, the musical taste and rhythmic emphasis is dramatically shaped according to when and where he feels the need to place the strike of the large gong. The gong as finalis is part of the heritage of gamelan and often determines the ending, and simultaneously the beginning of a cycle in gamelan music. Based on this melodic concept, he then chooses innovative techniques for interlocking melodic parts called kotekan. Melodic variations to complement his principal melody help accentuate polyrhythms so that heterophony occurs. Windha’s use of notation in contemporary and heritage practices shows that, “aural tradition brings music notation to life and aural tradition dominates the heritage ensembles and musical landscape in Southeast Asia” (Hood, 2016, p. 54). As an innovative composer, Windha has earned the reputation of being able to establish new concept and approaches in contemporary gamelan compositions without a total departure from gamelan tradition. Not only does he maintain traditional standards towards a sustainable form (Hood, 2017), he serves as a cutting-edge leader in the innovations of his tradition (Mack, 2001, p. 141). The strength of the melody in the works of I Nyoman Windha was also recognised by Dieter Mack when collaborating on the work of Catur Yuga from his interview. Windha admits that all of his compositions come from melody and never exclusively from abstract rhythms. The tune carries all because “within it can be felt all the other aspects of music such as rhythm and dynamics” (Mack, 2001, p. 139). I turn now to a longtime friend and colleague of mine who lives in the same village as me, the village of Singapadu just south of Ubud. I spoke with composer I Wayan Darya from the Kebon community ward of Singapadu village about the innovations that led to the creating of a new gamelan. In the interview in January 2017, Darya mentioned that the new gamelan was created in 1996 and was called Gong Gede Saih Pitu. He stated that it was based on the classic court ensemble called gong gede that features single-octave resting keyed metallophones. However, he only got the idea after collaborating with a dancer named Guruh Soekarnoputra. “At that time I was working on a composition at Sanggar Putri Balerung Peliatan Ubud. The movements of the dancers and the storyline had the feeling of the classic gong gede, but I thought why not expand the instruments to the seven-tone scale” (Darya, personal communication, November 22, 2017). Darya continued that a few months later there was a temple ceremony at his own village ward of Banjar Kebon, Singapadu. He discussed the idea to build an entirely new ensemble based on his experience with Soekarnoputra a few months earlier. Darya proposed the idea to make funds available in order to buy a Gamelan Gong Gede Saih Pitu. When the idea was spontaneously agreed the next day Darya ordered the new orchestra from the gamelan maker Mangku Pande Pager from Blahbatuh Village. Darya says that all the repertoires produced on the Gong Gede Saih Pitu are all new, both in form and in musical language. This is to ensure that the new ensemble’s form is capable of producing a repertoire that is unique in style and instrumentation (Darya, personal communication, February 13, 2017). The repertoire created to date includes: Hit Lulut, Asep Cina, Tabuh Dua Galang Bulan, Kembang Rampe, and Gegilakan performed by the group called Sekaa Gong Taruna Mekar from the Kebon community. Another innovation in gamelan composition is the diatonically tuned seven-tone Semar Pagulingan of Bona Alit created in 1993. Because of the diatonic tuning, Bona Alit has collaborated with other ethnic and world music instruments including the concert harp, Sundanese drums, Chinese erhu, Indian sitar, bass guitar, drum set and electronic keyboards. Since being established in 1993, Bona Alit art studio has produced a number of nuanced Balinese-Chinese/pan-Asian collaborations. These works include Zhen-zhen, Kang Ching Wie, Okinawa, Ngempu, Tegeh Ngolet, Wana Lara, Perahu Bencah, Kaja-kaja and Plasma O. His compositions produce musical shades and an atmosphere of peace, tranquility that are very pleasing to the ear. Even though Bona Alit incorporates these instruments into new arrangements, he still uses traditional Balinese gamelan motives as musical identity markers within his music. I Komang Sudirga 51 Figure 2. Composer I Made Subandi’s composition ‘Bubuang’ as an example of his departures from existing styles to form ‘radical traditional music’. One gamelan innovator who adheres to new forms and functions is self-proclaimed radical composer I Made Subandi (Figure 2). In contrast to Bona Alit, Subandi's innovations are much more courageous by reinterpreting and giving new meaning to a deeply religious ensemble made of iron keys called selonding. He also frequently incorporates percussion instruments from Cambodia, Indian tabla, gong chimes from China among others. Through his group called Sanggar Ceraken he has produced a contemporary creative album called Semar Pagulingan Selonding. In fact, he labeled his work with the nickname “radical traditional music”. Subandi’s innovations are more courageous in deviating from existing patterns, styles and techniques. Other repertoire he has composed in this style includes Kupu- Kupu Kuning, Blatuk Ngukul, AUM, Babuang, and Bibit (Subandi, personal communication, February 17, 2017). The last composer I would like to discuss in this article is Dewa Ketut Alit from the village of Pengosekan-Ubud. He was born in 1973 in Pengosekan village in Bali. He has been surrounded by gamelan from childhood and his father, Dewa Nyoman Sura was very influential as his teacher during his early years. For his innovations, he engaged several gongsmiths to forge his own version of a seven- tone ensemble he named Salukat. Born into a family of musical artists, his intuition, personal sensitivity to sound and subsequent artistic innovations has earned him respect and admiration from his peers. With as much experience teaching, traveling and collaborating internationally as he has in Bali locally, he is regarded as a visionary for continually testing the boundaries of gamelan music. For the past 20 years Alit has been thinking about what new directions music will go and how these trends will manifest and be received. Armed with the sharpness of his intuition and his creative imagination combined with excellent technical ability, he has honed his skills in composition (Figure 3). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(42-54) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 52 Figure 3. Composer Dewa Ketut Alit’s referencing to the evolution of seven-tone music through his design and development of his own gamelan called Salukat. Dewa Alit has developed his own “school of thought” in the field of gamelan. He did this by custom making and designing his own gamelan in 2007. The gamelan is called Salukat. The term salukat consists of the words salu and kat. Salu which means home, a common place, a place to depart from and return to in order to obtain peace of mind. Kat may be interpreted as a regeneration, a life cycle, that acknowledges the immutable position of living beings who are born, live, grow old and eventually die. But with this cycle is also rebirth into new forms. In my interviews with Dewa Alit he proclaimed that gamelan Salukat was a medium to lift local cultural wisdom up to be reborn with each generation. However, Dewa Alit is well aware that the general expectations of the public are not entirely satisfied with his compositions. Dewa Alit says that, “I am not here to spoil the eyes and ears of just a local Balinese audience but rather I strive to produce innovative works with the values of local wisdom that meet the expectations of a global audience” (personal communication, February 12, 2017). The titles of his compositions including Ngelanglang Ke Lelangu (2008), Murwa Daksina (2008), Salugambuh (2009) reflect Dewa Alit’s love of nature and his homeland of Bali. In addition, his related works composed overseas such as Snow (snow), Aes (ice), and Universe (2009) show a strong connection for nature and the environment. The contestation of energy between opposing binaries is manifest in the sacred-profane, tradition versus modern themes represented in his work di Persimpangan Jalan (confused). Although known for his instrumental works, a selection of one of Dewa Alit’s poems portrays the strength of local knowledge which comes from the teachings of religion about life cycles. The poem conveys a very deep, contemplative impression: I Komang Sudirga 53 Seconds, seconds, seconds, per second ... creeping in all directions of energy space, the vast expanse of Mother Earth, coupled with the of the sun, energy, thought and action bound with the good, bad, servants and kings, The earth rotates all the time, man is born alive and dead, take care of this planet!!! My earth, your earth, our earth is truth (poem by Dewa Alit) Textually this poem may be interpreted to mean that no one has the power to stop the movement of time. Harmony in life involves the rotation of the earth and sun. Birth, life, and death will reincarnate all the time. Therefore, Dewa Alit reminds us to protect our planet that gives all of us blessings. In many ways, the innovative gamelan Salukat is a representation of the reincarnation of previous music that is now incarnated with a new face and character. It proceeds, it lives, it grows in time and space that is always moving rapidly and dynamically. There has been a rise in Balinese artistic innovations in performing arts generally and composition specifically. Composers increasingly engage with critical discourses. These critical discourses include issues as social disharmony, damage to the environment, democratisation, and actualizing values of local wisdom as seen in Dewa Alit’s music. These innovators seem to consciously resist homogenisation by raising issues of diversity and pluralism. Kumbara (2008, p. 201) states that globalisation not only pulls at that which causes homogenisation, but also pushes downward, exerting new pressures on local autonomy to give rise to new movements. Even when a local society fails in global competition it will return to its local tradition to serve as a means of struggle or uncompromising legitimacy through various pressures (Kumbara, 2004, p. 229). When globalisation tends to make culture homogeneous, it also encourages the desire of composers to come up with their own innovative ways to express themselves. Conclusion This article has examined innovative composers from Bali who are challenging tradition and producing new ensembles and art forms. Traditional frameworks combined with multi-cultural instruments and approaches from China, Korea, Western classical and popular music constitute cultural matrices that provide intersecting reference points for composers to source inspiration. Dramatically shaping and influencing not only melodies and rhythms, these changing local and cross-cultural matrices influence innovations in tuning and instrumentation as seen in the works of Darya and his Gong Gede Saih Pitu. The innovative approaches of Bona Alit and Subandi saw new compositions with Chinese and Japanese concepts further qualified by the individual creative process. These types of experiments have often been criticized by outsiders as inferior forms of composition rather than “authentic expressions in and of themselves” (McGraw, 2009, p. 129). However, composers like Dewa Alit who have traveled and studied abroad have returned to Bali to problematise the “inward versus outward” dichotomy in the development of Balinese performing arts. The frequency of ritual activities in Bali and art performances at both cultural events and art festivals provides fertile opportunities for the creative ideas of artists to respond to the aesthetic needs of a rapidly modernising society. Conversely, this condition also provides opportunities for the enjoyment and appreciation of art. In the development of contemporary gamelan, Bali’s displays of aesthetic change are based on a myriad of changing views on Hinduism where multi-cultural influences increasingly seep in through global flows (Bandem, 2013). These critical discourses include issues as social disharmony, damage to the environment, democratisation, and actualising values of local wisdom as seen in Dewa Alit’s music. These innovators seem to consciously resist homogenisation by raising issues of diversity and pluralism. Pacet’s thematic approach to the creative process uses these global forms to make social impact and educate about the natural environment. His ideas arise from the needs and social circumstances of Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(42-54) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 54 his community who contextualise music. Windha establishes new concepts and approaches in contemporary gamelan compositions without a total departure from gamelan tradition. Not only does his legacy stand for the maintenance of kebyar, he stood proudly as a cutting-edge leader breaking molds and revolutionising the genre. These advances in musical language speak to innovations in gamelan and serve as benchmarks that demarcate spaces within a composer’s pallet of expression while simultaneously assessing the boundaries of changing traditions. References Asnawa, I. K. G. (2007). Khebinekaan dan kompleksitas Gamelan Bali. Bheri Jurnal Ilmiah Musik Nusantara, 6(1), 42-58. Bandem, I. M. (2013). Balinese gamelan on the stage of history. STIKOM Bali Press. Brinner, B. (1995). Cultural matrices and the shaping of innovation in central Javanese performing arts. Ethnomusicology, 39(3), 433-456. Dibia, I. W. (1999). Art between tradition and modernization. Inaugural Professorial Address, Sekolah Tinggi Seni Indonesia Denpasar, May 1, 1999. Giddens, A. (2003). Runaway world: How globalization is shaping our lives. Taylor & Francis Press. Harjana, S. (2003). Corat-coret: Music kontemporer dulu dan kini. Ford Foundation and Masyarakat Seni Pertunjukan Indonesia. Hobsbawm, E. and Ranger, T. (1983). The invention of tradition. Cambridge University Press. Hood, M. M. (2016). Notating heritage musics: Preservation and practice in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. Malaysian Music Journal, 5(1), 53-73. Hood, M. M. (2017). Recultivating local as a sustainable approach to the Bali arts festival. In P. Matusky and W. Quintero (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th Symposium: The ICTM Study Group on Performing Arts of Southeast Asia (pp. 73-76). School of Arts, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Kumbara, A. (2004). Ethnicity and the rebirth of the political flow of the reform era of theoretical perspective. In I.W. Ardika and N.D. Putra (Eds.), Cultural politics and ethnic identity. (pp. 22-45). Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Udayana dan Balimangsi Press. Kumbara, A. (2008). Ajeg Bali in the whirlwind flow of globalization of epistemological criticism. In Ardika, I. W. and Putra, N. D. (Eds.), The social dynamics of the Balinese society. (pp. 12-32). Lindsay, J. (1991). Classical, kitch, contemporary: A study of Javanese performing arts. UGM Press. Mack, D. (2001). Contemporary mosaics and intercultural issues. Artiline Press. McGraw, A. (2009). Radical tradition: Balinese musik kontemporer. Ethnomusicology, 53(1), 115-141. Picard, M. (2008). Balinese identity as tourist attraction: From ‘cultural tourism’ (pariwisata budaya) to ‘Bali erect’ (ajeg Bali). Tourist Studies, 8(2), 155-173. Riandi, O. (2016). Pentingnya invensi dan inovasi bagi kemajuan bangsa. [Paper presentation]. Peningkatan Sumber Daya Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Pendidikan. Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Udayana dan Balimangsi Press. Steele, P. M. (2013). Balinese hybridities: Balinese music as global phenomena (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Wesleyan University Press. Sugiartha, I. G. A. (2012). Balinese music creativity and new compositions: Perspectives on cultural studies. UPT Press. Tenzer, M. (2000). Gamelan gong kebyar: The art of twentieth-century Balinese music. University of Chicago Press. Tenzer, M. (2011). One fusion among many: Merging Bali, India and the West through modernism. Circuit: musiques contemporaines, 21(2), 77-100. Wakeling, K. E. (2010). Representing Balinese music: A study of the practice and theorization of Balinese gamelan [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. SOAS, University of London. Biography I Komang Sudirga is a lecturer at the Faculty of Performing Arts at the Indonesian Institute of Arts Denpasar in Bali, Indonesia. He is also the current dean of this faculty. I Komang has a master’s degree from Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta (1998-2001) and a doctoral degree in Cultural Studies from Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali (2008-2012). After completing his studies, I Komang led several research projects as principal investigator and continued to perform as an active arts practitioner. I Komang has presented papers at international conferences and performed at several countries including Sweden (1991), Spain (1992), Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Finland (1995), Thailand (1996), Japan (1997, 2004), India (1998), Maldives (2007), Cambodia (2007), and France (2008).

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

composition, contemporary music, futurism, percussion, sound poetry

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3814

Zaum Box: New Music for Speaking Percussionist

is a collection of compositions for solo speaking percussionist setting transrational Russian futurist sound poetry called

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3814/2567

Christopher Adler 55 Zaum Box: New Music for Speaking Percussionist Christopher Adler Department of Music, University of San Diego 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, CA 92120 USA e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 22 September 2020 Cite this article (APA): Adler, C. (2020). Zaum Box: New music for speaking percussionist. Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 55-65. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.5.2020 Abstract Zaum Box is a collection of compositions for solo speaking percussionist setting transrational Russian futurist sound poetry called zaum. Zaum arose among a small interdisciplinary group of artists, writers, musicians and thinkers who invented a beyond-rational language as part of the radical disruption of traditional artistic and expressive forms, necessary to bring about the accelerated experience of a technologically-driven future. The subgenre of contemporary concert music for solo speaking instrumentalist dates from the 1970’s and has grown into a significant branch of the solo percussion repertoire. The composition of Zaum Box was founded on an extended period of research into zaum, futurism and Russian language. The complete set of compositions was produced as a limited-edition box set of uniquely formatted scores, which were realised by percussionist Katelyn Rose King in a set of ten videos. This article by the composer reviews all the phases of this project, including research and production, and examines the relationships between text, sound, music and theatricality in selected scores. Keywords: composition, contemporary music, futurism, percussion, sound poetry Introduction Zaum Box is a collection of ten compositions for solo speaking percussionist commissioned by Katelyn Rose King and Alexv Rolfe, and composed by the author in 2015–16. Each composition may be performed singly, or any number of the compositions may be selected and performed as a set. This open-ended form was inspired by the Fluxkits of Fluxus artists, whimsical collections of objects presented as a boxed collection that facilitate the investigation of primary experience by the user who is invited to engage in a form of play (Higgins, 2002). The activation of the viewer of art as an engaged participant in the construction of experience, as posited by conceptual, event, and minimalist artists in the 1960’s, here informs the relationship between composer, score and performer. The performer playing the work is engaged as an active participant in constructing a playful presentation, in concert performance or media representation, through the selection of movements and the manner of their presentation, through the interpretation of indeterminate aspects within each of the compositions, and through the potential theatricality of their realisation. Research is a foundation of my compositional practice. This includes an ongoing study of the musical traditions of Thailand and Laos that has led to many cross-cultural compositions for Asian and Western instruments (Adler, 2007), and research into fractal mathematics and algorithmic composition (Adler, 2012). Zaum Box arose from open-ended research into Russian futurist art which has also inspired my works Violin Concerto (2013), Construct: for organ (2016) and Sensations of Metals (Dynamic Construction after Kazimir Malevich) (2019). It was in the course of this research that I Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(55-64) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 56 learned of a branch of Russian futurist poetry called zaum, dating from 1913-1923, which explored a realm beyond conventional language. When I was commissioned to write a piece for speaking percussionist, where the performer reads a text while performing on their instrument, the zaum texts struck me as ideal. The ethos of futurism was already appealing to me, and the fact that they texts were largely nonsense, that is without a clear meaning or interpretation, made them a kind of sound poetry more akin to musical sound than to semantic poetry. Research into zaum, Russian futurism, and Russian language, then, became a foundation for and ongoing inspiration behind a three-year project which included the selection of specific texts, composition of music, preparation of scores including images of the original texts, manufacturing a limited-edition box set of scores along with supporting materials such as a guide to pronunciation, and finally the realisation of the ten compositions as videos to be publicly released.1 Zaum and Russian Futurism Each composition in Zaum Box is a setting of Russian futurist transrational poetry, called zaum (заумь). The term, coined by Aleksei Kruchenykh, described the radical linguistic experiments of futurist poets, artists and playwrights between 1913 and 1923. It is formed from two words: za-, meaning ‘beyond’, and -um, meaning ‘mind’ or ‘intellect’. Zaum included word combinations beyond syntactical sense, invented words, the fragmentation of words into phonemes, and the obliteration of written language into abstract visual forms. This extraordinary evolution of poetry into visual and sonic abstraction took place over just a few years and was an early literary manifestation of the revolutionary shift from rational representation to the indeterminacy of subjective perception expressed by cubism and by subsequent artistic movements of the twentieth century. It is evidence of the radical investigation and rejection of conventions practiced by the Russian futurists. Zaum was born among a tight community of futurists in Moscow, that came to be known as the cubo-futurists, including writers Aleksei Kruchenykh, Velimir Khlebnikov, Elena Guro, Vasily Kamensky, Igor Terentev, Vladimir Mayakovsky and David Burliuk, artists Olga Rozanova, Varvara Stepanova, Alexsandr Rodchenko, Kazimir Malevich and Vladimir Burliuk, and composer Mikhail Matyushin. The multi-disciplinary nature of this movement fuelled its radical aesthetic and repertoire of techniques, as poets, for example, envisioned disrupting language with the same techniques that futurist painters applied to representational images. And it led to collaborative book art taking particular prominence in the movement, in which painting and drawing, poetry, discourse, and even found object collage merged into creative product (Perloff, 2016). Hastily produced short-run manuscript booklets elucidated the futurist aesthetics of speed, dynamism, immediacy and ephemerality. These are evident in this fragmented and breathless excerpt from the 1913 manifesto The Word as Such (Kruchenykh & Khlebnikov, 1988, p. 57), which also illustrates that the group of radicals was very attentive to defining its own membership: 1. that it be written and perceived in the twinkling of an eye! (singing splashing dancing, scattering of clumsy constructions, oblivion, unlearning. V. Khlebnikov, A. Kruchenykh, E. Guro; in painting, V. Burliuk and O. Rozanova). 2. that it be written tightly and read tightly, more uncomfortable than blacked boots or a truck in the living room (plenty of knotted ties and buttonholes and patches, a splintery texture, very rough. In poetry, D. Burliuk, V. Mayakovsky, N. Burliuk, and B. Livshits; in painting, D. Burliuk, K. Malevich.)2 Kruchenykh moved to Tiflis (Tbilisi, Georgia) in 1917, during the Russian revolution, and with him moved the centre of gravity of the movement. He joined with others there in the avant-garde including Ilya Zdanevich. By the early 1920’s, the movement became reflective, focused on theorisation, and thereafter faded with the rise of politically-oriented movements such as constructivism and the newly-established Soviet Union (Janecek, 1996). The first pure zaum poem, containing no intact Russian words, was Dyr bul shchyl, by Aleksei Kruchenykh, published in Pomada in 1913. Zaum was driven by the futurist fascination with speed and dynamism, and the belief that ordinary language could not keep up with the mind in a state of Christopher Adler 57 inspiration. Kruchenykh imagined the nonsense words as having a meaning that was hot and fluid, in contrast to the frozen, fixed meanings that shackled the expressive capability of rational language (Janecek, 1996). His poetry of sound forms explored the raw material of vocal sound while retaining the ability to disrupt perception through the tenuous associations of invented word-forms with existing words. Even within this single early example, the trajectory towards abstraction is apparent as nonsense words dissolve into individual sounds in a persistent triple rhythm. Дир бул щыл Dyr bul shchyl убешщур ubesh-shchur скум skum вы со бу vi so bu р л эз r l ez Zaum also appeared as a visual art, in paintings on found material by Varvara Stepanova and in paintings by Olga Rozanova. It was also expressed in bold typographical experiments by Vasily Kamensky (Tango with Cows, 1914) and Ilya Zdanevich (Lidantiu as Beacon, 1923). These experiments prefigured the creative typography in constructivist art and design of the 1920’s. In addition, zaum was incorporated into full theatrical productions combining zaum texts, futurist costumes and staging, and music, such as Victory Over the Sun, produced in 1913, with libretto by Kruchenykh, music by Matyushin, prologue by Khlebnikov, and stage design by Malevich. It was Aleksei Kruchenykh who led a dissolution of poetry into visual abstraction, as in Learn, Artists!, from 1917, in which individual letters take on the quality of rayonist or cubist forms and there is no conventional, linear approach to reading or sounding out the poetry (see Figure 5). The pages of F/Nagt, published in 1918, alternate between fragments of handwritten zaum enmeshed in visual constructions, and completely abstract forms expressive of futurist dynamism. The Russian cubo-futurists were indebted to the Italian futurists for cultivating the ambition to capture by expressive means the dynamism and intensity of a rapidly technologising cultural present, and for staking theoretical positions in the form of manifestos, but they did not share Filippo Tommaso Marinetti’s obsession with war and violence, and came to regard their own project as more advanced (Harte, 2009). The cubo-futurists sought to shatter the conventions of expressive language and art to enable humans to imagine a transformed world, and for they themselves to be transformed. It was this utopian vision of a human transformation that was taken up by the left and ultimately co-opted by totalitarian political programs (Groys, 2011). Zaum also had affinities with Dada, in the immediacy and automatism of nonsense writing, in the use of creative typography and visual design, and in a fascination with the primitive. While Dada looked to Africa (Burmesier et al., 2016), the Russian futurists looked to the ethnic tribes and diverse languages within the Russian empire. It was, in part, this nationalist sensibility that later motivated the rejection of zaum and Russian futurism as unsuited to establishment of an international proletarian political movement in post-revolutionary Russia (Janecek, 1996). Music for Speaking Percussionist In the 1970’s, a subgenre of contemporary Western concert music emerged of works for solo instrumentalists who speak texts as they perform, combining poetry or storytelling with music. Throughout the 20th century, the rapid development of new musical ideas and styles was accompanied by an intensification of virtuosity demanded of performers. The combination of spoken text with instrumental performance was an innovative new form of virtuosity beyond conventional instrumental technique, and called for the performer to attend to two, somewhat distinct streams of activity, and ensure that both are realised with a suitable level of craft and artistry. One of the first such works is Failing (1975), by Tom Johnson, for contrabass, in which the spoken text explicitly discusses the impossibility of maintaining both speech and music as the piece becomes increasingly difficult. Another early work, Toucher (1973), by Vinko Globokar, for percussion, examines the relationship between voice and instrument by structuring the percussion part as a realisation or sonification of the spoken text with identical rhythm performed in unison. The performer is called upon to select instruments that will imitate the timbres of the vocal sounds as realised by the performer (Schick, 2006). Georges Aperghis composed multiple works for speaking percussionist in the 1970’s Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(55-64) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 58 including Le Corps à Corps (1978) and Graffitis (1980). In these works, playing and vocalising are integrated into a theatrical experience in which the performer is emotionally and physically involved, and speech and vocalisations are delivered with an exaggerated theatricality. Also in a theatrical vein, Hans Werner Henze’s Prison Song (1971) presents the percussionist trapped within a prison of percussion surrounding them on all sides. In the 1980’s, the subgenre of compositions for solo speaking percussionist grew rapidly. American composer Stuart Saunders Smith composed a number of pieces that make specific theatrical demands upon the performer, including physical movements and conveying specific emotional characters while speaking and performing on instruments. The texts include a mixture of language and nonsense vocal sounds. These include Songs I-IX (1980-82), By Language Embellished, I (1984), “...And Points North” (1987-90), and Tunnels (1988). Frederic Rzewski’s To the Earth (1985) is a Homeric poem accompanied by earthen flowerpots played with the fingertips. This work has been especially successful among percussionists and audiences owing to an ecological sensibility expressed in both the text and the instrument selection, and the accessible, everyday origin of the percussion instruments (Schick, 2006). Other notable works from this decade include Lost and Found (1985) by Frederic Rzewski, and Riuti: Rödungen und Wüstungen (1981), by Walter Zimmermann. An extensive list of more recent works may be found in Whiting Smith (2012). Since then, the repertoire for solo speaking percussionist in particular has grown, much more so than for any other instrument. Because percussion music within the Western concert tradition is phenomenon of the modern era (the first work for concert percussion alone was Ionisation (1930), by Edgard Varèse), the ethos of percussionists in general has been to emphasise contemporary repertoire. And percussionists, by nature, are not specialists on an instrument but called upon to perform music on an endless variety of objects, from drums, bells, metals, wooden blocks, and keyboard-type instruments from cultures all around the world, to found objects that were not intended as instruments at all. The incorporation of voice, then, may be just one more sound-making object to be incorporated into the percussion instrumentarium. Percussionist Bonnie Whiting Smith (2012) further explores the resonances between percussion playing and vocalisation. There is a parallel between the simple and self-evident method of percussion sound production, “you hit something and then it speaks”, and the universality of vocal communication (p. 7). What’s more, she states, “percussion instruments are set pieces and props: visual and theatrical elements as well as musical elements,” (p. 11), so there is a resonance between the storytelling implicit in delivering a spoken text and the theatrical physicality of percussion performance. Finally, also, the tremendous variety of sound-making devices available to percussionists makes possible the direct realisation of parallels between instrumental sound and the timbres and rhythms of speech. Composing Zaum Box I approached the composition of Zaum Box as an imaginative inhabiting of the frenetic joy, passion and optimism of the brief utopian moment of the Russian cubo-futurists, before the Russian artistic avant- garde was subsumed by a political imperative. It would be an effort to intersect my prior compositional practice and musical language with a playful, spontaneous approach drawing on zaum, constructivist visual design, and an openness to theatrical realisation facilitated by indeterminacies in instrumentation and the manner of vocal recitation. While no physical motions other than those required to produce sounds are specified in the score, as they are in more overtly theatrical works such as those by George Aperghis, the player is encouraged to incorporate theatrical interpretations. In fact, Katelyn Rose King’s method of interpreting the works involved inventing a character that she would portray with each work and imagining how that character would inform her playing style, instrument selections, vocal quality, her motion and facial expressions, and her overall demeanour. In some works, the musical content suggests characterisations, such as Ta sa maye, in which the petals of a flower are plucked (in the manner of the children’s game of ‘she loves me, she loves me not’) as the poem is recited. But in most of the works, developing a characterization is left entirely to the performer. Some compositions in Zaum Box explore humour and unconventional or awkward sound sources. Dyr bul shchyl is performed with wire brushes waved vigorously in the air and only sometimes striking an unspecified object selected by the performer. While the use of brushes suggests snare drum Christopher Adler 59 as a natural choice of instrument, the premiere was performed by Alexv Rolfe on a watermelon. In Kho bo ro, a study in dynamism and trajectory (Figure 1), harmonies generated by a process of permutation over a two-octave pitch space are played as loudly as possible on crotales with wire brushes—entirely the wrong implement for playing loudly—obscuring those carefully crafted pitch structures to an absurd degree and calling for wildly exaggerated body movements. This work also illustrates the playfulness of the design of the scores, and the manner in which the visual appearance of the original poem informed both the music but the visual design of the score. The original poem, written as a column penetrated by abstract geometric forms suggestive of dynamic motion, is reproduced in the upper left of the one-page score. (Each of the scores in Zaum Box includes a reproduction of the original poetry and a transliteration into English, although not always on the same page as the music). The abstract forms in the poem inspire the angular layout of the two score systems, while dynamics in the voice part are indicated by the size of the printed text rather than with conventional dynamic symbols (such as p or f). In this short work, a persistent deceleration in the vocal part is juxtaposed against an instrument line which decelerates and then symmetrically accelerates. Figure 1. Kho bo ro, from Zaum Box, with poetry by Aleksei Kruchenykh from Learn, Artists! (1917). In my setting of Telephon—no. 2B—12z, a typographically stunning evocation of a telephone conversation by Vasily Kamensky (1914), the performer uses a recording application on their smartphone to create and perform a real-time telephone conversation. The instrumentation draws from instruments that are used in other works from the set. So, when multiple works are performed on the same concert, this movement may be performed by moving around the different setups, walking just as they would if having a phone conversation. The use of the phone as well as the implication of physical motion invite a theatrical interpretation. Because operating the phone as a recording and playback device in performance is logistically difficult, pre-recording and playing back audio segments using a second performer operating a playback device offstage is also permitted. Two compositions, Pye Ry Zat and Vnafti, are exercises in automatic composition, each composed from beginning to end in a single, brief sitting with no editorial revision, using the pre- arranged harmonic materials derived from those of Kho bo ro. The compositions were then handwritten on angularly displaced staff fragments emulating the handwritten appearance of the original poetry in Kruchenykh’s booklet F/Nagt (1918) and its manner of presentation within abstract linear forms suggestive of dynamic motion. Both compositions share the same notational layout indicating an indeterminate instrumentation of a keyboard instrument and five objects, and may be realised with the same instruments or entirely different ones. The range of the keyboard part in both works is small enough to played on a glockenspiel or melodica and can therefore be realised on these or any larger instruments. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(55-64) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 60 In Frot fron it, the chimeric being of the speaking percussionist becomes the subject. It is a concerto in four movements in which the performer’s voice is the soloist and their instrument-playing body is the orchestra. The elaborate vocal part deconstructs the text into phonemes that are deployed into rhythmically elaborate gestures, of a difficulty suitable for a concerto soloist. In the first movement, the percussion accompanies an elaborate exposition of the fricative sounds of the first line of the text (‘frot fron it’) in rhythmic counterpoint (Figure 2). In the second, the text evokes a tribal scene in broken Russian and is spoken in free rhythm over repeating rhythmic patterns. The third is a cadenza for solo voice, combining the elaborate fricatives of the first movement with vocal evocations of instrumental sounds. Finally, in the fourth movement, played entirely with bare hands on percussion, the voice continues to evoke the sounds of the accompanying instruments (Figure 3) while the instruments emulate the sounds of the zaum text, merging soloist and orchestra into one sound-making entity. By the end, through the associations of vocal and instrumental sounds established through the course of the movement, the instruments are able to ‘speak’ the poetry in counterpoint with the voice (Figure 4). Figure 2. Excerpt from the first movement of Frot fron it from Zaum Box, with vocal part on the upper staff and percussion on the lower staff. The five percussion instruments are, from the top line of the staff down: squeaking metal, guiro, sandpaper block, rattle and low drum. Figure 3. Excerpt from the fourth movement of Frot fron it from Zaum Box, where the voice imitates the sounds of the percussion instruments and the instruments begin to echo vocal sounds. Figure 4. Excerpt from the fourth movement of Frot fron it from Zaum Box, where the instruments ‘speak’ the poetry in rhythmic counterpoint with the voice. While much zaum poetry can be conventionally read, left-to-right, top-to-bottom, Kruchenykh’s S-K-L (my title, derived from the topmost letters of an untitled image on a page from Learn, Artists!, published in 1917) presents a set of letters embedded into geometric forms with no clear linear presentation or unambiguous means to sound out the poetry. This ambiguous and non-linear un- readability is musically realised as an indeterminate score-diagram (Figure 5). The performer must select instruments that can be played, as well as activated by the voice or in some way modulated by Christopher Adler 61 the sound of the voice. The score operates as a zaum-generator with vocal and instrumental sounds. Individual letters may be pronounced as through reciting the alphabet (“es-ka-el”) or as phonemes. If treated as phonemes and read in succession, they may be strung together to form new zaum words (e.g. ‘sklyu’). Rather than resolve the problem of unreadability by arbitrarily selecting an ordering of sounds, the diagram enables the performer to take multiple pathways through a space of possible realisations. Figure 5. Page from Learn, Artists! (1917) by Aleksei Kruchenykh (left), and score diagram of S-K-L from Zaum Box. Production and Realisation The production of the ten scores in Zaum Box emulated the short-run productions of the zaum poets, with a nod towards the transformation of those booklets into art objects that took place later in the 20th century. The scores were prepared as digital images, and each work was printed in large format on distinctly coloured and textured paper, such as tinted watercolour paper, vellum, faux parchment, and metallic card stock. One work was enclosed in a separate envelope, and another other bound into a booklet. The entire collection of ten scores, along with covers, a certificate of authenticity in an airmail envelope stamped with late Soviet-era stamps, and a USB flash drive with PDF versions of the scores, a pronunciation guide and an extended program note, were enclosed in an archival photo box (Figure 6). Twenty-five boxes were produced and sold, and one was donated to the Athenaeum Music & Arts Library, a private library in La Jolla, California.3 After the final box was sold, the work may now be obtained only as a digital document. The limited-edition box set is a proposition of the musical score as an art object with aura and value, in an era when the practical expediency of emailing scores as PDFs threatens to entirely instrumentalise the score-as-object and reduce its material value to zero. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(55-64) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 62 Figure 6. Contents of the Zaum Box limited edition box set. Photo by the author. The final phase of the project was to create a video realisation of all ten compositions. Realisations were developed and performed by percussionist Katelyn Rose King, and these were recorded over a period of four days by videographer Ute Freund and sound recordist Christoph Utzinger at a flexible artist space Berlin, Germany. Staging, lighting, camera angles and movements, scene composition and editing were conceived as emanating from the visual designs of the scores, which in turn were inspired by the visual design of the original zaum poetry. For Ta sa maye, for example, Katelyn conveyed a sense of intimacy and interiority by performing seated on the floor, while Freund emphasised this intimacy by filming a series of handheld close-ups of both the performer and her percussion setup from a variety of creative angles (Figure 7). Figure 7. Katelyn Rose Ring performing Ta sa maye from Zaum Box, filmed by Ute Freund, with sound recordist Christoph Utzinger in the background. Photo by the author. Christopher Adler 63 Freund designed graphic title sequences for each video, beginning with the words “ZAUM BOX”, in the same distinctively elongated font as on the title page of the box set, filling the screen and providing a uniform appearance, segueing to uniquely arranged or animated titles of the individual works, reflecting the musical character or visual design of each. In Learn, Artists!, by Kruchenykh, the poem Vnafti is handwritten around a large diagonal slash that cuts across the page. In the musical work Vnafti, the slash appears both as a musical gesture of a rapid arpeggio, and in the layout of the score where, not unlike Kho bo ro, staff systems cut across the page at an angle. In the video realisation, the camera is tipped at an angle so that the vibraphone played by Katelyn cuts across the screen at a comparable angle. And for the title sequence, the words “ZAUM BOX” fill the screen and then suddenly tumble to an angle mirroring that of the vibraphone (Figure 8, upper left and upper right). The complete set of ten videos has been released on-line (Adler & King, 2016) to publicly present the work and to provide a reference for future performers of the work, which is crucial given that the scores leave many aspects of performance realisation unspecified. Figure 8: Video stills from Zaum Box, with percussionist Katelyn Rose King and cinematography and titles by Ute Freund. Clockwise from upper left: title animation of Vnafti, the fixed camera angle for Vnafti, a scene from Telephon—no. 2B—12z, a handheld close-up shot from Ta sa maye. Conclusion Zaum Box represents a collaborative, research-based project in contemporary music composition, bridging sources, inspirations and genres from the 20th-century avant-garde, including Russian futurism, Fluxus, post-tonal music theory, indeterminacy, nonconventional notation and the subgenre of music for speaking performer. In published form, the work is presented as a collectible artistic object as well as a musical work to be realised. In performance realisation, the flexibility and theatricality permit presentation as a concert work, as a staged work of musical theatre, or as staged video production. The work joins an emerging body of scholarship in helping bring to prominence a little known but remarkably forward-thinking movement of the avant-garde, that had been almost impossible to research until following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Endnotes 1 Subsequent phases of the project include the documentation of the project in this article, and the organisation of the event Future Beyond Reason on October 24, 2019 at the University of San Diego in San Diego, California. The event included a panel of presentations by the author, Nancy Perloff, and Charissa Noble as well as a concert performance of the complete Zaum Box realised by percussionist Jordan Curcuruto. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(55-64) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 64 2 The use of lowercase lettering is in the original. Punctuation has been corrected by the author to be consistent with the original. 3 Additional publicly available copies are located at the University of Washington Music Library in Seattle, Washington, and at the Royal Conservatory of Brussels in Belgium. Acknowledgements The production of scores and video recordings was supported in part by a grant from the University of San Diego College of Arts and Sciences. I sincerely thank Katelyn Rose King and Alexv Rolfe for initiating this collaboration, and Katelyn for her dedication to realising the work in its entirety. And I thank Ute Freund and Christoph Utzinger for their artistry in realizing the videos. Finally, I thank all the performers, libraries and collectors who purchased the limited-edition box set and thus helped to fund the production of this project. References Adler, C. (2007). Reflections on cross-cultural composition. In J. Zorn (Ed.), Arcana II: Musicians on music (pp. 9-35). Granary Books/Hips Road. Adler, C. (2012). Mathematics, automation and intuition in Signals Intelligence for percussion. Sonic Ideas 4(1), 9-15. Adler, C. (2016). Zaum box. Liber Pulveris Press. Adler, C. & King, K. (2016). Zaum box (playlist of ten videos). https://www.youtube.com/watch?list=PL1euiR8RcG1didrOCWKAcQYbIv3q8mQ6I&v=xmrC-iZiscE Burmesier, R., Oberhofer, M. & Francini, E.T. (2016). Dada Africa: Dialogue with the other. Scheidegger und Spiess. Groys, B. (2011). The total art of Stalinism: Avant-garde, aesthetic dictatorship, and beyond. Verso. Harte, T. (2009). Fast forward: The aesthetics and ideology of speed in Russian avant-garde culture, 1910- 1930. University of Wisconsin Press. Higgins, H. (2002). Fluxus experience. University of California Press. Janecek, G. (1996). Zaum: The transrational poetry of Russian futurism. San Diego State University Press. Kamensky, V. (1914). Tango s korovami [Tango with cows]. First Journal of Russian Futurists. Kruchenykh, A. & Khlebnikov, V. (1988). Slovo kak takovoe [The word as such]. In A. Lawton & H. Eagle, (Eds., trans.), Russian futurism through its manifestoes, 1912-1928 (pp. 57-62). Cornell University Press. Kruchenykh, A. & Larionov, M. F. (1913). Pomada. G. Kuzʹmina and S. Dolinskago. Kruchenykh, A. (1917). Uchites’ khudogi. [Learn, artists!]. n.p. Kruchenykh, A. (1918). F/Nagt. n.p. Perloff, N. (2016). Explodity: Sound, image, and word in Russian futurist book art. Getty Research Institute. Schick, S. (2006). The percussionist’s art: Same bed, different dreams. University of Rochester Press. Whiting Smith, B. A. (2012). Narratives on narratives, from utterance to stories: Finding a context for the speaking percussionist [Doctoral dissertation, University of California San Diego]. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2c92h7p0 Zdanevich, I. (1923). LidantIU fAram [Lidantiu as beacon]. 41°. Biography Christopher Adler is a composer, performer and improviser living in San Diego, California. His compositions encompass cross-culturally hybrid forms drawn from contemporary concert music and traditional musics of Thailand and Laos, and the application of mathematics to composition. His recent works have concerned Russian futurism and classical Latin epic poetry. He is a foremost performer of traditional and new music for the khaen, a free-reed mouth organ from Laos and Northeast Thailand, and has promoted the khaen as a concert instrument by commissioning, performing and recording pieces by composers from around the world. He is a Professor of Music at the University of San Diego, and has degrees in music composition from Duke University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. www.christopheradler.com

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

banda, Panay Bukidnon, Pirot, popular music, traditionalisation

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3723

Rendering the Popular as "Tradition": The Music of Virgilio "Pirot" Petcheller and the Panay Bukidnon Banda Music Practice in Panay Island, Philippines

In recent years, the popular music of Virgilio “Pirot” Petcheller had been included in the

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3723/2598

Jose R. Taton Jr. 65 Rendering the Popular as “Tradition”: The Music of Virgilio “Pirot” Petcheller and the Panay Bukidnon Banda Music Practice in Panay Island, Philippines Jose R. Taton Jr. University of the Philippines Visayas, Philippines General Luna Street, Iloilo City e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 20 October 2020 Cite this article (APA): Taton, J., Jr. (2020). Rendering the popular as “tradition”: The music of Virgilio “Pirot” Petcheller and the Panay Bukidnon banda music practice in Panay Island, Philippines. Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 65-81. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.6.2020 Abstract In recent years, the popular music of Virgilio “Pirot” Petcheller had been included in the banda (ensemble) musical repertoire, practice and identity of several indigenous cultural communities in Panay Island located in Western Visayas, Philippines. Pirot’s music, particularly renderings of folk music genres, such as harana (serenade) and komposo (ballad), had been in mainstream broadcast media and were widely produced by the recording industry in the 1970s. Because of the parallels between his music and West Visayan folk practice, folk musicians categorically ascribe and recognise his music as dinuma-an (tradition and traditional) to refer to a standard folk canon with an associated pastoral imagery. Later, Pirot’s music had become emblematic of a regional folk, cultural and/or ethnic identity. This paper investigates the problematic fluidity of boundaries between traditional and popular music categories and its implications in the construction of identity in the Western Visayan context. I examine, on the one hand, how the popular music of Pirot are rendered as “tradition” notably through a discussion on musical aesthetics, lyricism and imagery and the complex socio-cultural and historical context musicians occupy. On the other hand, this paper also proffers a discussion on how this rendering or “traditionalisation” plays a role in the construction of identity among the Panay Bukidnon banda musicians. On this, I recognise the central role of cultural praxis and individual agency in the process and argue that musical categories, particularly the notion of ‘tradition’ and ‘traditional’, are self-conscious devices defined by, and are constitutive of practice. Keywords: banda, Panay Bukidnon, Pirot, popular music, traditionalisation Introduction Thinking about folk music in Western Visayas region in the Philippines, it is illustrative to invoke the “creative persona” of Virgilio G. Petcheller, a popular music performer, composer and recording artist in the region. Known to many as “Pirot”, Petcheller entered the radio and recording industry circuit in the 1970s with his renderings of harana, a type of serenade that is typically sung by men during courtship sprees, and komposo, a ballad that narrates significant community events using real-life situations or allegories (Cainglet, 1981). Through his songs, Pirot had dominated the regional popular music scene of his time captivating the imagination of a generation of radio listeners that his name had already become synonymous with folk music in the typical urban and rural household. Today, his music remains current and significant to generations of folk performers, particularly among banda (string and percussion ensemble) musicians in several indigenous cultural communities Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (65-81) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 66 in Panay Island. While it is generally considered as “popular music” for its association with the music industry, Pirot’s music is also categorically recognised as dinuma-an vis-à-vis its links to Western Visayan folk genres (as tradition) and its vestigial and pastoral aura (as traditional). For many banda performers, particularly those coming from rural and indigenous communities in Panay (Figure 1), Pirot’s music evokes the spirit of the past and, in turn, had become illustrative of their native culture, local heritage and sense of being. Banda musicians have thus by far identified, utilised and performed selections of Pirot’s music as personal and collective articulations of ethnicity and regional identity. Considering the manner folk musicians employ Pirot’s music in the context of tradition and identity, several questions come into mind. How do renderings of folk music in the popular works of Pirot inform banda musicians of their notions of “tradition” and “traditional” in music? What musical and socio-cultural parameters have contributed to the way musicians think about musical categories? How is this notion articulated in the context of agency and construction of identity? This paper investigates the problematic fluidity of meaning in music categories and its implications in the construction of identity. Using musical ethnography and fieldwork in various Panay indigenous communities in Western Visayas from 2015 to 2020, I discuss, on the one hand, how the popular music of Virgilio “Pirot” Petcheller was rendered and categorised as dinuma-an by examining the musical aesthetics, lyricism and imagery in Pirot’s music to understand its association and possibly conflation with folk music genres. On the other hand, I discuss how this rendering or what I call “traditionalisation” informed the construction of regional indigenous identity in relation to the complex socio-cultural and historical context of banda communities. I recognise the central role of cultural praxis and individual agency in the process and argue that musical categories, particularly the notions of “tradition” and “traditional”, are self-conscious devices defined by and is constitutive of practice. Figure 1. Some areas with active banda groups in Panay Island, Philippines.1 Jose R. Taton Jr. 67 The Banda in Panay and the Music in Popular Media Located in Western Visayas, Philippines, Panay Island is a rich cultural hearth of folk music ensembles. Collectively known as banda, these travelling musicians are found in rural and indigenous communities across the island’s four provinces of Antique, Akan, Capiz and Iloilo. They are considered vital in the social life of the community performing special musical functions specifically in ceremonial activities which include marriages, funeral services and healing rites, as well as in civic events like the patronal fiesta (feast day of saints) celebration and the community bayle (dance ball) (Doromal, 1988). The banda is a group of string and percussion musicians who play a number of instruments which include the following: biyulin (violin), bandyo (banjo), bandyolina (banjolin), gitara (guitar), baho (string bass), bombo (bass drum), barabadang (snare drum) and mangmang (hand-held cymbals). Its composition is typically composed of at least three musicians comprised of a principal who plays the puntiyar (lead) instrument, usually assigned either to the biyulin or bandyo, and complemented by at least two members who provide the kompanyar (accompaniment) (Figure 2). In some other cases, banda musicians may also render songs as they are also distinguished vocalists. Figure 2. A local banda in an indigenous cultural community in Tubungan, Iloilo. As professional entertainers, the banda performs sets of musical pieces which range from the folk category represented by Western Visayan genres like the harana (serenade), komposo (ballad) and banggianay (poetic joust) to a number of popular music compositions that had once circulated via mass media and the music industry. This amalgamation of musical material, particularly in terms of the ensemble’s instrumentation, repertoire and aesthetics, is the result of the complex junctures in Philippine colonial history. As early as the sixteenth century, European and Latin American instrument technology had already reached the Philippines via the transpacific galleon trade (Irving, 2010). This diffusion of instruments was likely the result of the migration of craftsmen, among them included luthiers, from Mexico to the Philippines who had a primary impact in the production and distribution of instruments in the archipelago (Guzman-Bravo, 1978; Stevenson, 1971). Among the early instruments imported or produced in the country were harps, guitars, violins and bandurria (plucked string lute), some of which were incorporated in music ensembles like the estudiantina (student instrument performers) (Pfeiffer, 1975), rondalla (plucked string ensemble), professional comparza (string band) (Rubio, 1977) and combo music bands centuries later (Doromal, 1988). Meanwhile, brass band instruments were largely introduced in Spanish military regiments in the eighteenth century (Talusan, 2009). Up until the twentieth century, the instrumental music groups were central in celebrations that marked the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (65-81) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 68 community religious and civic calendars (Hila, 1989), in festive occasions, stately opera concerts and zarzuela (musical theatre) presentations in the region (Fernandez, 1978). On the other hand, the Americans could have likely introduced folk banjo music in the country initially as a bourgeois music activity and later as a folk symbol.2 On repertoire, musico-poetic song genres like the komposo (ballad) and the harana (serenade) reminiscent of Spanish dodecasyllabic and octosyllabic poetic quatrains were largely popular pieces among folk ensembles (Tan, 1981). Traces of Hispanic and Latin-inspired dances, such as the fandango, jota and curacha, and even of American swing, ragtime, Charleston, tango, and waltz were also staples in the repertoire as well (Canave-Dioquino, et al., 2008). The resulting “counterpoint” of native and colonial elements, echoing Irving’s idea on the convergence of musical cultures (2010), became evident in vernacularised folk dance practices, and in Panay Island, with versions of kuratsa (Fajardo, 1961; Suarez, 1971), sarleston (Colon, n.d.), danza (Cainglet, 1981) and sayaw sword-play wedding ritual music (Taton, 2019). After the Second World War, rapid modernisation in urban centres afforded the circulation of locally and internationally produced sound materials. In the province of Iloilo and across the island of Panay, for instance, the expanded coverage of radio and other forms of mass media enabled new music like American rock and roll to seep in within folk and rural communities. This broadly diversified the musical palette of the banda musicians, apparently, to become more modern and progressive, which, by and large, transformed the constitution of their musical repertoire. Meanwhile, the mass production of vinyl records and battery-operated gramophones called pono, provided the mass public limitless access to popular music recordings. Unlike real-time broadcasts and performance-based music-making, the option for unlimited listening with the machine’s playback feature made better recall to new waves of music styles. Because of these changes, the putative significance of genres like the komposo and harana as news and courtship outlets were gradually discounted and inadvertently replaced with streamed radio announcements and foreign popular music. Mass media had opened avenues for musical innovations, expanded local musical tastes and changed the music consumption behaviour of the rural folk. The subsequent musical and cultural changes modernity had wrought, however, sparked a strong nostalgia in metropolitan centres and, in turn, animated a consciousness that idealised folk music and traditions of the past. Public petitions to resuscitate “traditional” song repertoire ignited the folk music “revival” initiative in the 1960s until the 1980s (Tan, 1981). As a result, numerous radio stations like DYCO in 1964-66, DYRP in 1969-69 and DZFM in 1974-81 provided a platform where regional “folk” music and locally-inspired compositions were regularly streamed (Tan, 1981). Radio programmes featured live performances of prolific local harana and komposo singers, like Virgilio “Pirot” Petcheller among others, and had substantively re-popularised the “traditional” and “folk” music in the region.3 Through mass media, innovations on harana and komposo music, such as the music of Pirot, became mainstream and consequently were taken up by banda musicians for their performances. Pirot, the Haranista Dubbed as Iloilo’s premier haranista, Virgilio Petcheller or Pirot is one of the many prolific folk musicians in the province of Iloilo and the Visayas region (Figure 3). Born in Lemery, Iloilo in 1954, Pirot is the eldest child among seven siblings. In his early years, he had already shown enormous interest in music likely from his early exposure to diverse musical influences. Aside from being born in a musically-inclined family, he was already immersed in biyulin, bandyo and guitar music repertoire from a local musician, Sergio “Telong” Cabacas. Moreover, he had also enriched his innate ability for singing through his strong habit of listening to popular music on the radio. After finishing primary school, he had joined in and had won various local singing competitions performing American popular music as well as folk tunes. Jose R. Taton Jr. 69 Figure 3. Virgilio “Pirot” Petcheller. Pirot’s teenage years had also been musically productive. At seventeen, he had already learned how to play the guitar on his own at a time when harana (serenade) was quite popular among men his age. Using stock phrases used in banggianay (poetic jousts)4 and the harana tunes he had heard from his maternal grandfather, he would carouse young women or put up against his fellows in a jocularly competitive display of wit and exchange of poetic verses. Because of these nightly jaunts, Pirot had significantly improved, if not become adept, not only in his musical sensibilities but also in his skills in the spontaneous invention of verses. These experiences would soon prove valuable in his career much later. In 1976, Pirot, who was then just twenty-two, made his radio debut as a regular talent in the DYFM Bombo Radyo programme, Harana, hosted by radio anchor Eddie K. Suede. At work, he had collaborated with other prolific folk singers like Ismael Payupay, Nards de Llero, and Jasmin Ceballos. However, his partnership with Alma Villanueva, a versatile Ati vocalist, in live broadcasts of banggianay and harana performances became a popular segment in the programme which attracted a huge following not just in Metro Iloilo but across Western Visayas.5 Their synergy largely contributed to Pirot’s success as a performing artist in the regional music industry. Notwithstanding the popularity of other folk musicians performing locally and regionally, Pirot stood out among others because of his exceptional vocal style. Compared to the musical humour distinct to composers/performers in the region like Yoyoy Villame and Max Surban (Buenconsejo, 2019), Pirot exhibits an inimitable vocal style that has a rich undulating low-pitch timbre described by many as mabugnaw (calming). With this vocal quality, Pirot evokes among his listeners particular rustic imagery and pastoral sentimentality which suit the lyrical and musical requirements typical of harana and komposo music. Pirot’s golden age in the recording industry happened in 1978. This time, he worked with a number of composers as well as music producers for several projects.6 He signed his first 45 RPM under the distributing company Platinum Records with the hit song “Ako Ang Namunit” (I Catch Fish) and “Mabugnaw Ang Lasang” (The Forest is Cool). In just a few weeks, another RPM with the titles, “Kampo Ni Ladio” (Ladio’s Camp) and “Mapintas Nga Damgo” (A Cruel Dream) followed after the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (65-81) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 70 initial success of the first record. Shortly, in the same year, a long-play (LP) album featuring Ilonggo works was released. Seeing the prospect of enlarging the balladeer’s audience and popularity across the provinces in Visayas and Mindanao as well as in urban Tagalog regions in Luzon, Suede contracted Pirot to record his hit singles in the Bisaya/Cebuano and Tagalog languages. In the last quarter of 1978, another LP was produced which is comprised of songs translated to Cebuano. Moreover, under the Jubell Label, new RPMs of Tagalog compositions like “Ako Si Virginio” (I am Virginio) and Ibang-Iba Ka Talaga” (You are Exceptional) were also widely circulated. Similarly, Leira Records also produced some song translations. Additional LPs which contained Tagalog and Cebuano renditions, like “Pirot” and “Stow Away Ako”, were also distributed to the market (Figure 4). In these recordings, Pirot covered a diverse set of musical styles encompassing a broad range of themes: historical komposo, such as “Purchase of Panay,”1978; character-based komposo, like “Tamasak” (A Horse), 1978; renditions of traditional folk melodies, such as “Kanogon” (Oh, Woe!), 1978, and its Tagalog version, “Sayang Na Sayang” (What a Waste), 1978; and a variety of harana music which he is known for among others. As a recording artist, Pirot had demonstrated a remarkable versatility as a popular entertainer who can perform for a variety of audiences and can shift along with different music genres. Figure 4. Collage of covers of some of Pirot’s recordings.7 Urban Iloilo, indeed, offered Pirot an experience that transcended the limited possibilities of village life. After six years in the performing and recording industry, he had already established a name for himself as Iloilo’s premier and most celebrated haranista. His regular radio program amassed a huge following not just within urban Iloilo but also in remote areas in the province. His public performances in front of then Freedom Grandstand (now Sunburst Park) always drew in a crowd that expected a delightful nightly soiree of musical wit and humour. However, with the unstable cultural and political climate in Iloilo in the early 1980s compounded by personal socio-economic challenges, Pirot returned to the tranquil world of family life. Despite his absence in the broadcast industry for more than a decade, Pirot had still sustained some creative work in the music industry. As a performer, he had been a frequent guest in several local radio broadcast programs. He had also participated in a number of concerts regionally as well as in performances in some cities in the southern island of Mindanao. As a recording artist, he had collaborated with his eldest son, Regie, in a record album under Platinum in 1994. Here, a number of new komposo works were introduced, most notably “Barumbado” (Irresponsible). In 2009, he had self- produced an album together with his youngest son, Joven. This particular album specially featured a traditional banggianay (poetic joust), titled “Bulak Nahamut-an” (A Woman to Please) and dance- music, “Idog-Idog” (Move to the Side). The constrictions of village life, however, made a strong dent on how he composed his song verses. Pirot would compose titles that captured the antimodernist aesthetic and pastoral realities all connected to the values and struggles of Filipino folklife. Moreover, Pirot had also run radio programmes in various stations, in particular, “Mga Bahandi Na Ambahanon” (Cherished Songs) in DYOK Aksyon, 1994-1998; in DYRI RMN, 2006-2009; and in DYSI GMA in 2010. In 2010, he was given the Pinoy Icon Award by a national news network. Early in 2019, he became involved in a weekly social media live stream broadcast. Jose R. Taton Jr. 71 Pirot’s Music and Folk Aesthetics The success of Pirot’s songs in the music industry is imputed to their close affinity with folk music aesthetics. Pirot’s music resembles a wide range of existing traditional melodic formulas familiar to many generations of listeners. It also applies the general Ilonggo and Western Visayan folk music aesthetics where musical motifs are typically composed in a shifting minor-major tonality (commonly parallel), set in a simple harmonic organisation and structured in a strophic form (Cainglet, 1981). In conventional practice, these stock tunes may be used in various performances where, instead of a unique melody, freshly penned lyrics shape the character of a new composition. Pirot exemplified this in the songs “Mabugnaw and Lasang” and “Ako Si Virginio” (Figure 5). Figure 5. A common melodic formula in some of Pirot’s songs. In lyricism, Pirot’s “new” music follows how folk verses are traditionally structured. Pirot’s renditions of komposo (ballad), such as “Ako Ang Namunit”, demonstrates the usual twelve-syllable phrase structure divided equally by a short caesura (pause) employed in Western Visayan ballads. In a seminal work on the composo, Tan (1981) explains that a typical Hiligaynon ballad is composed of dodecasyllabic and octosyllabic quatrains. Equally, some of his banggianay and harana music also employs the same system of versification suggesting his intimate understanding, natural eloquence and linguistic fluency to these musico-poetic forms. Besides these, Pirot’s works are also rich with imaginative yet playful lyricism that allude to and render images of the village and its social and life cycles. To illustrate, a number of his serenades and ballads profusely utilise metaphorical and allegorical devices which thread through a range of themes such as unrequited love, estranged family and forbidden social relations. For example, in “Ako Ang Namunit”, Pirot characterises love as a fateful voyage full of uncertainties. Ako ang namunit sa pampang sang gugma Ang akon ginpaon madamo na letra Baroto ginsakyan sang sobre na rosa Lawod sang post-ofis, lawod sang post-ofis Ang gin-agyan niya [I went to fish at the banks of love. I prepared a bait florid with words. I sailed on rose-coloured packets Across the span of the post-office. There, I have navigated.] Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (65-81) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 72 Other works, however, provide more straightforward narratives. For instance, in the popular song, “Kanogon”, Pirot expressively describes the pain of rejection, frustration and longing for a romance that is spoilt. Kanogon, kanogon sang gugma kanogon Kung ako mag-nobya na dili madayon Kung magsugata-ay sa mga dalanon Isira bugno magyuhum sa akon [Oh, woe! A love that is spoilt! I only love in complete dismay. Even if we meet at the crossway You never returned a smile for once.] The figurative allusion of sentiment in the song, nonetheless, has its parallels in Ilonggo and West Visayan social life that the song narratives become likely expressions of the folk ethos and native realities. Customarily, sentiment is typically operationalized through the buut (will, being),8 a Visayan concept of self and personhood that regulates and prompts social action. In social affairs, i.e. courtship, a person is compelled to take accountability in appeasing the buut in the occasion that he had aggrieved a person’s mental and emotional being whether intentionally or not. Thus, in the song sample “Kanogon”, expressing dismay for a defeated buut is in reality an indirect appeal to the woman to re- evaluate her feelings and reprieve the injured buut of the singer. In other instances, the song may take form as a pabati-bati (rebuke) or, in some cases, as a form of mockery, especially for individuals who had become estranged or insensitive after an ill-fated romance. With these other messages notwithstanding, both narratives would nonetheless continue to describe the quixotic sentiment of the singer who implicitly accepts his loss yet still hopes for reconsideration. The buut, however, is reprieved if the message is desensitised with malice. As there are some emotion-provoking songs which may hurt the buut, folk musicians always seek the indulgence and offer explicit apologies to the audience for any disquieted feeling they might have felt during the performance. As such, the act rectifies the buut of the listeners in consideration to the singer’s plea. In the closing section of the komposo sample below, indulgence from the buut is explicitly asked. O mga senyores na nagtililipon Na nagpalamati sining akon kansyon Basi kun may ilo pagsubong sa akon Dili gid maglain, dili gid maglain Mga kabubut-on [To those who have gathered here, To those who have listened to my song, If there is an orphan out there like me, I fervently plea, do not take this against me. I did not mean ill to your buut.] The Confluence of Pirot’s Music and Banda Music Practice Because of its intersection with folk aesthetics, Pirot’s music was easily integrated to contemporary folk music practice. Works such as “Ako Ang Namunit”, for instance, were readily appropriated by musicians in the region and now are very much staple pieces in folk music and banda repertoire. These had become a common folk tune sung privately for leisure in the household and even in makeshift performances in public spaces such as community markets.9 Meanwhile, pieces like “Kanogon” were adopted into various renditions, such as Domingo Taborete’s bandyo version, where the musician borrowed the melodic fragments of the original and infused them into his personal and stylistic lyricism (Figure 6). While this is a typical harana melody, Domingo labels this as a traditional kansyon, a type of love song generally sung by a soloist.10 Jose R. Taton Jr. 73 Figure 6. Rendition of ‘Kanogon’ by Domingo Taborete. Drawing inspiration from folk history, the song titled “Purchase of Panay” is perhaps one of the highly recognised komposo pieces interpreted by Pirot.11 Appearing as early as the late nineteenth- century in Tomás Santarén’s 1858 Historia de los Primeros Datos que Procedentes de Borneo Poblaron Estas Islas Filipinas, and reemerging in Angel Perez’s annotations in Igorrotes in 1902 (Santarén, 1954) and in Pedro Monteclaro’s disputed document Maragtas (1907), the narrative had been a popular source of myth, legend and/or history in Panay for generations. Sung in a mixture of Visayan and English languages, it describes the sojourn of several families from Borneo to the island of Panay and their brief encounter with the Ati, the Negrito indigenous inhabitants of the island, in the thirteenth century. In the narrative, the ten chiefs of the barangay (family/kin unit) lead by Datu Puti exchanged a golden hat and a piece of necklace for the land governed by the Ati chief, Marikudo, with a conditional agreement that the newcomers settle along the coast and plains while the Negrito bands occupy the more interior sections of the island. This is followed by the division of the island into three confederate states leaving the Ati displaced from their native land. Sadtong thirteenth century Ako gitu-aw history Ang Borneo may kinagamo didto Bangud sa isa ka Sultan Makatunaw iya ngalan Mapintas sa iya ginsakpan Agud maglikaw sa gamo ‘ning datus sang Borneo Sakay sa ila balangay Litog ug uway Ang ila mga ngalan Sining datu nga natungdan Pamati-i kay akon hinambitan [In the thirteenth century, According to history, Borneo was in conflict Because of a Sultan Known as Makatunaw Who was vicious to his people. To avoid the quandary, Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (65-81) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 74 Several chiefs in Borneo Set sail with their ships Made of wood and rattan. These are the names Of the referred datu. Listen, and I will tell you] Because of its popularity, it remains to be part of the repertoire among folk music circles. Banda musicians in southern Iloilo, for example, still continue to perform “Purchase of Panay” for recreation or in some instances at the bid of a visitor. In other cases, some members of the Panay Bukidnon indigenous cultural community in Central Panay highlands cites the song as a reference for their claims of Bornean ancestry.12 As such, Pirot in his evocative musical rendition of “Purchase of Panay” had relit the folk imagination which brought into consciousness a native past reifying not only the widely held belief on the origins of the people in Panay but also the image of a noble society that was consequently mutilated and laid to waste by the vestiges of colonisation. Besides harana and komposo music, Pirot was also much-admired for his spontaneous renderings of banggianay (song jousts) where he would banter with charm, wit and humour against his Ati contender. Even though it is a very popular music form and enjoyed by the majority of his audience, only a few of Pirot’s banggianay were recorded. As extemporaneous musical battles, these particular performances may span for a couple of minutes that were way beyond the limitations of available sound recording technology. Unlike Pirot’s other songs, these compositions were not realised into recordings until much later with the development of new media. It is only in 2009 when Pirot published an album which introduced the song-piece, “Bulak Nahamut-an” (A Woman to Please). Diin ka naghalin lalaking makahas Diin ka nga du-og sining Pilipinas Wala ka pa gani makapakilala Nagpahayag kana sang baog mong gugma Ang akon gugma dili lahog-lahog Kaputli kag tampad di ang gaguyod Kung indi pagsundan lahat na maniklod Basi magkomitir sang tawag nga hikog [Where have you come, daring man? Where in the Philippines have you been? You haven’t even introduced yourself, Yet, you have already professed your stale love. Oh, my love is never a tease; My intent is pure and sincere. Yet, if you utterly reject my love, I might commit to Death’s embrace.] Musically, this banggianay piece is comparable to other folk genres with its consistent use of melodic and harmonic minor modality, duple rhythm and strophic structure. Yet, unlike the harana and the komposo, its melody is more similar to known musical motifs typically performed in the sarswela, a type of vernacular theatre characterised by musical banters, intermittent round dances and theatrical drama playing around themes of traditional courtship (Figure 7).13 Jose R. Taton Jr. 75 Figure 7. Sarswela performance of young school children with the Igtuble Indigenous Peoples String Band in 2017. Of the two sarswela tunes I have documented, one in San Remigio, Antique and the other in southern Iloilo, the latter variant closely parallels Pirot’s banggianay (Figure 8). On this, locals explicitly comment that the two styles are analogous by affirming “Huo, parareho lang na sila [banggianay and sarswela]; ang sarswela may saot lang” [Yes, they are the same; the sarswela, however, has dance].14 Sarswela performances, however, are rarely performed organically in folk communities today. Of the few performances that had been done recently, most if not all were staged for institution-based activities or for agency-sponsored events. Unlike the sarswela, banggianay still enjoys its popularity, albeit, in a more intimate way. Today, it is still performed during wakes, but rather in a more poetic form than its musical variant. Banda musicians in areas like Tubungan and Alimodian take pleasure in performing renditions built upon Pirot’s song jousts in the same way that rural households revel in streaming songs like “Bulak Nahamut-an” in public using their home stereos and large trompa (sound boxes). Figure 8. Sarswela music performed in Bulan-Bulan and Igpaho villages with a similar style to Pirot’s banggianay. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (65-81) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 76 “Traditionalising” Popular Music: The Banda Folk Repertoire as Indigenous Cultural Identity Pirot’s popular music is undeniably very much assimilated to the musical and social lives of folk musicians. As discussed above, banda musicians have freely appropriated his music in their performances and rendered these within the folk repertory, a process which I call “traditionalisation”. In context, this process may be understood as the adoption of musical practices, in this case Pirot’s music, into musical categories deemed as folk by virtue of its musical “organicism” with folk genres (Onderdonk, 2009, p. 210). Yet, considering the socio-cultural circumstances of banda performers today, traditionalising the music of Pirot also carries other ideological and practical implications particularly in the identity politics within indigenous cultural communities (ICCs). Compared to indigenous populations in northern and southern Philippines, i.e. Ifugao and Maranao, with more established ethnic identities, it is only recently that Panay cultural communities, specifically the Panay Bukidnon minority, had come forward as a distinct ethnic group. The group is relatively underrepresented – in the academia alone, scholarship is scant except for a few albeit sporadic representative works which include Jocano’s (1968) pioneering anthropological work on the Sulod, Magos’ (1996) sugidanon (epic) series and Muyco’s (2016) exploration on the performance ideology known as sibod in Panay Bukidnon music-dance traditions. These works only represented a fraction of the diversity of Panay Bukidnon cultural groups. Individual communities have specific, social, cultural and political histories with some possessing a long-standing cultural memory, while others having relatively recent histories. It is only in 1997 that, with the ratification of Republic Act 8371 or the Indigenous Peoples Right Act (IPRA), the group had been formally recognised as an indigenous minority by law. Because of this, more robust support from national agencies as well as from academic institutions paved the way for the implementation of various cultural initiatives in which the Panay Bukidnon themselves have become key actors. Initiatives include the identification, establishment and promotion of indigenous knowledge, systems and practices particular to specific communities such as the babaylan (medium), binanog (hawk-eagle dance) and panubok (embroidery) culture of the Panay Bukidnon in Central Panay15 and the harana, komposo and the sinulog/sayaw (sword-play ritual) practices of the Panay Bukidnon in northern and southern Iloilo. It also led to the strengthening of local political structures as well as the institutionalisation of community-based learning spaces known as Balay Turun-an (Schools of Living Tradition). Indigenous elders and professionals were even enabled in the development and application of indigenous learning frameworks concomitant to the implementation of the Indigenous Peoples Education (IPEd) Programme by the Department of Education in 2011. These efforts provided avenues for empowerment raising “indigenous consciousness” and constructing a sense of identity. This prompted Panay Bukidnon banda musicians to also participate in the process, which, through their ideas of tradition, made Pirot’s popular works symbolic of local indigenous culture and identity. The way they approached the icon’s works varied with respect to the social, geographical and historical circumstances of their communities. In Central Panay, Panay Bukidnon elders cite the “Purchase of Panay” as an explanation for their association to the Bornean datus. As an indigenous person with no distinguishable racial trait similar to the Ati, Sandigan, now in his sixties, articulates through song the authenticity of his origins and, with conviction, identifies himself with the Bornean settlers. While standing migration hypotheses on the Panay Bukidnon’s origins exist,16 the narrative strongly resonates among indigenous communities that celebrate the story as a tradition in the same way that lowland urban and coastal communities express this as theatrical spectacles and festival re- enactments. Meanwhile, in other Panay Bukidnon communities, a select few of Pirot’s songs received special distinction as illustrative examples of the indigenous musical repertory. Young Panay Bukidnon musicians of Libacao, Aklan, for instance, presented interpretations of Pirot’s novelty song, “Mabugnaw Ang Talon”, as their musical tradition during the 2019 Indigenous People’s Month and IP Education Day celebration.17 Similarly, small banda groups such as the “Banda ni Ruben” in Tapaz, Capiz also perform some of icon’s dinuma-an singles as a part of their musical inventory (Taton, 2018, field notes). The Panay Bukidnon in Tubungan, Iloilo, is even a more striking case that Pirot’s music, such as “Kanogon”, “Ako Ang Namingwit” and “Bulak Nahamut-an”, have been integrated and are staple segments in their vocal and instrumental repertoire. Interestingly, apart from Pirot’s songs, banda musicians also associate other popular songs coming from other regions, i.e. Max Surban’s “Baleleng” Jose R. Taton Jr. 77 and “Ang Gugma Sa Dalom Sang Lawa-an”, in the category of dinuma-an. When asked what makes these songs traditional, Mabini, a banda gitara player, strongly quotes “Kay muna ang kultura kag tradisyon namon na mga IP” [That is the culture and tradition of an indigenous person] after performing a series of Pirot’s and Surban’s music for some guests. Contextualising Popular Music as a Canon and a Practice of “Tradition” “Tradition” is an elusive and particularly laden concept. Because of its implied practical utility as part of language, it is plagued with indefinite semantic meanings that it had been applied diversely, i.e. as canon, as standard, as a process, as performance, as culture, in the analysis of texts, cultures and societies in the humanities and social science disciplines (Schippers, 2006). Its early and conservative usage, particularly in folklore, had been predicated by ideas of cultural progress that projected pastoral societies and folk practices in a timeless, invariant and immutable image of the past. Moreover, it underscores the transmission, particularly oral, of cultural materials identified simply as folklore and its canons with consistency and continuity across space and through time (Georges & Jones, 1999; Shils, 1971). Similarly, in music studies, tradition’s association to notions of folk canon and pastoral imagery largely remains one of the persistent, if not more pronounced, strands of meaning given the heuristic value it provides, more specifically, in positioning tradition in contrast with civilisation and modernity. This distinction was more apparent with the invention of “folk” and “art” music categories that emerged with the rise of nationalist sentiments in eighteenth-century Europe (Gelbart, 2007). Coming out of the political and cultural disarray of the time, nationalists rallying for political unity and cultural independence sought for a common “cultural property” which embodies the national spirit (Onderdonk, 2009, p. 207). As a consequence, they turned their gaze towards “nature” particularly in the music and poetic traditions–the folklore–of pastoral societies (Ben-Amos, 1984, p. 100) which became a metaphor for an unrecoverable innocence and timelessness of the past (Onderdonk, 2009). However, these traditions appear nascent and irrational—qualities that apparently do not fit the rational ethos, aesthetic philosophy and urban sophistication of an emerging national polity. This led to the aesthetic elevation of folk music into socially-sanctioned artistic bodies of work and, thus, the creation of a collective national “art music” canon (Gelbart, 2007). In the words of Reily (2007), “the very concept of “art” could only emerge in contra-distinction to another body of expressive forms, “folklore”, the one of universal validity, the other of purely local relevance and intelligibility” (p. 3). Bohlman (1988), however, avows that the “restrictive caveats of earlier scholarship” (p. xvi), with its premises centred on pastorality and orality, entail a discourse that does not consider the diversity of musical expressions in the modern world. While folk and art music were generally considered “popular” in their respective contexts, Bohlman, in particular, is referencing to the range of hybrid and differentiated music styles that grew in urban centres in the late nineteenth century. These new “popular” music styles appeared to have had a cosmopolitan orientation, a lack of aesthetic sophistication and an ephemeral quality which did not fit the earlier semantics of folk and art tradition categories. By the time commercial recordings became a viable enterprise, popular music had become a product of the music industry. It was its very construction as a commodity that distinguished it from folk and art music. Popular music, as a representative of progress and modernity, thus, runs antithetical to previous notions on tradition. Notwithstanding these connotations, popular music as expressive articulations had in time established its respective sound repertoire and, like folk and art music, constituted bodies of works that are now transmitted and practised in the local-global arena. As such, other scholars like Brandellero et al. (2014) posit that popular music is a form of heritage as much as it is a tradition with a particular musical identity itself. For them, popular music, like any other types of musical expression, is a social practice that involves a diversity of individual and institutional actors. These actors are significant as they provide the necessary “legitimising discourse” ranging from “personal and collective attachment and memory to commercial endeavours rebranding and canonising the musical pasts” (p. 220). In brief, musical actors provide the conditions by which popular music and its various derivatives may be constituted as heritage and/or tradition of a people. From the discussion, it can be gleaned that defining “tradition” as a categorical referent for folk, art and popular music expressions is a particularly fluid and equally nebulous process. With regards to Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (65-81) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 78 this ‘practical fluidity’, Ben-Amos (1984) perhaps is right to say that tradition is an “object of conscious creativity” where a society “creates its own traditions through the selection of historical events and heroes, and even through the invention of a past” (pp. 114-115). Meanwhile, in societies with poorly established or absent historical bases, tradition may emerge as a “mode of thought”, if not an ideological category, which may be reconfigured into creative solutions (Bronner, 2016, p. 14). Bronner (2016) even extends this thought in the modern context by arguing that invoking “tradition” carries multifaceted implications that demonstrate “individualised permutations of traditional knowledge in repeatable, variable practices” or “thinking behind the formation of traditional knowledge back from practices” (p. 18). Thus, it is more apt to treat folk, art and popular music expressions as ‘folk categories’ (Bohlman, 1988), or at best as a creative bricolage of musical idioms that proffer new stylistic possibilities as well as ways in which people make musical choices and personal, community, and national interests may be anchored. Tradition as a practice, therefore, implicates the ascendancy of human agency over historical authority and suggests that tradition is self-consciously invented (Linnekin, 1983, p. 241) and/or reinvented (Hobsbawm & Ranger, 1992). In this study, the way performers render the popular music of Pirot in the context of “tradition” and the means they integrate this context to the construction of indigenous identity suggest three points. First, there is a vague boundary between musical categories that folk music is readily appropriated, transmuted and rendered to popular music in the same way that popular music becomes identified with the folk. Second, there is the primacy of agency in musical categorisation and even in the construction of an “authorised heritage” or tradition (Smith, 2006). Lastly, using notions of “tradition”, musicians legitimise an indigenous identity relative to their particular social, cultural and historical contexts. As key actors in the process, banda musicians have conflated Pirot’s works as tradition owing to the music’s “idiomatic intelligibility” (Szabolcsi, 1964) with the more familiar folk genres in the region. As a product of the music industry, Pirot’s music was transformed into a hybrid “mass culture species of folklore” (Dorson, 1978, p. 42) that is betwixt in a liminal space and in a “categorical blur” between folklore and mass-mediated popular culture. Notwithstanding, Pirot’s music still appeals to tradition that teases one’s imagination into visualising the pristine and idyllic atmosphere and the simple and cyclical rhythms of rural society. It finally offers a delightful “conversation of images” (Singer, 1972, p. 12) of sound and narrative flooding the senses with nostalgia and bringing to life the joys, difficulties and triumphs of folklife. As such, with its obvious use of regional music heritage, Pirot’s music was assimilated if not outright appropriated in banda practice to the taste of the folk music performers. Thus, through the banda musician’s “consensual reception” (Shils, 1971, p.130), the popular music of Pirot had become legitimised as a part of folk tradition and as a part of an indigenous cultural repository and practice. Relatedly, the “traditionalisation” of Pirot’s popular music is also predicated by an emerging regional “indigenous consciousness” that parallels the cultural valorisation of indigenous and intangible heritage in national and academic discourse. Considering that this ethos came in relatively late (established in the early 2000s) among the Panay Bukidnon, building a traditional repertoire became a cultural if not a political preoccupation. With the increased autonomy as well as rights to self- determination accorded to the indigenous peoples in the country, community musicians invested on similar endeavours that, the institutionalisation of banda groups such as the Igtuble Indigenous People String Band in Tubungan 18 had facilitated in the recreation of their banda music canon. As Williams (1961) and Hymes (1975) claim, identity formation hinges on how “tradition” is constructed as a symbolic “past”. This is established through purposeful activities and social interactions which, with repeated practice, as Bronner (2016) puts it, strengthen notions of self. While banda musicians represent a minority, Bronner (2016) following Bauman (1999) reminds that “the individual construction of self” is a “cultural praxis” (p. 21). Nonetheless, their participation in the promotion of “individualised ‘traditions”, as Bronner (2016) explains, “represent a broader expectation in modern societies that individuals create an identity out of many cultural options and demonstrate this identity in practices that might only be known to the individual” (p. 21). Practising “tradition”, as exemplified by the “traditionalised” popular music of Pirot, then, had been crucial in the demonstrating and reifying the folk musician’s feelings of solidarity and, in turn, indigenous identity. Anchoring indigeneity to a practice of “tradition”, in this sense, is constitutive of the way dinuma-an as a music category is articulated. That, the dinuma-an (tradition and the traditional) becomes a performance of cultural memory within a self-conscious idea of historic time. Through Jose R. Taton Jr. 79 practice, banda musicians, in their personal capacities, continuously reify and legitimise their cultural ethnicity by using a model of tradition that conflates musical performance and sense of self. Using the confluence of the traditionally folk and the historically popular music as “tradition”, Panay Bukidnon banda musicians construct, transform and eventually recreate their indigenous identity through music. Conclusion In the discussion, I have argued that the way banda musicians understand tradition is defined by and is constitutive of practice. The content of tradition, whether sourced from antiquity or in popular practice, is arguably permeable as meaning becomes fluid across time. For the banda musicians, Pirot’s music is representative of how categories are reconfigured from their idealised notions of dinuma-an and of folk music. This notion, however, is entangled with cultural politics and indigenous modernity and may provide focal points for reflection particularly on the region’s music history. Acknowledgements I wish to recognise all the banda musicians in Tubungan, Iloilo for graciously allowing me to record their music, in particular Sotero Taghap, Mabini Tagurda and Domingo Taborete, as well as the banda in Panuran, Lambunao, Iloilo and in Tacayan, Capiz. I also offer my gratitude to Virgilio Petcheller and family for the warm accommodation. Special thanks to my co-researcher, Fely Araña, and to other focal persons namely, Emelyn Tano, Marilyn Talha and Orlyn Gallo. I also want to thank the community heads, Rodolfo Caballero, Eduardo Paneza, Rodrigo Tacaisan Jr. and Recto Taghap for the support; and to Miguel Davao for reviewing the essay. This article is a result of the research titled, “Lanton kag Kuskos kang Balatyagon: The Traditional Music of the Banda of the Tubungan Bukidnons in Iloilo” funded by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA), BR 2018-134. Also, this paper is an expansion of the paper titled, “Reconfiguring the Folk and the Popular: Traditionalisation of Music Genres in Tubungan Bukidnon Banda Repertoire” read at the Ethnographies of Philippine Auditory Popular Cultures (EPAPC) National Conference in Ateneo de Manila University, September 4-6, 2019. Endnotes 1 Maps from Google Maps, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Panay_Island_Red.png and https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ph_fil_iloilo.png 2 Compared to the rondalla, comprehensive studies on the history of the banjo in the Philippines are scant. Notwithstanding this seeming lacuna in organological research, there are several accounts which indicate the presence of the banjo in the country. For example, the banjo was mentioned in James Hopper’s short story, “Banjo Nell” (1910, pp. 15-16, 26-27), which illustrate a young bourgeois woman who brought the instrument to the Philippines. Meanwhile, National Artist Lucio San Pedro (1913–2002) was known to have been proficient in playing the banjo. Antonio Hila (1998) writes, “He would play … so skilfully that he was hailed as the banjo player during his elementary days at the Pasig Elementary School” (p. 308). In another account, Keppy (2019) notes of “orientalist acts” which include the performance of Dudu, described as the “famous Moro banjoist” who is assisted by his “Comparsa of Moros from Jolo” in 1922 (p. 62). 3 Hit singles of Visayan pop music icons such as Max Surban’s “Baleleng” (A Person), “Ang Gugma Sa Dalom Sang Lawa-an” (Love Under the Laua-an Tree) and “Turagsoy” (A Kind of Fish) became very popular. Today, live radio programs, i.e. in Bombo Radyo, are still being held with a new generation of harana and komposo singers. 4 Generally, banggianay is defined as “to quarrel, dispute, wrangle, have words, altercate” (Kaufmann, 1934, p. 55). In music, it refers to the musico-poetic altercation of verses. This may suggest that banggianay is a process common to many strands of musical repartees. 5 Pirot claims that his shows with Villanueva drew in a huge crowd each night in the home station of Bombo Radyo Iloilo. 6 He collaborated with composers M. Encarnacion, M. Jadraque and E. Balboa among others. 7 Photos screen-captured from Wilbert’s Music Library; Jubell Record’s LP Pirot (Cebuano Album) cover in partzmarbelt_2.0 channel in YouTube; and https://humandiscoveries.wordpress.com/2016/05/18/pirot-the- haranista/ 8 Theoretically, buut is an inner sense of personhood composed of physical, affective and cognitive dimensions (Villan, 2013). It is comparable to the Tagalog loob and Ilokano nakem (Mercado, 1972). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (65-81) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 80 9 In some rural areas, visually-impaired musicians hold performances in markets. 10 Kansyon comes from the Spanish cancion meaning “song”. While both are understood as love songs, banda musicians differentiate harana from kansyon as a repartee while the latter is a solo piece. Interview with Domingo Taborete and Sotero Taghap, April 2016 and December 2018. 11 The song also had other versions like the Ati “Pagbaylo ke Panay” (Barter of Panay). 12 Interview with Romulo and Rodolfo Caballero, Panay Bukidnon cultural masters in Calinog, Iloilo, August 2017 and March 2018. 13 Folk sarswela sprang from Hispanic zarzuela/sarswela popularly staged for urban elite entertainment (Fernandez, 1978). 14 Interview with Fely P. Araña, Indigenous Peoples Community Focal Person in Tubungan, Iloilo, April 22, 2020. 15 The Panay Bukidnon group is a cluster of Kinaray-a-speaking communities which depend on upland agriculture for subsistence. 16 For a discussion on the three major inward migration hypotheses, see David Gowey’s (2016) article, Palawod, Pairaya. 17 See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kexFzP7HRa0 18 The banda was established in 2007. References Bauman, Z. (1999). Culture as praxis. Sage. Ben-Amos, D. (1984). Tradition and identity: The seven strands of tradition: Varieties in its meaning in American folklore studies. Journal of Folklore Research 21, (2/3), 97-131. Bohlman, P. (1988). The study of folk music in the modern world. Indiana University Press. Brandellero, A., Janssen, J., Cohen, S. & Roberts, L. (2014). Popular music heritage, cultural memory and cultural identity. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 20 (3), 219-223. Bronner, S. (2016). Toward a definition of folklore in practice. Cultural Analysis, 15 (1), 6-27. Buenconsejo, J. (2019). Songs for the masses: Humor in Max Surban's folk urban ballads. Paper read at Kritika Kultura.: Ateneo de Manila University. Cainglet, E. C. (1981). Hispanic influences on the West Visayan folk song tradition of the Philippines, 2 volumes (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Adelaide, Australia. Canave-Dioquino, C., Santos, R. & Maceda, J. (2008). The Philippines. In T. Miller & S. Williams (Eds.), The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music (pp.415-445). Routledge. Colon, J. C. (n.d.). Tubungan: A history (1938-2013) (Manuscript). Tubungan LGU. Doromal, G. (1988). The traditional music of Iloilo. UP Visayas Studies Program. Dorson, R. M. (1978). Folklore in the modern world. In R. M. Dorson (Ed.), Folklore in the modern world. Mouton Publishers. Fajardo, L. (1961). Visayan folk dances, vol. 1. National Bookstore, Inc. Fernandez, D. (1978). The Iloilo Zarzuela, 1903-1930. Ateneo de Manila University Press. Gelbart, M. (2007). The invention of ‘folk music’ and ‘art music’: Emerging categories from Ossian to Wagner (New Perspectives in Music History and Criticism). Cambridge University Press. Georges, R. & Jones, M. O. (1999). Folkloristics: An introduction. Indiana University Press. Gowey, D. (2016). Palawod, Pa-iraya: A synthesis of Panay Bukidnon inland migration models. https://www.academia.edu/29928804/Palawod_Pa_iraya_A_Synthesis_of_Panay_Bukidnon_Inland_M igration_Models Guzman-Bravo, J. A. (1978). Mexico, home of the first musical instrument workshops in America. Early Music, 6 (3), 350–355. Hila, A. (1998). Lucio D. San Pedro: The creative nationalist. In The national artists of the Philippines (pp. 307- 318). Cultural Center of the Philippines and Anvil Publishing. Hopper, J. (1910). Banjo Nell. Collier's 44 (23), 15-16, 26-27. Hobsbawm, E. J. & Ranger, T., (Eds.). (1992). The invention of tradition. Cambridge University Press. Hymes, D. (1975). Folklore's nature and the sun's myth. Journal of American Folklore, 88, 345-369. Irving, D. R. M. (2010). Colonial counterpoint: Music in early modern Manila. Oxford University Press. Jocano, F. L. (1968). Sulod society: A study in the kinship system and social organization of a mountain people of Central Panay. University of the Philippines Press. Kaufmann, J. (1934). Visayan-English Dictionary. La Editorial. Keppy, P. (2019). Tales of Southeast Asia’s Jazz Age: Filipinos, Indonesians and popular culture, 1920-1936. National University of Singapore Press. Linnekin, J. S. (1983). Defining tradition: variations on the Hawaiian identity. American Ethnologist, 10, 241- 252. Magos, A. (1996). The Sugidanon of Central Panay. Edukasyon: Harnessing Indigenous Knowledge for Jose R. Taton Jr. 81 Education, 117-140. Education Resource Program Monograph. Mercado, L. (1972). Reflections on buut-loob-nakem. Philippine Studies, 20 (4), 577-602. Monteclaro, P. (1950). Maragtas (E. Abiera, Trans.). Chicago, Illinois: s.n. (Original work published 1907). Muyco, M. C. (2016). Sibod:Ideology and expressivity in Binanog dance, music, and folkways of the Panay Bukidnon. Ateneo de Manila University Press. Onderdonk, J. (2009). Review on Matthew Gelbart’s The invention of “folk music” and “art music”: Emerging Categories from Ossian to Wagner. Current Musicology, 87, 207-217. Pfeiffer, W. R. (1975). Music in the Philippines. Diliman Music Foundation, Inc. Reily, S. A. (2007). Folk music, art music, popular music: What do these categories mean today? https://www.academia.edu/178279/Folk_Music_Art_Music_Popular_Music_What_do_these_categorie s_mean_today Rubio, H. (1977). A brief survey of band development in the Philippines. In A. C. Bataclan (Ed.), Philippine Bands (pp. 4-5). National Band Association of the Philippines. Santarén, T. (1954). Bisayan accounts of early Bornean settlements in the Philippines recorded by Father Santaren (E. Fox, Trans.). Philippine Studies Program, University of Chicago. Schippers, H. (2006). Tradition, authenticity and context: the case for a dynamic approach. British Journal of Music Education, 23 (3), 333–349. Shils, E. (1971). Tradition. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 13 (2), 122-159. Smith, L. (2006). Uses of heritage. Taylor & Francis. Singer, M. (1972). When a great tradition modernizes. Praeger. Stevenson, R. M. (1971). Music in Mexico. Thomas Y. Crowell. Suarez, P. (1971). Ilonggo folk dances. Central Philippine University. Szabolcsi, B. (1964). Folk music, art music, history of music. Notes, Second Series, 21 (4), 503-510. Tan, A. J. (1981). A study of the Hiligaynon ballad or composo (Unpublished Master’s thesis). Ateneo de Manila University. Talusan, M. (2009). Gendering the Philippine brass band: Women of the Ligaya Band and National University Band, 1920s-1930s. Musika Jornal, 5, 33-47. Taton, J. Jr. (2019). Lanton kag kuskos kang balatyagon: The traditional music of the Tubungan Bukidnon Banda in Iloilo (Research Manuscript). National Commission for Culture and the Arts. Villan, V. C. (2013). Lawas, buut, patugsiling, ‘ag dungan: Isang pag-unawa sa papel ng kinagisnang sikolohiya sa kasaysayang kolonyal at himagsikang Pilipino sa Panay, 1896-1898. Daluyan: Journal ng Wikang Filipino, 19 (2), 73-110. Williams, R. (1961). The long revolution. Chatto & Windus. Biography Jose R. Taton, Jr. is an assistant professor teaching music, arts and humanities at the University of the Philippines Visayas. He finished his Master of Arts, major in Ethnomusicology at Philippine Women’s University where he is currently pursuing doctoral studies in music, major in Ethnomusicology. His research interests include festival music studies, ethnochoreology and indigenous/cultural pedagogy. At present, he is undertaking research on indigenous organology, vocal music and dance practices among the Panay Bukidnon people living in central and southern highland areas of Panay Island.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

human and computation based, music representation, computer music, gamelan

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3743

Human and Computation-based Music Representation for Gamelan Music

A public database containing representative data of

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3743/2640

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 82 Human and Computation-based Musical Representation for Gamelan Music Arry Maulana Syarif1, Azhari Azhari2*, Suprapto Suprapto3, Khafiizh Hastuti4 1,2,3Department of Computer Science and Electronics Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia 1,4Faculty of Computer Science Universitas Dian Nuswantoro, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 20 November 2020 Cite this article (APA): Syarif, A. M., Azhari, A., Suprapto, S., & Hastuti, K. (2020). Human and computation- based musical representation for Gamelan music. Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 82-100. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.7.2020 Abstract A public database containing representative data of karawitan traditional music is needed as a resource for researchers who study computer music and karawitan. To establish this database, a text-based pitch model for music representation that is both human and computer-based was first investigated. A new model of musical representation that can be read by humans and computers is proposed to support music and computer research on karawitan also known as gamelan music. The model is expected to serve as the initial effort to establish a public database of karawitan music representation data. The proposed model was inspired by Helmholtz Notation and Scientific Pitch Notation and well-established, text-based pitch representation systems. The model was developed not only for pitch number, high or low or middle pitch information (octave information), but for musical elements found in gamelan sheet music pieces that include pitch value and legato signs. The model was named Gendhing Scientific Pitch Notation (GSPN). Ghending is a Javanese word that means “song”. The GSPN model was designed to represent music by formulating musical elements from a sheet music piece. Furthermore, the model can automatically be converted to other music representation formats. In the experiment, data in the GSPN format was implemented to automatically convert sheet music to a binary code with localist representation technique. Keywords: human and computation based, music representation, computer music, gamelan Introduction The goal of this research is to provide a public database containing music representation data of karawitan. To establish this database, a text-based pitch model for music representation that is both human and computer-based was first investigated. The model is meant to represent musical elements of karawitan where pitches and their attributes such as pitch number, pitch register or octaves, pitch values and the legato sign are numerically and alphabetically coded so that they can be read by humans and computers. This model as a representation of the musical parameters of karawitan is the first step towards setting up a public database. Helmholtz Notations and Scientific Pitch Notation are pitch-naming systems known as ABC notations. These systems are used to represent pitches based on their octaves. ABC notations is a text- based pitch representation that can be read by humans and computers. It is different from musical symbols or numbered musical notations that cannot be read by a computer due to the use of symbols or Arry Maulana Syarif, Azhari Azhari, Suprapto Suprapto & Khafiizh Hastuti 83 marks to represent musical elements including pitches. Helmholtz Notations and Scientific Pitch Notation are two formal pitch representation systems that are often used in music research involving a computer program for a part or for the entire process of music creation (Keith, 2010; Trueman, 2007), or in music information retrieval investigations with the objectives to obtain musical inferences resulting from musical features collected from an audio signal, a symbolic representation, or other sources (Downie, 2003). As music and computer research grows the need for data is not only restricted to a pitch representation but also to other musical elements including note attribute information as well. The availability of data containing those musical representations is very helpful to researchers who research computer music. This kind of public database is commonly found for Western music but not in traditional music such as karawitan. Karawitan more popularly known as gamelan music, is a traditional musical expression from Java, Indonesia. Karawitan has been an object of research in computer music for several decades (Becker and Becker, 1982; Hastuti et al., 2016 and 2017; Hughes, 1988; Surjodiningrat et al., 1979). Adopting Western notation technology to karawitan creates its own, different notation format. The Western notation format pushes the expression of karawitan into a different paradigm. In contrast to Western music, musical data representative of karawitan is rarely found especially in the form of public data. A database containing musical representation data of karawitan is needed as a resource with data that is ready to be used for research that looks at computer music with karawitan as its object of investigation. Related Works Musical elements consist of tempo, rhythm, pitch, timbre, dynamics, melody and harmony. Pitches are high or low tones that are measured in frequencies of hertz (Hz). In Western music, pitches labelled with the letters A, B, C, D, E, F or G are known as natural notes. The label is repeated from the lowest to the highest pitch known as an octave. The Helmholtz Notation and Scientific Pitch Notation (SPN) are text-based pitch representation models. Helmholtz Notation uses uppercase and lowercase letters followed by a comma or apostrophe to distinguish octaves, for example, C, - C, - C - c - c’ - c’’ - c’’’ and represents the lowest C to the highest C. Scientific Pitch Notation uses numbers to represent octaves, for example, C0 - C1 - C2 - C3 - C4 - C5 - C6 - C7. A pitch followed by the number 0 represents the lowest pitch while the higher number that follows a pitch represents the higher pitch. The difference in representation between Helmholtz Notation and Scientific Pitch Notation (SPN) can be seen in this example: The middle C would be C4 in SPN while in Helmholtz Notation it would be c’. In generating four-part harmonies using the Markov Decision Process, Yi and Goldsmith (2007) used commas and apostrophes following the Helmholtz Notation expression to represent high and low octaves. For instance C, is for the lowest C while C’ is for highest C. This pitch representation is suitable for computer-based objectives. Compared to the Scientific Pitch Notation format, octaves represented by numbers are more easily readable by humans. Eigenfeldt and Pasquier (2010) represented chords as pitch class sets that were converted into data arrays. The minor seventh chord with a value of (0 3 7 10) was placed in the first set of arrays. Thus, set 1 has a value of (0 3 7 10) where the value represents the minor seventh chord. Pachet and Roy (2011) generated melody for blues music by representing notes with integers, for example, C4 = 0 or C#4 = Db4 = 1. The representation was implemented in which a bar containing two chords was represented by a mark with a vertical line, a half bar was represented by a slash mark, and a bar containing one chord was represented by writing the chord twice. For instance, “F7 | Eh7/A7 | …” was represented with “F7 F7 | Eh7/F7 | …”. It would be easier to add a label with a letter than to write the chord twice such as having the lowercase “x” added following a chord to represent a bar with one chord, so that “| F7 F7 |” can be written as “|F7x|”. Binary code was used to represent pitches in the form of vector data format as inputs. Todd (1989) explained that there were two types of pitch representations in binary code which were defined as distributed representation and localist representation. Furthermore, it was explained that in a distributed representation, note A might be coded as 100, note B as 110, and note C as 010. This code can be confusing to artificial neural network programs for the weight values generated from the code. Note A is closer to note B than to note C since note A and note B share two very close values at two Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 84 positions (A = 100, B = 110), while note A and C share one same value at one position (A = 100, C = 010). On the other hand, note C is closer to note B than to note A since note C and B share two same values at two position (B = 110, C = 010), while note C and A share one same value at one position (A = 100, C = 010). In the examples, bits written in bold illustrate the same values at the same positions. A localist representation treats all notes equally based on one active unit within one duration. Seven notes in a musical scale might be coded with 1000000 for note 1, 0100000 for 2, 0010000 for 3, … and 0000001 for 7. Hild et al. (1991) used the localist representation of pitch information which contains 12 attributes of harmonic functions. Attributes that were in a pitch were coded by 1 and vice versa. Makris et al. (2017) used the localist representation for drum and bass patterns. The bass was represented using four digits of binary code where the first digit was set to a value of 1 when the bass was played, and set to 0 for the rest event. The next three digits were for bass voice leading activation where 000 represented steady voice leading, 010 for upward voice leading, and 001 for downward voice leading. Colombo et al. (2016) represented melodies based on pitch and duration in the localist representation for automatic melody generation using deep recurrent neural networks. The end of the song and the silent beat features were represented by the value 0. Thus, if there are seven notes the end of the song and the silent beat were represented with 0000000. Liang et al. (2017) deliberately represented music using the pitch and rhythm without other musical elements for automatic stylistic composition of Bach Chorales using recurrent neural networks. It was explained that the purpose of this approach was to train the network to focus learning based on features and instead of being overtaken by music theory. Other systems derived musical representations directly from audio sources. Zhou and Lerch (2015) employed a chord detection system that used constraint Q transform to define frequency bins resulting from a digitised analogue signal and where the frequency bins were equal to a pitch scale. Park and Yoo (2017) extracted and approximated polyphonic melody order to result bins frequency, then to be converted to pitch classes using short-time fourier transform. Western music technology, including notation systems based on European musical developments, has been accepted and adopted by the Javanese musician with adjustments based on the characteristics of karawitan (Becker, 1980). This includes the use of artificial intelligence in karawitan. Algorithmic composition, an approach of automatic music generation, has been implemented in karawitan. Surjodiningrat et al. (1979) used a statistical approach to set a note sequence of melody skeletal formulation based on bar patterns that frequently occur. Becker and Becker (1982) used a grammar method to set rules for a note sequence of melody skeletal generation while Hughes (1988) used a grammar method based on a quasi-linguistic framework to formulise note sequences of melody skeletal rules. Hastuti et al. (2017) used a rule-based method to define parameters as constraints in a note sequence of melody skeletal automatic generation using genetic algorithm. The dotted note as an additional note in the musical scale system of karawitan was converted into value 0 so that it can be processed in a sequential mining algorithm (Hastuti et al., 2016 and 2017). All the researchers focused on the skeletal melody. A skeletal melody is an abstraction of a melody and is similar to a melody chord in Western music. The representation of skeletal melody was commonly restricted on the pitch number without other musical elements or pitch attributes such as pitch value, pitch register and the legato sign. Proposed Method A model of music representation was proposed to support this research. The model is a text-based music representation so that the data it generates is readable by humans and computers. It was designed to collect data from music sheets. The model was named Gendhing Scientific Pitch Notation (GSPN). The term gendhing is based on the word for “song” in the Javanese language. The scientific pitch notation was added as this system was the inspiration in developing the model. Figure 1 shows the GSPN model diagram. Arry Maulana Syarif, Azhari Azhari, Suprapto Suprapto & Khafiizh Hastuti 85 Figure 1. GSPN model There are four phases in the development of the GSPN model, namely, the musical elements identification, the music representation formulation, the music representation implementation and evaluations. Musical Elements Identification In karawitan there are compositions that only consist of skeletal melody known as balungan (Javanese: skeleton), and compositions that consist of melody and its skeletal melody. Previous research conducted by Surjodiningrat et al. (1979), Becker and Becker (1982), Hughes (1988) and Hastuti et al. (2016 and 2017), focused on the skeletal melody containing pitch number information only. The GSPN model was designed to represent the music of karawitan both for the melody and the skeletal melody where the melody contains more pitch information such as pitch register, pitch value and the legato sign. The model development used note sequences of gerongan (a part for male chorus sung with the gamelan) as the corpus since this part contains melody and skeletal melody tracks. Musical elements identification was conducted to find attributes of pitches in the sheet music pieces. The results were used to define variables in the phase of GSPN formulation. An example of a piece of sheet music containing note sequences of melody and skeletal melody can be seen in Figure 2 with (a) as an abbreviation of the notes sequence of the melody skeletal and (b) as an abbreviation of the notes sequence of the melody. Figure 2. Example of karawitan sheet music Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 86 The dataset contained 100 sheets music of the gerongan part from two musical scale systems of slendro and pelog. Data were collected from www.gamelanbvg.com. Each sheet music was analysed based on its structure, extracting the notes sequence as well as musical marks for every pitch. Given that the introductory parts vary and is dependent on the creativity of a performer, this section was excluded from the corpus. In theory, the formulation of GSPN could also be implemented for the introduction part. Other musical symbols excluded from the corpus included the curve symbol and the circle symbol together known as the colotomic that are placed above and around certain notes. The circle symbol signifies the time to hit the gong instrument. These musical symbols are guides for playing gamelan instruments that appear after a composition has been created. Thus, these symbols are not essential parameters for the process of creating the music. In karawitan the musical scale system is called laras with two types of musical scale systems namely slendro and pelog. The slendro musical scale system consists of five pitches represented by notes numbered as 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6, while pelog consists of seven pitches represented by notes numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. The tuning of pitches in slendro and pelog are different from what is used in Western music and also have different tunings. For example, the frequency of note 1 in slendro is different from note 1 in pelog, as well as the others. Apart from that, gamelan sets that have the same music scale do not share the same frequency range. In addition, there is also a dotted note (punctuation mark) to represent a silent moment. There is also a musical mode known as pathet which is determined by the dominant pitch or the most often played pitch in a certain beat. A typical slendro musical scale consists of three musical mode systems, namely manyura, sanga and nem. Additionally, the pelog musical scale consists of three musical mode systems namely barang, lima and nem. The nem musical mode system in slendro is different from nem in the pelog. The pitch region in karawitan functions like an octave in Western music and is divided into low notes, middle notes and high notes. A dotted mark above a note indicates a high note, a dotted mark below a note indicates a low note and a note without a dotted mark is a middle note. The legato sign as used in Western music is also used in the dance notation system and means that two or more notes are played continuously and uninterrupted by subsequent notes. A typical line contains two bars or gatra and a bar contains four beats. A beat is where the notes are placed. The number of notes in a beat is determined by the rhythm. For an example, a composition rhythmic value of 1/2 (a half note or minim) means that each beat in the composition has a value of 2. The total number of note value is the sum from two notes or more. The horizonal line above the note shows the value of the note. The bar divisions in the line is not shown explicitly. Calculation of the value of the rhythm and note can be used to define a bar. Musical Representation Formulation The identification of musical elements resulted with nine variables used for the GSPN formulation: the musical scale system, musical mode system, rhythm, line (phrasing), the composition duration, musical notes, pitch region, horizontal line (note values) and legato sign. The slendro musical scale system contains three mode systems which are manyura, nem and sanga while the pelog musical scale contains three musical mode systems namely barang, lima, and nem. The slendro musical scale is abbreviated as S and the pelog scale is abbreviated as P. The musical mode systems in each musical scale system are coded with numbers and in alphabetical order: Code 1 for manyura in slendro and barang in pelog; code 2 for nem in slendro and lima in pelog; and code 3 for sanga in slendro and nem in pelog. The GSPN formulation for the musical scale and mode system with L for laras (musical scale system), S for slendro, and P for pelog is: L = {P, S} S = {S1, S2, S3} P = {P1, P2, P3} Rhythm as it is known, refers to the duration in a bar and it is associated with the notation value used. In this context, rhythm is divided into lancar or 1/1 the value of one beat (semibreve), tanggung or 1/2 for the value of two notes (minim), wiled or 1/4 for the value of four notes (crotchet), dados or Arry Maulana Syarif, Azhari Azhari, Suprapto Suprapto & Khafiizh Hastuti 87 1/8 for the value of eight notes (quavers) and rangkep or 1/16 for sixteen notes (semiquavers). The GSPN formulation for rhythm is designated as R and is: R = {R1, R2, R3, R4, R5} where: R1 = 1/1 R2 = 1/2 R3 = 1/4 R4 = 1/8 R5 = 1/16 The objective of the development of the GSPN is to represent musical elements of gamelan and therefore includes how to write a composition title that is also formulated. The format for writing the composition title are sorted by musical scale, mode, and the rhythm connected with a hyphen between these three musical elements. For example, “Ladrang Kawuri: S1-R2” are read as a composition entitled “Ladrang Kawuri” played in slendro (S) scale with manyura (S1) musical mode system, and the rhythm of tanggung (R2 or 1/2). Another example is “Lancaran Suwe Ora Jamu: P3-R1” read as a composition entitled “Lancaran Suwe Ora Jamu” played in pelog (P) scale, with musical mode nem (P3) and rhythm of lancar (R1 or 1/1). The slendro musical scale system is comprised of five notes, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 while the pelog is seven notes typically, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Punctuation marks in both of the musical scale systems are converted into numeric ‘0’ for computation purposes. The note was coded using the union of two sets containing notes that are in slendro and pelog. Below is the GSPN formulation for the note number, where T stands for the note, T1 for notes in slendro musical scale system, and T2 stands for notes in the pelog scale system. T1 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6} T2 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} T = T1  T2 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} Notes coded for both musical scale systems are written in as a set even though they are in different frequencies. The ‘if-then’ rules can process data from the musical scale system to differentiate the note and its frequency. For example, a given frequency dataset of F slendro = {fs0, fs1, fs2, fs3, fs5, fs6}, and F pelog = {fp0, fp1, fp2, fp3, fp4, fp5, fp6, fp7}. Thus, the ‘if-then’ rules were used and can be defined as: IF (L = S) THEN T = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6} AND F = {fs0, fs1, fs2, fs3, fs5, fs6} IF (L = P) THEN T = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} AND F = {fp0, fp1, fp2, fp3, fp4, fp5, fp6, fp7} The musical scales were distributed in three pitch regions as low, middle and high notes. A dotted mark below the note indicates low notes and are coded with a lowercase ‘a’. A dotted mark above the note indicates a high note and is coded with lowercase ‘b’. A note without any dotted mark indicates a middle note and is written without a dotted mark. Punctuation marks that are converted into ‘0’ do not belong to any pitch region since it represents a rest or silent moment notes are not to be played. A punctuation mark which represents a silent moment is written as in the middle note which is in the original form. Here is the GSPN formula for pitch region where W stands for the note region: W = {, a, b} Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 88 The note values are indicated by a horizontal line mark above the notes. Any notes without any horizontal line mark has value 1, any note with a horizontal line mark has value 1/2, and any note with double horizontal lines has value 1/4. The note values are represented using uppercase ‘A’ and ‘B’, where ‘A’ is for note value 1/2 and ‘B’ is for note value 1/4. Any notes with value 1 are written in its original form without ‘A’ or ‘B’. The use of uppercase letters differentiates the note value from the pitch region codes that use lowercase letters. This is the GSPN formula for the note value where V stands for the note value: V = {, A, B} The legato sign is coded based on the number of notes in the sign. The first note in a legato sign is coded with lowercase ‘x’ while the last note in a legato sign is coded with lowercase ‘y’. Any notes that are not placed in any legato sign and any notes in between the first and the last note in a legato sign are written in its original form without ‘x’ or ‘y’. Here is the GSPN formula for the legato sign with G stands for the note legato: G = {, x, y} The format for the GSPN model in formulating the note sequence including the pitch attributes is: T + W + V + G Table 1 shows an example of music representation in the GSPN model for a composition titled, “Ladrang Kawuri”, played in the scale of slendro and in manyura mode with rhythm of 1/2 (tanggung). Table 1 GSPN music representation of “Ladrang Kawuri” Ladrang Kawuri: S1-R2 Lines Bars Skeleton Melody 1 1-2 33003123 00006a6a0A6aA2x3y032x0A1Ay1x2A3Ay3 2 3-4 65320126 0065x6y3x1y201213216a 3 5-6 1b1b002321 000065Ax6Ay3Ax1bAy1b01b01bx6y2bx0A3bAy1b 4 7-8 3b2b652232 0001b02bx6y5x6y202x1y3x0A5Ay2 5 9-10 03206a123 000000000201x0A5Ay5x6y5x 6 11-12 05651b653 03y0061b2b3b06x3y5x6y6x1bA5Ay3 7 13-14 03563532 001b1b02bx1bA6Ay1bx6y053x6y022 8 15-16 6a1232126 006a2x3y05Ax6Ay3x65A6Ay21x0A6aAy2x1y6a Musical Representation Implementation The implementation of the GSPN model was conducted in two phases. The first phase represents the sheet music data using the GSPN format. The second phase converts the GSPN into a binary code pitch representation using localist representation techniques. Arry Maulana Syarif, Azhari Azhari, Suprapto Suprapto & Khafiizh Hastuti 89 The dataset used sheet music from gerongan, a type of composition that contains melody and its skeletal melody. All the sheet music pieces were converted to the GSPN format. The process was manually conducted through manually writing the codes for all the musical elements based on the rules of GSPN. The melody and its skeletal melody were coded separately. The codes for musical elements in a melody that consist of lines and bars were concatenated into a single line code. This process was also used for the skeletal melody. Table 2 below shows an example of the concatenation process of coding for the melody and its skeletal melody of “Ladrang Kawuri”, a composition that was coded in Table 1 above. Table 2 Concatenation process of coding for melody and melody skeletal Ladrang Kawuri: S1-R2 Melody Skeletal Melody 33003123653201261b1b002321 3b2b65223203206a12305651b6 53035635326a1232126 00006a6a0A6aA2x3y032x0A1Ay1x2A3Ay30065x6y 3x1y201213216a000065Ax6Ay3Ax1bAy1b01b01bx6 y2bx0A3bAy1b0001b02bx6y5x6y202x1y3x0A5Ay2 000000000201x0A5Ay5x6y5x03y0061b2b3b06x3y5 x6y6x1bA5Ay3001b1b02bx1bA6Ay1bx6y053x6y02 2006a2x3y05Ax6Ay3x65A6Ay21x0A6aAy2x1y6a The GSPN model allows for all musical elements from music sheets to be used for computational processes. The method of extracting data information from the GSPN format is conducted by splitting the input by characters. Later the coding approach is used to define musical elements and note attributes based on the formula of T + W + V + G. The extraction was conducted by pairing the notes with their attributes in the form and order of (T + W), (T + V) and later (T + G). The experiment on the GSPN model implementation was conducted by developing a formula to be implemented in a computer program for processing data in the GSPN format. The program was expected to accurately extract data information from the GSPN format and to accurately convert the data that was produced via the extraction and back into the music sheet format in its original structure. The program was designed to encompass note attributes in this way: MT = {note number} MW = {note region} MV = {note value} MG = {note legato} The length of MT is equal to MW, MV and MG, where MT consists of data of the original note number of each pitch, MW data of the note region value of each pitch, MV the note value of each pitch, and MG data of legato notes value of each pitch. The melody part (see Figure 2) is an example of GSPN model implementation used to simulate the data extraction method. The first step was to declare variables representing pitch attributes in numerical format as in the following: T in GSPN = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} T in number format = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} W in GSPN = {, a, b} W in number format = {0, 1, 2} V in GSPN = {, A, B} V in number format = {1, 0.5, 0.25} G in GSPN = {, x, y} G in number format = {0, 1, 2} Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 90 The next step involved splitting the GSPN data by character as in the following example: Input GSPN data = “0000660A6Bx1bBy5x06y1b2bx0A3bAy1bAx2bA1by600003b3b3bBx5bB2bAy1x02by1bBx2bB6Ay 3x0A5Ay2Ax5A3y20000660A6Bx1bBy5x06y1b2bx0A3bAy1bAx2bA1by6001b2bx1bA6Ay3Ax5A3 y2003Ax5Ay301Ax2A1y6a” melody data = "input".split(""); melody data = {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, A, 6, B, x, 1, b, B, y, 5, x, 0, 6, y, 1, b, 2, b, x, 0, A, 3, b, A, y, 1, b, A, x, 2, b, A, 1, b, y, 6, 0, 0, 0, 0, 3, b, 3, b, 3, b, B, x, 5, b, B, 2, b, A, y, 1, x, 0, 2, b, y, 1, b, B, x, 2, b, B, 6, A, y, 3, x, 0, A, 5, A, y, 2, A, x, 5, A, 3, y, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, A, 6, B, x, 1, b, B, y, 5, x, 0, 6, y, 1, b, 2, b, x, 0, A, 3, b, A, y, 1, b, A, x, 2, b, A, 1, b, y, 6, 0, 0, 1, b, 2, b, x, 1, b, A, 6, A, y, 3, A, x, 5, A, 3, y, 2, 0, 0, 3, A, x, 5, A, y, 3, 0, 1, A, x, 2, A, 1, y, 6, a} The note number data (MT) extraction is used to only identify the notes in melody data. This data contains information about notes, note value, note region and legato. MT extraction was conducted by removing all attributes that follow the note number using this formula: MT = ⋃{xkX| xkT} k ≤ P k = 1 MT = {note number} T = a set of musical scale = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} X = {melody data} P = Number of set X The results of the original note data extraction were: MT = {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, 6, 1, 5, 0, 6, 1, 2, 0, 3, 1, 2, 1, 6, 0, 0, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3, 5, 2, 1, 0, 2, 1, 2, 6, 3, 0, 5, 2, 5, 3, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, 6, 1, 5, 0, 6, 1, 2, 0, 3, 1, b, 2, b, 1, b, 6, 0, 0, 1, b, 2, b, 1, b, 6, 3, 5, 3, 2, 0, 0, 3, 5, 3, 0, 1, 2, 1, 6} The total number of notes in a melody can be used to calculate the length of MT elements. Humans can read the note number data by interpreting 0 as a punctuation mark while the GSPN format and the computer program defined a punctuation mark as 0. All notes other than the punctuation mark are read in their original notes: GSPN: {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, 6, 1, .., 6} Humans: {., ., ., ., 6, 6, ., 6, 1, .., 6} Computers: {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, 6, 1, .., 6} The note region data (MW) extraction was executed based on the structure of the note number (T) and note region (W). Later, the data from MW was converted to numerical format. Any subsets of MW that only consist of the element of T are converted to value 0. Any subsets that consist of a pair of elements of T and ‘a’ are converted to value 1 and any subsets that consist of a pair of elements of T and ‘b’ are converted to value 2. The values of 0, 1 and 2 represent middle note, low note and high note respectively. The following formulas are used to extract note region data and to convert information into numerical format: WX = ⋃ {xk  X | xk  T  W k≤P k=1 } WX = WX {} WY = ⋃ {(yk k<N k=1 , yk+1), yk, yk+1 Y | yk T, yk+1 T  W } Arry Maulana Syarif, Azhari Azhari, Suprapto Suprapto & Khafiizh Hastuti 91 MW = ⋃{Zx |Zx = ƒ ((xk, yk)), (xk, yk) WY} k≤M k=1 ƒ ((xk, yk)) = { 1, yk = a 2, yk = b 0, else T = a set of musical scale = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} W = {, a, b} X = {melody data} P = Number of set X WX = {melody data extraction containing elements of T or W} Y = WX N = Number of set Y WY = {subsets resulted from WX} Z = {WY} M = Number of set Z MW = {note region data in number format based on WY} The formula above resulted in producing WX with note number (T) and note region (W) data only. WY encompasses subsets that contain (elements of T, elements of T) or (elements of T, elements of W) and (Elements of T, ) for the last note. Furthermore, MW is determined based on the second element of subsets in WY with value 0 if the second element of a subset in WY is an element of T or , 1 if the second element is of a subset in WY as ‘a’, and 2 if the second element of a subset in WY is ‘b’. The results of each process of note region data extraction in GSPN format were: melody data = {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, A, 6, B, x, 1, b, B, y,.., 6, a} WX = {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, 6, 1, b, .., 6, a, } WY = {(0,0) (0,0) (0,0) (0,6) (6,6) (6,0) (0,6), (6,1), (1, b), .., (6, a)} MW = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, .., 1} Humans can interpret the code ‘a’ as low note, ‘b’ as high, and the note that is not followed by any coding as the middle note. In the computer program, the codes are converted into numerical format. The notes without any code are converted into value of numerical 0, code “a” the value of 1, and ‘b’ the value of 2. Below are the examples of note region data extraction in GSPN format, read by human and the computer. The conversions are written in a form of note number or punctuation mark-note region with ‘mn’ represent middle note, ‘ln’ for low and ‘hn’ stands for high notes. GSPN: {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, 6, 1b, .., 6a} Humans: {.-mn, .-mn, .-mn, .-mn, .-mn, 6-mn,.-mn, 6-mn, 1-hn, .., 6-ln} Computer: {0-0, 0-0, 0, 0-0, 0-0, 6-0, 6-0, 0-0, 6-0, 1-2, .., 6-1} The process of note region data extraction was implemented to extract the note value data (MV). The note value data (MV) extraction was employed based on the structure of note number data (T) and note value data (V). The following equations were used to extract note value data and to convert the data into numerical format: VX = ⋃ {xk  X | xk  T  V k≤P k=1 } VX = VX {} VY = ⋃ {(yk k<N k=1 , yk+1), yk, yk+1 Y | yk T, yk+1 T  V } Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 92 MV = ⋃{Zx |Zx = ƒ ((xk, yk)), (xk, yk) VY} k≤M k=1 ƒ ((xk, yk)) = { 0.5, yk = A 0.25, yk = B 1, else where: T = a set of musical scale = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} V = {, A, B} X = {melody data} P = Number of set X VX = {melody data extraction containing elements of T or V} Y = VX N = Number of set Y VY = {subsets resulted from VX} Z = {VY} M = Number of set Z MV = {note value data in number format based on VY} The formula above resulted in VX comprising note number (T) and note region (V) data only. The VY encompasses subsets that contain (elements of T, elements of T) or (elements of T, elements of V), and (Elements of T, ) for the last note. Further, MV is determined based on the second element of subsets in VY with value 0 if the second element of a subset in VY is element of T or , 1 if the second element of a subset in VY is ‘A’, and 2 if the second element of a subset in VY is ‘B’. The results of each process of note value data extraction in the GSPN format were derived via: melody data = {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, A, 6, B, x, 1, b, B, y, .., 6, a} VX = {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, A, 6, B, 1, B, .., 6, } VY = {(0,0) (0,0) (0,0) (0,6) (6,6) (6,0) (0, A), (6, B), (1, B), .., (6,)} MV = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.25, .., 1} Humans can read data by interpreting code ‘A’ as the note with a value of 1/4, ‘B’ as note value of 1/8, and notes not associated with any code value of 1. In the computer program the codes are converted into numerical format. Notes without any code might be converted into numerical value of 0, ‘A’, or converted into value 1 and ‘B’ into value 2. Examples of the note value data extraction in GSPN format to be read by humans and converted by computers and presented in the form of note number or dot note-note value are: GSPN: {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0A, 6B, 1B, .., 6} Humans: {.-1, .-1, .-1, .-1, 6-1, 6-1, .-0.5, 6-0.25, 1-0.25, .., 6-1} Computers: {0-1, 0-1, 0-1, 0-1, 0-1, 6-1, 6-1, 0-0.5, 6-0.25, 1-0.25, .., 6-1} In the following example, the rhythm value R is R2 or 1/2 or a beat with note values of 2, and if a bar consists of four beats the number of the note values for each bar is 8. Thus, the note value (V) can be used to detect beat, bar, line and composition duration as is illustrated in the following Figure 3 illustration. Arry Maulana Syarif, Azhari Azhari, Suprapto Suprapto & Khafiizh Hastuti 93 Figure 3. Illustration of beat, bar, line and melody length detection Based on karawitan theory the number of beats in a bar is a constant value of 4 while the number of bars in a line is a constant value of 2. The number of beats in a line are the number of beats in a bar multiplied by the number of bars in the line which is 4 x 2 = 8. The rhythm value was used to calculate the number of lines since it defines the number of note values in a beat. The denominator in the rhythm value was used as a constant value to calculate the number of lines. For instance, the value of 2 is the denominator for a rhythm of 1/2. Thus, the value of 2 is used as the constant value to calculate the number of lines. The following formulas were used to calculate the number of lines, bars and number of beats in the composition. kr = 4 rb = 2 kb = (kr.rb) vm = ∑ MVk k≤p k=1 jb = vm / (Rt.kb) jr = (jb.rb) jk = (jr.kr) vb = (vm/jb) vr = (vb/rb) vk = (vr/kr) = Rt where: Rt = denominator value of the rhythm value MV = note region value data kr = the number of beats in a bar = 4 rb = the number of bars in a line = 2 kb = the number of beats in a line = (kr.kb) = 8 jb = the number of liness in a melody jr = the number of bars in a melody. jk = the number of beats in a melody. vm = Total number of notes value in a melody vb = Total number of notes value in a line vr = Total number of notes value in a bar. vk = Total number of notes value in a beat = Rt The process of note region and note value data extractions was used to extract data on legato (MG). The legato (MG) extraction was conducted based on the structure of note number (T) as well as legato (G) data. The formulas below were used to extract legato data and to convert the extracted data into numerical format: Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 94 GX = ⋃ {xk  X | xk  T  G k≤P k=1 } GX = GX {} GY = ⋃ {(yk k<N k=1 , yk+1), yk, yk+1 Y | yk T, yk+1 T  G} MG = ⋃{Zx |Zx = ƒ ((xk, yk)), (xk, yk) GY} k≤M k=1 ƒ ((xk, yk)) = { 1, yk = x 2, yk = y 0, else where: T = a set of musical scale = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} G = {, x, y} X = {melody data} P = Number of set X GX = {melody data extraction containing elements of T or G} Y = GX N = Number of set Y GY = {subsets resulted from GX} Z = {GY} M = Number of set Z GW = {legato data in number format based on GY} The formulas above produced the result of GX comprising note number (T) and legato (G) data only. The GY encompasses subsets that contain (elements of T, elements of T) or (elements of T, elements of G), and (Elements of T, ) for the last note. Furthermore, MG is determined based on the second element of subsets in GY with value 0 if the second element of a subset in GY is ‘x’, 1 if the second element of a subset in GY is ‘x’, and 2 if the second element of a subset in GY is ‘y’. The results of each process of note value data extraction in the GSPN format were: melody data = {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, A, 6, B, x, 1, b, B, y, .., 6, a} GX = {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, 6, x, 1, y, .., 6, } GY = {(0,0) (0,0) (0,0) (0,6) (6,6) (6,0) (0,6), (6,1), (1, 2), .., (6, )} MG = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, .., 0} Humans might interpret code ‘x’ as signifying where the note legato started, code ‘y’ as where it ends, and a note not followed by any code as non-legato or notes between x and y. By using a computer program the codes are converted into numerical format. A note without any codes is converted into the numerical value of 0, ‘x’ into the value of 1 and ‘b’ into numerical value 2. Table 3 immediately below shows an example of legato data extraction in GSPN format to be read by humans and computers. The conversions are written in term of note number or punctuation mark-legato where ‘nl‘ stands for non- legato, ’sl‘ for start of the legato and ’el’ for the end of legato. GSPN: {0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 6, 0, 6x, 1y, …, 6} Humans: [.-nl, .-nl, .-nl, .-nl, 6-nl, 6-nl, 0-nl, 6-sl, 1-el, …, 6-nl] Computers: [0-0, 0-0, 0-0, 0-0, 6-0, 6-0, 0-0, 6-1, 1-2, …, 6-0] Arry Maulana Syarif, Azhari Azhari, Suprapto Suprapto & Khafiizh Hastuti 95 Table 3 GSPN format to localist representation GSPN Format Computation Values Localist Representation T W T W (T+W) 0 0 0 10000000 100 10000000100 0 0 0 10000000 100 10000000100 0 0 0 10000000 100 10000000100 0 0 0 10000000 100 10000000100 6a 6 1 00000010 010 00000010010 6a 6 1 00000010 010 00000010010 0A 0 0 10000000 100 10000000100 6aA 6 1 00000010 010 00000010010 … … … … … … 3 3 0 00010000 100 00010000100 GSPN to Binary Code Conversion The GSPN model was designed to support a computation process. Thus, it should be able to support an automatic conversion to binary code format. The model allows all data from musical elements to be converted by using a computational process. An experiment of converting GSPN to binary code was conducted using localist representation technique. The following explanation is an example of GSPN conversion to localist representation with two note attributes, namely the musical scale and pitch region. There were eight notes comprised of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Thus there were eight inputs of the musical scale in the localist representation. Note 0 is represented with 10000000, note 1 with 01000000, note 2 with 00100000, …, note 7 with 00000001. The pitch region coded as “a” was denoted by 010, the middle note written in its original number was represented by 100, and high note coded with “b” and represented by 001. The localist representation for the musical scale and the pitch region used 11 inputs, consisted of 8 inputs for the musical scale, and 3 inputs for the pitch region. For example, the middle note of 2 was represented by 01000000100 and the high note of 2 was represented by 01000000001. The experiment shows that all data in the GSPN format were successfully converted into binary code format by means of localist representation technique as shown in Table 2 with T standing for the musical scale, and W for the pitch region. Evaluation The GSPN model was evaluated using two techniques. The first technique involved calculating the note value to detect beat, bar, line and melody length where the resulting values were expected to fulfill the numerical-based structure of a gamelan melody. The second approach involved developing a computer program to generate sheet music based on the GSPN data format. Sheet music generated by a computer program was expected to follow the original sheet music structure and any error caused by manually converting the sheet music into the GSPN format could be detected using these techniques. A single Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 96 mistake made in manually typing in the code of the GSPN would produce wrong data. For example, 6B is for a middle note of 6 which has a note value of 1/4. If it is accidently written as 6b, the note 6 will have a note value of 1. This can then lead to a wrong calculation of total note values in a composition along with a wrong distribution of notes, beats, bars and lines. The pseudocode used at an earlier stage for the evaluation of note sequence per beat, bars and lines distribution including checking the notes value of every beat in a melody is: where: jb = the number of lines in a melody jt = the number of notes in a melody MV = note value data MT = note number data vk = Total number of notes value in a beat = Rt MTK = origin notes per beat MVK = Total number of notes value per beat MVr = Total notes value per bar Below is an example of implementation of the pseudocode above for the first line of a composition played in the rhythm of 1/2. The line is showed in the Figure 4. Figure 4. A line used as an example of evaluation using the first technique The first evaluation calculates note values of each note to detect beat, bar, line and composition length. The results of the implementation of the first evaluation technique for the first line of the composition above are shown immediately below. In this example, each beat will have total a note value of 2 since the rhythm value is 1/2, each bar will have total note value of 8 since a bar consists of 4 beats and each line will have total note value of 16 since a line consists of 2 bars. MTk in r1 = [[0, 0], [0, 0], [6, 6], [0, 6, 1, 5]]; MVk in r1 = [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [0,5, 0,25, 0,25, 1]]; MVr in r1 = [[2], [2], [2], [2]]; vr in r1 = [8]; MTk in r2 = [[0, 6], [1, 2], [0, 3, 1, 2], [1, 6]] MVk in r2 = [[1, 1], [1, 1], [0,25, 0,25, 0,25, 0,25], [1, 1]]; z = 0; while (a < jb) { for (b = 0; b < jt - a; b++) { c += MV [b + a]; if (c <= vk) { MTk [d].push(MT [b + a]); } } for (b = 0; b < MTk [d].length; b++) { MVk += MV [d] [b]; } MVr.push (MVk); a += MTk [d].length; d += 1; d = 0; vk = 0; z++ } Arry Maulana Syarif, Azhari Azhari, Suprapto Suprapto & Khafiizh Hastuti 97 MVr in r2 = [[2], [2], [2], [2]]; vr in r2 = 8; MTb in b1 = MTr r1  MTr r2; MVb in b1 = MVb r1  MVb r2; vr b1 = vr r1 + vr r2; where: r = bar b= line MTk = note sequence per beat data MVk = notes value per beat data MTr = note sequence in a bar data MVr = notes value per bar data Vr = total number of notes value per bar MTb = note sequence in lines The results from the first evaluation were compared to the original sheet music. The result of the comparisons exhibited that 100 sheet music pieces in GSPN format are similar to the original sheet music. Table 4 below presents an example of a result from the first evaluation derived from a composition labelled with ID number 001 in the dataset, where Y in the status column represents “yes,” which means that the data is similar to the original sheet music. Table 4 An example of comparation evaluation results Data Status ID: 001 Number of lines: 8 Total note value per lines: 16, 16, 16, 16, …, 16 Total note value of lines: 128 Number of bars: 16 Total note value per bars: 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, …, 8 Total note value of bars: 128 Number of beats: 64 Total note value per beats: 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, …, 2 Total note value of beats: 128 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y The second evaluation was completed by adding a function to the computer program to display data from the GSPN into sheet music format. The comparison was conducted based on a structure of the note sequence and its attributes generated from the computer program and into the original music sheet. The results of the evaluation show that all 100 sheet music pieces generated from the computer program have a degree of similarity in their structure to the original sheet music. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 98 Figure 5. An example of a sheet music piece generated from a computer program Figure 5 above shows an example of a sheet music piece generated from the program based on its data from the GSPN format. In the example, the legato sign was displayed with letter x for beginning of the legato and y for the end of the legato. The sheet music was generated based on data for a melody displayed in Figure 2. Conclusion and Future Works A music representation model for the karawitan known as Ghending Scientific Pitch Notation (GSPN) was developed to represent musical elements from sheet music to a format that is readable by humans as well as computers. The GSPN model was successfully implemented through a simple computer program that can read data from the GSPN format and later display the data in karawitan sheet music format. The GSPN data also successfully converted the sheet music and was represented by binary numbers. In the future the GSPN data will be used to build XML-based representation for karawitan, where the work will encompass images of music sheet, or audio, as sources for an automatic music representation. This type of work can be seen in a work of MusicXML by Michael Good, a standard open format for exchanging digital sheet music between applications (Good, 2013). The manual technique to convert sheets music to the GSPN format may result any mistyping. Thus, an image processing approach and pattern recognition method can be implemented to capture karawitan sheet music to be automatically converted to the GSPN format. In the future, the research will also focus on the development of a karawitan music representation database in the form of a GSPN format. The database will be published online in order to make it available and ready for computational processes. This resource will support research projects involving computer music and karawitan. Examples of music representation of karawitan in the form of GSPN and binary representation can be accessed at https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1Ol6OXd7N5HoPdq8Gj2WLAYr5BzHZo36V Arry Maulana Syarif, Azhari Azhari, Suprapto Suprapto & Khafiizh Hastuti 99 References Becker, J. (1980). Traditional Music in Modern Java: Gamelan in a Changing Society. The University Press of Hawaii. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv9zcjt8.9 Becker, J., & Becker, A. (1982). A Grammar of the Musical Genre Srepegan. University of Texas Press. Colombo, F., Muscinelli, S.P., Seeholzer, A., Brea, J., & Gerstner, W. (2016). Algorithmic Composition of Melodies with Deep Recurrent Neural Networks. Proceedings of 1st Conference on Computer Simulation of Musical Creativity, UK, 1, 2-12. Downie, J. S. (2003). Music Information Retrieval. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 37(1), 295-340. Eigenfeldt, A., & Pasquier, P. (2010). Realtime Generation of Harmonic Progressions Using Controlled Markov Selection. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Computational Creativity, Portugal, 1,16-25. Good, M. (2013). Exchange and Publish Scores with MusicXML. https://www.musicxml.com/publications/ Hastuti, K., Azhari, A., Musdholifah, A., & Supanggah, R. (2016). Building Melodic Feature Knowledge of Gamelan Music Using Apriori Based on Functions in Sequence (AFiS) Algorithm. International Review on Computers and Software, 11(12), 1127-1137. https://doi.org/10.15866/irecos.v11i12.10841 Hastuti, K., Azhari, A., Musdholifah, A., & Supanggah, R. (2017). Rule-Based and Genetic Algorithm for Automatic Gamelan Music Composition. International Review on Modelling and Simulations, 10(3), 2010-212. https://doi.org/10.15866/iremos.v10i3.11479 Hild, H., Feulner, J., & Menzel, W. (1991). HARMONET: A Neural Net for Harmonizing Chorales in the Style of J.S.Bach. Proceedings of Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 4, 267-274. Hughes, D. W. (1988). Deep Structure and Surface Structure in Javanese Music: A Grammar of Gendhing Lampah. University of Illinoi Press. Keith, S. (2010). Bridging the Gap: Thoughts on Computer Music and Contemporary (Popular) Electronic Music. Proceedings of the 2010 Australasian Computer Music Conference, Australia, 2010, 37-42. Liang, F., Gotham, M., Johnson, M., & Shotton, J. (2017). Automatic Stylistic Composition of Bach Chorales with Deep LSTM. 18th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference, Suzhou, China, 18, 449-456. Makris D., Kaliakatsos-Papakostas M., Karydis I., & Kermanidis K.L. (2017). Combining LSTM and Feed Forward Neural Networks for Conditional Rhythm Composition. In Boracchi G., Iliadis L., Jayne C., & Likas A. (Eds.), Engineering Applications of Neural Networks. EANN 2017: vol. 744. Communications in Computer and Information Science (pp. 570-582). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319- 65172-9_48 Pachet, F., & Roy, P. (2011). Markov constraints: Steerable generation of Markov sequences. Constraints, 16, 148-172. Park, H., Yoo, C. (2017). Melody Extraction and Detection through LSTM-RNN with Harmonic Sum Loss. 2017 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), New Orleans, LA, 2017, 2766-2770, https://doi.org/10.1109/ICASSP.2017.7952660 Surjodiningrat, W., Khandelwal V.K., & Soesianto, F. (1977). Gamelan dan Komputer: Analisa Patet dan Komposisi Gending Jawa Laras Slendro. Universitas Gadjah Mada. Todd, P. M. (1989). A Connectionist Approach to Algorithmic Composition. Computer Music Journal, 13(4), 27-43. Trueman, D. (2007). Why a Laptop Orchestra. Cambridge Journal, 12, 171 – 179. Yi, L., & Goldsmith, J. (2007). Automatic Generation of Four-part Harmony. Proceedings of the Fifth UAI Conference on Bayesian Modeling Applications Workshop, Canada, 268, 81–86. Zhou, X., & Lerch, A. (2015). Chord Detection using Deep Learning. 16th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference, USA, 16, 52-58. Biography Arry Maulana Syarif is a doctoral candidate in Computer Science Department of Universitas Gadjah Mada, and a lecturer at Department of Computer Science Universitas Dian Nuswantoro. His research interests are data mining, artificial intelligence and machine learning. Azhari Azhari is currently teaching at the Department of Computer Science and Electronics Universitas Gadjah Mada. His research interests are Intelligent agent, software engineering and project management. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9(82-100) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 100 Suprapto Suprapto is currently teaching at the Department of Computer Science and Electronics Universitas Gadjah Mada. His research interests are machine learning, artificial intelligence, and graph theory. Khafiizh Hastuti is a lecturer at the Faculty of Computer Science, Universitas Dian Nuswantoro and also the founder of Gamelan Research Institute. Her research interests are artificial intelligence, software engineering, project management and algorithmic composition.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

alternative modernity, traditional Japanese music, media, popular music, women in music

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3864

Japan's Nightingale Geisha Singers: Listening to Women Through Audio Media

This paper examines the emergence and disappearance of Japan’s geisha

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3864/2647

Gretchen Jude 101 Japan's Nightingale Geisha Singers: Listening to Women Through Audio Media Gretchen Jude Research Fellow, Yokohama National University 79-1 Tokiwadai, Hodagaya Ward, Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture 240-8501, Japan e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 27 November 2020 Cite this article (APA): Jude, G. (2020). Japan’s nightingale geisha singers: Listening to women through audio media. Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 101-114. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.8.2020 Abstract This paper examines the emergence and disappearance of Japan’s geisha kashu recording stars over the course of the 20th century, delving into their extensive body of audio recordings, which includes songs by some of Japan's most important early popular composers. Clarifying the distinction between geisha and the geisha recording stars, this paper traces the relationship between “traditional” Japanese musical forms (specifically, the complex of short shamisen songs long associated with geisha) and the popular genres that also comprised the geisha stars' repertoire. While historical audio media provide a valuable resource for scholars and fans alike, unconscious habits and unexamined discourses of listening may lead to the replication of orientalist and sexist stereotypes—and ultimately a superficial experience of the music. As a corrective to such tendencies in audience reception, this paper gives an overview of the key cultural and historical contexts of the geisha recording stars, including their contributions to the careers of several of well-respected composers. Attending to the sometimes difficult circumstances faced by geisha recording stars (and their geisha sisters) may rectify the image of these critically neglected women artists, ultimately providing a necessary counterpoint to the predominance of male musicians and male-centred musical genres in the Japanese canon. Keywords: alternative modernity, phonograph, popular music, traditional Japanese music, women in music Who Were the Nightingale Geisha Singers? The striking visual appearance of geisha as they play their role as living symbols of traditional Japan makes their distinctive clothing and makeup a familiar sight in advertisements and tourist photos. Ironically, however, the music of these artists remains stubbornly outside the purview of contemporary imagination. As Downer (2014) points out, the geisha in her role as virtuosic performer typically remains obscure—even to most Japanese people, who are decidedly “not interested in [geisha]” (p. 224). According to Foreman (2008), despite these artists' hard-earned expertise and their dedicated efforts to maintain centuries-long performance traditions, geisha remain less likely to receive institutional financial support than performers of more famous genres such as kabuki and noh —which remain nearly exclusively male realms, particularly at the professional level (p. 100). For centuries prior to modernisation in 1868, geisha were one of the few groups of women allowed to dedicate their lives to musical practice. Yet there remains a paucity of scholarship on the music of geisha, in particular the myriad short song genres that they were central in creating and disseminating. Today, even the average Japanese person has little Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (101-114) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 102 knowledge of what geisha sound like, in part because contemporary artists emphasise live rather than mediated performance or studio recording. Luckily, audio and audio visual media, which spread through Japan starting in the late 19th century, provide ample documentation of several dozen long-neglected uguisu geisha kashu [lit. nightingale-geisha-recording-star], whose careers spanned the period from the 1920s until the 1990s and included a range of traditional and popular music genres. Recordings on media ranging from 78 discs (called “SP records” in Japan) and LPs to cassettes, CDs and DVDS are still distributed and rereleased by major labels like Victor and Columbia (Fukkoku, 2005; Uguisu, 2018). Older recordings that have gone out of copyright can also be found informally catalogued and distributed online by fans, as well as in private amateur collections such as the Kanazawa Phonograph Museum1. Recordings are a valuable resource for scholars and fans alike, allowing repeated listening to music that may be otherwise completely inaccessible. For example, through close listening to Japanese popular singing styles over the 20th century, de Ferranti (2002) postulates an underlying continuity of vocal habitus, specifically the vocal quality called jigoe [lit. “ground-voice”, often translated as “chest voice”], which he describes as “a thin, somewhat rasping yet strong tone produced by forcing a narrow, dense air stream through constricted vocal cords” (p. 202). According to de Ferranti, this vocal quality can be found in recordings by female singers throughout the 20th century, from pre-war geisha to enka singers of the 1970s and J-pop stars of 1990s. While I agree that de Ferranti's observation holds up when comparing Japan's pop divas with non-Japanese singers (as well Japanese singers who have non-Japanese vocal training), I also find that the extensive listening practices enabled by audio media may reveal subtle but crucial distinctions in singing style between various communities of musical practice within Japan. I examined two recordings of the same Edo-Period song, “Ume Wa Saita Ka” [Has the Plum Blossomed], one sung by a geisha recording artist from the 1930s and one by an enka singer several decades later. The contrast in vocal quality and style is subtle but clear. [Fujimoto Fumikichi's] jigoe timbre sounds slightly pinched through the limited frequency range of the primitive microphone, but her intricate yet effortless deployment of kobushi ornamentation has a filigreed quality that flutters into my listening awareness. The bright ringing quality of her vocal resonance pings through the decades, even as her lips sound barely parted...[In contrast,] Misora [Hibari] engages a similar jigoe timbre, yet her yuri ornamentations are much wider in pitch while more centrally focused around a single note in the melody. Perhaps more prominently, Misora emphasises the places in the melody where her voice passes over her register break, and digs into the lower part of her range with an near-grunting quality. The final syllable of the vocable sequence at the end of each verse is particularly resonant. (Jude, 2018, pp. 39-40) Such close listening practice helps elucidate the moniker “uguisu geisha kashu” since the nightingale, for all its symbolic valences, also aptly evokes the singers’ plaintive, agile warbling vocal style, marked by quavering, skilfully controlled kobushi [lit. small-melody; translated as “ornamentation” (Yano, 2002) or “tremolo” (Wright, 2016)] as opposed to the yuri [lit. shaking; i.e., vibrato (Yano, 2002)] found in enka, an analogue to American country music that is still widely heard today (Hughes, 2008, p. 42). In addition, early geisha recording stars were often high sopranos, although alto Akasaka Koume was a notable exception. That so many recordings of these singers are still available provides valuable, first-hand access to the sound itself. However, even as media technology provides experience of sonic actualities, it also creates potential listening situations in which a lack of context and cultural knowledge unwittingly cultivates orientalist modes of explanation, as theorised by Kheshti (2015). Listening as a consumerist activity tends to essentialise and exoticise the artists, obscuring the rich significance of their music rather than promoting deeper understanding of individual Gretchen Jude 103 musicians within complex circumstances. The further removed a recording is from a listener's own natal sociolinguistic and cultural context, the more possibility there is that the gap in context will render a performance illegible—meaning an uncritical listener will be prone to fill in that context in potentially inaccurate (and even offensive) ways. Listening to geisha born over one hundred years ago requires dedicated listeners to examine not only their lack of contextual knowledge but also their own potential to exoticise and objectify these singers who look and sound thrillingly unfamiliar. In this paper, I spotlight the geisha recording artists of the early and mid-20th century, most of whom I initially discovered via their recordings—and some of whom remain completely obscure except for those recordings. In order to avoid the orientalist and objectifying modes of listening that Kheshti cautions against, I provide the historical context of the geisha singers’ work, including information about the famous composers whose songs the geisha recording artists popularised, as well as their primary genres, which spanned and often blended the most popular music of the early 20th century with the Edo song forms now codified as traditional. Out of the Geisha Houses and Into the Recording Industry Although the geisha recording stars, with few exceptions, all started their singing careers as geisha, the inextricable ties between an individual geisha and her local community of fellow entertainers meant that the uguisu geisha kashu were no longer geisha per se, since a media star's new public role meant that she left the geisha neighbourhood (or hanamachi). This echoed the way that geisha have long left behind their birth names, along with their natal homes, to become professional performers in their hanamachi, and give up these professional names upon retirement for new undertakings such as marriage. Furthermore, while some geisha kashu retained the name of their point of artistic origin, the biggest geisha stars floated free even of those place markers. Shinbashi Kiyozō and Akasaka Koume, who came to Tokyo from the distant island of Kyushu, took the names of their hanamachi of Tokyo upon arrival in the capital (Nakayama, 1958; Osada, 1998). In contrast, Kouta Katsutarō, who left her hometown of Niigata to work in the famed Tokyo geisha neighbourhood of Yoshichō, chose her favoured genre, kouta, as her surname once she found success as a recording artist (Kurata, 1979). Similarly, in 1933, success as a media performer allowed Asakusa Ichimaru to leave behind her hanamachi—along with its name. In 1960, Ichimaru, honoured with an artistic lineage name, became Edo Kouta Ichimaru, the name which appears on her gravestone in the sleepy hot-spring town of Asama Onsen where she first became a geisha. Even after departure from their communities, the names of geisha kashu linked them to hanamachi regimens of artistic training and distinctive forms of dress, comportment and speech—even as their names often shifted to indicate their new public personae, sometimes in complicated ways that reflect their shifting life circumstances.2 The Three Strings of the Floating World The shamisen, a fretless, three-stringed plucked chordophone with a skin-covered resonating body, which arrived in Kansai from Okinawa in the late 16th century, became the emblematic instrument of the Edo Period, and remains the primary instrument of geisha. During the same time period, as centres of power and culture shifted from Kyoto to Edo, so-called pleasure quarters were established in cities and towns across the archipelago, which became increasingly influential sites of artistic creation and inspiration. The shamisen was adapted to and adopted in myriad music that remain widespread today, such as kabuki, bunraku puppet theatre and regional folk traditions, as well as the genres mastered by geisha ensconced in the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (101-114) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 104 pleasure quarters. According to Groemer (2008), hundreds of short shamisen song genres emerged, gaining prominence concomitant with the rise of the vibrant urban culture of Edo. The geisha played an active part of this urban culture, even though their performance venues were legally restricted to private parties until after the Meiji Restoration in 1868. As Foreman (2008) details in her ethnography of contemporary Kyoto geisha, their expertise has long included both long narrative genres such as nagauta (most commonly heard in kabuki), tokiwazu and kiyomoto, along with simpler short-song forms like hauta, utazawa and kouta (sometimes called edo kouta). All of these shamisen genres, both short and long, remain intimately linked to the aesthetic of the floating world. The floating world, or ukiyo, is most famously portrayed in ukiyoe [lit. floating-world- picture] woodblock prints of kabuki actors and urban scenes—and of course, Edo's glamorous courtesans and geisha. The metaphor of the floating world, with its associations of ephemeral enjoyment and freedom from mundane responsibility, originated in the classical courtly traditions of the Heian Period (794-1185), but fully came to fruition in the Edo Period. Performers, both on public kabuki stages and in the circumscribed feminine realm, were central to this aesthetic. Also central to this refined sphere was the yūkaku [lit. play-enclosure]. Yūkaku is typically translated as “pleasure quarter” but given the uneven distribution of “pleasure”, it may be more accurate to gloss the term as “licensed district”—the walled-in areas, such as Edo’s emblematic Yoshiwara district, where prostitution could be practiced legally, and where other entertainments, including music and dance by geisha (who were legally forbidden from prostitution) were also offered to (male) customers. Given the historical as well as cultural distance of this context from contemporary audiences, it is challenging for modern and particularly non-Japanese people to fully comprehend the affective power of the floating world aesthetic as it was rooted in the cultural context of the time. Dalby (1995) suggests that it is “more appropriate to think of the yūkaku as a theme park than as a Western-style red-light district” as such places “embodied and represented an idealised notion of romance” (pp. 54-55). In the yūkaku, men of the highest class (samurai) and lowest class (merchant) could expect equal treatment as customers; nonetheless, due to the expense involved, escape into the floating world was nothing but a fantasy for most men. Whereas the yūkaku designated a space where wealthy men of taste enacted aesthetic and bodily pleasures, the term karyūkai [lit. “flower-and-willow-world”]— although sometimes used interchangeably with yūkaku— is more abstract, and indicates more explicitly women’s creative roles in the floating world aesthetic. In the symbolism of the term, the flower and the willow indicate courtesans and geisha respectively. This emphasises the centrality of women as professionals employed within the context of the floating world, as well as indicating how deeply intertwined geisha and yūjo [lit. play-woman; i.e., courtesan] were in this aesthetic. While the yūkaku as physical enclosure no longer exists, the term karyūkai is still used in reference to the purview of contemporary geisha. Even though today the karyūkai does not include the overt sexual commerce provided by the “flower” (or courtesans), the arts of the geisha nonetheless contain lingering echoes, including song lyrics that are not fully comprehensible without knowledge of women's roles in the floating world (Jude, 2018). Modernising Geisha The authorship of the short songs performed and passed down by geisha in the karyūkai often went unattributed. Yet the songs were immensely popular, especially in rapidly expanding Edo. By the end of the 1800s, hauta (such as “Ume Wa Saita Ka”) became distinguished stylistically from newly-emerging short-song forms: first utazawa, which Wright (2016) Gretchen Jude 105 describes as “slower and more elegant” than hauta, then edo kouta, short songs that were “quicker and more expressive” than utazawa (p. 122). Wright observes that the three genres are commonly described in familial terms, with hauta as the mother of two sisters, utazawa and kouta (Groemer, 2008). As Japan emerged as a modern nation-state and Edo was renamed Tokyo, these shamisen genres vied for position of most fashionable songs of the late 19th century. Edo kouta emerged as a distinct genre in the Meiji Period (Foreman, 2008, p. 26), emerging as most popular of the short shamisen songs by the start of the 20th century (Groemer, 2008, p. 275). At the same time, these small-song forms developed in conjunction with the rise of iemoto lineage masters teaching the genres (reflecting Japan’s traditional ryūha system, in which artistic lineages are inherited). Unlike most ryūha, which pass down through male descendants, many of the early iemoto of short song genres who started lineages—such as kouta master Kasuga Toyo in 1930 (cf. Wright, 2016) were female (Foreman, 2008, p. 27). This likely stemmed from the fact that for centuries the musicians who most often played these genres were geisha. In short, changes in political policies and social mores during the late 19th and early 20th century provided new opportunities for female musicians, including geisha, who not only continued their traditional practices but also expanded into the public arena, epitomised by Kyoto's annual proscenium-staged performances such as Miyako Odori and Kamogawa Odori (Okada, 2010). Despite their early influence on musical culture, geisha as such have never become full-fledged stars in the modern sense; they do not record albums of newly composed music or perform on tour as solo artists or ensembles. However, for a brief historical period, a few geisha took their training in song, dance, shamisen and hayashi percussion ensemble instruments (taiko, ōtsutzumi and kotsutzumi)—along with their sumptuous kimono collections (Till et al., 2001)—and left their artistic communities to become popular solo recording artists. These uguisu geisha kashu represented a moment in Japanese music history when geisha were still paragons of fashion, beauty and artistic sophistication but were not yet solely conservators of living tradition symbolising a bygone era. During the early decades of the 20th century, geisha, while still socially stigmatised by their association with the sex work of the floating world (which, partly due to Japanese officials' awareness of Western nations' moral judgement, was increasingly denigrated and marginalised), were nevertheless able to forge careers outside the hanamachi, alongside bel canto-trained singers and performers of new blues-and-jazz inflected styles of music. They did so on the crest of a wave of new technology that swept in from Europe and the United States: audio recording media and broadcast radio. A Century of Geisha Recording Artists Japanese popular music has always been a culturally hybrid entity. This makes knowledge of native genres and traditional performance practices essential to understanding its history. Such knowledge becomes even more important when approaching the history of recording technology in Japan. Central to this history were the geisha kashu. And given geisha’s current image as guardians of Edo tradition, it is surprising to learn how extensively recording artists who emerged from the hanamachi combined traditional and imported musical elements to produce music that was both thoroughly modern and uniquely Japanese. Early Years of Audio in Japan. Geisha were present from the very dawn of Japan's recording industry at the turn of the 20th century. Although no details of her life remain, Yoshiwara Shimeji began her long career as a media star in 1905, recording hundreds of short songs and remaining a popular musical figure for nearly 30 years)–-a remarkable achievement given the rarity and expense of audio technology in her time (Okada, 1997). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (101-114) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 106 Radio broadcasts commenced in 1925, and the demand for records began to skyrocket, as the domestic production of phonographic discs in 1927 resulted in lower prices, and the import of electrical recording technology the following year brought higher sound quality (Kurata, 1979). In 1928, Yoshichō Fumikichi became Victor's first exclusively contracted geisha singer and embarked on an illustrious 50-year career as Fujimoto Fumikichi. Her first big sellers, “Naniwa Kouta” (1929) and “Gion Kouta” (1930), were both theme songs for popular films–-the former released only a month after Sato Chiyako's 1929 film theme, “Tokyo Kōshinkyoku” [Tokyo March], a benchmark in the development of Japan's popular song (Gōda, 2019b; Nagahara, 2017; Stevens, 2008). Although she never achieved the status of a mass media star, Fumikichi's artistic and financial success set the stage for a series of bona fide geisha superstars who debuted in the 1930s. The Golden Age of the Geisha Singers. After Fujimoto Fumikichi forged a path out of the hanamachi, Kouta Katsutarō, her Yoshichō sister, released “Shima no Musume” [Island Girl] on Victor Japan in December 1932, a song that sold an unprecedented 500,000 copies. Katsutarō was also the first recording artist to join the ranks of kabuki actors and film stars featured on the covers of monthly magazines (Kurata, 1979, p. 357). Her live performances in large, public venues and live radio broadcasts were supplemented by appearances in make-up advertisements, making her a well-known figure in Japanese households of the day (Kurata, 1979, p. 358). Ichimaru, an Asakusa geisha also signed to the Victor label, recorded “Chakkiri Bushi” [Tea-Cutting Melody] in 1931 as part of a PR campaign for the nascent tourist industry of Shizuoka Prefecture (a region famous for growing tea), indicating the early integration of media stars into lucrative networks of advertising. With her smash hits of 1933 and 1934, “Tenryū Kudareba [If You Go Down the Tenryū River]” and “Ryūkyō Kouta”, Ichimaru achieved heights of fame (Shinobu Ichimaru, 1997). Victor (2007) cashed in on the success of these two geisha stars, spotlighting Ichimaru and Kouta Katsutaro in promotional plans that included film appearances, movie theme songs, advertisements and even a (fabricated) rivalry between the two singers, which Kodama describes as a moneymaking scheme on the part of the label (p. 94). When alto Akasaka Koume entered the limelight following her 1933 exclusive contract with Columbia and debut hit “Hontō ni Sō Nara” [If It Were Really So] (Osada, 1998), she, Katsutarō and Ichimaru were soon dubbed the geisha “three birds of a feather” [geisha kashu no sanbagarasu, lit. “nightingale-geisha-three- crows”] to indicate their elite status as top performers and recording artists (Hitobito wo miryō, 2017). The appeal of geisha as media stars was so strong that a few aspirants circumvented the hanamachi while imitating the geisha look and sound. Otomaru, the daughter of a Tokyo cobbler who had lessons in tokiwazu narrative song and the short kouta genre–-both closely associated with geisha was signed by Columbia in 1934 (Mori, 1995). Other labels like Japan Polydor and King Records also scouted young women from hanamachi in Japan's outlying regions, bringing them to the capitol for a chance at stardom in music and film. For example, according to the Japanese Film Database and Japanese Cinema Database, Hokkaido-born Michiyakko appeared in at least sixteen films between 1936 and 1952, many of which have been lost (Michiyakko, 2019; Michiyakko, 2020). In addition to the dozen or so geisha singing stars who can be confirmed to have left their mark in Japanese popular music, dozens more remain shrouded in the mists of time. Voices etched into the grooves and names on the circular labels of 78s or listed in archives indicate that there are many geisha kashu whose biographical details have been lost. Thankfully, some geisha-trained singers have recently been included on retrospective releases by Victor Japan and Columbia Japan (Fukkoku shinpen, 2005; Uguisu geisha, 2018). These Gretchen Jude 107 recordings are valuable for researchers and fans alike; they also highlight the lack of more scholarly historical materials available about these influential singers. From Media Stars to Lineage Masters. During the late 1930s and early 1940s, as social restrictions increased and the economy constricted, the geisha kashu remained important figures in popular music, especially once Japan went to war with the United States, and jazz and other cultural artifacts with overt association with the enemy were officially forbidden. Geisha stars recorded wartime songs and performed for Japanese troops abroad (Kodama, 2007; Yano and Tsujita, 2015). Kouta Katsutarō even met her future husband while on a three-week tour of the Chinese front in 1938 (Kodama, 2007). The uguisu geisha singers’ position as media stars remained strong; although barely remembered today, geisha kashu Michiyakko, Mamechiyō and Nihonbashi Kimie played key roles in the 1942 operetta film Utau Tanuki Goten [Palace of the Singing Racoon Dog], a lavish mythic fantasy that allowed viewers to escape into the magical world of cinema, even as the war escalated all around (Kimura, 1942). After the war, Japan again embraced the West, and jazz was once again all the rage. Piqued by Kasagi Shizuko's 1947 smash hit “Tokyo Boogie Woogie”, Ichimaru recorded the popular “Shamisen Boogie Woogie” in 1949, sparking a post-war kouta boom and renewing the old genre with an infusion of the latest fashionable musical style. Osada (1991) attributes this innovative combination to Ichimaru herself, who approached “Tokyo Boogie Woogie” composer Hattori Ryōichi and asked him to write her a song combining Western rhythm with a so-called nihonchō [Japanese tuning] melody. For “Shamisen Boogie Woogie” Hattori used a major yonanuki [lit. four-seven-removed; i.e., pentatonic mode with no fourth or seventh scale degree] nihonchō and a tempo slow enough to allow Ichimaru to dance in heavy kimono and traditional hairstyle while singing. According to Osada, her televised performances proved her vitality and delighted her fans. In 1950, Ichimaru followed up on this mass media success by joining the select troupe of musicians (led by composer Koga Masao) who were the first4 to leave post-war Japan on an officially sanctioned three-month tour of Hawaii and the United States (Geinōjin, 1950; Kirishima, Ichimaru ra kaeru, 1950). The following year, Ichimaru made a cameo as “Japan's number one geisha” in Tokyo File 212, a Hollywood B-movie filmed entirely on location – a film which Kitamura (2009) describes as both “intriguing” and a unique example of American Orientalism (pp. 505-507). Both of these instances exemplify the post-war effort to recast Japan's image into that of an American ally ( Shibusawa, 2006). Post-war changes in Japanese government and society also led to the demise of long- fading karyūkai structures, as prostitution was legally prohibited in 1956. The number of new geisha trainees sharply declined as hanamachi life was drained of its former panache. Some elder geisha kashu, such as Kouta Katsutarō and Shinbashi Kiyozō, followed the geisha tradition of retiring from their profession (in this case, from the recording and film industry) upon marriage. Other venerable performers recast themselves as masters of traditional genres, such as Akasaka Koume, who founded a lineage of minyō folk singing (Osada, 1998). In November 1969, Fujimoto Fumikichi received the Japanese Medal of Honour for Artistic Merit in recognition of her achievements in the classical performing arts, and Columbia released a 50-disc collection of her recordings of short shamisen song genres for which she had long been famous (Takeuchi, 2004). By 1981, all three “birds of a feather” geisha kashu (Kouta Katsutarō, Ichimaru and Akasaka Koume) had received the Medal of Honour. The Imperial Palace followed suit, recognising all four artists with the Order of the Sacred Treasure between 1971 and 1975. Ichimaru demonstrated perhaps the most impressive artistic flexibility during this period. In 1960, Nakamura Kansaburō, the 17th generation master of a venerable kabuki lineage, appointed Ichimaru as the iemoto head of the Edo Kouta school (Shinobu Ichimaru, Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (101-114) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 108 1997). Although she continued to appear occasionally in popular media until her passing in 1997, the rebranded Edo Kouta Ichimaru increasingly shifted her musical focus towards preserving the traditional performing arts by teaching and recording repertory rather than churning out new hit songs (F. Suzuki, personal communication, February 6, 2020). The popular success of her post-war hit “Shamisen Boogie Woogie” notwithstanding, Ichimaru, once again sensing the cultural trends, transformed her public persona and her professional trajectory to align with the image of geisha as “traditional” rather than “popular”. Unfortunately, her legacy seems to be in question regardless, as 2019's Ichimaru Prize, awarded annually to the best performer at the Victor Kouta Festival, may have been the last ("Dai Gojūkyūkai", 2019). Geisha Kashu and Japan's Early Popular Composers It is a testament to the historical importance of the geisha recording stars that many of the composers these women worked with remain venerated figures. But the geisha kashu have not enjoyed a similarly sustained level of acclaim—perhaps in part due to their lingering association with Japan's disavowed yūkaku sex industry (Foreman, 2008; cf. Seigle, 1993). However, the fact remains that without the effort, talent and inspiration of geisha, Japan's popular music would not exist in its current for—and the music of some of Japan's best- known composers could not have been realised. In this section, I examine the role several geisha singers played in the lives of two of Japan's most beloved songwriters. The geisha kashu phenomenon from its very inception rested on a dual repertoire. On the one hand, the geisha singing stars brought a plethora of Edo Period short songs from their hanamachi training; on the other hand, studios promoted geisha singing new songs written by some of the biggest composers and lyricists of their day. Fumikichi Fujimoto's first hit film themes, Naniwa Kouta and Gion Kouta were both composed by Sassa Kōka (with lyrics by Shigure Otaha and Nagata Mikihito, respectively). Reflecting the success of Shinbashi Kiyozō's original 1935 rendition, composer Omura Nōshō's "Meiji Ichidai Onna" has been recorded by various geisha (and other) singers over the decades (Gōda, 2019a; Ichimaru, 1972). Japan's early composers all wrote songs to be recorded and performed by a variety of artists, including geisha kashu, who were also under contract at their record labels. However, the creative legacies of two icons of Japanese popular music history in particular, Nakayama Shinpei and Koga Masao, are intimately linked to the singing stars from the hanamachi. Nakayama Shinpei and Shinminyō: Locating Geisha Kashu in New Folk Music The founding father of Japanese popular music, Nakayama Shinpei composed “Kachūsha no Uta” [Katyusha's Song] in 1914 for a stage adaptation of Tolstoy's Resurrection. Lead actress Matsui Sumako's poignant rendition of the song was recorded on phonograph, garnering widespread attention and kicking off the domestic music industry (Kurata, 1979). Following this early success, Nakayama went on to write hundreds of popular songs, including “Tokyo Kōshinkyoku” (1929), the film theme recorded by operatic soprano Satō Chiyako (for Mizoguchi Kenji's film Tokyo March) that is widely considered to be Japan's first “hit record”. Nakayama became especially well-known for his regional shinminyō songs. Shinminyō [lit. new-folk-song] as a genre emerged in the early 1920s and comprised songs meant to be recorded by popular singers of all styles—including geisha kashu, who were sometimes selected to represent a town or area in the vicinity of their birthplace. As the name implies, shinminyō were inspired by regional minyō folk songs, even directly incorporating melodic, lyrical and thematic elements of these traditional songs. Geisha communities and geisha recording stars played an active role in the history of this genre, beyond performance Gretchen Jude 109 and recording, as illustrated by the story of one of Nakayama's most enduring songs, “Tokyo Ondo”. “Tokyo Ondo” (with lyrics by Nakayama's frequent collaborator Saijo Yaso) was recorded in 1933 by minyō star Mishima Issei and Kouta Katsutarō, on the heels of her breakout success, "Shima no Musume" (Kodama, 2007, p. 180). “Tokyo Ondo” became another smash hit, and versions of the song (and its accompanying dance3) remain a key element of summer obon festivals as well as the team anthem for the Tokyo Yakult Swallows professional baseball team. “Tokyo Ondo” was a slightly adapted version of “Marunouchi Ondo”, a popular song recorded by Fujimoto Fumikichi that Nakayama had composed the previous year. A third geisha, Shinbashi Kiyozō, provided musical inspiration for both of these songs. “Marunouchi Ondo”/“Tokyo Ondo” incorporate the instrumental prelude and other musical elements of “Kagoshima Ohara Bushi,” a regional minyō song that Nakayama first heard in Japan's far west in 1930. Nakayama and lyricist Saijo were traveling to collect musical material and inspiration for their songwriting, when they encountered the geisha who would become well-known as recording star Shinbashi Kiyozō (Gōda, 2019b; Nakayama, 1958). This meeting not only resulted in one of Japan's most enduring popular tunes, it was also the beginning of a life-long relationship. Soon after meeting Nakayama, Kiyozō permanently relocated to Tokyo and signed with the Polydor label. In 1937, after passing of his wife, Nakayama married Kiyozō (who returned to her given name, Tane). Their marriage lasted until his death in 1952. In the late 1950s, Kiyozō came out of retirement to return to the spotlight with a tour of the United States—during which she spent time with singer Eartha Kitt, who was at the height of her popularity (Nakayama, 1958). The Nakayama Shinpei Memorial Museum, on the outskirts of his rural Nagano hometown, downplays even the minimal evidence that exists of the musical and personal significance that geisha singers had in the composer's life, instead cultivating a more family- centred image of Nakayama and emphasising his large repertory of children's songs. The sidelining of geisha performers and their crucial role in Nakayama's musical career is symptomatic of a long-standing tendency to “clean up” Japanese music (cf. de Ferranti, 2002). Nevertheless, I was surprised when the helpful and forthcoming docents at the lovely Nakayama Shinpei Memorial Museum spoke to me in hushed tones about “Tane”—avoiding Kiyozō's geisha name and recording-star fame. When I breathlessly remarked that the vinyl disc of “Tokyo Ondo” in the museum display was a rare version recorded by Ichimaru, my enthusiasm was received as quirky rather than contagious. My experience only underlined the pervasive if unarticulated forces at play in the contemporary obscurity of the geisha recording stars. Koga Masao and Ryūkōka: Hanamachi Inspirations This tendency towards hushed tones, if not outright silence, concerning the geisha kashu and their biographies (musical and otherwise) can also be seen in discussions of the work of Koga Masao. From early in his long career, Koga, one of Japan's most iconic ryūkōka [lit. popular- song] composers, worked regularly with geisha and geisha-style recording artists—from Akasaka Koume and Otomaru in the 1930s to Kagurazaka Hanko and Kubo Yukie in the 1950s (Kurata, 1979; Mori, 1994; Mori, 1995; Nagahara, 2017; Osada, 1998). Today Koga is celebrated for the “Koga melody” style, which took hold in the pre-war period and, after the war, became an element in the codification of enka (Yano, 2002, pp. 36-37). He is also known for songs recorded by the so-called queen of enka, Misora who herself recorded and released several collections of hauta5 in her own signature vocal style Hibari (Yano, 2002, p. 39). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (101-114) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 110 Less well-remembered are Koga's lifelong associations with geisha; he was known to attend hanamachi parties where geisha performed and even act as a scout recruiting geisha singers (Gōda, 2019a). In 1933, just two years after his first hit song, he wrote Akasaka Koume's popular debut, “Hontō ni Sō Nara” [If It Were Really So], using a guitar to compose what became the shamisen part on the recording; the song itself was inspired by a phrase he heard repeated by geisha of the time (Osada, 1998). Later in the decade, Koga churned out a string of hits for Michiyakko, eventually writing the music for Kimura's 1942 film Utau Tanuki Goten. In 1952, after meeting then-geisha Kagurazaka Hanko at a tea house performance, Koga helped launch her recording career with a new song, “Konna Watashi Janakatta Ni” [I Wasn't Like This] (Mori, 1995). This song has an upbeat, major yonanuki tune used poignantly in Naruse Mikio's 1954 film Late Chrysanthemums, a sympathetic portrayal of the hardscrabble denizens of Japan's fading hanamachi environs in the post-war period. While Koga is known as a seminal popular composer, it is not widely acknowledged that he worked and played with geisha singers throughout his career and his interactions with these recording artists were an important to his musical aesthetic. These lacunae occlude the fact that geisha were influential in the development of a range of early Japanese popular music styles, not just those now associated with “traditional” Japan. (Feminist) Listening and Audio Media: Re-examining the Karyūkai, Revalorising the Nightingale Geisha Singers Contemporary geisha rightly prize their status as living practitioners of Japan's unique cultural traditions; in order to achieve the social respectability needed to bolster that status, the public image of geisha in the 21st century is (understandably) decoupled from the lingering stigma of the karyūkai's sexualised labor in the 19th and early 20th centuries (Foreman, 2008). Yet the fact remains that these women’s core artistic practices are deeply entwined with traditional iroke [lit. color-mood; i.e., sexy or seductive] eroticism (Dalby, 1979; Wright, 2016). Without a doubt, as detailed by Foreman (2008) and others, geisha are masters of musical lineages that allow women independence and strength in the context of an otherwise male-dominated field. Still, the conundrum of geisha creativity cannot be avoided, as aestheticised performances of romantic love and eroticism developed during centuries of state-sanctioned sexual commerce are intertwined with those traditions. In encountering the captivating subtleties of these women's recorded voices, it is easy to gloss over the fact that much of their musical repertory is steeped in symbolism that idealises floating-world gender relations which seem flatly sexist by modern standards. Neglecting the complexities and contradictions of this historical context serves to obscure the stark history of Japanese sexual exploitation of women (including geisha), both domestically and abroad (Iwasaki, 2002; Masuda, 1957; Matsugu, 2006; Norma, 2016; Stanley, 2012; Stanley, 2013). How these social conditions influenced musical sound is far from straightforward, but the unique vocal qualities found in a popular song by the last geisha kashu (Gōda, 2019a) suggests just how important such considerations can be. Close listening to Kagurazaka Ukiko's “Pink Mood Ondo” illustrates how audio media can serve as a valuable sonic record of ephemeral aesthetic worlds. Kagurazaka Ukiko was born in Tokyo in 1938. Inspired by the popularity of Kagurazaka Hanko (just six years her senior), Ukiko6 quit high school to become a geisha. This stint in the post-war karyūkai was brief; encouraged by hanamachi encounters with “father of the song-writing world” Koga Masao, she signed a contract with Victor and made her recording debut in 1954 (Gōda, 2019a). She developed a popular image and performance sensibility that updated the traditional iroke aesthetic of geisha artists into an identifiably Gretchen Jude 111 modern style of playful sexiness evoked by the English loanword 'pink' in the short-lived pinku kayō [lit. pink-song] genre (Gōda, 2019a). The Japanese connotations of this originally innocent word can be summed up in the term pinku chirashi [lit. pink-leaflet], which denotes small, cheaply-printed flyers for pornography and other sexual services that litter urban spaces with explicit images of women's bodies. Just how much the classic geisha pop star sound had changed by the early 1960s is clearly audible in “Pink Mood Ondo,” Ukiko's last hit before retiring to marry in 1963. Over a jaunty, light-hearted big-band accompaniment, Ukiko sings the common story of a young woman looking for romance on a spring evening. Her vocal production holds to a largely traditional timbre, placement and emphasis of the break. In the first verse, her light yuri vibrato (showing the influence of enka) and kobushi ornamentation at key points of the melodic line give no hint of what is to come—namely: sighs, airy groans and vocal fry that elicit a clear aural image of feminine desire. This vocal performance of sexuality becomes remarkably explicit in the second verse. When the lyrics describe a “kissu” (using the English loanword) that has left the singer sleepless and “writhing”, the melody threatens to stall as its musicality briefly succumbs to Ukiko's overheated expressions of arousal. After a pause punctuated by a single guitar-string glide, the song is quickly back on track, showing the precise control and arch artifice of the singer. “Pink Mood Ondo,” while still broadly within the thematic and stylistic lineage of the geisha kashu, performs a modernised (albeit cheesy) sexiness that is doubtless clearly legible as such to contemporary listeners. As Gōda observes, Ukiko's "pheromone-infused" vocality flirted with obscenity restrictions without actually being banned from broadcast (2019a). While her vocal technique departs from that of her predecessors, her affront to social acceptability echoes the censorship issues that embroiled Katsutarō's explosive hit, “Shima no Musume” three decades earlier. In short, the age of the uguisu geisha kashu was bookended and hemmed in—by restrictions on the public expression of female sexuality. Fast Forward, Rewind: Listening to Women's Voices in Historical Perspective Of necessity, the cultural role and artistic significance of geisha today continues to shift. In the 21st century, hanamachi activities remain economically vulnerable although local associations and tourist organisations acknowledge their continuing value and importance— both in well-established hanamachi like Kyoto's and in far-flung towns like Fukushima Prefecture's Aizu-Wakamatsu (“Interview with a Geigi,” 2020). Responding to the economic crisis brought about by the Covid-19 pandemic, the municipal government of Kanazawa has budgeted money in 2020 explicitly for the training of geisha, stating, “We hope [the financial aid] will help them cultivate their art in this difficult time” (“Performing Arts Thrown Lifelines,” 2020). Furthermore, their continued openness and creative approach to technology is illustrated by Nara maiko [geisha-in-training] who have attempted to expand the reach of their four-person hanamachi by kicking off a YouTube channel in June 2020 (Okada, 2020). Unfortunately, this well-deserved support seems to stop short of acknowledging these artists’ historical links with technology — namely, the cutting-edge work of the geisha kashu recording stars, who remain largely unmentioned in both scholarly discussions and popular conceptions of Japanese music. This in turn creates gaps in what were actually cultural and sonic continuities between the Edo and Meiji eras, which then segued into Japan's burgeoning mass media industry at the dawn of the long Showa Period. In conclusion, listening extensively to the vast body of recordings bequeathed by the geisha kashu and supplementing that listening practice with unflinching examination of the conditions under which these musicians emerged—reveals as-yet unexplored facets of Japanese media and popular culture. In their time, the geisha singing stars were beloved performing artists. Not only did Japanese audiences admire them, some of the country's most Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (101-114) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 112 important composers sought them out as collaborators and intimates. Accordingly, they were instrumental in setting the trajectory of Japanese music, both popular and traditional. They should languish neglected no longer. Acknowledging the geisha recording stars’ contributions to a uniquely Japanese modernity will enrich the field of global media studies in a world that is increasingly digitally connected. Furthermore, scholars must ensure equal attention to female musicians, as we strive to create a world in which everyone's voice can be heard. This means dealing with all aspects of women's lives, including the realities and representations of sexuality and sexual exploitation. It is fundamentally a feminist act to listen carefully to women's voices—including both the full complexities of what they express and that which they are not allowed to utter freely. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Dr. Ogawa Masafumi for his support during my research fellowship in Japan, particularly through the unprecedented difficulties presented by the Covid-19 pandemic. I also wish to thank my dissertation advisor, Dr. Henry Spiller, for his ongoing encouragement. Finally, I am forever indebted to Mrs. Suzuki Fumi, Yoshi Karasawa and Barry Till for their time and generosity in sharing their invaluable knowledge. Endnotes 1 The museum director's informative blog (in Japanese) shows the breadth of their collection: https://www.kanazawa-museum.jp/chikuonki/kancho/index.html 2 Shinbashi Kiyozō, for example, underwent half a dozen name changes during the fifteen years she spent working at geisha houses in Kyūshū, Taiwan (then a colony of Japan) and Tokyo. 3 Ondo is a genre that typically includes a festive group dance (Hughes, 2008, p. 10). In the case of “Marunouchi Ondo,” and particularly “Tokyo Ondo,” the public celebrations surrounding these songs were massive. 4 Ichimaru's old rival Katsutarō arrived with a smaller group just days later (Hamamoto, 1950). 5 Her earliest collection of hauta, Hibari Hauta Sōshi, from 1958, along with her 1952 cameo in Tsukigata Hanpeita as the maiko Hinagiku, performing “Harusame Ni [In Spring Rain]”, indicates that Misora's engagement with the traditional geisha short-song repertoire had a significant impact on her vocal transformation from post-war jazz wunderkind to diva of Japanese authenticity. 6 The first character in Ukiko's stage name is the same as the first in ukiyo, the “floating” of the floating world evocative of both unconstrained freedom and lonesome ephemerality. References “Dai gojūkyūkai bikutā meiryū kouta matsuri, saigo no Ichimaru-shō. [59th annual Victor notable kouta festival, final Ichimaru Prize]”. (2019, July 30). http://japojp.hateblo.jp/entry/2019/07/30/194545 Dalby, L. (1979). Little songs of the geisha: Traditional Japanese ko-uta. Tuttle Publishing. Dalby, L. (1995). Courtesan and geisha: The real women of the pleasure quarter. In E. de Sabato Swinton (Ed.), The women of the pleasure quarter: Japanese paintings and prints of the floating world (pp. 47-65). Hudson Hills Press. de Ferranti, H. (2002). “Japanese music” can be popular. Popular music, 21 (2), 195-208. Downer, L. (2014). The city geisha and their role in modern Japan: Anomaly or artistes? In M. Feldman and B. Gordon (Eds.), The courtesan’s arts: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 223-242). Oxford University Press. Shinobu Ichimaru: Uta no hanamichi. [Ichimaru, in memoriam: Hanamichi of song] [Cassette]. (1997) [Liner notes]. Tokyo: Victor JVF. Foreman, K. (2008). The gei of geisha: Music, identity, meaning. Ashgate Publishing. Fukkoku shinpen kouta besuto 120 [Best 120 kouta rereleases and new versions][CD].(2005).[Liner Notes]. Victor Japan Traditional Cultures Foundation. Geinōjin zokuzoku tōbei. [Performing artists to tour America]. (1950, April 5). Asahi shinbun, Tokyo edition. Gōda, M. (2019a). [Liner notes]. Nihon no ryūkōka sutātachi 5 Kagurazaka Ukiko: Ukiko Kagurazaka greatest hits. [CD]. Victor Entertainment. Gretchen Jude 113 Gōda, M. (2019b). [Liner notes]. Nihon no ryūkōka sutātachi 10 Fujimoto Fumikichi: Fumikichi Fujimoto greatest hits [CD]. Victor Entertainment. Groemer, G. (2008). Popular music before the Meiji Period. In A. McQueen Tokita and D. W. Hughes (Eds.), The Ashgate companion to Japanese music (pp. 261-279). Ashgate Publishing. Hamamoto, E. T. (1950, April 7). Three popular Japan musical stars arrive. The Hawaii Herald. Hitobito wo miryō shita geisha kashu [The geisha singers that captivated audiences].(2017, August 25). Takeda Tetsuya no Shōwa wa kagayaiteita 192 [movie broadcast]. https://www.tv- tokyo.co.jp/broad_bstvtokyo/program/detail/201708/23312_201708252100.html Hughes, D. (2008). Traditional folk song in Japan: Sources, sentiment and society. Global Oriental. Ichimaru. (1972/2007). Meiji ichidai onna [Recorded by company][CD]. Victor Entertainment. Interview with a geigi: Higashiyama Onsen, Aizuwakamatsu. (2020, March 7). City-cost: Sharing experiences of life in Japan. https://www.city-cost.com/blogs/City- Cost/zVqo4%20living_aizuwakamatsu_shi_fukushima Jude, G. (2018). Vocal processing in transnational music performances, from phonograph to Vocaloid [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California Davis]. Kheshti, R. (2015). Modernity’s ear: Listening to race and gender in world music [Kindle version]. New York University Press. Utau tanuki goten [Palace of the singing raccoon dog].(2019, December 19). Nihon Eiga Database. http://www.jmdb.ne.jp/1942/br001080.htm Kirishima, Ichimaru ra kaeru [Kirishima, Ichimaru and company return home].(1950, July 11). Asahi Shinbun, Tokyo edition. Kitamura, H. (2009). Hollywood’s new’ Orientalism: The case of Tokyo file 212 (1951). Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 29 (4), 505-522. Kodama, Y. (2007). Geisha kara, meikashu e: Kouta Katsutarō no shōgai. [From geisha to famous singer: Biography of Kouta Katsutarō]. Self-published. Kurata, Y. (1979). Nihon rekōdo bunkashi. [Cultural history of records in Japan]. Iwanami Gendai Bunko. Masuda, S. (1957/2003). Autobiography of a geisha. Translated by G.G. Rowley. Columbia University Press. Matsugu, M. (2006). In the service of the nation: Geisha and Kawabata Yasunari’s Snow Country. In M. Feldman and B. Gordon (Eds.), The courtesan’s arts: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 243-252). Oxford University Press. Michiyakko. (2019). Nihon eiga deitabeisu [Japan movie database] http://www.jmdb.ne.jp/person/p0331170.htm Michiyakko. (2020). Japanese cinema database. Government of Japan, Agency for Cultural Affairs. https://www.japanese-cinema-db.jp/KeywordSearches/result#staff_tbl Misora, H. (1958). Hibari hauta sōshi [LP]. Columbia. Mori K. (1994). [Liner notes]. Konna watashi janakatta ni [I wasn't like this][CD]. Nippon Columbia. Mori K. (1995). [Liner notes]. Sentō kawaiya [Adorable boatman][CD]. Nippon Columbia. Nagahara, H. (2017). Tokyo boogie-woogie: Japan's pop era and its discontentsI[Kindle version]. Harvard University Press. Nakayama, Y. (1958/1999). Tajōbosatsu: Kiyozō jiden. [Boddhisatva of feeling: The autobiography of Kiyozō]. Ōzorasha. Naruse M. (1954). Late chrysanthemums [Bangiku.] Film. Tōhō. Norma, C. (2016). The Japanese comfort women and sexual slavery during the China and Pacific wars. Bloomsbury Academic. Okada, M. (2010). Before making heritage: Internationalisation of geisha in the Meiji period. In C. Brumann and R. Cox (Eds.), Making Japanese heritage (pp. 31-43). Routledge. Okada N. (1997). Yoshiwara shimeji to ryūkō uta rekōdo. [Yoshiwara Shimeji and early popular recordings.] Zoku shūshū kidan rekōdo korekutāzu, 76 (May), 106–111. Okada, T. (2020, June 11). Proteges of last geisha in Nara district let loose as YouTubers. The Asahi Shinbun. http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/13445755. Osada G. (1991). [Liner notes]. Iki, Ichimaru: Uta hitosuji rokujūnen [Elegant Ichimaru: 60 years of song] [Cassette and video box set]. Victor Entertainment. Osada G. (1998). [Liner notes]. Hontō ni sō nara [If it were really so] [CD]. Nippon Columbia. Performing arts thrown lifelines in Japan as virus puts damper on entertainment. (2020, June 28). The Japan Times. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/06/28/national/local-japan-governments-subsidize- coronavirus-art-culture/ Seigle, C. S. (1993). Yoshiwara: The glittering world of the Japanese courtesan. University of Hawaii Press. Shibusawa, N. (2006). America's geisha ally: Reimagining the Japanese enemy. Harvard University Press. Stanley, A. (2012). Selling women: Prostitution, markets, and the household in early modern Japan. University of California Press. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (101-114) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 114 Stanley, A. (2013). Enlightenment geisha: The sex trade, education and feminine ideals in early Meiji Japan. Journal of Asian studies, 72(3), 539-562. Stevens, C. (2008). Japanese popular music: Culture, authenticity and power. Routledge Press. Takeuchi M. (2004). [Liner notes]. Fuijimoto Fumikichi zenkyokushū ichi [Complete works of Fujimoto Fumikichi, disc one] [CD]. Columbia Music Entertainment. Till, B., Warkentyne, M. & Patt, J. (2001). From geisha to diva: The kimonos of Ichimaru. Art Gallery of Greater Victoria. Uguisu geisha kashu to ryūkō kouta: SP-ban rekōdo no jidai. [The uguisu geisha kashu and popular kouta: The age of SP records][CD box set]. (2018). [Liner notes]. Columbia Japan. Wright, Y. E. (2016). The arts of the geisha: Unravelling the artistic traditions and the aesthetics of iroke through an analysis of their dance and music [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Pittsburgh. Yano, C. (2002). Tears of longing: Nostalgia and the nation in Japanese popular song. Harvard University Press. Yano, T. and Tsujita, M. (2015). [Liner notes]. Minna wa ninare: Gunkoku ondo no sekai. [Everyone make a circle: The world of wartime songs][CD]. Gramoclub. Biography Gretchen Jude is a postdoctoral research fellow sponsored by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (Gakushin), in the Department of Music Education at Yokohama National University. Jude holds an MFA in Electronic Music and Recording Media from Mills College (California) and PhD in Performance Studies from the University of California Davis, as well as performance certification from the Sawai Koto Institute in Tokyo. Jude is currently working on a monograph about Ichimaru and her fellow geisha recording stars.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

boat lutes, gagayan, Kadazan Dusun, Lotud, Rungus, Sabah, sundatang

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3879

Revisiting the Dusunic Boat Lutes of Sabah: Disappearing Musical Traditions

The Kadazan Dusun

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3879/2670

Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 115 Revisiting the Dusunic Boat Lutes of Sabah: Disappearing Musical Traditions Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities and Borneo Institute for Indigenous Studies Universiti Malaysia Sabah e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 9 December 2020 Cite this article (APA): Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2020). Revisiting the Dusunic boat lutes of Sabah: Disappearing musical traditions, 9, 115-137.https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.9.2020 Abstract The Kadazan Dusun sundatang from Tambunan, the Rungus sundatang, and the Lotud gagayan are three kinds of boat lutes from Sabah. Each is carved from a single log of jackfruit wood, but they vary structurally. Resembling somewhat Philippine boat lutes, they differ from the sape-types of Sarawak and Kalimantan. They are played solo in non-ritual contexts. The gagayan, however, was played in pairs and the Tambunan sundatang was sometimes accompanied by a hand-held gong when accompanying the slow, sedate magarang sundatang dance. Today, there are very few musicians playing the unique Tambunan sundatang, while the Lotud gagayan has recently declined with the demise of older performers. The Rungus sundatang is still extant and continues to be performed in many longhouses. This paper discusses these three types of Dusunic boat lutes, their structures, performance practices and music, and suggests a possible origin for these kinds of instruments found in northern Borneo. Keywords: boat lutes, gagayan, Kadazan Dusun, Lotud, Rungus, Sabah, sundatang Introduction Boat lutes, so named by western scholars because their long slender soundboxes somewhat resemble boat shapes, were once widely played throughout Borneo, the Philippines, and Central and Southern Sulawesi. Those generally known as kucapi in the southern Philippines are normally double-stringed and have small bodies and long necks (Brandeis, 2012, 2017, 2019). These differ from the various kinds of sape or sampe found in Sarawak and Kalimantan that have short necks, long rectangular bodies, and differing numbers of strings according to culture and location (Matusky, 1986, pp.188-189; Matusky & Tan, 2017, pp. 286-287). Boat lutes are also played among the cultures of Central and South Sulawesi and have narrow bodies like the Philippine types, but with short necks (Daud, 2011). Sabah also has so-called boat lutes which, like those of the surrounding regions, are each carved from single logs of certain kinds of jackfruit tree wood. Jackfruit woods are preferred, because they are soft and can be easily carved into the required shape, and are also resistant to termites. The instruments have two strings, with frets placed below the higher pitched string on the right side of the neck from the observer’s viewpoint1. Three main types of long-necked boat lutes are found among the indigenous Dusunic peoples of Sabah.2 These include the sundatang of the Kadazan Dusun of Tambunan District, the sundatang of Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 116 the Rungus of Kudat District, and the large gagayan of the Lotud of Tuaran District (Figure 1). Except for the Lotud gagayan which was normally played in pairs, these are usually solo instruments. They are performed in non-ritual contexts for entertainment and personal expression. These three boat lute genres were chosen for discussion here because they represent three distinct types of such instruments from three musical traditions that, until recently, were still being performed. Figure 1. Map showing locations of villages mentioned in this article. (Source: Oliver Valentine Eboy, 12 November 2020) The ancient indigenous Dusunic Family of Languages consists of around ten major languages (Ethnologue®, 2016). Dusunic ethnic groups traditionally inhabit parts of the central interior, western and northern Districts of Sabah. They are non-segmented, acephalous societies with bilateral kinship systems and gender balance. As large sedentary agrarian societies, they cultivate wet rice on alluvial plains and dry rice in mountainous areas. Traditionally, they lived in villages composed of longhouses in which each conjugal family occupied a private apartment. The last Borneo smallpox pandemic of 1904-1905 and World War II led to the demise of Dusunic longhouses, except among the Rungus where many contemporary longhouses are found. Of the three Dusunic cultures whose lutes are the focus of this discussion, the Kadazan Dusun or Dusun are the largest single ethnic group in Sabah with a population of approximately 25% of the state’s population (Regis, 1989, p. 415). They inhabit the Districts of Ranau, Tambunan, Kota Belud, Penampang and Papar. There are dialectal and cultural variations across these areas. Those from Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 117 Tambunan District, number around 33,000 (based on 2008 District Office figures and allowing for 10% increase). The Rungus are the second largest Dusunic group with a total population of 120,000 to 150,000 (Porodong, 2012, p. 111). They are the original ancient inhabitants of the Kudat Peninsula in northern Sabah. Around 150 years ago, a group migrated east to the Bengkoka Peninsula (part of today’s Pitas District). Today, some mixed Rungus villages are also dispersed across Kota Marudu District among the Kimaragang Dusun and other groups there. The Lotud number around 20,000 and are the main ethnic group of Tuaran District (Ethnologue®, 2016). I first heard about the sundatang while visiting my husband’s village, Kg. Karanaan3 of the inland upland Tambunan District in 1977. This was a short three-month trip for a moginakan family feast in honour of our marriage in 1976 in Australia. The instrument was said to be quite rare and many people claimed they had never seen one. Later after returning to live in Sabah in 1982, I was able to study this sundatang, as well as other instruments from Tambunan and the music associated with these. Over the years, I have undertaken deeper research among many other local cultures. Recently, I have re-examined and updated some of my earlier findings on the structure and nomenclature for parts of the Tambunan sundatang. Gleaned from decades of ongoing ethnomusicological research in Sabah, this article compares the Kadazan Dusun sundatang from Tambunan, with the Rungus sundatang and the Lotud gagayan. It seeks to answer the following questions. What are the differences in structure, performance practice and context between the three main types of boat lutes played in their respective Dusunic cultures of Sabah? What are the characteristics of their music? Are there organological relationships between these lutes and those of surrounding regions? And finally, what is the status of these performance genres in Sabah today? The Kadazan Dusun Sundatang from Tambunan The sundatang of the Kadazan Dusun from Tambunan has a small, somewhat diamond-shaped or oval body with a neck of over a metre long. It is made from jackfruit tree woods, either nangko (Artocarpus integer; Malay nangka) or timadang (Artocarpus odorartissimus; Malay tarap). During construction, the front is hollowed out, then covered by a thin piece of wood with a bridge and a “nose” or stringholder.4 The rounded tapered tuning pegs for the two strings are inserted diagonally into either side of the pegbox that is an extension of the neck. The lower part of the body is carved into a large thick “tail”. Of the two strings, the lower pitched one on the viewer’s left is made from wire (formerly brass), while the other one on the viewer’s right nowadays is made from nylon string (formerly giman root, botanical classification undefined). The latter is affixed to the neck roughly halfway along its length with a small lump of beeswax (sopihut or sopinit). Four to seven frets of thin cane or tuai (Calamus javensis), that has been cut crosswise, are gummed to the neck with beeswax under this string below this lump. The other, longer string has no frets below it, and its sound functions as a drone in the sundatang music. During performance, the musician sits holding the sundatang vertically or tilted slightly to his or her left, with the tail at the lower end of its body supported under the right thigh. The performer strums and plucks the strings across the front of the body with the fingers of the right hand, while the fingers of the left hand stop and unstop the fretted string on the right (Figure 2). Madam Kimoi, now 88 years old, of Kg. Timbou (not far from Kg. Karanaan) is among the last sundatang performers in Tambunan. She inherited her sundatang from her father. It is made from light coloured nangko, the common jackfruit tree wood. The front of the instrument is also a piece of nangko that was glued to the body with sopihut. According to Kimoi, the neck of the sundatang was originally much longer, but the instrument was broken when someone grabbed it to hit a dog that had entered the house when she was a child. Her father repaired the instrument, but the neck is shorter than it was originally and there is now a joint that can be seen on the front below the frets and higher up across its back. There are also only four frets on the front (Figure 3a and Figure 3b). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 118 Figure 2. Madam Kimoi (then around 54 years) of Kg. Timbou, Tambunan playing her father’s sundatang. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 15 December 1986) Figure 3a (left) Madam Kimoi, then aged around 53, showing the front and Figure 3b (right) back of her sundatang. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 20 July 1985) Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 119 Kimoi’s nomenclature for the parts of her sundatang is a mixture of terms for body parts, functional words and, for the strings and frets, the materials from which they are made (Figure 4). She refers to the pegbox at the top of the instrument as timbok, the term for a lady’s hair bun, while she calls each of the tuning-pegs pongisusan, “the place that you turn” referring to the turning action of tightening the strings on the pegs. Each string is wound onto its peg, which is then inserted into the pegbox. The strings are collectively called pongombitan (“the place that you pluck”), but are individually named according to the materials from which they are made. Thus, the longer string on the viewer’s left is called kawot (that Kimoi pronounces as kawat), which refers to brass or metal wire and also conveys the idea of tightening or tuning. The shorter string on the viewer’s right was traditionally made from the root of the giman plant and hence was named giman. Nowadays, she uses thin nylon fishing line or tansi for this string, and thus calls it tansi (some say tangsi). Kimoi refers to the soundbox as the tinan or “body” of the instrument. It has a large hole at the back and a smaller hole on the front between the pinonodu (wedge) or bridge, and the stringholder, the comparatively short todung sundatang or “nose” of the sundatang. The base of the tinan extends into a large thick tikiu or “tail” that supports the instrument under her right thigh during performance.5 Figure 4. The Kadazan Dusun sundatang from Tambunan with Kimoi’s labels. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 30 November 2020) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 120 During 1987, I was able to interview the late Unsud bin Masigi of Kg. Karanaan, a sundatang player then around 63 years old, who had inherited his instrument from his ancestors as far back as six generations before. This had a similar structure to that of Kimoi’s sundatang, but it had a long neck measuring 122 centimetres. The instrument was made from a single trunk of dark-coloured sturdy lugu timadang or core of the timadang (Malay: tarap) a jackfruit tree from the forest. The body had been hollowed out from the front, and the front face was made from lighter-coloured nangko wood. The original tuning pegs had disintegrated, so Unsud had replaced them with rectangular pieces of nangko wood (Figure 5). Unsud labelled the parts of his sundatang using similar terminology to that of Kimoi. However, he called the pegbox at the top of the instrument tuhu or “head,” and the tuning pegs were each named pongiruson “the place that you tune” referring to tuning the strings. He called the neck tinggayan “the place that can be held”. There were seven groups of six notches each cut along each side of the neck from just below the pegbox. Unsud explained that six of these groups were carved consecutively by his ancestors one after the other who had learned to play the instrument, and each notch represented one year that a particular ancestor took to practice playing the sundatang until they were proficient (a year was estimated according to one padi-planting and harvesting cycle). Unsud had also carved the last group of notches as a record of his years of practice. Each performer played the instrument throughout his life, then it would be taken up by one of his children when he was too old to play. This indicates that Unsud’s sundatang may be around 300 hundred years old. According to local legend, the ancestor who originally made the sundatang is said to have used the instrument to bash and kill a large bugang or flying eagle-like monster that was attacking and eating the people in the longhouse.6 Although Unsud knew who his ancestors were, he would not tell me their names in accordance with Tambunan traditional custom which forbids articulating the names of one’s forebears in conversation. Figure 5. The late Unsud Masigi, around 63 years, with the sundatang inherited from his ancestors. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 19 December 1987) Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 121 The Kadazan Dusun sundatang of Tambunan is traditionally performed for entertainment in the home. Its music imitates at a slower pace the patterns of tinondot, the music of the sopogandangan gong ensemble that consists of a hand-held gong called koritikon when it is played in the ensemble, seven hanging gongs of various kinds, and a single-headed drum. This ensemble accompanies dancing or magarang. Sometimes, the sundatang can be accompanied by another person beating the koritikon. This sundatang music accompanies the slow sedate magarang sundatang dance by a couple. In this case, the dancers move their feet flat on the floor; the man raises his arms and hands only to waist height, not shoulder height, and the woman raises her hands merely to hip height with her arms hanging outwards, not curved upwards. Although rarely performed today, the magarang sundatang is suited to dancing in a confined space such as a room, or private family apartment in a longhouse of the olden days. An example from the start of a sundatang performance by Kimoi is shown in Figure 6. The syncopated rhythms are akin to the colotomic patterns of tinondot, but the pace of the music is much slower. The kawot sounds around a major 6th below the open nylon or tansi string. The kawot forms a drone below the melodic patterns played on the higher pitched string. These patterns freely imitate the composite melodic structures of the gong ensemble music, but the rhythms of the music for dancing can still be heard. Kimoi said that the kawot string provides a distinctive ringing metallic sound that enhances the music. Unsud explained that the giman string was the leader in the music while the kawot merely emphasized the beat. Figure 6. Excerpt from the start of a sundatang performance by Kimoi. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh- Kitingan, 1 March 1986) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 122 Figure 7 shows the basic colotomic pattern of tinondot by the sopogandangan ensemble from Kg. Timbou and Kg. Karanaan. The koritikon is the small hand-held knobbed gong, while the karatung is a single-headed native drum with tuning pegs around its head. The other instruments are various kinds of hanging gongs, and each of these names denotes the rhythmic pattern that each instrument plays. Each part combines to form vibrant rhythmic music that accompanies dancing in both social ceremonial contexts (Pugh-Kitingan, 1988, pp. 26-27, 35, 43-45, 54-56; 2003, pp. 4-11, 35-37). Here, the pitches shown beside the instrument names indicate the most audible frequencies in the timbre of each instrument, while the time signatures provide an approximation of the basic beat. The gongs labelled koritikon, bobogon, kuribadon, and kutoukutowon are generically called sanang in Kadazan Dusun. They are smallish thick brass gongs of various sizes, each with a flat face around the boss and a back diameter that is much smaller than the front. The tagung tatahis (“high-pitched tagung”) and tagung tohombou (“low-pitched tagung”) are large, thin, narrow-sided, brass gongs, generically called tagung, each with a raised ridge around the boss and back and front diameters of the same size. The tongtoongon and tawag are generically labelled tawag and are large, heavy, deep-sided brass or bronze gongs, each with a raised ridge around its large boss, and a back diameter that is much smaller than the front. Here, the instruments are shown in order of their physical position in the ensemble. Musically, however, the instruments enter koritikon, karatung, bobogon, kuribadon, kutoukutowon, then the two interlocking tagung, followed by the two tawag. An individual gong is known by its generic name until it is included in the ensemble. Then it takes on the specific musical name of the part that it plays. Figure 7. Basic colotomic pattern of tinondot or music of the sopogamdangan ensemble. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 23 March 2012) A comparison between Figures 6 and 7 shows that although the pace of the sundatang music is much slower than tinondot, its syncopated beat reflects that of the gong ensemble performance. The rhythmic patterns of the drone string recall the dominant beat of the koritikon and karatung, while the melodic patterns of the upper string somewhat resemble the colotomic patterns of the hanging gongs. Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 123 The Rungus Sundatang from Kudat Unlike the lute from Tambunan, the sundatang of the Rungus of Kudat District is always a man’s solo instrument played for personal expression or to entertain children and others in the longhouse. Rungus women prefer to play the turali noseflute. As shown previously in the turali example from Kg. Bavanggazo, Kudat, young women who were novice bobolizan (priestesses) in the traditional Rungus religion used the turali to help them memorise rinait, the long sacred ritual poetry (Pugh-Kitingan, 2017, pp. 15-28). Although they were prohibited from chanting rinait outside of ritual contexts, they could softly blow the tunes of the chants with the turali. Over time, women developed secular turali performance that freely imitates the melodies of chants. The turali is thus a woman’s instrument among the Rungus, while men prefer sundatang. An example of a Rungus sundatang is that of Mogowan bin Malis, now around 64 years, from Kg. Gombizau, Kudat, located not far from Kg. Bavanggazo. It is made from nangko wood (Figure 8). Structurally this instrument has a deeper somewhat squarish soundbox, compared to the sundatang from Tambunan, and has a comparatively shorter neck. Mogowan refers to this neck in the Rungus language as randagan (“handle”), which conveys a similar meaning to tinggayan in Kadazan Dusun. The front face of the body has a pattern of small holes above the stringholder, but there is no bridge. The stringholder is longer and narrower than that of the Tambunan sundatang, and extends down to the end of the front. This sundatang sometimes has a small thin carving at its lower end, but lacks the large protruding tail at the base of the body that is part of the Tambunan sundatang. When making a Rungus sundatang, the body of the instrument is hollowed out from the back. Its strings are inserted into the two holes in the stringholder on the front, and also through two holes in the pegbox. Each then exits through a hole in the pegbox to be wound onto a tuning peg. After the strings are inserted, the back is covered by two thin layers of wood that are stitched with string or wire at one end and gummed to the body (Figure 9). Both strings or hontol are made from wire (formerly brass). Unlike the sundatang from Tambunan, each tuning peg is inserted at right angles into the pegbox and then its short protruding end winds up the string. Its frets or ulob are chips of bamboo or cane, each mounted vertically under the higher-pitched string in a mound of beeswax. This higher-pitched string, on the lower front side of the neck when played, is stuck to the neck by a lapazan or fixed fret. Below this there are five ulob, two (or sometimes three) on the upper part of the body, and the others along the lower part of the neck. In addition to functional terms in the Rungus language, Mogowan uses anthropomorphic body parts terminology for most the sections of his sundatang (Figure 10). Thus, the soundbox is labelled inan (“body”), its tiny tail at the end end is busul (“bottom” or “buttocks”), the front face is kangkab (“chest”), and the sections at the top of the inan on either side of the randagan are its kazab (“shoulders”). Its inner back layer is called likud (“back”), and this is covered by the outer atob or cover. The long stringholder on the front of the kangkab is called the todung (“nose”) of the sundatang, while the pegbox below the carving at the other end of the randagan is the ulu (“head”) and the two tuning pegs are its tohingo (“ears”). The ulu or pegbox extends into a carved decoration or biningkoko. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 124 Figure 8. Mogowan from Kg. Gombizau, Kudat playing sundatang. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh- Kitingan, 23 May 1992) Figure 9. Rear view of Mogowan playing the sundatang showing its back and tuning pegs. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 23 May 1992) Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 125 Figure 10. The Rungus sundatang using Mogowan’s labels. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 30 November 2020) Unlike the sundatang from Tambunan, however, this instrument is held horizontally in the lap with the neck pointing to the player’s left like a guitar, and the fretted string is plucked with the nail of the little finger of the right hand while the thumb plays the unfretted string as shown in Figure 8. The soft-sounding music of the sundatang can imitate various Rungus songs, and also the Rungus pongigalan or gong ensemble music for accompanying mongigol (Rungus dancing). In pieces that imitate pongigalan, the performer will periodically knock his right forefinger on the kangkab above the strings to freely suggest the tontog or single-headed drum that is played with the hanging gongs. This performance is to entertain children and others in the longhouse. There is not room here to give a detailed discussion of Rungus sundatang music. A fragment of a performance by Mogowan, then aged around 36 years, is transcribed in Figure 11. The music in this example freely imitates the traditional Rungus song called “Mamaranggi”. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 126 Pitches by ear Figure 11. Excerpt from the start of a sundatang performance imitating a song Mamaranggi, by Mogowan (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 2 July 2020) Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 127 As shown here, the pitch of the unfretted string sounds an octave below that of the open fretted string. This music is very soft, and its overall sound is dominated by the sonorous drone of the unfretted string that is played with the right thumb. In this short excerpt, the performer does not use the two highest pitches of the fretted string. The music is characterised by recurring grace notes and occasional semiquaver and demisemiquaver-like motifs. The latter are extremely soft, and are produced as the performer rapidly plucks the higher-pitched string, with the nail of the little finger of the right hand. The soft but penetrating sound of the Rungus sundatang can be heard throughout the longhouse, even in private family apartments at the farthest end of the building. When played at night, it has a soothing effect that is said to help children settle down to sleep. The Lotud Gagayan from Tuaran Like the Rungus sundatang, the gagayan lute of the Lotud from Tuaran District of Sabah is traditionally a man’s instrument, while women prefer to play the turali. As shown previously in the discussion of turali from Kg. Dungang, Tuaran, women play two sizes of noseflute to copy the tunes of secular songs for entertainment (Pugh-Kitingan, 2017, pp. 19-22). The gagayan, however, is a large, loud instrument that was considered too heavy and cumbersome for a woman to comfortably play. It is much larger than the Kadazan Dusun and Rungus lutes, and is held horizontally in the lap pointing to the player’s left like the Rungus sundatang, but is supported by a cord worn around the performer’s neck. Traditionally, gagayan were often played in duets (batangkung). The late Liput bin Enah and the late Tombung bin Ambing of Kg. Tutu often played their gagayan together in batangkung (Figure 12). Each instrument was made from nangko, described as kulipapo or softwood, but timadang could also be used for making a gagayan. Tombung’s instrument had a dark brown colour and appeared to be much older than that of Liput. Like the Rungus sundatang but unlike the sundatang from Tambunan, each gagayan lacked a bridge on their fronts. They had been hollowed out from the back during construction, and the open back was covered by two layers of thin wood as tutub (“covers”). The outer layer of the tutub had a large carved hole or ruang (“space”) in the middle. The ruang on Tombung’s gagayan was heart- shaped, while that of Liput was oval-shaped. These two layers of thin wood were gummed into the frame of the hollowed out back of the gagayan. They were not stitched to the body with metal wire, like the Rungus sundatang (Figure 13). Both musicians used similar terminology for the parts of their gagayan (Figure 14). The large, deep, somewhat rectangular soundbox is called inan (“body”), while the long stringholder is the odung (“nose”). The two brass strings or obuk enter this at the front of the body, as on the Kadazan Dusun and Rungus sundatang, but are wound across the front of the odung through a series of small holes on either side. Above the odung, the front of the inan features a series of tiny resonance holes or lobu that form a triangular shape. At the end of the inan, each instrument has the carving of the shape of an animal head. Liput’s very large gagayan has the head of a horse or kuda, while that of Tombung’s has the head of a deer or binanjou. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 128 Figure 12. Liput (left, 60 years) and Tombung (55 years) playing their gagayan in batangkung (duet). (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 8 August 1985) Figure 13. A rear view of three gagayan showing their double-layered back covers (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 6 August 1985) Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 129 The long, thick neck of the gagayan is named tonok or “calf” (leg), and the pegbox extends into carved design called a kuku or “tail”. The kuku on Tombung’s gagayan is carved into the shape of a deer’s tail, while that of Liput has a curled shape like a horse’s tail. A decorative cloth or wiriwiri is hung from the kuku. These gagayan have two metal strings called obuk, and the string on the bottom, when held in a playing position, is stuck halfway along the tonok with a piece of beeswax gum or tukod. Six thin cane frets or soludon are stuck flat against its long neck under the inner string below the tukod, like the frets on the Tambunan sundatang. There is a cut-out section on the front of the pegbox where the strings enter. Each tuning peg turns the strings inside the pegbox. The tuning pegs are called simbong (“earrings”), because they stick out perpendicular to the pegbox like a pair of woman’s earrings. Figure 14. The structure of Liput’s gagayan (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 30 November 2020) Essentially the same terminology for the parts of their instruments was used by the late Reja bin Ambayang of Kg. Dungang and the late KK Lintar bin Ugau (then both in their late 50s) whom I recorded playing their gagayan duet at Kg. Tutu Solupuh in January 1996. Reja and Lintar, however, used the term kinuda for the pegbox and distinguished it from the kuku. The strings of their gagayan were also made from wire, but Lintar explained that in former times both strings were made from giman. Guitar wire has a louder, more brassy sound than giman root, and is more durable. Gagayan performance was traditionally regarded as a highly esteemed art form, and was played in secular social contexts. The music produced was usually a free imitation of old traditional songs. These may be discerned from the recorded performances, but the melodic notation of batangkung defies detailed transcription. The instruments are deep-sounding, very loud, and each performer has his own particular tuning that produces a combined discordant texture in the duet. Figure 15 shows two recurring rhythmic motifs from the performance by Liput and Tombung. Strident variations of the first motif, alternated with overlapping triplet-like figures of the second. As in Reja’s and Luntar’s duet, the sounding of the two instruments was not always synchronous. Some passages are drowned out, especially in episodes with rapid ornamental motifs that are not played together in time. The lower- pitched strings also dominate the timbre, making frequency differentiation difficult. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 130 Figure 15. Recurring motifs in gagayan music Relationships with Boat Lutes from Surrounding Areas The Tobilung Dusun who inhabit the hilly area between northern Kota Belud and Kota Marudu Districts also play sundatang, as do the west coastal Kadazan of Penampang and Kinarut. The Kimaragang Dusun of Kota Marudu formerly played sundatang, but it appears that this instrument is no longer extant. These instruments were said to resemble the sundatang of the Rungus, being hollowed out from the back of the soundblox. The Tobilung instrument, however, had cane frets stuck flat against its neck and body. This instrument today has been modified with a guitar pegbox and six strings, of which four sound sympathetically below the two main strings. The rare coastal Kadazan sundatang has frets mounted in beeswax and tuning pegs inserted perpendicular to the pegbox. The sundatang is also found in a couple of villages among the Dusun in Ranau District in the interior of Sabah to the northeast of Tambunan District (Johan Adam Kitingan, personal communication, 30 June 2020). The Labuk Dusun (also known as Labuk-Kinabatangan Kadazan or Eastern Kadazan) of Beluran District also have a lute called sundatang. This instrument, however, resembles a long gambus lute with a large bulbous soundbox that is hollowed out from the front and covered with thin wood or goat skin. It has six strings. Although this instrument indicates diffusion from contact with east coastal Muslim communities, it plays music in the same social contexts as the older sundatang instruments of Sabah (Alut, 1991, pp. 26,102). Apart from the Dusunic instruments discussed above, boat lutes were also found among other cultures in Sabah. The Iranun of Kota Belud District (formerly Tempasuk) on the west coast of Sabah, a former maritime people of the Danao Language Family, also played a kudiapi that is no longer extant but is said to have resembled some of the Maranao kutiyapi from Mindanao (Brandeis, 2012; 2019, pp. 27-28). The Iranun and Maranao speak related Danao languages and have close historical connections. As mentioned above, Sabah’s boat lutes are quite different from the sape types of Sarawak and Kalimantan further south in Borneo that have short necks, larger rectangular bodies and varying numbers of strings (Matusky, 1986, pp. 188-189; Matusky & Tan, 2017, pp. 286-287). It is possible that Dusunic lutes in Sabah may have either developed through coastal trade with the Iranun, or that the Iranun may have acquired indigenous lutes from Dusunic peoples in northern Borneo and spread them through trade into the wider southeast Asian region. It is not known when the Iranun first settled in northern Borneo, but they were already present on the coast of Tempasuk before the arrival of Maranao refugees fleeing volcanic eruptions in Mindanao from before 1667 and around 1765 (Warren, 1981, pp. 149-150; 2002, pp. 45-47). Linguistically, Sabah Iranun predates Maranao (McKaughan, 1996; Smith, 2011, pp. 5-6). In previous centuries, Sabah’s Iranun were metallurgists and major maritime traders of slaves, brassware, textiles, horses and other goods across southeast Asia under the Brunei Empire and later (Gowing, 1987, pp. 150-160; Pugh- Kitingan, 2007). From the 15th to 17th centuries, the Brunei Empire controlled Sarawak, all the coastal areas of northern Borneo (today’s Sabah), and parts of the Philippines as far north as Manila (Bala, 2005; Warren 2002, p. 20, pp. 33-34). The Iranun of northern Borneo formed important linkages between Brunei other peoples throughout the region. In Sabah, Iranun trading posts were located at river mouths along the west coast from Mengkabong in Tuaran up to Indarasan in Kudat and also at Marudu Bay in northern Sabah, as well as at Tungku in today’s Lahad Datu District on the east coast (Warren, 2002, pp. 126- 137). Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 131 The Iranun have historical trading relationships with the Rungus of Kudat, the Kimaragang of Kota Marudu, the Dusun Tindal of Kota Belud (a branch of the Kadazan Dusun), and also the Lotud of Tuaran. Iranun culture strongly influenced that of the west coast Bajau, a member of the Sama’ Family of Languages who were traditionally fishing communities along the shores of Tuaran and Kota Belud Districts. It appears, however, that the Bajau did not play boat lutes. Dusunic peoples from the interior also periodically trekked over the Crocker Range to the west coast to trade their rice for salt with coastal communities, as well as gongs, brassware, woven headcloths and ceremonial textiles. Although they differ in culture and religion, individual Iranun traders sometimes formed dyadic “blood brother” relationships with their longstanding indigenous trading partners, especially among the Rungus and Lotud. The Rungus also acquired a rare embroidered headcloth through trade with the Suluk (Taosug) from the Philippines. Hence, it is possible that certain kinds of long-necked boat lutes may have either spread from northern Borneo into the southern Philippines, or come into Sabah’s indigenous cultures through sporadic maritime trade. Brandeis (2019, p. 49) states that the small box-like sundatang of the Rungus is the origin of the large box-like boat lutes of the Pala’wan of Palawan and the Higaonon of Mindanao. He attributes the presence of such lutes among this in the Philippines to trade under the Brunei Empire. During a visit to Puerto Princesa, Palawan in 1995, I saw many such boat lutes for sale in handicraft shops. They closely resembled the Rungus sundatang, but came in three sizes. The smallest from base to pegbox was the same size as the Rungus instrument, while the largest was up to a metre longer than the height of a man. It should also be noted that the Bonggi, the indigenous people of Banggi and Balambangan Islands to the north of the Kudat Peninsula, speak a language of from Palawanic Family (Ethnologue ®, 2016). It is not known whether they played boat lutes, however, nor how much traditional contact they had with the Rungus. Brandeis’ extensive research on the Philippine boat lutes has identified and mapped 23 different types played in 37 indigenous cultures, encompassing the islands of Mindanao, Palawan and parts of Mindoro (Brandeis, 2017, pp. 36-37; 2019, pp. 17-24). Apart from connections with the Rungus sundatang, there are other structural similarities and differences between the Philippine boat lutes and the Sabah instruments. Brandeis notes that Philippine boat lutes are each carved from a solid log of wood and the body is usually hollowed out from the back then covered with a thin wooden board. This single board is often tied to the body by wire or string, or just nailed or glued, and has a sound hole or a pattern of little holes. Some lutes have carved animal heads at the ends of their bodies. Most have two strings—the fretted one plays melodies and is held fixed by a “zero fret”, while the unfretted one plays a drone and provides rhythmic emphasis in the music. The two tuning pegs are round sticks with handles, inserted laterally into both sides of the pegbox. The Manobo lute, however, has obliquely- inserted tuning pegs that cross inside the pegbox. The stringholder on a Mindanao lute is very long and also functions as a bridge. On large boat lutes, the frets are chips of wood mounted in gum under the melodic string, and some frets may be glued to the front of the soundbox. The two strings are usually of the same material, either metal or formerly root. Mindanao lutes have a cut-out nut section at the peg box to support the strings (Brandeis, 2012, pp. 6-7; 2019, p. 8-10). The Rungus sundatang and Lotud gagayan are somewhat similar to these, except that they have two layers of wood covering their backs. The two Rungus sundatang back boards are usually stitched at one end and glued to the body, while the gagayan resonance boards are both glued into the back of the instrument. The gagayan also has a horse or deer head carved at the end of the body and a carving of the animal’s tail at the end of the pegbox. Horses are not normally part of Lotud culture, but they were significant in Iranun culture. The body shape of the gagayan, however, is different from most of the Philippine boat lutes. Both the Rungus sundatang and gagayan have somewhat box-like soundboxes, but the gagayan sides are more rounded than the Rungus sundatang. Apart from the Pala’wan and Higaonon instruments observed by Brandeis, it appears that the Philippine instruments lack the distinct shape demarcation between body and neck of the Sabah lutes (Rungus kazab or “shoulders”). Like the Philippine instruments, however, both lutes have two metal strings, and tuning pegs inserted at right angles to their pegboxes. The stringholders on the Rungus sundatang and Lotud Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 132 gagayan each function as a bridge. The frets of the Rungus instrument are mounted vertically in beeswax, and the fretted string is held in place by a lump of beeswax (a “zero fret” in Brandeis’ terminology). The strings on a Rungus sundatang enter the top of the neck through two small holes in the wood, and exit to be wound by the tuning pegs. The gagayan, however, has a cut-out nut section at the base of the pegbox that Brandeis noted on Philippine lutes, and the strings are turned for tuning inside the pegbox. The Tambunan sundatang shares some similarities with these other lutes. The body, however, is hollowed out from the front. The instrument has a bridge on the front face, a short stringholder, two strings of different materials and diagonally inserted tuning pegs. The holes in its pegbox are unconnected, and the tuning pegs do not actually cross each other. During performance, it is held in an upright position, unlike the other two types that are held horizontally. There are some similarities, however, in performance technique between the Sabah lutes and Philippine boat lutes. It appears that most of the Philippine instruments are held somewhat horizontally, like the Rungus sundatang and gagayan. While most Philippine instruments are played with a plectrum tied to the index finger of the strumming hand, the Pala’wan, Agusan Monobo and Subanen use their bare fingers (Brandeis, 2019, p. 61), as do the Kadazan Dusun and Lotud musicians. The Pala’wan use the fingernail of little finger of their right hand to pluck the fretted string (Ibid.) like the Rungus. In some Philippine performances, the musician may hit their thumb on the front of the body to copy the sound of a drum (Ibid.). As mentioned above, Rungus musicians also do this to imitate the tontog drum in pieces based on their gong ensemble music. These characteristics also support Brandeis belief that the Rungus sundatang is probably the origin of the Pala’wan and Higaonon instruments. In terms of performance practice, the Philippine instruments are sometimes played solo for personal entertainment, while some may accompany dancing and others may be played with a tube zither or a drum (Brandeis, 2019, pp. 64-67). As shown above, the sundatang from Tambunan formerly accompanied the magarang sundatang dance and was occasionally played with a hand-held koritikon gong. Gagayan, however, were usually played in duet, while the Rungus sundatang was always solo. Boat lutes are also played in Central and South Sulawesi. With the recent diaspora of Bugis people from southern Sulawesi into Tawau, especially from the 1960s onwards, the Bugis kecapi has come to Sabah. Like other boat lutes, this instrument has a long sleek body and two strings, but has a short neck. It is comparatively small and is held more or less horizontally, but its neck can point left or right according to preference, and is played with a plectrum. It is often performed in a group of two or three. It has become a significant feature of Bugis culture in Sabah, and is played solo or with other instruments during important social events (Daud, 2011). Current Status of the Sabah Genres In Tambunan, Kimoi has continued to perform her father’s sundatang over the years. Recently while she was away on a short trip, however, some children playing around in her house found the sundatang, broke the strings, smashing its face, and losing its bridge and one of its tuning pegs in the process. This has caused considerable distress for Kimoi, and attempts are underway to repair the instrument. Unsud passed away some decades ago. His brother Muja faithfully kept the old sundatang that was handed down over generations in their family, but the instrument is no longer played. It is believed that there is a spirit guarding the instrument, due to its great age.7 Meanwhile further south in Tambunan, Thadius Yongut, a renowned sompoton (mouthorgan) and suling (mouth flute) performer from Kg. Tikolod, has slowly been making a sundatang and intends to learn to play the instrument. The body of this instrument is also cut out from the front, like those of Unsud and Kimoi. Hopefully he will pass on this skill to younger generations. The Rungus sundatang is still extant and continues to be played by middle-aged and elderly men as a pastime in many longhouses. The comparative continuing popularity of the sundatang among the Rungus may be largely due to the homestay tourism that has developed in several villages among the Rungus of Kudat, such as Kg. Bavanggazo where tourists come to experience Rungus culture and music. Lotud gagayan performance was very common up to fifteen years ago, but today most performers have passed away. Only one very elderly musician remains, and he no longer plays the instrument. The rapid decline of the gagayan is largely due to a lack of interest by younger men, and Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 133 the invasive presence of new digital media among youths, especially cellular telephones with games. Younger men who often work away from their home villages, lack the time and patience to develop the skill of gagayan performance. Conclusions Sabah’s long-necked boat lutes are traditionally found in many Dusunic cultures, and constitute skilled artistic genres, being played in non-ritual contexts for entertainment. All three instruments discussed above are made from varieties of jackfruit tree wood, and have two strings with the lower-pitched string on the viewer’s left and the higher-pitched one, that is affixed to the neck and has frets below, on the viewer’s right. The sundatang from Tambunan differs markedly from the other two boat lutes examined here. During construction, its body is hollowed out from the front, not the back like the other instruments. It has a bridge on the front of its body, and its frets are pieces of thin cane affixed flat against its neck. Its two strings are made from different materials—the deeper sounding one from wire (formerly brass), and the higher pitched from nylon string (formerly giman root). The tuning pegs are inserted into its pegbox at an angle, rather than at right angles to the neck like the other instruments. During performance, this sundatang is held upright, with its “tail” supported under the musician’s right thigh. In Tambunan, both men and women can be sundatang players. This suggests that the sundatang genre from Tambunan represents a different tradition from those of the other two lutes, one that developed relatively independently in the interior of Sabah. The Rungus sundatang and the Lotud gagayan are normally men’s instruments. They are each constructed with the back hollowed out and covered by two layers of thin wood. While the gagayan has small cane frets stuck against its neck, the Rungus sundatang has its bamboo frets inserted vertically into mounds of beeswax under the higher-pitched string. The Rungus sundatang has a somewhat box- like body, while the gagayan has more rounded sides. Both of these lutes are held horizontally in the lap like a guitar unlike the Tambunan instrument. Although the structures of their pegboxes are different, both lutes have their tuning pegs inserted at right angles to the pegboxes. All three of the instruments discussed here use some anthropomorphic body parts terminology in labelling sections of their instruments. The two sundatang instruments identify the pegbox with head or parts of the head, and the base of the soundbox with a tail or buttocks. The gagayan, however, has the carving of the head of a deer or a horse at the end of its soundbox with the corresponding zoomorphic tail carved at the end of the pegbox. The neck is described as a calf (leg), however, and the tuning pegs as a woman’s earrings. It is clear from the indigenous nomenclature for the parts of these instruments that the western organological description of these lutes as “boat lutes” is culturally invalid. From indigenous perspectives, these lutes have nothing to do with boats. For the Kadazan Dusun and Rungus, the lutes are akin to a human form with the pegbox as the head, and the soundbox as the body. Apart from the designation of tuning pegs as “earrings”, the Lotud gagayan presents a reversal of this form with the carved animal head at the end of the body, its carved tail and the end of the pegbox and a leg between body and tail. The three instruments vary in terms of their sound dynamics. The Rungus sundatang is very soft, while the gagayan is very loud especially when played in pairs. The origins of these lutes in northern Borneo can only be postulated here. Clearly, they are part of a regional complex of such instruments throughout Borneo, the southern Philippines and parts of Sulawesi. The Sabah instruments, however, are structurally very different from the sape types of Sarawak and Kalimantan as documented by Matusky, and even the Bugis kecapi from Tawau, Sabah, studied by Daud (2011). The age of Unsud’s sundatang, suggests that distinctive boat lutes were being made and played hundreds of years ago in Tambunan which was then a remote interior area of Sabah. Brandeis recognises the Rungus sundatang as the forebear of similar box-shaped lutes in Palawan and Mindanao. On the other hand, the horse or deer head carvings on the gagayan and the cut-out nut section on its pegbox are somewhat similar to those on boat lutes documented in by Brandeis in the Philippines. It is possible that the local Lotud gagayan may have developed under influence from Philippine boat lutes Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 134 through coastal trade generations ago. But this is speculative and this requires more research. It appears, nevertheless, that northern Borneo may have been a source for diverse kinds of long-necked boat lutes from different cultures in previous eras. More research needs to be done specifically on long-necked lutes from other Dusunic groups, and any such instruments among other indigenous cultures in Sabah. It would also be providential if any surviving Iranun kudiapi from Sabah was found, so that structural linkages to the either the Sabah lutes, such as gagayan, or else to the Maranao kutiyapi of the Philippines could be determined. With the sudden cessation of gagayan performance in Tuaran and the gradual decline of the sundatang from Tambunan, these worthwhile performance traditions will become lost as new digital media takes the place of traditional entertainment. Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge all the sundatang and gagayan performers who have allowed me to record their music over the years. I also want to thank Dr. Paul Porodong, Research Associate, Institute of Borneo Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) for checking my spelling of Rungus terms and providing information about sundatang players from Kudat, Miss Judeth John Baptist, Operations Manager, Koisaan Cultural Village, Penampang, and also En. Frankie (son-in-law of Madam Kimoi) for checking my gagayan information and spelling of Lotud terms, and from Tambunan, En. Julius Kulip, Ethnobotanist, Institute of Tropical Biology and Conservation and Fellow of Borneo Institute for Indigenous Studies (BorIIS), Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), for botanical information, my nephew Johan Adam Kitingan, and my husband Laurentius Kitingan for checking my information on the Kadazan Dusun sundatang. I also wish to thank Dr. Oliver Valentine Eboy, Senior Lecturer, Geography Programme, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, and Research Fellow, BorIIS, UMS, for preparing the map, and especially Miss Fifiana Christin Morie for taking the time to convert my musical transcriptions into digital format. Glossary atob – “cover” (Rungus), the outer layer of wood that covers the of the inner back layer of a Rungus sundatang soundbox batangkung – a duet by Lotud gagayan performers binanjou – “deer” (Lotud), the deer-head carving at the end of a gagayan soundbox biningkoko – decorative carving at the end of a Rungus sundatang pegbox bobolizan – priestess of the traditional Rungus religion bugang – a legendary eagle-like monster that attacked people in longhouses on the Tambunan plain busul – “buttocks” (Rungus), the base of the soundbox of a Rungus sundatang gagayan - the large long-necked lute played by Lotud men gambus – a multi-stringed, pear-shaped lute of middle eastern origins, found in certain coastal communities of Sabah giman – a plant with long roots traditionally used for the fretted string on a Kadazan Dusun sundatang, and also formerly used for gagayan strings hontol – brass or wire strings on a Rungus sundatang inan – “body” (Rungus; Lotud), the soundbox on a boat lute kangkab – “chest”, the front of a Rungus sundatang kawot – brass or metal wire (Kadazan Dusun) used for the unfretted string on a sundatang kazab – “shoulders” (Rungus), the top of the soundbox of a Rungus sundatang, around its neck kecapi – the boat lute played among the Bugis community kucapi – a common term for boat lutes in the Philippines kuda – “horse” (Lotud; Malay), the horse-head carving at the end of a Lotud gagayan kudiapi – the boat lute formerly played among the Iranun of Sabah; no longer extant kuku – “tail” (Lotud), the carving of an animal’s tail at the end of a gagayan pegbox kulipapo – “softwood” (Lotud) kutiyapi – the boat lute of the Maranao of Mindanao Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 135 lapazan – the ‘fixed fret’ or piece of sopinit that fastens the melodic string on a Rungus sundatang to its neck likud – “back” (Rungus), the inner back cover of a Rungus sundatang lobu – tiny resonance holes on the front of a Lotud gagayan magarang – Kadazan Dusun dance from Tambunan magarang sundatang – rare sedate dance by a couple accompanied by the sundatang from Tambunan mongigol – general term for Rungus dancing nangko – common jackfruit tree (Artocarpus integer; Malay nangka) obuk – the strings on a gagayan odung – “nose” (Lotud), the string-holder on the front of a gagayan pinonodu – “wedge” (Kadazan Dusun), the bridge on the front of a sundatang pongigalan – music played by the Rungus gong ensemble pongiruson – “the place that you tune” (Kadazan Dusun) for tuning pegs on a sundatang pongisusan – “the place that you turn” (Kadazan Dusun) another term for tuning pegs on a sundatang pongombitan – “the place that you pluck” (Kadazan Dusun) for the strings on a sundatang randangan – “handle”, the neck on a Rungus sundatang rinait – sacred ritual poetry memorised and chanted by priestesses in traditional Dusunic religions ruang – “space” (Lotud), the large resonance hole in the outer layer of the back cover of a gagayan soundbox sape – the long rectangular boat lute of Sarawak and Kalimantan; also called sapeh, sampe, according to dialect and location simbong – “earrings” (Lotud), the tuning pegs on a gagayan soludon – the frets on a Lotud gagayan sopihut – beeswax (Tambunan dialect, Kadazan Dusun) also called sopilut, sopinit in other dialects and languages sopogandangan – gong ensemble from Tambunan consisting of a hand-held gong, and single-headed drum and seven hanging gongs of various types sundatang – different kinds of double-stringed boat lutes played in various Dusunic cultures in Sabah tansi – nylon fishing line used nowadays for the fretted string on a sundatang from Tambunan (also called tangsi) tikiu – “tail” (Kadazan Dusun), the support at the base of a sundatang from Tambunan timadang – a forest jackfruit tree (Artocarpus odorartissimus; Malay tarap) among the Kadazan Dusun timbok – a lady’s bun (Kadazan Dusun) used for the pegbox on a sundatang from Tambunan tinan – “body” (Kadazan Dusun), the soundbox of a sundatang tinggayan – “the place that you hold” (Kadazan Dusun), the neck of a sundatang from Tambunan tinondot – gong ensemble music from Tambunan todung – “nose” (Kadazan Dusun, and also Rungus), the stringholder on the front of a sundatang tohingo’ – “ears” (Rungus), refers to the tuning pegs on a Rungus sundatang tonok – “calf of a leg” (Lotud), referring to the neck of a gagayan tontog – single-headed drum played in the Rungus gong ensemble tuhu – “head” (Kadazan Dusun) also used for the pegbox on a sundatang from Tambunan tukod – “gum/glue” (Lotud), referring to the beeswax that sticks the gagayan melodic string to its neck turali – noseflute played in Dusunic cultures tutub – “cover” (Lotud), two layers of thin wood that cover the back of a gagayan soundbox ulob – frets on a Rungus sundatang, mounted in beeswax under the melodic string ulu – “head” (Rungus), the pegbox on a sundatang wiriwiri – decorative cloth or tassel hung from the end of a gagayan pegbox Endnotes 1 This article has been adapted and updated from my paper entitled “The Long-Necked Lutes Sundatang and Gagayan of Sabah and Their Performance: Disappearing Traditions” that was presented at the 12th International Borneo Research Council Conference that was held at Universiti Malaysian Sabah from 5-7 July 2014. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (115-137) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 136 2 Sabah has approximately 60 Austronesian languages of whom around 33 are indigenous to the state itself and mostly comprise the indigenous Dusunic, Paitanic and Murutic Families of Languages. Previously, I have sometimes used the ambiguous term isoglot to describe speakers of these indigenous languages. Since some scholars apply this to dialects, however, I no longer the term for distinct language groups. 3 Kg. is an abbreviation of Kampung (village), the official designation of a village in Malaysia. 4 I have deliberately avoided using the term “tail piece” and instead have used “stringholder” for the ‘nose’ on the front of these lutes, so as to avoid confusion with the tikiu or “tail” at the base of the body of a sundatang from Tambunan and the kuku or “tail” carved at the end of the pegbox of a Lotud gagayan. 5 When I originally recorded Kimoi playing sundatang in 1985, I was not yet familiar with the nuances of the Dusun language nor of the local usage of the Sabah Malay dialect. Hence, some of these terms have been corrected here from my earlier publications (Pugh-Kitingan, 1988, p. 42; 2003, 29). Recently, I asked her the name for the neck of the instrument, but she could not recall it. 6 In ancient times, the Dusun of today’s Tambunan District (that takes its name from the Tambunan dialect spoken in Kg. Karanaan and nearby villages) lived in longhouses. Kg. Karanaan itself had three longhouses. According to legend, at one time this village was attacked by a large, eagle-like, monster who regularly flew into a longhouse at night through the open space between the eaves and the wall, and killed or carried off sleeping children and small adults to eat. People say streaks of flames were emitted from its tail as it flew. One night, Unsud’s ancestor who had made the sundatang hid near the wall where the creature flew in under the eaves, holding the instrument. As the creature entered, he clubbed it to death with the sundatang, thus saving the people from being killed. There are variations on this legend today throughout villages in Tambunan District. 7 Unsud said that whenever he took out the instrument to show and play for visitors, it would suddenly rain heavily. Indeed, my recording of his performance was spoiled by heavy rain on the zinc roof of his bamboo house. Yet, I also observed him carrying the sundatang to local Kaamatan harvest festivals during fine weather References Alut, A.T. (1991). Pengunaan muzik tradisi Kadazan/Dusun Labuk dalam penyembahan ada Tuhan. [Unpublished bachelor’s thesis]. Sabah Theological Seminary, Kota Kinabalu. Bala, B. (2005). Thalassocracy. A history of the medieval Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam. School of Social Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Brandeis, H. (2012). Boat lutes in the Visayas and Luzon—traces of a lost tradition. Musika Jornal, 8, 2-103. Brandeis, H. (2017). Kudyapi, a boat lute odyssey. Agong 20(6), 22-37. Brandeis, H. (2019). Boat lutes of the Philippines. Ethnographia, 1(3), 6-72. https://doi.org/10.31250/2618-8600-2019-1(3)-6-72. Daud, A. (2011). Muzik kecapi ensembel diaspora Bugis di Tawau, Sabah. [Unpublished bachelor’s thesis] University of Malaya. Ethnologue®. (2016). Ethnologue of the world’s languages. www.ethnologue.com. Gowing, P.G. (1979). Muslim Filipinos—heritage and horizon. New Day Publishers. McKaughan, H.P. (1996). Preliminary comments on Iranun of Sabah, Malaysia and Maranao of Mindanao, Philippines. Paper presented at the Borneo Research Council Fourth Biennial International Conference, 10–15 June, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. Matusky, P. (1986). Aspects of musical style among the Kajang, Kayan and Kenyah-Badang of the Upper Rejang River: A preliminary survey. Sarawak Museum Journal, 36 (57), 185-230. Matusky, P., & Tan S.B. (2017). The music of Malaysia. The classical, folk and syncretic traditions (Second edition). Routledge. Porodong, P. (2018). Rungus. In K. Marriappan & P. Porodong (Eds.), Murut & pelbagai etnik kecil lain di Sabah (pp. 109-128). Institut Terjemahan Bahasa Malaysia & Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (1988). Instruments and instrumental music of the Tambunan Kadazan/Dusun. Sabah Museum and Archives Journal, 1(2), 24-61. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2003). Alat-alat muzik dan muzik instrumental Kadazandusun Tambunan. Pejabat Kebudayaan dan Kesenian Negeri Sabah. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2007). From Brunei? Preliminary enquiries about Iranun gong-making and metalwork at Tempasuk, Sabah, Malaysia. In L. Billings & N. Goudswaarde (Eds.), Piakandatu ami Dr. Howard P. McKaughan (pp. 225-229 with photographs on CD). Linguistic Society of the Philippines and SIL Philippines. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2017). Sources, sounds and meanings of turali (noseflute) music in Dusunic cultures of Sabah. Malaysian Music Journal, 6 (2),1-28. Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 137 Regis, P. (1989). Demography. In J.G. Kitingan & M.J. Ongkili (Eds.), Sabah 25 Years Later 1963-1988 (pp. 405-450). Institute for Development Studies, Sabah. Smith, K.J. (2011). Introduction to the Iranun of Sabah. In J.U.H. Chin & K.J. Smith (Eds.), The Iranun of Sabah (pp. 1-22). Pelanduk Publications. Warren, J.F. (1981). The Sulu zone 1768 – 1898. The dynamics of external trade, slavery, and ethnicity in the transformation of a southeast Asian maritime state. Singapore University Press. Warren, J.F. (2002). Iranun and Balangingi. Globalization, maritime raiding and the birth of ethnicity. New Day Publishers. Biography Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan is professor of Ethnomusicology in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities and Head of the Culture, Heritage and Arts Cluster of the Borneo Institute for Indigenous Studies, at Universiti Malaysia Sabah, where she previously held the Kadazandusun Chair (2003-2015). She graduated BA Honours (Class I) from Monash University (1976) and PhD from the University of Queensland (1982) with theses on the music of the Huli of Papua New Guinea. She first came to Sabah in 1977, having married a member of the Kadazan Dusun, Sabah’s largest indigenous group, in 1976. She has conducted ethnomusicological research among many of Sabah’s cultures. Winner of two PEREKA gold medals, her research interests include music and language, music, dance and ritual processes, organology, ethnographic mapping, the sociolinguistic review of Ethnologue® descriptions of languages in Sabah, the megalithic culture of Tambunan, and the Sabah Native Courts and customary law. She is a Fellow of the Borneo Research Council, a member of the ICTM Study Group on Performing Arts in Southeast Asia, sits on expert committees of Jabatan Warisan Negara Malaysia, and was Adjunct Research Fellow of Anthropology in the School of Political and Social Enquiry, Monash University (2009-2010).

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

Jimmy Boyle, composer, catalogue, music manuscripts, intertextuality

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3863

Intertextual Observations of Jimmy Boyle’s Handwritten Manuscripts

Our study on Jimmy Boyle (1922-1971) has been one that attempts to unfold the many facets of his creativity against the single-dimensional image of a patriotic songwriter. His sentiments as songwriters of many kind, a jazzman, and a cultural enthusiast have been proven through his different branches of work that are at times seem contrasting with each other in compositional styles. As a result of a long term archiving project, this paper reveals the entire set of handwritten artefact left after his death in 1971 and was recovered in Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2014, namely some 177 items of Boyle’s handwritten manuscript, that contains unpublished, published compositions as well as hand copy of others’ compositions. Main methods employed were that of the construct of taxonomy, and some cross-examination of the items covered within the catalogue mooted by the concept of intertextuality. Through narrating the interlinks between multiple manuscripts surrounding ‘Mutiara Ku’, ‘Pulau Pinang’ and ‘Medhini’, the process of composition was brought to life in displaying the all rounded capacity of Boyle.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3863/2698

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 138 Intertextual Observations of Jimmy Boyle’s Handwritten Manuscripts Chan Cheong Jan, Kwan Chiou Yueh*, Lee Sze May, Music Department, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400 Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] James Boyle Faculty of Music, National Academy of Arts, Culture and Heritage (ASWARA) 464, Jalan Tun Ismail, 50480 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected] Published: 16 December 2020 Cite this article (APA): Chan, C. J., Kwan, C. Y., Lee, S. M., Boyle, J. (2020). Intertextual observations of Jimmy Boyle’s handwritten manuscripts. Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 138-68. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.10.2020 Abstract Our study on Jimmy Boyle (1922-1971) has been one that attempts to unfold the many facets of his creativity against the single-dimensional image of a patriotic songwriter. His sentiments as songwriters of many kinds, a jazz musician, and a cultural enthusiast have been proven through his different branches of work that are at times seem contrasting with each other in compositional styles. As a result of a long term archiving project, this paper reveals the entire set of handwritten artefact left after his death in 1971 and was recovered in Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2014, namely some 177 items of Boyle’s manuscript that contains unpublished, published compositions as well as hand copy of others’ compositions. Main methods employed were that of the construct of taxonomy, and some cross-examination of the items covered within the catalogue mooted by the concept of intertextuality. I argue that Tokumaru’s concept of intertextuality is viable in examining a large number of Boyle’s songs of laconic structures. Through narrating the interlinks between multiple manuscripts surrounding “Mutiara Ku”, “Pulau Pinang” and “Medhini”, the process of composition was brought to life in displaying the all-rounded capacity of Boyle. Keywords: Jimmy Boyle, composer, catalogue, music manuscripts, intertextuality Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 139 Background Based on the examination of selected contrasting works produced by Jimmy Boyle (1922- 1971), the authors of this paper made a case for Boyle’s versatility as a multi-faceted artist and musician by outlining certain dimensions about Boyle by using the term “sentiment” (Chan et al., 2015). Jimmy Boyle brings many sentiments to his creative process that motivate him in making artistic decisions in a certain way that combines his inner inclinations and his intentions in relating to the social environment he was placed in at the time of composing music. Convinced by the potential impact of researching Boyle’s work, what is revealed is the cultural mosaic of post-colonial Malaya in the 1960s and the entire set of handwritten artefacts left after his death in 1971. There are some 177 items of Boyle’s manuscripts that are revealed herein via a constructed catalogue with some observations made on the musical content using the concept of intertextuality. In October 2013, James Boyle, the son of Jimmy Boyle, brought a sizeable amount of materials that belonged to his late father to Universiti Putra Malaysia in his quest for collaboration in order to conduct research. These are personal works produced by the late Jimmy Boyle during his career as a musician. Since Boyle’s death in 1971, the materials have been kept by his wife Madam Tan Yoke Lin who now owns the material. The materials were presented to the research team as they were kept by Boyle stacked in paper bags and boxes. There were items of various forms: 177 hardcover music manuscripts in the B4 paper size, four published books, an “exercise book” which is a notebook commonly used in the public schools in Malaysia, and 11 open reel tapes. A majority of the items contain Jimmy Boyle’s handwriting including music notations, words, as well as drawings. The musical content contained in the manuscripts is diverse ranging from Boyle’s own compositions and arrangements to hand copies of some well- known songs composed by others. Within Boyle’s compositions what is found is that a large portion are songs that are either less known or rarely spoken of today. Some of the songs were aired on the radio in the 1960s while others remained unpublished until today. Early findings of the research project were published in an article in the Malaysian Music Journal in 2015 titled “Jimmy Boyle’s Sentiments in Sketches of Melodies and Songs” (Chan et al., 2015). Diversities in Boyle’s compositions were explored in selected examples of love songs, jazz songs and cultural tunes. A more thorough examination of the manuscripts would have taken more time to complete. Literature Review Intertextuality as Tokumaru (2005) expounds, is a view that takes the truth about an artist/artwork exists not in one particular manifestation of his/her work, but in between the variants of reproductions of works of the same artist/artwork (pp. 219-224). Applying intertexuality to the present case by scrutinising the “in-between” variants of Boyle’s manuscripts enables meaningful comparison in showing the potential use of the catalogue in fostering discovery. Tokumaru displayed evidence of cross-genre references among the Japanese music traditions which had been widely recognised as parallel co-existing until then and even today (Tokumaru, 1991). He coiled a motto of reputare nihil insulatum or “consider nothing isolated” to advocate a way to revitalise East Asian court music tradition through what he called global networks (Tokumaru, 1997). Intertextuality for Tokumaru, is where a “musical text is cast into an intertextual relationship with other Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 140 units” (Tokumaru, 2005, p. 219). In our understanding, the units in the present case could be other musical texts composed by the same composer or by other composers, or from other genres, competing traditions or of other forms. Conceptualised within the field of contemporary music history in Malaysia and Southeast Asia, the study of Boyle and his music contributes towards several areas of knowledge. The contributions comprise themes such as Eurasian Musicians of Penang, composers associated with Radio TV Malaya/Malaysia, Malay songs/music and nationalism and the development of jazz in Malaysia. In Lockard’s overview of the development of popular music in Malaysia, Boyle was mentioned in passing as “… patterns of the 1940s and 1950 ... when … Alfonso Soliano and Jimmy Boyle wrote and arranged Malay music”(Lockard, 1996, p. 16). It is within the literature that discusses Eurasian musicians in Penang that Jimmy Boyle has been a central figure. Our preceding article (Chan et al., 2015) reviewed the general background of Penang and Eurasian Musicians and cited Augustin (1970) and Daus (1989). For the social-historical set up of the Eurasians, Tan (2011) and Rozells and Rodrigues (2002) provide an overview of the many Eurasian musicians in Penang, and Sarkissian (2000) discussed identity and identification of the Eurasian communities in Malaysia. Lochhead (2011) and a more a recent book by Augustin and Lochhead (2015) are comprehensive documentations that feature the individual musicians from Penang that features Jimmy Boyle1. The close relationship between Jimmy Boyle and the composers associated with Radio Malaya/Radio TV Malaysia in the 1950s and 1960s is one angle through which Boyle and his music could be examined. The interaction among these musicians, though frequently reported in personal weblogs2, has yet to receive any academic attention. Boyle and Alfonso Soliano, the conductor of Orkes RTM, were key figures in the movement for Lagu Melayu in jazz (Forum record, 2012), which was mentioned by Lockard (1996) as a pattern of writing Malay music by the two composers in the 1940s and 1950s. Another close relationship among musicians was testified by Ahmad Merican’s own words spoken in a panel discussion in 2012 (Forum record, 2012) and transcribed by the researchers below: The best church organist in Penang. I used to go passing by the church. I saw him playing, I coaxed him, a [Eurasian decent3], who does not know Malay song, to play Malay songs on the organ. Play “Rasa Sayang”, “Nona Nona”. I converted (meaning, changed) him, a [Eurasian decent], to become a prolific composer of lagu Melayu (Malay songs). The preceding paper also highlights the presence of lagu Melayu in pre- independence era citing the social-cultural environment surrounding the industry of phonograph records written by Tan (2013) that put forth the idea of “cultural cosmopolitanism” and “rooted cosmopolitanism”. Tan argues that singers and composers in the 1930s including Zubir Said, put forth a form of Malay cultural nationalism which is inclusive and cosmopolitan in nature through their production of songs in Malay. Tan, as a pioneer in music studies in Malaya/Malaysia, has been consistent in contrasting the rooted and more organic kinds of musical changes with those that were influenced by agendas as can been seen in her comments on the revitalisation projects of Bangsawan in Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 141 the 1970s (Tan, 1993) and an analysis of the reconstructed Malay dance music Ronggeng (Tan, 2005). Johan’s account on Zubir Said’s film scoring in the 1960s (Johan, 2017) confirmed that the situation in the nascent independence period was one where musicians had to work out their musical solutions in response to ongoing social changes. Johan contrasted the “traditionalised” Malay musical solution worked out by Zubir Said with the anti-feudal narrative of film and explicated the intriguing and at times contradictory facets in music-making of that time. Within their own social circle, Boyle and Soliano envisioned a solution by captivating the well-accepted Malay-ness of lagu Melayu merged with a modern, imported and cosmopolitan genre—at least from Malaya’s point of view—called jazz that was already reported in our previous paper (Chan et al., 2015). Hamzah (2016a, 2016b, 2018, 2019) contributed to the much-needed discourse of patriotic songs, a topic that affects the social lives of Malaysians in the ordinary sense but remained un-researched thus far. Hamzah (2019) offered a useful framework to explain how patriotic songs that are publicly broadcasted could function as a form of branding. The dissemination of songs popularised through Orkes Radio Malaya/Malaysia was interpreted as a form of branding that was instrumental in creating a kind of simultaneous experience by people unknown to each other, or “unisonance” (Bohlman, 2009), with the purpose of realising the imagined polity called nation. A bottom-up perspective on how patriotic songs function was provided in another article: Hamzah and Johan (2020) explain how patriotic songs help to create social cohesion in the Malaysian context and reveals the affectionate ways that the Malaysian public connects to patriotic songs as individuals. Being involved in the broadcast of songs such as “Kemegahan Negaraku”, the song played during the flag-raising ceremony of the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963 (Boyle, 2014), Boyle composed many songs that were sung through generations of school choirs nationwide such as “Putera Puteri” and as such is one of the key actors in the discourse of the unique and reciprocal dynamic between the state and the people surrounding patriotic songs in post-colonial Peninsular Malaysia. The narrative on jazz in Malaya/Malaysia is extremely scarce. Jähnichen’s (2012) account on the jazz scenes in Kuala Lumpur reports views of selected jazz musicians. In Chan and Boyle (2016), we attempted a contrast between the nationalistic but relational ethos of jazz musicians in the 1960s and the ethic of authenticity displayed in the individualised jazz musicians from 1970s onwards symbolised by Michael Veerapen. Jimmy Boyle and Alfonso Soliano were the icons of the earlier period. We argued the presence of a gap of discontinuity of jazz tradition between the two types of ethos. Jimmy Boyle’s reel tapes and manuscripts are materials for further research to unveil the style of jazz held in the 1960s. These materials reveal Boyle’s individual stylistic particularity and the stylistic commonalities of the composers linked to Radio TV Malaysia. One of the aims in our past research was to reconcile the sharp contrast between Boyle as a popular songwriter that writes accessible music as a jazz musician who incarnates the authenticity of modern jazz. To complicate the matter, within the popular songs that Boyle wrote there were further differences between his love longs often accompanied by his own English lyrics and the many official patriotic songs. We had arrived at a two-fold argument of inclination versus intention, a private- public significance of composer based on Spivak’s idea of “on mode”- to behave in response to social expectations and norms, and “off mode”- to behave as free from external control of a person in relating to society (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012). Our rough Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 142 interpretation in 2015 had been that there were times Boyle consciously “put on” a certain mode in response to the circumstance he was placed in. Patriotism is one prevalent mode in Boyle’s composition strategy and his insistence on writing lagu Melayu was another mode. One significant contribution resulting from the recovery of Jimmy Boyle’s manuscripts is the potential to fill in some unknown areas in the knowledge about Boyle. The widely known social image of Jimmy Boyle is that of a patriotic composer whose songs have been “sung in schools by choirs” and “played by musicians all over the country” (Lochhead, 2011). The association of Jimmy Boyle with patriotism mainly through his compositions, “Putera Puteri”, might however render his image single- dimensional. A critical area in studying Boyle is that despite his widespread image as a productive songwriter, not all songs that were written by Boyle were accessible and still lack documentation45. The number of songs known today is not in proportion to a news article in 1961 that claimed Jimmy Boyle had written approximately 350 pieces of known compositions (Anak Bandar Raya, 1961). This discrepancy invites queries into the possible unknown repertoire of Boyle’s work6. The sheer number of radio programs and recording projects that Boyle was involved in also hints at the possibilities of more work to be rediscovered7. A personally preserved recording of Boyle’s composition for the Saturday program called Organ and Piano Capers (Anak Bandar Raya, 1961) revealed some incomplete recording of “Malayan songs” with unheard titles (James A. Rozells, personal communication, 2014). Playing the piano for the Radio and TV Malaysia programmes such as Sports Scope and Dunia di-sana sini were said by Boyle’s wife to be some of the happiest moments for Boyle (Jimmy Boyle buried to the sound of his music, 1971, May 9). Scattered works of Boyle that were created spontaneously in either written or recorded forms await examination to give a complete image of Boyle. Boyle’s music is well-known in the public sphere but much less is known about the amount and scope of works he had produced. Purpose of This Paper Our preceding paper (Chan, et al., 2015) had explored the sentiments within which Jimmy Boyle functions as a creative person. We associated these sentiments with Spivak’s post- colonial idea (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012) that a person’s expression could involve conscious manipulation of “modes” in relating to one’s inclinations and external circumstances. Away from the conventional but vague image of a patriotic composer, and based on the examination of selected manuscripts, we had proposed an early stage interpretation that illustrates Boyle as a popular songwriter, a jazzman and a cultural enthusiast. This was an early outcome based on limited works that were chosen partly to highlight his divergent approaches. For example, we examined the contrast between Boyle’s advocacy-flavoured public songs and his casual pop tunes, and between the accessible Tin Pan Alley styled love songs and his radical experiments in bop tunes. Our quest for a theory of sentiments, meaning the particular state of mind and being that motivates certain artistic directions at a particular time in response to the artist’s circumstances, describe Boyle and his music that needs substantiation in terms of the size Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 143 of information and depth of analysis. In this paper, by revealing the actual and the entire set of manuscripts recovered in 2014, we hope to provide evidence with sufficient weight needed for future re-examinations of the broad fundamental question of who the musician Jimmy Boyle was and how he composed. We anticipate that through our analysis we would solidify or rework the theory of sentiments in understanding Boyle. This paper intends to: 1) present a coded system for all handwritten manuscripts by Jimmy Boyle recovered in 2014 at Universiti Putra Malaysia as a catalogue that is conducive for future referencing, tracing and research purposes, and 2) demonstrate intertextual analysis between manuscripts contained in the catalogue that reveal new insights into Boyle’s process, inclination and intention of particular music creation8. Method The main methods employed for this paper include the construction of a taxonomy, a catalogue for Boyle’s manuscripts and observatory content analysis through cross- examination of items covered within the catalogue mooted by the concept of intertextuality. Decisions on the way of categorisation of manuscripts were informed by the findings of our earlier paper in 2015 (Chan et al., 2015) that presented a preliminary list of 36 manuscripts. Metadata for the entire artefact was created with a traceable ID created for each musical content and the digital print. Manuscripts were divided according to the status of publication and copyright ownership. The sequence of arranging the items was based on similarity in content observed between the manuscripts and other aspects such as writing styles (calligraphy) and paper type that hinted at the relation between items. A chronological order was not observed as there were items that did not indicate the date of composition. In this study, we localised the theory of intertextuality as a network of relations between the musical content contained in multiple manuscripts created by composer Jimmy Boyle. The reasons for such an approach are that there are potentials for intertextual analysis indicated by a large number of Boyle’s songs of laconic structures. Our earlier study (Chan et al., 2015) confirms the depth of Boyle’s diverse sentiments contained within the manuscripts. Scrutinising the relations between the manuscripts is also in line with Latour’s notion of “the agency of object” (Latour, 2005, pp. 63-86), situated within the frame of Actor-network theory (Martin, 2005) that deals with human- thing relations. We see meaning in the act of describing the relations between objects themselves as agents involved in Boyle’s music, especially within the context of constructing a counter-narrative for Boyle. General Condition of the Manuscripts The content of the manuscripts consists of Boyle’s songs, instrumental compositions and handwritten copies of well-known existing songs, mostly jazz songs. Most but not all of the sketches come with an indication of the date of composition. For the songs with lyrics, the lyrics were written directly on the manuscripts. Some manuscripts have explanatory notes and drawings that reveal further information. Parts of the manuscripts are stained, burned and have incomplete torn spots. A total of 177 written manuscripts were recovered: 113 song sketches were identified as Boyle’s compositions. However, it is actually 89 compositions after discounting the repeated sketches of the same songs while 64 were Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 144 copies of other composers’ songs. Repetitions were made because of changes in instrumentation, key transpositions and recopying of some disorganised writing. This article focuses on the manuscripts alone. Other materials such as Boyle’s field notes, reel recordings and published songbooks have to be examined and presented in a subsequent article. Below is an overview of the condition and some surface observations of Jimmy Boyle’s manuscripts recovered in 2014 by Universiti Putra Malaysia, hereafter referred simply as “the manuscripts”. The general condition of the manuscripts is mediocre: The contents are readable but the physical papers are considerably worn. Many papers have incomplete parts at the sides with minor or major tears. Yellowish stains found on most of the manuscripts are believed to be the effect of oxidation after some 40 years of exposure to heat and humidity. Apart from natural stains due to oxidation some stains are believed to have been caused by liquids such as water or coffee. There are minor burns on the side of a manuscript and the incident, time and cause of these occurrences are yet to be identified. One striking character of the manuscripts is the complementary notes and drawings that were included together with music notation in forming a “complete” picture for a particular song. This holistic character of Boyle’s writings informed our approach. Lead sheets that contain melody, lyrics and chords are the norms for Boyle’s manuscripts. Similar to other drafts, “Mutiara Ku” (HM034) (Figure 1) has basic information indicated at the top of the manuscript specifying the date of composition, musical style and the required mood or expression of the song. While the tidy “typed written” style of writing draws the reader’s attention, a fair amount of the writing in the manuscripts are cursive, free-flowing scribbles. Figure 3d shows a complete manuscript that depicts the composer-at-work with a sense of Jimmy Boyle coming “alive” with his capacity to create and express in various forms including illustrations. In “Sunset over Bangkok” (HM046), this kind of information is contained within a half-page manuscript. Boyle’s will to provide information is notable: There are indications of the date and venue of composition, name of composer, musical style required as well as a rough sketch of a sunset view of a pagoda. Handwritten notes in Figure 3d describe the environment in which the composition was created. In this manuscript, the visual scene, the music and his reflections were documented using drawings, musical notations and writing all on the same page. Boyle’s drawings and notes next to the music notations are elements that reveal much of Boyle’s personality as a well-rounded and communicative artist. The illustration in Figure 3d reveals the artistic structure with many objects detailed such as the sun, a pair of pagodas, trees and other buildings foregrounding a river that mirrored the view in reflections. The subject Boyle was trying to portray is nevertheless the sensation that transpired inside him at the time of composing, that in his words were, “an intrinsically sense-impression of an exotic sunset” (which can be traced from Figure 3d). Other sketches include the pencil sketch of a river with riverbanks on the first page of “Full Symphony of Sungai Pahang” (HM003). Small comical sketches believed to be “Ranard”, a Thai mallet instrument, were found on “Mehdini” (HM033) (Figure 3b). The signature of Jimmy Boyle was common and inserted together with the date at the edge of a manuscript. Another feature is the native quality Chinese handwriting of several song titles. Four manuscripts contain writing with Chinese titles and signs of alterations made at different attempts. It is unclear whether Boyle or someone else was Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 145 asked to write the titles in Chinese. The handwriting of Chinese words in the manuscripts reveal Boyle’s interaction with another person or persons in the writing of Chinese titles for his songs. Boyle frequently used comical icons in his manuscripts that are known today as “smiley face”. Among these icons, some are stand-alone while others were accompanied with text giving a warm feeling of the composer as well as showing his communicative nature. The printed marks⁠ on the manuscript reveal the source of manuscript papers and the organisation that Boyle was associated with. Catalogue of Handwritten Manuscript of Jimmy Boyle The earlier list created in 2015 (Chan et al., 2015) contained 36 manuscripts/songs and was without any system of coding. It was sufficient then to keep track of the collected items. As the study progressed, the researchers attempted to reorganise the items and improve the description so that the list could provide information beyond utilitarian purposes. A column of brief remarks of one sentence or two were added to the list to give some insights into each item. The solution for coding, as the musical content, the artefact and the digital files each present its own considerations, was done by prioritising the musical content using multiple codes for one artefact. An artefact containing two musical contents will be given two separate codes. In such cases, digital files were duplicated and given separate codes to correspond to the content. The completed catalogue is based on the digital reprint of the artefact, not the artefacts themselves, and has a double system of coding, one for the musical content and another for the digital files. This catalogue is named Catalogue of Digital Archive of Jimmy Boyle’s Personal Works of Music 2017. The word “personal” was inserted as the entire materials were Boyle’s personal belongings. We have no information on Boyle’s Will and what he wanted to do with the materials upon his death. He might have had plans to publish some of them or otherwise. It is therefore important to label the materials with a perspective that these works would not be judged with the same weight as some of the formal works of Boyle. The phrase “works of music” may seem odd at first but this is necessary to reflect the diverse nature of the materials. Boyle did not compose songs and melodies alone. He also produced many other content items related to music that is uniquely the result of his creativity, namely notes, drawing, icons as well as field notes. The metadata of the catalogue is presented below in Table 1. The total number of coded items in the catalogue is 193 within which 177 items are manuscripts. The four main categories in the catalogue are Handwritten Manuscripts, Published Books, Handwritten Field Notes and Open Reel Recordings. Handwritten Manuscripts is further divided into subcategories of “unpublished work”, “published work” and “copy of others’ works”. Though not stated in the catalogue, there are a total of 89 compositions composed by Jimmy Boyle, 64 are lesser-known works and only 25 well-known works. This number differs from the numbers stated in the metadata because there are many repeated occurrences for the same work. For example, there are multiple manuscripts written at different times for the same song9. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 146 Table 1. Metadata of Digital Archive of Jimmy Boyle’s Personal Works of Music 2017 Handwritten Manuscript-Unpublished Work The Catalogue of Jimmy Boyle’s handwritten manuscripts-unpublished work is shown in Table 2. The manuscripts revealed various context in which they were written including performances for radio programmes and public events, but none to our knowledge were officially printed. It consists of a total of 73 sketches of song most of which do not come with lyrics and four have no written title. Only seven compositions were written with English lyrics and one written in Malay. Subcategorisation to assist general understanding of these manuscripts is possible by looking at the language used, the mentioning of a person’s name and the mentioning of place in a song title. A total of 38 sketches has a title in Malay, 17 in English, four mention names of persons (three female and one male name) and six mention names of places. Among the Malay titles are “Awan Putih”, “Batantang”, “Embun Suchi”, “Bila Kembali”, “Rayuan Hatiku”, “Fajar Murni”, “Suasana Senja”, “Gelisah”, “Hilang Tiada Berganti”, “Harapan”, “Kaseh”, “Ketari”, “Kuda”, “Pelangi Harapan”, “Lagak Penari”, “Mariana”, “Lambaian Sukma”, “Di-larut Malam”, “Mutiara Ku”, “Mutiara Timor”, “Seruan Murni”, “Pantun Melayu”, “Pening”, “Permintaan Ku”, “Sakura Idaman Ku”, “Taman Gembira”, “Kaseh Mesra”, “Berdendang Ria”, “Taman Tak Bernama”, “Engkau Sahaja”, “Hanya Hasrat Merayu”, “Aman dan Sentosa”, “Sinaran Bulan di Batu Karang”, “Ta’usah”, and “Merana”. English titles include “Hope”, “I Lost My Love in Pesta Ria”, “My Lovely Corner”, “Tender Memories”, “The Fifth Temperament”, “The Focal Point”, “Swan”, “Bitter Sweet”, “X’mas Theme Intro Song”, and “Seven Maidens”. Titles that involve names are “Chiranan”, “Medhini”, “Tribute to Ernesto Daroya”, “Caravelle” and “Gisborne”; while titles mentioning places include “Ipoh and A-GoGo”, “Kowloon”, “Maktab Tengku Khursiah”, “Sekolah Menengah Teknik”, “Sunset over Bangkok”, “Vienna’s Detour” and “Wetlands”. The opportunity for Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 147 intertextual study abounds as there are eight repeated versions of the same songs. Some songs were repeated in the same keys while others were transposed. Table 2. Catalogue of Handwritten Manuscript-Unpublished Works Digital Archive of Jimmy Boyle’s Personal Works of Music 2017 ID File Name Date/Year Title Remarks HM001 UHMJB-0001 4/10/1965 Awan Putih Half page (26 bars); with chords; no lyrics. Seriosa. HM002 UHMJB-0002 N.D. *No title Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. Copy of “Something Good” from movie The Sound of Music *UHMJB-0001 HM003 UHMJB-0003 17/4/1967 Bang.Ko.Go 1 page (16 bars); with English lyrics HM004 UHMJB-0004 N.D. Batantang Half page (32 bars); no chords; no lyrics. HM005 UHMJB-0005 1957 Embun Suchi Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0004 HM006 UHMJB-0006 26/3/1961 Bila Kembali Half page (33 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM007 UHMJB-0007 25/3/1961 Rayuan Hatiku Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0006 HM008 UHMJB-0008 N.D. Chiranan 1 page (24 bars); with chords; with English lyrics; torn into half in the lyrics’ section but secured with adhesive tape. HM009 UHMJB-0009 2/12/1968 “F.A.B” Washes Whiter 1 page (12 bars); with full piano accompaniment; with English lyrics. HM010 UHMJB-0010 5/4/1957 Fajar Murni Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; a written remark on score - “Chinese in Malaya” HM011 UHMJB-0011 8/4/1957 Suasana Senja Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0010 HM012 UHMJB-0012 1956 Fajar Murni Half page (32 bars); no chords; no lyrics; page is torn. *PHMJB- 0034 HM013 UHMJB-0013 N.D. Gelisah Half page (28 bars); with chords; no lyrics; similar composition in different key (C major). HM014 UHMJB-0014 N.D. Gelisah Half page (Incomplete score, torn); with chords; no lyrics; similar composition in different key (Bb major). *UHMJB-0013 HM015 UHMJB-0015 N.D. Gelisah Half page (28 bars); with chords; no lyrics; similar composition in different keys in G major HM016 UHMJB-0016 N.D. Title not written, but content is similar with“Gelisah” Half page (Incomplete score, torn); with chords; no lyrics; similar composition in different key (Eb major). *UHMJB-0015 HM017 UHMJB-0017 N.D. Hilang Tiada Berganti 1 page (24 bars + 4 bars intro); brief piano accompaniment without chords; no lyrics. HM018 UHMJB-0018 12/9/1967 Hope 1 page (32 bars); with chords; with English lyrics. HM019 UHMJB-0019 12/9/1967 Harapan (Hope) Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM020 UHMJB-0020 N.D. I Lost My Love at “Pesta Ria”… 1 page (32 bars); with chords; with English lyrics. HM021 UHMJB-0021 10/9/1966 Ipoh and A-GoGo Half page (32 bars); with chords; with English lyrics. HM022 UHMJB-0022 -/10/1959 Kaseh (GemaRia) Half page (Incomplete score. Half page torn); with 4 bar full chord piano accompaniment intro, 20 bars accessible; with chords; no lyrics. HM023 UHMJB-0023 21/2/1966 Ketari Half page (24 bars); with chords; with Malay lyrics written on another paper. HM024 UHMJB-0024 16/12/1969 Kowloon Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM025 UHMJB-0025 N.D. Kuda Half page (64 bars+ 4 bars intro); only chord name HM026 UHMJB-0026 N.D. Pelangi Harapan Half page (33 bars); mostly only with chord name, with only 10 bars written with notation; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0025 HM027 UHMJB-0027 UHMJB-0027a UHMJB-0027b N.D. Lagak Penari Half page (32 bars); no chords; no lyrics. HM028 UHMJB-0028 N.D. Mariana Half page (32 bars); no chords; no lyrics. No mentioning of composer’s name. *UHMJB-0027 HM029 UHMJB-0029 N.D. Lambaian Sukma Half page (32 bars); no chords; no lyrics. HM030 UHMJB-0030 N.D. Di-larut Malam Half page (32 bars); no chords; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0029 HM031 UHMJB-0031 28/11/1962 Maktab Tengku Khursiah 1 page (16 bars); with complete piano accompaniment; with incomplete lyrics; short letter to whom requested for a college song, stated few discussions and concerns about the composition. *the spelling of “Khursiah”: most probably “Kurshiah”, referring to Tengku Kurshiah College Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 148 HM032 UHMJB-0032 N.D. Medhini (The Sage) Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated copyright (B.I.E.M) Radio Malaysia Penang – Kuala Lumpur. HM033 UHMJB-0033 N.D. Mehdini 1 page (32 bars); with chords; with English lyrics; manuscript is torn and yellowish; minor unexplainable doddle beside the title. HM034 UHMJB-0034 -/10-11/1959 Mutiara Ku 1 page (32 bars); no chords; with English lyrics; neat and organised writing. HM035 UHMJB-0035 -/10-11/1959 Mutiara Ku Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM036 UHMJB-0036 N.D. *Title unclear Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0035 HM037 UHMJB-0037 -/-/1955 Mutiara Timor Half page (33 bars); no chords (Only stated Dm in first bar); no lyrics. HM038 UHMJB-0038 -/4/1956 Seruan Murni Half page (32 bars); no chords; no lyrics; minor damage in manuscript. *UHMJB-0037 HM039 UHMJB-0039 N.D. Pantun Melayu 1 page (24 bars); with piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics. HM040 UHMJB-0040 27/2/1970 Pening (Dizzy) 1 page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM041 UHMJB-0041 N.D. Permintaan Ku Half page (40 bars); bass part, incomplete chords; no lyrics. HM042 UHMJB-0042 N.D. Sakura Idaman Ku 1 page (64 bars); with chords; with English lyrics; lyrics written in cursive handwriting and certain words are indecipherable. HM043 UHMJB-0043 N.D. Sekolah Menengah Teknik 1 page (16 bars); complete voice part and piano accompaniment; no lyrics; * minor doddle found in the end of the manuscript. HM044 UHMJB-0044 5/8/1970 S.M.I. Song 1 page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM045 UHMJB-0045 N.D. * No title 1 page (16 bars); complete piano accompaniment; no lyrics; shows similarities with “S.M.I. Song”, could be part of the piano accompaniment written for that composition. HM046 UHMJB-0046 25/12/1965 Sunset over Bangkok Half page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; short paragraph of personal notes described the environment when composing the composition; small part of doddle that look like landscape painting with notes – “L B (Lovely Bangkok)”. HM047 UHMJB-0047 N.D. Taman Gembira 1/3 page (16 bars); no chords; no lyrics. HM048 UHMJB-0048 N.D. Kaseh Mesra 1/3 page (31 bars); no chords; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0047 HM049 UHMJB-0049 N.D. Berdendang Ria 1/3 page (8 bars); no chords; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0047 HM050 UHMJB-0050 N.D. Taman Tak Bernama Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM051 UHMJB-0051 18/11/1959 Tender Memories 1 page (32 bars); no chords; with English lyrics; torn in the middle of manuscript; Malay lyrics for “Mutiara Ku” is written in the other half of the same manuscript. HM052 UHMJB-0052 26/7/1965 The Fifth Temperament 1 page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated “Modern JAZZ”, “For TV Malaysia”; 3 other compositions title (Yesterday, Chendering, Medhini) written as note in the end of the manuscript. HM053 UHMJB-0053 14/7/1965 The Fifth Temperament Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM054 UHMJB-0054 -/11/1964 The Focal Point 1 page (44 bars); with chords; no lyrics; HM055 UHMJB-0055 12/12/1964 月光下的竹桥 Half page (16 bars + 4 bars intro); with chords; no lyrics. HM056 UHMJB-0056 14/12/1964 甜苦的爱 / 甜与苦 Half page (16 bars + 4 bars intro); with chords; no lyrics; drawing of smiley face. HM057 UHMJB-0057 12/12/1964 鹅 (The Swan) / 恬静 的天鹅 Half page (24 bars + 4 bars intro); with chords; no lyrics; small doddle of sad face. HM058 UHMJB-0058 12/12/1964 甜苦的爱 / Bitter Sweet Half page (16 bars + 4 bars intro); with chords; no lyrics; written in different key from UHMJB-0055 HM059 UHMJB-0059 14/10/1966 Tribute to Ernesto Daroya 1 page ( 8 bars); with chords and piano accompaniment; no lyrics. HM060 UHMJB-0060 21/12/1964 X’mas Theme Intro Song 1 page (12 bars); with chords, piano accompaniment and melody; no lyrics. HM061 UHMJB-0061 1/4/1967 Caravelle Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; modern jazz. HM062 UHMJB-0062 N.D. Engkau Sahaja Half page (40 bars); incomplete chords only in 9 bars); no lyrics. HM063 UHMJB-0063 19/3/1961 Hanya Hasrat Merayu Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM064 UHMJB-0064 N.D. Aman dan Sentosa 1/4 page (25 bars); with chords; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0063 HM065 UHMJB-0065 N.D. Sinaran Bulan di Batu Karang 1/4 page (17 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM066 UHMJB-0066 16/4/1961 Ta’usah Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM067 UHMJB-0067 9/7/1961 Merana 1 page (40 bars / 24 + 16); with chords; no lyrics. HM068 UHMJB-0068 6/10/1966 My Lovely Corner 1 page (2 different versions; version 1 - 16 bars, version 2 – 32 bars); both with chords; no lyrics. HM069 UHMJB-0069 1/11/1966 Gisborne Half page (16 bars); with chords; no lyrics; score written in an unorganised way. HM070 UHMJB-0070 22/11/1966 Vienna’s Detour Half page (32 bars) with chords; no lyrics; score written in an unorganised way. *UHMJB-0069 Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 149 HM071 UHMJB-0071 4/11/1966 Gisborne 1 page (24 bars); with chords and piano accompaniment; no lyrics found on the same sheet but stated in manuscript that “music + words – Jimmy Boyle”. HM072 UHMJB-0072 21/8/1970 Wetlands 1 page (16 bars); with chords and piano accompaniment; no lyrics; score written in an unorganised way. HM073 UHMJB-0073 -/-/1958 Seven Maidens 1/3 page (24 bars); no chords; no lyrics. *PHMJB-0034 Handwritten Manuscript-Published Work The published compositions of Jimmy Boyle in the manuscript collection (Table 3) have a different outlook compared to the unpublished ones: Notations were neatly written and organised. Some were written with a manuscript pen and is of print-ready quality, for example, “Pulang Pinang’s Anthem” (HM074), “Bahtera Karam” (HM077) and “Penang National Anthem” (HM084). Song titles in this category are those that are more familiar to the public. There is no overlap of song titles with the unpublished category except for “Berdendang Ria”10. Here we see the titles that managed to make it to the public sphere: “Pulau Pinang’s Anthem”, “Sungai Pahang”, “Bahtera Merdeka”, “Bahtera Karam”, “Wanita Sejati”, “Rayuan Hatiku”, “De Tepi Pantai”, “Rayuan Mesra”, “Ingat Ingat”, “Jauh Jauh”, “Pulau Pinang”, “Kahulu Kahilir”, “Api dan Ayer”, “Megah Rasa”, “Kemegahan Negara Ku”, “Menuntut untuk Berbakti”, “Berdendang Ria”, “Putera Puteri”, “Bunga Negara”, “Rukunegara”, “Sukan Sekolah-Sekolah Malaysia” and “Bersatu-Jaya”. Most of these were published later in the form of books and are publicly known as patriotic songs. A total of 40 different manuscripts were collected but there are many repeats. For instance, there are three different manuscripts for “Jauh Jauh”, three for “Pulau Pinang” or “Penang Anthem”, three versions of “Berdendang Ria”, two versions of “Sungai Pahang” written with different orchestration and more. Understandably, not all of the versions were published and made known to the public. Compositions that are widely known as Boyle’s songs such as “Bersatu Jaya” and “Rukunegara” are within the catalogue. The differences in writing styles between manuscripts of unpublished and the published works reveal the context in which the notation was created. The numbers of items in the two catalogues are evidence that Boyle composed much more than what was published. Table 3. Catalogue of Handwritten Manuscript-Published Works Digital Archive of Jimmy Boyle’s Personal Works of Music 2017 ID File Name Date/Year Title Remarks HM074 PHMJB-0001, PHMJB-0002 -/-/1970 Pulau Pinang’s Anthem. 1 page (16 bars); with complete piano accompaniment and melody; no lyrics; short notes about the composition written in the next page. HM075 PHMJB-0003, PHMJB-0004, PHMJB-0005, PHMJB-0006, PHMJB-0007, PHMJB-0008, PHMJB-0009, PHMJB-0010, PHMJB-0011, PHMJB-0012, PHMJB-0013, PHMJB-0014 -/12/1965 Sungai Pahang 11 pages (78 bars); full orchestra arrangement with instruments and voices (15 parts); landscape doddle of river in first page; manuscript written with pencil. HM076 PHMJB-0015, PHMJB-0016, PHMJB-0017 N.D. Bahtera Merdeka *arrangement First page (0015) is arrangement of Bahtera Merdeka, second page (0016) is a different tune in C, which was rewritten in F on page 3 (0017); all pages with melody, counter melody and bass (three staves) with chord names Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 150 but no lyrics. A word “Borneo” written on the upper left of 0016. HM077 PHMJB-0018, PHMJB-0019, PHMJB-0020 30/4/1960 Bahtera Karam 2 pages (33 bars); with chords and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics by Dol Baharim; with a first page of written letter replied to Mr. Leong Pak Hong. HM078 PHMJB-0021, PHMJB-0022 N.D. Wanita Sejati 2 pages (31 bars + 8 bars intro); 4 parts (Clarinet, Alto, Tenor, Baritone); no lyrics. HM079 PHMJB-0023 4/4/1961 Rayuan Hati Ku 1 page (68 bars + 2 bars intro); with chords; no lyrics. HM080 PHMJB-0024 N.D. De Tepi Pantai 1 page (8 bars); with piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim. HM081 PHMJB-0025 6/10/1959 Rayuan Mesra Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM082 PHMJB-0026 N.D. Ingat Ingat 1 page (12 bars); with piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim. HM083 PHMJB-0027 N.D. Negara Ku *arrangement 1 page (24 bars); with piano accompaniment and chords; no lyrics. HM084 PHMJB-0028, PHMJB-0029 N.D. Penang National Anthem 2 pages (16 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; no lyrics. HM085 PHMJB-0030 N.D. “Jauh Jauh” Bass 1 page (37 bars + 4 bars intro); with chords; no lyrics. HM086 PHMJB-0031 N.D. Jauh Jauh Half page (36 bars); with chords; no lyric; torn. HM087 PHMJB-0032 4/10/1959 Rayuan Mesra (Melody of Love) Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics. HM088 PHMJB-0033 21/3/1959 *No title Lower half page of HM087 (32 bars); no chords; no lyrics. *UHMJB-0032 HM089 PHMJB-0034 -/-/1955 Pulau Pinang A page containing three melodies marked with tune number, year and number of bar structure. It says: 24 “Fajar Murni” 1956, 25 “Pulau Pinang” 1955, “Seven Maidens” 1958. No chords; no lyrics. HM090 PHMJB-0035, PHMJB-0036 N.D. Bhatera Karam 2 pages (32 bars); accompaniment in 3 parts; no chords; no lyrics. *spelling of “Bhatera”, probably “Bahtera” HM091 PHMJB-0037, PHMJB-0038 -/-/1964 Palau Pinang 1 page (21 bars); no chords; with English lyrics. HM092 PHMJB-0039, PHMJB-0040, PHMJB-0041, PHMJB-0042 6/9/1967 *No title 3 pages (31 bars – incomplete pages); Full orchestra score with 15 parts; no lyrics; note and doddle in first page stated that it was arranged and composed for Radio Malaysia Orchestra. HM093 PHMJB-0043 N.D. Kahulu Kahilir 1 page (8 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim. HM094 PHMJB-0044 N.D. Api dan Ayer 1 page (8 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim. HM095 PHMJB-0045 N.D. Tepi Pantai 1 page (8 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim. HM096 PHMJB-0046 -/10/1959 Ingat Ingat 1 page (12 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim; note stated “above song adopted by The Federation of Malaya Police for road safety in Malaya. HM097 PHMJB-0047 N.D. Megah-Rasa 1 page (8 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim. HM098 PHMJB-0048 N.D. Pulau Pinang / Pearl of the East 1 page; only 2 different versions of lyrics that were already cancelled by cross drawing over the lyrics with pencil. HM099 PHMJB-0049 N.D. Kemegahan Negara Ku 1 page (16 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics for “Pulau Pinang” but was cancelled with pencil. HM100 PHMJB-0050, PHMJB-0051 N.D. Menuntut untok Berbakti 1 page (32 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim along with the composition and written individually in another page before manuscript; small note written “March for schools and general purposes”. HM101 PHMJB-0052, PHMJB-0053 N.D. Putera Puteri 2 pages (32 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim. HM102 PHMJB-0054 N.D. Kemegahan Negaraku 1/3 page (8 bars); with piano accompaniment; no lyrics. HM103 PHMJB-0055, PHMJB-0056, PHMJB-0057, PHMJB-0058 -/-/1957 Berdendang Ria 1 page (12 bars); with piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim; a page of Malay lyrics that was cancelled by pencil; then followed by an official lyrics for Dendang Ria; a letter/note written by Jimmy Boyle in another page about his songs that were performed. HM104 PHMJB-0059, PHMJB-0060 N.D. Putera Puteri Intro (8 bars) Half page (8 bars); intro written as piano score with elaborated chord and voicing; with Malay lyrics written in cursive handwriting behind the manuscript. HM105 PHMJB-0061 N.D. Berdendang Ria 1 page (12 bars); with piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics by Dol Baharim written along the music. HM106 PHMJB-0062 N.D. Berdendang Ria 1 page (12 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim; short note written “new set of words but same music – just got confirmation just now!”. HM107 PHMJB-0063 N.D. Bahtera Karam 1 page (32 bars); with chords; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim; *short note written above the title “E.G.of. A LOVE SONG”. Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 151 HM108 PHMJB-0064, PHMJB-0065 N.D. Bunga Negara 2 pages (32 bars); with melody and piano accompaniment; with Malay lyrics written by Dol Baharim along the music and written individually in the next page (PHMJB-0065). HM109 PHMJB-0066, PHMJB-0067 29/4/1971 Rukunegara 1 page (12 bars); with piano accompaniment; with Malay lyric based on Malaysia 5 principles in Rukunegara; 2 sections written with different accompaniment pattern; a letter from Ministry of Education from Pulau Pinang to Jimmy Boyle attached behind the manuscript. HM110 PHMJB-0068 N.D. Sungai Pahang (Malaysia) 1 page (32 bars); with piano accompaniment and chords; no lyrics; torn at sides; some words cannot be read. HM111 PHMJB-0069 N.D. Jauh-Jauh 1 page (12 bars + 8 bars); with violin and piano accompaniment; no lyrics; HM112 PHMJB-0070 26/6/1969 Sukan Sekolah- Sekolah Malaysia 1 page (16 bars); with piano accompaniment; with English lyrics by Jimmy Boyle and Malay lyrics by Amran Hamid. HM113 PHMJB-0071, PHMJB-0072 29/9/1965 Bersatu-Jaya 1 page (16 bars); with piano accompaniment and chords; with English lyrics by Jimmy Boyle and Malay lyrics by Noor Hasnimah. Handwritten Manuscript-Copy of Others’ Work Jimmy Boyle’s Handwritten Manuscript-Copy of Others’ Work, on the other hand, provides complementary but essential information that could aid in better understanding the content of the first two sets of catalogues. Intertextuality is demonstrated by placing Boyle’s composition in view of the other works that he imitated and performed, and enables locating the process of analysis. As shown in Table 4, the list presents a good collection of Modern Jazz pieces, some popular tunes in the 1960s and several Malay songs. The jazz collection confirms Boyle’s passion and his identification with jazz, particularly Modern Jazz. This includes Count Basie’s “Tap Miller” and “Feather Merchant”, Charlie Parker’s “Yardbird Suite”, Dizzy Gillespie’s “Algo Bueno”, “Juice”, “When Lights Are Low”, Clifford Brown’s “Tiny Capers” and “Daahoud”, John Lewis’ “Django” and “The Theme” (John Lewis and Milt Jackson), Milt Jackson’s “Bag’s Groove”, J. J. Johnson’s “Wee Dot”, Duke Jordan’s “Jordu”, Thelonious Monk’s “Round About Midnight”, Horace Silver’s “Opus de Funk”, “Split Kick”, “May Rey (or Mayreh)”, Bill Evans’ “Bluesette” and “Waltz for Debby” and more. Boyle’s own composition of experimental jazz tunes like “Pening (Dizzy)” (HM040), “The Fifth Temperament” (HM052), “The Focal Point” (HM053) and “Caravelle” (HM061) find resemblances in many if not most of the titles he copied. For example, one finds chromatic turns in Jimmy Raney’s “Lee” and Clifford Brown’s “Daahoud”. Manuscripts of the 1960s include popular songs such as John Barry’s “Born Free” and “Goldfinger”, Henry Mancini’s “Moment to moment”, George Duning’s “Picnic”, as well as John Lennon’s “Ringo’s Theme”. Malay songs include “Kisah Mawar di Malam Hari” (Iskandar), “Doa dan Lagu” (Iskandar), “Asmara Kechewa” (J.S. Hamzah), “Rindu Kaseh Di Malam Sepi” (J.S. Hamzah), “Rindu Di Kala Senja” (J.S. Hamzah) and “Musafir Kelana”. Unlike the previous two categories, Boyle omitted the names of the composers in some of these manuscripts. A possible purpose for copying others’ work could be for rehearsal and performance or simply for self-collection. In the variants of chord and notations from his manuscripts compared to other versions of notation published, it is highly probable that Boyle transcribed the melody and chords by ear. Regardless of the purpose, the catalogue gives valuable insights into the music and composers to which Boyle was exposed to. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 152 Table 4. Catalogue of Handwritten Manuscript-Copy of Others’ Works Digital Archive of Jimmy Boyle’s Personal Works of Music 2017 ID File Name Date/Year Title Remarks HM114 CHMJB-0001 N.D. Kisah Mawar di Malam Hari Half page (64 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by“Iskandar”. HM115 CHMJB-0002 N.D. Doa dan Lagu Bottom half of the page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by “Iskandar”. *UHMJB- 0061 HM116 CHMJB-0003 N.D. Days of Wine + Rose Bottom half of the page (26 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *Henry Mancini (1962). *UHMJB-0019 HM117 CHMJB-0004 N.D. People 1 page (40 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *Jule Styne 1964. HM118 CHMJB-0005 N.D. When Day Is Done Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *Paul Whiteman (1927) HM119 CHMJB-0006 N.D. Nice Work If You Can Get It Half page (34 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *George Gershwin (1937) *CHMJB-0005 HM120 CHMJB-0007 N.D. Bluesette Half page (49 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Bill Evans. HM121 CHMJB-0008 N.D. *Dedication Bottom half of the page (45 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *“Meditation” by Antônio Carlos Jobim and Newton Mendonça (1960) *CHMJB-0007 HM122 CHMJB-0009 N.D. Algo Bueno (Woody’n You) Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Dizzy Gillespie. HM123 CHMJB-0010 N.D. Yardbird Suite Bottom half of the page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Charlie Parker. *CHMJB-0007 HM124 CHMJB-0011 N.D. Jordu Bottom half of the page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Duke Jordan. *UHMJB- 0021 HM125 CHMJB-0012 N.D. I Know, Don’t Know How (38 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *Gerry Mulligan (1962) HM126 CHMJB-0013 N.D. Bag’s Groove Half page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Milt Jackson. HM127 CHMJB-0014 N.D. Juice 1 page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; divided into two sections by different key; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Dizzy Gillespie. HM128 CHMJB-0015 N.D. Daahoud Half page (38 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Clifford Brown. HM129 CHMJB-0016 N.D. Tunisia; When Lights Are Low The page has a intro vamp of Night of Tunisia (3+ bars), followed by When the Loghts Are Low (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Dizzy Gillespie. HM130 CHMJB-0017 N.D. Walk, Don’t Run Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *Its neither the tune by Johnny Smith (1954) nor the Ventures (1964). Composer unknown. HM131 CHMJB-0018 N.D. Wee-Dot Bottom half of the page (12 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *CHMJB-0017 *J. J. Johnson (1965) HM132 CHMJB-0019 N.D. Come Pone Half page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. HM133 CHMJB-0020 N.D. The Wind Bottom half of the page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Russ Freeman. *CHMJB-0017 HM134 CHMJB-0021 N.D. Round About Midnight Half page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Thelonious Monk. HM135 CHMJB-0022 N.D. Dr. Zhivago (Somewhere My Love) Half page (34 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *Ray Conniff (1969) HM136 CHMJB-0023 N.D. Almost There Bottom half of the page (40 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *CHMJB-0022 *Gloria Shayne and Jack Keller (1964) HM137 CHMJB-0024 N.D. * Title unclear (Stranger in the Night) Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. Memo of list of song (for show, etc) was written at the bottom of the page. *Ivo Robić and Bert Kaempfert 1966 HM138 CHMJB-0025 N.D. The Shadow of Your Smile Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. Another 12-bar sketch of melody with chords in C major entitled “MLTA” was written on the same page. *Tony Bennett (1966) HM139 CHMJB-0026 N.D. Bossa Nova U.S.A. Half page (36 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *Dave Brubeck (1963) HM140 CHMJB-0027 N.D. Moaning Half page (24 bars); written in G minor, with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Bobby Timmons. Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 153 HM141 CHMJB-0028 N.D. Django Bottom half of the page (20 bars + 32 bars only chord progressions); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by John Lewis. *CHMJB-0027 HM142 CHMJB-0029 N.D. Round About Midnight Half page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Thelonious Monk. HM143 CHMJB-0030 N.D. My Funny Valentine Bottom half of the page (36 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *CHMJB-0029 *Richard Rorgers (1937) HM144 CHMJB-0031 N.D. Tamalpais Half page (28 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Oscar Pettiford. HM145 CHMJB-0032 N.D. Opus de Funk Bottom half of the page (16 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Horace Silver. *CHMJB-0031 HM146 CHMJB-0033 N.D. Split Kick Half page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Horace Silver. HM147 CHMJB-0034 N.D. The Theme Bottom half of the page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by John Lewis and Milt Jackson. *CHMJB-0033 HM148 CHMJB-0035 N.D. Taps Miller Half page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Count Basie. HM149 CHMJB-0036 N.D. Tiny Capers Bottom half of the page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Clifford Brown. *CHMJB-0033 HM150 CHMJB-0037 N.D. Feather Merchant Half page (12 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Count Basie. HM151 CHMJB-0038 N.D. This Reminds Me of You Bottom half of the page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Ralph Burns. *CHMJB-0037 HM152 CHMJB-0039 N.D. Things Are Getting Better Half page (16 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Julian Adderly “Cannonball”. HM153 CHMJB-0040 N.D. Waltz for Debby Bottom half of the page (48 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Bill Evans. *CHMJB-0039 HM154 CHMJB-0041 N.D. Lee Half page (64 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Jimmy Raney. HM155 CHMJB-0042 N.D. H + J (Edison + Jones) Half page (22 bars); with chords; no lyrics; *Harry “Sweet” Edison and Jo Jones HM156 CHMJB-0043 N.D. Rubber Neck Bottom half of the page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Frank Rosolino. *CHMJB-0042 HM157 CHMJB-0044 N.D. Batter Up Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Russ Freeman. HM158 CHMJB-0045 N.D. May Rey Half page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Horace Silver. *May-Reh or Mayreh played by Art Blakey et al HM159 CHMJB-0046 N.D. Swing Till The Girls Come Home Bottom half of the page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Oscar Pettiford but also mentioned Jimmy Blanton. *CHMJB-0045 HM160 CHMJB-0047 N.D. Doxy Half page (16 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Sonny Rollins. HM161 CHMJB-0048 N.D. Summer Setting Bottom half of the page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; unclear handwriting stated in manuscript that it is composed by “Mommy Altran” (approximation). *CHMJB-0045 HM162 CHMJB-0049, CHMJB-0050 N.D. Dear Heart Full page (49 bars); with chords; no composer stated. Lyrics was written on second page CHMJB-0050 *Andy Williams (1964) HM163 CHMJB-0051 N.D. To Night Bottom half of the page (64 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *“Tonight” by Leonard Bernstein (1961) *CHMJB- 0050 HM164 CHMJB-0052, CHMJB-0053 N.D. Quiet Nights of Quiet Stars Full page (32 bars); with chords; no composer stated. Lyrics was written on the second page CHMJB-0053 *Antônio Carlos Jobim (1960) HM165 CHMJB-0054, CHMJB-0055 N.D. Ringo’s Theme (This Boy) Half page (36 bars); with chords; lyrics was written on the second page CHMJB-0055 *Lennon-MaCartney (1963) HM166 CHMJB-0056, CHMJB-0057 N.D. House of the Rising Sun Half page (50 bars); with chords; with lyrics; no composer stated. *The Animals (1964) HM167 CHMJB-0058 N.D. Born Free Full page (56 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *John Barry (1966) HM168 CHMJB-0059 N.D. Downtown Half page (27 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *Tony Hatch (1964) HM169 CHMJB-0060 N.D. Goldfinger Bottom half of the page (60 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *John Barry (1964) *CHMJB-0059 HM170 CHMJB-0061 N.D. Moment to Moment Half page (72 bars); with chords; with lyrics; no composer stated. *Henry Mancini 1966 HM171 CHMJB-0062 N.D. A Taste of Honey Half page (52 bars); with chords; with lyrics; no composer stated. *Bobby Scott and Ric Marlow(1960) HM172 CHMJB-0063 N.D. Picnic Bottom half of the page (32 bars); with chords; no lyrics; no composer stated. *George Duning (1955) *CHMJB-0062 HM173 CHMJB-0064, CHMJB-0065 7/6/1962 Asmara Kechewa Half page (32 bars); no chords; with Malay lyrics by Asbar Semah; stated in manuscript that it is composed by J. S. Hamzah. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 154 HM174 CHMJB-0066, CHMJB-0067 N.D. Rindu Kaseh Di Malam Sepi Half page (32 bars); no chords; with Malay lyrics by Asbar Semah; stated in manuscript that it is composed by J. S. Hamzah. HM175 CHMJB-0068, CHMJB-0069 N.D. Rindu Di Kala Senja Half page (32 bars); no chords; with Malay lyrics by Asbar Semah; stated in manuscript that it is composed by J. S. Hamzah. HM176 CHMJB-0070 N.D. Salute to Charlie Christian Half page (24 bars); with chords; no lyrics; stated in manuscript that it is composed by Barney Kessel; another half of the same manuscript is written with “Ipoh Agogo” lyrics by Jimmy Boyle. HM177 CHMJB-0071 N.D. Musafir Kelana Half page (59 bars); with chords; with lyrics; no composer stated. Discussion The catalogue that is presented enables a thorough investigation into the intertextuality of Boyle’s work. The sheer number of English love songs in the Unpublished category, Malay songs in the Published category and the bop tunes in the Copy of Others’ Work catalogue further enhance our earlier observations of Boyle as a songwriter, a jazzman and a culture advocate (Chan et al., 2015). The sections that follow display only three of the many possible observations on intertextuality within Boyle’s manuscripts. Intertextuality in “Mutiara Ku” One facet of Boyle’s composing process that has become clearer by comparing the manuscripts is the process by which languages are used in expressing lyrics for songs. Our earlier findings in 2015 reported Boyle’s own lyrics in his English songs for love songs like “Hope” and “I Lost My Love in Pesta Ria”. A fact that is less known today about the composer is that Boyle composed love songs and wrote lyrics. Boyle’s simple and straight-forward style of writing lyrics for the English language love songs are in contrast with the formal and eloquent Malay lyrics created by lyricists such as Dol Baharim for the patriotic songs. In the catalogue there is evidence of lyric versions in two languages for one song called “Mutiara Ku” that provides a glimpse into the process of lyric formation, beginning with the composer who wrote in English and later arrived at the skillfully crafted Malay version by the lyricist (Figure 1). The lyrics depict one’s lonesome feelings in facing some unavoidable physical separation with his loved one due to untold reasons. The term “pearl” stands out to hint at the particularity in the message of this song. Whether this is a song directed to his daughter, his wife or his homeland remains speculative. Interestingly, the English version adopts the Malay title “Mutiara Ku” instead of having an English title of its own. In general, the Malay lyrics correspond with the English version. While the English lyrics use daily language, the Malay text is characterised by poetic expression. For example, “I will always love you so” is given as “Asmara nan merana” [(my) desire endures]. “My heart alone, without my pearl” becomes “Dengankau lah, dendang sayu” [With you, a song of sorrow]. The Malay lyric is indirect and elaborated. We deduce that the Malay text was created by Dol Baharim, the known lyricist for Boyle’s songs. Our subjective view is that both the English and Malay versions of “Mutiara Ku” have a considerably different effect. The Malay version is complete, the melody and lyrics are inseparably integrated into embodying a good sense of Malayness11 with fluidity, elaboration (as the concept of “bunga” or ornaments shows) and indirectness as if the melody was created specifically for the language. Today the public is familiar with this character of Boyle’s song as the same character that is found in “Putera Puteri” and “Jauh Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 155 Jauh” that have been showered with praise like “showing the beauty of nature” or “breaking the boundaries of race” (Boyle, 2014, p. 24)12. It is an elegant way that fluidly amalgamates all elements. The English versions when listened to separately, do not hint at any resemblance of the fluidity in Malay language. It is romantic, individual, more direct and simpler, reminding one of the songs in Tin Pan Alley. It is gentle but has a firm directness in ordinary English speech. Speculations abound around the lyrics. The English lyrics could be temporal; they may be only a draft to show the lyricist the overall idea of the song in order for the lyricist to get on with his work. Boyle might have wanted both versions for what they are. What is certain from this observation is that the widely known effect of the beauty of Boyle’s Malay songs which is the hallmark of Boyle’s identity, is an output of a successful collaboration between a composer and a lyricist. From the sketch of the melody and English lyrics, Boyle is undeniably the owner and the initiator of the entire idea of the song. However, it could not be completed without the crucial work of the lyricist. The discourse on Boyle and Malayness (Chan & Boyle, 2016) remains a relevant topic for future research. Figure 1. (Upper) Manuscript HM034 /UHMJB0034 “Mutiara Ku” (Lower) Manuscript HM051 /UHMJB0051 Malay lyrics of “Mutiara” (sharing the same page with “Tender Memories”) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 156 Intertextuality in “Pulau Pinang” The story of appropriating the melody, originally meant for the state anthem of Pulau Pinang, into a signature song for the newborn nation of Malaysia, “Kemegahan Negaraku” (HM099), was already reported by Boyle’s son James Phillip Sheng Boyle (2014). Manuscript HM099 (Figure 2a) is one of the most revealing artefacts with the new lyrics written for the then newly formed nation of Malaysia on top of the cancelled lyrics written for one of the subordinate states. Putting the new next to the old, it is apparent that the new version came as a modification based on the old version while maintaining the rhymes with some words remaining from the old version. More interestingly, in HM091, which was a new melody created in 1964 (that is a year later than the premier of HM099 in 1963), the idea of the original lyrics in HM099 has been employed. The idea of Pulau Pinang as a pearl that it is beautiful, a place with pride and the plural society living harmoniously survived through the drama of appropriation. This process of appropriating composition materials of Boyle symbolises the issue of identification between a closer, local but urban community of Penang and the more distanced and central authority, the new nation called Malaysia. Boyle has had to deal with both spheres, the dynamic of which is vividly observed in manuscript HM099 (Figure 2a) and HM091 (Figure 2b). The intertextual links go from HM099-original lyric to HM099-new lyric⁠ by means of appropriation, and to HM091 by extension: a two-step progression involving essentially three items. A song of praise of a state was appropriated to signify national sovereignty, and its lyrics were later applied in another song praising the state with a totally different melodic set up: from “Pulau Pinang” to “Kemegahan Negaraku” and extended to another “Pulau Pinang”. Figure 2a. Manuscript HM099 /UHMJB0049 “Kemegahan Negara Ku” Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 157 Figure 2b. Manuscript HM091 /PHMJB0037 “Pulau Pinang” Intertextuality surrounding “Medhini” One striking example of intertextuality is observed in HM008, HM032, HM033, and HM046 (Figure 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d), manuscripts that are respectively titled “Chiranan”, “Medhini”, “Mehdini” and “Sunset over Bangkok”. Related to this is a newspaper article in 1966 that features “Chiranun”. What is revealed in these manuscripts and linked by variants of names and spelling is the track demonstrating an incidence where Boyle composed music with an impression of Thai through which a personality is featured. Manuscripts left by Jimmy Boyle show that the song was presented several times and that it was presented each time in a slightly different context. Here we see three versions in content: the first two versions are identical with merely the name of a person “Chiranan” (HM008) mentioned in the title with the lyrics replaced by “Mehdini” (HM033). In contrast, the third version called “Medhini” (HM032), is a melodic embellishment meant as an instrumental work. The spelling of “Chiranan” (HM008) on the manuscript corresponds to “Chiranun” in the newspaper article (Chua, 1966); while “Mehdini” (HM033) corresponds to “Medhini” (HM032). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 158 Figure 3a. Manuscript HM008 /UHMJB0008 “Chiranan” A 1966 news article 13 reveals the context for the composition of HM008. However, the subsequent activities in composing HM032 and HM046 are unknown. The matter of concern is the reuse of composition with the switch of the object while maintaining the same lyrics in Boyle’s composition process. The composer praises the beauty and greatness in “Chiranan” (HM008) and that the time that they shared will be missed. The object of praise later became “Mehdini” (HM033) and in HM032 a descriptive version of “a Thai Song” and “The Sage” was added to the title. The transposition of key could imply a change of singer or for other purposes. Unlike “Chiranun”, the identity of “Medhini” is unknown. The handwriting notion of “Radio Malaysia Penang-Kuala Lumpur” and “copyright for B.I.E.M” are the remaining hints for further investigation. For reasons unknown, Boyle stretched the materials beyond the vocal song and turned it into an instrumental showcase. While the first two manuscripts are a mere change of title, the third manuscript “Medhini” (HM032) stands out as an instrumental piece with particular instructions for melodic embellishment. Claimed as “a Thai song”, the Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 159 recurring three-note motifs are elaborated into quintuplet patterns. The oriental impression as displayed in the use of pentatonic scales in the original songs is fully expressed with highly ornamented notes. Incidentally, “Medhini” (HM032) (Figure 3c) resembles another tune “Sunset on Bangkok” (HM046) (Figure 3d) in terms of a rhythmic pattern that is used. The following two manuscripts of instrumental melody are evidence of Boyle’s impression of music in “Thai” style. Figure 3b. Manuscript HM033 /UHMJB0033 “Mehdini” Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 160 Figure 3c. Manuscript HM032 /UHMJB0032 “Medhini (A Thai Song)” Figure 3d. Manuscript HM046 /UHMJB0046 “Sunset Over Bangkok” Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 161 The intertextual link goes from HM008 to HM032 by means of appropriation, and to HM032 by extension, which is aligned to HM046 in compositional styles: a three-step progression involving four items. A song about beauty was appropriated to praise a different name and further be extended into an instrumental work aligned to Boyle’s Thai impression of another work: from “Chiranan” to “Mehdini” and to the instrumental “Medhini” resembling “Sunset of Bangkok”. Conclusion The catalogue of Jimmy Boyle’s manuscripts that include unpublished, published and transcribed works offers opportunities for inter-itemised, intra and cross-sectional comparisons. One contribution of this paper is that it initiates an inquiry into the material presented—to examine and scrutinise the observable contents and to identify the features, before analysing them in terms of musical content and social issues. Biographical research on the composer is highly subjective and interpretative but the artefact observed gives an axis of objectivity to return to in the face of contradictory arguments. The discussion above offers footprints of the composers, the dynamics of the process of creating, appropriating and extending ideas, and thereby presents this vivid process to the reader. In this sense, the value of analysis is expressed in the narrative of the material itself of how manuscripts inter-relate to each other and presents many cues for interpretations. Many things indeed remain uncertain from the narrative of the intertextual links surrounding “Mutiara Ku”, “Pulau Pinang” and “Chiranan” but the availability of these narratives brings tremendous differences in having a sense of Boyle compared to the stage before the narratives were created. What is being demonstrated in the method of analysis presented in the intertextual comparison of Jimmy Boyle’s work? Intertextuality when applied to music holds music as a form of text, hence referring to the truth revealed between one piece of music and another (Tokumaru, 2005). In this study, the content of the manuscripts, either self- composed or a copy of others, are the text. By employing the concept of intertextuality we can derive new narratives about Boyle that can possibly reconcile the many contrasting branches of his works. Intertextuality avoids overemphasising observations that manifest as the personality of a particular end, for example, on one instance of Boyle’s composition but that looks for any coherent stream of thoughts that could be explained as the underlying phenomenon that holds the manifestation of a few different end outputs. In line with Latour’s (2005) idea of object as agency, the narrative of materials presents the interaction between the agents as a different form of cultural descriptions that involve human-thing relationships. By identifying a relevant approach to document the set of music materials left by Jimmy Boyle, the research team discovered that the personal and contextual particularities of Jimmy Boyle as a composer lies more in the intertextual relationship between the diverse aspects of creativity all within the composer rather than his relationship with the society that surrounds him. This paper provides a counter-concept to the initial existing conceptualisation of Jimmy Boyle as a patriotic composer whose impact was made in the areas of nationalism, identity and post-colonialism in the Malay Peninsula. Along the line of Frye’s (Saint-Cyr, 2012) term of “music music-criticism”, Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 162 inter-item interaction within the manuscripts is crucial due to the prevalent gap between the characters of works in one group to another. The relevant approach to Jimmy Boyle’s works is most of all an approach that could devise ways to reconcile the multiple facets of a single person who possessed the immense capacity to create, connect and learn. Each intertextual observation presented in this paper reveals subtle details that support a certain understanding of Boyle. The difference in size of the unpublished work compared to the published ones indicates that a large portion of Boyle’s work remains unknown today. The presence of the subcategory of “copy of others’ works” gives a fuller picture of the exact music/songs Boyle was exposed to and that he had taken the effort to reproduce them. His preference for Modern Jazz is reinforced but his transcription of John Lennon’s song “Ringo’s Theme” (HM165) could be a counter fact to his harsh criticism of the rock genre in a comment he made in a news article14. More evidence on the relationship between the composer’s perceptions of different genres can contribute to forming a narrative of musical tastes which is the crucial item in determining the kind of jazz ethos held by the composers associated with Radio TV Malaya/Malaysia. Furthermore, this method contributes to the discourse of nationalism versus authenticity observed as a generational gap among jazz musicians in Malaysia (Chan & Boyle, 2016). Observations on “Mutiara Ku” reveal the collaborative nature of the creation process behind the fluid character of Malayness displayed in Boyle’s well-known songs, reminding us of the contributions of the lyricist. The narrative of materials shows the stages through which a song achieves its final form. Questions remain if Boyle composed the melody with the Malay aesthetics in mind and that his English lyrics were meant only as a transition before the Malay poem was written. Our instincts as musicians informed us such was the case. A further examination of Malay aesthetics contained in Boyle’s manuscripts, as well as in the open-reel recording (containing his piano playing), is one potential area to advance the discourse of Malay cultural cosmopolitanism proposed by Tan (2013). Observations on “Pulau Pinang” and “Kemegahan Negaraku” together with the frequent signifier “pearl” for Penang Island, invites discussion on the process of negotiating nationalism between a state and the larger nation, between Penang State and the Federation of Malaya (Malaysia). The interaction of the materials unveiled the process through which patriotic songs were produced, an aspect to complement the report of the dissemination by Shazlin Hamzah (2019) and the perception of patriotic songs (Shazlin Hamzah & Adil Johan, 2020). An analysis of Boyle’s manuscripts of other patriotic songs await. By examining the relations between manuscripts of patriotic and non-patriotic songs, the composer’s sentiments of aligning with the purpose of creating social cohesion could be revealed. One such example that features the interplay of the private-public sphere within the composer is in the intertextuality observed in the manuscripts of “Medhini”. “Medhini” is an example where Boyle navigated between utility and artistry: appropriating material that was created for “on mode” (refer to Spivak’s theory above) into the purpose for “off mode” of turning a job request of writing a popular song for the public into a personal experiment. As such, the musical structure of “Medhini” may be one such coherent “thing” Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 163 lying beneath Boyle’s contrasting sentiments. Here lies the potential to develop a sophisticated description in the fashion of “agents in inter-action” proposed by Martin (2010). In closing, we ask, have the findings of this paper revealed any coherent stream of Boyle’s thoughts that could hold the manifestation of his contrasting end outputs? Did it progress any deeper than or go beyond our surfaced notions presented in 2015 that Boyle has several sentiments as a songwriter, jazz musician and cultural enthusiast? In directing the findings back to the larger discourse of Boyle’s study, what is the current interpretation of Jimmy Boyle’s personality and his music? The purpose of this paper has been to provide comprehensive information to substantiate and to continue the discourse focused on Jimmy Boyle set in our earlier publications in 2014 and 2015. From a holistic description of Boyle (Boyle, 2014) and an analysis on selected works to highlight Boyle’s multi-faceted aspects in artistry (Chan et al., 2015), we have now presented a full list of the manuscript artefacts as a catalogue and have shown the potential of research into material analysis. Endnotes 1 Besides enthusiasts like Rozells and Rodrigues (2002) who promoted Boyle’s musical heritage through their documentation work, Paul Augustin and James Lochhead (2015) were strong proponents of Boyle that they organised featured exhibitions and music competition (The Jimmy Boyle Young Talent Competition) in the annual Penang Island Jazz Festival (Patterson, 2015) until 2018, as well as curated a permanent exhibition space in Penang city (Penang House of Music, 2017). 2 To date, weblog posts remain as an accessible source for biographical information for composers associated to Radio TV Malaysia, like for Ahmad Merican (Lohan, 2015, October 19; The Sun Daily, 2006), Alfonso Soliano (Chew, 2017; Low & Syahir, 2015; Mohd Faizal, 2010), Ahmad Nawab (Zieman, 2017, May 9), Ooi Eau Jin (Chew, 2017; Quah, 2015, September 4; Jalil, 2015), as well for Jimmy Boyle (Quah, 2009, April 5). 3 The word serani was used in the original speech spoken in Malay. 4 Below is a brief account of some known songs of Boyle. Some of Boyle’s works were compiled in Irama Tanah Melayu, a publication by Eastern Universities Press Ltd in Singapore in 1962, that contains 16 songs that include “Api dan Ayer”, “Bunga Něgara”, “Putěra-Putěri”, “Kěměgahan Něgara-Ku”, “Měgah Rasa”, “Ingat-ingat!”, “Těpi Pantai”, “Běrdendang-Ria”, “Ka-Hulu Ka-Hilir”, “Bahtěra Karam”, “Pantun Mělayu”, “Gěma Rěmbulan”, “Sang Bayu”, “Rayuan Měsra”, “Měnuntut Untok Běrbakti”, and “Běrtugas”. Apart from the songs in Irama Tanah Melayu, Boyle’s well-known songs till present day include “Jauh jauh”, “Chendering”, “Sungai Pahang”, “Sukan Sekolah-Sekolah Malaysia”, “Legak Penari”, “Jamboree Song” and “Rukunegara”. Some of his compositions can be found on newspaper reports for the events or performances (Boyle, 2014; Chan et al., 2015). 5 Within these songs, “Jamboree Song” was first Malaysian Jamboree Scout song that was composed on 29 September 1966 with an initial Malay title “Bersatu Jaya”. “Sukan Sekolah Sekolah Malaysia” was composed for the Malaysian Sports Council’s national meet and was meant to unite the nation, as the end phrase “We are one for Malaysia” shows (Cheah, 1969). “Rukunegara”, a song for the five fundamental principles of Malaysia, is pivotal in the social landscape of Malaysia. Boyle wrote to the Minister with Special Functions and Information, Tan Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 164 Sri Ghazali Shafie with the manuscript of this 12-bar song nine days before he passed away. A news article reported of Boyle’s spirit of optimism and patriotism quoting his phrase, “even if we fall flat in our faces, we’ll lick our wounds and still “GO” because there is so much to be done in such a short space of time” (Khor, 1971, May 11). “Legak Penari” (or “Lagak Penari”, as in his manuscript HM027) or “The dancer’s technique” is composed in keroncong style, was performed by jazz trombonist, Jack Teagarden during his Malayan tour, who commented it as a “fine piece–easily the best of several I have collected during my Malayan tour” (Runnymede Swingtette, 1958). Apart from the songs mentioned above, there are also scattered reports of songs composed by Boyle uploaded by individuals on social media. The account above enhanced the image of Boyle as a patriotic composer. Thus far, we have observed that Boyle’s songs that have a utilitarian nature, patriotic songs, anthem, sports songs included, are only but a part of the trajectory of Boyle’s life work. 6 His compositions may have been lost due to various factors. Kathleen Rodrigues informed us that old recordings were destroyed by fire during an accident in Radio Television Malaysia (personal communication, 2014). 7 In our preceding paper (Chan, Lee & Boyle, 2015), we cited Mohamad (2013) that the performance of Jimmy Boyle’s trio was regularly aired by Radio Malaya’s English language service. In addition, Boyle’s handwriting notes inserted on several pages of his published music score, Irama Tanah Melayu (HM181 according to the Catalogue), the information of recording were revealed as below. • Bahtera Karam (1955)-Royal Command Performance 1960 (45 piece Orchestra) by Radio Malaysia • Pantun Melayu (1958)- World Release on Philips ( Recorded in Holland) . Recorded by Radio Malaysia- Sung by Sandra Reemer ( Holland) • Kemegahan Negaraku ( 1956) – Recorded by the Merdeka Choir July 1957 • Berdendang Ria (1955) – Recorded by the Royal Command Performance 1961 and by Radio Malaysia + Radio Singapore Orchestra • Putera Puteri (1954) – 1) Dewan Tengku A. R. as a Tone Poem for Concert Symphony orchestra 2) Used as a Soundtrack for Radio & TV Malaysia 3) Played by the Singapore Orchestra + Radio Malaysia Orchstra – 65 Piece Concert. 4) Merdeka Choir (1957) • Bunga Negara (1959)- Played on Radio Malaysia at midnight 16 Sept 1963 on the First Malaysia Day • Gema Rembulan (1956)- Recorded by Radio Malaysia ( 1958 Orchestra ) Recorded by the Ger Van Leeuwen Orchestra of Europe in Philips LP ‘ Music of Malaysia in Modern Mood (1968) • Rayuan Mesra (1958)- Recorded by Peggy Tann for Radio Singapore and Malaya (EP) 8 This paper is the outcome of a research project entitled “Capturing the beauty of Nusantara in intercultural perspectives: Towards a theory of musical-Malayness for legends of improvisations in the Modern Malay World” funded by Ministry of Higher Education’s Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS), with the project number of FRGS/1/2019/WAB04/UPM/02/1 9 In the catalogue, HM### refers to the code for musical content or a sketch of a song. Digital files were coded according to a subcategory, that is UHMJB-00## for “unpublished works”, PHMJB-00## for “published works”, CHMJB-00## for “copy of others’ works”, JBFN for Field Notes, and, RTJB for Open Reel Recording. Details of JBFN and RTJB is beyond the limited scope of this paper. The remarks column contains various information, which includes the condition of the item, length of composition, as well as the style of handwriting for specific Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 165 items. Remarks were created with consistency according to different categories. For instance, remarks of manuscripts are mainly the length of composition, number of bars, with or without indication of chord names and lyrics. Asterisk (*) were used to link the multiple codes of one identical artefact. For example, *UHMJB-0001 in the remark column of UHMJB-0002 means that the two musical content share the same artefact, i.e. written on the same page of the manuscript, usually one on the upper half and the other on the lower half of a page. In the subcategory of “copy of others’ work”, an asterisk was also used to supplement the information that was missing in the original manuscript, that is the name of composer and year of release of certain songs. The spelling of names and title in the original manuscript was maintained even when some of them contradict with the known version of spellings. 10 There are several versions of manuscripts for “Berdendang Ria” (HM047, HM103, HM105, HM106), a song that was published and known to the public. HM049 was included within the category of unpublished manuscripts due to the nature that it was a rough sketch written on the same page with another two unpublished songs, which are “Taman Gembira” (HM047) and “Kaseh Mesra” (HM048). 11 The characteristics of Malay as a civilisation, often expressed with the term “Malayness”, are presented in Milner (2011), Benjamin (2002), among others; writing that links music to Malayness are found in Benjamin (2019) and Chan (2014). Malayness is a defining character of Jimmy Boyle’s composition that needs another article by itself. Recent works that analysed Malay aesthetic in music include Tan (2013) and Adil Johan (2017). 12 These are words of the jazz pianist Mohd Razif Ismail quoted by James Boyle. 13 In the news article (The Sunday Times, 1966), Toby Chua reported that the song “Chiranan” was composed within a few hours during Boyle’s visit to Thailand, in a request to perform his composition in a television program and dedicate it to the Miss Thailand then. Boyle was reportedly glad to receive the request that he eventually sang in a public performance for his first time, for the reason that he wanted to “keep Malaysia’s flag flying”. Boyle himself created music and the English lyrics, and Mr Ahrampee wrote another version of Thai lyrics. Boyle regarded the Thai lyrics as depicting the essence of “peace and serenity” and turned the song into one that is “for a special person”. 14 Boyle made several public comments against the shift of musical trends from jazz into the rock era. These comments at the time indicate his determination in developing jazz music of his own. A short report entitled “Jimmy Boyle on ‘Rock and Roll Music’” published in 13th August 1959 reveals his firm stance on rock music, as he says, “Make no mistake about kiddiewinks, rock and roll. No matter how you wrap it, it is not good music, it’s a gimmick!” (Jimmy Boyle on ‘Rock and Roll music’”, 1959). References Anak Bandar Raya. (1961). Composer Jimmy puts the accent of Malayan. The Sunday Gazette, 13. Augustin, J. F. (1970). Bygone Eurasia: The life-story of the Eurasians of Malaya. Rajiv Printers. Augustin, P. & Lochhead, J. (2015). Just for the love of it: Popular music in Penang (1930s- 1960s). Strategic Information and Research Development Centre (SIRD). Benjamin, G. (2002). On being tribal in the Malay world. In G. Benjamin and C. Chou (Eds.), Tribal Communities in the Malay World: Historical, cultural and social perspectives (pp. 7-76). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 166 Benjamin, G. (2019). Music and the cline of Malayness: Sounds of egalitarianism and ranking. In N. Porath (Ed.), Hearing South East Asia: Sounds of hierarchy and power in context (pp. 87-116). Nordic Institute of Asian Studies (NIAS Press). Bohlman, P.V. (2009). Music before the nation, music after nationalism. Musicology Australia, 31(1), 79-100. https://doi.org/10.1080/08145857.2009.10416582 Boyle, J. (2014). Putera Puteri: The music and legacy of Jimmy Boyle. Akademi Seni Budaya dan Warisan Kebangsaan (ASWARA). Chan, C. J. (2014). A response to Milner’s ‘Malayness’ from a musical perspective. In G. Jänichen, M. M. Hood & Chinthaka P. Meddegoda. (Eds.), Music and mind (pp. 229- 243). Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. Chan, C. J. & Boyle, J. (2016). Jazz style nationalism and authencity: Lagu Melayu composed with jazz idioms in the 1960s. (pp. 322-341). In Baharudin Ahmad (Ed.), Pengilmuan seni dan 162atrioti kreatif. Akademi Seni Budaya dan Warisan Kebangsaan (ASWARA). Chan, C. J., Lee, S. M., Boyle, J. (2015). Jimmy Boyle’s sentiments as revealed in the manuscripts of sketches of songs and instrumental melodies. Malaysian Music Journal, 4(1), 84-104. https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/803 Cheah, S. P. (1969, July 30). Tunesmith Jimmy comes up with a special for Malaysia’s sportsmen. The Straits Times, 16. Chew, J. (2017, July 22). Malaysia’s music man – Dato’ Ooi Ewe Jin. WordPress. https://dinmerican.wordpress.com/2017/07/22/malaysias-music-man-dato-ooi-eow-jin/ Chua, T. (1966, September 4). Jimmy Boyle of Penang shot up the scales to Bangkok fame. The Sunday Times. Daus, R. (1989). Portuguese Eurasian communities in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Forum record (2019, April 30). Official celebration of international jazz day by the government of Malaysia. ASWARA, Kuala Lumpur. Hamzah, S.A. (2016a). Branding the Malaysian nation: Tracing the role of popular songs in the construction of an imagined community. Southeast Asian Social Science Review, 1, 152–173. Hamzah, S.A. (2016b). Penjenamaan bangsa: Lagu-lagu patriotic popular dan pembentukan jenama Malaysia (Publication No. P59597) [Doctoral dissertation]. E-Thesis Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Hamzah, S.A. (2018). Negaraku: The national anthem binding Malaysians in integration. Institut Kajian Etnik: Institute of Ethnic Studies (KITA). Hamzah, S.A. (2019). A Malaysian nation brand: The dissemination of it by Radio Malaya via the song Tanah Pusaka. Jurnal Komunikasi: Malaysian Journal of Communication, 35(1), 90–102. https://doi.org/10.17576/JKMJC-2019-3501-07 Hamzah, S.A. & Johan, A. (2020). Malaysian music and social cohesion: Contemporary responses to popular patriotic songs from the 1950s – 1990s. JATI – Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 25(1), 191–209. https://doi.org/10.22452/jati.vol25no1.10 Jackson, A. Y. & Mazzei, L. A. (2012). Thinking with theory in qualitative research: Viewing data across multiple perspectives. Routledge. Jähnichen, G. (2012). Jazz in Kuala Lumpur. Jazz Research Journal, 4(2), 141-170. https://doi.org/10.1558/jazz.v4i2.141 Jalil, H.A. (2015, December 27). A Tribute to Ooi Ewe Jin. New Straits Times. https://www.nst.com.my/news/2015/12/119181/tribute-ooi- eow-jin Jimmy Boyle buried to the sound of his music. (1971, May 9). The Straits Times. Jimmy Boyle on “Rock and Roll music” (1959, August 13). The Singapore Standard. Cheong Jan Chan, Chiou Yueh Kwan, Sze May Lee & James Boyle 167 Johan, A. (2017). Scoring tradition, making nation: Zubir Said’s traditionalised film music for Dang Anom. Malaysian Music Journal, 6 (1), 50-72. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol6.1.4.2017 Khor, M. (1971, May 11). Song on Rukunegara among Jimmy’s treasure. The Straits Times. Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the social: An introduction to actor-network-theory. Oxford University Press. Lockard, C. A. (1996). From folk to computer songs: The evolution of Malaysian popular music, 1930-1990. The Journal of Popular Culture, 30 (3), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1996.00001.x. Lohan, R. N. (2015, October 19). Tan Sri Ahmad Merican, the grand old man of broadcasting. The Star. https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/people/2015/10/19/tan-sri- ahmad-merican-the-grand-old-man-of-broadcasting Low, L. & Ashri, S. (2015). Play it again: The music of Alfonso Soliano. Poskod.MY. https://poskod.my/features/play-it-again-the-music-of-alfonso-soliano/ Lochhead, J. (2011). The music of Penang in the 1940s and 1950s. Penang State Museum. Martin, A. (2005). Agents in inter-action: Bruno Latour and agency. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 12(4), 283-311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-005-8450-6 Milner, A. (2011). The Malays (The peoples of South-East Asia and the Pacific). Wiley- Blackwell. Mohamad, H. (2013). Penang’s popular music of the 1940s, 1950s, 1960s. Penang State Museum. Mohd Faizal, S. (2010, April 21). Aspirisi jazz pewaris Soliano. Utusan Malaysia. http://ww1.utusan.com.my/utusan/info.asp?y=2010&dt=0421&pub=Utusan_ Malaysia&sec=Hiburan&pg=hi_01.htm Patterson, I. (2015). Book review: Just for the love of it: Popular music in Penang, 1930s-1960s. All about jazz. https://www.allaboutjazz.com/just-for-the-love-of-it-popular- music-in-penang-1930s-1960s-jimmy-boyle-by-ian-patterson.php Penang House of Music. (2017). https://www.penanghouseofmusic.com Quah, S. S. (2009, April 5). The (almost) forgotten Jimmy Boyle. Blogger. http://ssquah.blogspot.com/2009/04/almost-forgotten-jimmy-boyle.html Quah, S. S. (2015, September 4). DSPN for Ooi Ewe Jin. Blogger. http://ssquah.blogspot.my/2015/09/dspn-for-ooi-eow-jin.html Rozells, A. J. & Rodrigues, K. (2002). Penang Eurasian musicians [Conference session]. Penang Story-International Conference 2002, City Bayview Hotel, Penang, Malaysia. Runnymede Swingtette. (1958, January 27). The Straits Times, 21. Saint-Cyr, Y. (2012). Northrop Frye’s musical dimensions. University of Toronto Quarterly, 81(1), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.3138/utq.81.1.123 Sarkissian, M. (2000). D’Albuquerque’s children: Performing tradition in Malaysia’s Portuguese Settlement. The University of Chicago Press. Tan, S. B. (1993). Bangsawan: A social and stylistic history of popular Malay opera. Oxford University Press. Tan, S. B. (1996). The 78 RPM record industry in Malaya prior to World War II. Asian Music, 28 (1), 1–41. https://doi.org/10.2307.834504 Tan, S. B. (2005). From folk to national popular music: Recreating ronggeng in Malaysia. Journal of Musicological Research, 24(3), 287-307. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411890500234054 Tan, S. B. (2011). The Multicultural performing arts, crafts, festivals and food of Penang. School of Arts, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (138-168) ISSN 2300-9366, eISSN 2300-9331 168 Tan, S. B. (2013). Negotiating ‘His Master’s Voice’: Gramophone music and cosmopolitan modernity in British Malaya in the 1930s and Early 1940s. Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia, 169(4), 457-494. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-12340066 The Sun Daily (2006, March 31). RTM pioneer Ahmad Merican goes down memory lane. http://www.thesundaily.my/node/174482 Tokumaru, Y. (1991). Intertextuality in Japanese traditional music. In Ikegami, Y. (Ed.), The empire of signs: Semiotic essays on Japanese culture. (Foundations of Semiotic 8) (pp. 139-155). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/fos.8.07tok Tokumaru, Y. (1996). Revitalisation of East Asian court music tradition in global network: Reputare nihil insulatum (‘consider nothing isolated’). [Conference session]. The 2nd International Conference on Asian Music, National Center for Korea Traditional Performing Arts (NCKTPA), Seoul, South Korea. Tokumaru, Y. (2005). Music, signs and intertextuality: Collected papers. Academia Music. Zieman. (2017, May 9). Out to write songs till his last breath. The Star. https://www.thestar.com.my/metro/focus/2017/05/09/out-to-write-songs-till-his-last- breath-veteran-composer-ahmad-nawab-also-aims-to-start-online-voic Biography Chan Cheong Jan is an associate professor at Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). He trains the jazz majors of the undergraduate programme and supervises postgraduate music research. He obtained Doctor of Literature in Ethnomusicology from Osaka University, Japan in 2002. Kwan Chiou Yueh obtained her Bachelor of Music from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2018, and is currently a graduate research assistant at UPM for a project on local jazz composers under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme sponsored by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia. Lee Sze May obtained her Master of Science (Music) degree from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2017. She was awarded UPM Graduate Research Fellowship in working for a project on archiving Jimmy Boyle’s work funded under the scheme of Science Fund by Ministry of Science, Information and Technology, Malaysia. James P. S. Boyle is a lecturer at Faculty of Music, the National Academy of Arts, Culture and Heritage of Malaysia, an award-winning composer and pianist, the son of the late Jimmy Boyle.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 9 (2020)

.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/324

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4580

Editorial

The Malaysian Journal of Music, Volume 9, presents ten articles on issues in ethnomusicology, musicology, composition, music education, popular music and music technology. These issues derive from countries including Japan, Korea, The Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, the United States and Malaysia.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4580/2718

MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC Volume 9 2020 ISSN 2600-9366 e-ISSN 2600-9331 Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjong Malim, Perak 2020 ii MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC Volume 9, 2020 Editorial Clare Suet Ching Chan iv Answering Questions, Questioning Answers: Understanding Tradisi and Moderen in the Intellectual Process of Balinese New Music Creations I Wayan Sudirana 1 Assessing Practice Habits: A Study of Collegiate Instrumental Teachers’ Estimation of Students’ Practice Habits Versus Students’ Self-Report Lau Chooi Wee 17 Self-directed Learning in Music Teacher Education: Perspectives from Pre-service Music Teachers in South Korea Jihae Shin 29 Innovation and Change in Approaches to Balinese Gamelan Composition I Komang Sudirga 42 Zaum Box: New Music for Speaking Percussion Christopher Adler 55 Rendering the Popular as “Tradition”: The Music of Virgilio “Pirot” Petcheller and the Panay Bukidnon Banda Music Practice in Panay Island, Philippines Jose R. Taton Jr. 65 Human and Computation-based Musical Representation for Gamelan Music Arry Maulana Syarif Azhari Azhari Suprapto Suprapto Khafiizh Hastuti 82 iii Listening to Women through Audio Media: The Case of Japan’s Nightingale Singers Gretchen Jude 101 Revisiting the Dusunic Boat Lutes of Sabah: Disappearing Musical Traditions Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 115 Intertextual Observations of Jimmy Boyle’s Handwritten Manuscripts Chan Cheong Jan Kwan Chiou Yueh Lee Sze May James Boyle 138 iv Editorial Cite this editorial (APA): Chan, C.S.C. (2020). Editorial. Malaysian Journal of Music Journal, 9, i-vi. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.11.2020 The Malaysian Journal of Music, Volume 9, presents ten articles on issues in ethnomusicology, musicology, composition, music education, popular music and music technology. These issues derive from countries including Japan, Korea, The Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, United States of America and Malaysia. In the first article, “Answering questions, questioning answers: Understanding tradisi and moderen in the intellectual process of Balinese new music creations,” I Wayan Sudirana, a Balinese music composer, performer and academician discusses the juncture between “traditional” and “modern” in Balinese music composition. He presents reasons why Balinese composers are hesitant to create new Balinese compositions that differ from the traditional forms. Among them are the fear of merusak budaya (destroying tradition); losing one’s self; the perception of “tradition” as cyclical and should not change; and a resistance toward western musical colonisation. The desire to preserve tradition is also motivated by the tourism industry’s promotion of “authentic” and “traditional” music to attract international tourists. In this article, Sudirana argues that new musical compositions are not just composed based on free flow intuition but are formed by concepts that are artistic and intellectual. He expresses that Balinese musical compositions should not be conceived as mere commodities for the tourism industry but an expression of a composer’s philosophy and creativity. Juxtaposed with Sudirana’s article is the fourth article written by I Komang Sudirga titled, “Innovation and change in approaches to Balinese gamelan composition”. Sudirga presents various new music compositions by Balinese composers living in this age of global accessibility. Globalisation triggers inspiration for innovation, yet it simultaneously spurs the desire to maintain tradition. Sudirga states that progressive and conservative audiences and judges of Balinese music competitions often control the extend and boundaries of change in Balinese musical compositions. This article highlights six Balinese music composer’s exploration of their identity in connection to a global space through their compositions. These compositions are inspired by geo-cultural locations; creation of a new gamelan set in collaboration with the performing arts; the diatonic tonal system; pan-Asian instruments and new tuning systems. In the second article, “Assessing practice habits: A study of collegiate instrumental teachers’ estimation of students’ practice habits versus students’ self- report”, Lau examines whether collegiate instrumental teachers are able to effectively estimate their student’s practice habits from observation of their performance ability during class time. The results reveal that collegiate instrumental teachers are not able to effectively estimate their students’ practice habits from merely classroom observations. Shin’s article on “Self-directed learning in music educator teacher education: Perspective from pre-service music teachers in South Korea” investigates the attitude v and impact of pre-service music teachers toward self-directed learning. This article contributes to new approaches in learning among professionals who are working while studying. Provided the task of organising a thesis seminar, the teachers reported that they were anxious and lack confidence in interpreting the many available educational resources. However, the teachers also stated that self-directed learning gave them agency over their learning processes and peer reviews contributed to the development of critical thinking and meaningful conversations on their research topics. In the fifth article, “Zaum Box: New music for speaking percussion”, Adler, a composer from the United States of America reviews his experiences in composing ten music compositions for solo speaking percussionist. This article combines research in contemporary music composition with the composer’s own creativity in utilising 20th century composition techniques including futurism, Fluxus, post-tonal music theory, indeterminacy and nonconventional notation. Alder also discusses the relationship between text, sound and music in selected scores. This article presents an approach to research in composition, an increasingly common practice among composers today. In the sixth article, Taton, in “Rendering the popular as "tradition": The music of Virgilio "Pirot" Petcheller and the Panay Bukidnon banda music practice in Panay Island, Philippines” discusses an interesting musical phenomenon in the popular music scene of The Philippines. He posits that banda music of Panay Bukidnon is actually inspired by the “popular” songs sung by Virgilio “Pirot” Petcheller Pirot in the 70s. Considered “popular music” due to its media promotion, Pirot’s sings folk music that derive from traditional harana (serenade) and komposo (ballad) genres. His songs are somewhat traditional due to its portrayal of a pastoral background and West Visayan folk music. This article demonstrates an interesting reversal process in which popular music draws from “traditional” musical genres. Jose argues that the “traditionalising” of the popular portrays the mobility of identity among the Panay Bukidnon who are able revert between the popular and traditional in their music. Syarif, Azhari, Suprapto & Hastuti in “Human and computation-based musical representation for gamelan music” establish a text-based pitch model to represent karawitan music. This data represents the musical elements of karawitan as pitch numbers, pitch registers or octaves, pitch values and others so that they can be read by humans and computers. Ghending Scientific Pitch Notation (GSPN), a music representation model for the karawitan was created to represent musical elements from sheet music for this purpose. In the eighth article titled, “Japan’s nightingale geisha singers: Listening to women through audio media”, Jude provides a background to the historical and cultural context of the geisha kashu recordings of the 20th century. The life of geisha kashu recording stars such as Yoshiwara Shimeji, Fujimoto Fumikichi and Kouta Katsutarō is presented to revise an orientalist and sexist approach toward perceiving the performers and their musical. In this article, Jude also distinguishes between the original Japanese short shamisen longs associated with geisha and those of the kashu pop star. Pugh-Kitingan, in “Revisiting the Dusunic boat lutes of Sabah: Disappearing musical traditions” compares the differences in the organology, performance vi techniques and musical styles of the Kadazan Dusun “boat lutes” known as sundatang among the Tambunan and Rungus; and gagayan, Lotud. This comparative study concludes that the term “boat lutes” is invalid as these musical instruments have no connection with boats. They actually represent the human body—the pegbox as the head and the soundbox as the body, sometimes vice versa. Pugh-Kitingan also establishes that the sundatang and gagayan are structurally different from the sape of Sarawak and Kalimantan or kecapi of the Bugis from Tawau. They are more akin to the cultural tradition of Southern Philippines and Sulawesi. This article suggests that these boat lutes may originate from Northern Borneo. Chan, Kwan, Lee & Boyle in “Intertextual observations of Jimmy Boyle’s handwritten manuscripts” examine the 177 items left behind from Boyle’s published and unpublished manuscript; and hand copy of other’s manuscripts. This study deconstructs the single dimensional portrayal of Boyle as a patriotic songwriter. Examinations of his manuscripts show that Boyle was a versatile composer and musician with diverse musical interests. Clare Suet Ching Chan Chief Editor Malaysian Journal of Music

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (2019)

identity, klong yao, performativity, representation, Siamese

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/163

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1624

Klong yao and the Performance of Minority Identity in the Siamese Community of Perlis, Malaysia

The klong yao performance in the Siamese communities of Perlis was adopted from the Thai community in Central Thailand. Before this adoption, the ethnic consciousness of the Siamese communities was oriented towards a local variation of Thai-ness with similarities to southern Thai people in terms of linguistic and geopolitical references. After the klong yao was actively included in their cultural practices, the Siamese communities began to develop a representative identity that reinforced Central Thai cultural expressions. In this respect, the performance of klong yao reconstructs the identity of the Siamese communities in Perlis, Malaysia toward a Central Thai identity. The shift from a local and marginalised type of Siamese identity to a hegemonic and centralised Thai identity is observed with the choice to use klong yao as a representation of their identity during Malaysia’s various occasions for showcasing cultural performances.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1624/1166

Chayuti Tassanawongwara & Hanafi Hussin 1 Klong yao and the Performance of Minority Identity in the Siamese Community of Perlis, Malaysia Chayuti Tassanawongwara1* & Hanafi Hussin2** 1.2Department of Southeast Asian Studies Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences & 2Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences (IOES) University of Malaya *main author, **corresponding author e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.1.2019 Published online: 01 April 2019 Cite this article (APA): Tassanawongwara, C., & Hussin, H. (2019). Klong yao and the Performance of Minority Identity in the Siamese Community of Perlis, Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.1.2019 Abstract The klong yao performance in the Siamese communities of Perlis was adopted from the Thai community in Central Thailand. Before this adoption, the ethnic consciousness of the Siamese communities was oriented towards a local variation of Thai-ness with similarities to southern Thai people in terms of linguistic and geopolitical references. After the klong yao was actively included in their cultural practices, the Siamese communities began to develop a representative identity that reinforced Central Thai cultural expressions. In this respect, the performance of klong yao reconstructs the identity of the Siamese communities in Perlis, Malaysia toward a Central Thai identity. The shift from a local and marginalised type of Siamese identity to a hegemonic and centralised Thai identity is observed with the choice to use klong yao as a representation of their identity during Malaysia’s various occasions for showcasing cultural performances. Keywords: identity, klong yao, performativity, representation, Siamese Introduction This article argues that the Siamese in Perlis, Malaysia selectively construct and represent their identity through the Central Thai klong yao performance genre. The cultural performance of klong yao in their communities constitutes an identity Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (1-18) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 2 construction of ‘Thai-ness’ through their collective experience of performing, modifying and reconstructing klong yao. The Siamese community’s ethnic consciousness of being ‘Thai’ is the product of shared experience and memory while engaging in this process. Identity construction is a dialogical work-in-progress that hinges on the emergence of the self-conscious cultural performance of klong yao. This view is different from saying that the existence of ethnic consciousness precedes cultural performance. Klong yao culture is seen as influential in reshaping the identity of Siamese communities in Malaysia. In other words, it is through the klong yao performance that Siamese people in Malaysia identify themselves as distinct from other ethnic communities, as well as the way in which other communities have identified Siamese people. In order to support the argument, the authors discuss the historical background of the klong yao in the Siamese communities and its changing reference to central Thai culture. Siamese interactions with other ethnic communities in Malaysia are also discussed to point out that their counterparts acknowledge that klong yao is a representation of Thai-ness. Historical Background of Klong Yao and Thais Klong yao is a Thai percussion instrument and the name derives from its length− ‘klong’ meaning ‘drum’ and ‘yao’ meaning ‘long’. Moreover, klong yao refers to an ensemble consisting of various kinds of percussion where klong yao is a core rhythmic musical instrument in the ensemble and accompanies a traditional Thai dance. The typical shape of klong yao is generally found in mainland Southeast Asia namely Burma, Lao, Cambodia and Thailand. Since the Ayutthaya era (circa. 1351 to 1767), klong yao was likely a part of Siamese war heritage when the Burmese tried to colonise Ayutthaya. Aural narratives about the Burmese and klong yao are found in Thai traditional songs called phama toong-le. The lyrics were written by an anonymous person to describe a celebration of an old Burmese man with proficient skills in playing klong yao and who immigrated to Thailand. There are many kinds of long drums in northern and northeastern Thailand including the Isan long drum. Although the Isan long drum is different from the klong yao of central Thailand in terms of both shape and usage, historically both served central roles in religious rites and local belief ceremonies. The Isan long drum tradition has faced social and economic challenges. However, the musical tradition of the Isan long drum survived through adaptations of its appearance and inclusion with modern musical instruments. The Isan people have attempted to sustain their long drum practice by integrating their musical tradition into the music programmes of local schools (Chuthawichit, 2014). Northern Thai music status as folk music in modern educational institutions plays a role in shaping cultural identity (Pitupumnak, 2018). According to Field Marshal Plaek Phibulsongkhram (1938-1944 and 1948- 1957), the Rathniyom or Thai cultural mandate revealed that the klong yao had already existed during the Ayutthaya period into the current Rattanakosin era. During Field Marshal Plaek’s administrative term as Prime Minister, the country was run by mandates that aimed to create a uniform practise towards civilised Thai culture. Traditional Thai cultures were separated into categories of ‘civil’ and Chayuti Tassanawongwara & Hanafi Hussin 3 ‘uncivil’ practices. A campaign to foster a ‘true Thai culture’ was the agenda of Pibul’s cultural revolution (Numnonda, 1978). The revolution attempted to make people seriously concerned about colonisation and the country’s independence. One way to maintain independence was to trust Prime Minister Marshal P. Phibulsongkram and his mandates. After the mandates were promulgated, there were attempts to cultivate the Siamese as modern Thais as well as to establish local and folk cultures as national customs. The results of these mandates had an effect on the performing arts as well. There were creations to standardise klong yao performance along with fixed choreographies. Previously klong yao had been considered a folk entertainment since assimilation with the Siamese. Perhaps as a result of nation-making, the new civilisation might be identified as a new concept of national identity that was centralised by Thai policy. Klong yao performance therefore contributed to this nationalising role. Notably, music and dance were developed under the Rathniyom mandate based on the idea of a central Thai model which spread from Bangkok to other Thai regions. In ‘A History of South-East Asia’, the Chinese were referred to as ‘Sien’ during the Sukhothai kingdom, while the Khmer used the word ‘Siam’ which means ‘barbarian’ from the area of the Mekong basin or Chaopraya River. Although Thais had been in existence as a people for thousands of years before the Christian era, the first Thai kingdom that was established in what is now Thailand was Sukhothai in 1238. The coming of Thais contributed to the decline of the Sri Vijayan Empire. A Sukhothai king, Rama Khamheng, struck the decisive blow to surrounding rivals in 1292 and expanded his power to the south from the Menam Valley in Thailand into the Sri Vijayan ports in the southern part of the Malay Peninsula (Hall, 1970). A consistent perception of Thais in Thailand and Siamese in northern Malaysia is that both were once part of the Kingdom of Siam. However, the four Malaysian states of Kelantan, Terengganu, Kedah and Perlis used to be a part of the Sukhothai realm for centuries until the reign of King Rama V. More recently these areas were given to the British when Malaysia was colonised. The Thais in the four states are similar to Thais in southern Thailand – approximately several thousand Siamese households with similar traditions, temples as well as Thai architecture (Aryuwatthana, 1974). Colonial histories on the southern extremities of the Anglo- Siamese boundary zone do not mention the existence of a Thai Buddhist village nor the constant traffic of people and produce that criss-crossed these political margins (Johnson, 2004). The status of the four northern Malaysian states that were part of Thailand was such that they were not totally controlled under the Siam ruler. For example, the Raja of Kedah had to struggle against Malay neighbouring states and rivals in the region to maintain the power of the ruler (Winichakul, 1994). A challenging issue arose as to how Siamese are supposed to identify themselves as either Thai or Malay since a variable and complex relationship exists between ethnicity and culture. Ethnicity is the enduring and systematic communication of cultural differences between groups considering themselves to be distinct. It appears that wherever cultural differences are made relevant through social interactions, it should be studied at the level of social life and not at the level of symbolic culture (Eriksen, 2010). Moreover, ethnicity is relational and also situational. The identity of ‘Siamese’ is self-constructed and occupies different roles Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (1-18) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 4 in a given social structure. Identity is based on expressing behaviours, such as Siamese identity expressed through musical dimensions (Burke & Stets, 2009). Tools of performance such as actions, features and sound-making construct identity. The underlying idea of performativity as applied in the context of performance studies is that one’s ethnic identity is constructed through one’s repetitive performance of the ethnicity. Schechner (2013) suggests one way of understanding a performance is that it applies to all kinds of displays, e.g., the performing arts, sports, rituals, play and the performances of everyday life. Schechner states that performance must undergo a time-space sequence, which includes three phases of proto-performance, performance and the aftermath. In light of these conceptions, this study aims to examine the reconstruction of the klong yao musical performance through the assumption that the Siamese in Perlis construct, reconstruct and maintain their Thai identity amidst the multi-cultural ambiance of Malaysia through klong yao. This study attempts to explain why the klong yao should be considered performative, through actions that construct people’s Thai- ness in a way that is similar to Thai-ness expressed by Thai people in Thailand. With this notion in mind, the researchers analyse the klong yao performed by the Siamese community in Perlis and describe how each part of the musical performance is performative whereby members of the Siamese community identify themselves as belonging to Thai culture and are also distinct from other ethnic groups in their locality. Stories told by Siamese elders reveal that the klong yao was introduced to Siamese communities in Perlis approximately fifty years ago. A fifty-year-old Siamese abbot, Chia a/l Choi related the first account from his memory that he had never seen a klong yao during his childhood. The musical genres for entertainment purposes witnessed at that time were the nang talung (shadow puppet) and norah (the Southern Thai Dance). Informant Loong Ruern (Alon a/l E Keliang) added that the first klong yao ensemble was offered at the Suwankhiiri temple when he was still a child. His father Pu Kriang, who coordinated the ‘Tod Krathin’ events, invited the then governor of Satun province (Mr. Supayok Panitchawit) to offer a krathin donation to the temple. Pu Kriang, along with other Siamese villagers, went to Kuala Perlis to receive the governor and his entourage. They offered the klong yao ensemble in the Tod Krathin procession. After the festival ended, the instruments from the ensemble were given to the Suwankhiri temple for public use. It was the first klong yao ensemble in Guar Musang village. Loong Ruern added that it was his father who took care of the first klong yao ensemble and that his older brother and friends became klong yao musicians in the early days. During the early development of the klong yao the musicians imitated the sounds that they had listened to played by others without being trained by professionals. But when it was felt that this was not adequate, his father invited a music teacher from Thailand to train them, consequently forming the first klong yao ensemble for the Suwankhiri temple. Informant Pi Pramoot narrated the second account of klong yao coming to the Siamese villages (Pramoot a/l Puan) and Por Tan Chiang (Ven. Chia a/l Choi). There was a monk named Por Tan Klom who travelled from Thailand to Macchimaprasit temple to teach the Thai language among the Siamese communities. Along with the language, he imparted other Thai cultural expressions such as Thai Chayuti Tassanawongwara & Hanafi Hussin 5 folktales (nithan), Central Thai chanting (suad montra), Buddhist chant (tripitaka), etc. The klong yao was selected to be taught to the children as it was the easiest musical instrument to play. The drums were brought into the community from Thailand several times. Loong Nam (Boonnam a/l Endin Pelian) said the formation of the klong yao ensemble was a success as he had not been interested in practising the klong yao. However, he is now active in the Macchimaprasit temple klong yao ensemble and is encouraging the young people to preserve this musical performance. Therefore, Por Tan Klom is known as the pioneer of the klong yao tradition in Jejawi as well as the first klong yao master in that Siamese community. Another account was shared about Guar Nangka village in Juping. Another informant named Loong Kruern (Ken a/l Tin) mentioned that in his youth, other Siamese villages had many klong yao while Guar Nangka village had none. He and his like-minded friends went to Sangka Rattanaram temple (Wat Takoi) in Thailand’s Songkhla to find a music master who was able to teach them how to perform klong yao for use in religious events. They learned the rhythmic patterns of the klong yao and its related traditions under the master’s training. Before returning to their village, they bought a set of klong yao for use at Kampung Guar Nangka temple in their home community. Until today, Loong Kruern has managed to allocate his free time to teach the klong yao to children including his young adult son, Samart. These narratives shed light on the fact that klong yao was not the original practice of the Siamese communities in Malaysia. In order to create a more expressive Thai musical tradition, the Siamese community borrowed the klong yao tradition from Central Thailand and incorporated the klong yao into their traditional religious rituals and transmitted klong yao knowledge to the younger generations. In this regard, it was revealed that the early version of the klong yao performance in the Siamese communities resembled the southern Thai tradition in its simplified totality. Klong yao knowledge was transmitted as an oral tradition to the children using an approach that was simple and easy to learn. The teachers used the onomatopoeia technique—verbalising the formation of rhythmic patterns by imitating the sound of instruments to teach the drumming patterns. Loong Chun imitated the drum sound as ‘pab’ for a strong sound and ‘pleum’ for a weak sound. The two sounds represent the basic rhythmic pattern. In addition, an interlocking sound, ‘teung’, is produced by using a finger to hit the drum edge. Figure 1. Loong Chun’s klong yao style Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (1-18) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 6 The pattern frequently heard in the music performed by the Chaiya Ensemble is the sound produced by means of imitating the ‘tab’ pattern, i.e., the two main sounds – the strong beat, ‘jab’ and the weak beat, ‘tum’. Examples of four different patterns created by the Chaiya Ensemble show the influence of the ‘tab’ patterns. Figure 2. Chaiya’s klong yao patterns derived from the Tab pattern Loong Chun is among the first generation of musicians who witnessed the initial phase of learning the klong yao after musical instruments were brought from Satun to the Suwankhiri temple. Chun mentioned that those musical forms and rhythmic patterns were not complicated. The sounds made came in variations between strong and weak beats. This simplified method of playing the klong yao made learning possible for children. He emphasised that the klong yao must be preserved by transmitting its knowledge to the children. In training, he lets the children play Mhong while watching each student play the main rhythmic downbeat. He then continues using the klong yao pattern. This method facilitated the successful learning of klong yao for non-professionals. Therefore, klong yao had the advantage of being easy to learn through imitation. Musicians perform with the klong yao on various occasions especially at religious festivals of the Siamese communities. Moreover, the performance is also included in some social functions as cultural expressions specific to the Siamese communities. Functions of Klong Yao in the Siamese Communities At the beginning, the klong yao performances were played during religious occasions. However today, the Siamese have expanded its function into many other special occasions as well as being part of events in other ethnic communities. The fact that the Siamese played klong yao as a prelude to ceremonies provides it with possibilities to be performed at the beginning of virtually any event. The welcome Chayuti Tassanawongwara & Hanafi Hussin 7 prelude might be a part of a mixed ceremony involving Siamese, Chinese and/or Malay participants and attendees. This was how the klong yao was presented to other ethnic communities as a Siamese performance that best reflected the performers’ Thai identity. Thus, this study emphasises again that members of Malaysia’s Siamese community chose the klong yao ensemble that was adapted from the Central Thai musical tradition to represent their identity. The same choice of ensemble was also observed in two festivals—Citrawarna festival and the Merdeka festival. During Citrawarna, the Siamese community used the klong yao to represent their culture as musically distinct from other Malaysian performances and could also easily be merged with the marching parade. The Kedah state celebration of Malaysia’s independence on Merdeka Day included a klong yao performance to represent the Siamese community and to ‘perform’ national unity. The use of the musically distinct klong yao ensemble highlighted its place within the nation of its presence as a unique Siamese community in Malaysia. In religious settings, klong yao is part of various religious-cultural events within the Siamese communities. Although klong yao music seems to negate the spirit of monkhood, i.e., a state of purity by refraining from entertainment and indulgence in worldly pleasures, klong yao serves many important functions in Buddhist temples. First, the performative culture of klong yao is closely tied to sacred realms when instrumental music is offered in temples as a religious treasure. The klong yao is perceived as ‘necessary’ property for every Siamese community temple. The offering of klong yao music is part of the merit-making rituals. Second, it was used to encourage people to go to temples on important cultural events. For example, despite its roots in Thai culture rather than Buddhist, the Loy Krathong festival usually took place in the vicinity of the temples. The klong yao performance is the hallmark of the event as it is given a distinct role in leading the opening procession and expected to bring the villagers closer to the religion and make them feel attached to the temples. The most important role of the klong yao in ritual space is its facilitation of religious ceremonies. The Siamese like to perform the klong yao in every religious event except funerals. I will relate my experience in the Tod Krathin festival at the Kubang Tiga temple in October 2017 as an example. Tod Kathin or Robe Offering Month to the monks which falls at the end of the Buddhist Lent or called as ‘Rains Retreat’ usually takes place for three lunar month cycle (July-October) where the farmers are planting their crops. Buddhists show their appreciation to the temples by presenting food, money, useful household items and cleaning supplies. The festival took two days, i.e., Tod Krathin eve and Tod Krathin day. While Nang Talung, the Southern Thai Puppet performance was hired from Thailand to celebrate the event on the eve, the klong yao was performed on the actual day of Tod Krathin. In the morning, the event emcee encouraged the participants to go to the temple. Those interested in joining the klong yao dancing were told to gather at a former abbot’s shrine and take part as the procession proceeded. After lunchtime, the klong yao musicians began by paying salutation to sacred beings to ask permission for performing at the temple. After that, the klong yao performers led the participants to circum-ambulate the temple by walking clockwise three times. This made it obvious that the klong yao music was performed Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (1-18) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 8 as an essential part of the religious ceremony that took place in the Buddhist temples. Figure 3. Klong yao in Tod Krathin ceremony, Macchimaprasit Temple 2016 Therefore, when Thai-ness was expressed through the religious practice of a klong yao performance, klong yao reinforced a sense of belonging and consolidated an ethnic consciousness of the Siamese minority community. The cultural practice rendered their religious interconnection with ethnic consciousness. Solidarity of the Siamese communities was reinforced through learning and practicing the klong yao while Thai-ness was defined within the realm of Buddhism. A sense of belonging was attached to the inclusion of the klong yao performance into various ceremonies that had the effect of forming the participants’ Thai identity and representing Siamese culture in the ethnically diverse context of Malaysia. The Klong Yao Traditions and References to Central Thailand The Siamese speak southern Thai dialect as their mother tongue and speak Malay for daily communication. A number of Siamese prefer to communicate with ethnic Chinese people in either Hokkien or Mandarin. However, the central Thai dialect was taught by Siamese parents to their children in the temple-based schooling. Television was also crucial in cultivating the language skills of the Siamese as they Chayuti Tassanawongwara & Hanafi Hussin 9 invariably watched Thai TV programs and soap opera series. In religious settings, Buddhist monks were instructed to chant with Thai translations of Pali texts. The Siamese had internalised the language system of the central Thai dialect through religious practice. Thus, the central Thai language is integral to their religious- cultural life. With the increasing influence of Thai culture in the lives of Siamese, the southern Thai dialect began to fade. The point of reference that these Siamese communities made when talking about their Thai culture had shifted from a southern Thai variation to that of central Thailand. In the next section, the klong yao performances are analysed to locate its performativity in shaping the Thai identity of Siamese to be more of the central Thai culture than the southern Thai cultural traits. The performance elements that will be addressed below are songs and vocal components, bodily gestures and physical movements involved in dancing, as well as costumes and dressing styles and the klong yao procession and order of performance. Moreover, the attempts by Siamese communities to enhance the performance based on the central Thai standards are also counted as an indication of the shift in their cultural reference. Songs and Vocal Components The central Thai dialect occupies the space of cultural performance. Klong yao performances included numerous kinds of songs, i.e., ‘Pleng Klong Yao’ – also known as ‘Pleng Rum Vong’ – ‘Pleng Look Toong’, and melodic conversation and undulating shouting. The central Thai dialect is used throughout the singing of ‘Pleng Klong Yao’ and ‘Pleng Look Toong’. ‘Pleng Klong Yao’ includes a variety of songs composed specifically for klong yao performance while ‘Pleng Look Toong’ emerged after World War II and was known as Thai country music. Klong yao songs are simple in their rhythmic patterns, following cyclic repetitions that are commonly adaptable to variations making it easy for singers to apply lyrics to very basic patterns. ‘Pleng Rum Vong’ often involves folk stories mainly describing the lives of people in the countryside or the imagination of local Thai customs. ‘Pleng Rum Vong’ involves group dancing where male and female dancers dance in pairs to form a circle. The most famous song for a klong yao performance is called ‘Loy Krathong’. This song is also very famous for Siamese and Thai speaking populations elsewhere. The Siamese tend to sing the song frequently during parading. The original function of ‘Loy Krathong’ was for the Loy Krathong festival in November. The festival’s purpose by origin is to pay homage to the goddess of rivers whereby participants float an oblation basket. The song is sung to mark the festival but at the present, the song is used in almost every event with the klong yao. The Siamese perform the klong yao in the ‘Loy Krathong’ festival and other religious ceremonies and is thus characterised as representing Thai culture. The lyrics of the song are as follows: Wanpen Duan sibsong...................................‘Full moon day in November’ Nam Kor Nong Tem Taling.......................‘High tide is flooding the river bank.’ Rau Tang Rhai Chai Ying............................ ‘We are teenagers’ Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (1-18) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 10 Sanook Kanjing Wan Loy Krathong........... ‘Enjoyably on Loy Krathong night.’ Loy Loy Krathong ..................................... ‘Floating oblation baskets’ Loy Loy Krathong ..................................... ‘Floating oblation baskets’ Loy Krathong Kanleaw............................ ‘We have done floating.’ Kor Chern Nong Keaw Okma Rum Vong... ‘Please come and join Rum Vong’ Rum Vong Wan Loy Krathong.................... ‘Rum Vong is for Loy Krathong day.’ Rumwong Wan Loy Krathong.................... ‘Rum Vong is for Loy Krathong day.’ Boon Ja Soang Hai Rau Sookjai............... ‘Benevolent would make us happy.’ Boon Ja Soang Hai Rau Sookjai............... ‘Benevolent would make us happy.' These lyrics could be adapted to fit klong yao rhythmic patterns. Each poetic phrase was adjusted in a round of four-beat patterns. ‘Pleng Rum Vong’ and klong yao were perfect in matching and expressing a sense of Thai traditions. The Siamese benefitted from the powerful music as the ‘Loy Krathong’ song recalled traditional behaviour. Some dialect lyrics were spoken and emphasised to reinforce the sounding identity. ‘Pleng Look Toong’ exemplified contemporary modern Thai songs in the 20th century before the aftermath of World War II. Its popularity was influenced by Western harmonies mixed with Thai singing style. Siamese teenagers in klong yao teams still favoured these classic songs that were popular among people in the 1970s. ‘Pleng Look Toong’ was also written based on Thai poems similar to ‘Pleng Rum Vong’ songs. The poetic lyrics of ‘Look Toong’ reflect a rural lifestyle, poverty and cultural traits as well as the changing social conditions of central Thailand. The passion of the songs brings back a nostalgic milieu representing a variety of what life used to be like. Additionally, the lyrics remind the Siamese community of a shared history with Thai people. A sense of belonging is created as the songs encourage them to imagine a land where their ancestral lines converged. Certainly, this has the effect of strengthening a sense of Thai-ness among member of the Siamese community. The vocal process has one more way of expressing sound such as the use of an important gimmick in klong yao parading. At the start of the parade procession, one of the musicians or participants begins by shouting an undulating sound, and the other reacts with a booing sound − called ‘Ho Sam La’. ‘Ho Sam La’ typically launches parades. The tradition of the undulating shouting is to announce that the ceremony or event is about to commence. It is intended to signal to the participants to get ready and is used to gather people in an event. Thus, ‘Ho Sam La’ is a verbal symbol of the klong yao performance. The shouting is probably interpreted as expressing common actions and the response to the shouting in the musical performance is limited to those who are from the same fundamental tradition. Undulating shouting also appears in traditional Thai dramas or court musical ceremonies from Central Thailand. Below is an example of the sounds made during the shouting. Asking: Ho ... hee ... ho ... hee ... ho ... hee ... ho ... hee ...hoy Replying: Heew w w w Chayuti Tassanawongwara & Hanafi Hussin 11 Lyrics and songs are sounding tools to fulfil a qualitative sound content that is akin to Thai in order to construct identity. Presenting Thai language, especially the central Thai dialect is evident and appears in most of the processes related to performance such as training how to speak and sing, how to act by singing, shouting and expressing words as Thai. Thus, representing identity is performed by identifying as a person who speaks Thai. In the use of Thai language, whether meaningful or meaningless, both are functional. Through performing, sound and language encourage participants to belong to what they are performing. Siamese is characterised as a legal minority and it is easy to claim that the majority still interacts with Thais like siblings. Speaking the southern Thai dialect in daily life is perhaps too common to effectively make them distinct from others surrounding them. Regarding similarity, groups of Thai Muslims in southern Thailand can speak the southern Thai dialect and Bahasa Melayu. When people speak, the language could represent religion. For example, the Siamese speak Thai as an image of Buddhism and the Muslims speak Bahasa Melayu as a character of Islam (Ryoko, 2005). The language and vocal sounds in the songs and lyrics influence Siamese behaviour, thoughts and feelings through which they claim Thai character. The performance of klong yao ties Siamese people to each other strengthening their shared identity expressed through how they sing, shout, organise and create compositions for klong yao. Performance helps Siamese participants to shape the selected language and dialect that is used during performance. However, speaking the language in daily life is different from how it is used in the klong yao performance. For special occasions, performances are opportunities for the dialect of Siamese to be used in performing time by those who want to perform as central Thai people and who also want to be understood that they can be ‘real’ Thai people through language. To build a clear image of being Siamese, the klong yao performers use the central Thai dialect during the klong yao performance. This means that the central Thai dialect is implicitly identified as the performing language for this particular performance of Siamese. Although the central Thai dialect is blended with Siamese, the performers clearly know where the language came from and how to display it to construct identity. Therefore, it could be said that the vocal elements of the klong yao performance are performative in constructing Thai identity through special reference to the central Thai culture. Furthermore, the bodily gestures and patterns of movement during the performance are also effective in making central Thailand a point of reference for those who participate in cultural practices. The Klong Yao in Siamese Relations with Other Ethnic Communities This section will take into consideration the roles of klong yao in boosting ethnic relations between Siamese communities and other ethnic groups in Malaysia. The recognition of klong yao as a unique feature of Thai culture by Malay and Chinese communities indicates that the formation of local Siamese identity has been affirmed. To the Chinese, klong yao is primarily accepted as part of secular events only allowed to be performed in the non-religious parts of the ceremony. For the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (1-18) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 12 Malays, klong yao must not involve religious elements. Thus, Chinese and Malay communities identify klong yao as representing the Thai community in cultural terms. In Perlis, the Raja’s birthday is a celebration for people to participate in paying homage to the Raja. During the research, it was observed that on the stage, a dozen musicians and dancers performed and sang Thai songs in the central Thai look toong style. Therefore, the Malay Raja’s birthday is an event where Siamese can openly express their music to the public. Siamese usually include klong yao as their ethnic music to display the presence of Siamese ethnic character. This character is of course distinguishable from the Chinese who created the Lion dance, and distinct from the music and dances of Indian groups. It is likely klong yao helps Siamese to represent themselves through culture and gain credibility in highlighting Thai-ness. Malays also acknowledge klong yao as representing Thai culture of the Siamese communities by allowing a performance during the celebration of Merdeka Day. Every year on 31 August, officially proclaimed as Merdeka Day, all Malaysians celebrate Malaysia’s independence from the colonial British, (see Figure 4 below). The Siamese have long been known as people residing at the northern- most area of the Malaysian peninsular. They are also members of the Malaysian nation and treated as bumiputera according to the applicable law. The Siamese have never denied they are Siamese Malaysians in the midst of the development of a Malaysian image and presenting a Siamese identity. They use the klong yao to promote Thai performances of tradition and culture. The dance movements harmonised with the rhythm of the klong yao distinguish them from other ethnic groups. Merdeka Day lets the performers to openly exhibit Siamese cultural heritage. Figure 4. Dancing and playing the klong yao at Merdeka Day 2016 Chayuti Tassanawongwara & Hanafi Hussin 13 The use of the klong yao crosses and intersects with other ethnic groups, specifically the Chinese and Malay communities. The Siamese relationship with the other ethnic groups is that of being bearers of a minority tradition. Their performances display not only music and dance but also implicitly symbolises reciprocal relationships that show how the Siamese behave with other people and how other people treat the Siamese. Loong Chun said that his klong yao ensemble was usually invited by the Chinese to be a part of the vegetarian festival procession on the first day of Merdeka. He added that his Chinese friends always ask him to prepare the klong yao a week before the celebration. He said that the ensemble and musicians must consider the celebration as sacred and that the people attending are very faithful to their deities. Hence, the klong yao has to be played in a dignified manner that is respectful of the ceremony. When the Chinese festival comes, it is common for the Siamese to help the festival irrespective of whether or not the Siamese performers have been requested. In addition to the vegetarian festival, the Chinese communities also welcome the klong yao performance during celebrations at holy shrines and as part of ceremonies paying homage to deities. The Chinese mostly follow Mahayana Buddhism as one of the two main Buddhist branches. The sect contains different beliefs and understandings according to the teachings and practice of each sect. Mahayana has traditions that refer to Bodhisattva and the deities. A belief in the existence of a deity is prevalent among both the Chinese and the Siamese who live around Perlis. The Bodily Gestures and Patterns of Movement in Klong Yao Dancing Siamese dances are categorised into norah which is based on the southern Thai dance norah and rum, a central Thai dance. The Siamese community of Perlis prefer the central Thai dance, rum, which has an allegro (fast) beat. The bodily movements and gestures that accompany the klong yao is known as rum translated as ‘dance’ in Thai. The dance is rum vong (traditional folk dance). The styles and patterns are different from the dances of the Malays, Indians and Chinese. The Siamese express emotions through dance and each bodily movement and gesture refer to specific meanings. Dancing to klong yao accompaniment is classified into two types; first, tum terdterng, a traditional Thai dance created by an order issued by the Thai government about eighty years ago under a cultural mandate. Influenced by cultural civilisation, rum vong is a standard dance constructed from folk dance and developed by the National Fine Arts Department to form a national dance. Consequently, Thai dances became more standardised as rum vong became popular. The dances were choreographed to the klong yao instrumental music accompaniment whereby male and female dance in pairs. Rum terdterng is one of the standard dances that was created by developing folk dances according to the ideas of central Thai creators. Second, in rum, dancing is not limited to standard movements. In Thai tradition, dance movements focus on the hands and the top part of the body. Rum in klong yao is used to express enjoyable emotions through natural movements that are Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (1-18) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 14 not confined to fixed patterns. Common people participate in the dance by moving their arms while klong yao is performed. The movements are similar to rum vong and rum terdterng styles of spontaneous expression through moving hands, arms and bodies. A combination of rum and klong yao presents the identity of the Siamese community in Perlis and the gestures represent the cultural and social background of the Thai community in Malaysia. Since there are no fixed protocols on how one should dance, the Siamese are able to create personal movements while referencing rhythmic beats. They express self-creation as Siamese, especially women, who enjoying performing rum to accompany the klong yao performance. Today, rum as a dance for the klong yao, takes place at almost every community event and ceremony. Its function, as mentioned previously, is designed to serve the Siamese klong yao tradition. Costume and Dressing Styles Klong yao performance also presents traditional costumes as part of its cultural expression. The styles of dressing adopted for the cultural performance are based on central Thai culture. The klong yao players wear songkran shirts and colourful girdles to be distinct from others. Siamese characters are highlighted while wearing the shirts, to represent that they can follow the current fashion and trends in modern Thailand. The Siamese acquire certain items such as songkran shirts in order to mimic Thai costumes. In the case of southern Thai or northern Malay costuming, local dresses are inadequate for presenting a clear distinction of being Siamese and their connection to Thailand. Wearing a costume is a trend that emerged among the klong yao team. When Siamese teenagers gather, the klong yao team is proudly presented in polo shirts with Thai letters emblazoned on the back of the shirts. The phrase ‘local culture lovers’ is written in the Thai language. With regard to self-identification through costuming, the Siamese pursue a style of dressing indicative of Thailand. They cross the border to purchase shirts from Hatyai in southwest Thailand. However, there is another kind of costume that is not linked to the songkran festival. For example the use of polo shirts by the Siamese is an attempt to symbolise neutral meanings through costuming. These are shirts emblazoned with Thai words and the phrase is perceived and observed to be Siamese in the use of characters from the Thai alphabet. The Thai alphabet represents Thai culture through the use of language. Musicians who wear the shirts might agree with the idea of cultural representation through performing identity that plays a central role in the klong yao performance. Traditional Thai dresses from Central Thailand such as shud thai prarajaniyom, the Thai royal dress for women, are worn during religious events and klong yao performances. Costumes, such as songkran shirts, emblazoned shirts or traditional dresses establish a symbolic process that Siamese use to characterise who they are, particularly in klong yao performances. The tendency to utilise Central Thai costumes and fashion as part of klong yao performances asserts the Siamese communities of Perlis and their preference for the construction of their identity. Chayuti Tassanawongwara & Hanafi Hussin 15 The Attempt to Enhance the Performance Based on Central Thai Standards The Siamese community of Perlis continuously aspire to improve their performance of klong yao up to Central Thai performance standards. Their attempts include learning by imitating multimedia materials produced in Thailand such as compact discs (CDs) and videos cassettes, and by viewing the YouTube channel. The Siamese in Malaysia also engage Thai professional teachers and klong yao musicians to teach their musicians. In addition, they also organise klong yao contests that are evaluated based on Central Thai performance standards. The first klong yao competition took place at Jitra temple, Kedah in the early 2000s, approximately twenty years ago (Loong Chun @Chun a/l Cheng, personal communication, 15 March 2017). Since that time, a klong yao competition is an established event that gathers klong yao ensembles from the four main states in Malaysia with Siamese communities, Perak, Kelantan, Kedah and Perlis. During the competition, Siamese klong yao musicians and Thai music teachers from Thailand are invited to judge the competition. The evaluation criteria include creativity, musicianship skills, musical technique and harmony between the klong yao musicians and dancers. Conclusion In our attempt to argue that klong yao is effective in shaping Thai identity among the Siamese people in Perlis, we took into consideration the historical background of the klong yao performance in their communities. The research established that klong yao has not been a part of Siamese culture in Malaysia until recently. Before the Siamese adopted the klong yao as part of their religious practices and cultural exchanges, their ethnic consciousness was not associated with central Thai origins. Rather, southern Thai cultural traits were manifest in their communities through the language used and the geopolitical reference. After the Siamese communities embraced the klong yao, their ethnic consciousness was gradually re-shaped with a stronger reference to central Thai communities through components of cultural performance. The Siamese in Perlis strengthened Thai identity by presenting the klong yao as representing their own culture. The Chinese and Malay communities also recognised the klong yao as markers of Siamese Thai identity and have integrated klong yao performances into their community functions. The klong yao has played a role in two types of events that connect the Siamese to inside and outside its community. Whether the klong yao is performed in a function that serves religious or other needs, the klong yao represents Thai-ness (or Siamese-ness as like to be called by the Siamese of Perlis). Illustrations and narratives highlight klong yao’s functions in ceremonies as examples Siamese attempts to sustain klong yao whereby its status is categorised as a secular performance in both sacred and profane spaces. Klong yao has been in the Siamese community for an extended period of time and has branched out to many Siamese villages. Klong Yaa accomplishes three roles in the performance process namely: proto-performance, performance and the aftermath. Cultural and personal functions of origin precede the performance. The Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (1-18) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 16 Siamese conduct rehearsals in temples and klong yao’s presence gather people because performing the klong yao helps fulfil religious events. During performances, Siamese even try to imitate the action and components of the Thai klong yao. For example, the Siamese only use klong yao for auspicious events or offer it in religious time-space. Furthermore, to understand the whole it is important to discuss the aftermath. The management entity that takes care of the klong yao ensures that klong yao is regularly organised for community events. In terms of cultural conservation, the Siamese created functional performances such as the klong yao competition, making it obvious that the Siamese are producing quality performances. The findings of this study suggest that the Siamese in Perlis, Malaysia attempt to imitate Thai klong yao as much as possible as representing Thai identity. Songs and lyrics are influenced by central-Thai dialect, costumes originate from traditional central-Thai dresses (royal Thai dress), Thai festival shirts (songkran traditional style), and polo shirts emblazoned with Thai lettering, as well as dancing inherited from the rum vong dance. The image of using klong yao performance tends to strengthen its Thai character. The Siamese refine the image through religion as well. Secondly, the Siamese try to construct another Siamese image in the perception of other ethnic groups. Through the success of constructing Siamese identity for strengthening one’s sense of self− the Siamese have also expressed the klong yao performance as an agent of identity. Most Chinese and Malays have called upon klong yao as a positive agent with an image of cooperation, as entertainment and for rituals. Through this positive image, the Siamese desire to be accepted by other ethnic groups has been demonstrated. Klong yao performers have been and continue to be invited to play a role at both Malay and Chinese spaces for decades. The performance process of klong yao tradition indicates that the Siamese maintained the klong yao in order to sustain their unique Siamese identity. Sustaining Siamese identity is a result of this performance process that was developed not only through visual components such as Thai costuming, but also through musical sounding of Thai-ness. The function of klong yao has developed to be flexible for various occasions and the klong yao tradition has been adapted into the perceptions of other ethnic groups and later gained people’s support. The acceptance of klong yao as being on par with Chinese and Malay traditions helps to raise Siamese identity to the national level through events such as the Citrawarna festival and Merdeka Day. Therefore, klong yao performances represent the music and dance of the Siamese across diverse communities in Malaysia. References Amnauysuntikul, P. (2008). Musical study and development of making votive offering ceremony of HOUNG POR TO Wat Satue Tharue Pranakornsri Ayutthaya. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand. Aryuwatthana T. (1974). Thai Nai Malaysia (Thai in Malaysia). Bangkok: Bannakit Press. Buranakiatsakul, P. (2012). The research on ‘homrong klong yao’ a composition for long drum overture composed by Pra Part Banleng-Rom (Pim Watin) is a case study of Chayuti Tassanawongwara & Hanafi Hussin 17 Kru Songmuang Phanturut group. Unpublished masters thesis. Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand. Burke, P. J., & Stets, J. E. (2009). Identity theory. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Chuthawichit, Y. & Yodmalee, B. & Poklin, S. (2014). The conservation and development of Isan long-drum performances to promote local culture. Asian Culture and Histories Journal, 6(2), 91-195. Eriksen, T. H. (2010). Ethnicity and nationalism (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. Hall, D. G. E. (1981). A history of South-east Asia (4th ed.). London, UK: The Macmillan Press Ltd. Johnson, I. C. (2004). The people with two kings: Space, history and mobility in a Malaysian Thai community. Harvard Universit Doctoral dissertation. Available from ProQuest Dissertation & Theses database. (UMI No. 3131877) Matusky, P. (1993). Malaysian shadow play and music continuity of an oral tradition. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Narkseetong, P.& Putthichot, A. (2012). สถานภาพชุมชนและคนเชื้อไทยในพหุสังคม มาเลเซีย:กรณีศึกษารัฐเกดะห์ ระหว่าง พ.ศ. ๒๔๕๒ - ๒๕๕๐ (Satanapap Chumchon lea Kon ChueThai Nai Pahusangkom Malaysia: KoraneeSuksa Rat Kedah rawang p.s. 2452-2550) Journal of Manussayasart Sangkomsart, Thaksin University, 2. Numnonda, T. (1978). Pibulsongkram’s Thai Nation-Building Programme during the Japanese Military Presence, 1941-1945. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 9 (2), 234-247. Pitupumnak, K. (2018). Paradigm for the development of a Lanna music curriculum in Higher Education in Northern Thailand. Malaysian Journal of music, 7(1), 38-57. Ross, L. (2011). The hybrid melodic and textual repertoires of Southwest Thailand’s Rong Ngeng Tanyong. Proceeding of the 1st Symposium of the ICTM Study Group on Performing Arts of Southeast Asia, Kuala Lumpur: Nusantara Performing Arts Center. Ryoko, N. (2005). A way of negotiating with the other within the self: Muslim’s acknowledgment of Buddhist ancestors in Southern Thailand, 3. Retrieved from http://www.unimuenster.de/Ethnologie/South_Thai/working_paper/Nishii_Nego tiation.pdf Schechner, R. (2003). Performance theory. London and New York, NY: Routledge. Winichakul, T. (1994). Siam mapped: A history of the geo-body of a nation. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. Wirunha, C. (2551). บุหงารายา : ประวัติศาสตร์จากค าบอกเล่าของชาวมลายู (Bungaraja: Prawattisart Jak Kambork-law Kong Chao Malayu ). Bangkok: Sakdisopa Press. Wisuttipat, M. (2016). The theoretical concepts on Thai classical music. Bangkok: Santisiri Press. Biography Chayuti Tassanawongwara is a master student in the Southeast Asian Studies programme at the Department of Southeast Asian Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya. He is interested in the music of the Siamese community of northern Malaysia and has completed his thesis entitled “Performing Identity through the klong yao Tradition among the Siamese Community of Perlis, Malaysia. Chayuti obtained his Bachelor of Education in Music Education focusing on traditional Thai music at the Department of Thai music, Faculty of Fine Arts, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok Thailand. Currently, his focus of research is in the ethnomusicology of Southeast Asia encompasses identity, Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (1-18) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 18 rituals and performing traditions mainly with Siamese in northern Malaysia and Southern Thai people. He also pays attention at traditional Thai music as his previous background. He was a traditional Thai music teacher, teaching music in countries such as Germany, Philippines, etc. Hanafi Hussin, Ph.D is an Associate Professor of Cultural Studies at the Department of Southeast Asian Studies at the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya. He received B.A and M.A in Southeast Asian Studies with a thesis topic “Philippine Political Theatre during Marcos Regime” and a Ph.D. in Ritual and Performing Arts Studies focusing on ritual and identity of the Kadazan of Sabah, Borneo. He is also researching ritual and performing arts of the maritime communities of Southeast Asia mainly Sama-Bajau and Sama Dilaut of the east coast of Borneo and Southern Philippines. Currently his research and documentation is on tangible and intangible cultural heritage of Indigenous People of Malaysia. Most of his research work published in academic journals relate to regional studies and cultural studies of Southeast Asia. Currently, he serves as Dean, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (2019)

arrangements, Giuliani, guitar, Le Rossiniane, opera, Rossini, transcriptions

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/163

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1604

Investigating Nineteenth-Century Transcriptions through History of Opera and Music Publishing: Mauro Giuliani’s Sources for Two Themes in Le Rossiniane No. 2, Op. 120, and No. 3, Op. 121

In a letter to the publisher Ricordi dated 6 February 1821, the Italian guitarist and composer Mauro Giuliani wrote that, after getting acquainted with Gioachino Rossini in Rome, Rossini lent him many autographs of his operas so that the guitarist could transcribe whatever he liked from them. From this loan were born

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1604/1994

Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 19 Investigating Nineteenth-Century Transcriptions through History of Opera and Music Publishing: Mauro Giuliani’s Sources for Two Themes in Le Rossiniane No. 2, Op. 120, and No. 3, Op. 121 Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande Hong Kong Baptist University Baptist University Rd, Kowloon Tong Hong Kong SAR e-mail: [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.2.2019 Published online: 1 August 2019 Teopini Terzetti Casagrande, F. (2019). Investigating Nineteenth-Century Transcriptions through History of Opera and Music Publishing: Mauro Giuliani’s Sources for Two Themes in Le Rossiniane No. 2, Op. 120, and No. 3, Op. 121. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 19-51. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.2.2019 Abstract In a letter to the publisher Ricordi dated 6 February 1821, the Italian guitarist and composer Mauro Giuliani wrote that, after getting acquainted with Gioachino Rossini in Rome, Rossini lent him many autographs of his operas so that the guitarist could transcribe whatever he liked from them. From this loan were born Le Rossiniane Opp. 119–124, six potpourris for solo guitar which are considered Giuliani’s greatest musical accomplishment. Although it is likely that most of the sources of Le Rossiniane were Rossini’s originals, there is also epistolary evidence that Giuliani also transcribed themes from scores provided to him by his publishers. This fact is the point of departure from which this article explores the possible sources for two opera themes transcribed in Le Rossiniane No. 2, Op. 120, and No. 3, Op. 121. The data presented here, coming from opera and music publishing history, conveys that such themes may have been transcribed from two specific vocal scores issued by Vienna- based publishing houses – ‘Cappi and Diabelli’ and ‘Artaria’. Additionally, the exploration of the context of the opera themes at issue has also brought to light some interesting unpublished facts. Keywords: arrangements, Giuliani, guitar, Le Rossiniane, opera, Rossini, transcriptions 20 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Introduction During the last few decades, the art of music transcription1 has been receiving the kind of interest from performers, scholars, and audiences, which throughout most of the twentieth century was only aimed at original repertoire. As a matter of fact, classical music lovers of that period manifested a rather scarce interest towards transcriptions, due to the bad reputation that these had among musicians, critics, and (less often) audiences. Urrows (2008) states: During most of the twentieth century, the so-called ‘Age of Authenticity’ [sic.], such works were dismissed as ‘derangements’, vandali[s]ations of the ‘authentic’ forms of works, generally as manifestations of appallingly bad taste … Behind this attitude lurk[ed] the evangelical spirit of twentieth-century musical scholarship, for which [transcription] was a kind of crime against the very nature of musical art. (pp. 136-137) Although the above passage seems to describe a typical twentieth-century opinion on transcriptions, this did not completely originate at that time. Such a strong belief was the result of a philosophical inheritance coming from the nineteenth century, more specifically from the (moralistic) Romantic views on arts’ originality and inimitability. According to Samson (2001), during Romanticism transcriptions: [S]tood in a somewhat uneasy relationship to the prevailing Romantic ideology. Romanticism, after all, privileged the singular and the inimitable, qualities that seem on the face of it at some remove from the … transcription of another’s work. Thus the Romantic premium on originality brought into sharp focus ethical as well as ontological questions which had seemed less pressing (though they were indeed raised) during earlier periods. (p. 269) In spite of this, for the whole nineteenth century composers still found transcriptions to be crucial for the promotion and spreading of their music. Miller- Kay (2018) affirms that generally these composers – among whom we find personalities such as Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) and Johannes Brahms (1833–1897) – were aware of the fact that transcriptions “were the primary form in which their music would be disseminated” (p. 196). One nineteenth-century musician who, more than any of his contemporaries, enjoyed how functional transcriptions were for the dissemination of his music across all of Europe was the Pesaro-born composer Gioachino Rossini (1792–1868). Due to his status as the most celebrated operista of the first decades of the nineteenth century, in those particular times transcriptions of Rossini’s music were published frequently. For instance, Bianca Maria Antolini (2001) mentions that in 1820s Italy almost every publisher of the country issued excerpts from his operas, transcribed either for voice and piano or for various other types of instrumental ensemble (p. 99). Among the many types of transcriptions circulating during the first half of the nineteenth century, one in particular became especially successful among Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 21 European audiences. This was the potpourri, a kind of instrumental fantasia (Czerny, 1848, 82)2 which exploited “[the] desire of the public to possess the beautiful melodies of favorite [o]peras, tastefully and connectedly strung together” (ibid., p. 87). In this regard, Carl Czerny (1791–1857) explains that audiences were always pleased to listen to well-structured fantasias featuring popular opera themes: The public in general, experiences great delight on finding in a composition some pleasing melody with which is already familiar, and which it has previously heard with rapture at the [o]pera: for most melodies acquire their popularity by the fine performance of a human voice and the charm of theatrical effect. Now, when such melodies are introduced in a spirited and brilliant manner in a [f]antasia [italic added], and there developed or varied, both the composer and the practiced player can ensure great success. (ibid., p. 86) It is not hazardous to imagine that Rossini knew as well as Czerny that transcriptions, and among those fantasias, were such a commercial success for both the transcriber and the ‘transcribed’. Maybe it was this particular awareness that, during a sojourn in Rome between 1820 and 1821,3 prompted Rossini to lend many of his original opera scores to the Italian guitar virtuoso and composer Mauro Giuliani (1781–1829), so that the guitarist could transcribe whatever he wished from them.4 Giuliani, a master of transcription,5 made the most out of his chance of having Rossini’s autographs on loan by composing Le Rossiniane Opp. 119-124, his most famous works to date. Regarded as Giuliani’s chef d’oeuvres, Le Rossiniane are a series of six potpourris for guitar composed during his stay in Rome and Naples between 1820 and 1829 (Heck, 2013, chap. 4.), where he moved after a 13 year-long residence in Vienna (ibid., chap. 3). Written as an homage to Rossini, they feature transcriptions of themes coming from 16 operas by the composer from Pesaro, ranging from the 1812 melodramma giocoso called La Pietra del Paragone to the 1826 tragédie lyrique titled Le Siège de Corinthe (Castelvecchi, 1986, pp. 52- 68). Investigating Giuliani’s sources for two themes in Le Rossiniane No. 2, Op. 120, and No. 3, Op. 121 This study was born from my pondering on whether or not Giuliani’s claim that he borrowed many autographs from Rossini was a bit exaggerated, in order to sell his works to potential publishers.6 More precisely, for a long time I wondered how many (and what type of) other sources Giuliani may have ever utilised for his opera themes’ transcriptions in Le Rossiniane besides Rossini’s originals. According to Marco Riboni (2011), it is highly probable that among the originals that Giuliani obtained from Rossini there were many of the themes that he used for his works (p. 437). However, Thomas Heck (2013) points out that Giuliani was also accustomed to transcribe music from scores provided to him by his publishers, evidence being a letter that Giuliani wrote to Domenico Artaria (1765– 1823) complaining about the two publishers and business partners Pietro Cappi (ca. 22 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 1790–1830) and Anton Diabelli (1781–1858),7 in which he reports the following words that he claimed to be written by them: “Here are some ‘favorite themes’ so that you can write us variations on them” (chap. 4.3.1). Heck’s evidence was for me the basis upon which I came up with some hypotheses about the sources for two specific opera themes that Giuliani transcribed for two of his Le Rossiniane. In point of fact my research, based on records about history of early nineteenth-century opera and music publishing which I gathered during the past few years, suggests that these sources are identifiable as two specific vocal scores by Vienna-based publishers Cappi and Diabelli, and Artaria. The themes at issue come from two cabalette:8 these are ‘Nume, perdonami se in tale istante’ (hereinafter referred to as ‘Nume, perdonami’) from the opera I Baccanali di Roma (1816) by Italian composer Pietro Generali (1773–1832), which Giuliani transcribed in both his Le Rossiniane No. 2 Op. 120 (hereinafter referred to as either Rossiniana No. 2, or simply Op. 120) as well as in his earlier Variations on ‘Nume perdonami’ Op. 102 (hereinafter referred to as either Variations Op. 102, or simply Op. 102),9 and ‘Sorte, secondami!’ from Rossini’s opera Zelmira (1822), transcribed by the Italian guitarist in Le Rossiniane No. 3, Op. 121 (hereinafter referred to as either Rossiniana No. 3, or simply Op. 121). Additionally, this study also wishes to further clarify why Giuliani chose to feature Generali’s ‘Nume, perdonami’ in Op. 120, since the latter is (supposed to be) a work composed as a tribute to Rossini. Stefano Castelvecchi (1986) proposes a few hypotheses; among those, one in particular suggests that Giuliani may have quoted Generali’s theme with the intent of hinting at the fact that Rossini plagiarised it as the cabaletta ‘Arditi all’ire’ present in his 1817 opera Armida (pp. 47-48). Here will be brought some extra evidences which, adding to Castelvecchi’s, tell that his intuition may not have been that far from the truth. Rossiniana No. 2: ‘Nume, perdonami’ from I Baccanali di Roma According to Alberto Galazzo’s Tra i Barbassori e gli Azzimati: Pietro Mercandetti Generali (2009) – a remarkable two-volume work on Pietro Generali’s life and works – I Baccanali di Roma was Generali’s most successful opera, staged with great success both all over Italy as well as overseas between 1816 and 1832 (pp. 79- 80). The opera achieved this sort of success after Generali revised it for its second staging which happened in Trieste in June 1816; as a matter of fact, the opera was not well received in its original version titled I Baccanti di Roma (ibid.). According to issue no. 26 of the Venetian newspaper Il Nuovo Postiglione, I Baccanti di Roma was premiered at the ‘Teatro La Fenice’ on 14 February 1816.10 The announcement, placed under the heading ‘Spettacoli d’oggi [today’s shows]’, says: “[L]a Fenice Theater. Performance of I Baccanti di Roma. [d]rama by [M]r. Gaetano Rossi, [m]usic by [M]r. Maestro Generali, with ballet: Aresping e Lindane, composed by [M]r. Panzieri” (Figure 1).11 Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 23 Here follow the names of each main singing member of the cast for the opera (and their respective roles), as listed by the libretto printed for the event (Generali and Rossi, 1816, p. 4):12 • Mr. Giovanni Battista Binaghi (SP. Postumo Albinio); • Mr. Giovanni David (Sempronio); • Mr. Francesco Desirò (Minio Cerinio); • Mr. Giovanni Sebastiani (Publio Ebuzio); • Ms. Elena Harlas (Fecenia), singer in the service of Maximilian I Joseph, King of Bavaria (1756–1825); • Ms. Marietta Castiglioni (Ippia); • Mr. Giovanni Cengia (Lentulo; Augure Sommo). Figure 1. Announcement of the (first) performance of I Baccanti di Roma. (Il Nuovo Postiglione, 14 February 1816, p. 4.) Issue No. 27 of the same newspaper, dated 16 February 1816, features an extensive review of the premiere of I Baccanti di Roma under the heading ‘Teatri [Theaters]’ (pp. 3-4). Among the interesting facts reported by the reviewer, there are two in particular which seem most relevant. Firstly, the opera had to be suspended because of a sudden illness on stage of the prima donna Elena Harlas – ascribed by the reviewer to the many long, incessant rehearsals taking place before the premiere due to a delay in the delivery of the music – which forced her to suddenly leave after the end of one of her arias (Figure 2). Secondly, among the most applauded musical moments in Generali’s opera we find the ‘cavatina di sortita [in] the first act [sung by] Mr. Sebastiani’ (Figure 3). The cavatina di sortita described in the review is the cavatina13 in Act 1 Scene 3 titled ‘Non temete: i sommi Dei … Nume, perdonami’ (Generali, 181?, pp. 114- 134),14 i.e. the entrance aria of Publio Ebuzio (castrato) – character which hereinafter will be referred to as simply Ebuzio. The cabaletta ‘Nume, perdonami’ coming from this cavatina was among the themes from the opera which became instantly popular among audiences due to its melodic beauty (Galazzo, 2009a, 80). Galazzo hypothesises that this could have been the reason why Giuliani decided to use Generali’s theme for his Variations Op. 102 as well as in his Rossiniana No. 2, perhaps after attending one of the performances of Die Bachanten – i.e. the German language version of Generali’s opera – held in Germany and Austria during the 1810s (ibid.). 24 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 2. Review of the premiere of I Baccanti di Roma: first excerpt. (Il Nuovo Postiglione, No. 27, p. 4.)15 Figure 3. Review of the premiere of I Baccanti di Roma: second excerpt. (Il Nuovo Postiglione, No. 27, p. 4.)16 Giuliani’s Variations Op. 102, originally titled as Introduzione e variazioni sopra la cavatina favorita ‘Nume perdonami, se in tale istante’ nei Baccanali di Roma del sig. Generali (Introduction and variations on the favorite cavatina ‘Nume perdonami, se in tale istante’ in I Baccanali di Roma of [M]r. Generali), was published in 1819 (Giuliani, 1819; Weidmann, 1983, 29) for the Cappi and Diabelli’s series Euterpe, and advertised in the Wiener Zeitung on 13 July of the same year (ibid.). These solo variations were later arranged as a quintet for guitar and string quartet and published in 1820 for their series Philomele für die Gitarre (ibid., 52). Conversely, Giuliani’s Rossiniana No. 2 was published by Artaria in 1822 (Giuliani, 1819; Heck, 2013, ‘Works with opus number’), and publicised in the Wiener Zeitung on 5 November of the same year (Giuliani, 2002, ‘Preface: Publication’). Both Giuliani’s transcriptions of the theme in Opp. 102 and 120 feature the tempo marking Allegretto innocente (Figure 4 and 5). Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 25 Figure 4. Variations Op. 102: tempo marking (green ellipse) featured in the theme of ‘Nume, perdonami’. (Giuliani, 1819, p. 5.) Figure 5. Rossiniana No. 2: tempo marking (green ellipse) featured in the theme of ‘Nume, perdonami’. (Giuliani, 1822, p. 5.) Both of them feature a theme in two-part song form; however, the version of ‘Nume, perdonami’ in Op. 120 is more elaborate and dynamic than the one in Op. 102, especially in its second part. Further, the version in Op. 102 concludes with a coda not to be found in Op. 120 (see Figure 6 and 7). With regard to the tempo marking utilised by Giuliani, the Italian term innocente is not retrievable in the actual theme composed by Generali. Apparently, the tempo marking of the aria was a more ordinary Allegretto. This claim is based on the following evidences: • The tempo marking on the scanned manuscript from the digital archive of the National Library of Spain in Madrid (Figure 8); • The tempo marking on the manuscript from the British Library in London (Figure 9) – according to Amelie Roper (personal communication, March 27, 2017), this particular manuscript is thought to be a copy prepared for the performance held in Trieste in June 1816; • The tempo marking found in the 1817 manuscript of Die Bachanten available at the Bavarian State Library in Munich (Galazzo, 2009b, 196); • The tempo marking featured in an 1820 manuscript of Die Bachanten, property of the Austrian National Library, as communicated to me by Andrea Harrandt (personal communication, May 28, 2018). 26 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 6. Variations Op. 102: second part of the theme of ‘Nume, perdonami’ – the coda of the theme is bordered in red. (Giuliani, 1819, p. 6.) Figure 7. Rossiniana No. 2: Second part of the theme of ‘Nume, perdonami’. (Giuliani, 1822, p. 5.) Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 27 Figure 8. Tempo marking Allegretto (here spelled as Alltto) on the manuscript of I Baccanali di Roma owned by the National Library of Spain in Madrid. (Generali, 181?, p. 121.) Figure 9. Tempo marking Allegretto (here spelled as Alltto) on the manuscript of I Baccanali di Roma owned by the British Library in London. (Generali, 1816, p. 95r.) When it comes to the differences between the themes in Opp. 102 and 120, a comparison between the transcriptions by Giuliani and the manuscript from London shows that the theme in Op. 120 is more authentic to the opera’s original. This is especially true in the case of Op. 120’s melodic passage in semiquavers on the first three measures of the second part of the theme: it looks and sounds almost identical to the melody assigned by Generali to Ebuzio, a part from the beginning rhythm of dotted semiquavers and demisemiquavers in the first measure (Figure 10). This suggests that Giuliani may have decided to overall simplify the second part of the theme in Op. 102, in order to make the subsequent variations of this piece sound more gradual in terms of virtuosity. Figure 10. Singer’s melody in the second part of the theme of ‘Nume, perdonami’ – the first measure is bordered in red. (Generali, 1816, 95v-97v.) 28 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 After the above description, there is a question which still seems to need an answer: since originally the aria ‘Nume, perdonami’ bears the tempo marking Allegretto, was there any source of Generali’s I Baccanali di Roma where this aria featured the tempo marking Allegretto innocente which could have been available to Giuliani at the time he wrote Opp. 102 and 120? If yes, is there any chance that Giuliani may have transcribed this aria from such a source? In his study on all six Le Rossiniane, Castelvecchi reproduces the first measures of the first part of the theme of ‘Nume, perdonami’, as found in Cappi and Diabelli’s vocal score of Generali’s cavatina: here the cabaletta bears the tempo marking Allegretto innocente (1986, p. 49). By looking at the original publication of Cappi and Diabelli, it can be confirmed that the tempo marking is indeed the one reported by Castelvecchi (Figure 11). Figure 11. Tempo marking Allegretto innocente (green ellipse) in ‘Nume, perdonami’, as found in Cappi and Diabelli’s vocal score. (Generali, 1820, p. 4.) One may be prone to think that the tempo marking used by both Giuliani, and Cappi and Diabelli may be considered as evidence that Giuliani’s main source for both Opp. 102 and 120 was this specific vocal score, even daring to speculate that maybe the publishers themselves provided it to him. However, there is a problem of anachronism when it comes to the year of publication of Op. 102. In fact, Cappi and Diabelli’s version of ‘Nume, perdonami’ was published in 1820 as Vol. 41 of the series Philomele für Pianoforte (Weinmann, 1983, p. 50);17 the year of publication seems to fit with the Viennese premiere of Generali’s opera, which took place at the Theater an der Wien on 12 June 1820 (Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, 17 June 1820, p. 388),18 and was later reviewed by the Wiener allgemeine Theaterzeitung und Unterhaltungsblatt (29 June 1820, p. 311). Therefore, it is unlikely that Giuliani may have had this particular score as the source for his Op. 102; nonetheless, so far the preceding data points to the fact that Giuliani may have used Cappi and Diabelli’s vocal score for his Op. 120. Cappi and Diabelli’s vocal score shows that the melody in the first four measures of the second part of the theme is written almost exactly as the one in the original, with its first measure containing a rhythm of dotted semiquavers and demisemiquavers (Figure 12). Giuliani’s same melodic segment in the Rossiniana No. 2 looks almost the same as Cappi and Diabelli’s, a part from Giuliani’s use of only semiquavers in its first measure. However, there is a score of Generali’s whole opera appearing to be the only one published before 1820 which, despite featuring Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 29 the tempo marking Allegretto and including a second part of Generali’s theme not as authentic to the original as both Cappi and Diabelli’s score and Giuliani’s Op. 120, on that particular measure uses the exact rhythm found on the melody of Op. 120. The publication at issue is the vocal score of the German version of Generali’s opera, i.e. Die Bachanten, published by Simrock (Figure 13) between Easter 1818 and Easter 1819 (Whistling, 1819, p. 63).19 The period of publication of Simrock’s vocal score is temporally consistent with Giuliani’s year of publication of Op. 102; further, it seems to go hand in hand with the German premieres of Die Bachanten held in Bonn and Cologne in 1818 (Galazzo, 2009b, p. 371), i.e. the cities where Nicolaus Simrock (1751–1832) and his son, Peter Joseph Simrock (1792–1868), respectively founded the publishing house – i.e. Berlin – and opened a branch – i.e. Cologne (Clive, 2001, pp. 337-338). Figure 12. Second part of the melody of ‘Nume, perdonami’ in Cappi and Diabelli’s vocal score – the first measure is bordered in red. (Generali, 1820, pp. 4-5.) Figure 13. First page of ‘Nume, perdonami’ as featured in the vocal score of Die Bachanten published by Simrock, containing the tempo marking Allegretto (green ellipse). The first measure in the melody of the second part of the theme (bordered in red) features the same rhythm also found in Op. 120. (Generali, ca. 1818, p. 39.) 30 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 All the data provided previously leads to the following hypotheses: Firstly, Giuliani may have owned a copy of the vocal score published by Simrock, which he may have used for his transcription of the theme for his Variations Op. 102 (i.e. the least authentic to Generali’s original theme). It is safe to assume that later he used the Cappi and Diabelli score for Op. 120, in order to render the theme closer to Generali’s original – it is also rather interesting to see that conceivably Giuliani exploited a score issued by Cappi and Diabelli for a score then published by Artaria. However it can be supposed that the voice part’s highly idiomatic dotted rhythm found in the original aria, which Giuliani transcribed in the first measure of the second part of the theme of Op. 120, may have been exemplified by him either on his own initiative or by drawing his ‘inspiration’ from Simrock’s score.20 Secondly, it is possible that the adjective innocente (meaning ‘innocent’) was added by Giuliani himself in Op. 102 to signal the mood of the cabaletta in place of the lyrics – which, of course, cannot be performed in a solo instrumental piece. According to the lyrics of Generali’s whole cavatina (Table 1), Ebuzio admits to his fellow Bacchants that he fell in love with Fecenia, i.e. the female protagonist of the opera, during his initiation rite to the cult of Bacchus – however, he does not mention her name to his fellows. Ebuzio asks for forgiveness to his God, i.e. Bacchus, claiming that he is innocent of this condition, and that the God should blame love for it. He also reassures his fellows that such an event will not occur in the future, and that he will keep his vows to Bacchus forever. Thirdly, Cappi and Diabelli, i.e. the publishers of Op. 102, may have liked the tempo marking Allegretto innocente employed by Giuliani, thus deciding to feature it in their own publication of the theme (supposedly utilised by Giuliani for his second transcription of ‘Nume, perdonami’ in Op. 120). Finally, it is time to address the question of why Giuliani used a theme from Generali’s ‘Nume, perdonami’ instead of Rossini’s ‘Arditi all’ire’ in his Rossiniana No. 2. As previously introduced in this paper, one of Castelvecchi’s speculations states that Giuliani may have done such a thing to allude to Rossini’s plagiarism of Generali’s aria.21 Castelvecchi backs up this suggestion by offering historical facts on both I Baccanali di Roma and Armida, as well as comparing the first measures of ‘Nume, perdonami’ from Cappi and Diabelli’s vocal score (mentioned earlier) with the first measures of a non-specified vocal score of ‘Arditi all’ire’ – bearing the tempo marking Allegro brillante (1986, pp. 49-50). Castelvecchi states that the two themes are substantially the same, with the only difference being the types of modulation occurring in the second part of the themes in two-part song form at issue: while Generali’s modulates from the tonic (D major) to its dominant, Rossini’s modulates from the tonic (F major) to its minor mediant (ibid., pp. 47-48). Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 31 Table 1. Ebuzio’s lyrics in the cavatina ‘Non temete: i sommi Dei…Nume, perdonami’. (Generali, 1816, p. 10.) ‘Non temete: i sommi Dei…Nume, perdonami’ (Italian lyrics) ‘Do not be afraid: the great Gods…God, forgive me’ (English translation) Ai Baccanti (coro): Non temete: i sommi Dei questo cor devoto adora Il candor de’ voti miei serberò costante ognor. A Bacco: Nume, perdonami se in tale istante sfugge un sospiro ad un Baccante, sospir che tenero parte dal cor… Del mio deliro incolpa amor. Ai Baccanti: Non temete: i voti miei serberò costante ognor. To the Bacchants (choir): Do not be afraid: the great Gods this heart devout[ly] adores. The candor of my vows I will constant[ly] keep forever. To Bacchus: God, forgive me if sometime[s] a sigh escapes from a Bacchant, [a] sigh that tender leaves from the heart… Of my delirium[,] blame love. To the Bacchants: Do not be afraid: my vows I will constant[ly] keep forever. However, by looking at Rossini’s autograph of Armida it can be observed not only that ‘Arditi all’ire’ bears the tempo marking Allegro vivace (Figure 14), but above all that its theme’s second part features a profoundly different melodic layout from ‘Nume, perdonami’ (Figure 15). The above-mentioned two evidences reinforce the idea that after all Giuliani knew that the first part of Rossini’s ‘Arditi all’ire’ was copied from Generali’s cabaletta, and that for this reason he could insert Generali’s theme (featuring a blatantly different second part) within the Rossiniana No. 2. Whether or not he did this because Rossini’s cabaletta at issue was not among the originals which he borrowed from the Pesarese composer, or just out of a willingness to insert some sort of maliciously humorous ‘comment’ within Op. 120, or both, is something which might never be disclosed entirely. However, the above evidences ‘insinuate’ that Giuliani, a person who apparently had a sharp sense of humor,22 exercised such humor also in his music writing if the opportunity presented itself.23 32 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 14. Tempo marking Allegro vivace (here spelled as Allo Viv) in the cabaletta ‘Arditi all’ire’, as featured in the autograph of Armida. (Rossini, 1817, p. 31r.) Figure 15. Second part of Goffredo’s melody in the theme of the cabaletta ‘Arditi all’ire’ from Armida. (Rossini, 1817, pp. 33r-34v.) Rossiniana No. 3: ‘Sorte, secondami!’ from Zelmira The upcoming hypothesis on the source for Giuliani’s transcription of the theme of ‘Sorte, secondami!’ was born from a rather peculiar discovery made while examining Giuliani’s autograph of the Rossiniana No. 3. The cabaletta ‘Sorte, secondami!’ is featured in the introduction of Act 1, Scene 1, No. 1 of Rossini’s opera Zelmira. Originally, its main theme is sung by the character Antenore (tenor), ‘backed-up’ by Leucippo (bass-baritone) and a Coro di guerrieri (Choir of warriors), and is contained within Antenore’s cavatina ‘Che vidi! Amici! Oh eccesso!...Sorte, secondami!’: it is introduced after the tempo di mezzo ‘In te il suo vindice’ (sung by Leucippo and the choir) which separates the cavatina’s cantabile (i.e. ‘Che vidi! Amici! Oh eccesso!’) from the cabaletta (Rossini, 1810–1840, pp. 16r-38v). Giuliani’s transcription of Antenore’s theme in Op. 121 is rather authentic to the original material from the opera. However, Giuliani’s autograph of Op. 121 shows that he wrote a preliminary version of the theme and variation on ‘Sorte, secondami!’ which was rather different from the version that apparently was chosen as the definitive one.24 Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 33 Giuliani’s preliminary version of the theme from Zelmira and its variation are found on pages 8 and 11 of his autograph manuscript (Figure 16, 17, and 18). They were crossed out by the composer, and later replaced with their definitive versions, found on pages 9 and 10 (Figure 19). Giuliani’s replacement in the Rossiniana No. 3 seems to have happened after a change of opinion by him, which appears to have occurred when the score was pretty much ready to be published by Artaria, who issued the work in 1823 (Giuliani, 1823b; Heck, 2013, ‘Works with opus number’) and advertised it in the Wiener Zeitung on 12 January 1824 (Giuliani 2002, ‘Preface: Publication’). In fact, Giuliani composed his definitive theme and variation on a new blank score sheet. The side of the sheet corresponding to the manuscript’s page 10 only presents the final two measures of the definitive variation, therefore is almost completely empty of any music writing. This suggests that the page was inserted by the composer between pages 8 and 11 at the last moment. Figure 16. Rossiniana No. 3 (autograph): preliminary version of the theme of ‘Sorte, secondami!’ (blue border) and its variation (orange border). (Giuliani, ca. 1823, pp. 8 and 11.) 34 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 17. Reconstruction (by the author of this paper) of Giuliani’s preliminary transcription of the theme of ‘Sorte, secondami!’. (Giuliani, ca. 1823, pp. 8 and 11.) Figure 18. Reconstruction (by the author of this paper) of Giuliani’s preliminary variation on his preliminary transcription of the theme of ‘Sorte, secondami!’. (Giuliani, ca. 1823, p. 11.) Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 35 Figure 19. Rossiniana No. 3 (autograph): definitive transcription of both the theme of ‘Sorte, secondami’ and its variation. (Giuliani, ca. 1823, pp. 9-10.) Among all the differences between Giuliani’s preliminary and definitive version of ‘Sorte, secondami!’, both in the key of G major, the most striking one involves their respective harmonic progressions. More specifically, while in the preliminary version of the theme its repeated 8 measure long first part of the theme cadences on the submediant, in the definitive version the theme’s 16 measure long first part cadences on the dominant (like in the original aria). However, why did Giuliani change his preliminary version of the theme with a version more accurate to the original aria? Between March and July 1822, Rossini had a triumphant tour in Vienna. Accompanied by his manager Domenico Barbaia, his wife Isabella Colbran, and other six singers from the Teatro San Carlo of Naples, all together ‘gave a total of 52 performances during their three-month stay’ (Clark, 2005, pp. 137-138). During this tour Zelmira was particularly successful: the opera was performed a total of 21 times from its first Viennese performance on 13 April to its last one on 20 July (ibid., 140-145). Already highly praised at the time of its premiere at the Teatro San Carlo on 16 February 1822 (Rossini, 2005, p. xxv), Zelmira “created a furore both there and in Vienna” (Stendhal, 1957, p. 384), becoming so popular that the reviewer of the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung of Leipzig decreed it as the season’s triumph (Rossini, 2005, p. xxix).25 Due to Rossini’s success in Vienna, the city’s publishers engaged into a fierce competition with each other by overwhelming the market with an abundant number of transcriptions of his operas (ibid., xxxiii). In particular, it seems that the 36 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 ones featuring themes from Zelmira garnered positive consensus in the city. As Benjamin Walton (2013) reports, at that time Zelmira’s melodies “had been freely circulating since the opera’s Viennese premiere back in April, arranged, varied, quadrilled, and potpourried [sic.]” (p. 159). Zelmira’s success led Artaria to publish approximately 20 among transcriptions and variations based on themes from this opera (Castelvecchi, 1986, p. 35), indeed an impressive number. However Artaria could do this rather easily, since Rossini provided him with the originals of Zelmira after an agreement reached during the composer’s tour, so that the publisher could make a vocal score out of it (Rossini, 2005, pp. xxxiii-xxxiv). Such a score was published in 1822 (Rossini, 1822). All this suggests that the replacement made by Giuliani could have been an idea of either him, or Artaria, or both. They may have believed that the transcription of the theme of ‘Sorte, secondami!’ should have sounded as similar as possible to the original one in order to be attractive to the Viennese audience, an audience that was rather familiar with the theme. Besides, it would make sense that Artaria wanted the transcription of material from Zelmira to sound as ‘faithful’ as possible, due to both the competition he was facing within the publishing business and, above all, the fact that he was the exclusive borrower of Zelmira’s originals in Europe, something that possibly would have ‘forced’ him to publish transcriptions on themes from this opera which should not have sounded unauthentic once played. This last assertion is fundamental when coming up with the hypothesis about the source for Giuliani’s transcription of ‘Sorte, secondami’ for Op. 121: since in 1822 Artaria was the only publisher of a vocal score of Zelmira based on Rossini’s originals, it is likely that Giuliani had this score as the source for his transcription, a score which could have been either provided to him by Artaria, or which he bought. This hypothesis seems to find confirmation in how Giuliani transcribed the accompaniment in his transcription: here he wrote dyads (Figure 20) ‘inspired’ by the ones found from the second to the fourth beat of every measure of the theme in Artaria’s score (Figure 21), therefore mostly featuring inverted chords to be played in seventh position on the guitar. Giuliani may have decided to do this as he found out that, by transposing the original theme from D to G major, some of the dyads found in the accompaniment of the vocal score were adaptable on the guitar by following a similar technical pattern of inverted chords in seventh position that he had previously applied in his Sonata Op. 15 (Figure 22). More importantly, the orchestral score of Zelmira features a very characteristic march-like triplet rhythm in the second beat of every measure (Figure 23) – played by clarinets and horns – which Artaria features only in the introduction of the aria (Figure 24). This implies that Giuliani may have transcribed the accompaniment of the theme according to Artaria’s notational style for the sung part of the aria. Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 37 Figure 20. Rossiniana No. 3 (autograph): detail of the accompaniment in the definitive transcription of ‘Sorte, secondami!’ (bordered in red). (Giuliani ca. 1823, p. 9.) Figure 21. Detail of the piano accompaniment in ‘Sorte, secondami!’ (bordered in red), as featured in the vocal score published by Artaria. (Rossini, 1822, p. 14.) Figure 22. Detail of the accompaniment (bordered in red) featured in the 2nd movement of Giuliani’s Sonata Op. 15. (Giuliani, s.a., p. 6) 38 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 23. Zelmira (manuscript copy): detail of clarinets and horns’ accompaniment (bordered in green) in ‘Sorte secondami’. (Rossini, 1810–1840, p. 27.) Figure 24. Detail of the triplet rhythm (bordered in green) in the second beat of every measure in the piano introduction of ‘Sorte, secondami!’, as featured in the vocal score published by Artaria. (Rossini, 1822, p. 14.) Yet, the following evidence may render this hypothesis not valid. By comparing Giuliani’s definitive theme in the autograph with Artaria’s vocal score of Zelmira it can be immediately noticed that they reference the aria differently. In his vocal score Artaria titles the cabaletta as ‘Aria (Sorte! secondami!) [sic.]’ at the top of the page where Antenore’s theme begins (Figure 25), and as ‘Aria con Coro Sorte secondami [sic.; Aria with Choir Sorte secondami]’ in the index of his publication (Figure 26). Instead, Giuliani wrongly references Antenore’s theme as ‘Quartetto dell’ Opera Zelmira [sic.; Quartet from the Opera Zelmira]’26 by utilizing a footnote (Figure 27). It is particularly interesting to note that Artaria and/or his editor(s) copy Giuliani’s mistake in the first edition of Op. 121 (Figure 28),27 despite previously referencing Rossini’s cabaletta as an aria in the vocal score. Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 39 Figure 25. Title for the cabaletta ‘Sorte, secondami!’ (bordered in red) featured on the page of Artaria’s vocal score where the cabaletta begins. (Rossini, 1822, p. 14.) Figure 26. Title for the cabaletta ‘Sorte, secondami!’ (bordered in red) featured on the index of Artaria’s vocal score. (Rossini, 1822, p. 14.) Figure 27. Footnote (green circles) referencing the theme from cabaletta ‘Sorte, secondami!’ featured in the autograph of Op. 121. Here score titles it as ‘Quartetto dell’Opera Zelmira [sic.]’. (Giuliani, ca. 1823, p. 9.) 40 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 28. Title for the theme of the cabaletta ‘Sorte, secondami’ (bordered in red) featured in Artaria’s first edition of Op. 121. (Giuliani, 1823b, p. 9.) This particular reference by Giuliani seems to be the sole element which feeds doubts about the source for his transcription. Nonetheless, from the reconstruction of the preliminary theme it can be seen that this features the letters within parentheses (c) both close-by the tempo marking and at the bottom of page 8 (Figure 29), a systematic modus operandi of Giuliani observable among the sole autographs of Le Rossiniane available to us which, besides Op. 121, includes Le Rossiniane No 5, Op. 123.28 The fact that the (c) at the bottom of page 8 does not report the reference of the aria from Zelmira instead retrievable from Giuliani’s definitive transcription of the theme suggests that he wrote the references for all of his transcriptions right after writing all of the music in his work, instead of doing it while transcribing each theme. Therefore, the mistaken footnote in the definitive version of the theme may have happened as an inadvertence during the finishing stage of his composition – it can be speculated that this may have happened while in a rush to send his music to Artaria. If that is the case, the doubts presented previously about Giuliani’s source for his theme from Zelmira may not subsist. Figure 29. Rossiniana No. 3 (autograph): first fourteen measures of the preliminary transcription of the theme of ‘Sorte, secondami!’. The page includes the letters within parentheses (c) (orange circles), designed to reference the theme. (Giuliani, ca. 1823, p. 8) Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 41 Conclusion Overall, this article offers many evidences on what were the sources that Giuliani employed for the themes of ‘Nume, perdonami’ and ‘Sorte, scondami!’ in Opp. 120 and 121, i.e. the vocal score of Generali’s cavatina of Ebuzio published by Cappi and Diabelli in 1820, and the vocal score of the opera Zelmira published by Artaria in 1822 respectively. Further, my research unveiled a possible source utilised by Giuliani to transcribe the theme for Op. 102, i.e. the vocal score of Die Bachanten published by Simrock between Easter 1818 and Easter 1819. Additionally, the comparisons between Generali and Rossini’s original opera scores with their vocal score versions and Giuliani’s transcriptions disclosed compelling clues about the Italian guitarist’s potential reasoning behind some of his compositional choices for Opp. 102, 120, and 121. All the evidences presented in this article were obtained thanks to an in- depth research of historical events regarding opera and music publishing. The results attained through this method of inquiry highlight how important it is to explore historical events of the nineteenth century in order to understand the culture behind the practice of music transcription of that era. At the same time, exploring nineteenth-century music transcriptions allows the rather curious scholars to bring to light interesting facts about history of opera and music publishing – e.g. my discovery of the actual date of I Baccanti di Roma’s premiere in Venice and its review, as well as the reporting of the deal between Artaria and Rossini – thus demonstrating that, eventually, music transcription studies can be helpful in unveiling relevant issues regarding Western music history. At last, the author of this study hopes to have made a small, helpful contribution to the field of music transcription, an art that was looked at only as a demonstration of bad musical taste for too long, and has only been legitimised recently. As Italian composer Alfredo Casella (1883–1947) strongly believed, the types of music transcriptions which can be considered artistically significant embody the materialisation of a musician’s personal need to recreate through new sound(s) the feelings aroused in him/her by a particular original musical work, a procedure which involves his/her personality, taste, critical sense, and culture (1954, pp. 182-183). In this regard, the investigation within this article provides important data about Giuliani’s compositional procedures as well as the underlying cultural and emotional impacts that the guitarist wished to deliver through them to both music readers and listeners of Le Rossiniane – e.g. the featuring of the tempo marking Allegretto innocente in Op. 120 to communicate the textual mood of Generali’s original aria, and the featuring of a ‘faithful’ transcription of ‘Sorte, secondami!’ in Op. 121 to supposedly please the Viennese public – which, in my opinion, authenticate Giuliani’s Le Rossiniane (or at least Opp. 120 and 121) as the types of transcriptions that Casella would have classified as works of art. 42 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Acknowledgements I would like to address a special thanks to the following institutions for both their help and permission to publish their previously unpublished material (before this publication): British Library, London Ministero dei Beni e delle Attività Culturali e del Turismo – Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Venice Musiksammlung der Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna Royal College of Music, London Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Musikabteilung mit Mendelssohn-Archiv It is prohibited to reproduce the material in this article coming from the above- mentioned libraries without their permission. Endnotes 1 In this paper I use the term transcription to signify both transcriptions and arrangements. 2 As per Czerny, fantasia can be categorised into four species: 1) on a single theme; 2) on several themes; 3) “on so many subjects, that it should properly be called Pot-pourri [sic.]”; 4) capriccio. 3 Rossini was in Rome for the premiere of his Matilde di Shabran, eventually conducted by Italian violinist and composer Niccolò Paganini (1782–1840) on 24 February 1821 (Osborne, 2002). Back in early December Rossini sent a letter to his mother, the singer Anna Guidarini (1771–1827), to inform her that he just arrived in the city (Rossini, 9 December 1820). 4 This is documented in a letter sent by Giuliani to the publisher Giovanni Ricordi [1785– 1853] on 6 February 1821. The English translation of Giuliani’s original letter can be found in Heck, 2013, chap 4.2.2. (As a side note: for a concise summary of Mauro Giuliani’s life and works see Heck, 2001.) 5 One third of Giuliani’s compositions consist of transcriptions; sixty of them are ‘inspired’ by operas (Riboni, 2011, p. 391). 6 The previously-mentioned letter that Giuliani sent to Ricordi on February 1821 appears to be a good example of how Giuliani publicised his privilege of having received many originals from Rossini. It is safe to say that he probably gave this information to every publisher that later issued all of his Le Rossinane. The publishers at issue are Artaria – Opp. 119-121 – Diabelli – Opp. 122 and 123 – and Ricordi – Op. 124 (ibid., ‘Works with opus number’.) 7 As the reader will notice from the references provided at the end of the article, all scores which here I will attribute to both Cappi and Diabelli are referenced as ‘Diabelli et Comp.’. This is not a mistake: the name of the publishing company reported in the scores at issue is the one reported on the references. However, I decided to attribute those scores also to Cappi in the main text due to the fact that, according to Weidmann and Warrack (2017), Cappi left the partnership with Diabelli in June 1824. 8 A cabaletta (plural: cabalette) is “the second, usually fast movement of a double aria in an Italian opera, consisting of a melodic period of two stanzas which is repeated…after an orchestral ritornello” (Budden, 2001a). Due to the fact that within a cabaletta the two-stanza Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 43 melodic period of the theme is repeated (more or less) in the same way as the first time, in this study each presented excerpt of a cabaletta theme coming from an (orchestral and vocal) opera score will come from the first presentation of the theme. 9 In this paper I named this particular work by utilising the English translation by Heck (2013) of its original Italian title (‘Works with opus number’). 10 This research gives me the opportunity to amend Galazzo’s earlier report on the date of the premiere of I Baccanti di Roma which, according to his sources, took place at La Fenice on 14 January 1816 (Galazzo, 2009a, 79). According to my sources, the opera Zoraida (1815) by Giuseppe Farinelli (1769–1836) premiered in La Fenice as the first opera of the 1815– 1816 Carnival season, and was performed until the first performance of Generali’s (Girardi and Rossi, 1989, 80). 11 All translations from Italian to English were made by the author of this paper. All of them were designed in order to give an as-literal-as-possible translation of both the words and the mood of Italian language. 12 I also employed Galazzo’s first volume to recover information not reported by the libretto about a) Binaghi’s complete first name (reported by the libretto simply as ‘Gio.’), and b) the name of the singer impersonating Lentulo and Augure Sommo, i.e. Giovanni Cengia (2009a, p. 79). 13 In Italian operas of the first half of the nineteenth century, a cavatina was defined as an “extended aria for a lead singer at his or her first appearance on stage” (Balthazar, 2004, p. 51). As per Ochs (2001), a typical cavatina of this period was structured as a double-aria including a cantabile (slow) and a cabaletta (fast); these two arias were usually introduced by a recitative, and (often) separated from each other by a tempo di mezzo (pp. 61-62). The term tempo di mezzo is applied to “a[ny] fast transitional passage that separates a cantabile from a cabaletta … It is generally free in form and varies in length according to the dramatic situation, its prime function being to effect the required change of mood” (Budden, 2001b). The term cavatina di sortita was often used in the nineteenth century as a more comprehensive term for the cavatina: it translates as ‘exit cavatina’, i.e. the cavatina that a main character would sing when exiting from the backstage for the first time in the opera. 14 The question mark included in the reference’s date is not a mistake. In fact, the Madrid score referenced here presents the wording ‘ca. 1815’ on its first page. However, this is to be excluded since, as we already know, the premiere of Generali’s opera happened in 1816. Therefore, in this article I will suppose that the score has been written in the second half of the 1810s, however further clarifications will be needed in the future. (With regard to this issue, unfortunately I received no reply from the National Library of Spain.) 15 English translation: “However it is true that [M]ad[ame] Harles, whose qualities resonate in Monaco’s theaters as well as others, and who here [in Venice] did not received scarce applauses [while performing] in the [just] ceased [o]pera of [M]r. Maestro Farinelli, found herself torn between the desire to preserve the fame that she enjoys – that is[,] of imprinting her [own] pleasant senses on the [a]udience – and the tiredness from the enormous fatigue to which she was subjected [by] incessant musical rehearsals multipl[ing] in the last days due to [a] delay [in the submission] of [the] music – among which the last one[, held on] the day before [the premiere, and] progress[ing] until two hours after midnight[, ended] in horrible [and] exhausting prostration – so much so that[, with] her zeal caught by sudden distress, [she] had to suddenly retreat at the end of her aria, in order to save the [a]udience [from assisting to] an emotional spectacle. Medical care rushed so soon, that it is hoped [that] she might recover as soon as possible, and that the [o]pera[, which] had to be suspended, may be brought to completion[, since] it is said that there are [still] interesting things in it [to be unveiled]. Such a restoration is indeed desirable; and[,] in the occurred mishap[,] the 44 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 righteous [a]udience will recognise how much [the opera] is [both] eager [for] and worthy of their [positive] vote”. What is reported here by the reviewer of I Baccanti di Roma seems to shed light on a specific fact about the date of its premiere. It is likely that the date found by Galazzo, i.e. 14 January 1816, was the initial date for the performance of Generali’s opera. However, the reviewer affirms that there was a delay in the submission of the music, meaning that the opera had to be postponed to the actual date of its premiere, i.e. 14 February 1816. 16 English translation: “From the music of Maestro Generali’s first act were most applauded the cavatina di sortita [sung by M]r. Sebastiani, the duet between him and [M]ad[ame] Harles; and the other cavatina [sung by M]r. David”. 17 As further confirmation, the Handbuch der musikalischen Litteratur (sic.) of 1821, reporting on the new publications available in German speaking and neighboring countries between Easter 1820 and Easter 1821 (Elvers and Hopkinson, 1972, p. 1), cites Cappi and Diabelli’s publication among its list (p. 72). In addition, around the same period Cappi and Diabelli also issued a version for voice and guitar (ibid., p. 83). (Throughout this research I will be using all of the Handbuchs published between 1817 and 1821, yet I will only show data from three of them. Nonetheless, I will reference all of them at the end of the article together with their corresponding hyperlinks, so that the reader[s] can check my data.) 18 Galazzo reports that the Viennese premiere was held in the same theater but on 25 March 1820, and lists the one held on 12 June as the second performance (of probably the second series of performances) of the work in Vienna (2009b, p. 372). However, the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung reports: “Theater an der Wien…Am 12. Jun[i] zum ersten Ma[l]e: [D]ie Bachanten, (richtiger Bacchanten) heroische Oper in Zwei aufzügen…Musik von P. Generali [Theater an der Wien … On 12. June for the first time: Die Bachanten, (more properly Bacchanten [italic added]) heroic opera in two acts…music by P. Generali]”. (Translation from German to English by the author of this paper.) According to Harrandt (personal communication, May 28, 2018), the 1820 score owned by the Austrian National Library “fits with the Viennese performance on 12th [sic.] of June 1820 [at] the Theater an der Wien” (28 May 2018). 19 According to my examination of the second, third, fourth, and fifth editions of the Handbuch published between 1818 and 1821 – overall listing the published scores available in German speaking and neighboring countries from the end of 1815 to Easter 1821 (Elvers and Hopkinson, 1972, p. 1) – the score by Simrock was the only complete (vocal) score of Generali’s opera available in the market featuring Generali’s cavatina before Cappi and Diabelli’s printed version of the aria. 20 Readers of this paper may object that the melodic register of the second, third, and fourth measure in Figure 6 is much closer to the ones in Figure 10 and 12, rather than to those in Figure 13. However, it cannot be excluded that Giuliani may have transcribed the theme in Op. 102 by at the same time using the Simrock score and his transcribing ability while listening to performances. The latter viewpoint about his ability to transcribe by ear is based on a hypothesis of mine, hence here follow my evidences in support of it. Marco Riboni reports of a transcription made by Giuliani of a theme and two of its variations by French violinist Pierre Rode (1774–1830) which apparently is not consistent with Rode’s original music (2011, pp. 402-403), i.e. the Air varié Op. 10 (1808) for violin and piano (Poriss, 2009, p. 151). Instead, Giuliani’s work is a transcription of another transcription by the Italian soprano Angelica Catalani (1780–1849), whose performance of it was reviewed by the Wiener Moden Zeitung on 4 July 1818 (Riboni, 2011, pp. 402-403). As a matter of fact, the final title that Giuliani gave to the entire opus in which such a transcription is included is Tre tema favoriti con variazioni di mdme Catalani messi per chitarra sola da Mauro Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 45 Giuliani (Three favorite themes with variations by [Ma]d[a]me Catalani set on solo guitar by Mauro Giuliani; 1819), and the transcription of Rode’s music is titled inside the publication as ‘Sulle variazioni di Rode [On the variations of Rode]’ (ibid.). However, it may also be likely that Giuliani made this transcription by ear while assisting to one (or more) of Catalani’s performances, if not during the performance mentioned above. In fact, it appears that Catalani never published her transcription: as Hilary Poriss (2009) points out, there is only knowledge of “several surviving nineteenth-century piano-vocal [sic.] scores [which] contain ornaments attributed to Catalani, providing a sense of how she … transformed [Rode’s music] into a vocal work” (p. 152). According to my investigation of the first four editions of the Handbuch published between 1817 and 1820 – cataloguing the published scores available in German speaking and neighboring countries from ca. 1780 to Easter 1820 (Elvers and Hopkinson, 1972, p. 1) – there were only two versions for solo piano of Catalani’s transcription which were issued by the publishing houses Steup (Amsterdam) and Christiani (Berlin) between Easter 1819 and Easter 1820 (Whistling, 1820, p. 29). Since Giuliani’s transcription was advertised in the Wiener Zeitung on 9 January 1819 (Heck, 2013, ‘Works without opus number’), the hypothesis that Giuliani transcribed Catalani’s transcription by ear is not to be rejected. (The hypothesis about Giuliani’s skills in transcribing by ear also points to the remote possibility that he may have transcribed the whole theme for Op. 102 without using a score. However, demonstrating this without any strong evidence would imply some risky conjecturing.) 21 Since Rossini’s lifetime it has been generally acknowledged that the composer used to plagiarise both his own and other composers’ works. For instance, an article in The monthly magazine and literary journal titled ‘The characteristics of Rossini’s composition’ (N/A, 1830) explores this issue within the Rossinian operatic repertoire rather thoroughly: “Our next object will be to consider a much more serious charge brought against [Rossini] by his adversaries, viz. that of being a plagiarist [sic.]. If the repetition and reproduction of an author’s own ideas came under the denomination of plagiarism, Rossini must at once plead guilty; but, as the term is generally considered to apply exclusively to the appropriation of the thoughts or works of another [sic.], the question appears to be, how far Rossini has made free with the property of others. The question of plagiarism in music is too nice and uncertain in its limits to admit of a full enquiry in this place: it seems to be a question of degree. If the adoption of one [sic] bar of music, to be found in other works, constituted plagiarism, we know of no composer, not excepting Handel, Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven, who could be exculpated from the charge; and, after all, it would remain to be ascertained who was the first that made use of the questionable bar. There is, we believe, an opinion current among the profession, that the appropriation of no less than four [sic.] bars constitutes actionable piracy. If so, Rossini has no cause to fear the arm of the law. We do not remember an instance of his introducing four bars, tali quali [sic.], from the works of a brother bard. But, if he be not amenable to the charge of legal piracy, there is such a thing as moral, constructive plagiarism, plagiarism in disguise. And in this respect Rossini, we fear, stand but an indifferent chance. He has largely borrowed in every quarter. Besides resorting to the national airs of Italy, he has, to a great extent, availed himself of the ideas of Generali [emphasis added] and Cimarosa, and other Italian authors; and the German composers, Haydn, Krommer, Mozart, &c [sic.] have supplied materials for his scores. We have not room for a catalogue of these numerous Rossinian loans, the existence of many of which, we believe, is not disputed even by himself” (p. 59). It is likely that Rossini plagiarised parts from his as well as other composers’ works due to his busy working schedule. As reported by American Rossini scholar Philip Gossett (1970), “[t]he factor most influential in Rossini's creative process was probably time … Even while he held a steady positions [sic.] in Naples, 46 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 from 1815 through 1822, Rossini continued to spend part of each year working for other theatres” (p. 50). 22 Michael Lorenz (2015, April 28) reports of a particularly significant case in which Czech pianist and composer Joseph Gelinek (1758–1825) became the victim of Giuliani’s merciless sarcasm during a Viennese musical gathering. 23 An argument which may be brought up against the last paragraph’s interpretation is that it would have been difficult for Giuliani to listen to Armida while residing in Rome between 1820 and 1823 (Heck, 2013, chap. 4.1-4.2.3), and therefore pick up the similarities between Generali and Rossini’s themes. In fact Armida was not that successful in Italy: during Giuliani’s lifetime, the whole opera was only performed in Naples (for five times) in November 1817 and in Venice in Autumn 1818 (Rossini, 1997, pp. xxxii-xxxiv), i.e. while Giuliani was still residing in Vienna. However, Armida enjoyed some fame in German- speaking countries (ibid., p. xxxii), starting from Vienna’s premiere in December 1821 (ibid., xxxv). In light of this, it can be speculated that Giuliani may have known of Rossini’s plagiarism via correspondence, probably informed by one (or more) of his Viennese contacts who attended the opera in the city; perhaps Artaria himself, i.e. the publisher of Op. 120, told Giuliani about this. It can be also speculated that Artaria could have been the person who suggested Giuliani to feature Generali’s theme, due to the publisher’s likely knowledge of the guitarist’s previous publication of Op. 102. Therefore, the above would indicate that Giuliani’s utilisation of Generali’s theme in Op. 120 was more dictated by practicality rather than malice. However, if it is taken for granted that Giuliani did not assist to the actual performance of Armida, then what is not known is: a) if Giuliani was (made) aware that Rossini only plagiarised the first half of Generali’s theme; b) if Giuliani ever cared not to ‘offend’ Rossini by (jokingly) featuring Generali’s whole theme in the Rossiniana No. 2 – given that he was informed about Rossini’s partial plagiarism; c) whether Giuliani took the decision of employing Generali’s theme all by himself, or by following a suggestion made either by Artaria, or by somebody else (from Vienna) conscious of the plagiarism. Since it is difficult to provide an answer to the above three points without venturing into an intricate series of highly objectionable speculations, the whole interpretation presented in the main text will be left as it is. 24 Surprisingly, the only studies investigating Giuliani’s autograph of the Rossiniana No. 3, that to my knowledge are available, do not report about this particular issue. The studies I am referring to are namely Brian Jeffery’s preface for the thirteenth volume of Giuliani’s Complete works in facsimiles – published by Tecla in 1986 (and reprinted in 2002) – and the rather recent paper by Marco Riboni titled ‘Gli autografi di Mauro Giuliani’ – published by Il Fronimo in April 2017. (Both the works cited here can be found among this article’s references.) 25 See also the enthusiastic letter that Rossini wrote to his mother on 15 April 1822 about the success of Zelmira’s Viennese premiere (Rossini, 2005, pp. xxix), as well as the critical coverage of this opera by German-language newspapers (Clark, 2005, pp. 253-82). 26 Giuliani’s footnote can be translated in English in two ways: a) ‘Quartet of the Opera Zelmira’ (literal translation); ‘Quartet from the Opera Zelmira’ (correct English translation). This particular reference by Giuliani seems to be the sole element which can feed doubts about the fact Artaria’s vocal score was the main source from which he derived his transcription. 27 See respectively: a) Giuliani, ca. 1823, and b) Giuliani, 1823b. 28 Giuliani always places either a letter (Op. 121) or a number (Op. 123) close-by the tempo marking above the theme that he wants to reference; he then reports the same letter or number at the bottom of the page and adds a note in order to notify the reader about the type Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 47 of aria and its opera of provenance. (See respectively; a) Mauro Giuliani, ca. 1823, and b) Mauro Giuliani, 1823a) References Antolini, B. M. (2001). Nuove acquisizioni sull’editoria musicale in Italia (1800– 1920). In Sirch, L. (Ed.), Canoni bibliografici. Contributi italiani al convegno internazionale IAML-IASA, Perugia, 1-6 settembre 1996 (pp. 95- 130). Lucca, Italy: Biblioteca Musicale LIM. Balthazar, L. (2001). The forms of set pieces. In Balthazar, L. (Ed.), The Cambridge companion to Verdi (pp. 49-68). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Budden, J. (2001a) Cabaletta. Grove music online. Retrieved from. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.04499. Budden, J. (2001b) Tempo di mezzo. Grove music online. Retrieved from. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O009496. Casella, A. (1954). Il Pianoforte (3rd Ed.). Milano, Italy: Ricordi. Castelvecchi, S. (1986). Le Rossiniane di Mauro Giuliani. Bollettino del centro rossiniano di studi, (1-3), pp. 34-68. Clark, M. L. (2005). The performances and reception of Rossini’s operas in Vienna, 1822–1825 (Doctoral dissertation). University of North Carolina. Clive, P. (2001). Beethoven and his world: A bibliographical dictionary. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Czerny, C. (1848). School of practical composition, Vol. 1. London, United Kingdom: R. Cocks & Co. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/1802/28412. Elvers, R. & Cecile H. (1972). A Survey of the music catalogues of Whistling and Hofmeister. Fontes Artis Musicae, 19 (1-2), 1-7. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23505205. Galazzo, A. (2001a). Tra i Barbassori e gli Azzimati: Pietro Mercandetti Generali. Tomo I: La vita. Biella, Italy: Musica Antica a Magnano. Galazzo, A. (2001b). Tra i Barbassori e gli Azzimati: Pietro Mercandetti Generali. Tomo II: Le opere. Biella, Italy: Musica Antica a Magnano. Generali, P. (1816). I Baccanali di Roma, dramma serio del sig. Pietro Generali. Atto I (Ms.). Retrieved from the British Library, London, United Kingdom on 2017, February 1. Add. Ms. 31777. Generali, P. (ca. 1818). Die Bachanten, Grosse Oper in 2 Aufzügen (1st Ed.). Bonn and Cologne, Germany: Simrock. Retrieved from the Library of the Royal College of Music, London, United Kingdom on 2018, July 2. Shelfmark: H502. Generali, P. (181?). I Baccanali di Roma, musica del sig. M.ro Pietro Generali. Atto primo (Ms.). Retrieved from the digital archive of the Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid, Spain on 2017, January 8. bdh- rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000169144&page=1. 48 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Generali, P. (1820). Cavatina ‘Nume perdonami/Götter ach verzeihet’ aus der Oper: Baccanali di Roma, von Generali, mit Begleitung des Pianoforte. Philomele für Pianoforte, No. 41 (1st Ed.). Vienna, Austria: Diabelli et Comp. Retrieved from the Musiksammlung der Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Austria on 2018, May 16. Shelfmark: Mus. Ms. 8469. Generali, P. & Rossi, G. (1816). I Baccanti di Roma, melo-dramma eroico in due atti da rappresentare nel Gran Teatro La Fenice nel carnevale 1816. Poesia, del sig. Gaetano Rossi. Musica, del sig. Pietro Generali. Venezia, Italy: Rizzi. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Library of Congress, Washington D.C., USA on 2019, March 17. https://www.loc.gov/resource/musschatz.13789.0/?sp=2. Girardi, M. (2001). La musica nei periodici veneziani della seconda metà del Settecento e dell’Ottocento. In Sirch, L. (Ed.), Canoni bibliografici. Contributi italiani al convegno internazionale IAML-IASA, Perugia, 1-6 settembre 1996 (pp. 211-228). Lucca, Italy: Biblioteca Musicale LIM. Girardi, M., & Rossi, F. (1989). Il Teatro La Fenice: Cronologia degli spettacoli 1792–1936. Venezia, Italy: Albrizzi Editore. Giuliani, M. (1819). Introduzione e variazioni sopra la cavatina favorita ‘Nume perdonami, se in tale istante’ nei Baccanali di Roma del sig. Generali, Op. 102 (1st Ed.). Vienna, Austria: Diabelli et Comp. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Rischel & Birket-Smith Collection, Royal Danish Library, Copenhagen, Denmark on 2018, February 5. http://wayback- 01.kb.dk/wayback/20101028104955/http://www2.kb.dk/elib/noder/rischel/ RiBS0346.pdf. Giuliani, M. (1822). Le Rossiniane per la chitarra seconda parte, Op. 120 (1st Ed.). Vienna, Austria: Artaria e Compag. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Rischel & Birket-Smith Collection, Royal Danish Library, Copenhagen, Denmark on 2017, April 20. http://wayback- 01.kb.dk/wayback/20101028105025/http://www2.kb.dk/elib/noder/rischel/ RiBS0359-2.pdf. Giuliani, M. (ca. 1823). Le Rossiniane per chitarra parte terza, Op. 121 (AMs.). Retrieved from the Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Musikabteilung mit Mendelssohn-Archiv. Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany on 2016, January 26. Mus. Shelfmark: Ms. 7600/1. Giuliani, M. (1823a). Le Rossiniane per chitarra, o lira, Op. 123 (AMs.). Retrieved from the Musiksammlung der Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Austria on 2016, February 4. Shelfmark: Mus. Hs. 35842. Giuliani, M. (1823b). Le Rossiniane per la chitarra terza parte, Op. 121 (1st Ed.). Vienna, Austria: Artaria e Compag. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Rischel & Birket-Smith Collection, Royal Danish Library, Copenhagen, Denmark on 2017, April 20. http://wayback- 01.kb.dk/wayback/20101028105027/http://www2.kb.dk/elib/noder/rischel/ RiBS0359-3.pdf. Giuliani, M. (s.a.). Sonate brillant für die Guitarre, 15tes Werk (2nd Ed.). Vienna, Austria: Steiner und Comp. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Rischel Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 49 & Birket-Smith Collection, Royal Danish Library, Copenhagen, Denmark on 2018, April 14. http://wayback- 01.kb.dk/wayback/20101028104637/http://www2.kb.dk/elib/noder/rischel/ RiBS0272.pdf. Giuliani, M. (2002). The complete works in facsimiles, Vol. 13 (B. Jeffery, Ed.). London, United Kingdom: Tecla Editions. Gossett, P. (1970). Gioachino Rossini and the conventions of composition. Acta Musicologica, 42 (1-2), 48-58. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/932268. Heck, T. F. (2001). Mauro Giuliani. Grove music online. Accessed on 2018, May 14. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11230. Heck, T. F. (2013). Mauro Giuliani: A life for the guitar (Kindle Ed.). Austin, TX: Guitar Foundation of America. Lorenz, Michael. (2015, April 28). A Giuliani anecdote. Retrieved from http://michaelorenz.blogspot.com/2015/04/a-giuliani-anecdote.html. Miller-Kay, E. (2018). Four-hand piano transcriptions and the reception of symphonic repertoire in nineteenth-century Europe. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 195-207. N/A. (1816, February 14). Il Nuovo Postiglione, No. 26. Retrieved from the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Venice, Italy on 2016, February 9. Shelfmark: PER. 0001035.1816. N/A. (1816, February 16). Il Nuovo Postiglione, No. 27. Retrieved from the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Venice, Italy on February 9, 2016. Shelfmark: PER. 0001035.1816. N/A. (1820, June 17). Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, No. 49. Retrieved from ‘ANNO: AustriaN Newspapers Online’, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Austria on 2018, May 7. http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno- plus?aid=amz&datum=1820&page=207&size=45&qid=NWQ4JCO7W3U VUWWDZO75BKPPDRV4GJ. N/A. (1820, June 29). Wiener allgemeine Theaterzeitung und Unterhaltungsblatt, No. 78. Retrieved from ‘ANNO: AustriaN Newspapers Online’, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Austria on 2018, May 7. http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi- content/anno?aid=thz&datum=18200629&seite=3&zoom=33&query=%22 wiener%22%2B%22zeitung%22%2B%22generali%22%2B%221820%22& ref=anno-search. N/A. (1830). The characteristics of Rossini’s compositions. The new monthly magazine and literary journal, 28 (1), 55-62. Accessed on 2019, June 1. https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=9yxKAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontc over#v=onepage&q&f=false. Ochs, A. A. (2001). Opera in contention: Social conflict in late nineteenth-century Mexico City (Doctoral dissertation: University of North Carolina). Osborne, R. (2002). Matilde di Shabran. Grove music online. Accessed on 2019, March 24. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O007599. 50 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (19-51) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Poriss, H. (2009). Changing the score: arias, prima donnas, and the authority of performance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Riboni, M. (2011). Mauro Giuliani. Palermo, Italy: L'Epos. Riboni, M. (2017). Gli autografi di Mauro Giuliani. Il Fronimo, 178 (2), pp. 7-21. Rossini, G. (1810–1840). Zelmira: Melodramma in due atti di Andrea Leone Tottola. Musica del sig. Gioacchino Rossini. Atto primo (Ms.). Retrieved from Internet Culturale: Biblioteca del Conservatorio San Pietro a Majella, Naples, Italy on 2019, March 21. http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.i nternetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3AIT%5C%5CICCU %5C%5CMSM%5C%5C0166029&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU. Rossini, G. (1817). Armida. (AMs.). Retrieved from Internet Culturale: Biblioteca della Fondazione Rossini, Pesaro, Italy on 2019, March 21. http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.i nternetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3AIT%5C%5CICCU %5C%5CURB%5C%5C0665466&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU. Rossini, G. (1820, December 9). Lettere manoscritte di Gioachino Rossini: Guidarini, Anna. Retrieved from Internet Culturale: Fondazione Rossini, Pesaro, Italy on 2019, March 24. http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.i nternetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3APU_LEG1i0AFR1 _0152&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU. Rossini, G. (1822). Zelmira: Opera seria messa in musica dal sig. Maestro Rossini, ridotta per pianoforte dal sig. Maestro Girowetz (1st Ed.). Vienna, Austria: Artaria e Comp. Retrieved from Internet Culturale: Biblioteca della Fondazione Rossini, Pesaro, Italy on 2018, March 6. http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.i nternetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3AMUS0267536&m ode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU. Rossini, G. (1997). Armida: Partitura atto primo (C. S. Brauner & P. B. Brauner, Eds.). Pesaro, Italy: Fondazione Rossini. Rossini, G. (2005) Zelmira: Partitura atto primo (H. Greenwald & K. Kuzmik Hansell, Eds.). Pesaro, Italy: Fondazione Rossini. Samson, J. (2001). The great composer. In J. Samson (Ed.), The Cambridge history of nineteenth-century music, Vol. 1 (pp. 259-284). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Stendhal. (1957). Life of Rossini (R. N. Coe, Trans.). New York, NY: Criterion Books. Urrows, D. F. (2008). Conscientious translation: Liszt, Robert Franz, and the phenomenology of Lied transcription. In D.F. Urrows. (Ed.), Word & music studies, Vol. 9: Essays on word/music adaptation and on surveying the field (pp. 135-160). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi. Walton, B. (2013). More German than Beethoven: Rossini’s Zelmira and Italian style. In N. Matthew & B. Walton (Eds.), The invention of Beethoven and Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 51 Rossini: Historiography, analysis, criticism (pp. 159-177). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Weinmann, A. (1983). Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alt-Wiener Musikverlages, Reihe 2, Folge 23, Veralgsverzeichnis Peter Cappi und Cappi & Diabelli (1816 bis 1824). Vienna, Austria: Musikverlag Ludwig Krenn. Weidmann, A. & Warrack, J. (2001). Diabelli, Anton. Grove music online. Accessed on 2017, November 14. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.07710. Whistling, C. F. (1817). Handbuch der musikalischen Litteratur. Leipzig, Germany: Meysel. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Germany on 2019, March 17. http://mdz-nbn- resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10598698-4. Whistling, C. F. (1818). Handbuch der musikalischen Litteratur. Erster Nachtrag. Leipzig, Germany: Meysel. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Germany on 2019, March 17. http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10598699-4. Whistling, C. F. (1819). Handbuch der musikalischen Litteratur. Zweiter Nachtrag. Leipzig, Germany: Hofmeister. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Germany on 2019, March 17. http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10598700-2. Whistling, C. F. (1820). Handbuch der musikalischen Litteratur. Dritter Nachtrag. Leipzig, Germany: Hofmeister. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Germany on 2019, March 17. http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10598701-8. Whistling, C. F. (1821). Handbuch der musikalischen Litteratur. Vierter Nachtrag. Leipzig, Germany: Hofmeister. Retrieved from the digital archive of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Germany on 2019, March 17. http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10598702-3. Biography Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande is a professional classical guitarist, teacher, and musicologist currently living in Hong Kong. After graduating in guitar performance from the conservatory ‘G. B. Martini’ in Bologna, he went to further study at the Royal Academy of Music in London, where he was awarded the Postgraduate Diploma in Guitar Performance (Distinction). His first international release with Brilliant Classics, J. S. Bach: Sonatas and partitas BWV 1001–1006 (2016), has been receiving enthusiastic praises from audiences and critics alike: “Teopini depicts these extraordinary works in a warm, human, relaxed and stylish manner” (Musikalifeten, Netherlands); “[an] intense and felt interpretation…[with a sound] endowed with warmth and attack but also power” (Diapason, France); “a recording that achieves a beautiful sound and a dignified interpretation” (Melόmano Digital, Spain). Currently, Teopini is a PhD candidate in musicology at the Hong Kong Baptist University under the prestigious Hong Kong PhD Fellowship Scheme.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (2019)

group music lessons, parent-teacher perspectives, role of teachers, role theory, West Malaysia

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/163

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1879

Exploring the Role of the Music Teacher from the Perspectives of Parents and Teachers in West Malaysia

It is important for music teachers to reflect on the influence of their role during lessons. However, the roles of teachers, and expectations from both teachers and parents are often unclear, resulting in role confusion on both sides. The purpose of this collective case study is to describe and understand the expectations of both parents and teachers of the teacher’s role in group music lessons for pre-school children in the Klang Valley

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1879/2009

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (52-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 52 Exploring The Role Of The Music Teacher From The Perspectives Of Parents And Teachers In West Malaysia Kathryn Ang1 & Albi Odendaal2 MASARA, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa. e-mail: Kathryn Ang1/[email protected] e-mail: Albi Odendaal2 /[email protected] Clorinda Panebianco University of Pretoria, Room 3-14 Musaion, Pretoria, South Africa. e-mail: [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.3.2019 Published online: 15 August 2019 Cite this article (APA): Ang, K., Panebianco, C., & Odendaal, A. (2019). Exploring the Role of the Music Teacher from the Perspectives of Parents and Teachers in West Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 52-67. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.3.2019 Abstract It is important for music teachers to reflect on the influence of their role during lessons. However, the roles of teachers, and expectations from both teachers and parents are often unclear, resulting in role confusion on both sides. The purpose of this collective case study is to describe and understand the expectations of both parents and teachers of the teacher’s role in group music lessons for pre-school children in the Klang Valley1 of West Malaysia. Two semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten parents and three teachers of three group music classes for pre-school children. This study situates role theory as a conceptual framework to explore the perspectives of parents and teachers on the expected roles of teachers in group music lessons. Five broad categories of themes emerged, namely parent- teacher perspectives on teachers’ roles as multi-faceted professionals, authorities on music, entrepreneurs, mentors and communicators. A novel finding showed that teachers in West Malaysia play the role of entrepreneurs. Teachers are expected to be customer service providers, even babysitters, and are also expected to be generous with their time, which influences their entrepreneurship. The paper argues that role theory is a helpful tool in order to help teachers to understand how their roles play out in West Malaysia and how an understanding of their roles can help teachers to clarify the many expectations placed on them. Keywords: group music lessons, parent-teacher perspectives, role of teachers, role theory, West Malaysia Kathryn Ang, Clorinda Panebianco and Albi Odendaal 53 Introduction Research suggests that teachers can play multiple roles in music education, such as: professional musician (Bouij, 2004), good presenter and facilitator (Ballantyne, Kerchner & Aróstegui, 2012), assessor (Mills, 1991), contributor to the profession (Swanwick, 2008), self-evaluator and manager (Bukantaitė & Kubiliūtė, 2015), role model (Isbell, 2015), and advocate and disciplinarian (Fischler, 2007). Therefore, the multiple roles that teachers can play in music education contribute to the complexity of the teacher’s job. The first author found during 36 years of experience in music education in the Klang Valley1 of West Malaysia that some parents expressed dissatisfaction with music teachers. These parents perceived teachers as not meeting their expectations (Biddle, 1979). Similarly, some teachers were also dissatisfied with parents, whom they perceived to have unrealistic expectations for their children. These parents may expect good results for their children, good value for money, low fees and excellent relationships with the teachers. Some parents can also be competitive in comparing their children’s achievements with others, as they are status conscious; this inevitably creates undue tension for the teachers in trying to meet the parents’ expectations for their children. Role Theory Taking into account all the roles that could be identified in music education may make the music teacher’s task perplexing. Furthermore, parents and teachers might have different expectations of what the role of the teacher is, which may result in role confusion. This paper argues that role theory is a helpful tool to help teachers understand how their roles play out in West Malaysia, and how an understanding of their roles can help teachers to clarify the many expectations that are placed on them. Biddle (1979) maintains that there are two types of role expectations: personal and positional. He explains that, on the one hand, personal expectations are usually developed through first-hand experience with the person themselves and that they are context-specific. On the other hand, positional expectations are context-general and less defined, for example, the positional expectations for the behaviour of politicians and teachers. Positional expectations, such as professional standards, and behaviours are described in the music education literature, but personal expectations are not typically emphasised. Turner (2002) employs the principles of functionality, representationality and tenability to describe how roles are reconstructed and to resolve role conflicts. Here the principle of functionality can be applied, where the teachers are expected to modify their roles by becoming partners in education with the families of their pupils, colleagues and the community by building and nurturing partnerships with them for greater effectiveness (Music Teachers National Association, 2004). The principle of representationality, Turner (2002) argues, means that roles “become vehicles for conveying certain images (representationality) and are framed and reframed in relation to what they are seen to represent” (p. 252). Representationality can clearly be seen in the literature where Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (52-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 54 the teacher – represented as a guide – is not only expected positionally to be a capable leader, but is expected personally to have tact, resilience, a sense of humour and the ability to motivate others (Jorgensen, 2011). The principle of tenability means the teacher’s role as a professional is subject to a balancing of costs and benefits, as the teacher strives to be a good instructor by being a constant learner in order to improve her own competences in teaching skills and knowledge, while being limited by her abilities and resources (Bukantaitė & Kubiliūtė, 2015). Roles of Teachers in Music Education Although almost no research exists that addresses role theory within music education (the exceptions are: Cramer, Million & Perreault, 2002; Miksza, 2007; Scheib, 2003), several emergent roles of teachers can be identified when the music education literature is read through the lens of role theory, such as, the roles of a professional musician and educator (Ballantyne et al., 2012, Bouij, 2004), partner in education (Bukantaitė & Kubiliūtė, 2015) and role model (Ballantyne et al., 2012). Music Teachers as Professional Musicians and Educators The literature suggests that music teachers can be viewed as professional musicians who have a significant knowledge of music, are competent and skilled in performing on their instruments (Ballantyne et al., 2012; Bouij, 2004). Secondly, as educators, teachers are also seen as: good presenters who plan their pupils’ courses of study and implement the lessons accordingly (Ballantyne et al., 2012); facilitators who have developed a range of resources, teaching approaches and strategies to motivate their pupils’ learning (Ballantyne et al., 2012; Music Teachers National Association, 2004); assessors who have developed and validated measures to assess musical performance (McPherson, 1995; Mills, 1991); and guides (Cain, 1985; Jorgensen; 2011) who instruct, enable and display organisational skills, “tact, resilience, a sense of humour, and the ability to motivate others” (Jorgensen, 2011, p. 218). Moreover, as educators, teachers are also viewed as contributors to the teaching profession (Swanwick; 2008), self-evaluators and learners (Bukantaitė & Kubiliūtė, 2015; Swanwick, 2008). In a study evaluating teaching and learning in music education, Swanwick (2008) discovered that teachers who continued their professional development were able to be constructive contributors to their musical environment. Furthermore, teachers who continue their professional development also play the roles of self-evaluators, as well as learners and managers in continually assessing their personal teaching philosophy in enhancing their knowledge of current practices (Bukantaitė & Kubiliūtė, 2015). Music Teachers as Partners in Education Additionally, the literature supports the notion of a teacher’s role as a partner in education with the families of their pupils, colleagues and the community by building and nurturing partnerships with them (Bukantaitė & Kubiliūtė, 2015; Music Teachers National Association, 2004). As partners in education, Fischler (2007) described the teachers as playing the roles of advocate for their pupils and Kathryn Ang, Clorinda Panebianco and Albi Odendaal 55 disciplinarian on behalf of the parents. Fischler (2007) explained the teacher’s role as an advocate in representing the students by having discussions with members of the faculty, trustees and administration of the community school of the arts. She also added that teachers recognised their role as disciplinarians, but felt that new discipline systems could be developed so that the responsibility for maintaining discipline could be shared by the family, school, church and the media in order to free the teachers to focus on their teaching. Music Teachers as Role Models Finally, the literature suggests that music teachers play other roles such as a role model (Ballantyne et al., 2012; Creech & Hallam, 2009; Isbell, 2015), nurturer (Ballantyne et al. 2012), and mentor (Dwyer, 2015; Leong, 2008). Creech (2009) describes a finding in her study where a teacher saw herself as a role model – both as performer and a person – for her pupils. Ballantyne et al. (2012) found that the pre-service teachers interviewed in the United States felt that they needed to think of various strategies in their teaching approaches in order to be nurturers of their pupils’ musical abilities. Furthermore, teachers play the role of mentor by developing the relationships with pupils in order to make them more relaxed in their learning (Dwyer, 2015), as well as motivating and encouraging them during their early music making (Leong, 2008). In summary, we have shown that teachers are expected to play multiple roles in this reading of the music education literature. However, this literature does not necessarily address the issues that are faced in Malaysia and therefore it is important to conduct a study on the way that teachers see themselves and how parents see teachers in Malaysia. Furthermore, this study investigated the teacher role within the group music class, a site that has not previously been investigated. The study was thus guided by the following research question: What are the expectations of the music teacher’s role in group music lessons from the perspectives of both parents and teachers in West Malaysia? Methodology This collective case study (Stake, 1995) is part of a larger study2 that investigates parent-teacher relationships. This current article presents a cross-case analysis of parent and teacher’ perspectives of teachers’ roles within three cases. The three cases are pre-school group music classes within private settings in West Malaysia. The first case is an early childhood group music class for infants below 12 months of age; the second case is a group music class for toddlers with special needs; and the third case is a group music class for children between the ages of 5 and 6 years. Thirteen participants were selected by purposeful sampling comprising of the three teachers of the group music classes, and three parents of learners from two classes and four parents from one class. The basis of selection for the teachers was their experience with music education and group teaching, and their ability to communicate about their perspectives on teacher’s roles. The parents, who were referred by the teachers, had varying levels of parental involvement with the Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (52-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 56 teachers. In addition, it was important that these parents were able to describe their perspectives on teacher’s roles openly. All participants who were invited to take part in the study were fully informed of the research before agreeing to complete letters of informed consent and assent. Two semi-structured interviews, which were spaced about three to four months apart, were conducted with the ten parents and three teachers to explore the various ways that they describe the roles of teachers. During the interim between the first and second interviews, analysis of the first interviews took place in order to present the findings to the participants for member checking and further discussion (Creswell, 2013). In the second interview, participants were presented with stories crafted from a set of data that was gathered in a focus group interview with six music teachers who described their experiences, both positive and negative, of parent-teacher relationships. The teachers have extensive experience of at least 10 years and are qualified by external examination boards such as the Trinity College London and London College of Music. They teach in a variety of places in the Klang Valley and some of them work together. They give piano instruction in a one-on-one setting. In addition, two of them have experience teaching aural skills and theory in a group setting. While the first semi-structured interview inquired about the participants’ understandings and experiences of a teacher’s roles, the second made use of four factional stories as a means of eliciting responses on covert role expectations from both parents and teachers. Kallio (2015) explains that such ‘factional stories’ are constructed from a diverse range of previously collected data, analyses and fictive elements, which combine both the research participants’ and the researcher’s voices. The factional stories were used in both group and one-on-one settings. One of the stories described a positive experience a teacher had with a parent, where both parties were willing to make a great effort in order for the pupil to continue having lessons with the teacher. This was done in order to preserve the good working relationship all three parties had with each other. The remaining three stories related to tense situations, where a parent was in direct conflict with the teacher for not answering her phone call, another where the parent was insisting that her child take an examination at a higher grade than was appropriate, and where a parent was unhappy with the teacher for not wanting to carry on teaching her child. Data collected from the 24 interviews were transcribed verbatim, as well as analysed and coded in Atlas.ti. The first author carried out the process of coding in consultation with both second and third authors. Coding was a collaborative process that involved regular interaction between the authors with the first author doing the majority of the coding. Values coding was used as it reflects “a participant’s values, attitudes and beliefs, representing his or her perspectives or worldview” (Saldaña, 2016, p. 131). The twenty codes that were identified fell into five categories, as stated in the results. To improve the validity of this study, the various comments garnered from the participants in the member checking (Creswell, 2013) helped the first author to have a better understanding of the reliability of the analysis. To protect the participants’ identities, we gave pseudonyms beginning with ‘T’ to the teachers (Teresa, Tina and Tricia) and pseudonyms beginning with ‘P’ to the parents (Paloma, Pamela, Pang/Pei Ting,3 Patricia, Peggy, Peng Li, Phoebe, Prisha Kathryn Ang, Clorinda Panebianco and Albi Odendaal 57 and Pui Li). Results Results are presented based on the responses of the parents and teachers to the question on the nature of teachers’ roles in the context of group music lessons in the Klang Valley of West Malaysia. Five broad categories of themes emerged, namely parent-teacher perspectives on teachers’ roles as multi-faceted professionals, authorities on music, entrepreneurs, mentors and communicators. The discussion that follows explores various components of each theme and highlights parents’ and teachers’ perspectives on these roles. Although this study was focused on group lessons only, the responses included many references to one-on-one lessons by teachers who recounted their personal experiences as well as by parents who were responding to the factional stories, which enriched the context of the study, and so we decided to include them. Music Teacher as a Multi-Faceted Professional Both teachers and parents shared the perspective that the teacher should display the attributes of being a multi-faceted professional which includes a good presenter and facilitator, and be able to educate parents to enhance children’s wellbeing and learning outcomes. Parents also spoke of the importance of teachers managing transitions for their children. There were various opinions of what being a professional means to both teachers and parents. Parents’ and teachers’ views of teacher’s professionalism included teachers behaving without prejudice and creating an environment conducive to learning for the children. Tina strongly believed that it was professional for everyone to be treated fairly and without prejudice. She explained that, as she has 300 students in her centre, it is very important for her to be consistent in her policies. Prisha was happy with the teacher of the group music class her daughter attends who said that “every kid has [her] own style”. Prisha attributes this statement to her perception that the teacher does not show prejudice in class and therefore would not compare one child with another. In responding to a factional story where the parent took care of the teacher’s baby while she taught her daughter, Tina said “I also feel that it is very distracting with the [baby] around [while] the teacher is teaching”. Tina felt that it was not professional of the teacher to have the baby in the room while teaching, as it was important to maintain an environment conducive to effective teaching. Furthermore, parents also emphasised that the teachers’ professionalism was seen in their emotionally stable temperaments. Phoebe recounted an instance when a teacher who was being shouted at by the parent displayed a high level of professionalism and self-control by not retaliating. Teresa felt strongly that in order to be a good presenter, a teacher should explain an activity before doing it. One of the parents in Teresa’s group music class, Pang, valued her clear instructions during the class because he found that “the explanations will help us see why the programme is structured in such a way”. In Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (52-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 58 addition, parents showed a clear appreciation of teachers who were adaptable in their teaching. Patricia appreciated the teacher for adapting the programme to improve her special needs child’s “gross motor development”. In addition, parents also enthused over teachers who were patient and passionate about teaching the children. Patricia elaborated that the teacher of her special needs child was “very passionate” about the class and would “[go] at the children’s pace”. Teachers stressed the importance of coordinating, communicating and connecting with parents in order to be effective facilitators. Tina makes it a point to coordinate with the parents by informing them of the child’s progress and assigned work after each class. She would also send a text message to any parent who was not at the debriefing session. However, Tricia had a different approach as she left it to the parents to decide whether or not to attend the class in order to know what was going on. Teresa stressed the importance of seeing parents ‘face to face’ in order to bond well or make a connection with them. In discussing whether the responsibility of the learning outcomes of a child should fall on the pupil, parent or teacher, Pui Li viewed teachers only as facilitators. She added that “it will be the responsibility of the child mostly because he is the one who has to learn for himself.” In contrast, Pang felt that the learning outcome of the child was the teacher’s responsibility because “teachers are trained to teach”. However, Phoebe presented a more balanced viewpoint as she felt both teachers and parents had different roles to play. Her view as that “on one hand, the teacher should help [the children], and on the other hand, the parents should spend some time to understand their [children’s] music”. In playing the role of educating parents, Teresa felt that in her group music classes she was not only teaching the child but the parents as well. Parents also felt that they were learning together with their children in the group music classes. Prisha was excited by the teacher’s approach to teaching, as she would regularly update the parents on “how to play the [piece]” in a really detailed manner. Furthermore, teachers discussed the importance of managing parents as part of their attempts to educate them. Tricia had to educate a parent on the practice time necessary for her child to be ready for an examination, as the parent was uninformed and thought that taking the examination did not require that kind of effort. Tina stressed that it was vital for parents to have a close relationship with the teachers in order to be educated in areas such as managing their expectations of their children. She also stated that she would help the parents in their time management by saying “you cannot be busy all the time and [have] no time to guide the child. You have to make it [a] point – for the benefit of the child’s learning”. A further role was for teachers to manage transitions for the children when they change from one class to another. Pei Ting was pleased that her children’s teacher would “normally [have] this transition period. So, she will [give guidance to] the young teachers in the class” in order to help the children and parents adapt to the new teacher. There was thus a range of positional and personal expectations from both parents and teachers on teachers performing the role of a multi-faceted professional. For the most part, parents were satisfied with the teacher’s professionalism in being fair and not prejudiced in dealing with the children, as well as in maintaining high Kathryn Ang, Clorinda Panebianco and Albi Odendaal 59 levels of self-control and emotional stability. In addition, parents felt that the teachers were fulfilling their role as good presenters functionally and meeting both positional and personal expectations by giving clear explanations and adapting programmes to meet the needs of the children, and by being patient and passionate about teaching the children. Teachers felt that they were meeting the parents’ positional expectations by performing the role of a facilitator, which required teachers to coordinate, communicate and connect with the parents. However, parents had different positional expectations on the teacher’s role as a facilitator, as they were more concerned about whether the teacher was merely a facilitator or whether the responsibility for the child’s learning outcomes should fall solely on the teacher. In addition, teachers felt that they were meeting the parents’ positional expectations by educating the parents along with their child during the group music lessons. Parents expressed a similar sentiment that their expectations were being met as they were learning together with their children during the classes. Furthermore, teachers also felt that they were educating the parents by helping them in their time management in order to find the time to guide their children. One parent had a positive experience when a teacher managed the transition for both the children and the parents when there was a need to change classes. It is therefore clear that there is a range of perspectives within each role and that the roles are always being negotiated. Music Teacher as an Authority on Music Education Teresa stressed the importance of having the trust and respect of the parents while teaching their children. With these values in place, she felt empowered to teach. In discussing how to manage a demanding parent, she added “I don't want any parent to tell me what to do, because … [I will] lose the respect of other parents [if]I give in to the demands of the parent”. Teresa felt that it was necessary to assert her authority in the area of teaching and stated that “as a teacher I must remember that I should not try to please everyone. I think it is all for the good of the child”. Tina strongly felt that she had to be a gatekeeper in removing any disruptive influence from her group classes who was affecting the other children. She recounted an experience of having a child in her class who was disrupting the lesson: “[I told the parent that her child] is interrupting other children. So, I said maybe he is not ready for [group] music [lessons] yet”. Similarly, Teresa recounted an incident of disciplining a rebellious child in her group music class whom she had to take out of the room to reprimand in the presence of his parent. Patricia expressed negative sentiments about the parent in one of the factional stories who overstepped the mark by taking over the role of a pacesetter from the teacher. In her view, it was the teacher who should have decided whether it was the right time for the child to advance to the next level, “because the teacher [has] experience, … and she knows the child because she has been teaching the child”. Teachers provided more perspectives than parents on their role as a music education authority. When discussing empowerment in teaching, teachers stressed that they needed the trust and respect of the parents in order to meet the parents’ Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (52-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 60 positional expectations and function well in this role. They also felt that they were performing their role as gate-keeper by exercising discipline and keeping disruptive influences out of their classes. Teachers also emphasised the importance of asserting their authority, especially in being a pacesetter for their pupils. Teachers were aware of the challenges that some parents would pose by insisting on a quicker timeline, but the teachers felt strongly that they were performing their role as an authority on the educational process by asserting their timeline for the pupil’s lessons. Teachers were also playing the role of an assessor as the pace of work would depend on their assessment of how the child was progressing in the classes. Parents also agreed that the teachers should be supported in their roles as assessor and the relevant person who can authoritatively assert the appropriate pace of progress for the child, because they were in the best position to make the right decision for the children. Music Teacher as an Entrepreneur Teachers said that as entrepreneurs they had to play the role of a customer service provider in order to retain the parents as customers. Otherwise, they would lose the students and this would impact on the business aspect of their teaching. Tricia felt that she had to be a ‘genie’, performing ‘superhuman’ acts to meet the expectations of unreasonable parents. Teresa commented on the behaviour of the parent in a factional story who was angry with the teacher because she had a bad dream about her. She felt that the dream may have been rooted in an existing bad relationship between the parent and the teacher. So it was in the interest of the teacher to adopt the approach of a customer service provider to find out what was truly ailing the parent. Teresa emphasised the importance of being polite and reassuring towards the parent by talking ‘slower and softer’ and using the ‘three magic words: please, thank you and sorry’ to appease an angry parent. Patricia shared a similar opinion that “the teacher could be humble first to [take] the first step to contact the parent and to start the reconciliation [process]”. Teresa bemoaned that fact that certain parents regarded the teachers merely as babysitters. Tricia added that these parents would often turn up late, expect her to give the full duration of the lesson and also leave their child with her to babysit after the class. Pei Ting described that some parents pay “so that [the teacher] can take care of [their] son” while they do other things. Therefore, these parents clearly viewed the teachers as babysitters. But in general parents expected teachers to play the role of a customer service provider by being problem solvers. Pamela and Patricia who are parents of children in the classes for babies and toddlers with special needs, took the initiative to meet up with the teachers, usually after a class, to get the teacher’s advice on the problems their children were facing. Peng Li commented that some teachers are over-calculating with the class time. She added “once it [reaches] half an hour, the teacher will leave”. Peng Li was of the opinion that “If the teacher only does it for the sake of money … that’s not good”. It appears that parents expect teachers to be generous with their time. Giving a lesson according to the stipulated time was considered as the teacher being over- calculating. In addition, Pui Li felt that the parent in the factional story in which the Kathryn Ang, Clorinda Panebianco and Albi Odendaal 61 mother expected the teacher to rush and prepare her child for an examination by giving him extra lessons for free was expecting the teacher to be over-generous with her time. She felt that the teacher should not be compelled to give the lessons for free, because the mother had not done her part in supervising and guiding her child. Therefore, teachers and parents were of the opinion that in playing the role of an entrepreneur, teachers were perceived as customer service providers in diplomatically handling some demanding parents who had high positional expectations of them. Cheong (2018) describes entrepreneurship as “small business ownership which implies quality of innovation, initiative and creativity in establishing a new venture” (p. 78) with the aim of making a profit. From an entrepreneurial perspective, the benefit of teachers meeting these parents’ personal expectations is to retain the parents as customers and this would have a positive impact on the business aspect of their teaching. In addition, certain parents seemingly took advantage of the teachers, who were expected to play the role of babysitter as the parents arrived very much later than the appointed time to collect their children from the music centre. Furthermore, parents expressed negative sentiments about teachers whom they felt were over-calculating because they taught the lesson strictly for the stipulated time. Therefore, it appeared that in some cases the teachers were not meeting the parents’ personal expectations of the teacher, which were that teachers should be very generous with their time by extending the lesson time and even giving free lessons. Music Teacher as a Mentor In the role of mentor, teachers saw themselves as an advisor, encourager and counsellor for their pupils as well as their pupils’ parents. Tina felt strongly about the value of being an advisor and stated that she would help plan a time-table for a child who apparently had no time to practise. She would also involve the parents in the planning and advise them on how to supervise the child at home. Tricia discourages parents from forcing their children to practise, but asks them to encourage their children instead. She would also counsel parents who were “stressed … if their kids didn't want to behave that day” by offering them a listening ear. In playing the role of a nurturer, teachers held the view that they had to befriend their pupils and also protect them. Teresa felt that “once a child is handed to you, you are responsible till the child grows up or the child leaves you”. Tricia and Teresa believed in befriending their pupils and their parents. Tricia recounted an experience where she took the initiative to visit her pupil who was sick in hospital. She also prayed for the child to recover and the parents and the child were happy to see her. Furthermore, Tina believed in treating her pupils as family members. She declared that she loved her pupils and would nurture, guide and develop them. Parents viewed the teacher as a role model who would be instrumental in building their children’s character. Prisha stated that parents who did not feel there was any benefit in having a close relationship with their children’s teacher “[did not] know how important the teachers are in their kid's life because ... teachers also Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (52-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 62 are very good role models for their [kids]”. In addition, Patricia was particular about the faith embraced by the teacher by saying “that if a teacher is a Christian she would also try to instil the same kind of values and have grace and be merciful [and] loving”. Parents stressed the importance of teachers developing good relationships with their children. Peggy lauded the efforts of her child’s teacher by stating that “her interaction is amazing – how she is able to interact with the kids at the same time as with the parents”. Paloma was enthusiastic about teachers having good relationships with the children, as she felt it would encourage the children to learn and be motivated to continue in the teacher’s class. Teachers felt that they had met the parents’ personal expectations in their role as a mentor for their pupils in the areas of being an advisor and nurturer, when they acted as encourager, counsellor and protector. In addition, parents expressed satisfaction that the teachers had met their personal expectations by being a role model in building their children’s character, and by developing relationships with their children in having motivational interactions with them. Music Teacher as Communicator As stated in the perspectives of teachers as a mentor, the participants expressed the view that the teachers of the group music classes had good communication skills and believed in befriending their pupils and their parents. However, parents recounted experiences with other teachers who had not met their personal expectations in their role as communicator. Peggy felt that teachers have to be approachable in order for parents to be more involved in their children’s education. She added that this would discourage ‘helicopter’ parenting, where the parent merely hovers around but does not communicate with the teacher or the children on their progress in learning. She concluded by stating “that is why it's important to have that three-way communication with the kid, the teacher and the parent”. Prisha stressed that teachers should maintain a relationship with parents as they have a very important role to play in keeping the parents informed about what is happening to the child. In responding to a factional story where the teacher informed the parent by a text message that she would be transferring her child to a group class from her one-on-one setting, Pui Li and Pei Ting felt that the teacher should have spoken to the parent “face to face” in order to avoid any misunderstanding. Pui Li added that it was vital to have “open communication”. Clearly, this situation pointed to a weakness in the relationship between the parent and the teacher. Parents valued having teachers as friends in order to communicate freely with them. Prisha regards her child’s teacher firstly as a teacher and secondly as a friend. Pamela expressed a similar sentiment in thinking of her child’s teacher as a friend. She added that she would express her appreciation to her on special occasions such as teachers’ day and Christmas day. Patricia commented that in the factional story where the mother did whatever it took for her daughter to continue lessons with the teacher, the basis of her decision was that the mother and the teacher had become friends and were willing to help each other out. Paloma valued Kathryn Ang, Clorinda Panebianco and Albi Odendaal 63 having her child’s teacher as a friend as it would improve understanding and they would be able to ‘discuss every problem together’. She strongly believed that this would be beneficial for her child. There was a range of responses from the parents on the teachers’ role as communicator. Some parents found that teachers who were less approachable did not meet their expectations as communicators. Furthermore, parents felt that some teachers did not make a point of keeping the parents informed of their children’s progress. Parents expressed dissatisfaction with teachers who did not make the effort to have a ‘face-to-face’ meeting with the parents on important issues as they did not meet their personal expectations. For some parents, building a friendship with the teacher was the basis of the teacher performing her role as communicator. Some teachers in the group music classes had clearly built friendships with the parents, but some did not, as stated by the parents. Discussion The results of this collective case study draw special attention to the expectations participants have of teachers’ roles in group music lessons – as multi-faceted professionals, authorities on music, entrepreneurs, mentors and communicators. It should be emphasized that these roles are not fixed and pre-determined role categories, but rather that they are negotiated and dependent on interaction between the role players (Turner, 2002). As such these labels are not normative but descriptive and present a picture of a fluid reality. There may be interpersonal conflict between the teachers and parents because they have different perceptions of the roles teachers play. Furthermore, there may even be an aspect of intrapersonal role conflict for the teacher in trying to strike a fine balance between playing the various roles. For example, in a literature review on musician/performer role conflicts, Miksza (2007) discusses that pre-service music teachers may experience role conflicts in trying to understand their identity in playing both roles. We will now consider these results through the theoretical lens of role theory, which applies the principles of functionality, representationality and tenability in understanding role differentiation (Turner, 2002). In keeping with the principle of functionality, there is a clear understanding of responsibilities and collaboration between parties, and because of this collaboration, “roles are constantly modified for greater apparent effectiveness” (Turner, 2002, p. 252). For example, teachers adapted their roles as professionals and mentors (see also Ballantyne et al., 2012; Dwyer, 2015; Leong, 2008) for better outcomes in teaching. As professionals, teachers felt they were regularly modifying their role as good presenters in order to be more effective by incorporating the education of parents into the planning and execution of the group music lessons. This was shown in the explanations that teachers gave prior to an activity during the lesson to help the parents understand why the programme was structured in that particular way. Furthermore, parents showed a clear appreciation of teachers who were flexible in their teaching, as the teachers were willing to modify their role as good presenters by adapting their programmes to suit the needs of the children, especially pertaining Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (52-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 64 to the challenges faced by children with special needs. In addition, a teacher went beyond the expectations of a parent by modifying her role as a professional to include managing the transitions for the children when they changed from one class to another. This led to smooth and effective transitions for both the parents and the children. As mentor, teachers were always flexible in their role as an advisor in guiding parents on managing their children’s time-tables and supervision of practice. The guidance from the teachers led to parents being more effective in making music part of their children’s lives at home. Teachers also went beyond parents’ personal expectations as mentors by modifying their role as nurturer in being willing to befriend their pupils, protect and also pray for them. As a result, both the parents and their children were comfortable with these teachers. However, parents also felt that some teachers did not fully meet their role expectations as communicators (see also Lueder, 2000; Miretzky, 2004), because there was insufficient interaction between the teachers and the parents to build a friendship. As there seems to be a lack of clarity on what the role represents, this perspective can be viewed in terms of the principle of representationality, where roles “become vehicles for conveying certain images (representationality) and are framed and reframed in relation to what they are seen to represent” (Turner, 2002, p. 252). It was found that some parents did not feel comfortable about approaching certain teachers, possibly because of the image they had of these teachers. Therefore, teachers need to be aware of the image they represent to the parents and the resulting tensions that may occur between both parties. In keeping with the principle of representationality, teachers could reframe the image they project by initiating open conversations with the parents and being more interactive with them. From the perspective of tenability, Turner (2002) explains that “roles are subject to continuous tension to supply a tenable balance of benefits to costs for role incumbents, limited by the power and resources of those incumbents” (2002, p. 252). There was a marked difference in the way that the participants viewed costs and benefits when they discussed group teaching compared with when they discussed one-on-one teaching. This could be a result of parents being more focused in the group context on the children’s wellbeing and learning outcomes, and less concerned with the costs, which is a more prominent issue in the one-on-one context. Some of the interactions and negotiations between parents and teachers in the one-on-one context revolved specifically around payment and parents’ personal expectations of the teacher. In particular, some parents were dissatisfied with teachers who taught the lessons strictly within the stipulated time and who did not give free lessons. These parents described the teachers as being calculating. This became a source of tension and a cost for the teachers in terms of financial, emotional and opportunity costs, if they tried to satisfy the expectations of the parents. In addition, certain parents continued to seek further role benefits by having personal expectations of the teacher as a babysitter. Consequently, the parents regularly arrived very much later than the appointed time to collect their children from the music centre. In keeping with the principle of tenability, teachers’ roles are also subject to continuous tension as they try to accommodate the behaviour of the parents at great cost to their image, personal schedules and loss of time for other teaching. From an entrepreneurial perspective, the benefit of teachers meeting these Kathryn Ang, Clorinda Panebianco and Albi Odendaal 65 parents’ personal expectations is to retain the parents as customers, but the teachers were aware that parents continued to seek for additional benefits such as convenience and highly accommodating responses from teachers. Conclusions This paper contributes to the studies on teachers’ roles in music education by showing that teachers are described by both teachers and parents as multi-faceted professionals, authorities on music education, entrepreneurs, mentors and communicators. This study makes a contribution to research on music education in West Malaysia by suggesting that teachers’ roles in their pupils’ musical learning and development need to be reconceptualised. The results of this research seem to indicate the need for a better understanding of the expectations of teachers’ roles in group music lessons from both parents and teachers. Teachers could work towards understanding the positional and personal expectations of parents as that would help them to clarify these roles. In applying Turner’s (2002) principles of functionality, representationality and tenability in role differentiation, the teachers could modify their roles for ‘greater apparent effectiveness’ (p. 252). Teachers could become more aware of the image they represent to parents, and could frame or reframe their roles until they meet the expectations of those around them. Teachers could also play their role of balancing costs and benefits in relation to the parents in a positive way without compromising their role as professionals. This may be due to the role conflict that teachers may experience within themselves. The practical implications of these findings are that teachers should continue fulfilling their role as a multi- faceted professional by being good presenters and facilitators, and extending the education to include the parents; but teachers could also help the parents understand that the responsibility for the learning outcomes of the children should be shared among all three parties – the teacher, parent and the pupil. Teachers who have difficulty communicating with parents could improve on their role as communicator by being more aware of the image they are projecting to the parents, which may be a source of tension between them. Teachers could regard the parents as partners in education and encourage them to work alongside their children with a common goal of improving their children’s wellbeing and learning. Finally, teachers who are facing problems with some demanding parents could help parents manage their expectations of teachers, such as desiring more time than that stipulated for the lessons, or free lessons and extra child-care services after the lessons by “establishing operational and financial policies” (Music Teachers National Association, 2004, p. 1) from the beginning of the lessons. Teachers could also adopt a more diplomatic approach by using words like ‘please, thank you and sorry’ spoken in slower and softer tones when dealing with demanding parents. We believe that this research will encourage more open conversations between teachers and parents in order to help teachers to understand the expectations parents have of their roles. Teachers could also benefit from this study through developing a more focused understanding of these expected teachers’ roles, which would help them in their interactions and negotiations with the parents of their pupils in music lessons. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (52-67) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 66 Endnotes 1 The Klang Valley is an area around Kuala Lumpur in West Malaysia. It includes the neighbouring cities and towns in the state of Selangor. 2 The larger study is a doctoral thesis that investigates parent-teacher relationships in group music lessons. This article addresses the expected roles of teachers in group music lessons, while another (under review) addresses the expected roles of parents. In a third article, Ang, Panebianco & Odendaal (2019) discuss parent-teacher partnerships in group music lessons. 3 This husband and wife couple took turns in answering questions during the interview because they were caring for their baby. References Ang, K., Panebianco, C., & Odendaal, A. (2019). Parent-teacher partnerships in group music lessons: A collective case study. British Journal of Music Education. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026505171900024X Ballantyne, J., Kerchner, J. L., & Aróstegui, J. L. (2012). Developing music teacher identities: An international multi-site study. International Journal of Music Education, 30(3), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761411433720 Biddle, B. J. (1979). Role theory: Expectations, identities, and behaviors. New York, NY: Academic Press. Bouij, C. (2004). Two theoretical perspectives on the socialization of music teachers. Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education, 3(3), 1–14. http://act.maygroup.org/articles/Bouij3_3.pdf Bukantaitė, D., & Kubiliūtė, M. (2015). Factors which motivate music teachers’ training in their working environment. Applied Research in Health & Social Sciences: Interface & Interaction / Sveikatos Ir Socialiniu Mokslu Taikomieji Tyrimai: Sandura Ir Saveika, 12(1), 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1515/arhss-2015-0004 Cain, T. (1985). Teacher as guide: The teacher’s role in the secondary school music lesson. British Journal of Music Education, 2(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265051700004575 Cheong, K. W. (2018). Understanding the pull motivations of Malaysian women music teachers as music entrepreneurs. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 78-99. Cramer, K. M., Million, E., & Perreault, L. A. (2002). Perceptions of musicians: Gender stereotypes and social role theory’. Psychology of Music 30 (2), 164–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735602302003 Creech, A. (2009). Teacher-pupil-parent triads: A typology of interpersonal interaction in the context of learning a musical instrument. Musicae Scientiae, 13(2), 387–413. https://doi.org /10.1177/102986490901300208 Creech, A., & Hallam, S. (2009). Interaction in instrumental learning: The influence of interpersonal dynamics on parents. International Journal of Music Education, 27(2), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761409102318 Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. Dwyer, R. (2015). Unpacking the habitus: Exploring a music teacher’s values, beliefs and practices. Research Studies in Music Education, 37(1), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X15589260 Fischler, G. L. (2007). Actual and ideal roles of music teachers in community schools of the arts pertaining to community, school, and the profession (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10150/195791 Kathryn Ang, Clorinda Panebianco and Albi Odendaal 67 Isbell, D. S. (2015). The socialization of music teachers. UPDATE: Applications of Research in Music Education, 34(1), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755123314547912 Jorgensen, E. R. (2011). Pictures of Music Education. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Kallio, A. A. (2015). Factional stories: Creating a methodological space for collaborative reflection and inquiry in music education research. Research Studies in Music Education, 37(1), 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X15589261 Leong, K. Y. G. (2008). Love it, love it not: Parental attitudes regarding children’s music learning in Kuala Lumpur (Bachelor’s dissertation). University of Sydney. Retrieved from https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/3993 McPherson, G. E. (1995). The assessment of musical performance: Development and validation of five new measures. Psychology of Music, 23(2), 142–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735695232003 Miksza, P. (2007). Musician/performer role conflict. In J. W. Scheib (Ed.), Roles, identity, socialization, and conflict: The transition from music student to music teacher (a literature review) (44–49). Society for Music Teacher Education (SMTE). Mills, J. (1991). Assessing musical performance musically. Educational Studies 17(2), 173– 81. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305569910170206. Music Teachers National Association. (2004). ‘What a Nationally Certified Teacher of Music (NCTM) Should Know and Be Able to Do’, (2004). Retrieved October 26, 2018, from https://certification.mtna.org/Certification/Explore_Certification/Standards/Certific ation/Explore/Standards.aspx?hkey=67dc5659-7120-4ffc-bf50-c8a665a4ee3b. Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. London: SAGE Publications Limited. Scheib, J. W. (2003). Role stress in the professional life of the school music teacher: A collective case study. Journal of Research in Music Education 51(2) 124–136. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345846 Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. Swanwick, K. (2008). The ‘good-enough’ music teacher. British Journal of Music Education, 25(1), 9–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265051707007693 Turner, R. H. (2002). Role theory. In J.H. Turner (Ed.), Handbook of Sociological Theory (pp. 233–254). New York, NY: Plenum Publishers. Biography Kathryn Ang is a music educator and pianist based in West Malaysia. She is currently working on a PhD in music at the North-West University in South Africa. Her research interests include music education, piano didactics and the performing arts. Clorinda Panebianco is a senior lecturer in the Department of Music at the University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. Her research interests lie in health and wellness issues in the performing artists, as well as music and wellbeing in society. Albi Odendaal is a senior lecturer in the School of Music at the North-West University in South Africa. His research interests include psychology of music, music education and higher education.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (2019)

ecomusicology, thailand, bamboo musical instruments, pgaz k'nyau, sgaw karen

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/163

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/2674

The Instrument as Instrumental: Pgaz k’Nyau Bamboo Musicking and Karen Eco-Friendliness

While the

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/2674/2074

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 68 The Instrument as Instrumental: Pgaz k’ Nyau Bamboo Musicking and Karen Eco-Friendliness Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan Bodhivijjalaya College, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand e-mail: [email protected] Benjamin S. Fairfield University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa e-mail: [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.4.2019 Published online: 15 November 2019 Cite this article (APA): Phattanaphraiwan, S., & Fairfield, B. S. (2019). The Instrument as Instrumental: Pgaz k’Nyau Bamboo Musicking and Karen Eco-Friendliness. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 68-85. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.4.2019 Abstract While the tehnaku, the iconic six-string curved neck harp of the Pgaz k’Nyau (Sgaw Karen) people has made a strong comeback after 19th and 20th century, scholars lamented its demise, many other traditional bamboo instruments of the Pgaz k’Nyau still remain little-known, not only in academia but increasingly within Pgaz k’Nyau communities themselves, due in part to national forestry laws, resettlement and evictions, modernisation campaigns, and an increasing scarcity of, or restricted access to, certain natural and cultural resources. This ethnographic study investigates the various uses of bamboo in two Pgaz k’Nyau communities in Thailand, illustrating the importance of local knowledge of natural resources and the place of bamboo in shaping Pgaz k’Nyau music, ethics, aesthetics, ecological activity, beliefs and social relations. Bamboo musical instruments, in legends and in everyday application, are co-created with help from rodents and insects, lure wild pigs from the forest, bookend human lifecycles, help to confine spirits to the forest and the afterlife and are reworked from pig troughs into slit-drums used to drum up communal action. This research discusses how these increasingly rare bamboo musical instruments speak to a variety of contemporary contextual issues faced in Pgaz k’Nyau communities. We argue that Pgaz k’Nyau bamboo is instrumental in reflecting and perpetuating long- standing eco-friendly cultural practices embodied in a five-part Pgaz k'Nyau prescription for managing ecological relations within the self, between self and other, between the human and animal world, between human and forest, and between human society and the supernatural world; and it does so in response to Thai political narratives that have inappropriately labelled the Pgaz k’Nyau as destroyers of national forests. Keywords: bamboo musical instruments, ecomusicology, Pgaz k’ Nyau, Sgaw Karen, Thailand Borders, Belonging and Bamboo The national anthem, adopted in 1939 when ‘Siam’ became ‘Thailand’, proclaims: ‘Thailand unites the flesh and blood of all Thais.’ Yet the ethnonational label and legal status of ‘Thai’ was not readily available to all groups who lived within the borders of the nation-state. Scholars point to a cultural revolution as the multi-cultural Kingdom of Siam transitioned officially to the ethnically- specific nation of ‘Thailand’ in 1939, where lowland Thai leaders enforced official modernisation and assimilation measures in an effort to civilise the highland peoples (Forbes, 1982, p. 1059; Jory, Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan & Benjamin S. Fairfield 69 1999, p. 338; Numnonda, 1978, pp. 235-236). Siam as a kingdom had never in its history been a mono-cultural society, but 20th century Thai nationalist rhetoric eventually came to overtake and overlook the non-Thai ethnic groups and indigenous populations within its newly created national borders. Even today, when official narratives speak of Thai culture, central Thai culture is the primary referent—variance, marginality, regionalism, or ‘dialect’ serve as outliers that confirm the majority (Wongthes, 2011, pp. 1-8; Winichakul, 2011, p. 33). One can be ‘southern Thai’ or ‘Thai- Lao’ or ‘Lanna-Thai’, but the national and ethnic border remains a fixed part of accepted identity. A step further removed from these regional-yet-still-Thai populations are the often misunderstood highland groups –Hmong, Mien, Akha, Lisu, Lahu, H’tin, Lu, Khamu, and Karen1 – who, though diverse in livelihood and agricultural methods, were typically classed together, at least into the 1980s, under monolithic labels such as ‘forest destroyers and opium growers’ (Laungaramsri, 2003, p. 37) or the ‘hill tribe problem’ (Buadaeng, 2006, pp. 361; McKinnon, 2011, pp. 56-61). ‘Hill tribes’ and their actual or assumed destructive agricultural methods made them enemies of a state seeking to stem the tide of deforestation, and stereotypical narratives had the effect of devaluing indigenous cultures while justifying the eviction and resettlement of indigenous populations living in newly-claimed ‘protected’ forest preserves (Buergin, 2003). Indigenous groups also lack institutional support when it comes to perpetuating local knowledge, largely due to the legacy and history of central government assimilation policies and programmes that sought to, forcibly at times, turn all indigenous groups into Thais (Kesmanee, 1994; Forbes, 1982, p. 1065; Jonsson, 2004, p. 677;, p. 685; Hayami, 1996, p. 345). For example, indigenous languages are explicitly or implicitly forbidden in local schools in highland communities out of the concern that indigenous populations speak Thai poorly. That these ideas are internalised and perpetuated by indigenous populations themselves can be seen in the assessment of Sgaw Karen scholar Esther Dangpongpee, who remarked, We have to do something so that the Karen may know the value of our people and not see other cultures and traditions as better than ours. It’s not because others came and made us lose our culture but that our people are losing our own culture. That’s the biggest problem … In this area [Huay Kaew, Chiang Mai], most of the people are Karen but their children never speak Karen anymore. When they go to school, they never use Karen. Some of the parents, they think we are a tribal people, from the mountain, so we don’t speak Thai very well. So they want their children to speak Thai like real Thai, so they try to let their children speak Thai. Even at home they don’t speak Karen, so that is the way to make our language and culture to be lost. This is the problem. If we do not try to do something to preserve it, the next generation will lose it. (personal communication) Assimilation, then, offers one way of resolving the ethnic dissonance. Another option is to closely evaluate, prove, and broadcast an alternative understanding of the ethnic group—one that is decisively eco-friendly and grounded in an ecological symbiosis of human, nature, and culture. Given the Thai labelling of highlanders as destructive and state-sanctioned evictions from forested areas, culminating most recently in the disappearance and murder of a Pgaz K’Nyau activist who tried to sue forest officials for the destruction of a Karen settlement in Kaeng Krachan National Park (Singkiree, 2019), a strategic and urgent appeal to eco-indigeneity has evolved into a near ‘consensus’ for Sgaw Karen (Pgaz k’Nyau) spearheaded by activists, academics, and NGOs (Walker, 2001).2 Andrew Walker’s critique of the so-labelled ‘Karen consensus’ is noteworthy for problematising the notion of ‘a’ or ‘the’ Karen people (who are in reality a conglomeration of various Tibeto-Burman mutually unintelligible language groups and sub-groups further separated by national borders, adopted religious systems, and customs), as the logic of Karen indigenous identity via eco-friendly practice has contemporarily outshone other modern alternative narratives of Karen Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 70 identity formation. Nowadays, due to decades of activism and campaigns, ‘the’ ‘Karen’ are increasingly known as ‘the eco-friendly’ hill tribe (Henry Delcore, 2007, p. 101). We do not propose that there is or should be one monolithic notion of Karen-ness. There is, however, ample evidence and oral tradition at hand to support the idea of symbiotic relations between Sgaw Karen (Pgaz k’Nyau) and the natural world, and NGOs and activists seize these upon as they speak to contemporary needs and political realities. This study takes Sgaw Karen eco-activism as given, logically extending it into the realm of traditional bamboo instruments to paint a larger, integrated picture of what Dirksen (2019) calls ‘communion’ (p. 47), or the connective and overlapping categories of cultural, natural, and spiritual for above-mentioned political application. Proven, yet again, in this endeavour is a corpus of assumed and shared values, beliefs, and practices deeply intertwined with nature and vested in its perpetuation—in other words, more proof that ‘the Karen’ are not ‘forest destroyers’. Problematic, however, is the steady decline of access to resources (natural, spiritual, and ancestral/elder) that enable not only the songs and stories but also the instruments themselves, which embody deep connections among the varied players (human, animal, natural, supernatural) that formulate Sgaw Karen society to endure. Our study specifically focuses on bamboo musical instruments among the Pgaz k’Nyau (rather than the more commonly known tehnaku harp, kwae buffalo horn and klo bronze frog drum) for three reasons. First, for Pgaz k’Nyau communities in Thailand, bamboo is of crucial importance for various aspects of everyday life, which includes and is mediated by music. Secondly, knowledge of these instruments has neither received sufficient academic attention nor been systematically recorded to date (the principal investigator’s planned outgrowth of this project is an applied pedagogical project involving instrument construction and instruction). Lastly, this research can offer a model for ethnographic data collection for successive research projects, for the Pgaz k’Nyau specifically and for other ethnic groups more broadly.3 Bamboo is embedded, in contemporary practice or at least in collective memory within the two Pgaz k’Nyau communities studied here (the animist site still retains much of the traditional practice, while the Christian site still has elders who have experienced Pgaz k’Nyau culture pre- and post-conversion and can recall and reinterpret legends related to bamboo instruments). We argue that the instruments are instrumental to community relations. Bamboo affords communication, tempers the self, signifies new life, orders life transitions, positions spirits (varyingly, depending on religious practice), and frames the fabric of Pgaz k’Nyau society. The first location studied includes Ban Mai Phattana and Ban Nong Chet Nuai villages of Kalyani Wattana district, Chiang Mai, which are two Christian sites fairly well known for their Pgaz k’Nyau bamboo dance (they have been the subject of more than 10 Thai TV documentaries). Second is Kaeng Krachan district in Petchaburi province, which includes traditional animist Pgaz k’Nyau communities, known for their construction of bamboo musical instruments no longer found in Pgaz k’Nyau communities in northern Thailand (Figure 1). The principal investigator visited this area accompanied by TV crews of two Thai PBS programs (Sinlapawattanatham and Phansaengrung) during February of 2012. Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan & Benjamin S. Fairfield 71 Figure 1. Map of Thailand (Source: Map of Thailand, The World Factbook, Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/maps/TH-map.gif) Research Motivations, Objectives and Structure Christopher Small’s notion of Musicking (1998) significantly expanded the reach and understanding of music from objective product to processual and cultural activity. Such a view posits music as a mediator and reifier of relationships, a tool and site of a social process at work. Steve Waksman applies this idea to the ‘reading’ of not just music and musical settings but musical instruments, proposing that we examine physical instruments not as static materials but as entwined in the process of forming relationships in the ecological sense, signified with meaning and interacting with human, spiritual and natural environments. He argues, Musical instruments, it might be said, represent the first points at which sound moves from a strictly material acoustic phenomenon to an organised medium of social and cultural expression that, in turn, has implications for the ways that individuals relate to one another or for the broader organisation of social relationships (2003, pp. 253-254) Stated differently, instruments don’t make just music. They make society or culture; Dawe asserts that instruments make ‘place’ as well (2016, p. 109). And, as Titon notes, they do so with a sense of urgency in a time of ‘ecological crisis’ (2016, p. 67), which, especially among the Pgaz k’Nyau, is also clearly a cultural crisis (p. 78). Humans are not the sole driving agent in the conversion from natural to cultural object. Nature has affordances and naturally shapes human thought (Dawe, 2016, p. 118). Our research on Pgaz k’Nyau usage of bamboo is framed within ecomusicology, defined by Dawe as encompassing “The study of music, culture, and nature in all the complexities of those terms” and encompassing “musical and sonic issues, both textual and performative, related to ecology and the natural environment” (2016, pp. 1-2) . Dawe insists that organology has been too focused on the product, neglecting the physical and cultural process of instrument construction (p. 119). We seek to address that process (construction and signification) here, and we do not idealise these bamboo instruments as inherently or statically ‘authentic’ by virtue of their nature but rather recognise them as a tool for projecting or constructing useful notions of authenticity (p. 256), even as Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 72 we acknowledge that term’s problematic yet useful discursive applications. Data is needed first, though, and our two main objectives are as follows: 1. To gather data about Pgaz k’Nyau communities’ cultural use of bamboo for making instruments. 2. To analyse the origins, meanings and ecological implications of different types of bamboo musicking among the Pgaz k’Nyau. Methodology The principal investigator led a team of researchers who employed qualitative ethnographic research methods, building rapport with key community leaders in both sites to ensure goals were communicated and site visits were conducted in accordance with local customs, observing instrument construction and performances, conducting in-depth interviews (both structured and unstructured) in the local language and recording audio- visual documentation. The team collected, stored and analysed targeted information, translated the results from Pgaz k’Nyau into Thai and coded and verified the data through inter-coder reliability procedures. We focused on four regional bamboo instruments: the pi-ba (aerophone), the pi-u or u-maw (aerophone), the koe-lo (idiophone) and the saw-tru (chordophone). In the following section, we outline for each instrument, 1. The history and origins of each. 2. Restrictions associated with making and playing them. 3. Their underlying value and meaning in Pgaz k’Nyau society. Pi-ba (ปิ๊บา) Though rare and largely unknown to outsiders, Pgaz k’Nyau-style multi-tube bamboo free-reed aerophones can still be found (Figure 2) in various areas within Kalyani Wattana and in Kaeng Krachan districts. The pi- ba is a free-reed aerophone with seven pairs of bamboo pipes near the Pgaz k’Nyau communities in Pong Luek-Bangkloi, Kaeng Krachan district, Petchaburi province. Currently in this area there are only ten known elders who still possess the knowledge to play the pi-ba, and those who know how to construct the instrument have dwindled to just one person. Added to this scarcity, the type of bamboo needed (saw kgae) to construct a pi-ba is increasingly rare, as is, more crucially, the motivation to play and make the instrument. Political realities have worked to shape the instrument’s demise. Jaw-bwae, 78-years-old, ‘legally’ known as Somchit Suphangkun (as Karen names in his generation were not allowed to be officially registered), is said to be the sole person in Kaeng Krachan left who knows how to construct a pi-ba.4 He recalled, Since we were evicted from our traditional lands (in what is now Kaeng Krachan National Park) and moved down here, we have encountered a multitude of problems: landlessness, unemployment, ineligibility to work, difficulty in the city when we have sick or injured that need medical attention, and inability to forage in our traditional home. It has been difficult, not just to retain and play our music, but to survive. Now, when someone wants a pi-ba, they must go purchase one in Ratchaburi or a neighbouring province. Sometimes they just go buy a similar-looking khaen in the northeast (Isaan) region and make adjustments to it (removing a few pipes so that seven pairs are left) so that it works the same as the Pgaz k’Nyau pi-ba. Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan & Benjamin S. Fairfield 73 Figure 2. Young Karen man plays the pi-ba (Source: Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan, October 9, 2013) History and Origins Jaw-bwae explained that, according to Karen legend, the first pi-ba maker was Koejaklaw, the heavenly being who created the earth.5 As the legend goes, Koejaklaw possessed many of the same characteristics as the Pgaz k’Nyau people, and made his living like any ordinary farmer. Pgaz k’Nyau oral histories teach that the higher elevation bamboo forests provided good spots for agriculture, since Koejaklaw went up there looking for land near the bamboo groves and settled in a grove of saw kgae bamboo. Before clearing some land for planting, Koejaklaw gazed upon the saw kgae and removed a handful of the most beautiful stalks. After the land had been cleared, Koejaklaw set his mind to constructing a musical instrument. He took the bamboo stalks and cut them into seven pairs. The first two pairs were made to be the same length, while pairs 3-7 were cut to be about 2 inches shorter than the previous pair. After this, Koejaklaw carved holes in each stalk and inserted a metal lamella into each space, similar to the kwae (a Pgaz k’Nyau aerophone with a free-reed inserted into the horn of a buffalo). From there, the pipes were aligned and lashed together in paired sets. Next, a piece of wood was carved into a mouthpiece. Koejaklaw tried blowing into it, but no sound came out, no matter how he tried. In the end, he gave up and left the useless pi-ba on a stump in the field. Koejaklaw eventually forgot all about the instrument he had made. But one day, as the season turned and the grass and rice seedlings were sprouting, Koejaklaw went out to weed the fields near the spot where he had left the instrument. By this time, some of tubes had in places been chewed through by rats; in others, termites had bored holes through. When Koejaklaw saw this, he picked it up and knocked it against a stump to remove the dust and droppings. With the addition of these ‘finger holes,’ the instrument now produced sound. For the rest of that day, wherever Koejaklaw sat, stood and meandered around, he blew incessantly into the instrument. People passing by saw it and heard a sound, stopping to sit and listen. Nowadays it is played for various celebrations. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 74 Restrictions in Constructing and Playing the Pi-ba The folklore attached to the pi-ba informs Pgaz k’Nyau ecological activity and taboo. Care must be taken not to harm or kill rats and termites when constructing this instrument, as it is believed that these beings help to forge the seminal pi-ba. The instrument’s manufacturing demands that one have a spirit of respect for the animals that share the natural world with the Pgaz K’Nyau. Musical performance demands one learn not just the fingerings but be conscious of the potential loss of life as well as the contributions from the natural world. Literally, the name pi-ba, means ‘flute of respect’: when played, the shape of the player’s hands forms a wai gesture normally used to greet one’s fellow community member (Figure 2), so the spirit of respect (extending to human and nature) is also physically embodied in the playing posture. Values, Meaning and Philosophies underlying the Pi-Ba According to Jaw-bwae, The ancestors said that every time we blow on the pi-ba, we must think of the rat and the termite, which also played a role in the production of the pi-ba. For this reason, the Pgaz k’Nyau people do not eat rats found living in human dwellings. The pi-ba players especially would not kill rats, eat rats, kill termites, or destroy a termite mound. If they violated this rule, their playing would no longer be enjoyable to any audience. (personal communication, October 2015) The call to avoid the consumption of house rodents also appears in tha (Pgaz k’Nyau poetic oral tradition consisting of 7-syllable rhyming couplets): pwa mi loe ploe due yue doe, pwa pwa loe ploe due yue doe, pho sa khae i toe due loe, toe goe mi goe pwa ba loe. Translated as: Our ancestors did not eat house mice, The elders of old would not consume house rats; If their offspring do not also refrain, Their lives will be cut short, their spirits will not last. Basically, learning to the play the pi-ba involved much more than learning the notes or fingerings. To learn music is thus to learn to gratitude and respect for the natural world. Players learn to take precautions and work with patience, ensuring they would not cause the death of rats or termites. If one can learn patience and proper conduct according to these strictures, he can then develop skills to avoid other kinds of evil. Moreover, the Pgaz k’Nyau also use the pi-ba as symbolic of the ethnic group’s basic philosophical paradigm: unified, inclusive, cooperative and harmonious. For example, the individual’s potential within the community is sometimes compared to the fingers: each is needed to play a certain note on the pi-ba’s many pipes. Every finger has its own responsibility. If you are missing one pipe, or one finger, the song cannot be complete. This metaphor extends to every individual having a role and responsibility in the community, and everyone has value, use and importance within the larger Pgaz k’Nyau society. Respecting, accepting and honouring others are an important trait for humanity, as humans are eco-social creatures and cannot survive in isolation. Everyone has a role, everyone matters and everyone deserves respect (hence the name and physical playing posture for the ‘flute of respect’). Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan & Benjamin S. Fairfield 75 Pi-u, or U-maw (ปิ๊อู / อูมอ) The pi-u, or u-maw (Figure 3), is a transverse flute (aerophone) made from saw khae bamboo. There are a total of 7 holes in it (6 for pitch). If the name were translated from Pgaz k’Nyau directly, pi means flute and u means ‘to blow.’ As for the alternate name, u-maw, maw refers to a joint of bamboo (u still means blow). We encountered this instrument in Ban Mai Phattana of Chaem Long sub-district in Kalyani Wattana district, Chiang Mai, where there was just one person left who still produces these instruments (though there are ongoing informal programs there for teaching the youth to play it, including efforts mentioned in endnote 6). The producer of the pi-u faces obstacles: the saw khae bamboo used to make the pi-u has of late been on the decline, so much so that nowadays it can only be found in one watershed and is in danger of going extinct.6 It is sometimes used to make fishing poles and traps. Figure 3. Picture of pi-u (u-maw) (Source: Chi Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan, October 3, 2019) History and Origins Phana Phattanaphraiwan, 69-years-old, a local Pgaz k’Nyau artist in Ban Mai Phattana village of Chaem Luang sub-district, Kalyani Wattana district, described the role of bamboo in Pgaz k’Nyau birthing procedures. When a child was born, the midwife was to follow specific steps, which included important strictures on the handling the umbilical cord and placenta. They had to use freshly cut, sharp bamboo as the tool for severing the cord. Pgaz k’Nyau believed that the bamboo that could attain the sharpest edge was the saw khae variety. They compared its strength and sharpness to the edge of a knife. Bamboo in the khae family consists of various types: saw khae and khe me are both very sharp (khe in Pgaz k’Nyau translates as knife). Bamboo is cleaner and safer than an iron blade, which can gather rust and can be dangerous in such a delicate operation. Phana asserts that, relating to the origins of the u-maw or pi-u, While the mother was recovering, the husband would take saw khe bamboo joints left over from the cord cutting, blowing through them to stoke the fire for his wife, who needed to stay warm. As he kept blowing, a sound began to emerge, and the pitch would change if a hole in the node was covered over. The father thus busied himself burning small holes into the tube. But upon further experimentation, it was not very loud, so he took some of the boiling porridge (the pig feed) and closed up some of the open holes before blowing through it again. The volume intensified. After this, he simply would not put it down, and played it for his wife at the fireside. He played his new instrument so much, in fact, that his wife began to get rather annoyed and complained, asking, “Would you please stop u-maw/pi-u (blowing on that bamboo) for a while? The cacophony Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 76 is too much.” From then on, when anyone asked what it was called, they referred to it as u-maw or pi-u (blowing on the bamboo) (personal communication, December 27, 2015) Restrictions in Constructing and Playing the U-maw In the past, when one had a child or had leftover bamboo joints from the cutting of the umbilical cord and made a pi-u/u-maw, the mere presence and possession of these khe cuttings communicated to all the fact that a birth had occurred recently. The birth of a child was thus paired with the ‘birth’ of a pi-u. Thus, one could not go out and cut arbitrarily at will just because one wanted to make an instrument. It was believed, in fact, that if this occurred, not only would the pi-u sound terrible but the bamboo grove that the cutting was made from would die out completely. Another restriction held that women were not allowed to cut the bamboo because it would cause the grove to flower and die. Here, the use of natural resources was inextricably linked to and determined by social needs rather than individual desire. Values, Meaning and Philosophies underlying the U-maw The pi-u/u-maw’s meaning, and its value, is birth. The creation of a pi-u is paired with the birth of a child. Additionally, though, while one of its functions was performance post-labour, it was also paired with death and played for the funeral activity called jikli (a bamboo dance where dancers step or hop outside a grid of bamboo poles that are clicked together on the beat (Figure 4). One would hear the phrase, jikli u-maw at a funeral. Jikli is a signal of death, a fate which no human can escape. We are born, we live, we eventually will pass on. We arrive with nothing and we take nothing with us, and the pi-u was present at both life transitions. To play the pi-u/u-maw requires that breath be sent through the bamboo. When one stops blowing, the sound ceases. This acts a metaphor for human life for the Pgaz k’Nyau. One day, our breathing will cease. While living, our breathing produces sounds and melodies, allowing others to learn, remember and benefit from our existence. Figure 4. Performing the jikli bamboo dance (Source: Chi Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan, January 20, 2014) Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan & Benjamin S. Fairfield 77 Koe-lo (เก่อโละ) The koe-lo (Figure 5) is a Pgaz k’Nyau bamboo slit drum made from a joint of bamboo, with one long rectangular hole carved with the grain. A handle from the same stalk protrudes from one end, and a hardwood beater is attached with a string. Traditionally (and still today, in isolated villages with no electricity), the koe- lo was used to call community meetings with its sound, klo klo klo, which is also where the instrument gets its onomatopoeic name. The koe-lo is a struck idiophone capable of just one pitch (though it is not intentionally tuned to any frequency), which is determined by the bamboo joint’s thickness, length and size. The pitch varies according to each individual instrument’s construction, makeup and type of bamboo (such as the wasu, wasu doe and wawa or bong bamboo). It is usually played to accompany other instruments such as the tenaku, pi-ba, pi-u, saw-tru, paw-ku (bamboo xylophone), or others. History and Origins The koe-lo originated and was adapted from the thaw klaw, the pig’s feeding trough, which was also made of bamboo (Phowa Khankaew, personal interview 2015). The thaw klaw would be struck at feeding time, and pigs would come running when they heard it. When the greater Pgaz k’Nyau community needed to gather, they also required a signalling tool to announce the meeting’s impending commencement. The beating of the thaw klaw trough was used initially for this purpose, but it caused confusion (and noise) as it also attracted pigs expecting a feeding. The community leaders thus modified the bamboo trough design into a signalling tool. At first, it was just called klaw, but this eventually morphed to koe-lo. It is now considered an essential item for every household. Phowa, 60-years-old, asserts that the best koe-lo is made from bamboo aged at least three years and perfectly straight. These characteristics produce the best sound quality. They also will not crack as easily. For this reason, most prefer to make them out of the wasu variety (black bamboo). Black bamboo hardens as it dries, resulting in a clear and loud sound quality when produced according to proper procedures. Figure 5. Picture of the koe-lo (Source: Chi Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan, December 30, 2013) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 78 Restrictions in Constructing and Playing the Koe-lo The koe-lo is a signalling instrument, and each rhythmic pattern has a distinctive meaning. Figure 6. Koe-lo Pattern 1 The first pattern (Figure 6) is slow, providing a steady beat that is evenly spaced and slowly paced. This pattern signals a welcoming to all to come participate in an auspicious ceremony, such as a wedding, a house raising, or a wrist-tying ceremony (to secure the spirit to the body). As Phowa notes, the striking of a slow and steady beat is an expression of peace, simplicity, stability, or harmony. This rhythm is used at one’s home or at the ceremonial site. It is not struck too strongly. When everyone hears it, they follow the sound to the site of the ceremony. Figure 7. Koe-lo Pattern 2 The next pattern (Figure 7), a pattern of grouped threes, calls a community meeting. It signals that a gathering is needed to discuss an issue. This demonstrates community cohesiveness and cooperation; it is a sonic abstraction of collective actions such as lifting a pillar, where strength is coordinated by counting off, ‘one, two, three!’ This three-pattern rhythm thus semantically indexes a call to collective action and assistance, a sharing of strength, ideas, and communal duties. When the village leader hits this pattern from his house, every villager at his own home will strike their koe-lo in response and as means of extending the reach of the original message. The pattern will resound throughout the village, and none can claim they did not hear it or refuse a response. This is a sonic strategy of mobilisation that extends to all. Figure 8. Koe-lo Pattern 3 The pattern of grouped fives (Figure 8) announces to the community that there has been a death. Among Pgaz k’Nyau communities, this five-beat pattern is thus paired to the notion of informing all— humans, the sacred, the spirits amongst us, the heavens, the stars and the hereafter—that the journey from haw kho khloe (literally ‘the place of tears,’ or the world of the living) to plue (the afterlife) is about to be made (Phattanaphraiwan, 2014, p. 12). This pattern will be beaten only at the home of the deceased and will not be returned by other homes. When it is heard, community members will proceed over to the house from where the signal has been sent. If anyone dares to beat their koe-lo in response, this is seen as a challenge to the spirits and an invitation of death to that home. Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan & Benjamin S. Fairfield 79 Figure 9. Koe-lo Pattern 4 The rapid-fire pattern (Figure 9) signals a matter of urgency or misfortune, such as a fire, invasion, plunder, brawl, injury, accident, or other emergency. The sound represents an adrenaline-fueled pounding heartbeat, an urgent need for assistance. Hitting the koe-lo in this way invites responses in-kind from other houses; the rapid-fire response signals that help is on the way and helps to broadcast the call. Other community members will immediately jump up to assist, grabbing a tool immediately available—machete, axe, gun, or stick— and rushing off to the scene to assist their fellow villagers in need. Values, Meaning and Philosophies underlying the Koe-lo The koe-lo is an important instrument of community cohesion. It facilitates communication, the flow of information and community response. It instigates action and reaction. If the community members did not tune in to each other, the koe-lo would be meaningless and, therefore, useless. It facilitates leadership: when an emergency occurs, the leader informs the community by sending various and variable signals as deemed necessary. And, for every call, there is a response—leadership is here acknowledged, chains of command are implemented, social relationships are confirmed and order is preserved. Saw-tru (ซอตรู่) The saw-tru (Figure 10) is a bowed tube zither typically made from wami bamboo (called sang in Thai, or dendrocalamus in the west). Nowadays there are a dwindling number of craftsmen who construct the saw-tru in Thailand. Our study focuses on a single site in Bangkloi village of Huay Mae Phrieng sub-district, Kaeng Krachan district, Petchaburi Province. This village claims to have just a single saw-tru performer remaining. The tradition is truly fragile and is on the brink of disappearance among Pgaz k’Nyau communities of Thailand. History and Origins Ms. Suayjae Gwabu (personal interview, 2015), the last remaining saw-tru player of upper Bangkloi, reminisced about her grandmother playing the saw-tru when she was a child, reporting that, The elders told us that in the past, the saw-tru was mostly a woman’s instrument, though men could play it, too. The saw-tru was used to call the pigs back to the sty. In those days, the Pgaz k’Nyau used bamboo tubes, cut in half, as pig troughs. The women had many pigs and would play the saw-tru to call them. In the morning, after the pigs had been fed, they would free them to run around and forage. In the evening, the pigs’ owners would play the saw-tru, and, since pig knew their owner’s particular saw-tru sound, they would come running home when they heard their song. If a woman was an incompetent saw-tru player, her pigs might follow another’s sound, and she’d have to spend her time running after her pigs to corral them. There is a legend about this, too: Once there was a woman who played the saw-tru so well that even the wild boar of the forest could not resist its draw. They were compelled to follow the sound and never returned to the forest again. They were henceforth tamed, living in her stable. The pigs had distinctive features and were the first of a recognisably Pgaz k’Nyau breed of pigs with a long and pointy-head. In some Pgaz k’Nyau communities, it is forbidden to play the saw-tru during the part of the season when the rice is turning yellow, as doing so might call the pigs out, resulting in the stalks being trampled. In the community of Pongluek-Bangkloi, the sound of the saw-tru had not been heard for many years, a Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 80 disappearance that coincided with the decline in sightings of wild pigs. But in 2016, villagers started reintroducing the saw-tru and reportedly observed a noticeable increase in the wild pig population in the surrounding forests. Mr. Pru, the village headman, claimed, As soon as we migrated to this place (Pongluek-Bangkloi), we could not make a living. We were limited in land sufficient to grow rice, so we didn’t plant rice. We saw no reason to play the saw-tru. But now that we’ve reintroduced it, we have noticed more and more pigs in the forest. There were hardly any there before, but now we want to have the saw-tru played more. However, we only have saw-tru player left. Figure 10. Bowed saw-tru (Source: Chi Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan, October 11, 2013) Restrictions in Constructing and Playing the Saw-tru The bamboo chosen must be about three inches in diameter. If it is smaller than this, the sound will not be sufficient. If larger than this, it will be difficult to wrap one’s fingers around the neck to stop the strings. As for the type and desired characteristics of the bamboo used, the preferred bamboo best suited for making a saw-tru is said to be that which has died on its own in the forest of its own accord, naturally, as it is driest and most durable. According to Suayjae, in the past, Pgaz K’nyau would never use bamboo unless it was already dead and dried out, since they believed that if one used bamboo that was not already dead, the grove you cut from would collapse, and when you played the saw-tru you had made from it, spirits would be drawn from the forest into your community, wreaking havoc on the living. Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan & Benjamin S. Fairfield 81 Values, Meaning and Philosophies underlying the Saw-tru An underlying meaning of the saw-tru points to the fact that a naturally-deceased bamboo grove is indeed rare, and, therefore, the implied production of a saw-tru instrument requires patience. Temperance, too, is implied: the Pgaz K’nyau have a great need for this instrument, but it must not be demanded or coerced from nature. A grove cannot be violated simply because humans require its bounty. Thus, sustainability and patience are built into this traditional knowledge and practice. The woman who wants a saw-tru must wait for the grove’s natural process to play out, working with nature’s cycles rather than asserting human will and domination. There is also the aforementioned belief that the saw-tru has the power to communicate with pigs (especially wild pigs). As any communication requires an appropriate atmosphere, it is not just the performer who must have the right attitude of tranquillity—the community atmosphere must also be peaceful. Otherwise, it is not easy for the not-especially-loud saw-tru to be heard from a distance. The village context requires a degree of calm silence. Stillness is thus a form of strength and is seen as a vessel for communication with nature that requires focused, communal concentration. It is a relationship enabled by stillness and attention. The traditional belief in the sonic superiority of naturally-deceased bamboo has clear connections to natural resource management. That naturally-dried bamboo sounds better is more than just a saying. The underlying meaning is one of preservation, an understanding that the construction of such a desirable and useful instrument requires that one pay attention to and wait for the proper season, that one be in tune with nature, with the forest. Beliefs maintain that to destroy one part of the forest has an effect on the rest. Using a naturally-deceased bamboo may or may not actually make for an aesthetically or objectively verifiable ‘prettier’ sound, but what is clear is that the addition of sonic aesthetics to natural resource utilisation results in a reduction of forest destruction. However, this same restriction is also the reason for the decrease in saw- tru knowledge, performance and construction. It is becoming increasingly rare. Analyses and Applications As Waksman implies, a close examination of musical instruments’ situatedness within a culture leads to an understanding of them "as objects that, in being used to create music, also work to recreate the cultures they inhabit" (p. 257). Musical instruments are not just artefacts in or of a culture but operate as culture, an ecomusicological take on a long-established ethnomusicological paradigm (Herndon and McLeod, 1982). Observations, applications and implications of these bamboo musical instruments illustrate that, for this indigenous Pgaz k’Nyau population, music and musical instruments’ meanings and functions extend into to the realm of resource and relationship maintenance. Bamboo and its sonic repurposing plays an instrumental role in affecting the balance of Pgaz k’Nyau society in five important ways outlined below. Before jumping to the list, though, a note on balance (or equilibrium) is in order, lest we be accused of being lured by popular idealistic “nature interrupted” or ‘balance-of-nature’ paradigms that Titon warns are romanticizing misinterpretations of ecomusicology as a field (2018, pp. 259-261). While some of the quotations and standpoints above may imply or spring from well-worn tropes of the loss of the pristine or laments of a triumph of modernity over indigenous values, Titon and other ecomusicologists (Allen and Dawe, 2016; Perlman, 2012; Titon, 2013) point to the emergent scientific paradigm of ecosystemic resilience, adaptability, or “disturbance-and-change” models that are more useful and more accurate when viewing ecosystems as relationships in flux. Culture (a system of learned and shared beliefs, values, assumptions, and meanings) is not stagnant or rigid; neither is nature (and neither are the two cleanly distinguished in the Pgaz k’Nyau understanding). They are signified and made significant through interaction rather than isolation. Both are responsive, and in ecomusicological readings, mutually and symbiotically so. To this end, bamboo instruments are instrumental to reifying, adjusting, mediating, and formalising relationships between the various and fuzzy categories of actors integral to Pgaz k’Nyau society. Notably, the compound Sgaw Karen label denoting equilibrium, tah paw mi law saw, includes both ‘harmony’ (tah paw) and ‘connection’ (law sa). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 82 In the five categories below, it is not musical instrument that acts upon human to adjust behaviour in order to produce a result in nature in a one-way, prescriptive teleology, context-based or not. Rather, equilibrium is a constant negotiation, mediated through and by cultural values and the signification of sound, object, concept and behaviour. Agreeing with Titon that there can only be ‘temporary equilibria’ (2018, p. 260) in a dynamic setting, we turn to the ways in which musical instruments are a part of the cultural and negotiated process of valuing, modifying, signifying and balancing complex relationships. As we outline below, and as Titon notes elsewhere, “Sound turns space into sacred place; it enables communication among animals, including humans; and it puts beings into co-presence with one another and their environments” (2013, p. 17). We frame this signifying and relationship-altering action as negotiating that equilibrium, with the instrument being instrumental in the following five interactive relationships. Bamboo: Instrumental to Pgaz k’Nyau Self-equilibrium Playing the pi-u/u-maw heightens awareness of the life cycle through both its sonic and its physical presence at birth and death. All are born, live and ultimately die. Sending breath into the pi-u/u-maw can produce sound and melody, a sound that ceases when breathing does. In the blowing of the pi-u/u-maw, and especially with the free-reed pi-ba (where sound is produced by breathing in as well as out), there is inhalation, exhalation and expiration. In addition to this, the restrictions on the performance and construction of the instrument require thoughtfulness and consideration. They encourage a command of the self (e.g., the respectful playing posture produced with the pi-ba), and a call to preserve rather than destroy life (human and animal). With the saw-tru, too, one must possess an inner calm and awareness in order to be able to communicate with the pigs. These are all ways that the self is reified, made cognizant and tempered through interaction with and through the musical instruments. Instrumental to Human-Human Equilibrium A pattern struck and heard (i.e., signified and interpreted) on the koe-lo can instantly alter a social space. When the koe-lo is sounded, both the one striking it and the one hearing it must tune in and analyse the soundscape to determine the message being communicated. Community members must respond to each other appropriately and must be willing to help where needed. For the pi-u, sonic and physical presence communicates the arrival of new life. It informs the community of a birth and brings news of a new member with whom all will have some relationship with going forward. The pi-ba also calls attention to respectful social relations in the mere posture required in its playing: palms pressed together (wai greeting of respect) while facing the audience. Here, to play is to show respect, and to name the instrument is to speak the literal word (‘flute of respect’). Bamboo is instrumental as mediating and embodying community relations. Instrumental to Human-Animal Equilibrium This is shown in the restrictions in place concerning pi-ba construction, where humans are forbidden from killing rats or ants, both of which, coincidentally, have an important place in the food chain. Additionally, the beliefs surrounding the playing of the saw-tru as a means of communicating with wild pigs points to this goal of adjusting an imbalance between human and animal communities. Music thus mediates human-animal interactions and reminds the Pgaz k’Nyau of the interdependent nature of the relationship. Instrumental to Human-Forest Equilibrium The restrictions associated with saw-tru production point to this ideal, as one is required to find an already- deceased bamboo grove rather than cut within a fresh, living grove. This stricture stresses preservation, as do the origin stories of both the saw-tru and the koe-lo—both of these are adapted from pig troughs, which shows how natural resources were used and repurposed to their fullest. Similar notions can be drawn from the procedures for selecting bamboo for the pi-u, which cannot be made from young bamboo. Such taboos Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan & Benjamin S. Fairfield 83 demonstrate local wisdom, foresight and balance in natural resource management methods, and they are reinforced by musical aesthetics. When such cultural restrictions are followed, the result is ideally a Pgaz k’Nyau community that does not over-harvest or otherwise exhaust their resources. Sustainable resource management is encoded into musical instrument production and musical participation.7 Instrumental to Human-Supernatural Equilibrium As seen in the pi-u/u-maw, music traditionally was not meant as sound only for the living but was heard by the deceased-turned-spirit as well. It accompanied the bamboo jikli dance at funerals, and it was played at the gravesite in the forest, as it was believed it could trick the spirits so that they did not follow the living back to the village site. Pgaz k’Nyau animist traditions held that if the spirits of the deceased return to the community, they could attract the spirits of the living to return to the afterlife with them, especially those of the sick, weak, very young, or pregnant, who would not return to the living once they left. But it is said that playing the pi-u while dancing jikli preserves the boundary between living and deceased, keeping each in their place and out of the other’s territory. Transecting this human-supernatural balance, funeral restrictions also benefit the forest, as the forest gravesites in the animist tradition (left alone due to the divide between the living and the supernatural) become nurseries for wild plants and animals, unobstructed by humans and preserved as sacred ecosystems left to their own devices. This and other blurred boundaries above indicate that categories above are not especially rigid but are in fact interactive and co-dependent—here, the human-spiritual relations affect the forest, which in turn has benefits for wild animals that interact with humans and so on.8 Thus, the five categories collectively and collaboratively integrate communities, the self, the natural world and the supernatural, and bamboo musical instruments play a clear role in facilitating this process for the Pgaz k’Nyau. The ‘meanings’ of the musical instruments are thus not necessarily underlying or inherent but rather become emergent and observable through processual interaction and application (Tan, 2014, p. 323). Labels may be necessary, but they are certainly not fixed. Conclusion Bamboo instruments and musical practice confirm eco-aware Karen values at work, for internal and external purposes. The ‘eco-friendly Karen’ label attributed to and claimed by Pgaz k’Nyau artists, activists and academics (Phattanaphraiwan, 2011, pp. v-vii) is a powerful and necessary trope, given national narratives that within living memory (and uninformed contemporary stereotypes) painted all ‘hill tribes’ (chao khao) as problematic forest destroyers encroaching upon and degrading national forests (Buadaeng, 2006, pp. 371- 375). Pgaz k’Nyau bamboo instruments and the cultural value added to or gained from interaction with endangered groves reinforce notions of a responsive and non-threatening ethnic (agri)cultural behaviour. Waskman notes that instruments don’t “have” built-in authenticity but rather are positional means for lending, constructing, or projecting messages that afford agency (p. 256). To lose these bamboo groves, instruments, and elders with expert knowledge is to lose the tangible evidence and practice of claimed Pgaz k’Nyau sustainability and symbiosis. And to be a “forest destroyer” is to be an enemy of or problem to the Thai state and Royal Forestry Department, which have taken aggressive action in evicting non-Thai ‘squatters’ from government lands (Buergin, 2003; Forsyth and Walker, 2008, p. 48). Thus, maintaining, confirming, and projecting an image of the Pgaz k’Nyau eco-friendly tradition has internal and external, political and material and abstract and concrete implications for the Pgaz k’Nyau in Thailand. Bamboo instruments place their makers (within an eco-friendly label and discourse) and make the place. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 84 Endnotes 1 ‘The’ Karen are a really multi-factioned, or ‘highly plural’ society (South, 2007, p. 56), a conglomeration of peoples divided into sub-groups, dialects, and even through religious practice. Hinton (1983) famously framed the discussion as one of existence: is there, in fact, such a group? This paper covers but one part of a complex amalgamation: the ‘Sgaw Karen’ in Thailand, who call themselves ‘Pgaz k’Nyau’ (a term meaning ‘human’). This particular spelling comes from the Catholic Romanised script (final consonants are not pronounced and refer to tones). 2 Various news outlets and NGOs drew attention to the disappearance of Pgaz k’Nyau activist Pawlajee Rakjoncharoen (AKA ‘Billy’) who was arrested in Kaeng Krachan National Park (and allegedly ‘disappeared’) for illegally gathering honey. This was after he had brought a lawsuit against park authorities for the illegal confiscation of Pgaz k’Nyau homes and property in the park. The joint statement by American NGO Cultural Survival, the Network for Indigenous Peoples in Thailand and Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact can be read at https://www.culturalsurvival.org/sites/default/files/media/thailandupr-sep2015-final_0.pdf. Pgaz k’Nyau villagers brought a case against the park authorities, who cited government ownership of the land, evicted the Pgaz k’Nyau and burned their homes and belongings. The case was brought to court in 2016, where judges levied a fine on the park officials for not removing the belongings before burning the houses down but otherwise affirmed that the eviction was legal (Rujivanarom, 2016; also see http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/rights-land-natural- resources/news/2016/09/thailand-karens-appeal-court-verdict-legalizing-th). Billy’s bones were discovered in September of 2019 and at the time of this paper’s writing, the case is being investigated as murder (see https://www.nationthailand.com/news/30376275). 3 This research project was assisted by students and merged into the curriculum of Chi Suwichan’s geo-cultural management courses at Bhodiwichalai College, which is located near the Thai-Myanmar border town of Mae Sod in Tak Province, a college with a student body populated primarily by non-Thai ethnic groups. 4 Update: as this manuscript made its way through peer review, Jaw-bwae passed away. Ongoing in the PI’s research agenda is a pilot curriculum for eventual use in public schools in the Mae Sod area, where Karen students can learn to make and play instruments studied here (as well as the tehnaku). 5 While some claim that koejaklaw is the Pgaz k’Nyau adaptation of Buddha, called koejablaw, this is not the case, as koejaklaw appears in legend that predate exposure to Buddhism (Phattanaphraiwan, personal communication). 6 As observed by the principal investigator, many primary growth spaces (once marked by biodiversity) had been converted to cash crops in the 1980s (Kunstadter, 1983, p. 336), yielding wheat, avocado or marketable products, and not much space was left for bamboo, and saw khae is on the decline. 7 Chi’s first publication, Rao Khue Tehnaku [I am Tehnaku], features a few chapters devoted to conservational measures in tehnaku construction, i.e. where specific trees are preferred (best are those naturally deceased and already dried-out). If living trees are to be cut down, they should be cut at knee-height so that buds can sprout from them again. To cut it at ankle-level is unsustainable and a violation of this human-forest relationship, as the forest sustains human life (2011, pp. 101-102). A modern rationale for this, too, is in direct response to Thai authorities who accused the Karen of being forest destroyers. By pointing to deep-held musical traditions and instrument manufacturing procedures, the argument can be made for an eco-friendly tradition that specifically encodes environmental preservation into cultural practice (see Fairfield, 2013) 8 This relationship between the Pgaz k’Nyau self and various others is mediated by bamboo non-musically, too. After a child is born, his or her umbilical cord will be placed inside a bamboo joint, which is then tied to a tree. The tree can never be cut down and is paired with the human for life. References Allen, A. and Dawe, K. (Eds). (2016). Current directions in ecomusicology: Music, culture, nature. New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315752938 Buergin, R. (2003). Trapped in environmental discourse and the politics of exclusion: Karen in the Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary in the context of forest and hill tribe policies in Thailand. In Claudio O. Delang (ed.), Living at the edge of Thai society: The Karen in the highlands of northern Thailand. London: Routledge Curzon. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203356456 Kesmanee, C. (1994). Dubious development concepts in the Thai highlands: The chao khao in transition. Law & Society review, 28(3), 673-686. https://doi.org/10.2307/3054088 Dawe, K. (2016). Materials matter: Towards a political ecology of musical instrument making. In Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe (Eds.), Current directions in ecomusicology: Music, culture, nature. New York, NY: Routledge. Delcore, H. (2007). The racial distribution of privilege in a Thai national park. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 38(1), 83-105. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022463406000944 Suwichan Phatthanaphraiwan & Benjamin S. Fairfield 85 Dirksen, Rebecca. (2019). Haiti's drums and trees: Facing loss of the sacred. Ethnomusicology 63(1), 43-77. https://doi.org/10.5406/ethnomusicology.63.1.0043 Fairfield, B. (2013). I am Tenaku: The reification and textuality of “Chi” Suwichan’s Karen harp. Ethnomusicology Review 18. https://www.ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu/journal/volume/18/piece/697 Forbes, A. (1982). Thailand’s Muslim minorities: Assimilation, secession, or coexistence? Asian survey, 22(1), 1056- 1073. https://doi.org/10.1525/as.1982.22.11.01p0424w Forsyth, T. & Walker, A. (2008). Forest guardians, forest destroyers: The politics of environmental knowledge in northern Thailand. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Jonsson, H. (Autumn 2004). Mien alter-natives in Thai modernity. Anthropological quarterly, 77(4), 673-704. https://doi.org/10.1353/anq.2004.0056 Jory, P. (1999). Political decentralization and the resurgence of regional identities in Thailand. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 34(4), 337-352. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1839-4655.1999.tb01084.x Hayami, Y. (1996). Karen tradition according to Christ or Buddha: The implications of multiple reinterpretations for a minority ethnic group in Thailand. Journal of southeast Asian studies, 27(2), 334-349. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022463400021093 Hinton, P. (1983). Do the Karen really exist? In John McKinnon and Wanat Bhruksasri (Eds.), Highlanders of Thailand. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Herndon, M. and McLeod, N. (1982). Music as culture, 2nd ed. Darby, PA: Norwood Editions. Kunstadter, P. (1983). Karen agro-forestry: Processes, functions, and implications for socio-economic, demographic, and environmental change in northern Thailand. Mountain research and development, 3(4), 326-337. https://doi.org/10.2307/3673036 Buadaeng, K. (2006). The rise and fall of the Tribal Research Institute (TRI): ‘Hill Tribe’ policy and studies in Thailand. Southeast Asian studies, 44(3), 359-384. McKinnon, K.. (2011). Development of professionals in northern Thailand: Hope, politics and practice. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. Singkiree, N. (6 September 2019). Park official told to blame boss for Billy’s death. Bangkok Post. https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/1744429/park-official-told-to-blame-boss-for-billys-death. Odochao, J., Nakashima, D., and Vaddhanaphuti, C. (2006). An education rooted in two worlds: The Karen of northern Thailand. International social science journal, 58(187), 117-120. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468- 2451.2006.00608.x Perlman, M. (2012). Ecology and ethno/musicology: The metaphorical, the representational, and the literal. Ecomusicology newsletter 1(2), 15-21. Laungaramsri, P. (2003). Constructing marginality: The ‘Hill Tribe’ Karen and their shifting locations within Thai state and public perspectives. In Claudio O. Delang, Editor, Living at the edge of Thai society: The Karen in the highlands of northern Thailand. New York: Routledge. Rujivanarom, P. (7 September, 2016). Court rules in favour of national parks department in Kaeng Krachan encroachment case. The Nation. Small, C. (1998). Musicking: The meanings of performing and listening. Wesleyan University Press. South, A. (2007). Karen nationalist communities: The “problem” of diversity. Contemporary Southeast Asia 29(1), 2007. Wongthes, S. (2011) The musical ancestors of Thai music in Suwannaphum. In Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan (Chi), Phleng tawng haam khawng Pgaz k’Nyau. Bangkok: Santisiri Press. Phattanaphraiwan,S (“Chi”). (2014). Phleng tawng haam khawng Pgaz k’Nyau [Forbidden Songs of the Pgaz K’Nyau]. Bangkok: Santisiri Press. Phattanaphraiwan,S (“Chi”). (2011). Rao khue tehnaku [I am tehnaku]. Chiang Mai: Lanna Media Productions. Tan, G. (2014). An ecology of religiosity: Re-emphasizing relationships between humans and nonhumans. Journal for the study of religion, nature and culture 8(3), 307-28. https://doi.org/10.1558/jsrnc.v8i3.307 Numnonda, T. (1978). Pibulsongkram’s Thai nation-building programme during the Japanese military presence, 1941- 1945. Journal of southeast Asian studies, 9(2), 234-247. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022463400009760 Winichakul, T. (2011). Siam’s colonial conditions and the birth of Thai history. In Volker Grabowsky, Editor, Southeast Asian historiography unravelling the myths: Essays in honour of Barend Jan Terwiel. Bangkok: River Books. Titon, J.T (2018). Afterword: Ecomusicology and the problems in ecology. MUSICultures 45(1&2), 255-264. Titon, J.T. (2016). Why Thoreau? In Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe (Eds.), Current directions in ecomusicology: Music, culture, nature. New York, NY: Routledge. Titon, J.T.. (2013). The nature of ecomusicology. Musica e Cultura: Revista da ABET 8(1), 8-18. Walker, A. (September 2001). The ‘Karen Consensus’: Ethnic politics and resource-use legitimacy in northern Thailand. Asian ethnicity, 2(2), 145-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631360124782 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (68-86) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 86 Waksman, S. (2003). Reading the instrument: An introduction. Popular music and society 26(3), 251-261. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300776032000116941 Biography ‘Chi’Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan received his PhD in Art and Culture Research from Srinakharinwirot University. He is an internationally-renown musician, activist, and assistant professor of Geo-Cultural Management at Bodhivijjalaya College, Srinakharinwirot University in Mae Sod, Tak. He has published two books on Pgaz k'Nyau music, Rao Khue Tehnaku (2011) and Phleng Tong Haam Khong Pga k'Nyau (2014), is actively involved in the Karen Network for Culture and the Environment, serves as vice president of the Foundation for Culture and Environment, Southeast Asian chapter (FCESA), Chairperson of ASEAN Ethnic Creative Foundation (AEC) and recently cofounded the Karen Community Eco museum. Benjamin Fairfield received his PhD and MA in Ethnomusicology from the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. He served as a Peace Corps volunteer (community-based organizational development) in Chiang Mai, Thailand, from 2007-2009, where he lived in a Karen (Pgaz k’Nyau) village. His current research focuses on ethnic identity in northern Thailand as mediated by music with particular emphases on participatory genres and religion. He has collaborated with Chi Suwichan on two book translations and currently serves as affiliate faculty at the University of Hawai‘i Music department and the Center for Southeast Asian Studies.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (2019)

Autism spectrum disorder, interactive music therapy, parent-child interaction, sentence verbalisation

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/163

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1878

The Effects of Parent-Child Interactive Music Therapy on Sentence Verbalisation in a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Case Study

This study examined the effects of parent-child interactive music therapy on sentence verbalisation in a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and was conducted via a case study design. The participants were a boy with autism spectrum disorder and his mother. The child and his mother attended interactive music therapy sessions that provided singing, instrument playing, songwriting, and movement. Twelve sessions were conducted during this study consisting of two initial assessments and 10 intervention sessions. The initial assessments determined the child’s behaviour while in an environment with music and his preferred music. The intervention sessions consisted of two parts to enhance the child’s sentence verbalisation. The first part aimed to teach and assess words through pre-composed songs. The second part aimed to motivate the child’s sentence verbalisation using one selected song and measured the verbalisation score using a verbalisation rating scale. The results showed the effectiveness of parent-child interaction on the child’s ability to focus on verbalisation through a combination of singing and movement activities. The child’s verbalisation was clearer and more accurate after attending singing activities with his mother as she held the child in her arms and together engaged in physical interaction. His average verbalisation score increased from 1.33 to 3, presenting an improvement of his verbalisation from verbalising single words to verbalising three-word sentences that included a subject, verb, and object.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1878/2077

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (86-95) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 86 The Effects of Parent-Child Interactive Music Therapy on Sentence Verbalisation in a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Case Study Chanyanit Charoenphol1, Ni-on Tayrattanachai3 1,3College of Music, Mahidol University, Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, 73170 Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Natee Chiengchana2 Ratchasuda College, Mahidol University, Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, 73170 Thailand e-mail: [email protected] Corresponding author: [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.5.2019 Published online: 22 November 2019 Cite this article (APA): Chanyanit, C., Chiengchana, N., & Tayrattanachai, N. (2019). The Effects of Parent-Child Interactive Music Therapy on Sentence Verbalisation in a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Case Study. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 86-95. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.5.2019 Abstract This study examined the effects of parent-child interactive music therapy on sentence verbalisation in a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and was conducted via a case study design. The participants were a boy with autism spectrum disorder and his mother. The child and his mother attended interactive music therapy sessions that provided singing, instrument playing, songwriting, and movement. Twelve sessions were conducted during this study consisting of two initial assessments and 10 intervention sessions. The initial assessments determined the child’s behaviour while in an environment with music and his preferred music. The intervention sessions consisted of two parts to enhance the child’s sentence verbalisation. The first part aimed to teach and assess words through pre-composed songs. The second part aimed to motivate the child’s sentence verbalisation using one selected song and measured the verbalisation score using a verbalisation rating scale. The results showed the effectiveness of parent-child interaction on the child’s ability to focus on verbalisation through a combination of singing and movement activities. The child’s verbalisation was clearer and more accurate after attending singing activities with his mother as she held the child in her arms and together engaged in physical interaction. His average verbalisation score increased from 1.33 to 3, presenting an improvement of his verbalisation from verbalising single words to verbalising three-word sentences that included a subject, verb, and object. Keywords: Autism spectrum disorder, interactive music therapy, parent-child interaction, sentence verbalisation Introduction Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder indicated by two main characteristics: 1) social communication/interaction, and 2) restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviors, interests and activities. The symptoms of ASD vary between individuals hence the term ‘spectrum’, and begin to emerge during a child’s developmental period (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Children with ASD may have poor communication skills and struggle to interact with other people. They may have difficulty in using and understanding language, find it challenging in holding or initiating conversation while some children are non- verbal. There may also be a deficit in paralinguistic behaviours such as a lack of eye contact, gestures, body Chanyanit Charoenphol, Natee Chiengchana & Ni-on Tayrattanachai 87 language, and facial expressions. Children with ASD are inflexible in changing in their daily routines and they may exhibit a repetitive use of language, speech, gestures, or have fixed interests. Some of children also have hyper - or hypo - activities to sensory input )APA, 2013; Autism Society, 2017; Benson, 2016; CDC, 2018) . Most children with ASD have severe levels of communication and language problems (Trangkasombat, 2007). Some may be able to verbalise words to communicate but some of them are non-verbal (i.e. they use no spoken language or very few words). Children with ASD who are able to use verbal communication may have delayed language and speech development which presents difficulty in using and understanding language depending on each child’s intellectual and social development. Children with ASK tend to use inappropriate words and phrases, use abnormal speech, lack comprehension of language and meanings, and most tend to use single word verbalisation )APA, 2013; Trangkasombat, 2007; Wright, 2013). Verbalisation is verbal communication using language to communicate, including speech and singing, which is indicated in the Individualised Music Therapy Assessment Profile (IMTAP) in four levels (Baxter, Berghofer, MacEwan, Nelson, Perters, & Roberts, 2007). The first level is ‘overall are intelligible’ using any verbal communication to be understood. The second level is ‘verbalises single word’ which is verbalising any one word to communicate. The third level is ‘verbalisations are of phrase length’ which is verbalising any utterances of two to three words in length to communicate. And the fourth level is ‘verbalisations are of sentence length’ which is verbalising any three to six words to create sentences to communicate (Baxter et. al., 2007) . The treatments for verbalisation problems are various including receiving Speech-Language Therapy (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2018), using Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC), and participating in Music Therapy (Davis et al., 2008; Kern & Humpal, 2013). Music therapy is one of the treatments for children with ASD who struggle with their communication skills. Qualified music therapists use music intervention to enhance an individual’s non-musical skills through music activities such as listening to music, singing, playing instruments, composing, analysing, and moving with music (American Music Therapy Association, 2007; World Federation of Music Therapy, 2011). Research studies have found the effectiveness of music therapy intervention in children with ASD including improvements in social and communication skills, behaviour, as well as in emotional, physical, academic, and leisure skills (Davis et al., 2008). Improving communication skills is one of the primary goals of music therapy professionals for children with ASD (Kaplan & Steele, 2005). The studies found that music is a form of communication and influences communication (Gfeller, 2002; Davis et al., 2008). Music can be used to express emotional messages and information in the same way as speech (Silverman, 2008). Lim (2010) observed the effects of music intervention on speech production. Farmer (2013) observed the improvement of spontaneous communication in children with ASD and Perry (2003) noticed the effectiveness of improvisational music therapy on interaction, joint attention, and on initiating communication in children with ASD. Moreover, Lee and Ho (2018) observed the effectiveness of the holistic music education approach using sound beam trigger modes on the development of communication skills by young children with ASD. In Thailand, Chiengchana (2014) found the effects of Kodaly-based music experiences on social communication responses in children with ASD .The results of this study indicated that Kodaly-based music experiences could enhance social communication in children with ASD. Kawinnithiporn, Chiengchana, and Tayrattanachai (2018) examined the effects of music therapy on expressive communication skills in a child with ASD through seven categories including: 1) fundamentals, 2) non-vocal communication, 3) vocalisations, 4) spontaneous vocalisations, 5) verbalisations, 6) relational communication, and 7) vocal idiosyncrasies. The results of this study indicated that the participant increased expressive communication behaviour and decreased vocal idiosyncrasies. Positive behaviours were more stable during music therapy intervention than the baseline. From the studies mentioned, it can be summarised that music therapy is used to improve communication skills of children with ASD such as speech production (Lim, 2010a), spontaneous communication (Farmer, 2013), communication initiation, and communication behaviour (Chiengchana, 2014; Perry, 2003; Kawinnithiporn, Chiengchana, & Tayrattanachai, 2018). Interventions by music therapy professionals cover many approaches from different schools. One of the approaches applied to children with ASD is interactive music therapy. This approach focuses on interactions between the parent, child, and music therapist based on a music therapy improvisational model. Oldfield (2006) described that interactive music therapy can make an environment safe for children and encourages their Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (86-95) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 88 emotional expressions, communication skills, and interactions. Parents are included in the sessions together with their child with a music therapist who participates in music-making and interacting with the child. During the session, music activities are provided by a music therapist including music-making, which can be performed by singing and instrument playing. Activities also include the use of song stories that can enhance parent-child engagement and self-confidence, and action songs that involve moving through a music activity by increasing physical interaction between a parent and a child. After each session, parents also have to discuss and reflect on their child’s changing behaviour with the music therapist (Oldfield, 2006). Oldfield showed that interactive music therapy can enhance the parent-child relationship and communication, and is shown to be effective for children with ASD on verbal and gestural communication skills while enhancing the relationship between children and their families (Oldfield, 2006; Oldfield, 2006a; McIntyre, 2009). To support the parent-child interaction in music therapy sessions, studies found that parents are the primary partners to their children. Parents can support children in every developmental area such as language, communication, cognitive skills, and social skills development through the quality of relationship and interactions between parents and their children (Kern & Humpal, 2013; Pasiali, 2012; Raising Children Networks, 2017; Yang, 2016). Moreover, evidence on music therapy has shown that family-centered music therapy focusing on parent-child interaction improves the quality and quantity of a child’s development. Parents who participate in music therapy intervention can support their child’s social, communication, and cognitive skills development (Yang, 2016). Based on the literature review above there are no studies that focus on utilising interactive music therapy to facilitate sentence verbalisation in children with ASD using Thai language specifically. The aim of this study is to examine the effects of parent-child interactive music therapy on sentence verbalisation in a child with ASD in Thai language using the case study design. Research questions include: 1) Does parent-child interactive music therapy enhance sentence verbalisation in children with ASD, and 2) How does parent-child interactive music therapy enhance sentence verbalisation in children with ASD? Methodology This research employed the qualitative case study approach to discover how interactive music therapy based on parent-child interaction can encourage a child with ASD to verbalise a sentence. Participants The participants in this study were volunteers: a five-year-old boy and his mother who was interested in music intervention. The child was diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder with deficits in social communication, behaviour, and attention span. The boy verbalised single words in the Thai language with utterances such as perd (open), pid (close), kin (eat), len (play), or the name of objects. When he did not know certain words for objects, he held his mother’s hand and brought her to those objects. The boy had no hearing impairment indicated from the medical report, had not undergone any music therapy prior to this study, and was not attending speech therapy sessions during the music therapy phase in this study. Through his parent’s permission the boy gave his consent to participate in the study. The mother was the main caregiver and is the one person who stays with the child 24 hours a day and therefore was the person best known to the boy. The mother had no hearing impairment as indicated in the medical report, uses the Thai language; and agreed to sign a consent form. Interventions and Procedures This study consisted of 12 music therapy sessions comprised of two initial assessments and 10 intervention sessions. The two initial assessments as the first two sessions were approximately 30 – 40 minutes each. The music therapist provided music therapy sessions to assess the child’s and the parent ’s preferred music, behaviour, and ability in various areas such as communication, social interaction, emotion, physical, and response to music. The intervention was comprised of the ten sessions, twice per week, held for a five week duration, and Chanyanit Charoenphol, Natee Chiengchana & Ni-on Tayrattanachai 89 were approximately 40 – 50 minutes per session. This phase was divided into two parts: the first part was provided in the first to fifth sessions. The music therapist presented five songs to the child and looked for his response to each of the words and songs. Then, the most responsive song for the child would be selected to use in the session in the following part. In the second part that included session numbers six to ten, the selected song would be repeated in all sessions to enhance the child’s verbalisation in sentences. All of the sessions were conducted at the Music Therapy Department, College of Music, Mahidol University, located in Thailand’s Nakhon Pathom province. The researcher served as the music therapist, assumed the responsibility of providing all music therapy sessions and used interactive music therapy as the main intervention. In the sessions, the music therapist provided music activities including music making, song stories, and action songs based on an Oldfield’s interactive music therapy approach (Oldfield, 2006). The music therapist also used greetings and farewells. Overall evidence showed that these activities could increase communication skills as follows: Table 1 Interactive Music Therapy Activities Activities Evidence-Based Music making - singing - instrument playing Singing is an opportunity to motivate the need for communication and expression with verbal and non-verbal communication. Communication was activated when singing within groups which was the natural environment for interacting and communicating as the form of communication (Davis et al., 2008; Lim, 2010a; Kern, Wolery, and Aldride 2007). The music elements of songs were evident in that melodies enhanced children’s ability to remember and recall more information and sentences of lyrics (Colwell, & Murlless, 2002) and phrases of songs were a structure and stimulation to verbalise and motivate children to complete certain phrases (Davis et al., 2008). And instrument playing could also provide the opportunity for self-expression and communication (Schulberg, 1981). Song stories - songwriting Songwriting provided verbal expression and self-confidence for children with ASD to initiate communication and verbalization (King, 2004; Oldfield, 2006) by leaving blanks to motivate children to complete the sentences and express their thoughts (Davis et al., 2008). Action song - movement with music Used for increasing physical interaction, social interaction, and relationships between parents and children which increased children’s social and communication skills (Oldfield, 2006). The children also learn sentences that were related to movement (Davis et al., 2008). In this study, singing was the main activity whereby all participants would sing together in a group. The music therapist acted as a facilitator to promote parent-child interaction. The facilitator used live music improvisation, music preferences, and pre-composed songs. Five music therapists’ pre-composed songs comprised continuing and repeating melodies and simple lyrics using familiar words and sentences in the context of daily life. The time signatures of all the songs were 4/4 with simple rhythmic patterns of whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, and eighth notes in the C major key for assessing the familiar sentences of a child. One of these songs was selected to motivate the child ’s sentence verbalisation. The instrument that was played was sometimes used to accompany singing. Song writing was provided with singing and movement in order to encourage the child to express his thoughts and needs by leaving blanks in the songs. Movement was used to Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (86-95) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 90 follow the child’s behaviours using free or specific movement, and sometimes used to accompany singing or song writing. Before each session started, the music therapist gave details about the session to the parent and described step-by-step about music interventions and songs. The music therapist also discussed the role of the parent especially with regard to appropriate ways to interact with the child while he was feeling a particular way, and showing how to give cues and rewards. During the music therapy session, the music therapist presented the music interventions as described to the parent and provided opportunities for the parent to interact with the child by using songs and musical cues. The music therapist served as a model for the parent to follow the child’s behaviours, vocalisations, and actions. After each session, the music therapist reflected with the parent and advised the parent regarding beneficial home activities. Later, the music therapist observed a videotape of the child’s verbalisations and interactions two times after each session, and noted observations and collected data . In terms of dependent measures, the music therapist used a sentence verbalisation rating scale to evaluate the child’s verbalisation. This rating scale was created by the music therapist using the idea of the Individualised Music Therapy Assessment Profile (IMTAP) verbalisation domain. The verbalisation rating scale was applied using three sub-items of verbalisation: ‘verbalises single words’, ‘verbalisations are of phrase length’, and ‘verbalisations are of sentence length’ in order to make a thorough six point-criteria of the child ’s verbalisation. Zero points were given to the child when he did not speak any words with prompts; one point for speaking one word with one prompt; two points for speaking two words with one prompt; and three points for speaking three words with one prompt between each word. For example, if the child spoke his name at the beginning of the sentence but did not speak any following words, he needed prompts to complete the sentence; four points for speaking an entire sentence with one prompt at the beginning; and five points for speaking an entire sentence completely by himself without any prompts. The summary of these verbalisation points is shown below: 0 = No words with prompts 1 = One word with one prompt 2 = Two words (verb + object) with one prompt 3 = Three words (subject + verb + object) with one prompt between word 4 = Three words (subject + verb + object) with one prompt at the beginning 5 = Three words (subject + verb + object) with zero prompts After finishing the research study all information that could be used to identify the participants was deleted from all data storage . Results The Results of Initial Assessment During the initial assessment, the music therapist found that the child had a short attention span and demonstrated behavioural problems such as running, screaming, and shouting. He was not interested in any musical instrument but he sang words of his favourite songs in Thai language. The child could follow the actions of the song, “If You’re Happy and You Know It”, by clapping his hands simultaneously with his mother’s hand clapping as well as hugging and dancing. However, without the songs he would try to leave and the mother would have to command him to do what she wanted. The child was able to say words that came from his own thoughts without being guided from the researcher or his mother. These words made sense in the context of the sentences and the child was able to sing the last phrase of his favourite song. When the music therapist improvised a song or sang other songs that the child did not know, he remembered those songs quickly and was able to sing the last words of those songs . The Results of Interventions Chanyanit Charoenphol, Natee Chiengchana & Ni-on Tayrattanachai 91 In the first part of the study, the observations showed that the child responded with four words that were provided by the music therapist: “kao” (rice), “hong-nam” (toilet), “lotus” (name of a department store), and “eek” (more). He said these words at the end of each song when the music therapist and the parent gave him a cue. The child still used single words in this part but the word that he most responded to and usually spoke clearly was hong-nam (toilet). This result matches up to the mother’s report that the most effective song for the child was the, “Chan Pai Hong-Nam” (“I Go to the toilet”) song. He said this phrase at home when he wanted to go to the toilet which he never did it before. Therefore, the music therapist selected this song to use in the second part of the study . Figure 1. “I Go to the Toilet” song with Thai lyrics (in the first line) and English lyrics (in the second line) In the second part, the child received average points at 1.33, 1 .83, 2, 2, and 3 in the verbalisation rating scales (Figure 2. Verbalisation averaged point). The child developed his verbalisation from a single word, hong- nam )toilet), to (name) “pai hong-nam” (“I Go to the toilet”) with prompting that could be supported by the verbalisation rating scales and observation. From observations, the child developed his speaking in sentences from two words to three words with one prompt. In the sixth session, the child continued to consistently say the two-word phrase “pai hong-nam” (“I Go to the toilet”). In the seventh and eighth sessions, the child always spoke two-word phrases and started saying his name at the beginning on one occasion but had to be prompted to finish saying the following words. In the ninth session the child continued to say a two-word phrase and he was also able to say a complete sentence by himself with the researcher’s prompt at the beginning of the session. In the tenth session, the child was able to say an entire sentence approximately 50 percent of the time and also spoke two-word phrases as usual. Figure 2. Verbalisation averaged point The study observations demonstrated that parent-child interaction in parent-child interactive music therapy positively affected the child’s focus on verbalisation. When the child was supported by the music 1.33 1.83 2 2 3 Session 6 Session 7 Session 8 Session 9 Session 10 Verbalisation Averaged Point Average Point Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (86-95) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 92 therapist’s music and his mother’s physical interaction such as hugging, dancing, and riding on her back, he focused more on verbalisation. He usually looked at the music therapist (who was also the singer at that time) and said song words or sentences correctly and clearly. This was different from the child’s attempts to say words on his own where he did not focus on what he was listening and singing to. The child was more engaged in the music and singing when music was synchronised to his emotional dynamics and physical movements. The sudden stop with dominant seventh chord gave musical cues to the child and motivated him to sing from that point until the end resulting in longer sentences. Thus, it can be summarised that musical support and physical interaction did encourage the child with sentence verbalisation. He could sing (name) “pai hong-nam” (“I go to the toilet”), (name) “kin kow” (“I eat rice”), “aou eek” (“want more”), and other words through songs during music therapy sessions. Apart from that, the child exhibited better speech production while saying the word “pai” (“go”). It can be concluded that the child was comfortable saying “pai” (“go”) consistently after attending music therapy sessions. The study observations also showed that the mother played an important role in the child’s responses. When the child was very agitated, he ran and screamed all the time and if the mother ordered her child to do what was expected during the activities, he would not respond to her. If the mother tried not to be too commanding with the child and interacted with him by hugging, dancing, and letting him ride on her back, the child calmed down and stayed with her in the moment that they were interacting together. If the mother tried to follow the child’s directions using the iso-principle technique, it would make the child respond better and focus more on the activities. From the interviews, the parent also reported that there was a big difference in the child after attending parent-child interactive music therapy sessions. The child began to initiate communication with his mother when he wanted to express his needs. He could tell his mother different words as if it was normal even though that he had never said certain words before. It was easier for the child to speak and answer questions correctly in different situations and he started to speak longer sentences. However, although the communication domain had improved, his behaviours did not change. Nevertheless, music and the interaction between the parent and the child helped him calm down. Discussion Overall, the results showed an improvement in the child’s sentence verbalisation after the parent and child participated in the interactive music therapy sessions. Parent-child interaction promoted the child’s attention during each activity and he calmed down from running and shouting when the parent hugged him. This is related to Bunt and Pavlicevic )2001) who described that interaction between parents and the child created a safe environment for children. Kaenampornpan )2005) also reported that music therapy could support interaction between parents or other caregivers, and children while creating a safe place for children to interact with others. This study verifies that a parent is an important person in supporting a child emotionally as well as help develop communication and social skills. During his study while the child was held in his parent’s arms, he paid attention and focused more on the activities and he also demonstrated clearer and more accurate speech production than usual. In this study, improvement in verbal communication was shown when the parent and the child interacted together. This observation is affirmed by Raising Children Networks )2017) and Yang’s )2016) statement that, parent-child interactions are important for supporting children in terms of language, communication, cognition, and social skills. In the study the Thai child was able to develop his speech production and pronunciation including saying his name and the word pai (go), which were clearer to listen to and understand compared to previous attempts. This result matched up to Lim’s (2010a) study, where Lim found positive outcomes of speech production in children with autism spectrum disorder by using music for speech training. In Limʻs study, the child demonstrated quicker verbal responses when the parent talked and asked him some questions. This observation is associated with Seybold )1974) who stated that singing affected delayed language speech (Schulberg, 1981) and the child showed longer lengths of verbalising in the singing activity when prompts were given in the phrases that motivated him to speak at a longer length. Prompts or cues that the parent and the music therapist gave the Thai child in this study helped him to know his cues and tasks so that he could achieve the expected goals. This observation is related to Kern & Humpal (2013) who described Chanyanit Charoenphol, Natee Chiengchana & Ni-on Tayrattanachai 93 that prompts help children to achieve a given task. The pre-composed songs used in this study had a simple melody and repeated lyrics as discussed in Davis et al. (2008) that repeating lyrics and melodies promoted remembering song information by people with autism spectrum disorder. Colwell and Murlless )2002) also stated that singing a melody enhanced children’s ability to remember and recall lyrics or information about songs. In our Thai study, the results show that the child remembered the song lyrics and was able to sing words from the first session. Furthermore, rhythmic patterns in songs were consistent and also repeated, which is related to Thaut, Hurt-Thaut, and LaGasse (2008) who stated that this method helps participants in speech self-regulation. The results in the present study show that the child sang in a continuous rhythmic pattern when the music stopped at a certain phrase of the songs. The child was able to initiate communication by verbally expressing his needs. For example, the child told his mother that he wanted to go to the toilet by himself which is a verbal utterance he had never expressed prior to this study. This result can be described by King )2004) in that music creates a structure of time and enables the child do the same thing that is communicated in the music. This structuring of time enables children to learn what they should do which relates agian to Kern and Humpel )2013) who stated that using music therapy in real life situations can promote children’s general skills. All of the results can be related to Davis et. al. (2008) that music and speech share a similar form of communication and encourages expressive and receptive communication. Conclusion The findings of this study showed the effectiveness of parent-child interactive music therapy on sentence verbalisation in a Thai child with autism spectrum disorder. The child developed better sentence verbalisation from verbalising a single word to verbalising utterances three words in length. The child gained 1.33 verbalisation points in session number six which then rose to a score of 3 points in the last session. Apart from sentence verbalisation, the child’s pronunciation, response, and phrase lengths also improved and he was able to initiate communication correctly at home. During the music therapy session, the parent strongly influenced the child’s attention in the activities. Including the parent in the session made a safe place for the child. The activities that allowed parent and child to interact together such as hugging, dancing, and riding on the parent’s back that enabled the child to hold his attention for a longer time and improved his focus on music activities. The child paid attention and focused on singing phrases and words in songs because of his interaction with his parent along with musical support from music therapist. With these two adult influences, the child sang words and phrases on cue better than when he played alone. Singing preferred songs or familiar words in the sessions motivated the child’s verbalisation by singing, speaking, and expressing his needs. It was also an effective way to build rapport with the child. Building rapport was important in music therapy sessions affecting the level of the child’s trust allowing him to feel comfortable to complete tasks. After the child finished each task, reinforcement actions were given to the child encouraging him to do more tasks when prompts were given or the iso-principle technique was applied in each of the activities. In this study, designing the music therapy interventions that are relevant to the child’s needs is a very important process. The uniqueness of this intervention is focused on an interactive process through music activities that can facilitate the interaction between the child and his mother not only in the music therapy sessions but also in their home. In this study, the mother was clearly advised and trained about the steps of using music activities both in music therapy sessions and in home music activities to enhance the child’s sentence verbalisation. The child must receive continuous motivation and learning of sentences at home in order that he might be familiar with sentences and to further improve sentence verbalisation skills. Thus, in time the child may be able to use the sentences by himself. The findings in this case were based on an in-depth study of an individual and cannot be generalised to the entire population of children with ASD. Since children with ASD have different characteristics and abilities, more studies are needed to affirm that music therapy interventions for an individual child can increase sentence verbalisation in children with ASD. The findings in this study will benefit music therapists who work with language goals for children with ASD. Therapists can apply and adapt their own music interventions based on the child’s needs including determining the function of music, selecting appropriate songs and using music Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (86-95) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 94 therapy strategies to encourage interaction between parents and their child in order to increase the child’s ability to verbalise sentences effectively. Acknowledgement This experimental case study is a part of a master’s thesis from the College of Music, Mahidol University. It was approved by the human subjects committee for research ethics (social science) of Mahidol University. References American Music Therapy Association. (2007). What is music therapy? Retrieved from https://www.musictherapy.org/ about/musictherapy/ American Psychiatric Association. )2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, Fifth Edition. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. Autism Society. )2017). What is autism? Retrieve from http://www.autism-society.org Baxter, H .T., Berghofer, J .A ., MacEwan, L., Nelson, J., Perters, K., & Roberts, P. (2007). The individualized music therapy assessment profile: Imtap. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Benson, S. (2016). What is autism spectrum disorder?. Retrieved from https//:www.psychiatry.org/patients- families/autism/what-is-autism-spectrum -disorder Bunt, L., & Pavlicevic, M. (2001). Music and emotion: Perspectives from music therapy. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Series in affective science. Music and emotion: Theory and research (pp. 181-201). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press. Centers of disease control and prevention (2018). Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Retrieved from https//:www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html Centers of disease control and prevention. (2018). Autism prevalence slightly higher in CDC’s ADDM network. Retrieved from https//:www.cdc.gov /media/releases / 2018/p0426-autism-prevalence.html#socialMediaShare Container Chiengchana, N., & Trakarnrung, S. (2014). The effect of Kodály-based music experiences on joint attention in children with autism spectrum disorders. Asian Biomedicine, 8(4), 547-555. doi: 10.5372/1905-7415.0804.326 Colwell, C. M., & Murlless, K. D. (2002). Music activities (singing vs. chanting) as a vehicle for reading accuracy of children with learning disabilities: A pilot study. Music Therapy Perspectives, 20 (1), 13-19. Davis, W., Gfeller, K., & Thaut, M. (2008). Introduction to music therapy :Theory and practice (3rd Ed.) Silver Spring, MD: American Music Therapy Association. Farmer, K. J. (2003). The effect of music vs. non-music paired with gestures on spontaneous verbal and nonverbal communication skill of children with autism ages 1-5. Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations, Paper 4502. Gfeller, K. E. (2002). Music as communication. In R. F. Unkefer & M. H. Thaut (Eds.), Music therapy in the treatment of adults with mental disorders: Theoretical bases and clinical interventions (pp. 42–59). St. Louis, MO: MMB Music, Inc. Kaenampornpan, P. (2015). The inclusion of the family members as primary carers in music therapy sessions with children in a special education centre; How does this help the child and the carer? (Doctoral dissertation, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, United Kingdom). Retrieved from https://arro.anglia.ac.uk/550334/ Kaplan, R. S., & Steele, A. L. (2005). An analysis of music therapy program goals and outcomes for clients with diagnoses on the autism spectrum. Journal of Music Therapy, 42 (1), 2-19. Kawinnithiporn, C., Chiengchana, N., & Tayrattanachai, N. (2018). The effect of music therapy on expressive communication skill in a child with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Ratchasuda College for Research and Development of Persons with Disabilities, 7(1), 15-31. Kern, P., & Humpal, M. (2013). Early childhood music therapy and autism spectrum disorders: Developing potential in young children and their families. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Kern, P., Wolery, M., & Aldride, D. (2007). Use of song to promote independence in morning greeting routine for young children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1264-1271. doi: 10.1007/s10803- 006-0272-1 King, B. (2004). Music Therapy: Another path to learning and communication for children on the autism spectrum. Arlington, VA: Future Horizons Inc . Lee, L., & Ho, H.-J. (2018). Exploring Young Children’s Communication Development through the Soundbeam Trigger Chanyanit Charoenphol, Natee Chiengchana & Ni-on Tayrattanachai 95 Modes in the ‘Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children’ Programme. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 1-19. Retrieved from http://ojs.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/835 Lim, H. A. (2010). Effect of “developmental speech and language training through music” on speech production in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Music Therapy, 47 (1), 2 -26. doi:10.1093/jmt/thu012 McIntyre, J. (2009). Interactive family music therapy: Untangling the system. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Music Therapy, 30 (4), 260-268. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (2018). Autism spectrum disorder: Communication problems in children. Retrieved from https//:www.nidcd.nih .gov/health/autism-spectrum-disorder - communication-problems-children Oldfield, A. (2006). Interactive music therapy – A positive approach: Music therapy at a child development centre. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Oldfield, A. (2006a). Interactive music therapy in child and family psychiatry: Clinical practice, research and teaching . Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Pasiali, V. (2012). Supporting parent-child interactions: Music therapy as an intervention for parenting mutually responsive orientation. Journal of Music Therapy, 49(3), 303-334. Perry, M. M. R. (2003). Relating improvisational music therapy with severely and multiply disabled children to communication development. Journal of Music Therapy, 40(3), 227-246. Raising Children Network. (2017). Communication: Children with autism spectrum disorder. Retrieved from http//:raisingchildren .net.au/articles/autism_spectrum_disorder_communication .html Raising Children Network. (2017). Speech-generating devices (SGDs). Retrieved from http//:raisingchildren .net.au/articles/speech-generating_devices_th.html Seybold, C. D. (1971). The value and use of music activities in the treatment of speech delayed children. Journal of Music Therapy, 8(3), 102-110. Schulberg, C. H. (1981). The music therapy sourcebook :A collection of activities categorized and analyzed. New York, NY: Human Sciences Press, Inc . Silverman, C. (2008). Fieldwork on another planet: Social science perspectives on the autism spectrum. BioSocieties, 3(3), 325-341. Thaut, M. H., Hurt-Thaut, C., & LaGasse, A. B. (2008). Music therapy for neurologic rehabilitation. In W. Davis, K. Gfeller, & M. Thaut (Eds.) An introduction to music therapy: Theory and practice (3rd Edition). Silver Spring, MD: The American Music Therapy Association. Trangkasombat, U. (2007). Help autistic child (2nd Ed.). Bangkok: Family R&D Co., LTD. World Federation of Music Therapy. (2011). What is music therapy?. Retrieved from https://www.wfmt.info/wfmt-new- home/about-wfmt/ Wright, A. (2013). Communication in children with autism spectrum disorder-part 2. Retrieved from http//:theautismblog.seattlechildrens.org/communication-in-children-with-autism-spectrum-disorder-part -2/ Yang, Y. (2016). Parents and young children with disabilities: The effects of a home -based music therapy program on parent-child. Journal of Music Therapy, 53 (1), 27-54. doi:10.1093/jmt/thv018 Biography Chanyanit Charoenphol is a candidate for the Master of Music degree in music therapy at the College of Music at Mahidol University, Thailand. She has a Bachelor of Music degree in classical music performance from the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. She is currently a classical guitar teacher at the Thailand Guitar Society of Bangkok in Thailand. Natee Chiengchana is an assistant professor in Music Education at Ratchasuda College at Mahidol University in Thailand. He has extensive experience as a music educator and music therapist in the area of exceptional children. His research interests focus on inclusive music education and music therapy, music for children with autism, children with behaviour or emotional disorders, and children with hearing loss. Ni-on Tayrattanachai is a lecturer, researcher and advisor in music education at the College of Music, Mahidol University. She is also a reviewer for several music journals, and the Chair of Thailand International Music Examination (TIME). She received her doctoral degree and masters degree in music education from the College of Music, Mahidol University and a bachelor’s degree in piano performance under the guidance of Janida Tangdajahiran.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (2019)

long-term music education project, music educational partnership, Thailand music education

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/163

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/2528

Educational Partnerships towards Long-Term Music Education Projects in Thailand

There are many challenges in developing long-term music education projects in Thailand such as human resource development, educational policies and financial problems. This study examined the various educational partnerships and workflow plan used to sustain long-term music education projects in Thailand. Findings were based upon the roles and responsibilities of members and the understanding of the workflow plan of music educational partnerships towards the sustainability of music projects. This qualitative research consists of in-depth interviews with 20 informants which comprised music educators, school principals, and community leaders. Two long-term music education projects were discussed and compared in this article.  An expert focus discussion group was used to evaluate the validity and reliability of this research. Results showed that strong bond relationships developed in the respective state of educational partnerships to create long-term music education projects. The educational partnership comprised proactive music educators, music teachers, music supervisors, supportive parents and community leaders who worked together to provide the best practices for the students. This partnership can be sustained through various partnership programmes, and the well-being of working together. This study benefits the development of long-term music education in future partnership projects.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/2528/2096

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (96-107) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 96 Educational Partnerships towards Long-Term Music Education Projects in Thailand Nicha Chansitthichok1, Anak Charanyananda2, Narongchai Pidokrajt3 College of Music, Mahidol University Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, 73170 Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.6.2019 Published online: 15 December 2019 Cite this article (APA): Chansitthichok, N., Charanyananda, A., & Pidokrajt, N. (2019). Educational Partnerships towards Long-Term Music Education Projects in Thailand. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 96-107. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.6.2019 Abstract There are many challenges in developing long-term music education projects in Thailand such as human resource development, educational policies and financial problems. This study examined the various educational partnerships and workflow plan used to sustain long-term music education projects in Thailand. Findings were based upon the roles and responsibilities of members and the understanding of the workflow plan of music educational partnerships towards the sustainability of music projects. This qualitative research consists of in-depth interviews with 20 informants which comprised music educators, school principals, and community leaders. Two long-term music education projects were discussed and compared in this article. An expert focus discussion group was used to evaluate the validity and reliability of this research. Results showed that strong bond relationships developed in the respective state of educational partnerships to create long-term music education projects. The educational partnership comprised proactive music educators, music teachers, music supervisors, supportive parents and community leaders who worked together to provide the best practices for the students. This partnership can be sustained through various partnership programmes, and the well-being of working together. This study benefits the development of long-term music education in future partnership projects. Keywords: long-term music education project, music educational partnership, Thailand music education Introduction and Background Educational partnerships in music education are geared toward collaboration among public schools, higher institutions and communities within the framework of the education policy. Representatives from the community are chosen to form the board of school committee, and relationships between music teachers and university professors were fostered during music teachers’ development programmes in music education partnership projects. In Thailand, schools, local communities and private sectors have been working together toward the nation’s educational development programme. Thailand’s 12 leading private companies, schools and communities managed many educational projects. For example, Pracharat School, which is in partnership with the Education Ministry, Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of Digital Economy and Society to develop a project called ‘ConnextEd’ (Thadaphrom, 2018). In 2018, the community formed the ‘Thailand Educational Partnership’ to focus on educational transformation and change. During the first ‘Thailand Educational Partnership Conference’ held in May 2018, all the partners from different provinces in the country, as well as those involved in education sectors (such as teachers, school principals, students, higher education professor and educators) gathered to show their commitment and support toward developing education policies Nicha Chansitthichok, Anak Charanyananda & Narongchai Pidokrajt 97 in Thailand. They also shared the problems faced in schools and real-life situations, which were barriers and limitations towards educational development (Thailand Development Research Institute, 2018). In 2017, the government initiated the Thai music trophy award to encourage and support music education. This award was presented to schools that demonstrated the best practices in music education programmes (Jiasakul & Srikhamhaeng, 2018). The music award also encouraged the school’s principal and music teachers to join music competitions, and focus their attention towards music activities in school. Joining music competitions improved the students’ musical skills and the music teachers’ efficacy in teaching music (Tissadikun, 2013). The Ministry of Education also supported music education in schools by introducing an art programme (with a music major) in the high school curriculum (Runggon & Lohitsatien, 2017). The introduction of the art programme enhanced the quality of teaching and learning music in public schools. Problem Statement Thailand's music education has been steadily developing since 1934. Music institutes and departments in universities were established to serve the needs of music studies in higher education (Thuntawech & Trakarnrung, 2017). The highest music degree that was first established was a doctoral degree at Mahidol University in 2005. At the same time, there were issues regarding the students’ inability to graduate with a doctoral degree in music. One of the main problems was the student’s music education background and literary skill (Saibunmi & Trakarnrung, 2016). This implies that fundamental music education needs to be cultivated along with the development of higher music education. In contrast to tertiary education, the education policy also shows some weaknesses in the organisation of the music education curriculum. In the university admission system, the music subject was not included in the national testing and assessment (The National Institute of Educational Testing Service, 2019). As a result, the schools tend to ignore the music subject, which led to less attention from school principals and teachers in support of music education in the school. The music education curriculum in schools comprised the formation of musical ensembles such as marching band, pop band, Thai classical music band, and Thai folk music band. A pre-survey of this research conducted with ten public school music teachers from different regions demonstrated similar problems such as a lack of support from the school’s principal, insufficient budgets and inadequate musical instruments as well as lack of competency from music teachers in conducting the music bands. Previous findings in promoting Thai music demonstrated a lack of support from the school’s principal (Thepsongkrau, 1996). The score concerning human resource development was rated the lowest while the budgeting of musical instruments were averagely scored in the findings (Nopsiri & Gesthong, 2013). According to Vannatham & Ngamsutti, (2016), success in Thailand music education projects greatly depended on the music teachers and students, supporting factors from the school’s principal and parents as well as financial factors in budgeting and providing sufficient musical instruments. This research focused on developing music education by creating educational partnerships in the community instead of relying on the support from the government educational organisation. Research objectives The aim of this research is to 1) identify the different educational partnerships and the respective roles of its members in supporting long-term music education projects 2) examine the various workflow plans conducted to sustain long-term music education projects. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (96-107) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 98 Literature review Educational partnership Educational partnership can be defined as a group of people working together with the same goal or mission in developing or supporting the education system. The conversation and discussion made within the group should be beneficial for every partnership, and there should be an agreement in planning the process of the educational project. The educational partnership should be conducted to achieve the best results for the students. The formal and informal structure between the partnerships could be developed to achieve the education goals (Cox- Petersen, 2011). The partnership of a successful educational project comprised seven key components which are 1) prioritising student benefits as a common agenda 2) having leadership in every level of partnership to ensure the sustainability of the project 3) having a proper configuration as the success of a project depends on the right workflow plan chosen by the partners according to the context 4) developing integration among the partnership from limited collaboration to sharing more resources and activities 5) having an action in implementation towards sustaining educational project 6) having excellent communication within the partnership and social well-being and 7) using the data and evaluation effectively (Asera, Gabriner & Hemphill, 2017). There is no single pattern in educational partnership that can fit all situations and environments. It is essential for the partners to be committed and involved in the collaboration to achieve the goals (Tushnet, 1993). The collaboration of educational partnerships may be extended to regional or nationwide. The differences in rural and urban culture do not hinder partnerships if they form good collaborations. They can share their similarity and differences in solving problems and working together to achieve their goals (Moriarty & Gray, 2003). Roles and Development of Educational Partnership There are various combinations of members in an educational partnership and each played specific roles and responsibilities. Parents play a significant role in the education direction of the students. Parents’ involvement towards the learning process reduces the differences between the learning environments in schools and at home, which further motivates the students to perform better in their academic performances (Oostdam & Hooge, 2013). In the ‘community development model’ (Stefanski, Valli & Jacobson, 2016), successful partnership between parents and community in sharing, discussing and solving problems, as well as planning educational issues initiated good relationships between the parents and educators, and thus developed powerful social networking in the community. In developing effective educational partnerships, clear objective given by the partnerships were important towards the coordination of a project and its execution during the implementation stage. The commitment and support from the leaders of each partnership were necessary in creating trust and a sense of togetherness. The exchange in vision, experiences, and decision making among the partners were the factors in developing and sustaining the projects. Cunningham & Tedesco (2001) state that effective educational project requires time to develop and years to achieve success. The success factors in arts education comprised excellent collaboration among the different educational partners, teacher readiness, administrative support, and a strong commitment to developing arts education among the partnerships (Andrews, 2011). According to Pitupumnak (2017), the music culture, identity, history, and socialisation of the people in the community is an important part of music education. Local musicians transferred musical traditions to the people in the community and created a learning environment that involved the whole community. Collaboration between music educators in school and local musicians are important toward the sustainability of traditional music in long-term music education projects Methodology In-depth interviews related to educational partnerships and their roles to support long-term music education project was conducted among those working in the government sector only. The samples were active participants who were involved in music projects within the three years (2016-2018). The 20 interviewees Nicha Chansitthichok, Anak Charanyananda & Narongchai Pidokrajt 99 (categorised by career and social role) comprised education officers, community leaders, school principals, music supervisor, music teachers, and music educators from the universities. Semi-structured questions were used to investigate the roles and responsibilities of members in the educational partnership and the ways to sustain music education projects. Interviews were conducted according to the following guidelines 1) the roles and responsibilities of partnership in music education projects and 2) the workflow plan used to sustain the long-term music education project. Data collected from the in-depth interviews were transcribed and sent back to the informants for validation. Two cases were selected for the study of workflow plans in the educational partnership to support long- term development in the music education project. The chosen cases were from well-known projects, such as The Yala City Municipality Youth Orchestra (established in 2006) and the Banthacha-om School Music Project (established in 2008). The Ministry of Culture recommended these cases. The criteria of the chosen samples encompassed 1) being active in any music education project within three years (2016-2018) 2) working in a government organisation. 3) duration of the music education project over a span of at least ten years 4) music education projects operated by a government organisation. Data was collected between September to December 2018. This focus group was used to ensure the validity of this research, and to identify the roles and ways to sustain the long-term music education projects. Eight experts were invited to participate in the focus group. They discussed the partnership’s roles and the workflow plan used in their respective educational partnerships. Further discussions included ways to sustain the music education projects in the context of Thailand’s education system. The participants in the focus group represented four categories of samples that were related to the music education project such as music educators, a representative from the Ministry of Education, community leaders and music teachers. Research findings The findings in this research are summarised into two sections 1) the roles of music education partnership and 2) the workflow plan used to sustain the music education projects. The Educational Partnership in Music Education Projects The mentioned partnership consisted of students, parents, music teachers, school principal, supervisors (music), music educators and community leaders. The roles and activities of each partnership are described as follows: 1. Students Students involved in musical engagements such as participating in music competition and performing in local community events. Involvement of students in musical competitions also increased their interest in practicing music without the supervision of an adult. The students learned about time management in between studying and playing music. During the music competitions, students also learned to control their emotions in cases of victory or defeat in the competition. The students’ interest in music were motivated by their seniors who participated in musical activities in their school. The development of a musical environment in the school also cultivates proper attitude and enthusiasm among the students in learning music. 2. Parents Parents showed their support in the music project after watching their children’s performances in local community events such as Buddhist ordination, wedding ceremony and funeral. Parents appreciated the benefits gained in learning music as long as it did not interfere with their children’s academic achievements. Their support was given in the form of donation or inviting the students to perform in community events. The parents also consented to the practice schedule, which may be after school or during the weekend. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (96-107) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 100 3. Music teacher The music teacher played a pertinent role in scheduling musical events, music practice and learning time for the students. Proactive music teachers created long-term music projects. The music teacher need not be an expert in music but is required to have basic musical skills and a positive attitude towards professional development pathways. The performance of the musical band in schools generally focused on its uniqueness to attract public attention, therefore the music teacher plays an important role in creating the uniqueness of the band. The music teacher also collaborated with the school’s principal and community leaders in developing the school’s music band. The music teacher also created a bond with her colleagues to enable them to relent to her request as the schedule for music practice and performances may sometimes interrupt with their teaching and learning time. 4. School principal The school principal played an active role in supporting the learning of music in his/her school. The development of a musical environment in the school is vital in creating long-term music education projects. The school’s principal mission also included encouraging music teachers and other pedagogues in the school to appreciate the importance of music, and to incorporate music into teaching and learning other subjects. It is also essential for the school’s principal to support music teachers to attend professional development course and gain support from other educational partnerships. Professional development is needed for the music teachers to improve on their musical skills in order to further contribute towards long-term music project. 5. Supervisor (music) The music education supervisor played a part in supporting the professional development of the music teacher. The supervisor provided beneficial information regarding the availability of musical events to enable the music teachers to develop their career pathway besides acting as the coordinator between the Ministry of Education and music teachers. The partnership between the supervisor and music teachers contributed towards the sustainability of the music project. Having a good understanding of the constraints faced by the music teachers in schools, the supervisor also played an important role in delivering their problems to the music educator and school principal in order to enable them to support the music teachers towards better achievement in their career development. 6. Music educator (in university) The music educator may not be directly involved with every partner but acquires substantial knowledge regarding the relationship between every educational partnership. The music educator supported long-term music project by providing knowledge and opportunities to improve on the musical project. The music educator’s task included preparing possible music carrier pathways for students interested to pursue in music. The music educator collaborated with the music teacher to recommend possible music careers for the students. The music educator, as a music teacher trainer, took a vital role in promoting a positive mindset for the music teachers by encouraging them to develop their skills and efficacy in music by attending the teacher training program. Music teachers were often burdened with other responsibilities and duties in public schools and it may cause them to develop a negative mindset towards their school’s principal and education supervisor. Hence, it is pertinent for the music educator to promote music teacher training programmes to motivate them. 7. Community leader The community leader acquired the advantage of having a music band in the community to foster unity amongst its people. The local music band represented the local identity and culture, which further contributed towards a united community. With the knowledge to raise funds from governments and communities, as well as create musical events or competitions, the community leader worked directly with the government and local people. Nicha Chansitthichok, Anak Charanyananda & Narongchai Pidokrajt 101 The community leader supported the school’s musical programmes on local traditional culture to develop both the children and their parents’ attitude towards music. Targeting local musicians who are the community’s intangible cultural heritages facilitated the sustainability of music education projects. The local musicians in the community acted as music educators, and contributed in transmitting the local musical culture to the next generation, hence being part of the educational partnership. The connection from these educational partnerships supported long-term musical education project by prioritising students’ benefits. For example, the students gained the support from their music teacher and parents to participate in the community’s musical events that were arranged by the community leader. The sustainability of the music education project in the society depends on the strength of relationship and teamwork among each partnership. The willingness of the educational partnership in the community to keep track of the educational objectives, making decisions and solving problems together further enhanced the success in continuing the music education project in schools. Educational Partnership to Support Long-Term Music Education Project Two music education project cases were selected for the study of its organisation and workflow as well as the sustainability of its music project for over ten years Yala City Municipality Youth Orchestra Yala is the southernmost province of Thailand. In 2006, the mayor of Yala, Pongsak Yingchoncharoen established the ‘Yala City Municipality Youth Orchestra’ project to 1) encourage the children of various ethnic and religious diversity to play music together 2) invoke peace and order among the children in the society, Music educator, Weerasak Aksornteang, who teaches music at Songkhla Rajabhat University, was invited by the mayor to form a symphony orchestra. At the initial stage of the project, the music teachers were incompetent in teaching the musical instruments in the symphony orchestra. Hence, the musicians and professors at the College of Music, Mahidol University were invited to train Yala music teachers in the professional development programme. An exhibition on western musical instruments was displayed to educate the people of Yala on the instruments of a symphony orchestra. The first musical concert was performed in celebration of King Rama IX’s birthday. The repertoire, which included classical music, Thai traditional music and local music made the people of Yala proud of their culture and lifted the spirits of the local people. The success of the first concert created a huge impact on the Yala people. The children from different religions were seen performing music together, and they fostered closer relationship among each other. Parents supported the project by allowing their children to attend and participate in the musical events. The partnership between the school’s principal and music educators from the university further provided more opportunities for the children to pursue higher education in music. The workflow plan to create the long-term music education project in Yala is shown in Figure 1. The workflow plan of Yala’s case study demonstrated that the community leader initiated the music project, worked with the music educator (from the university) on the project possibilities and planned the workflow of the project together. The music teachers from the public schools were invited to join the music project voluntarily and the community leader supported their engagement. After attending the professional development course conducted by the music educators, the music teachers recruited students from their schools to join the music project, taught them to play the musical instruments and conducted rehearsals. The music teacher played a part in convincing the parents by showing them the benefits of joining the music project. Finally, with excellent support from the parents and community, the students showcased their performance to the people of Yala. The community leader played a direct role in encouraging the people of Yala to join the event as audiences as well as contributing and supporting the project. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (96-107) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 102 Figure 1. Partnership workflow of music education project in ‘Yala’ Music Education Project in Banthacha-Om School, Utai Thani Province The Banthacha-om School is located in Utai thani Province. The school was awarded the ‘Complete Thai Music Teaching in Schools’ by the Ministry of Culture in 2017. The school’s principal, Wichian Laothiang, was the pillar behind the achievement of the school’s music project. He started the project by establishing a small musical ensemble in the school to play for their school’s events. He personally taught the school band during lunch breaks and after school every day. Music was taught in a music room, which was specifically located at center of the school to enable every child from all ages (kindergarten to primary school) to listen and appreciate the music. The musical environment provoked the passion for learning music among the children. The children were always taught new songs and they performed for social occasions and functions. The band’s performances were unique, and the children always dressed very smartly in every performance, which made their parents Nicha Chansitthichok, Anak Charanyananda & Narongchai Pidokrajt 103 proud and supportive of the music project. The school was renowned in its band performances, and was invited to perform for community events, which further gained support from the community. The workflow chart to create the long-term music education project in Banthacha-om is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Partnership workflow of music education project in Banthacha-om Discussions Roles of the Different Partnerships Different types of partnerships were used to initiate long-term musical projects in the community. The person who initiates the music project may be from any form of partnership, but should have strong passion for creating a music educational environment in the community. This active collaboration allowed partners to further motivate the other partners in the music education project. Long-term music education projects need strong collaboration among every supporting partner in the education system. The Thailand education system comprised many organisations such as the organisation in Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (96-107) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 104 the Ministry of Education, the teacher training university, the local administration organisation and people within the community. These partners played an important role in the music education system. Research findings demonstrated that the different partnership’s state and roles in supporting long-term music education projects could be grouped into three categories: (refer to Table 1) 1. Active state: Students who participated in the music projects. The student who is willing to learn music, appreciate music and play music. This active state may be influenced by other factors such as parents and the music teacher. 2. Proactive state: Music teachers, music educators, and music supervisors thriving for the best plan and result in the music education project. The music teacher and music educator need to be proactive in conducting musical activities and building relations within the partnership in the music education project. 3. Supportive state: parents, school principals, community leaders and people in the community who supported the learning of music in the community. Parents contributed to the expenses of learning music such as buying musical instruments and paying for music lessons. The school’s principal and community leaders played an important role in promoting music activities and raising funds to run the musical events regularly. The positive outcomes contributed to the sustainability of the rich musical culture of the community and its uniqueness. Each partnership took on a specific role to support the development of long-term music education. The sustainability of the music education project occurred when there is a good relationship within each partner to support each other. The initial partnership of the music education project may be initiated by two partners and eventually increases in numbers. The essential key to success in the music project is its effectiveness in attracting the participation of all partners although they may not be involved directly in the active state. Effective partnership is required in promoting music education in the community. The music educator may use the concept of educational partnership to develop long-term educational projects. Table 1. Roles and responsibilities of partnerships in sustaining music education projects Categories Partnership Roles Active state Student Willing to learn music, appreciate music and has a passion in playing music Proactive state Music teachers Music educators Music supervisors Planning the best actions and the best results for the music project Supportive state Parents School principal community leader People in the community Supporting the teaching and learning of music in the community Parents played an important role as one of the educational partnerships to support the learning of music (Suriyonplengsaeng & Trakarnrung, 2015). Without the support from the parents, direct support from the music teacher may be insufficient for long-term music projects. Parents expected music teachers to be friendly and provide sound advice for the students in developing their musical pathways (Ang, Panebianco & Odendaal, 2019). This study showed similar preferences on the roles of parents and music teachers to support long-term music education project. As one of the school’s committee, the community leader attended the school’s meetings, and involved in planning the music project, supporting and following-up the project as well as evaluating the school’s education plan (Phuangsomjit, 2017). The music teacher collaborated with the school’s principal to develop a Nicha Chansitthichok, Anak Charanyananda & Narongchai Pidokrajt 105 long-term music project and presented it to the school’s committee. The music project further gained support from the leader and people in the community. The music educator, music teacher, university professor, and music supervisor may use the idea of educational partnership to develop long-term music education programmes in their annual music teacher- training course. The university professor may design a standard music professional development course for Kurupatana organisation (a teacher professional development institute, which was established in 2017) following the aims of the national education plan. This organisation is responsible for affirming the teacher professional development course if it is used to promote the academic position of the teachers (Objective of Kurupatana, 2017). The course contents included three areas of professional development for the music teachers such as knowledge, skills, and code of ethics (Chaisupa, 2017). The university’s professor or senior supervisor is required to conduct the course and share their expertise with the music teachers. The course benefitted the music teachers who will be developing the music project in school. Planning of the music project could be done through educational partnerships music teacher, music educator (in university), and music supervisor. The relationship among the partners could be enhanced through professional development courses, which will eventually motivate the music teacher’s state to be a proactive music teacher. Comparisons of the Two Cases The workflow plan of the educational partnerships from the two cases revealed differences in relationship and directions. In the case study of Yala’s education partnership, the community’s leader is able to initiate the project between the community and education sector because of the strong relationship between the community leader and people. Therefore, the workflow plan started from the community leader to the music educator and the people in the community. On the other hand, the school principal in Banthacha-om music project had the musical skills to organise and develop the music education project in school and showcased it to the community to gain support. Therefore, the workflow plan of the music education project was initiated from school principal to the music teacher, students, and finally reached the community. The different workflow plans may be based on the willingness of different educational partnerships in the community to accept music education projects. This research showed that problems related to human resources affected the development of music education projects (Thepsongkrau, 1996). Motivating partnerships among them may solve these problems. The research also demonstrated financial problem was not an issue in the long-term music education project (Nopsiri & Gesthong, 2013). Successful long-term music education project gained monetary support when partnerships were in an active state and the community supported the music projects. Donations from people in the community were enough to sustain the music education project. The findings from these cases are examples of best practices in workflow plans and partnership in organising long-term music education project. These findings may be used to develop other music projects in the future. Conclusion The key factor to sustain music education projects is to collaborate with different partnerships. It can be inferred that long-term music education projects may not be achieved only through educational partnership in the community for good relationships among the partners were also needed to sustain a proactive musical environment. A government music education project without collaboration with various partnerships may not be successful. This study hopes that the government educational agency will enable them to expand the concept of education partnerships, improve the relationship of various partners, and gain financial support from the government. The music educator in the university may use the findings to conduct collaborative programmes with the university, community, school, music teacher, and students. The area of partnership could be extended towards private sector to gain further partnerships in the music education project. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (96-107) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 106 References Andrews, B. (2011). The good, the bad, and the ugly: Identifying effective partnership practices in arts education. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(13), 38-46. Ang, K., Panebianco, C., & Odendaal, A. (2019). Exploring the role of the music teacher from the perspectives of parents and teachers in West Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 52-67. Asera, R., Gabriner, R., & Hemphill, D. (2017). Starting and sustaining educational partnerships. Retrieved from https://collegefutures.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Starting-and-Sustaining-Ed-Partnerships-2017.pdf Chaisupa, N. (2017). W22/2560 Rules and framework for teacher and educator. Retrieved from http://www.otepc.go.th /index.php/notice-lawrule/circularnotice/1892-22-2560. Cox-Petersen, A. (2011). Educational partnerships. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. Cunningham, L., & Tedesco, L. (2001). Mission possible: Developing effective educational partnerships. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 7(1&2), 79-89. Jiasakul, S., & Srikhamhaeng, N. (2018). School model: 100% Thai music. Bangkok: Ministry of Culture. Moriarty, B., & Gray, B. (2003). Future directions: A model for educational partnerships in Australia. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 18(3), 159-163. Nopsiri, S., & Gesthong, T. (2013). The promotion of teaching Thai music in primary schools of the office of NakhonSawan primary education service area 2. Retrieved from http://www.old.nrru.ac.th/grad/UserFiles /File/NIRC2013/OED018.pdf Objective of Kurupatana. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.kurupatana.ac.th/ Oostdam, R., & Hooge, E. (2013). Making the difference with active parenting; forming educational partnerships between parents and schools. The European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(2), 337–351. doi:10.1007/s.10212-012-0117-6 Pitupumnak, K. (2017). Content and teaching-learning process in community music education in Chiangmai province, Thailand. Journal of Fine Arts, Chiang Mai University, 8(2). Phuangsomjit, C. (2017). Establishing school – Community relationships. Veridian E-Journal, Silpakorn University, 10(2), 1342-1354. Runggon, I., & Lohitsatien, B. (2017). Open music Classroom. Retrieved from https://www.moe.go.th/moe/th/news/ detail.php?NewsID=48425&Key=newsSurachet Saibunmi, S., & Trakarnrung, S. (2016). Barriers to Thai Doctoral Music Students’ Socialisation. Malaysian Music Journal, 5(2), 36-53. Stefanski, A., Valli, L., & Jacobson, R. (2016). Beyond involvement and engagement: The role of the family in school– community partnerships. School Community Journal, 26(2), 135-160. Suriyonplengsaeng, C., & Trakarnrung, S. (2015). Parent and teacher partnership in supporting children musical learning. Fine Arts International Journal, Srinakharinwirot University, 19(1), 65-73. Thadaphrom, T. (2018). PM Prayut chairs signing of MOU to promote participatory culture. Retrieved from http://thainews.prd.go.th/en/news/detail/WNOHT6109130010001 Thailand Development Research Institute. (2018). Reform showcase: Education 4.0. Retrieved from https://tdri.or.th/2018/04/ The National Institute of Educational Testing Service (Public Organisation). (2019). Retrieved from https://www.niets.or.th/en Thepsongkrau, J. (1996). A study of factors of Thai classical music in secondary schools in the south influencing the participation in the contest of Thai classical music promotion in the south. Parichart Journal, Thaksin University, 9(2), 77-85. Thuntawech, S., & Trakarnrung, S. (2017). The Ideal Characteristics of Higher Education Music Institutes in 21st century Thailand. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(1), 30-49. Tissadikun, N. (2013). Symphonic band rehearsal in high school level for competition. Journal of Fine and Applied Arts Khon Kaen University, 5(2), 127-147. Tushnet, N. (1993). Guide to developing educational partnerships. Washington, DC: The Program. Vannatham, N., & Ngamsutti, C. (2016). The way to be excellence of secondary school luk thung band in Thailand. Retrieved from https://www.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jica/article/download/99322/77191/ Nicha Chansitthichok, Anak Charanyananda & Narongchai Pidokrajt 107 Biography Nicha Chansitthichok is a Ph.D. candidate in music education from the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. She has received a Master of Arts (Music) in Music Education from the College of Music, Mahidol University, and Bachelor of Economics from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. She is currently a private studio teacher at Sounds Good Piano Studio, Bangkok, Thailand. She has been teaching music for early childhood and private piano class since 2006. Her areas of interests include topics in music education, music for leisure, music in higher education, and music in lifelong learning. Anak Charanyananda, Ph.D is an Assistant Professor of Music at Mahidol University College of Music. He teaches and researches in music education and musicology at the College of Music, Mahidol University, where he has worked since 1994. He regularly gives lectures on western music history, studies of world music, music teacher education and musicological fieldwork, as well as seminar in music research, form an analysis, and counterpoint. Charanyananda received his Ph.D. in Music from the College of Music, Mahidol University. He holds a Master Degree in Musicology from the University of the Philippines College of Music and a Bachelor Degree in Music Education from Bansomdej Chaophrya Teachers’college, Department of Teacher training, Ministry of Education, Thailand. Narongchai Pidokrajt, Ph.D is an Associate Professor of Music at Mahidol University College of Music. He teaches and researches in music education and musicology at the College of Music, Mahidol University, where he has worked since 1996. He regularly gives lectures on Thai music theory and history, and musicological fieldwork, as well as seminar in music research. Pidokrajt received his Ph.D. in Music from the College of Music, Mahidol University. He holds a Master Degree in education (Higher Ed.) from Srinakharinwirot University (Southern campus) and Master of Arts (Music) from Mahidol University, Thailand.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (2019)

kêlèntangan, content, conveyor, interaction, mechanism

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/163

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1801

A Transmission of Kêlèntangan Music among the Dayak Bênuaq of East Kalimantan in Indonesia

Musical transmission is integral to the sustainability of musical traditions. Most literature on musical transmission focuses how songs are memorised rather than how instrumental pieces are transmitted. This study explores the transmission processes of the

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1801/2112

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (108-121) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 108 Transmission of Kêlèntangan Music among the Dayak Bênuaq of East Kalimantan of Indonesia Eli Irawati Ethnomusicology Department, Faculty of Performing Arts, Institut Seni Indonesia Yogyakarta Jln. Parangtritis Km. 6,5 Sewon, Bantul, DI Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 55188 e-mail: [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.7.2019 Published online: 15 December 2019 Cite this article (APA): Irawati, E. (2019). A Transmission of Kêlèntangan Music among the Dayak Bênuaq of East Kalimantan in Indonesia. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 108-121. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.7.2019 Abstract Musical transmission is integral to the sustainability of musical traditions. Most literature on musical transmission focuses how songs are memorised rather than how instrumental pieces are transmitted. This study explores the transmission processes of the kêlèntangan, the instrumental pieces that accompany the Dayak Bênuaq rituals. The transmission processes comprise the conveyor, content and mechanism. There are three figures involved in this conveyor processes— the pênu’ung (musician), the pêngampir (observer) and pêmêliatn (shaman). I argue that transmission of kêlèntangan involves a triangular interaction among these three figures. In addition, the transmission of kêlèntangan generates two kinds of content—musical and non-musical, which requires different mechanisms. These mechanisms include bêkajiq (listening), kintau (imitating), to tameh (improvisation). The interaction between the pênu’ung transmits musical and non- musical contents; while the interaction between the pêngampir and pênu’ung; pêmêliatn and pênu’ung; and pêmêliatn and pêngampir; each transmits non-musical content. Keywords: content, conveyor, interaction, kêlèntangan, mechanism Background The transmission of music is an important aspect of the continuity of a musical practice, especially in today’s global world, where an exchange of cultural elements were common and, among other things, results in the uniformity of cultural practices across the world. Comprehensive studies on the oral transmission of music, so far, have paid more attention to music that uses lyrics, or often called songs, and there is a lack of detailed discussions on the oral transmission of instrumental pieces (Berger, 2005; Lord, 1971, 1991; Maloy, 2010; Rubin, 1995). It is assumed that the way to learn songs is different from learning instrumental music. Kêlèntangan is a genre of instrumental music performed by the Dayak Bênuaq used in a wide variety of contexts compared to other types of music. This genre still exists to this day, so it is assumed that it is still has an important social function in the life of its people. This study aims to examine the transmission of kêlèntangan, the process of transmission among the Bênuaq Dayak people is related to bodily behaviour, and the transmission is related to the continuity of the kêlèntangan. It is important to obtain a more extensive insight of the transmission of music among the Bênuaq people. Due to its close relation to other activities, primarily ritual ceremonies, it is useful to look at the pêmêliatn (shaman), who leads the ritual, and this person’s Eli Irawati 109 connection to the kêlèntangan performed in the context. Pênu’ung (musician) has to observe the pêmêliatn carefully, primarily at his gestures or physical behaviour, in order to perform it in accordance to the custom. The teaching and learning process of kêlèntangan does not occur in a specific setting that is deliberately intended for its transmission from one person to another, from masters to the novices. It’s teaching and learning process takes place when kêlèntangan is performed. Thus, studying the transmission of kêlèntangan means examining its presence in rituals. Theoretical Framework Ethnomusicologist Shelemay (2008) defines the transmission of music as “communication of musical materials from one person to another, whether in oral, aural, or written forms, without regard to the time depth of the materials transmitted” (p. 154). In brief, transmission can be defined as a transfer of knowledge or skills from one individual or group to another. In ethnomusicology, the process of teaching and learning of music is commonly referred to as transmission and acquisition (Campbell & Higgins, 2015, p. 651). This concept of transmission among others shows that there are three components in this process, namely the conveyor, content, and mechanism (Schönpflug, 2009, pp. 4-6). The mechanism becomes the most prominent element here, as it covers how the conveyor transmits the content. With regards to the mechanism of transmission, Lord (1971) points out that there are three stages in the acquisition of knowledge or learning in oral tradition. The first is when a novice listens, they become familiar with the traditions he/she studies. The second stage is the process of imitation and assimilation (e.g. reciting). The third stage is what Lord (1991) calls ‘singing for a critical observers.’ Each of these stages certainly includes specific techniques: how a novice memorises the sound material he or she listens to, and then imitates, to be able to develop his/her performance (p. 21). In the oral tradition, whereby there is no musical notation, a mnemonic device known as ‘formula’ is used. The function of the formula proposed by Lord (1971) is not to help remember, but as a frame of reference for spontaneously presenting matter. Nevertheless, the different composition is not spontaneously arranged during the performance, but there is already a repertoire (p. 35). So, what is needed is a frame of reference for remembering, not composing. The mnemonic device for remembering the commonly used music material is ‘chunking’, which is in view of the composition in smaller or shorter units, such as motifs. The material that has been possessed is continuously trained, that is, following the performances, so that a pênu’ung becomes proficient and can create differences in various contexts, ranging from profane to sacred. The ability of this pênu’ung will later be transmitted to other pênu’ung in the future. This cycle, among others, sustains the continuity of kelentangan music. However, the role of society is also important, because those who provide the context for the practice of contradiction, and society’s expectations are the aesthetic frameworks for the music presentation. In summary, the theoretical framework constructed to examine the problem in this study is as follows: The transmission element consists of three elements, namely the conveyor, the content, and the mechanism. Different musicians transmit different contents, in a certain way. Thus, it is necessary to examine what kinds of conveyors are involved in the transmission of opposition, so that the content and the mechanism can be understood. Literature Review Hand (2017) discusses five approaches to learning and transferring knowledge practiced by traditional performing arts artists in Central Java, namely gamelan musicians, dalang (master puppeteer), and dancers including learning by ear, simulating simultaneously, practicing and doing, exposure and absorption, and learning in groups/associations. She states that the traditional way of learning in the performing arts directly enables one to gain knowledge of various kinds of art at once in a learning process (p. 29). Chan and Ross (2015) conducted a non-interventive ethnographic observation of the transmission of music by the Semai musicians of Malaysia. Local musicians, who are key players in the community, are placed in the role of a teacher. Findings show that teacher-student mobility, freedom of choice, intuitive responses, Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (108-121) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 110 integration of cultural concepts, flexibility and adaptability are the approaches used by the Semai musician in responding to the children’s learning culture. This paper further states that teachers need to consider cultural nuances and differences in music experience when designing their music curriculum and assessment approaches to music education. Furthermore, it emphasises on the flexibility and adaptability of teachers to actively build and reconstruct their teaching approaches by accessing children's musical understanding, talents and competencies from various cultural backgrounds (p. 691). Brinner (1999) describes how “a Javanese musician must listen interpretively and respond appropriately to particular cues” (p. 24). Brinner (1995) defines listening interpretively as a process of deductive imitation, which “involves idiomatic translation or transformation of an essence abstracted from perceptual input” (p. 138). In other words, the musicians follow instruments that may be played different than their own, using the heterophonic structure of the music to play together. He describes how the gamelan ensemble forms an interactive safety net, allowing musicians to follow along without creating problems for the overall music of the ensemble (pp. 179-180). Utomo and Febri (2017) state that the oral tradition plays a role in becoming a medium of social science education in the Gunungpati Semarang community in Central Java. Important findings in this study are that oral traditions have benefit to social science education in society but because humans may be educated and should get education early, wherever they are. The Gunungpati people still feel the benefits of oral traditions in the process of transmitting social values which function for entertainment, education, remembering the past (learning history), solidarity and togetherness, social control, the function of protest and social criticism, and finally religious function (p. 169). The difference between this research and the above literature is that music transmission occurs in the context of rituals. It explains the factors that support the transmission processes, as well as the relationship between transmission and continuity of interest. This study examines the relationship between three interrelated elements, namely the conveyor, content and mechanism in the ritual context. The author views the performers not only as pênu’ung (musician), but also as pèngampir (observer) and pêmêliatn (shaman). Analysis of the interaction between these different actors shows that two types of content are transmitted, namely musical content and non-musical content. The next consequence is that two different types of content give rise to different mechanisms or stages of transmission. Methodology Instead of including only the pênu’ung (musician) as transmission conveyor, I added the pèngampir (observer) and pêmêliatn (shaman) as well to this category. According to Lono Simatupang (personal communication, 5 June 2016), pèngampir can be regarded also as actors in a performance for their acknowledgement and involvement play a role in determining the success or failure of performances. Secondly, Nawan (personal communication, 1 June 2016) said that all pèngampir, or those who attend a ritual, have the potential to become pênu’ung. Third, the pèngampir are an inseparable aspect of a ritual. The organisers of the ritual, and anyone involved in it, are also at the same time pèngampir who can participate. Analysis of the interaction among these three roles shows the presence of two types of contents, i.e. musical and non-musical contents. These two different types of contents are then explored so that they can be understood in terms of how they are transmitted. The methodology for this research included literature review, interviews, participant observer, documentation and analysis. This research also used the ethnographic approach whereby I experienced the how cultural practices in society influence the learning, transmission and importance of kêlèntangan music to society. Transmission Processes The transmission of music involves at least three components, namely the conveyer, content (what is taught or studied) and the mechanism (Schönpflug, 2009, pp. 4-6). In the following section, I describe these three roles in detail. Eli Irawati 111 Conveyor Kêlèntangan can be performed among others due to its conveyors or actors. In this study, I include the pênu’ung (musician), pêngampir (observer), and pêmêliatn (shaman) in the category of conveyor or actor. There are no special requirements or conditions to become a pênu’ung. Although most of pênu’ung acquire their skill to play kêlèntangan from the elders who are family-related (e.g. grandparents and father), this is not a condition to becoming a pênu’ung. The fact that the pênu’ung comes from a family of musicians demonstrates the family’s importance in the transmission processes of kêlèntangan practices. The title of pênu’ung is not ascribed, but is achieved. Thus, this status is more cultural than genetic. Much effort is required to obtain this status, The conveyor refers to the person or actor that becomes the source of the information being transmitted (Schönpflug, 2009, pp. 4-5). Nevertheless, the presence of the public, the community that supports the performance—the pêngampir cannot be separated from the existence of kêlèntangan. The public, in this case, does not really act as ‘observers’ in the sense of enjoying a performance for merely aesthetic purposes as the kêlèntangan is not a performance for entertainment but it is performed as an accompaniment to a ritual or non- ritual activity (e.g. gantar, a social dance). The third transmission conveyor leads the procession of the bêlian ritual. During bêlian sêntiu (shamanism ceremony) or bêlian bawo (healing ceremony), the pêmêliatn becomes the reference for the pênu’ung. What, how, and when the kêlèntangan pieces are performed depends on the pêmêliatn. Therefore, those who play kêlèntangan in rituals not only have to master the skill of playing instruments, but also to have knowledge about the ritual. That is why the chief of the kêlèntangan ensemble, who usually plays the kêlèntangan instrument and sulikng dewa, the most senior pênu’ung, knows the rituals that they accompany very well. Figure 1. The conveyors of the transmission of kêlèntangan and their interaction (Source: Irawati, 2016). The three conveyors of transmission described above are inter-related to each other. First, the interaction between pênu’ung pupil and pênu’ung master shows how novice musicians learn musical skills from their masters. They watch and listen to the music. In other words, its content is mostly musical. The second interaction is between pênu’ung and pêngampir, which potentially generates a new pênu’ung. Pèngampir attending a ritual involving kêlèntangan performance get exposure to the music. Bênuaq children who attend rituals unwittingly memorise what they see, hear, and feel. Finally, for various reasons, they begin to internalise how kêlèntangan is performed. In turn, the pèngampir become an evaluator for kêlèntangan performance. The evaluator constructs an image of what is kêlèntangan and how it should be. A regeneration of pênu’ung occurs, as well as the pèngampir. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (108-121) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 112 Third, the interaction between the pêngampir and pêmêliatn does not consciously occur but it still exists. Just as pêngampir becomes parties who establish the standard of how kêlèntangan should be, the pêngampir constructs the standard of how rituals, which include a procession led by pêmêliatn, should be performed. On the one hand, pêmêliatn leads the rituals, which, among others, means actualising the customs of Dayak Bênuaq that have been passed down for generations so that the community, i.e. pèngampir, can perceive it in this case. On the other hand, the pêngampir becomes a kind of evaluator to the pêmêliatn: what he performs and presents of the kêlèntangan. Pêmêliatn leads the procession, performs movements and gestures, and chants, and is in turn observed by the pêngampir who memorises it from their experience, which becomes the standard to the ‘proper ritual, proper action, proper performance.’ In future, this experience will become the benchmark for the community when they watch a pêmêliatn perform in a similar ritual. Of course, the same benchmark applies for the same case. For example, one cannot assess the action of pêmêliatn in the bêlian sêntiu based on, or in reference, to the action of the pêmêliatn in kwangkay. In addition, the relationship between pêmêliatn and the pêngampir is that the pêngampir provide the contexts for the ritual. Thus, indirectly, the existence of pêmêliatn is also supported and valued by the pêngampir. The fourth is the interaction between pênu’ung and pêmêliatn. Pêmêliatn is an important figure related to pênu’ung in the ritual ceremonies such as bêlian bawo (healing ceremony), bêlian sêntiu (shamanism ceremony), and kwangkay (funeral music). Performing kêlèntangan in a ritual is not merely about how to beat the instruments and produce good sounds but also how the pieces performed by pênu’ungs correspond to the passages of the ritual and the pêmêliatn’s will who leads it. If novice or junior pênu’ungs acquire their knowledge and skills primarily from their master or senior pênu’ung, then they acquire their knowledge about the rituals especially from pêmêliatn. Since kêlèntangan performance is closely tied to the context, it is very important for pênu’ung to have knowledge about it. Therefore, it is not a surprise that pênu’ung who learns to play kêlèntangan also learns about rituals. Table 1 Interaction and Relationship between Pênu’ung, Pêngampir, and Pêmêliatn Transmission Conveyors Pênu’ung (Musician) Pêngampir (Observer) Pêmêliatn (Shaman) Pênu’ung Knowledge and skill to play the instrument for various occasions. Pênu’ung transmits kêlèntangan musical pieces to the pêngampir. Pênu’ung plays kêlèntangan according to pêmêliatn in a ritual. This is then recorded by pênu’ung and becomes a reference to a similar ritual in the future. Pêngampir The pêngampir evaluate the kêlèntangan and also provide the context for kêlèntangan performance as well as pênu’ung. (not focused on in this study) Pêngampir provide context for the rituals that involved pêmêliatn that involved including customs, processions and various rules. Pêmêliatn Pêmêliatn transmits the rules of a ritual to the pênu’ung. Pêmêliatn transmits knowledge by actualising customs, so that it can be seen and experienced by the pêngampir. (not focused on in this study) Based on the examination of the conveyors in the transmission of kêlèntangan, it appears that there are two types of material or content to be transmitted, i.e. the musical material and non-musical. Eli Irawati 113 Transmission Content There are two types of content or material in the transmission of kêlèntangan, musical and non-musical. Musical content is mainly transmitted from pênu’ung senior to the junior, or a master to a novice, as well as from pênu’ung to the pêngampir, while the non-musical content is transmitted mainly from pêmêliatn to the pêngampir and pêmêliatn to the pênu’ung. The major musical content to be transmitted is the composition or the musical piece is the sound produced by the instruments in the ensemble. There is no song title used specifically to refer to kêlèntangan pieces. The pieces are usually named according to its accompanying activity, for example kêlèntangan gantar, a piece played to accompany the gantar dance; kêlèntangan bêlian sentiu, the accompaniment of bêlian sêntiu, etc. The pieces or compositions of kêlèntangan also contain certain rules or convention acknowledged—but implicitly—among the pênu’ung and Dayak Bênuaq people as a theory of music. Kêlèntangan piece in bêlian bawo, bêlian sêntiu, and kwangkay is not played continuously from the beginning of the ritual to the end. Instead, it is played to follow the stages of ritual and instruction of the pêmêliatn. Besides the composition or piece, another musical content to be transmitted from the master pênu’ung to the novice is the technique of playing instruments. Such techniques, in turn, will actualise the piece of kêlèntangan. In addition to musical content, there are also non-musical contents in the transmission of kêlèntangan. The most important non-musical content is the sequences of ritual, mainly transmitted between the pêmêliatn and the pênu’ung. Performing kêlèntangan in ritual contexts or for ritual purposes cannot be done without considering the sequences of its ritual, including the pêmêliatn’s instructions. The following example illustrates the point. Table 2 shows that a pênu’ung does not only deal with the skills of playing the instruments in the kêlèntangan ensemble, but must have sufficient knowledge in the ritual custom Bênuaq in general. Based on the description of the transmission conveyors, it seems that there are two types of transmission content, i.e. musical and non-musical. Consequently, there are different mechanisms or ways to transmit different contents by different conveyors. The following examines the transmission mechanism to transmit different kinds of content. Table 2 Ritual sequences and kêlèntangan in bêlian bawo and bêlian sêntiu Rituals Stage Kêlèntangan and other accompaniment Bêlian Bawo Ngawat The narere begins with the sepui blown three times by the pêmêliatn. The Pêmêliatn sings the bêmemang bejajuruq la mo The kêlèntangan is played monotonously. Before reaching puncutn jaa jatus, the pêmêliatn must go through several places, namely Pantiq PapaLongan, Nawang Langit, and Bawo Langit. Each time arriving at one of these places, the pêmêliatn pauses to request for permission. Each arrival is marked by the pausing of the kêlèntangan in seconds, then the pêmêliatn reads incantation. Bêlian Sêntiu Ngawat The Pêmêliatn sings bêmemang as the basis of the other parts. The kêlèntangan is not yet sounded, while the players are preparing themselves. Each pêmêliatn alternately blows sepui three times, starting from the leader of bêlians or guruq, and then is alternately followed by his prajiq or pupil. Next, the leader of pêmêliatns sings bêmemang, followed by the entire pêmêliatn, men and women, with melody, rhythm and words that exactly match to those of the leader’s. After the bêmemang is completed, the pêmêliatn stands and moves his feet instructions to the pênu’ung to immediately play the instruments. At first, the kêlèntangan instrument players, as leaders, play a melody requested by the pêmêliatn which is shortly thereafter followed by the gimar and genikng players. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (108-121) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 114 After the music is played in less than half an hour with monotonous melodic patterns, tempo, and rhythm, by instruction of the pêmêliatn, the kêlèntangan pauses. The Guruq bêlian sings bêmemang which is not followed by the prajiq. A moment later, the kêlèntangan plays the same melody and tempo as previously. The pêmêliatn concentrates while holding awir batu raja, accompanied by the kêlèntangan. The pêmêliatn sings the bêmemang to drive away evil spirits. The pêmêliatn slowly starts to move his body to spin, and the kêlèntangan is played continuously according to the pêmêliatn’s body movements. In the next sequence, bejajaruq la mo, the pêmêliatn stands under awir batu raja while holding a hanging cloth and singing the bêmemang, preparing to fly with the smoke of the incense. At this time, the accompaniment sounds monotonous in a relatively moderate tempo. At this stage, the kêlèntangan is played in a relatively long duration but with monotonous melody and patterns. Having considered enough, the pêmêliatn asked the pênu’ung to stop playing kêlèntangan for a moment, replaced by sulikng dewa and gimar. In each checkpoint on the way to jaa puncutn jatus, the kêlèntangan also stops. When kêlèntangan stops playing, the pêmêliatn sings bêmemang. Once completed, the kêlèntangan is played again. Having reached puncutn jaa jatus, the pêmêliatn sings the bêmemang again. The pêmêliatn goes back down from puncutn, jaa jatus together with the spirits of the ancestors. The kêlèntangan is played with a constant tempo. After the ghosts and the spirits of the ancestors are believed to arrive at the human world and to eat the offering that has been served, they are treated to a dance attended by all the pêmêliatn, both men and women, moving around the awir batu raja. Usually, the dancers are holding the ancestor’s skull on their back. To accompany the dance, the kêlèntangan is played loudly and excitedly, but still adjusted to the movements of the pêmêliatn. At the bakawat stage, the kêlèntangan is played with a bit of improvisation on its melodic pattern spontaneously. Its tempo is the medium, which is increasingly faster according to the pêmêliatn’s movement. At the nyenteyau stage, the pêmêliatn, accompanied by the kêlèntangan, also sings the bêmemang. At the stage of ngasi ngado, the kêlèntangan is played with a bit slow and softly but dynamic tempo compared to that played in the bakawat. After a while, the guruq bêlian asked the pênu’ung to stop, because the bêmemang will be sung again. After the bêmemang is sung, the kêlèntangan is sounded again. At the tangai stage, the pêmêliatn sings the last bêmemang, and according to the pêmêliatn’s instruction, kêlèntangan is played in a moderate tempo as the accompaniment. The last bêmemang is sung as a sign that the bêlian sêntiu has been completed. After the last bêmemang is sung, the kêlèntangan is played as at the narere stage, with a fast and dynamic tempo, according to the pêmêliatn’s movement. Transmission Mechanism The knowledge, beliefs, norms, arts of this culture of the Dayak Bênuaq are transmitted orally. There are no institutions set up intentionally for learning purposes. Their tradition is passed down from one generation to the next, from one member of society to another implicitly in various daily occasions, including in the case of kêlèntangan practice. The transmission content includes both musical and non-musical contents. How is the content transmitted and received by the conveyors in the transmission of kêlèntangan? According to Lord (1971), there are three stages in the acquisition of knowledge or learning in oral tradition. The stages proposed are parallel to the learning process proposed by Ki Hadjar Dewantara, namely niteni (means listening, watching), nirokake (imitating), and nambahi (improvising/replicating) (Suroso, 2011, p. 51). Among the Dayak Bênuaq people, this process is respectively called bêkajiq, kintau, and tameh. The following section examines each stage in the transmission process of kêlèntangan in relation to both musical and non-musical contents. Eli Irawati 115 Figure 2. A pêmêliatn performs the bêlian bawo ritual, and the gimar players appear in the right side background (Source: photo by Irawati, 2015) Figure 3. An informal setting of learning music in the Dayak Bênuaq people of East Kalimantan (Source: photo by Irawati, 2015) The first stage is bêkajiq, a term in Bênuaq language, which means listening, or watching carefully. The term has similar meaning to the word in Indonesian, ‘kaji’, means investigating and studying that involve the mind (Research Team, 2008, p. 618). Listening or watching implies the existence of certain impetus to focus on a particular object so that there is certain information to memorise. The stage of listening in the transmission process occurs in various occasions, particularly in the performance of kêlèntangan in lamin for various ritual activities, in a series of activities such as gantar dance, feasts, etc. People who are interested to learn to play kêlèntangan, called pupils, come to the event and notice how kêlèntangan is performed by the pênu’ung who has already mastered the techniques. Interaction between teacher-pupil or externalisation-internalisation process occurs. There is no coercion from both sides—teacher and pupil—to carry out this externalisation or internalisation process. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (108-121) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 116 Generally, the most attractive instrument to learn in the ensemble is the kêlèntangan, a horizontal small gong chime. This is not surprising due to the fact that the instrument is the most prominent in terms of musical function and plating techniques compared to other instruments in the ensemble. In certain occasions, such as when performing kêlèntangan to accompany gantar dance during a celebration, a student can directly participate and play the instruments. It could be the first instrument being played that is not complicated, such gênikng. However, the reality may not always be the case. At this stage, it does not only involve a listening action, but also imitating. As mentioned above, a musical fact does not consist of the sonorous (auditory) aspect alone, but also visual and kinesthetic. That is, ways to learn kêlèntangan was not limited to just listening (capturing auditory phenomena), but also involves capturing the visual and kinesthetic phenomena. Sound Aspect. So far, the sound may be the only aspect regarded as a musical fact. Nevertheless, it should be realised that the sound comes as a result of physical activity, such as plucking the strings with the hand, beating a xylophone key or even playing one’s own limbs, blowing the air, and so on. Bêkajiq, listening to the sonorous aspect of kêlèntangan, means capturing and memorising the sounds of music. Therefore, it requires a reproduction of recorded and remembered materials that have been listened to. As mentioned above, there are two types of content transmitted—and thus be remembered—by someone who wants to be a pênu’ung, that is the composition or piece of kêlèntangan as well the playing techniques that produce the sounds to the order and rules of kêlèntangan performed during an activity, especially a ritual. In his study of the transmission of the gusle epic singer-player in Yugoslavia, Lord (1991) stated that the formula is an important element for the singer to compose while performing poetry. This is because his object of study was poetry that was composed and performed at the same time. The formula became a frame of reference that helps singers in composing the materials. This is in contrast to the performance of kêlèntangan. Although both live and are transmitted in oral culture, the two have quite different characteristics. First, the Yugoslav epic poetry composed by singer-performer is actually composed while being performed, but its frame and materials have already existed. One who wants to be an epic singer studies and internalises the ‘frame’ (formulas) and materials (words) that are used to compose the song-poems. Lord (1991), as cited in Badrun (2014), argued that the formula is very useful for performers, which becomes the guide in the process of composition Someone who wants to be an epic singer must study and internalise the frames (i.e. formula) and materials (e.g. words) that are used to compose the song poems. Lord (1991), as quoted in Badrun (2014), argued that the formula is very useful for presenters, which becomes a guide in the process of composition and generating formula to the poet (p. 20). Meanwhile, the composition or piece of kêlèntangan already exists and it is not composed—borrowing Nettl’s (2015) term—in the course of performance (p. 60). There is already a certain composition played for a particular activity. If there are variations in the composition of kêlèntangan, it is only the improvisation or development that would be allowed by Bênuaq people. Second, kêlèntangan is closely tied to the context, does not stand for its sake, and is an integral part of the activity being accompanied, while singing in the Yugoslavian epic is presented for the performance purposes only. If formulas, in the oral transmission of the Yugoslavian epic, have a very important role as a reference for the presentation of a song, then the reference in the performance of kêlèntangan is the ritual sequences (Moder, personal communication, 27 July 2015) This is mainly because the composition to be played is already there to follow the sequences of the ritual. The pênu’ung must perform the kêlèntangan according to the ritual led by the pêmêliatn. In the transmission process of the Yugoslavian epic song, a prospective performer mainly listens and internalisesthe formulas and words as a reference and its materials. In the transmission of kêlèntangan, a pupil listens to and internalises the rules of rituals or other activities that provide the context of performance as well as the composition or piece of kêlèntangan itself. How does the pupil listen to and internalise the materials? Based on the transcription of kêlèntangan pieces in bêlian, bêlian sêntiu, and kwangkay, it appears that the musical content that must be listened to and internalised by pênu’ung is not too long. Eli Irawati 117 Figure 4. Motives played on kêlèntangan for bêlian bawo (healing ceremony of the Dayak Bênuaq) Transcriptions above show that there are four basic patterns in the accompaniment of belian bawo. Two patterns are played only once, at the beginning, and two patterns are played throughout the piece. The variation arises due to the notes value. Figure 5. Motives played on kêlèntangan for bêlian sêntiu (shamanism ceremony) Based on the transcription of basic patterns above, it appears that there are two main patterns being played throughout the piece. Changes in tempo and dynamics occur by way of ritual led by the pêmêliatn. Figure 6. Motives played on kêlèntangan for kwangkay. Based on the examination of the patterns of melody in the pieces of kêlèntangan played in bêlian bawo, bêlian sêntiu, and kwangkay, it can be said that all of them have relatively short patterns, phrases, sentences, which is not so difficult to memorise. Kêlèntangan was performed according to the ritual, not vice versa. Therefore, the sequence of a ritual, bêlian bawo for example, is a framework for kêlèntangan performed in it. For the musicians, probably the most complicated part of bêkajiq has not been about memorising melodies or Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (108-121) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 118 patterns on musical instruments, but rather how to keep their music in line with the instructions or movements of pêmêliatn who leads the ritual. To become a master, a pênu’ung must have immense exposure to it. Once the skills and knowledge required to be a pênu’ung has been mastered, one can begin to get involved actively in the performance of kêlèntangan (Irawati, 2016, p. 68). Bêkajiq is the learning process of kêlèntangan including non-musical content, obtained by a pênu’ung when he attends the performance in various occasions rather than in a specific setting intended for teaching and learning, and without explicit communication process of teaching and learning. In addition to the prospective musician, transmission also occurs between the pêngampir and pênu’ung. Pêngampir are those who attend the events, and who consciously or unconsciously memorise and internalise the technical skill of the music, rules and sequences of the ritual, as well as the whole customs of their culture. However, not all of the pèngampir pay a particular attention to the kêlèntangan. Those who are interested will direct their attention to the ensemble. Visual and Kinesthetic Aspects. Visual and kinesthetic aspects are two different things of the musical facts, but in the case of kêlèntangan, both are two inseparable aspects. Visual and kinesthetic aspects of the kêlèntangan performance could be divided into two, namely musical content and non-musical content. The following will be discussed one by one. Watching Visual and Kinesthetic Aspects of Musical Content. As mentioned above, the sound produced by the kêlèntangan is the result of a physical activity. Thus, in order to learn the playing techniques of kêlèntangan and other instruments, it is not only necessary to listen to the sound, but one must also observe the bodily movements of the pêmêliatn. In contrast to the learning process in the Balinese gamelan for example, which has at least two instruments of each type in an ensemble so that the instrument can be used by teachers while the students imitate, in the kêlèntangan ensemble there is only one instrument of each type. As a result, the visual and kinesthetic aspects that has been observed and cannot necessarily be imitated by the instrument, although sometimes the musician imitates them by beating his bare hands on his own limbs. A pupil who already has enough skill and knowledge can estimate the speed of the tempo by watching how fast the musician’s first hand swings when hitting the instrument. This is because the speed of the swinging arm is closely related to the tempo of the piece to be played. Nevertheless, in the kêlèntangan performance in a ritual, the tempo depends on the ritual stages and the pêmêliatn’s instructions. The height at which the player raises his hand to beat the instruments must be considered to determine the dynamics of a piece. The higher the raised hand to hit the instrument, the louder the dynamics will be. Bodily gestures of the musicians are the materials that have to be listened by one who learns kêlèntangan. For pênu’ung, visual experience becomes no less important in the bêkajiq because it is able to provide ways to memorise the materials. The pênu’ung, however, does not so much have gestures used as the sign. Gestures as a cue are primarily acted by pêmêliatn, the leader of the ritual. Watching Visual and Kinesthetic Aspects of Non-musical Content. Visual and kinesthetic aspects of non-musical content that is listened to by a pênu’ung are mainly pêmêliatn’s bodily movements as the leader of the ritual. Pêmêliatn’s gestures and actions are important aspects that must be considered by a pênu’ung as a cue for their playing—when to start playing the instrument, how loud or soft to play the dynamics, how fast or slow to beat the tempo, etc. Pêmêliatn does not give an instruction verbally while he is leading the ritual. The pêmêliatn’s bodily behaviours are the signs that must be considered by the pênu’ung. The next stage in the learning process is the kintau, which means imitation. Sometimes the stages of bêkajiq and kintau cannot be separated because both stages coincide with each other. A novice pênu’ung who is in a bêkajiq stage can directly participate in the ensemble, imitating the playing on the instruments he has seen before. Usually, the instrument played by a novice or pupil is the simple one such as gênikng or gimar. Imitating the musical patterns in certain rituals implies that the candidate pênu’ung practices how to perform kêlèntangan on a particular activity. This is because the moment when the pupil is in the kintau stage of learning is the actual performing context. Learning does not occur in a special setting, but in a real and natural one. Thus, the kintau stage in the transmission of kêlèntangan is mainly how a pênu’ung deals with musical material. Pêngampir and pêmêliatn can be said to be passive in this stage, because kintau emphasises more on the technical-practical aspects, i.e. imitating playing techniques. This is different from those of bêkajiq, which occurs both in the pêngampir and pênu’ung. Eli Irawati 119 Table 3 Pêmêliatn’s bodily movements and its relation to the kêlèntangan Bodily movements or gestures of pêmêliatn Kêlèntangan Splashing water Slowing down the tempo, splashing the water is believed to be an act of releasing evil spirits; sometimes he also sings the bêmemang. Stomping his feet Tempo tends to be irregular, following the movements of pêmêliatn; or transition of kêlèntangan to the sulikng dewa or to bêmemang; or transition to the next stage. Stomping his arms The tempo of the piece is the same as the arms movement. This gesture among others describes the exorcism. Spinning the body Kêlèntangan is played in a fast tempo Turned his head Pênu’ung makes a mistake in playing kêlèntangan. Once a pupil is able to imitate the playing techniques and ‘to feel’ the pieces, he usually adds a bit of improvisation on the patterns but not an extreme one. This is called tamèh. This results in a kind of variation patterns. An example is in the accompaniment of bêlian bawo and bêlian sêntiu. Kêlèntangan played in this ritual shows that there are basic patterns, variations of the basic patterns. Based on the transcription of the kêlèntangan in bêlian bawo, bêlian sêntiu, and kwangkay, the variation patterns are formed by note values. It does not change significantly in the overall composition of kêlèntangan. Meanwhile, the variations in dynamics and tempo depend on the pêmêliatn’s instructions. Figure 7. Three stages of learning process in the transmission of kêlèntangan (Source: Irawati, 2016) This study shows that the transmission of music is not limited to the transfer of knowledge and skills that lead to the emergence of a new musician only. The transmission is not about how a musician learns a certain material, then performing it, as shown by Lord (1991). This study shows the following: First, if the transmission conveyor is not only limited to the musicians who perform, then the transmission is no longer only about the transference of knowledge and practical-musical skills. Second, if the transmission conveyor is not only limited to the musicians who perform, consequently, the relationship between these actors vary. Thus, the material or content transmitted are also different. In this study, the different Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (108-121) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 120 transmission conveyors result in different musical and non-musical contents. The non-musical material emerges because the transmission conveyors are not musicians only. Third, the implication that arises from different conveyors and contents is a somewhat different mechanism. The interaction between pênu’ungs transmits musical knowledge and skills in bêkajiq, kintau, and tameh. This is in contrast to the interaction between pêmêliatn and pênu’ung, pênu’ung and the pêngampir, as well as pêmêliatn and the pêngampir. Fourth, the context becomes an important part for the music that is closely tied with its context. Bêlian bawo and bêlian sêntiu, for example, are the reference or framework to perform kêlèntangan. As a result, pênu’ung has to get relevant knowledge and understanding of the ritual. This means that in the transmission, pênu’ung is required to acquire not only the musical knowledge and skills, but also knowledge about surrounding activities of the music. Based on these facts, it can be summarised the process of music transmission does not only involve musicians, but also other non-musician actors. If the conveyor of transmission involves more than one type (for example, not only musician, but also the observer), then the relationship between the actors should be examined because the interaction between different types of conveyors will result in different types of content. In turn, the different types of content will lead to the emergence of different transmission mechanisms. Furthermore, we also have to consider the activities surrounding a musical practice, whether it is related to the performance. If so, the performer and musicians also need to acquire the skills and knowledge of those activities. In short, the performer should also acquire non-musical knowledge. Conclusion In conclusion, kêlèntangan is still transmitted among the Dayak Bênuaq people because the activities involving the kêlèntangan are still practiced by the people. Kêlèntangan is closely tied to its context, such as bêlian bawo and bêlian sêntiu. The Bênuaq people still conduct rituals in their lives as one way to meet their needs in the face of life. The preservation of these rituals, in turn, provides the opportunity for the transmission of kêlèntangan. Second, the transmission process of kêlèntangan can be seen by examining the interaction between the conveyor, the content and the transmission mechanism. Interactions between different conveyors result in transmitting different contents. Thus, to transmit different contents, a different mechanism is required. Transmitting music does not only deal with auditory aspects, but also visual and kinesthetic. Thus, teaching and learning, mainly in musical traditions of Indonesia as in this case, must consider various aspects of a musical occasion. Last but not least, transmission is indeed an important part in the continuity of kêlèntangan practice. However, transmission cannot stand-alone. The contexts and the activities of the profane and the sacred rituals that are still held by the Bênuaq people must support it. Thus, the continuity of kêlèntangan does not solely rely on the transmission, but also on the cultural ecosystem. Maintaining the continuity of kêlèntangan means to keep the ecosystem of the Bênuaq culture. References Badrun, A. (2014). Patu Mbojo: Struktur, konsep pertunjukan, proses penciptaan, dan fungsi. Lengge: Mataram. Berger, A. M. B. (2005). Medieval music and the art of memory. Berkeley: University of California Press. Brinner, B. (1995). Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Brinner, B. (1999). Cognitive and interpersonal dimensions of listening in Javanese gamelan performance. The World of Music, 41 (1), 19-35. Campbell, P. S. & Higgins, L. (2015). Intersection between Ethnomusicology, music education, and community music. In S. Pettan & J. T. Titon (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology (pp. 639-668). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Hand, R. (2017). Approaches to learning traditional performing arts in central java through a direct encounter. Malaysian Journal of Music, 6 (2), 29-48. Irawati, E. (2016). Aspek-aspek transmisi kelentangan dalam masyarakat Dayak Benuaq: Studi Etnomusikologis. Laporan Hasil Penelitian Hibah Disertasi Doktor. Yogyakarta: LPPM ISI Yogyakarta. Eli Irawati 121 Lord, A. B. (1971). The singer of tales. New York, NY: Antheneum. Lord, A. B. (1991). Epic singers and oral tradition. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Maloy, R. (2010). Inside the offertory: Aspects of chronology and transmission. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Nettl, B. (2015). The study of Ethnomusicology: Thirty-three issues and concepts. Illinois: University of Illinois Press. Rubin, D. C. (1995). Memory in oral traditions: The cognitive psychology of epic, ballads, and counting-out rhymes. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Schönpflug, U. (2009). Introduction to cultural transmission: Psychological, developmental, social, and methodological aspects. In U. Schönpflug, (Ed.), Cultural transmission: Psychological, developmental, social, and methodological aspects (pp. 1-8). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shelemay, K. K. (2008). Ethnomusicologist, ethnographic method, and the transmission of tradition. In G. F. Barz & T. J. Cooley (Eds.). Shadows in the field: new perspectives for fieldwork in Ethnomusicology (pp. 141-155). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Chan, C. S. C. & Ross, V. (2015). Preliminary Exploration of a Semai Musician's Transmission of Indigenous Musical Traditions in Peninsular Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 23 (3), 691-710. Suroso. (2011). Pemikiran Ki Hadjar Dewantara tentang belajar dan pembelajaran. Scholaria, 1 (1), 46-72. Utomo, Cahyo Budi; Febri, Kurniawan Ganda. (2017). Bilamana tradisi lisan menjadi media pendidikan ilmu sosial di masyarakat Gunungpati. Harmony, 2 (2), 169-184. Biography Eli Irawati is a lecturer at the Ethnomusicology Department, Faculty of Performing Arts, Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Yogyakarta, and local-traditional music of Kalimantan, Indonesia, is her focus of study and teaching. Her MA and PhD degree was obtained at Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. Research interest includes issues of music transmission, ritual, identity, nationalism, tourism, globalisation and modernisation in Indonesia.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (2019)

alternative modernity, capitalism, musical association, patronage

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/163

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/2720

Patronage and Capitalism in the Musical Associations of Late Nineteenth-Century Colonial Manila

The rapid economic growth in the colony beginning in the mid-nineteenth century gave rise to a modernity that transformed the musical mode of production in Manila. A new market comprised of the culturally-supportive elite and middle-class population patronised musical productions. In addition, musicians and other artists formed unions to create an institutionalised representation of themselves corresponding to the larger socio-political and economic forces in the network of production, creating new relations necessary in the existing social formation. Exchanges between the various players of the musical mode of production required matching forces to avoid exploitation, particularly of labour. This article examines three of the more prominent musical associations in the late nineteenth century—

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/2720/2117

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (122-135) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 122 Patronage and Capitalism in the Musical Associations of Late Nineteenth-Century Colonial Manila Arwin Q. Tan University of the Philippines College of Music, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.8.2019 Published online: 18 December 2019 Cite this article (APA): Tan, A. Q. (2019). Patronage and Capitalism in the Musical Associations of Late Nineteenth- Century Colonial Manila. Malaysian Journal of Music, 8, 122-135. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol8.8.2019 Abstract The rapid economic growth in the colony beginning in the mid-nineteenth century gave rise to a modernity that transformed the musical mode of production in Manila. A new market comprised of the culturally-supportive elite and middle-class population patronised musical productions. In addition, musicians and other artists formed unions to create an institutionalised representation of themselves corresponding to the larger socio-political and economic forces in the network of production, creating new relations necessary in the existing social formation. Exchanges between the various players of the musical mode of production required matching forces to avoid exploitation, particularly of labour. This article examines three of the more prominent musical associations in the late nineteenth century—Liceo Artístico-Literario, Sociedad de Conciertos Unión Artístico-Musical, and Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia—investigating how they advanced music and education and promoted the arts, regulated the practice of music making, responded to the market demand for commoditised music labour, and accelerated modernity in Philippine music during the last decades of Spanish colonial rule. Their patronage represented the continuing feudal and new capitalist systems of managing musical productions and remunerating musical labour, providing a possibility for indigena (island-born native) musicians to accumulate cultural capital and afford them social mobility in the colonial system. Membership in these associations became symbols of prestige, which helped establish social networks among Filipino musicians. Keywords: alternative modernity, capitalism, musical association, patronage Musical Mode of Production in Manila in the Late Nineteenth Century In the late nineteenth century, the Philippines experienced a new political economy dictated by capitalism, which resulted from the liberalisation of trade with foreign countries other than Spain. The opening of trade with companies from Britain, Germany, France, and the United States of America began in the early nineteenth century after the Manila Galleon seized its trans-Pacific operations in 1815. The new business and trading regulations benefited the colonial population, primarily the insulares (criollos or Spaniards born in the Islands), Spanish mestizos, and Chinese mestizos. They became active agricultural producers and exporters and, in the process, many were able to climb the colonial socio-economic ladder and became the middle class of the nineteenth century. The most remarkable symbol of this elevated social position was the provision for higher education for their sons, who would later comprise the nascent ilustrado (enlightened) class. The ilustrados’s liberal and scientific education would eventually create an alternative modernity in the colony, particularly the beginnings of the idea of a Filipino nation (Mojares, 2006, pp. 451-466). This education also paved the way for Arwin Q. Tan 123 the appreciation and support of Western music played by Filipinos and Europeans in the late nineteenth century as a result of the faster flow of people and goods between the colony and Europe (Maceda, 1973, p. 223). Modernity as used in this paper pertains to the notion of emergent progressive practices, marked by secularism and liberalism, ushered by the future-oriented ilustrados. It is constitutive of cultural changes emanating ‘from below’, which are manifested, in real material practices that involved complex cross-cultural negotiations resulting from the Filipinos’ entanglements with Spanish hegemony and the unprecedented effects of globalisation in the late nineteenth century. These include the emergent imperial capitalist market that marshalled rapid urbanisation in the colony. It also accelerated the transmission of modern technology, images, books, and even the new social order of international politics (Buenconsejo, 2017, p. xiv). Thus, a kind of alternative modernity that became apparent in the late nineteenth century Philippines involved cultural and economic changes that centred on a consciousness which advanced the idea of individualism and the right to govern one’s self- a bourgeoning idea that would climax in the revolution of 1896.1 These alternative modernities are manifested in the vibrant cultural milieu of the capital such as the formation of musical associations that practiced a utopian kind of capitalism. Other manifestations of the presence of alternative modernities include the participation of female musicians in cultural productions as entrepreneurs; and the printing of transcultural music for domestic consumption (Tan, 2018, p. v). Naturally, the ilustrados, together with the emerging middle class, became the key players in this new political economy of late nineteenth century Philippines. They established intertwining social relations as they participated in the mode of production of culture, with strong eagerness for social and cultural advancement that contributed to the development of a modern Filipino cultural imagination. Capitalism caused the emergence of this critical period of modernity in nineteenth century Manila as it encouraged a culture dominated by consumption, introduced new forms of exchanges—particularly of money— and transformed the mode of production of music in the public sphere. This study examines the relation of music and capitalism in Manila, focusing on the rise of musical associations whose patronage for musical productions activated changes in social relationships that altered music making in the colony with new material and social practices. Patronage from the musical associations created strategies for more opportunities and social representation of Filipino musicians and it encouraged the institutionalisation of music academies and performing groups. It also recognised and reinforced the economic valuation of musicians’ labour and stimulated the increased commodification of music materials. A central institution of the modern capitalist system was the market which was made up of a paying public, the incipient Filipino middle class who used their developed taste for Western music as a marker for their elevated social status and the reproduction of their newly acquired cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1986, p. 16). Focusing on the proliferation of musical associations, this study interrogates the workings of a new but fragile patronage system that fostered globalisation and modernity, and how they facilitated new ways of defining the emergent consciousness of Filipino-ness at the turn of the twentieth century. What new relations did the ilustrado, the colonial elite, and the burgeoning middle class public sphere engaged in as they involved themselves in the patronage of musical productions and the propagation of musical knowledge? How did these associations, and the bands and orchestras they patronised represent the new social order? How did they assist in the transformation of musical taste among those who consumed musical commodities and productions? How did it support the perpetration of the ideologies and representations in the interest of the capitalists? Manila’s Three Prominent Musical Associations in the Late Nineteenth Century This study highlights three prominent musical associations in the late nineteenth century—Liceo Cientifico Artistico Literario, more commonly referred to as Liceo Artistico-Literario, founded in 1878 and dissolved in 1883; Sociedad de Conciertos Unión Artístico-Musical, founded in 1885; and Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia, founded in 1888. They represent three different categories of associations, which were formed through their founders’ common interests, and were reflected in their primary objectives. One category preserves the ilustrados’ aim of advancing literacy and culture, which lent associations their literary-musical nature. This kind of musical associations resonated to the ideals of early nineteenth century European musical societies which focused on their literary nature and published extensive biographies of Western composers and new music history books such as Forkel’s biography of Bach (1802); Carpani’s biography of Haydn (1812); Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (122-135) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 124 Nissen’s biography of Mozart (1828); Abraham Rees’s General History of Music (1798) and Cyclopedia (1802) (Goehr, 1992, p.241). Membership was basically from the small Spanish population in the colony— peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) and insulares—and from the ilustrado class. Liceo Cientifico Artistico Literario was one of the earliest associations founded in Manila that aimed to “protect the interests of the lovers of music, fine arts, [and] literature; and cultivate aesthetic taste” (Bañas, 1924, p. 17). Its membership was generally comprised of prominent composers, theatre artists, painters, sculptors, playwrights, dramatists, poets, and literary artists. It held veladas (salon literary-musical performances), symphonic concerts, dramatic theatre works, painting exhibits, conferences and lectures, and competitions for new artistic creations. It was through the Liceo’s Certamen that José Rizal—the future national hero of the Philippines promoted by the American Insular Government in the early twentieth century—was accorded prestige through winning twice, elevating his status in the realm of literary creation. Although short- lived, the Liceo is recognised to have left a mark in the colony’s cultural production through the numerous functions it held which emphasised the propagation of artistic education and the development of aesthetic taste among the colonial population. The second category focused on the regulation of musical labour, which adhered to the professionalisation of musicians in the practice of their art. This was the musicians’ answer to the growing commodification of their labour in Manila’s new capitalist market. This kind of association is represented by the Sociedad de Conciertos Unión Artístico-Musical. Membership in this kind of association is primarily composed of practicing musicians. The Unión Artístico-Musical’s primary intent was to form a system that would regulate the valuation of musicians’ labour in order to optimise the advantage, which could be derived from the expanding middle class market of nineteenth century Manila. In addition, it aimed to improve the ‘moral’ and ‘material’ situation of the orchestra members through the holding of regular concerts and provide orchestral assistance to theatre productions and private gatherings requiring music performances. Its 100 members were meticulously chosen by a governing board—in the form of a competitive examination—which accorded a status distinction the carried prestige beside receiving monetary remuneration and taking part in the distribution of the association’s revenues derived from engagements. The third category, Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia exemplifies a kind of association that emphasised the intermediary functions of an association, which acts as the manager, marketing agent, source of new training, and provider of new music materials and instruments. Associations of this kind were composed of a mixture of members—e.g. businessmen, musicians, and artisans—whose commonality was rooted in their love for music and its propagation in the colonial society. This kind of association also reflected the entrepreneurial character of an institution whose juridical personality was mandated to reproduce capital, in the form of profits, to be used in improving the welfare of its members. This third kind also hints at an ideal version of capitalism in which the wealthy owners of the means of production reproduce economic capital with the intention to aid the poorer members of the association whose musical labour is the only means to reproduce such capital. Acting as a space for developing social capital through the network of relations developed among members, these associations provided musicians from the lower class a means to participate in the conversion of their accumulated cultural capital into economic capital (Bourdieu, 1986, p. 16). The nature of the Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia adhered to a multi-class membership in which the officers, comprised mainly of aficionados belonging to the upper class, acted as agents for the improvement of the financial disposition of the majority of musician-members who belonged to the lower class. The organisational structure is divided into the ‘general sections’ and ‘special permanent commissions.’ The general sections were scientific, piano, singing, instrumental, and cooperation, to which the members were free to join according to their aptitudes and hobbies, while the special permanent committees were propaganda, artistic direction, technical direction, and external relations, and the membership in these committees were selected and appointed by the association’s Board of Directors (p. 7). An important component of the Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia was the presence of an annexed women’s section which was governed by a special board comprised of the lady-members, and which held exclusive literary-musical events only for them (p. 15). Many of the musical associations were founded on similar precepts which can be generalised as: 1) development of music education; 2) promotion and improvement of the arts; 3) protection of the common interests of Filipino musicians and music teachers; 4) cultivation of aesthetic tastes among the supporters of Arwin Q. Tan 125 arts; and 5) honouring a respected person, character, or saint (Bañas, 1924, pp. 17-20). The musical associations of Manila maintained their own resident orchestras and bands, whose inherent organisational structures accustomed their members to the considerations of social ordering. For example, the Sociedad de Conciertos Unión Artístico-Musical maintained a 100-member orchestra, as mandated by Article 51 of its regulations. This huge orchestra was from the conglomeration of the four small orchestras of its conductor-members: Pedro Gruet, Eulogio Revilla, Francisco Domingo, and Bruno Santa Maria. Similarly, the Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia also maintained its own orchestra like other associations, which were established at a later time. Examples include Circulo Musical de Pandacan which boasts of its all-Filipino opera troupe and its renowned Orkestang Babae, and the later Asociacion Musical de Filipinas which would eventually establish the Manila Symphony Orchestra in the 1930s. Social Ordering and Mobility The orchestra illustrates social ordering through its structure where a recognised master symbolises the essential figure of power. This figure is represented by the conductor who epitomises the image of the legitimate and rational organiser of a production. He symbolises economic power, which is capable of harmoniously setting the programme of history in motion as codified by the composer. Led by the conductor who maintains complete control over musical interpretation, the members of the orchestra and bands act as labouring musicians who are mere followers in achieving a perfect standard sound commanded by the leader (Attali, 1985, p. 66). The structure of these musical groups also represents power in the industrial economy in which the musicians are hierarchically ranked, occupying specific positions within the orchestra’s organisation and are required to render their individual parts. Thus, in maintaining resident orchestras and bands, the musical associations were mirroring the social hierarchy that was imposed by the capitalist system, particularly in the production processes that accelerated the movements of transactions in the economy. The following are Filipino musicians who served as music directors. Marcelo Adonay sat in the board of the Union Artistico Musical while serving as maestro de capilla of San Agustin Church, was a committee member of the Asociacion Musical de Filipinas, and occasionally conducted the San Juan del Monte Orchestra. Bonifacio Abdon was the earlier Asociacion Musical de Filipinas’ music director upon its reorganisation in 1912, and was one of the founders of the Manila Chamber Music Society. He also conducted the Rizal Orchestra, and founded the Orchestra Oriental (Manuel, 1970, pp. 7-9). Bibiano Morales was a member of the Centro de Bellas Artes and the earlier Asociacion Musical (Bañas, 1924, p. 96). Ladislao Bonus was the director of Teatro de Pandacan and also directed the Orkestang Babae of Circulo Musical de Pandacan, the Banda Pasig, the Orquesta Marikina and the Banda Arevalo of Quiapo (p.116). Cayetano Jacobe conducted the Tiwi Orchestra, Banda Cuaderno, Banda Pagsanjan, and Banda Tipas (Manuel, 1970, p. 230); and Lorenzo Ilustre conducted the Rizal Orchestra of Batangas, Banda Ibaan, and an all-female rondalla group (Tan, 2007, p. 12). Their mobility corroborates the typical involvement of a musician with numerous orchestras or bands, as opposed to the traditional restricted movement of members of the lower class in both feudal and capitalist systems (Murthy, 2015, p. 153). As the conductor of several music groups from diverse places, they served as links to the vast network of cultural space from which production relations were formed. They hint at these major locales belonging to the same network of musical productions, thus maintained a connected past. Relations and Forces of Musical Production in Manila Music’s new mode of production paved the way for the entry of new players that expanded the relations of production, thanks to the introduction of modern technology that intensified the forces of production. The musical mode of production in nineteenth-century Manila was formed by the stable presence of a network of musicians, patrons, organisations, educators, impresarios, aficionados, and audiences who related to one another and comprised the characters of what Marx referred to as ‘relations of production.’ It refers to the “social allocation of production, that is, the relationships among those who produce (labour), those who control what it takes to create the product (means of production), and those who appropriate the product (surplus)” (Qureshi, 2002, p. 88). Manila’s musical scene in the late nineteenth century provided a space where a complex web of Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (122-135) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 126 relations developed among the producers, distributors, and consumers of cultural productions. Musicians such as José Estella, Bonifacio Abdon, and Ladislao Bonus maintained close working relationships with wealthy patrons such as Francisco Roxas and Bonifacio Arevalo, while establishing social networks with owners of stores selling musical products, printing presses, theatres/concert halls, and many others. The rise of the demand for theatrical and orchestral performances obligated musicians to organise themselves and forged relations with a new kind of patronage system—one that responded to the imperatives of capitalist economy. Completing the concept of mode of production is the ‘forces of production’, which are primarily the technological basis for economic activity. They are conceived as “a combination of the means of production— the technological/material base of production and reproduction of the social formation” (Olmsted, 2002, p. 108). Examples of forces of production are new tools, machineries, printing presses, newly constructed theatres, and musical instruments. In her study of music circulation in nineteenth century Manila, Chua (2018) mentions that many peninsulares migrated to the capital and established publishing companies that printed and distributed music sheets and other commodities in the thriving business street of Escolta. Among whom were Carlos Saco del Valle, Ignacio Massaguer, and Blas Echegoyen (pp. 258-259). Music shops—e.g., Bazar Filipino, Bazar Oriental, La Lira Filipina, La Puerta del Sol, and El Progreso—abounded which offered instruments for sale such as pianos, violins, and guitars; repair services; and music tutorials (Chua, 2017, pp. 340-354). In addition, new theatre houses were opened such as Teatro Variedades (1879), Teatro Filipino (ca. 1880), Teatro Zorrilla (1893), and the Manila Grand Opera House (1900). There was also the quick dissemination of information about musical productions through printed daily newspapers such as El Comercio and Diario de Manila. These periodicals are an evidence of the vibrant economy in Manila that was characterised by expanded technological change, advancing industrialisation, and rapid urbanisation. Both the dynamic relations and forces of musical productions in Manila in the late nineteenth century constituted the economic structure of the colony’s social and cultural formation, which initiated changes that allowed for increased social mobility among indigena (island-born native or indio) musicians. Manila was then experiencing the heat of local modernity. As a result, these technological changes (forces of production) heightened the existing relations of production and introduced new ones (such as commodification) as demand for music from the public increased, prompting aficionados, musicians, and other artists to form unions to create a system of institutionalised representation for themselves. Exchanges between the various players of the musical mode of production required matching forces to avoid exploitation, particularly of labour. The growth of musical associations was connected to the general yearning for organised and formal support, primarily from the private sector, for the betterment of musicians’ welfare, competency, and opportunities. It was necessary to reconfigure the relations of production for musicians because the capitalist system placed a high premium on the concept of musical labour and performances as commodities to buy and sell (Olmsted, 2002, p. 128). Musical Patronage in Manila Since patronage in the performing arts is costly, it was necessary to establish organisations to be able to produce and sustain operas, zarzuelas, orchestras, bands, and other large musical groups. Howard Becker (2008), in his explanation of the interconnectedness of cultural agents and producers in ‘Art Worlds’, states that the costs of contemporary arts organisations—symphonies, operas, repertory theatres, and ballet—are so great no one patron can cover them. As a result, the people who might patronise individual painters or writers collaborate to support these organisations, and the coordination of that collaboration necessitates an elaborate ate paraphernalia of boards and auxiliaries to carry on the required fund raising. Patrons of these major cultural enterprises give enough to maintain a continuous flow of performances and the preparation of new productions (p. 104). Organisations were formed by the rising culturally supportive elite and middle-class that had capital. The formation of musical associations gave the indigena musician a choice to depend on economic forces other than the church or military, similar to the experience of European musicians in the eighteenth century in which their contracts that constituted a relation of domesticity with their patrons—courts, churches, or town councils— were transformed into one of exchange (Burkholder, et al., 2014, p. 452). Musicians began to work for the Arwin Q. Tan 127 public who was accountable for bestowing popularity. Thus, a musician who was able to measure and serve the taste of this selective public and exercise a keen business sense, capped with supreme adaptability was the ideal cultural producer in the new system. Taylor (2016) adds “producing in and for a market in large-scale fields of cultural production … is not the same thing as writing to please a patron in the feudal era” (p. 26). This explains the proliferation of music that catered to popular appeal in the late nineteenth century such as familiar arias from favourite operas and zarzuelas, salon piano music, and orchestral overtures rearranged for bands. A significant factor in the new relations of production was the emergence of the upper and middle classes who, as consumers, paved the way for the commodification of music. They determined the direction of music’s production, distribution, and consumption. Belonging to these social classes were the wealthy aficionados and ilustrados who would soon realise the need to form associations to further the cause of cultural education and advancement in the colony as they themselves were embodiments of the developing modernity. In Bayly’s (2004) study of global transformations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, he mentioned that there was … something distinctive about the Western urge to create clubs, societies, and meeting places … commoner and merchant families participated in the creation of a myriad new clubs dedicated to sociability, education, trade, and sport … The proliferation of associations and societies of self-organisation gave Western societies a considerable staying power and solidity, for both internal cohesion and external aggression. It was rooted in the rapid social mobility created by the expansion of internal production and external commerce in the eighteenth century (pp. 72-74). Goehr (1992) adds that private societies and musical academies were formed in European cities in the nineteenth century for the “mutual support and action in the cause of art . . . [and] sought to institutionalise … new interest in music, autonomously conceived and severed from its connections with extra-musical institutions” (pp. 239-241). Goehr (1992) lists the following British societies founded in the early nineteenth century: the Philharmonic Society (1813), Royal Academy of Music (1826), and Society of British Musicians (1834) (p. 241). Many of these musical societies were formed to accommodate their specific objectives such as an earlier society founded in London in 1768 whose purpose was to promote ancient music performance, and the Dresden Singakademie founded in 1807 that took as its objective the performance of neglected classics (Goehr, 1992, p. 245). In forming musical associations, Manila’s upper and middle classes created spaces for social relationships to prosper and advanced their social and cultural goals. They thus jockeyed themselves into position in the otherwise colonial milieu, exercising control over cultural taste and helping solidify their ranks in the social class structure. These associations provided a dependable network of relations and interests outside their business and entrepreneurial environs, thus creating venues for personal development, political advancement, and social mobility. Some members of the upper class singularly patronised private orchestras or bands, taking the management of such as their own entrepreneurial affair. They assumed the responsibility to support the livelihood of the members of their musical groups, most of whom were poor, providing the musicians lodging, food, and other basic needs. In some cases, these individual patrons even supported the musicians’ families. They forged fictive kinship that fostered a two-way interpersonal compadrazgo relations between the padrino (wealthy patron) and the local musicians (Mojares, 1985, p. 96). The vertical reciprocity of this compadrazgo relations allowed for the social integration of the musicians from the lower class through their membership in associations while at the same time, the patrons benefited from the services and inscribed allegiance of the local musicians. Patrons—criollos and mestizos—from the upper classes who nurtured anti- colonial nationalist sentiments used these associations to advance and protect the welfare of the musical laboured, despite it being considered as a threat to the core structure of capitalism (Murthy, 2015, p. 139-41). This unique compadrazgo devotion is displayed in the relation of Francisco Roxas, one of the wealthiest men in the colony in the late nineteenth century and a generous patron to many musical and artistic productions, and José Estella, a criollo composer who frequently provided music in Roxas’ social events. Roxas was charged with sedition and accused for rebellion against Spain in August 1896. On the night of his arrest, the criollo musician, José Estella, rode with him in the carriage that brought Roxas to the prison cell (Roxas, 1970, p. 121). Roxas would eventually be executed in January 1897, a few days after José Rizal was martyred in December Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (122-135) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 128 1896. This shows that while music productions flourished, the overarching capitalist infrastructure was not exempted from the complexities of the unfurling revolutionary atmosphere. Advancement of Music Education and Promotion of the Arts Foremost in the objectives of these associations was to foster the progress of musical education in the Philippines. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, there has been a clamour to lay the foundations for a conservatory of music in Manila, evidenced by the reviews of music performances in the capital and its suburbs, Quiapo, San Miguel, and Pandacan (Santos Jr., 2018, pp. 12-18). In 1890, José Rizal also wrote about the need to establish such an institution in Manila (Irving, 2010, p. 119). The only formal institution whose sole focus was music was the Colegio de Niños Tiples de la Santa Iglesia Catedral which centred its training on the musical needs of the church. In the absence of a formal institution, these associations catered informally to the demand for musical learning through the orchestras and bands they maintained. Musical associations and the groups they maintained, through their institutionalisation, resemble the attempt to gain more control in the process of putting order or structure to musical production. Attali (1985), in his extensive examination of the political economy of music, insinuated that musicians who came from the common people need to undergo an efficient process of normalisation to afford them to become spokesmen for a harmonic order (p. 62). This process of normalisation was to turn musicians into producers of that same order and aesthetics, which were designated as the functions of conservatories (Attali, 1985, p. 63). In the absence of music conservatories in Manila in the late nineteenth century, this task of putting order and the eventual control over musicians’ production was assumed by the associations whose orchestras became the practical training ground for such. Liceo Artistico-Literario’s formation was the first serious attempt of artists and writers in Manila to form a consortium to “propagate all legitimate manifestations of literature and art” (Retana, 1910, pp. 149-157). It was envisioned to be a “center of instruction and recreation … founded within the domains of artistic-literary sphere” (El Comercio, 11 December 1877). According to Bañas (1924), the founders of the Liceo Artístico- Literario “had in mind to convert it afterwards into a Conservatory of Music and Declamation” (p. 18). The realisation of this goal would eventually be achieved in 1916 upon the establishment of the University of the Philippines Conservatory of Music under Act 2623 of the Philippine Assembly, passed on 4 September of that year, under the proposal sponsored by Senator Joaquin Luna. To fulfil its mission “to spread the love of the beautiful, and to instruct and honour men who for their worth have achieved a distinguished position in literature or in the arts” (El Comercio, 18 February 1879), the Liceo had programmed different functions that were held weekly, monthly, and occasionally—veladas, concerts, baile1 de trajes (costume balls), and artistic competitions. These functions provided the necessary space for convergence, answering the clamour by the El Comercio critic who reiterated that “for its kind, there should be a meeting place of the good society in any population of any importance, more so in Manila where neither abound, nor are frequent [artistic, literary, and educational gatherings] or public performances” (El Comercio, 3 June 1879). Aside from the weekly veladas held at the halls of the Liceo, the association also presented concerts at the Teatro de Variedades which opened in early 1879 to replace the Teatro Principe Alfonso which burned down in 1878 (Laconico-Buenaventura, 1979, p. 22). This was administered by the dramatic section of the association that planned and staged zarzuelas, comedies, operas, and orchestral concerts. In May 1879, the Liceo presented the comedy Los Pavos Reales, arranged in Spanish from the French original by José Nunez de Lara y Tavira, and the dramatic work Mas Vale Maña que Fuerza by Manuel Tamayo y Baus (El Comercio, 21 May 1879). In June and July of the same year, it staged the following works: Las dos joyas de la Casa; Los dos ciegos; Los dos hijos; and Dos truchas en seco, also at the Teatro de Variedades (El Comercio, 27 June 1879). Its 14 August 1879 offering combined instrumental music and dramatic works. The following is the entire program for that evening’s concert: 1.º Symphony [no specific title], played by the orchestra; 2.º Trapisondas por bondad, a comedy in one act, arranged from the French original by A.M. Segovia; 3.º First “Romanza Without Words” for violin, harmonium, and piano by Felix Mendelssohn; 4.º “Romanza” for baritone by Donizetti; 5.º “Meditación” for violin, Arwin Q. Tan 129 violoncello, harmonium, and piano by A. Durant; 6.º Aria for bass from L’Ombra de la croce by Barri; 7.º L’ingenue gavotte by L’Arditti, quintet arranged by Luis Vicente Arche; and 8.º El Payo de la carta, a funny sainete by Ramón de la Cruz (El Comercio, 12 August 1879). Regulation of Musical Practice: Organisational Structures The membership of these associations came from all segments of the colonial population, with the preponderance of the cultural elite, which was made up of musicians and aficionados from the upper and middle classes. Naturally, this circle was small and it was foreseeable that members of one association could take part in other organisations, providing a web of institutionalised consortia of cultural agents and players, linked to the larger socio-political and economic forces in the network of cultural production. The associations served as venues for expanding social networks, both for the aficionados and musicians. Among the prominent artists and aficionados who became the prime movers of music associations include Francisco Roxas, Manuel Garrido, Pedro Gruet, Carlos Saco del Valle, Marcelo Adonay, Blas Echegoyen, Manuel Walls, Oscar Camps, Fr. Cipriano Gonzales, Ignacio Massaguer, Ramon Valdes, Bonifacio Arevalo, Antonio Garcia, and Bonifacio Abdon. They sat as founding board members or music directors of these musical associations. A few of these were also inclined to the political persuasions of the time, particularly towards the growing anti-colonial nationalism that would culminate in the 1896 revolution. Francisco Roxas and Bonifacio Arevalo were two of the prominent wealthy aficionados who served as officers of La Liga Filipina2, a propaganda movement primarily composed of ilustrados and members of the upper and middle class, founded by José Rizal in 1892 (Manuel, 1955, pp. 61-64; 1970, pp. 204-205). The membership of Liceo Artístico-Literario was composed of recognised artists and writers, “which included the men of greatest culture in the country” (Retana, 1910, p. 149). They were individuals who were distinguished as being “a musician, or a man of letters, or a fan of the dramatist, or a connoisseur of any of the fine arts” (p. 151). Thus, the composition of the association was made up of both the producers and consumers of artistic and literary arts, primarily from the insulares and the ilustrados of late nineteenth-century Philippines. Their number was “quite considerable and not everyone [was] given the chance to participate in the pleasant meetings in which they share[d] the task of instructing and delighting the participants with the immortal works of the great musicians, writers, and artists” (p. 150). The Liceo Artístico-Literario hosted competitions that encouraged the creation of a variety of artistic works—musical compositions, poetry, plays, and other literary writings—from the resident artists of the colony. According to Retana (1910), the association’s main men were Spanish, [but it exercised] a marked inclination towards the Filipinos; so marked that they exclusively celebrate[d] competitions in which [locally domiciled artists like] Icaza, Romasanta, Aristegui, Rosario y Sales, the Aguirres, Rizal, etc. were awarded, sometimes in opposition to the peninsula’s. It is also worth noting that it did not have the support of religious corporations, not even Dominicans, who, because they were in charge of higher education, should have highlighted their most sapient individuals … (p. 153). In contrast to the association which was composed mostly of colonial aristocrats, and ilustrados and aficionados from the burgeoning middle class, the second type of association is composed exclusively of musicians, both amateur and professional, from the middle and lower classes whose primary intent in converging was the regulation and professionalisation of their labour. The Sociedad Concierto Unión Artístico Musical was established more as a guild to answer “the demand for professional musicians in commercial entertainment in Manila” (Yamomo, 2017, p. 61). The regulation of the Unión was patterned after the Sociedad de conciertos in Madrid and it was envisioned to help initiate noticeable advancement in Filipino music (El Comercio, 13 June 1885). The orchestra was to be composed of 100 profesores (musicians) and was to hold regular concerts in the months of November, December, and January annually (El Comercio, 13 June 1885). This huge group of musicians was expected to answer the demand for orchestral needs or any act or event that required the assistance of orchestras as it was part of the association’s objectives to discourage the proliferation of small orchestras in Manila whose music making was extremely limited from a musical point of view (El Comercio, 13 June 1885). The artistic director was entitled to six times the salary of the 1st class musicians, thus receiving 18 pesos monthly (Articulo 16). Each musician, upon acceptance to the association was required to pay five pesos as entrance fee, and Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (122-135) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 130 subsequently paying four reales fuertes (Spanish monetary system) monthly contribution (Articulo 18). It is to be noted that the musicians were not employed full time by the union. It was a common practice for musicians to be members of different orchestras and bands (Bañas, 1924, p. 14). The members of the union were required to execute their individual parts in the music production which made them productive workers. As mentioned earlier, they were the image of programmed labour in society where each of them produced only a part of the whole (Attali, 1985, p. 66). The union’s Reglamento tediously defined the organisation of the group with an elected board that acted as the brain and leader of the musicians (Articulo 25-34). It also provided a scheduled annual concert season where the society’s funds were projected to come from, and the manner of handling the funds (Articulo 35-42). The normalisation process mentioned earlier is evident in the articles of Capitulo IX – disposiciones generales (general dispositions) discussing the ethics, proper decorum, and the corresponding penalties for failure to abide by the union’s regulations. As one among many musical organisations, the Unión Artístico-Musical indicates the configuration of musical and artistic groups that parallels the machineries of the bigger economic structures in the society. Aimed at specific objectives such as the improvement of the moral and material situations of music teachers and orchestras, and the general progress and development of the arts that existed in Manila in the late nineteenth century (Articulo 1), the union was actually empowering Filipino musicians who were given control of their own labour and means of production. The capitalist aim of the union was probably the accumulation of more social funds through successful income-generating concerts, tying the many activities of the association with the middle class’ growing need for affirmation of their emerging power position in late nineteenth century Manila’s economic and social formation. Similarly, the Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia classified its members as: De Numero, Auxiliares, Protectores, Corresponsales, and Honourarios (Articulo 6-18). De numero are music teachers, musical writers and amateurs who, without practicing the profession, cultivate the art and are in the position of being able to lend to society their musical cooperation, paying a monthly contribution of $0.75. Auxiliares are those who live from the exercise of musical art, lack the resources to contribute to the ends of society in another way than with their artistic cooperation, remunerated as those who are not considered as learned. In addition to gratuitous assistance to the acts of the society, they will participate in the compensation that divides the same between them and of the aid and relief benefits, but they will not be able to exert any charge in the governing and section boards nor in the commissions. Protectores are lovers of music who do not lend their artistic skill to the society and wish, nevertheless to be part of it, and are required to contribute One Peso monthly. Corresponsales are music teachers and musical writers who reside outside Manila or the archipelago and whose name lends honour to the association, from whom some annual work are requested. Honourarios are those who are considered great geniuses, composers or musical literati, both national and foreign, who are said to accept the respectful tribute of admiration that society offers them by means of his appointment. New Market and the Commodification of Musical Labour Prior to the formation of musical associations, Spain’s legacy in musical transmission—the Catholic Church and the Spanish Military Regiments—had already established before the late nineteenth century a patronage system that was centred on music’s ritual functions in solemnising church occasions, celebrating religious festivals, carrying out official military band functions, and thus reiterating the ceremonial character of music in a colonial society. Before the advent of capitalism in the colony, musicians worked mainly for the Church— employed as cantores or organists, and the Spanish military—appointed as band members. These positions were competitive in nature and the Church or the military employed those who successfully passed the rigorous process of musical examinations. Musicians who were able to rise in the structural hierarchy of these formal institutions were able to elevate their social status through being assigned as maestro de capilla of a church or as bandmaster of any of the seven regimental bands.3 These bands also served unofficial civic functions by performing at weekly concerts in town plazas—the most popular of which were the two adjacent parks of Luneta and Malecon in Manila, as well as providing music to the balls and dances of Manila’s elite.4 Perhaps the most visible civic function of bands and orchestras was playing for the fiesta celebrations of each Christianised town of the colony. Fiestas were considered as the socio-cultural high points of the year—helping legitimise and glorify the Spanish colonial (religious) presence in the Islands—and they were celebrated with Arwin Q. Tan 131 much pomp highlighted by awe-inspiring spectacles featuring entertainment music from the popular theatre and zarzuela artists, parades, banquets, fireworks, cockfights, fairs, sporting competitions, trade displays, and many more (Wendt, 1998, p. 5). The ubiquity of music performances from the bands and orchestras displays the simultaneity of their functions, fulfilling both the Church and military-patronised ritual music-making and the bourgeoning publicly-patronised entertainment ‘concert’ music. This crossing-over from one function to another shows how musicians manoeuvred from different patronage systems, adopting to the demands of the new capitalist market. In both colonial institutions, musical labour was recognised and remunerated, albeit differently. The Church exempted its musicians from paying tribute, afforded them freedom of movement and subsidised travel, paid an annual rice subsidy, gave them access to expensive musical commodities and technology, and provided opportunities for them to mingle with ecclesiastical authorities (Irving, 2011, pp. 119-121). The military, on the other hand, applied a standardised salary scheme for its band members, providing “the first professional music employment for the lowest class in the colonial society” (Yamomo, 2017, p. 68). Musicians were accorded a certain status by the colonial population because one needed to possess a high level of musical aptitude—a cultural capital—and must have passed a rigid competition in order to be employed by the Church or the Spanish regiments. In addition, musicians employed in the late nineteenth century kept an elevated social position that occupied the same rank as lawyers and doctors, and enjoyed patronage from the two major colonial institutions. As such, indigena musicians who derived their principal income—in money and other remuneration forms— from their employment with these two institutions, who at the same time experienced significant changes in their social positions may be regarded more as ‘specialists’ (Brown, 2007, pp. 3-4). When the effects of capitalism were beginning to be felt by the general colonial population in the late nineteenth century, a new mode of musical production ensued which veered away from the sacrificial function of music in the old, feudal Catholic Church. The Catholic Church hierarchy in the Islands was known for enforcing a repressive governance led by a central state bureaucracy that demanded forced labour without remuneration among the indigenas (Jackson, 2016, p. 131). Capitalism also diminished the representation of the undisputed pre-eminence of the Spanish colonial government through the military as new alternative musical productions became available. There was a transition from music that was heard in churches and public promenades which were financed by these institutions, into music that was heard by people who paid admission charges, in the form of money, to theatres and status-balancing private-made-public salons of the rich. A look at the regulations of the Sociedad Concierto Unión Artístico Musical reveals how its members were remunerated for musical services rendered. Excluding the conductor, of its roster of 99 musicians, 15 were classified as first class musicians who received a monthly share in the society utilities of three pesos each, 30 as second class who received two pesos and a half, another 30 as third class who received two pesos, and 24 as 4th class who received one peso and a half (Articulo 15). The top position of the orchestra was the artistic director who was in charge of the preparation of the program and was remunerated with sixfold the amount received by first class musicians—eighteen pesos (Articulo 18). Acceleration of Modernity: Protecting Musicians’ Welfare and Compadrazgo Relations A few of these associations maintained secondary objectives such as Sociedad Musical Filipino de Santa Cecilia which focused on the improvement of the welfare of its partners, with special emphasis on those who needed financial help. In Article 3 of the statutes, a relief fund gathered through voluntary donations was to be instituted which composed 12% of all income and to be used to improve the financial status of some members of the association. This specific regulation exhibits the association’s multi-class membership and the intention to improve the financial position of members belonging to the lower social class. The association acted as an agent for social improvement through the provision of funds generated from donations and other sources of revenues to allow them to increase social mobility through an improved economic position, and emphasising mutual personal cooperation and social relations among its members. Within the Sociedad, the upper class padrinos (and madrinas) were accorded a considerable “degree of social legitimacy” (Mojares, 1985, p. 97). Outside of the Sociedad, they were acknowledged as the association’s leaders who represented it in business transactions and other negotiations that forged social relations with other players in the network of Manila’s expanding capitalist society. This even extended to Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (122-135) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 132 transactions outside of the colonial capital as demand for Manila musicians brought “band-masters, and later managers [of overseas bands], . . . to Manila and coordinated their recruitment of musicians with referrals through . . . music societies such as the Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia, through which musicians in the Sta. Cecilia Band in Singapore were enlisted” (Yamomo, 2017, p. 29). Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia represents an almost utopian version of capitalism where the dominant wealthy class reproduces capital through the production and distribution of music in its various commoditised forms, remunerating musical labour in a structured manner and generating as much profit as possible in order to operate more lucratively, and maintain a benefit fund which addresses the economic welfare of its disadvantaged members. This is not a common scenario in a capitalist society because by the very nature of the capitalist economic system, the gap between the rich and poor tends to widen as those who own capital have more means and opportunities for its reproduction while those who have none naturally are not able to reproduce, except to earn wages from their labour. Bayly (2004) asserts that the vast disparities in world living standards which were apparent by the end of the nineteenth century may have been more about external regimes of money and military power than about relative technical progress. The industrial life-style was as much about the desire of the wealthy to control the poor as about economic efficiency in its own right (p. 183). The desire to control opens up “the possibility of exploitation and the diverse class structures that might support it, where the ones who produce a surplus do not appropriate it” (Irizarry, 2013, p. 42). The poor have no ownership of the means of production, thus “they have to sell their labour power in exchange for a wage to be able to eventually acquire their means of subsistence” (p. 12). On the other hand, Murthy posits through her elaboration of Chakrabarty’s concept of History 2, the utopian goal of advanced capitalism is for workers to no longer need to labour extensively to produce wealth, albeit the challenge lies in the creation of a society in which wage is not the dominant economic force for existence (Murthy, 2015, p. 151). The leadership of Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia was made up of private wealthy patrons who forged relations with others in the field of music production. The Board of Directors managed a mixed- class cultural organisation that helped indigena musicians coming from impoverished economic background. These private individual patrons “afford[ed] to be the models of enlightened generosity” (Becker, 2008, p.104). They were mostly protectores who funded the formation of the society in order to have easier access to and control over musical productions, particularly those that required the costly services of an orchestra or a band. Reiterating what Becker has stated, such costs are so great no one patron can cover them . . . Patrons of these major cultural enterprises give enough to maintain a continuous flow of performances and the preparation of new productions. They get no collectable objects to display as evidence of their taste and seriousness, but their names appear in programs, and they sometimes get credit for financing a new production . . . and thus receive a certain amount of status honour (p. 104). The protectores thus, gave indigena musicians from the lower class the access to the exclusive field of elite music making. These patrons made it possible for the relations of production to expand, bridging the gap among classes and allowing for a more dynamic society in which social mobility was the outcome. As a form of exchange, the indigena musicians, using their acquired technical facility, were paid for their labour that got embodied in musical performances enjoyed by many. These became in turn sources of status and honour among those who supported the arts. From their end, they created opportunities for the wealthy aficionados to assert their already attained cultural position by promoting the simulacra of social ordering, programmed labour, harmonic economy, and the essential figure of power through the orchestra that they funded (Attali, 1985, pp. 65-66). Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia was the lone musical association included in this larger social field. Although seemingly secure, the Sociedad Musical de Santa Cecilia provided a small fissure in the demarcations between social classes because through the very nature of a wide-ranged class membership of the association, the predominantly upper class directors opened the space within the organisation that allowed for the mobile movement of its subsidised auxiliary members who were mostly indigena musicians, giving them a glimpse of high society relations, interests, and way of life. In a way, they were acting as the indigena musicians’ Arwin Q. Tan 133 padrino, a social capital, in the vertical reciprocal fictive kinship links that are inscribed in Christian interpersonal compadrazgo relations (Mojares, 1985, pp. 96-97). The vertical aspect of this social relation is two way. It helped the indigena musicians, as clients, to be socially integrated in the association, but their patrons depended on them as well for the Sociedad’s functions. A strong motivation for the upper class socios de numero and protectores why they endeavoured to bridge the gap between the classes in their association could have been the benefit they derived from the services offered by their ‘dependents,’ and the probable acknowledgement of a moral obligation stemming from the compadrazgo system endorsed by the Catholic Church. As patrons, it was necessary to invest in the creation of “goodwill among followers and dependents for the purpose of assuring cooperation and subservience” (Mojares, 1985, p. 99). Mojares adds that “moral notions increasingly become prominent as a motive force . . . [that translate into tradition, which may be] created out of an interplay of self-interested acts and choices, but it is in the end held together and sustained by shared notions of a common moral order” (p. 100). Conclusion Patronage of music in Manila in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries represented the simultaneous presences of continuing feudal and new capitalist systems of remunerating musical labour and managing music productions. While the new dominant economic system focused on the commodification of music, its complex machinations benefited mostly the aficionados, impresarios, and other music practitioners from the upper echelons of the colonial society. In short, only those who have been educated on the limitless advantages of effective business management and entrepreneurship grasped the essence of converting music productions into a huge source of the most potent tool of capitalist exchange system—money. This important resource oiled the various machineries of the musical mode of production including the complex web of the relations of production as they mastered the new forces of production in the modernising colonial capital. Most of the indigena musicians, however, were only beginning to accumulate cultural capital upon the onset of capitalism in the colony. This limited their capacity to reproduce their acquired capital because they lacked the monetary inducement necessary to multiply production. Thus, a need to organise themselves together to pool their meagre financial resources became an imperative action, forming musical associations to lend strength towards the realisation of their goals and to have a stronger representative voice that can compete with the established institutions already at work in the capitalist society. Propitiously, the upper and the bourgeoning middle classes of the colonial capital needed social symbols and actual representations of their new status and acquired taste that marked their possession of cultural capital. The closest symbol that encompassed everything they wished to project was found in the orchestra (and the band), with all its representation of social ordering, division of labour, and the image of power in the character of the conductor. Since it was too costly to finance an orchestra, the wealthy members of the upper and upper middle classes of Manila formed musical associations in order to have easy access to an orchestra. A few of these founded by aficionados provided all the possible privileges—the most basic of which was exemption in paying the normal monthly fee—to orchestral musicians in order to lure the indigena musicians to join their associations, thus, establishing compadrazgo relations that emphasised the paternalistic patron-client connection. In most cases, this compadrazgo relation functioned vertically where patrons assumed the traditional master position and the musicians became their dependents, particularly in the practice of their art. More than these associations’ recognised aims upon their foundation, they provided institutionalised avenues for musicians and aficionados to establish social networks that allowed them more possibilities for mobility in the colonial system. Through joining different organisations, these cultural agents expanded the workings of socio-political and economic forces during the Spanish and American colonial periods. Memberships in these associations became symbols of prestige, the security of which were supported by the strength of institutionalisation, and allowed the Filipino musicians to involve themselves in various relations of cultural production. Endnotes Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (122-135) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 134 1 The Philippine revolution began with concerns to bring liberal and progressive reforms to the Islands, which later turned into a complicated struggle for the emancipation from Spanish colonial grip. This was aggravated by the 1872 execution of the three martyr priests—Mariano Gomez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora—and the worsening denigration of the Filipino race by the Spaniards (Schumacher, 1981, p. 36). 2 La Liga Filipina was among the three propaganda movement organisations, the two others were the Cuerpo and the Katipunan, that advanced nationalist objectives in the late nineteenth. It was founded by José Rizal and inaugurated on 3 July 1892. The Liga represented the aristocrats of Philippine colonial society, which explains the involvement of many of the wealthy musical patrons of the period. 3 The known regiments stationed in the islands were Regiment Nos. 5, 7, 8, 71, 72, 73 and 74 (Rubio, 1959, p.12). These bands were routinely assigned to Manila, Cavite, Cebu, Cotabato, Iligan, Jolo, and Zamboanga (Tan, 2014, p. 66). 4 William Summers’ digital collection of nineteenth century Manila newspapers covers more than twenty years of archival work, and this extensive research will appear in a forthcoming publication entitled Repairing the fractured mirror: A chronicle and source book devoted to the performing arts in Manila, 1848-1898. References Anonymous. (1877, December 11). Liceo artistica. El Comercio. Anonymous. (1879, February 18). Velada en honour á Bécquer. El Comercio. Anonymous. (1879, June 3). Velada. El Comercio. Anonymous. (1879, May 21). Liceo. El Comercio. Anonymous. (1879, June 27). Función dramática. El Comercio. Anonymous. (1879, August 12). Liceo. El Comercio. Anonymous. (1885, June 13). Sociedad de Conciertos Unión Artístico Musical. El Comercio. Attali, J. (1985). Noise: The political economy of music. (B. Massumi, Trans.). Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press. Bañas, R. C. (1924). The music and theater of the Filipino people. Manila: Oriental Printing. Bayly, C. A. (2004). The birth of the modern world: 1780-1914. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Becker, H. S. (2008). Art worlds: 25th anniversary edition, updated and expanded. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.) Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241-58). New York, NY: Greenwood Press. Brown, K. B. (2007). The social liminality of musicians: Case studies from Mughal India and beyond. Twentieth-century music, 3 (1), 13-49. Buenconsejo, J. S., (Ed.) (2017). Philippine modernities: Music, performing arts, and language, 1880-1941. Quezon City: The University of the Philippines Press. Burkholder, J. P., Grout, D. J., & Palisca C. V. (2014). A history of western music (9th ed.). New York, NY and London: W.W. Norton & Company. Chua, M. A. I. (2017). Composing the Filipino: Music transculturation and hybridity in nineteenth century urban colonial Manila (1858-1898). (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines. Chua, M. A. I. (2018). Selling the music: Music stores and distribution companies in colonial Manila, 1873-1942. In A.Q.Tan (Ed.) Saysay Himig: A sourcebook on Philippine music history, 1880-1941 (pp. 257-64). Quezon City: The University of the Philippines Press. Estatutos de la Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia. (1889). Manila: Tipográfico de Ramírez y Compañía. Goehr, L. (1992). The imaginary museum of musical works: An essay in the philosophy of music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Irizarry, I. J. S. (2013). The political economy of cultural production: Essays on music and class (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from http://scholarworks.umass.edu/open_access_dissertations//820. Irving, D. R. M. (2010). Colonial counterpoint: Music in early modern Manila. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Irving, D. R. M. (2011). Employment, enfranchisement and liminality: Ecclesiastical musicians in early modern Manila. In G. Baker and T. Knighton (Eds.) Music and urban society in colonial Latin America (pp. 117-131). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jackson, J.F. (2016). “A military necessity which must be pressed”: The U.S. Army and forced road labour in the early American colonial Philippines. In M.Van der Linden and M.R.Garcia (Eds.) On Coerced labour : Work and compulsion after chattel slavery (pp. 127-58). Boston: Brill. Laconico-Buenaventura, C. (1979). The theaters of Manila: 1846-1896. Philippine Studies 27 (no. 1), 5-37. Arwin Q. Tan 135 Maceda, J. M. (1973). Music in the Philippines in the nineteenth century. In Robert Günther (Ed.) Musikkulturen Asiens, Afrikans und Ozeaniens im 19.Jahrhundert (pp. 215-232). Regensburg: G. Bosse. Manuel, E. A. (1955). Dictionary of Philippine biography (Volume 1). Quezon City: Filipiniana Publications. Manuel, E. A. (1970). Dictionary of Philippine biography (Volume 2). Quezon City: Filipiniana Publications. Mojares, R. B. (1985). Theater in society, society in theater: Social history of a Cebuano village, 1840-1940. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Mojares, R. B. (2006). Brains of the nation. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Murthy, V. (2015). Looking for resistance in all the wrong places? Chibber, Chakrabarty, and a tale of two histories. Critical Historical Studies vol. 2 (no. 1, Spring), 113-53. Olmsted, A. A. (2002). The capitalization of musical production: The conceptual and spatial development of London’s public concerts, 1660-1750. In R. Qureshi (Ed.) Music and Marx: Ideas, practice, politics (pp. 106-38). New York, NY: Routledge. Qureshi, R. B. (2002). Mode of production and musical production: Is Hindustani music feudal? In R. Qureshi (Ed.) Music and Marx: Ideas, practice, politics (pp. 81-105). New York, NY: Routledge. Reglamento de la Sociedad de Conciertos Unión Artístico Musical, aprobado por el Gobierno Superior de las Islas en 16 de Mayo de 1885. (1885). Manila: Est. Tipo-Litográfico de M. Perez, Hijo. Retana, W. E. (1910). Del Teatro en Filipinas, capitulo XVII. Nuestro Tiempo: Ciencias y artes-politica y hacienda año X 137, 149-157. Roxas, F. M. (1970). The world of Felix Roxas. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild. Rubio, H. (1959). Development of the brass band in the Philippines. Philippine Music Festival. Santos Jr., B. (2018). Proposals for a conservatory of music, 1870s-1890s. In Tan, A. Q. (Ed.) Saysay himig: A sourcebook on Philippine music history, 1880-1941 (pp. 12-19). Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. Schumacher, J. N., SJ. (1981). Revolutionary clergy: The Filipino clergy and the nationalist movement, 1850-1903. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Tan, A. Q. (2007). Evolving Filipino music and culture in the life and works of Don Lorenzo Ilustre of Ibaan, Batangas. (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). University of the Philippines. Tan, A. Q. (2014). Reproduction of cultural and social capital in nineteenth century Spanish regimental bands of the Philippines. Humanities Diliman, 11 (2), 61-89. Tan, A. Q. (2018). Music, labour, and capitalism in Manila’s transforming colonial society in the late nineteenth century. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines. Taylor, T. (2016). Music and capitalism: A history of the present. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Wendt, R. (1998). Philippine fiesta and colonial culture. Philippine Studies, 46 (1), 3-23. Yamomo, M. (2017). Global currents, musical streams: European opera in colonial Southeast Asia. Nineteenth Century Theatre and Film, 44 (1), 54-74. Biography Arwin Q. Tan is assistant professor of Musicology at the University of the Philippines College of Music in Diliman, Quezon City. He is the editor of ‘Saysay Himig: A sourcebook on Philippine music history, 1880-1941’, and curator of its accompanying 3-CD recordings ‘Saysay Himig: An anthology of transcultural Filipino music, 1880-1941’. He was consultant and contributor to the second edition of the ‘Music Volume (VII)’ of the ‘Cultural Center of the Philippines Encyclopedia of Philippine Arts.’ He has written articles and reviews for the ‘Humanities Diliman’, ‘Musika Jornal’,‘Saliksik e-Journal’, ‘Perspectives in the Arts and Humanities’ and ‘Asian Studies’. Tan also performs as conductor of the four-time‚ Ani ng Dangal awardee, Novo Concertante Manila, currently ranked 3rd in the top 1000 mixed choirs of the world by ‘Interkultur’, Germany. He has been accorded the ‘International Publication Award’ in 2015 by the University of the Philippines (UP), the UP Artist I Award for the period 2013-2015, and UP Artist II Award for the period 2016-2018.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 8 (2019)

.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/163

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3304

Editorial

The Malaysian Music Journal, Volume 8, is composed of eight articles involving issues in ethnomusicology, musicology, music education and music therapy. These articles present the research of authors from various academic backgrounds and places including Hong Kong, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, United States, Italy and Malaysia.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/3304/2272

MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC Volume 8 2019 ISSN 2600-9366 e-ISSN 2600-9331 Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjong Malim, Perak 2019 ii iii MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC Volume 8, 2019 Editorial Clare Suet Ching Chan v Klong yao and the Performance of Minority Identity in the Siamese Community of Perlis, Malaysia Chayuti Tassanawongwara, Hanafi Hussin 1 Investigating Nineteenth-Century Transcriptions through History of Opera and Music Publishing: Mauro Giuliani’s Sources for Two Themes in Le Rossiniane No. 2, Op. 120, and No. 3, Op. 121 Francesco Teopini Terzetti Casagrande 19 Exploring the Role of the Music Teacher from the Perspectives of Parents and Teachers in West Malaysia Kathryn Ang, Clorinda Panebianco, Albi Odendaal 52 The Instrument as Instrumental: Pgaz k’Nyau Bamboo Musicking and Karen Eco-Friendliness Suwichan "Chi" Phattanaphraiwan, Benjamin Stuart Fairfield 68 The Effects of Parent-Child Interactive Music Therapy on Sentence Verbalisation in a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Case Study Charoenphol Chanyanit, Natee Chiengchana, Nion Tayrattanachai 86 Educational Partnerships towards Long-Term Music Education Projects in Thailand. Nicha Chansitthichok, Anak Charanyananda, Narongchai Pidokrajt 96 Transmission of Kêlèntangan Music among the Dayak Bênuaq of East Kalimantan in Indonesia Eli Irawati 108 iv Patronage and Capitalism in the Musical Associations of Late Nineteenth- Century Colonial Manila Arwin Q. Tan 122 v Editorial Cite this editorial (APA): Chan, C.S.C. (2019). Editorial. Malaysian Journal of Music Journal, 8, v-vi. The Malaysian Music Journal, Volume 8, is composed of eight articles involving issues in ethnomusicology, musicology, music education and music therapy. These articles present the research of authors from various academic backgrounds and places including Hong Kong, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, United States, Italy and Malaysia. Tassanawongwara and Hussin in ‘Klong yao and the performance of minority identity in the Siamese community of Perlis, Malaysia’ examine how klong yao musicians of the Siamese communities in Perlis, a northern state in peninsula Malaysia, adopted a Central Thai musical identity to represent their community during performance events. This choice may allude to a desire to present difference through an assertion of ancestral heritage or a rejection of assimilation into local culture. Teopini Terzetti Casagrande highlights how composers utilised the themes from the original musical transcriptions made available during the nineteenth century into their own compositions. These composers infused their personal emotions, taste and aesthetics from the original themes into their new compositions. In the article, ‘Investigating nineteenth-century transcriptions through history of opera and music publishing: Mauro Giuliani’s sources for two themes in Le Rossiniane No. 2, Op. 120, and No. 3, Op. 121’, Teopini Terzetti Casagrande explores the possible sources for two opera themes transcribed in these works. In ‘Exploring the role of the music teacher from the perspectives of parents and teachers in West Malaysia’, Ang, Panebianco and Odendaal draw on role theory to discuss the function of the teacher based on the expectations of both parents and music teachers in group music classes for pre-school children, in the Klang Valley, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. This article highlights important cultural nuances and expectations music teachers face in a country with various ethnicities and consequently with differing cultural values. This research demonstrates that parents have high expectations of a music educator, in part due to the financial transaction involved. On the other hand, music educators sometimes view parents as having unrealistic expectations of their children’s performance driven by their desire for self-promotion though the achievements of their children. In an era where central Thai culture continues to dominate minority cultural knowledge and practices in Thailand, Phatthanaphraiwan and Fairfield exemplify how collective knowledge of indigenous sustainability and value for the natural environment is embodied in the music produced by the bamboo instruments of the Pgaz k’Nyau (Sgaw Karen). According to the Pgaz k’Nyau, musical instruments are not merely tools to produce music; they ‘make society and culture’. Stories of their origins are intertwined with encounters with animals and plants, which influence the vi material and sonic construction of the instrument. Music produced from bamboo musical instruments of the Pgaz k’Nyau remind, educate and ingrain their belief systems that value a reciprocal relationship between humans and nature. In a preliminary single case study, Charoenphol, Chiengchana and Tayrattanachai in ‘The effects of parent-child interactive music therapy on sentence verbalisation in a child with autism spectrum disorder: A case study’ examined how the involvement of parents in parent-child therapy programmes for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) helped to improve the child’s verbalisation skills. This study finds that the physical interaction between parent and child evoked a comforting emotion that enhanced the child’s motivation and achievement in verbalising specific words. Chansitthichok, Charanyananda and Pidokrajt conducted qualitative research to examine the important components that contributed to the development of successful educational partnerships in Thailand. Their article, ‘Education partnerships toward long term music education projects in Thailand’ establishes that the active participation of students, parents, music teachers, school principal, music supervisors, music educators and community leaders are important contributions to effective long term music education projects. The characteristics of two successful education partnerships were also highlighted in this study. Irawati engages us with the intricate processes that occur during the transmission of kêlèntangan music, performed for the Dayak Bênuaq rituals of East Kalimantan in Indonesia. In ‘Transmission of kêlèntangan music among the Dayak Bênuaq of East Kalimantan in Indonesia’ Irawati argues that learning the music of the kêlèntangan through oral tradition is not just about learning and memorising the traditional musical repertoire but also involves a holistic process that encompasses the embodying of cultural knowledge, behaviour and movement. Thus, music transmission of the kêlèntangan involves auditory, visual and kinesthetic aspects. In ‘Patronage and capitalism in the musical associations of late nineteenth- century colonial Manila’, Tan argues that the dynamic interaction between the culturally supportive elite and middle class patrons and sponsors of musical productions perpetuated the feudalistic and new emerging capitalistic system of managing musical productions in nineteenth-century Manila. Tan examines the organisation system of three musical associations to support this argument – Liceo Cientifico Artistico Literario, Sociedad de Conciertos Unión Artístico-Musical and Sociedad Musical Filipina de Santa Cecilia. These musical associations provided a platform for indigena (island-born native) musicians to promote, circulate and benefit monetarily. They also facilitated indigena musicians to rise to the limelight with their musical productions and competency. Clare Suet Ching Chan Chief Editor Malaysian Journal of Music

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

holistic music educational approach, young children, communication development, Soundbeam, trigger modes

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/835

Exploring Young Children’s Communication Development through the Soundbeam Trigger Modes in the ‘Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children’ Programme

The Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children (HMEAYC) is a professional method that aims to provide a music curriculum for children in both mainstream and special education settings. The purpose of this research was to examine the effectiveness of the HMEAYC in communication development through the use of the Soundbeam trigger modes in young children from the mainstream and with special needs. The participants were divided into two groups, and they were aged between 41 and 55 months. All the children received the same number of hours of music instruction per week incorporating the ‘Soundbeam technology’ adapted from the HMEAYC method. The duration was 32 weeks with a 40-minute instructional session once a week. The results and findings showed that both of the groups increased their participation in the musical activities and improved their communication ability by the end of the study. The findings suggest the HMEAYC curriculum framework is beneficial for making connections between music activities and comprehension processes in communication. The results showed that in the autism spectrum disorder children and young children, the manipulation behaviours are both related to single operation through the Soundbeam trigger modes in the HMEAYC.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/835/571

Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 1 Exploring Young Children’s Communication Development through the Soundbeam Trigger Modes in the ‘Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children’ Programme Liza Lee Early Childhood Development and Education, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taiwan e-mail: [email protected] Han-Ju Ho Counseling and Educational Psychology, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 30 June 2018 Cite this article (APA): Lee, L., & Ho, H. J. (2018). Exploring Young Children’s Communication Development through the Soundbeam Trigger Modes in the ‘Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children’ Programme. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 1- 19. Abstract The Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children (HMEAYC) is a professional method that aims to provide a music curriculum for children in both mainstream and special education settings. The purpose of this research was to examine the effectiveness of the HMEAYC in communication development through the use of the Soundbeam trigger modes in young children from the mainstream and with special needs. The participants were divided into two groups, and they were aged between 41 and 55 months. All the children received the same number of hours of music instruction per week incorporating the ‘Soundbeam technology’ adapted from the HMEAYC method. The duration was 32 weeks with a 40-minute instructional session once a week. The results and findings showed that both of the groups increased their participation in the musical activities and improved their communication ability by the end of the study. The findings suggest the HMEAYC curriculum framework is beneficial for making connections between music activities and comprehension processes in communication. The results showed that in the autism spectrum disorder children and young children, the manipulation behaviours are both related to single operation through the Soundbeam trigger modes in the HMEAYC. Keywords: holistic music educational approach, young children, communication development, Soundbeam, trigger modes Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (1-19) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 2 Introduction ‘Holistic development’ is an educational goal that seeks to address a child’s spiritual, physical, relational, intellectual, and linguistic abilities to simultaneously set them on a positive learning path in early childhood. There is evidence that musical activities assist with early language development and emotional well-being and that the benefits of music can contribute to the development of children (Moore, 2013; Murray, 2005; Schon, Boyer, Moreno, Besson, Peretz, & Kolinsky, 2008). Therefore, musical activities should create communication opportunities to engage with young children. In this aspect, singing, rhymes, musical games, and playing instruments are efficient ways to communicate with young children. Music can be utilised to cue the rate (e.g., faster or slower), manner (e.g., even or syncopated patterns for walking vs. skipping) or direction (e.g., moving to one location) of physical movement to enhance children’s motor development (Gfeller & Darrow, 2008). Music participation has a positive effect on the personal and social development of young children (Hallam, 2010). Effective musical communication requires the conveyance of the intended message in a manner perceptible to the receiver (Whipple, Gfeller, Driscoll, Oleson, & McGregor, 2015). The Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children (HMEAYC) is an activity designed for young children and children with special needs that integrates music education and music therapy. The lessons of therapy are designed according to the development of the children's physical and mental needs. Music, as a medium for children to learn, is used as an ‘education principle’ and is expected to achieve the purpose of integrating ‘education and treatment’. Teaching teams design a variety of music activities to enhance the effectiveness of special learning in young children by implementing courses in music (Lee, 2016). The HMEAYC is a model that has combined theory, hands-on practice and experience for more than 20 years. It is an innovative music educational model that fuses contemporary science and technology, multi-sensory equipment and traditional instruments with creative music (Lee, 2008, 2012). The HMEAYC uses music as a medium to enhance the interconnectedness of the mind, body and spirit from a young age. HMEAYC educators may plan or assess ability development with a focus on a particular outcome or component of learning because they see children’s education as interconnected. Soundbeam technology uses a motion sensor to enable patients with special needs to express sounds or music through their limbs, helping to improve both their gestural control and full body motions (Swingler, 1994, 1998; Swingler & Brockhouse, 2009; Jacoby, 2013). Foreign countries have been developing this technology for more than 20 years. In 2007, Taiwan imported the first set of instruments from the United Kingdom. Although it has been in usage for nearly 10 years, it is still a novel technology that has been designed primarily for use within special needs education and/or therapeutic settings. Relevant empirical studies have found that Soundbeam usage for the rehabilitative therapy of children with disabilities has a highly significant result for disabled children (Ellis & Leeuwen, 2000; Ellis, 2004). Practical research in Taiwan has found that the integration of Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 3 designed activities into scientific instruments can enhance the learning motivation of both mainstream and special needs children (Lee, 2011b; Lee & Lin, 2013). The primary purpose of this study is to examine the effectiveness of HMEAYC, a framework that uses music activities to facilitate communication. As such, the specific research questions asked are as follows: 1) Can the HMEAYC improve comprehension in the communication skill development of mainstream children? 2) Can researchers learn more about the communication needs of young children through the trigger mode of the Soundbeam in the HMEAYC? This study will provide recommendations based on its findings. Literature Review HMEAYC is attuned to each child’s individual personal programme and assesses learning by synergising and integrating opportunities for learning. Liza Lee at Chaoyang University of Technology, Taiwan, who has been implementing and promoting the HMEAYC for 16 years, has found it to be an effective educational programme for young children (Lee, 2011a, 2015; Lee & Lin, 2013; You & Lee, 2016). In 2016, Lee shares HMEAYC results in the conference paper entitled ‘An Empirical Study of Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children on Communication Development’. HMEAYC is an activity designed for young children and children with special needs via an integrated curriculum that translates theories into hands-on practices, integrating music education and therapy into one (Lee, 2016). Research has found that children's language and body movements increased (Lee, 2016; Lee & Lin, 2015), and found that children with special needs had improved language, attention and body movements when an HMEAYC curriculum framework was used to enhance the development of these abilities (Lee, 2015; Lee & Ho, 2017; Lee & Li, 2016; Lee & Lin, 2013; Lee & McCord, 2012). The HMEAYC involves the principle of repetition in the curriculum design and is expected to achieve its objectives through various arrangements and tempo changes to the same songs and rhymes. It enhances children’s abilities through the principle of repetitive learning. There is no fixed formula for the children’s music education curriculum, but adjustments are possible because all teaching activities are beneficial to children’s holistic development. The curriculum includes a hello song, an attendance song, musical games, musical storytelling, musical movement, relaxation time and a goodbye song (Lee, 2016). The following illustrates the curriculum design. Each activity has specific purposes: the hello and goodbye songs are designed to improve children's sense of order (beginning and end of the curriculum) and provide a preview and review of the teaching objectives; the attendance song improves self-awareness and social interactions with the instructor and peers; relaxation time helps children attain calmness before the class ends. These all occur at fixed times during the class. Other teaching activities, such as musical games, musical storytelling and musical movement, may be expanded or reduced (Lee, 2012, 2015, 2016). The HMEAYC enhances the learning experience on four dimensions: Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (1-19) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 4 1) Children: Since the HMEAYC can be applied to all children, including those with special needs, it is a conventional and inclusive education curriculum; 2) Field: the HMEAYC incorporates interactive activities from all fields of study since it is a multi-dimensional, multi-layered method of special music education; 3) Faculty: teachers from various fields of study who acknowledge the intrinsic and inborn nature of music are brought together to achieve a better result of music education. Furthermore, parents are also thought of as inherent music teachers for their children; 4) Methodology: the fully assimilated and the wholly integrated conventional education models provide the means to incorporate modern technology and improve education. By using diversified teaching methods, this technique can inspire children’s explorative motivations, thereby taking advantage of their talents and aptitudes. Effects on young children’s communication development In a heterogeneous classroom setting, different learners may differ in their judgement of the HMEAYC’s musical activities. These activities can foster open discussion, encouragement, tolerance, open-mindedness, and diversity. Outcomes vary depending on students’ needs as those with different types of communication disorders may be decode music differently (Whipple et al., 2015). Findings have shown that those with music familiarity exhibit musical expertise and phonological awareness. This also illustrates that music has an influence on language abilities, particularly music resources, tone hierarchy cognition, and perception (Besson, Schon, Moreno, Santos, & Magne, 2007; Tillmann, 2014). Therefore, the processing functions of music and language have a close relationship (Bhatara, Yeung, & Nazzi, 2015). Music and speech have many aspects in common since linguistic and musical syntactic integration rely on musical harmonic processing to activate anterior language areas (Patel, 2003; Perrachione, Fedorenko, Vinke, Gibson, & Dilley, 2013). Music has a myriad of functions, such as helping children with special needs gain the ability to communicate (Hargreaves, MacDonald, & Miell, 2005; Lee, 2012; Lee & Lin, 2013), strengthen their attention span or trigger a physical response (Luo, Guo, Lai, Liao, Liu, Kendrick, Yao & Li., 2012). Some studies have suggested that communication and movement may be conveyed to children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) through musical interactions (Adamek & Darrow, 2005; Adamek, Thaut, & Funnan, 2008; Lee & McCord, 2012; O’Riordan & Passetti, 2006; Whipple et al., 2015). Thus, music may be an effective therapeutic tool for exploring the expression of communication- related interventions (Dieringer, Porretta, & Gumm, 2013; Hooper, Wigram, Carson, & Lindsay, 2008a, 2008b). Therefore, it may be surmised that communication will benefit from motion in accordance with sound, as when Soundbeam, multi-sensory instruments and equipment are applied and used in the curriculum (Lee, 2011b, 2012; Lee & Lin, 2013, 2015). Soundbeam technology Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 5 provides a powerful physical and psychological stimulus. Stimulating the individual involved in sound therapy has proven to be highly effective across a range of disabilities, including those with special needs, such as children with ASD (Ellis & Leeuwen, 2000). In summary, the HMEAYC uses music activities and Soundbeam technology to incorporate both play and learning in the education of young children. For most of those with disabilities, being able to improve their learning effectiveness through music is positive (Lee, 2008, 2016). All teaching methods lead to multiple developments. Music teaching, like any form of educational activity, is not merely a means, but also a medium. The Music can be seen as a representation of sound and is displayed as an image to evoke emotions in the children (Hallam, 2010; Moore, 2013). In previous studies and instructions, this research team has seen the positive effects from the challenging experiments on children’s development. Through interactions with musical instruments and performances, preschool children with developmental delays can improve their comprehension effectiveness, physical movements, and social skills. Previous HMEAYC and Soundbeam research have found that these methods and technologies can help children with special needs improve their motor skills or attention ability (Lee, 2015). The study also found that HMEAYC has positive effects on language and communication (Lee, 2008; Lee & Lin, 2015; Lee & Ho, 2017). HMEAYC practices are proven to improve communication development for children aged six or younger and children with special needs. The primary purpose of this study is to examine its effectiveness. We hypothesise that the HMEAYC improves comprehension in the communication of young children and children with special needs and we hope to find out more about the communication needs of young children through the Soundbeam technology. Methodology Participants Parents and/or guardians provided written informed consent for the 23 children who participated in this study before their enrolment. The research sample was composed of children from a city child development centre and a private preschool located in the metropolitan Taichung area in Taiwan. This child development centre has provided a non-profit ‘Early Intervention Service’ for children with disabilities, and a paediatrician and other medical professionals formally conducted the children’s diagnosis with the disorder. Based on previous research, the results showed the language effectiveness of using music activities for children ages 36–60 months (Lee, 2007, 2008; Lee & Ho, 2017; Lee & Lin, 2013). We hypothesised that HMEAYC’s promotes language effectiveness would be most substantial at ages 36– 60 months. The participants were selected by purposive sampling to participate in the study and sorted into two groups of children aged 41–55 months. The data regarding the age of the participants refer to the research phase. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (1-19) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 6 Group 1 included seven children, two girls and five boys. These seven children all had ASD (Asperger’s syndrome, N=5, or high-functioning autism, N=2), and they had enrolled in an early intervention centre (M = 48.14 months; SD = 1.98). Group 2 included 16 children and consisted of seven girls and nine boys enrolled in a private preschool (M = 46.81 months; SD = 3.68). Table 1 Demographic information (N=23) Number Gender 1 Diagnosis2 Sample source3 Group 1 1 g H CDC 2 b A 3 b A 4 b A 5 b A 6 b A 7 g H Group 2 1–9 b N PP 10–16 g 1b=boy, g=girl; 2High-functioning autism=H, Asperger’s syndrome=A, No symptoms=N; 3child development centre=CDC, private preschool=PP Materials and instruments 1) Communication development: To understand the participants’ communication development capabilities, this study employed Harrison and Oakland’s The Adaptive Behaviour Assessment System-Second Edition (ABAS, 2–5 years old). This study used the Chinese version of the scale translated by Lu and Chen (2009) to provide a complete assessment of the adaptive skills of Taiwanese children’s development. The key areas measured included functional academics, self-care and community self-direction to provide a comprehensive assessment of the adaptive behaviour and skills of individuals from 24 to 71 months. The questionnaires showed an internal consistency of .88–.91, indicating that the scale has a very good reliability. This is the main source of quantitative information. Studies have employed this scale to measure the communication ability of participants. Data for statistical analysis was collected twice: during the pre-test in the baseline stage and during the post-test upon the teaching activity’s termination. 2) Trigger mode-beams: To further understand the participants’ comprehension processes during communication and music activities, this study employed the trigger mode of Soundbeam5 (Figure 1, a photo for The Soundbeam device). We used the Chinese version of the guidebook translated by Lee (2011a). The trigger modes are classified as ‘single’, ‘multi’, ‘sustained-single’, ‘sustained- multi’,’cyclic-single’, and ‘cyclic-sustained’. This is a controller that uses ultrasonic beams and switches to turn movement into sound. The other single-clipped and multi-clipped options were not included, nor were those that require the usage of a screen button, such as →, + or -. The researchers sampled records of qualitative Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 7 observation and coding, and then conducted an analysis of the participants’ videotaped process based on the coding scheme. Additionally, the assessment of inter-rater reliability to demonstrate consistency among observational ratings was provided by multiple coders. The kappa value of the inter-rater reliability was calculated to ensure the reliability of this coding scheme, and the six coding categories are as shown in Table 2. Analysis revealed the reliability of the Kappa coefficient to be 0.86. Figure 1. Soundbeam device. Procedure The goal of the study was to assess participants’ communication using the HMEAYC. Before the study entry, the participants’ parents had already provided written informed consent for the research. Each child was individually tested on a variety of communication tasks, including a receptive vocabulary task. Prior to the formal teaching, two observations were taken to determine the participants’ communication abilities. Repeated communication between the participants was permitted during this process. For Group 1, the participants’ communication development focused on the understanding and expression of the Chinese spoken language. For Group 2, since their native language was Chinese, it was difficult to show an objective result caused by teaching the music in Chinese. As such, the research design for Group 2 integrated a foreign language, English, into the music teaching research. Both groups received the same curriculum framework as Chase’s (2004) research, and we found that most of the existing literature assessed the data Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (1-19) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 8 collection through behavioural observation (Tam, Scwellnus, Eaton, Hamdani, Lamont, & Chau, 2007). The study was approximately a 40-minute session once per week and focused on the Holistic Music Educational Approach (HMEAYC). The total 32-week HMEAYC intervention was recorded in a multi-sensory classroom. The entire operational process of each participant during the Trigger Modes was video-recorded for subsequent analysis. At 32-weeks, each child was individually tested again on a variety of communication tasks. Data analysis The study required music therapist qualifications for teaching activity implementation depending on the enactment of the situation design and the administration of activities that were beneficial to the children’s development. The teaching collaborator assisted in the process of the teaching activities, and the skilled observers coded a large amount of video data. Four observer coders with early childhood education or special education related departments were recruited and subjected to half a year of professional training. The observer’s video analysis did not enter the research field. When assessing the participants’ initial behaviour prior to the formal teaching, observations were taken to obtain the participants’ condition. The observations concluded when the observers were in agreement about the specific nature of the participant’s behavioural challenges. The data revealed the assessment standard of communication, and a low score indicated that the participants had no understanding of a spoken language. The null hypothesis was that the HMEAYC did not improve the comprehension processes in the communication development of mainstream children and did not improve their ability to follow instructions by spoken language and/or their physical reactions. On the contrary, a high score showed that the participants had a full understanding of a spoken language. The study’s hypothesis was that the HMEAYC improved the comprehension processes in the communication development of mainstream children, including their ability to follow instructions and respond via spoken language as well as their physical reactions. Further research should investigate the comprehension processes of communication and music activities. We conducted a lag-sequential analysis of the participants’ Trigger Mode coded frequencies using the six behaviour codes (i.e., S, M, E, I, C and Y). To ascertain the sequential behaviour pattern, an analysis of the participants in different groups was conducted. All behaviour codes frequency data was followed by the analyses on the transfer matrix of behavioural frequency, conditional probability matrix, and expected value matrix. Finally, the adjusted residuals table (z-score table) could be inferred (Bakeman & Gottman, 1997; Hou, 2010, 2015). Results and Discussion In this study, learning effectiveness was observed to be related to a focus on communication progress. For this study, the qualitative and the quantitative data had equal weight, and results collection was completed using an integrated qualitative Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 9 and quantitative method. A quantitative data assessment scale was used for the observers, while the qualitative data was from a videotape written by the observers. The data was collected and analysed using the SPSS statistical software. The qualitative information from the participants’ videotapes was coded (G1=Group 1, G2=Group 2; b=boy, g=girl; the number represents the serial number). The Changes of Group 1’s Communication Skills Table 2 shows ANOVA results regarding HMEAYC and Soundbeam technology’s effect on ASD children’s communication comprehension processes. Table 2 gives the results for Group 1’s communication skills factors. Group 1 included seven children, two girls and five boys, and their effectiveness factors yielded significant differences in their communication skills (F=4.66，p＜.001). According to the post hoc tests result, Group 1’s communication skills showed a higher effectiveness on G1g1 than G1b2. Table 2 Group 1’s Communication Skills ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. post hoc tests Between Groups 2850.14 6 475.02 4.66 .001*** G1g1>G1b2 Within Groups 3565.00 35 101.86 Total 6415.14 41 ***p < .001. Figure 2. The process of Group 1’s changes of communication skills. The baseline Group 1 included two girls and five boys with ASD diagnoses. Prior to the formal teaching, two observation reports detailed that Group 1 indicated no understanding in the classroom most of the time. Figure 2 shows Group 1’s communication skills at the baseline, after the first research session, and after the second research session. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (1-19) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 10 Even though the curves are up and down, they indicate the level of progress for the participants’ communication development. Figure 2 shows Group 1’s communication skills from the lowest score of two at week one to the highest score of nine at the end. They had difficulty following instructions with physical responses and had no spoken language in the classroom. The First Research Session Figure 2 shows that the participants of Group 1 had no competence with communication skills, including understanding and expressive language, for three weeks. According to the observation forms and the teacher’s reports, Participants G1g1 and G1b3 showed resistant behaviour during the first session. From weeks six to nine, most of the participants became familiar with the activities, so this score increased gradually. The speech therapist’s reports indicate that during the speech therapy session, most participants would respond to their names when they sang the attendance song that was used in the music session. At week 10, Participant G1b4’s negative behaviours caused a distraction for the other children, so the score went down a little. From week 11 to the end of the first session, all of the participants showed stable progress. Based on the interviews with the classroom teachers and therapists, the participants responded to the instructions better when singing familiar songs. The Second Research Session The second research session began in week 17. There were two weekly review sessions to help the participants become used to the learning process. Compared with the first session, Figure 2 shows that the participants maintained a stable learning performance. When they began the new thematic topic at week 19, the participants had to accommodate themselves to the change in situation, so the score went down. This lasted for four weeks. At week 23, all of the participants had physical responses, and a few were able to copy a single word. By the end of the session, even though the curve moved up and down, eventually, the participants made a positive level of progress in their communication skills. Participants G1g1 and G1b3’s negative behaviours were reduced at this stage, especially during the musical storytelling time, to which all of the children attended the most. They were able to concentrate on the story’s contents and copy partial fragments of the songs. Participants G1g1, G1g2, G1b3, G1b4, G1b5, and G1b6 would sing the songs that were used in a music session. Though Participant G1b7 did not respond to the physical therapy’s spoken language, he would respond to the singing voice by shaking his hands. In the final interview with the caregivers, Participant G1g1’s grandmother showed her appreciation to the research team. She said that Participant G1g1 had started making sounds, copying words, and singing songs at home. The classroom teachers indicated their interest to in incorporating the music elements into their daily lessons as well after observing the HMEAYC’s instructions. Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 11 The Changes in Group 2’s Communication Skills Table 3 shows the ANOVA results for HMEAYC and Soundbeam technology’s effect on young children’s comprehension processes in communication. Table 3 gives the analyses of Group 2’s Communication Skills factors. Group 2 included 16 children, and the effectiveness factors yielded significant differences in their communication skills (F=1.84, p＜.05). In the post hoc test comparison, it was found that Group 2’s communication skills showed a higher effectiveness for G2b9 than G1b2. Table 3 Group 2’s Communication Skills ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. post hoc tests Between Groups 1934.50 15 128.97 1.84 .042* G2b9>G1b2 Within Groups 5598.00 80 69.98 Total 7532.50 95 *p < .05 Figure 3. Group 2’s changes in communication skills The baseline The participants of Group 2 included seven girls and nine boys enrolled in a private preschool. To receive an objective result, Group 2’s main language of teaching was English. From two observations made during school hours, Group 2 showed no understanding of English. The classroom teachers said that no participants in Group 2 had school experience in either foreign language or music learning. Group 2’s communication skills were recorded at baseline, after the first research session, and after the second research session. Figure 3 shows Group 2’s communication skills from the lowest score of four at week one to the highest score of 13 at the end. They had difficulty of following instructions, as shown by their responses. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (1-19) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 12 The First Research Session Initially, no participants in Group 2 responded to the instructor during the session. This might have been due to the accommodation period of the school experience as well as the foreign language. Participant G2b1 showed his negative emotions and resistant behaviour for five weeks while the other children were still discovering their brand new learning environment. From weeks four to nine, Group 2 was able to follow the directions for physical responses, such as: ‘Girls, stand up,’ ‘Have a seat,’ ‘Make a big circle’ and ‘Clap your hands’. At week 10 and week 12, Participant G2b1 started showing his negative emotions by crying and asking to be held, and this disturbed some of the children. From week 13 to week 16, all of the participants’ attention was able to be captured by the music activities. Specifically, the musical storytelling time held the children’s attention the most. This stability lasted until the end of the first session. The Second Research Session The second research session started in week 17. Due to the new thematic topic, the participants did not respond to the instructor except for during the ‘Hello Song’. Two weeks later, during the week 19th session, all participants were used to the learning environment and the teaching style, especially during storytelling time, and they were able to concentrate on the different methods. They responded to the instructor more often both physically and orally. Even Participant G2b1, who took the longest time to become used to the class, was able to copy, follow, and respond to the instructor and teaching collaborator at this stage. Sequential Patterns of Trigger Modes The study further conducted the lag-sequential analysis on the six behaviour codes (S, M, E, I, C and Y). A z-score greater than 1.96 indicates significance statistically since it indicates continuity in the behavioural sequence of a certain specific initial behaviour. This was followed by a certain specific subsequent behaviour during the process (Bakeman & Gottman, 1997). According to Table 4, the Trigger Mode patterns of the participants can be derived, as shown in Figures 4–5. The Trigger Mode is signified with a square. Values needed to be greater than +1.96 for the sequence to be significant and for the behavioural transition pattern to be further deduced. Moreover, the arrows indicate the direction of the sequence, and the line segment thickness indicates its significant extent (Hou, 2010, 2015). Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 13 Table 4 The adjusted residual Table for Participants’ Trigger Mode S M C Y I E Group1 S 1.97* -1.25 -1.23 1.05 -0.92 -0.41 M -1.04 0.94 -0.35 -0.81 0.75 -0.17 C -1.55 -0.35 5.55*** -0.61 -0.44 0.58 Y -0.34 1.20 -0.61 -0.21 -0.57 -0.26 I 0.30 -1.01 1.37 -0.57 0.41 0.73 E -1.54 -0.17 -0.75 -0.26 6.45*** 2.82** Group2 S -28.41 -0.34 -0.97 -1.64 0.1 -1.5 M 5.74*** -8.27 -5.03 -3.46 -2.95 -0.78 C 3.62** -2.7 -7.12 -2.02 -4.64 -1.5 Y 3.57** -4.53 -2.97 -5.05 -2.95 0.73 I 4.37*** -2.86 -2.96 -2.14 -3.68 -0.71 E 1.34 -1.45 -0.75 -0.31 0.11 -0.53 *p < .05、**p < .01、***p < .001 In this study, we describe the respective significant behavioural sequences and discuss their features as well as each group’s behavioural patterns. This analysis considers both the participant's behavioural frequencies and their sequential patterns, thus attaining a deeper understanding of their learning processes. The results in Table 4 and Figures 4–5 show that Group 1’s behavioural patterns had different frequencies of average learning behaviour for each of the three main types—analysing, exploring and manipulating (S->S, z =1.97; C->C, z =5.55; E->E, Z=2.82). In terms of the sequential patterns, the participants from Group 1 only showed the sequential behaviour pattern of analysing to repeated manipulations on the Sustained-Multi transfer to Sustained-Singles (E->I, z = 6.45). Group 2 better performed a certain degree of the manipulation cycle behaviours related to the Single operation. Unlike Group 1, the participants were shown the sequential behavioural pattern to analyse ‘ending after Single’ (C->S, z =3.62; I->S, z =4.37; Y->S, z =3.57; M->S, z =5.74). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (1-19) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 14 Figure 4. The Trigger Mode transition diagram of Group 1. Figure 5. The Trigger Mode transition diagram of Group 2. Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 15 Conclusion Our conclusion is that certain studies related to the issue of the discovery of the HMEAYC and Soundbeam technology as a whole are opening up new perspectives on the learning process of communication development. This could aid in the understanding of the similarity between the communication development of children in both the mainstream and special education settings, as during the research procedure, where children learned communication ability and to express themselves through the music of sounds. A total of 32 weeks of HMEAYC class sessions were conducted in this two- phase study. The results showed that the two groups of very young participants achieved positive communication development changes after partaking in musical activities using the Holistic Music Educational Approach. Studies have suggested the potential advantages of music as a therapeutic tool for goals related to either communication or movement (Patel, 2003; Hargreaves et al., 2005; Perrachione et al., 2013). This not only showed the positive effects of engagement with music on the communication process, but also showed that music can be a viable treatment medium to assist in developmental delay (Dieringer, Porretta, & Gumm, 2013; Hooper, Wigram, Carson, & Lindsay, 2008a, 2008b; Matson, Bamburg, & Smalls, 2004). According to the observed data, both groups exhibited extraordinary changes. During the course of the experiment, Group 1’s participant communication development increased. Therefore, the HMEAYC is a viable method for most young children with disabilities to improve their language skills (Lee, 2008). Evidently, participating in music helps advance the communication skills of those with ASD (Adamek & Darrow, 2005, 2008; Lee & McCord, 2012; O’Riordan & Passetti, 2006; Whipple et al., 2015). The result of combining music with Soundbeam to produce better learning results is the same as the method Swingler and Brockhouse (2009) used in children with autism, and Ellis & Leeuwen (2000) found similar outcomes. The results of this study confirm the learning effect of multiple sensory stimulations using music with technology instruments in Taiwan (Lee, 2011b, 2015; Lee & Lin, 2013). The results showed that the participants’ communication skills in the Trigger Mode were distinctively different. The findings of the HMEAYC curriculum framework were beneficial for making the connections between the music activities and the comprehension processes in communication. The behaviours are both related to the 'Single' operation through the Soundbeam trigger modes in the HMEAYC. In terms of the sequential patterns, the ASD children from Group 1 tended towards the simple operations such as Single, Cyclic-Single, and Sustained-Single, or the repeated manipulations of the Sustained-Single transfer to Sustained-Multi. These repeated manipulation behaviours are both related to the Single operation. This action appears to repeat the playing of a single tone. During the course of the experiment, Group 2 participants also displayed improvements in their positive communication skills. The HMEAYC of the preschool children was correlated with their Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (1-19) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 16 communication development outcomes. The preschool children from Group 2 performed better when shown the sequential behavioural pattern to the ‘ending after Single’. This seems to be an action for denoting the end of the music. The results regarding music participation’s effect on learning outcomes are the same as those found in Besson et al. (2007) and Bhatara et al. (2015). In Group 2, the design integrated the English foreign language into the research music teaching. During the analysis phase, they tended to emphasise a Single ending, which may have facilitated their complete experience of the music and their procedural learning process. Specifically, the HMEAYC plays a key part in developing early speech skills and improving the results of learning a foreign language for special needs children. This sets the foundation for the HMEAYC being an effective way to elevate and develop their communication capabilities. Based on these results, the HMEAYC was proven to provide a fun way to develop communication opportunities for young children. Although there are many expected benefits of this study, there are some limitations with the HMEAYC. One of them is that the results cannot be generalised due to the small sample size. There is a need to expand the numbers and areas of the participants, and since this approach cannot be mass- produced at present and is not available online, the promotion of the HMEAYC guide is limited. The training of more teachers and parents in the importance of helping their children become much more involved with this approach would meaningfully expand the effectiveness of the education aspect of HMEAYC and would support its development. Further study of how the HMEAYC can be related to general issues in communication for both children in the mainstream and individuals with severe disabilities and ASD is recommended. It is also necessary to determine the long-term effects of the HMEAYC approach on children’s development in communication and other skills. It would be helpful to study the HMEAYC approach with a larger variety of children across many age ranges to determine if there are any long-term benefits to using this approach. References Adamek, M. S., & Darrow, A. A. (2005). Music in special education. Silver Spring, MD: The American Music Therapy Association. Adamek, M. S., Thaut. M. H., Funnan, A. G. (2008). Individuals with autism and autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In W. B. Davis, K. E. Gfeller, & M. H. Thaut (Eds.), An introduction to music therapy: Theory and practice (pp.117-142). Silver Spring, MD: American Music Therapy Association. Bakeman, R., & Gottman, J. M. (1997). Observing interaction: An introduction to sequential analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Besson, M., Schon, D., Moreno, S., Santos, A., & Magne, C. (2007). Influence of musical expertise and musical training on pitch processing in music and language. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 25(3-4), 399-410. Bhatara, A., Yeung, H. H., & Nazzi, T. (2015). Foreign language learning in French speakers is associated with rhythm perception, but not with melody perception. Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 17 Journal of Experimental Psychology : Human Perception and Performance, 41(2), 277-282. Chase, K. M. (2004). Music therapy assessment for children with developmental disabilities: A Survey Study. Journal of Music Therapy, 41(1), 28-54. Dieringer, S. T., Porretta, D., & Gumm, E. (2013). Using music therapy principles to enhance physical activity participation in children and adolescents with disabilities. Palaestra, 27(3), 42-46. Ellis, P. (2004). Moving Sound. In MacLachlan, M. and Gallagher, P. (Eds.) Enabling Technologies-body image and body function, Part 1, chapter 4 (pp. 59-75). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Ellis, P., &Leeuwen, L.Van. (2000, July). Living sound: human interaction and children with autism. In Music in Special Education, Music Therapy and Music Medicine (pp. 33– 55). Regina, Canada. Retrieved from http://www.Soundbeam.it/autism.pdf Gfeller, K. E., & Darrow, A. A. (2008). Music therapy in the treatment of sensory disorders. ln. W. B. Davis. K. E, Gfeller, M. H. Thaut (3rdEds., pp. 565-404), An introduction to music therapy and practice. American Music Therapy Association. Inc: Silver Spring, Maryland. Hallam, S. (2010). The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people. International Journal of Music Education, 28(3), 269-289. Hargreaves, D.J., MacDonald, R.A.R., Miell, D. E. (2005). How do people communicate using music? In D. J.Miell, D.E., MacDonald, R.A.R., Hargreaves (Eds.), Musical Communication (pp. 45–66). Oxford University Press. Hooper, J., Wigram, T., Carson, D., & Lindsay, B. (2008a). A review of the music and intellectual disability literature (1943-2006) Part One—Descriptive and Philosophical Writing. Music Therapy Perspectives, 26(2), 66-79. Hooper, J., Wigram, T., Carson, D., & Lindsay, B. (2008b). A review of the music and intellectual disability literature (1943-2006) part two: Experimental writing. Music Therapy Perspectives, 26(2), 80-96. Hou, H. T. (2010). Exploring the behavioural patterns in project-based learning with online discussion: Quantitative content analysis and progressive sequential analysis. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(3), 52-60. Hou, H. T. (2015). Integrating cluster and sequential analysis to explore learners’ flow and behavioral patterns in a simulation game with situated-learning context for science courses: A video-based process exploration. Computers in human behavior, 48, 424- 435. Jacoby, M. (2013). Technology for all. School Band & Orchestra. 16(9), 54-56. Lee, L. (2007). An action study using thematic method of teaching young children English through music. Kaohsiung Normal University Journal, 22, 1-24. Lee, L. (2008). An empirical study on application of music therapy to develop young special needs children’s language ability. The Journal of College of Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(1), 19-60. Lee, L. (2011a). Soundbeam5-user guide in Chinese. Taiwan: Taipei. Lee, L. (2011b). A case study on integrating Soundbeam technology and music activities to enhance a child with disabilities development of motor skills and attention span. Chaoyang Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 87-108. Lee, L. (2012). Theory & practice of music educational therapy for young children with Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (1-19) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 18 disabilities: A report of the industry-university collaboration research at Taichung early intervention center (Vol. I, II, III, IX, X). Taiwan: Taiwan Fund for Children and Families. Lee, L. (2015). Investigating the impact of music activities incorporating Soundbeam Technology on children with multiple disabilities. Journal of the European Teacher Education Network, 10, 1-12. Lee, L. (2016). Music activities for children with disabilities: An example from Taiwan. In D. V. Blair & K. A. McCord (Eds.), Exceptional Music Pedagogy for Children with Exceptionalities: International Perspectives. (pp. 131-153). Oxford University Press. Lee, L., & Ho, H. J. (2017, April). The exploration of music educational therapy approach on developing the emotional stability and communication skills for young children with severe disabilities: A case study. In I.Vale &J.Portela (Eds.), 27th European Teacher Education Network Conference. Gothenburg, Sweden. Lee, L., & Li, T. Y. (2016). The impact of music activities in a multi-sensory room for children with multiple disabilities on developing positive emotions : A case study. Journal of the European Teacher Education Network, 11, 1–12. Lee, L., & Lin, S. C. (2013, April). Evaluating the use of music with teaching aids in a multi-sensory environment on developing children with disabilities positive emotions and communication skills. In J.Portela, I.Vale, F.Huckaby, &G.Bieger (Eds.), The Proceeding of the 23rd the European Teacher Education Network (pp. 143–162). Hasselt, Belgium: European Teacher Education Network. Lee, L., & Lin, S. C. (2015). The impact of music activities on foreign language, English learning for young children. Journal of the European Teacher Education Network, 10, 13–23. Lee, L., & McCord, K. (2012, July). Using music technology with young children with autism: two case studies. In L.Williams (Ed.), 30th ISME World Conference on Music Education (p. 177). Thessaloniki, Greece: International Society for Music Education. Lu, T.H. & Chen, H. (2009). The adaptive behavior assessment system – second edition (ABAS-II). Taiwan: Taipei. (Original work Harrison, P. L. & Oakland, T, published 2003). Luo, C., Guo, Z., Lai, Y., Liao, W., Liu, Q., Kendrick, K. M., Yao, D., Li, H. (2012). Musical training induces functional plasticity in perceptual and motor networks: Insights from resting-state fMRI. PLoS ONE, 7(5), 1-12. Matson, J. L., Bamburg, J. W., & Smalls, Y. (2004). An analysis of Snoezelen equipment to reinforce persons with severe or profound mental retardation. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25(1), 89-95. Moore, K. S. (2013). A systematic review on the neural effects of music on emotion regulation : Implications for Music Therapy Practice. Journal of Music Therapy, 50(3), 198-242. Murray, K. S. J. (2005). Learning a second language through music. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 9(2), 161-165. O’Riordan, M., & Passetti, F. (2006). Discrimination in autism within different sensory modalities. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 36(5), 665-675. Patel, A. D. (2003). Language, music, syntax and the brain. Nature Neuroscience, 6(7), 674- 682. Perrachione, T. K., Fedorenko, E. G., Vinke, L., Gibson, E., & Dilley, L. C. (2013). Evidence for shared cognitive processing of pitch in music and language. PLoS ONE, Liza Lee & Han-Ju Ho 19 8(8), 1-10. Schon, D., Boyer, M., Moreno, S., Besson, M., Peretz, I., & Kolinsky, R. (2008). Songs as an aid for language acquisition. Cognition, 106, 975-983. Swingler, T. (1994). Unlocking Musicality: Using Soundbeam as a new key to eloquence. In: Krout, R. (Ed): Integrating Technology. Music Therapy Perspectives, 72(1), 4-5. Swingler, T. (1998, July)." That Was Me!": Applications of the Soundbeam MIDI controller as a key to creative communication, learning, independence and joy. On California State University Northridge Conference on Technology and Persons with Disabilities. Norwich, UK. Swingler, T., & Brockhouse, J. (2009). Getting better all the time: Using music technology for learners with special needs. Australian Journal of Music Education, 2, 49-57. Tam, C., Scwellnus, H., Eaton, C., Hamdani, Y., Lamont, A., & Chau, T. (2007). Movement-to-music computer technology: a developmental play experience for children with severe physical disabilities. Occupational Therapy International, 14(142), 99-112. Tillmann, B. (2014). Pitch processing in music and speech. Acoustics Australia, 42(2), 124- 130. Whipple, C. M., Gfeller, K., Driscoll, V., Oleson, J., & McGregor, K. (2015). Do communication disorders extend to musical messages? An answer from children with hearing loss or autism spectrum disorders. Journal of music therapy, 52(1), 78-116. You, B. F. & Lee, L. (2016). A study of using music activities on the development of young children on positive emotions and social interaction. The Journal of College of Humanities and Social Sciences, 14 (2), 79-100. Biography Liza Lee is a professor in the Department of Early Childhood Development and Education at Chaoyang University of Technology in Taiwan. She is a graduate of the Teachers College, Columbia University where she received her doctoral degree in music and music education. Han-Ju Ho is a Ph.D. candidate at the National Taiwan Normal University. The focus of her research is on the influence of music educational therapy for the children with special needs on their learning development. She is a member of Professor Liza Lee’s research team.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

arts, effective, integration, music, teaching strategy, visual art

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/836

Assessing Poiesis as an Effective Approach to Integrating Music and Visual Art

This study aims to assess the effectiveness of Poiesis as an approach to integrating music and visual art. It uses the descriptive inquiry approach making use of qualitative research instruments and qualitative data analysis techniques. Data was collected through interviews, observation, examination of audiovisual materials and student reflections. Data was analysed using the coding process, yielding the following themes: 1) opportunities for socialisation in the project; 2) developing appreciation for the two disciplines and for the creative process; 3) personal growth through the project; and 4) growth as an artist through the project. Data from the interviews, observations and reflections tallied with some of the themes that emerged from the audio-visual materials. This means that the collaboration project is effective in exhibiting the connection between the two disciplines and in providing holistic learning for its participants.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/836/572

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (20-37) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 20 Assessing Poiesis as an Effective Approach to Integrating Music and Visual Art Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman Faculty of the College of Music, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 10 August 2018 Cite this article (APA): Bauza-Wahiman, J.G. (2018). Assessing Poiesis as an effective approach to integrating music and visual art. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 20-37. Abstract This study aims to assess the effectiveness of Poiesis as an approach to integrating music and visual art. It uses the descriptive inquiry approach making use of qualitative research instruments and qualitative data analysis techniques. Data was collected through interviews, observation, examination of audiovisual materials and student reflections. Data was analysed using the coding process, yielding the following themes: 1) opportunities for socialisation in the project; 2) developing appreciation for the two disciplines and for the creative process; 3) personal growth through the project; and 4) growth as an artist through the project. Data from the interviews, observations and reflections tallied with some of the themes that emerged from the audio-visual materials. This means that the collaboration project is effective in exhibiting the connection between the two disciplines and in providing holistic learning for its participants. Keywords: arts, effective, integration, music, teaching strategy, visual art Introduction The analogous approach toward teaching the arts is based on the premise that elements and principles are shared across the visual art, music, literature, theater and dance (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2010). For example, the elements of music in the field of music correspond to the elements of design in visual art. Both disciplines share principles such as tension and release, repetition and contrast, balance and symmetry. This analogous approach leads to an even deeper and more Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 21 comprehensive understanding and appreciation of each of these disciplines. The steady escalation of integrative learning in the 20th century (Bresler, 1995) eventually led the National Association for Music Education (NAfME) to decide to include two interdisciplinary standards in its National Standards for music education in basic education. These standards were updated in its 2014 edition as: 1) Standard No. 8 – understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the arts and 2) Standard No. 9 – understanding music in relation to history and culture (Vazquez, 2014; National Association for Music Education, 2014). These standards were integrated into the Philippine educational system through different innovations in the basic education curriculum. For example, the Makabayan curriculum (2002) integrated five different learning areas: Social Studies; Geography, History and Civics; Music, Art and Health; Home Economics; and Values Education. The MAPEH (2003) brought together Music, Art, Physical Education and Health subjects. The K-12 curriculum (2013) merged Music and Art subjects together (Government of the Republic of the Philippines, Department of Education, 2002, 2003, 2013). Poiesis is a music and art collaboration project touching on integrative learning of the arts. It integrates the arts as an approach in teaching. Poeisis is a collaboration project between the University of the Philippines’ College of Music, Music Education Department and the College of Fine Arts, Visual Communication Department. This project brings together the Introduction to Music Education and Visual Perception courses. Poiesis was conceptualised by Joy Timbol Guadalupe and Mitzi Marie Aguilar Reyes with the intent of fostering educational exchange and cultural experience among the students. The project provides opportunities for interaction, free exchange of ideas and also enhances students’ knowledge and artistic talents within their disciplines and to discover how the curricular offerings complement each other (Reyes, 2010). The purpose of this study is to investigate whether Poiesis is an effective approach to integrating music and visual art. Literature Review The term ‘poiesis’ has its root in the word ‘poetry’, first introduced by Aristotle. In a general way, it means ‘to produce’ (Balaban, 1990; Greenberg, 1961; Jauss & Shaw, 1982; Marini, 2014; Whitehead, 2003). Matusov & Marjanovic-Shane (2012) believe it to sometimes mean ‘to reproduce’ since conventional schooling tends to strongly influence children to merely reproduce what is ‘culturally given as appropriate’ instead of encouraging them to influence and determine what can be deemed as’ appropriate culturally’ (Matusov & Marjanovic-Shane, 2012, p. 165). The core of Poiesis is to provide music and fine arts students with a venue for producing creative expressions in the context of collaboration with fellow budding artists. The collaboration consists of three phases: 1) the music students produce recordings of their original compositions; 2) the fine arts students interpret those music pieces into original paintings, and both music and visual art are showcased in a culminating activity; and 3) another batch of music students interpret those same paintings and original compositions. These new creations are performed at another Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (20-37) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 22 culminating activity. Technical and aesthetic production is embodied in this particular collaboration project. To illustrate the Poiesis process, here is the step-by-step scenario: 1. For the first semester of the academic year, music students compose a 3-minute original composition (either based on a theme agreed on by the class or based on free, personal expression) and are recorded. 2. The music professor collates these recordings and turns them over to the fine arts class. 3. The fine arts professor randomly assigns music compositions to her students. 4. A meet-up is arranged between the music and fine arts classes. In this meeting, a short lecture on the parallel elements and principles between music and visual art is given. At the same time, composers and artists are given a chance to get to know each other and to ask each other about the compositions. 5. A visual interpretation of the music is created, something like the samples in Figure 1 and Figure 2. 6. Each painting is showcased while each of the original music is performed live by the composer in a culminating activity. For the second semester of the academic year, the process is reversed: 1. The paintings from the first semester (such as the ones shown above) are randomly assigned to another batch of music students, who then interpret them into original 3-minute compositions. 2. Another meet-up is arranged in which the same lecture on the parallel elements and principles between the two disciplines is given and in which artists and composers may discuss the artworks with each other. 3. A music interpretation of each painting is composed. A couple of samples of original music may be accessed through this link: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1NDxFSDQ_WakF9rNAniIW7GuYu wsd740N?ogsrc=32 4. Again, each painting is showcased while each of the original music is performed live by the composer in a culminating activity. Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 23 Figure 2. Sample Painting 2 (Danielle Canales, 2017) Figure 1. Sample Painting 1 (Danica Garchitorena, 2017) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (20-37) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 24 The Poiesis project provides students with hands-on opportunities to interact with the concepts of the two disciplines. It is an opportunity for experiential learning and affords a venue for social interaction and collaboration among the students. The framework for curricular integration lies on theories of child development, learning theories, and the aim of education to provide a holistic development of good citizens in society (Coudriet, 2013). Poesis is a teaching approach that facilitates student interaction with and appreciation for the interrelationship of various subject areas in one particular context or venue (Bresler, 1995; Coudriet, 2013; Irwin & Reynolds, 1995; Wiggins, 2001). It has its roots in Greek formal education – specifically, in the philosophy of Socrates and Plato (Coudriet, 2013). At the beginning of the 20th century, progressive educators campaigned for a child-centered curriculum and holistic learning. This greatly promoted the idea of integration among subjects in the curriculum (Bresler, 1995; Huang, 2012; Irwin & Reynolds, 1995; Mosley, 2014; Thompson, 2015). With additional contributions by Benjamin Bloom (three domains of learning) and Howard Gardner (theory of multiple intelligences), an enthusiastic advocacy for finding connections among other disciplines to enhance and deepen student learning, gained much momentum (Coudriet, 2013; Mosley, 2014). Experts heralded the benefits of integration, stating that it possesses great potential in positively impacting student learning and “teachers who integrate learning for their students are providing access to various skills, media and methods while simultaneously fostering a sense of community for their learners” (Coudriet, 2013, p. 57). Bresler (2011) claims that integration is a manifestation of educational entrepreneurship (p. 10). Teachers may also exhibit entrepreneurial qualities such as risk-taking, creativity, industriousness, persistence and commitment to usefulness that bring about change in students’ lives. Thus, integrating the curriculum may bring a positive impact on student learning. Furthermore, opting for an integrated curriculum is a giving up of the safety of the disciplines and prescribed materials, a crossing of disciplinary borders and a reconsideration of what is important, a focus on important issues rather than on traditional ways of organising knowledge, undertaking work that goes beyond conventional, well-established understanding of knowledge (p. 12). Through integration, educators not only create a new path for learning to take place but also provide opportunities for students to learn various content areas at one time as well. Integration successfully penetrated the arts curriculum after the place of the arts in Education had been justified through the works of Harry Broudy and Elliott Eisner (Bresler, 1995; Bresler, 2002; Huang, 2012; Mosley, 2014; Thompson, 2015). In the 1990s, when the value of the arts began to be challenged, the Music Educators’ National Conference or MENC (now known as NAfME) issued a bulletin called, ‘A Vision for Arts Education in the 21st Century’. This reiterated how the arts can be “taught in an interdisciplinary manner as part of the broader curriculum and can make immense contributions to the teaching of other disciplines” (Bresler, 1995, p. 3). In support of this, a growing body of research exists that shows the effectiveness of integration in improving students’ performance in school even as educators observe it as beneficial for students academically, behaviourally and emotionally (Bresler, 2002; Campbell & Scott- Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 25 Kassner, 2010; Hartle, Pinciotti & Gorton, 2015; Huang, 2012; Irwin & Reynolds, 1995; Marshall, 2010; Mosley, 2014; Thompson, 2015). At the same time, however, some studies suggest that there is no strong evidence of the direct causal relationship between integration of the arts and academic achievement (Huang, 2012). Different models of integration can be used in the classroom setting. There are four models formulated by arts advocates – advocates of music, specifically. As elaborated by Huang (2012), these four advocates are: 1) Bresler (1995); 2) Burton (2001); 3) Snyder (1996); and 4) Wiggins (2001). While differing terminologies are used in these advocates’ models, common among the components of the models are the following: 1. Integration in which one discipline serves merely as a tool to enhance or reinforce learning of another discipline; 2. Integration in which the integrity and uniqueness of each of the disciplines is preserved and equally given importance; 3. Integration in which connections of common, greater themes or content are made across disciplines; 4. Integration in which common processes and skills are highlighted across disciplines; and 5. Integration in which social interaction is the goal, a way to connect with communities through partnerships and projects. An examination of these different models of integration reveals that what is most relevant to the context of this study are the second, third, fourth and fifth styles. This is due to the fact that the project is made in the university level of education in which specialisation of each discipline is the goal. Additionally, the fifth style is reflected and cultivated in the social interaction among students from the two different colleges during the coordination stage of the project and during the culminating activities. In particular, a small, simple potluck is arranged after the culminating activities to give the students additional opportunities for interaction with each other. At this point, it is to be noted that the success and effectiveness of integration hinge on several factors, the most prominent of which are teacher expertise, teacher qualities, collaboration among teachers involved and sufficient time for planning (Bresler, 2011; Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2010; Coudriet, 2013; Galeazzi, 2015; Huang, 2012; Hulstrand, 2012; Vazquez, 2014). Along with Bloom’s three domains of learning as a framework for assessing learning, these are the criteria in gauging how effective Poiesis is as an approach to teach about music and visual art. Methodology This study examines the effectiveness of Poiesis as an approach toward integrating music and visual art. The researcher utilised two approaches for the study. First, this researcher tried to understand the nature of the participants’ subjective experiences Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (20-37) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 26 of the collaboration project, a method based on social constructivism. Secondly, the inductive approach was used to make an interpretation of the individual experiences of the participants as a whole. Then a conclusion was drawn on the project’s effectiveness. The study follows a descriptive inquiry making use of qualitative research instruments and qualitative data analysis techniques. Purposeful sampling refers to qualitative sampling in which researchers intentionally select individuals and sites that can provide a rich repository of information to answer the particular research question at hand (Creswell, 2012). Among the various purposeful sampling techniques, the researcher chose homogeneous sampling because this sampling occurred before data collection and the participants were selected based on similar background such as learning experience through Poiesis. Data was collected through interviews, direct observations, documents (audio-visual materials) and student reflection. The researcher also triangulated the information acquired to affirm the credibility of the findings. Below are the questions used in the reflection sheets and interviews. Table 1 Questions on the Reflection Sheets Reflection on Poiesis: A Music and Visual Art Presentation 1. How do you feel about this course requirement? Which part of it did you like? Dislike? Why? 2. Describe something you learned as a result of this experience. 3. Did this activity help you learn more about music and visual art? How? 4. How was the concept of music and visual art integration reflected in this course requirement? Table 2 Interview Questions 1. Did you like Poiesis? 2. Did Poiesis help you understand and appreciate the arts more? How? 3. What did you learn about music and visual art through your participation in Poiesis? The first step of analysis was to explore the data through reading and optically scanning through the whole text and videos to get an overview of all the responses and material. The second step was the coding process, which involved segmenting and labelling the text to identify emerging themes in the data. The table below illustrates the coding process: Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 27 Table 3 The Coding Process Initially read through text data  Divide the text into segments of information  Label the segments of information with codes   Reduce overlap and redundant codes  Collapse codes into themes   Many pages of text Many segments of text 30 – 40 codes Codes reduced to 20 Codes reduced to 5 – 7 themes Table 4 Researcher’s Observation Notes Observations Reflections Poiesis – 1st batch run - very informal program - artists verbally described their artworks - musicians provided explanations/short descriptions of their work as well - a lot of chattering and giggling of the participants, signifying [having fun] in the event - [positive atmosphere] during the event and [positive response] of the participants about continuing the project Some of the paintings ‘make sense’ to me – i.e., I could clearly ‘see’ the [connection] of the elements in the artwork and the soundscape of the music – while others don’t. Poiesis – 2nd batch run - varied genres and styles of music compositions – classical sounding, ‘high art’, pop, Asian, fusion, jazz, etc. - first time to feature paintings and kinetic typography at the same time from the Fine Arts majors - humour and creativity could clearly be seen at the artworks - laughing (both from performers and audience/participants) signifies [enjoyment and fun] For me, the ‘success’ of the event depends on the proficiency and musicality of the musicians, as well as on the [stage presence/presentation skills] of all involved. Also, the program and ‘flow’ of the performers should be ‘seamless’. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (20-37) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 28 Poiesis – 3rd batch run This is my favourite batch of music compositions so far – the level of artistry of the music, as well as the lyricism of the melodies, added to the [aesthetic pleasure]. Still, there is a lot to be had for the flow/’seamlessness’ of the program. I find the lulls in between numbers such a drag. Especially when the music is Asian, it’s difficult for me to find the [connection] between the artwork and the music. Poiesis – 4th batch run - The stage presence of the Fine Arts majors is improving – the flow of the program is getting better - Instead of descriptions about their artworks, artists recite a haiku, adding another level of creativity and artistry to the project. Poiesis – 5th batch run Indeed, differing levels of [creativity] of students are showcased through this activity. Poiesis – 6th batch run I really believe that through this project, students are ‘forced’ to delve into the technical elements and principles of both disciplines in order to fulfill the requirement. As such, a deeper [understanding and appreciation] of both Music and Art is achieved. Indeed, students have an opportunity to ‘see’ and experience the [connection] between the two disciplines. Poiesis – 7th batch run - Very [creative] pieces from Composition majors, employing various sound sources in avant- garde style - Particularly liked the piece called, ‘Wala Nang Slots?!’ It is a perfect ‘sound representation’ of the sentiments of students during the enrollment period Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 29 Table 5 Summary of Code Words and Themes Code Words Emerging Themes Collaborative Social aspect of the project Social interaction Expressivity and subjectivity of art Developing appreciation Appreciation for the arts Connectedness of music and visual art Open-mindedness and appreciation for others and others’ point of view Self-discipline, appreciating order and structure and creativity Personal growth Learning to judge/evaluate interpretation, finding own identity and style, acquisition of additional skills, self-discovery, improvement of technique Personal growth and growth as an artist Experience of the creative process, the art form itself Creativity Understanding, meaning-making, forming vocabulary to describe Table 4 is this researcher’s observation notes in each of the Poiesis batch runs for the past seven years. The words in brackets are the text segments that were reduced into codes and then themes later on. After reading through the whole text to get an overview, the researcher proceeded to the third step, which was to identify text segments by placing a bracket around them and assigning labels or code words that describe the text segments. These code words were reduced and then collapsed further by grouping similar codes together and removing redundant ones (See Table 5). This technique of coding was based on Creswell (2012) who called these similar codes ‘themes’; for example, “similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea” (Creswell, 2012). Table 5 shows the table of code words and themes taken from the participants’ responses in the reflection sheets, the interviews and from this researcher’s observation notes. Based on the themes that emerged, the effectiveness of the Poiesis project approach was readily determined vis-à-vis criteria found in related literature and studies. The results of this study may be used as a resource either for program or training sessions or for mentoring programs of university faculty for in-service music and visual art teachers. Findings and Discussion Participants of this study were students from the Introduction to Music Education and Visual Perception classes. They have also taken part in Poiesis for Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (20-37) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 30 the past seven years that it has been run. The author analysed and assessed the interviews, student reflections, audio-visual materials and direct observations collected within the 2016-2017 academic year. A summary of these participants' responses is shown in Table 6 below. Table 6 Summary of Participants’ Responses in the Interviews and Reflection Sheets Poiesis Activity General Response of Participants Composition of music Participants felt challenged, especially that most of them had to do it for the first time in their lives, but they developed a deeper appreciation for the creative process during the course of the project. Participants also appreciated seeing and experiencing first-hand the connectedness of music and visual art. Meet-up and Coordination Participants found that meeting up with fellow artists and working with them in creating an artistic product was fun and enjoyable, although there are challenges in their dealing with each other’s differences of perspective and interpretation. Creation of paintings Most of the participants appreciated the creative process all the more. Participants also appreciated their discovery of their own personal style, preference and identity as artists. Culminating activity Participants gained a deeper appreciation for the arts and for the power of the arts. Participants also gained a deeper appreciation for and openness to the diversity and depth of perspective and interpretation of fellow artists. Participants realised and appreciated their personal growth through the project; for example, developing a sense of who they are as artists, developing self-confidence in presenting something, etc. Interview questions and reflections focused on how the students felt about taking part in the project, what they learned from the experience and whether they understood more about music and art through the whole process. From data collected after the culminating activities in the first and second semesters of the 2016-2017 academic years, a total of 53 students involved in different batch runs of Poiesis participated in this study. Data with member checking right at the outset of the interviews and analysis of the answers on the reflection sheets initially yielded 11 codes. Upon further analysis, these were merged into four outstanding themes. The four themes are: 1) the opportunities for socialisation through the project; 2) the development of appreciation; 3) personal growth through the project; and 4) growth as an artist through the project. Each of the themes is discussed below. Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 31 Table 7 Summary of Participants’ Responses in the Videos and Observation Notes Poiesis Activity General Response of Participants Culminating activity Laughter and whoops to cheer classmates on while onstage signify that the participants are having fun and enjoying the activity. This can be evidence that they appreciate the project and the tasks required in the project. Participants participated enthusiastically in the activity, as evidenced by their works. The connectedness of music and visual art may literally be seen and heard during the activity, and this may signify the participants’ interaction with and analysis of the technical elements and principles of both disciplines. Participants’ creative output can be evidence of the maturity necessary for the artistic process in producing such an output. How the participants carried themselves onstage as presenters may also be evidence of such maturity. Socialisation Almost all of the respondents gave a positive response to how they felt about doing Poiesis, except two fine arts majors. These two participants specifically did not like the project because they had to paint their interpretations – and working with paint was not their forte. The issue is due to self-efficacy then and not with the particular project in general. Most of the responses from the other students were that the project was a fun and exciting course requirement. What they were most positive about was the social aspect of the project – they were able to meet new people, collaborate with fellow artists and develop social skills such as cooperation, coordination, negotiation, compromise, etc. Appreciation The students said they acquired a deeper appreciation for the arts, particularly for their subjectivity, their power to express multidimensional aspects, an appreciation for their fundamentals, basic principles and techniques, and the power of art to elevate one to a higher level of consciousness. The students also said that they acquired an awareness and appreciation of the connection between music and visual art, as observed in the integrated interpretations of the music and artworks themselves. Related to this is the students’ appreciation for how the project fostered a deeper appreciation of the creative process involved in producing a product worthy to be deemed as ‘art.’ Even so, one fine arts student voiced his uncertainty about whether ‘Poiesis’ helped him learn about music and visual art at all. The rest of the 53 participants were much enthused about developing a deeper appreciation for the arts through the collaboration project. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (20-37) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 32 Personal growth What was also dominant among the responses was that the students saw their personal growth through their involvement in the project. A majority of them saw an increase of open-mindedness in themselves as they learned to appreciate others and others’ point of view and interpretation through the collaboration. Others highlighted their developing self-confidence in the aspect of presenting something and performing onstage. And then a few others developed self-discipline as they learned to appreciate order and structure through the deadlines for the submission of works. Growth as an artist One other particular theme among the responses was the students’ realisation of their growth as an artist through Poiesis. Principal in the aspects of this growth is the students’ self-discovery – they learned more about themselves in terms of their unique and distinct style as a composer. They discovered what their sense of purpose is as artists, and the learning style they preferred. In other words, students stated how they found out more about their own identity and style as artists through the collaboration project. As they discovered more about themselves, the students also stated that they learned to evaluate and make judgments about others’ interpretations as well as about their own. This pushed them to improve on their individual technique and creativity at the same time, and to acquire additional skills that became necessary during the process of fulfilling the project. One such skill is what may be called presentation skills or proper performance etiquette such as that of exuding confidence, having good stage behaviour, appropriating the needed body gestures and facial expressions at appropriate times, establishing good eye contact and rapport with the audience and having good physical appearance (Andreas, Sloboda & Woody, 2007). This goes for both the music and fine arts students, as the fine arts students had to present and give a short description of and a haiku (originally a Japanese poem, but may be an English poem of 17 syllables, in three lines of five, seven and five) about their artwork onstage during the culminating activity. Thus far, data from both the interviews and student reflections show mostly a positive effect on the students involved in Poiesis, based on the four outstanding themes that emerged. A look at the themes from the videos and observation notes corroborate some of the themes from the interviews and student reflections. In the videos, the reactions of the audience (mostly made up of classmates, parents and a few faculty) were captured, the most obvious being laughter – signifying enjoyment – and whoops to cheer classmates on while onstage. This confirms that a majority of the participants, indeed, found the collaboration project fun and enjoyable, signifying their appreciation of the project and of the tasks in the project. The same was also recorded in this researcher’s observation notes. Also seen in the videos and observation notes are themes on the connectedness of music and visual art. In the videos, one is able to replay and once again witness the interrelation between the soundscapes in the music pieces and the Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 33 artworks showcased during the culminating activity. This researcher’s observation notes recorded that through this project, students were forced to delve into the technical elements and principles of both disciplines in order to fulfil the requirements of the project. A deeper understanding and appreciation of both music and visual art was achieved. Truly, students have an opportunity to see and experience the connection between the two disciplines. However, it was also noted that there is a challenge in finding the connection between the music and the artwork when the genre of the composition is Asian music. No scientific explanation can be conjured for this, only a speculation that this perception and interpretation could be due to the heavy Western orientation in music that this researcher grew up with. This researcher’s comments in the observation notes on the creativity of the students in their ability to produce works of art and on how they carried themselves onstage tallied with the theme on growth as an artist. Specifically, this researcher noted that the success of the event depends not only on the proficiency and musicality of the musicians, but also on the stage presence and presentation skills of all involved. Indeed, differing levels of creativity of students are showcased through Poiesis. Applying Bloom’s three domains of learning as framework to assess what the participants learned during the project revealed that learning in the affective domain was considerably more dominant than the cognitive learning of music and visual art concepts. For the cognitive aspect, what students said in the interviews and reflection sheets was that they learned to see and experience hands-on the connectedness of the elements and principles of the two disciplines as well as the development of their creativity in producing their works. In the videos and observation notes, the evidence for this was the music and paintings themselves that the music and fine arts students showcased. For psychomotor, both the music and fine arts students attested in the interviews and reflection sheets to the development of technique, such as mixing colours, improving their music skills, discovering their preferred styles, etc. The videos and observation notes recorded the students’ overall performance and is evidence of this learning experience. And for the affective domain, mainly developing appreciation and the acquisition of certain values emerged from the responses of the students in the interviews and reflection sheets. The response of the audience and students during the culminating activity and the performance of each of the students onstage bring about a similar conclusion. In summary, the results indicate that while learning in all three domains did take place through the Poiesis project, the responses of the participants showed that learning occurred mainly in the affective domain (that which has to do with values, appreciation and emotions). The positive responses from both music and fine arts students and the positive reactions of audiences and performers as recorded in the videos and observation notes indicate that the integration of music and visual art in Poiesis has been effective in bringing about a positive impact to all those involved. One may surmise, then, that behind-the-scenes matters such as teacher expertise, teacher qualities, collaboration among teachers involved and sufficient time for planning must have occurred for the collaboration project to receive such positive feedback and to be running continuously for more than seven years now. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (20-37) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 34 Conclusion The purpose of this study was to assess whether Poiesis is an effective approach in integrating and in teaching about music and visual art. Different data collection instruments were employed in order to yield and cross-check the validity of the findings. Some of the four outstanding themes garnered from the interviews and reflection sheets coincided with the themes that became evident in the videos and observation notes of the researcher. What was paramount for the participants was the opportunity for socialisation of the project, the development of appreciation for the two disciplines and for the whole creative process, personal growth and growth as an artist through the project. Among the four, appreciation and growth as an artist were the themes that tallied with those from the videos and observation notes. The themes from the responses suggest that the collaboration project is an effective teaching approach for the connection between the two disciplines. Moreover, the project appears to have promoted holistic learning through the various activities and tasks that engaged the students in multidimensional ways and that involved faculties in all three domains of learning. This is evidenced by the students’ creative output, showcased during the culminating activity. From the data collected through different instruments and from analyses of the findings, one may also conclude that aside from touching on the concepts of both disciplines, Poiesis also provides a venue for the students involved to grow as artists, to acquire a deeper appreciation for the arts and to develop values contributing to their growth as human beings. It offers its participants an enriching experience that helps them progress in their path to being full-fledged artists. The results of this study show that the students primarily learned through Poiesis was appreciation for the subject areas, for the creative process and for each others’ perspectives and interpretation. This appreciation stems from the hands-on experience of the concepts via the production of music and art and from the intercollegiate social interaction. We may infer that Poiesis is an effective teaching approach precisely because it was successful in bringing about a more enhanced learning. We may trace the success of the strategy back to the rationale behind curricular integration. Poiesis is an effective approach in teaching about the interrelatedness of the arts. It is a valuable resource for various contexts such as program or training sessions or for mentoring programs for in-service music and visual art teachers. References Balaban, O. (1990). Praxis and poiesis in Aristotle’s practical philosophy. The Journal of Value Inquiry, 24, 185-198. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00149432 Bresler, L. (1995). The subservient, co-equal, affective and social integration styles of the arts. Arts Education Policy Review, 96(5), 31-37. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10632913.1995.9934564 Bresler, L. (2002). Harry Broudy on the cognitive merits of music education: Implications for research and practice of arts curriculum. Arts Education Policy Review, 103(3), Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 35 17-27. Retrieved from https://media.proquest.com/media/pq/classic/doc/110595002/fmt/pi/rep/NONE?cit%3 Aauth=Bresler%2C+Liora&cit%3Atitle=Harry+Broudy+on+the+cognitive+merits+o f+music+education%3A+Implications+...&cit%3Apub=Arts+Education+Policy+Revi ew Bresler, L. (2011). Integrating the arts: Educational entrepreneurship in a school setting. Hellenic Journal of Music, Education, and Culture, 2(1), 5-17. Retrieved from http://r.search.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0SO8y4StHlZ03sAXHZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEy ZW9kMjJxBGNvbG8DZ3ExBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDQjQyNDVfMQRzZWMDc3I /RV=2/RE=1501176978/RO=10/RU=http%3a%2f%2fhejmec.eu%2fjournal%2findex .php%2fHeJMEC%2farticle%2fdownload%2f33%2f26/RK=1/RS=04lttCAWw53p6 M6dfuR7Ht7wd8c- Campbell, P., & Scott-Kassner, C. (2010). Music in childhood, 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Schirmer Cengage Learning. Coudriet, A. J. (2013). A multiple case study examining elementary school art, music and physical education teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and beliefs related to interdisciplinary teaching practice (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/central/docview/1433825119/fulltextPDF/3CA02BA4BD 1F4266PQ/1?accountid=173015 Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research, 4th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Galeazzi, C. (2015). The role of leadership in developing a successful arts integration school: A multi-site case study (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://media.proquest.com/media/pq/classic/doc/3868664761/fmt/ai/rep/NPDF?cit% 3Aauth=Galeazzi%2C+Carlo&cit%3Atitle=The+role+of+leadership+in+developing+ a+successful+arts+integration+...&cit%3Apub=ProQuest+Dissertations+and+Theses Government of the Republic of the Philippines. Department of Education. (2002). MAKABAYAN Curriculum 2002. Retrieved from the Department of Education website: Retrieved from http://www.deped.gov.ph/sites/default/files/order/2002/DO_s2002_043.pdf Government of the Republic of the Philippines. Department of Education. (2003). MAPEH Curriculum 2003. Retrieved from the Department of Education website: https://web.archive.org/web/20120308090421/http://www.deped.gov.ph/cpanel/uploa ds/issuancemg/DO%2037_5-13-03_00001.pdf Government of the Republic of the Philippines. Department of Education. (2013). K-12 Curriculum. Retrieved from the Department of Education website: http://www.deped.gov.ph/sites/default/files/page/2016/Music%20CG.pdf Greenberg, N. A. (1961). The use of poiema and poiesis. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 65, 263-289. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/310839?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Hartle, L. C., Pinciotti, P., & Gorton, R. L. (2015). ArtsIN: Arts integration and infusion framework. Early Childhood Education Journal, 43, 289-298. Retrieved from https://media.proquest.com/media/pq/classic/doc/3695849951/fmt/pi/rep/NONE?cit% 3Aauth=Hartle%2C+Lynn+C%3BPinciotti%2C+Patricia%3BGorton%2C+Rebecca+ L&cit%3Atitle=ArtsIN Huang, Y.T. (2012). Music integration in the elementary school community: An investigation of integration styles and collaborative modes in Pennsylvania and Taiwan. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/central/docview/873972905/fulltextPDF/BC60DACF8B7 84B5DPQ/1?accountid=173015 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (20-37) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 36 Hulstrand, J. (2012). Curriculum integration: It’s a marathon, not a sprint. International Educator, 21(5), 48-51. Retrieved from https://media.proquest.com/media/pq/classic/doc/2762967651/fmt/pi/rep/NONE?cit% 3Aauth=Hulstrand%2C+Janet&cit%3Atitle=Curriculum+Integration%3A+It%27s+a +Marathon%2C+Not+a+Sprint&cit%3Apub=International+Educator Irwin, R. L., & Reynolds, K. J. (1995). Integration as a strategy for teaching arts as disciplines. Arts Education Policy Review, 96(4). Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/central/docview/211013995/fulltext/33D211D167EF47F 8PQ/14?accountid=173015 Jauss, H. R., & Shaw, M. (1982). Poiesis. Critical Inquiry, 8(3), 591-608. Retrieved from https://philpapers.org/rec/JAUP-2 Lehmann, A. C., Sloboda, J. A., & Woody, R. H. (2007). Psychology for musicians: Understanding and acquiring the skills. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Marini, G. (2014). Aristotelic learning through the arts. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 33, 171-184. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/abstract?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtyp e=crawler&jnl=00393746&AN=94177484&h=WwinOdq8%2b2IJp5ot%2bJZ9kRsn5 qGaa5n%2f44a7TEONfRA81dhAA5XLMFL9PnYIqauzWOFqjtYyusq1ULZ%2bL7 SpQ%3d%3d&crl=c&resultNs=AdminWebAuth&resultLocal=ErrCrlNotAuth&crlha shurl=login.aspx%3fdirect%3dtrue%26profile%3dehost%26scope%3dsite%26authty pe%3dcrawler%26jrnl%3d00393746%26AN%3d94177484 Marshall, J. (2010). Five ways to integrate: Using strategies from contemporary art. Art Education, 63(3), 13-19. Retrieved from https://media.proquest.com/media/pq/classic/doc/2042657051/fmt/pi/rep/NONE?cit% 3Aauth=Marshall%2C+Julia&cit%3Atitle=Five+Ways+to+Integrate%3A+Using+Str ategies+from+Contemporary+Art&cit%3Apub=Art+Education&cit%3Avol=63&cit %3Aiss=3&cit%3Apg=13&cit%3Adate=May+2010&ic=true&cit%3Aprod=ProQues t+Central Matusov, E., & Marjanovic-Shane, A. (2012). Diverse approaches to education: Alienated learning, closed and open participatory socialization, and critical dialogue. Human Development, 55, 159-166. Retrieved from http://ematusov.soe.udel.edu/vita/Articles/Matusov,%20Marjanovic- Shane,%20Diverse%20approaches%20to%20education,%20HD,%202012.pdf Mosley, S. (2014). Effectiveness of integrating arts-based curriculum into the classroom. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from . https://search.proquest.com/central/docview/1592005895/fulltextPDF/B210037F8D7 34B73PQ/1?accountid=173015 National Association for Music Education. (2014). NAfME Music Standards. Retrieved from National Association for Music Education website: https://nafme.org/myclassroom/standards/core-musicstandards/ Thompson, J. C. (2015). The student experience of arts integration: A phenomenological investigation. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1696781708?pq-origsite=gscholar Vazquez, O. M. (2014). An investigation of the teaching practices of music teaching artists participating in four selected elementary school arts integration projects (Doctoral Dissertation).Retrieved from. http://media.proquest.com/media/pq/classic/doc/3540868921/fmt/ai/rep/NPDF?_s=g TPrg24NpQNXMKihTe74o0jh%2FBQ%3D Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 37 Whitehead, D. H. (2003). Poiesis and art-making: A way of letting-be. Contemporary Aesthetics,1. Retrieved from http://www.contempaesthetics.org/newvolume/pages/article.php?articleID=216 Wiggins, R. (2001). Interdisciplinary curriculum: Music educator concerns. Music Educators Journal, 87(5), 40-44. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ660145 Biography Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman is an assistant professor at the College of Music of the University of the Philippines. She graduated with the degree of Master of Arts in Education, major in Curriculum Studies.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

institutionalisation, Lanna music, Northern Thailand, traditional music curriculum, traditional music education

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1129

Paradigm for the development of a Lanna music curriculum in Higher Education in Northern Thailand

This article reviews the status of Lanna music in higher education, offering suggestions for the development of Lanna music in Northern Thai universities. The researcher adopts a phenomenological method, utilising data from a number of interviews (N=20) and observations. The results suggest that Lanna music in higher education plays a significant role in shaping the cultural identity of the community. This unique style of music is often taught as a core area of study, as an extension to existing music curricula, or is being offered elsewhere as a general subject of study pursued by non-music students. In the development of Lanna music curricula, the main objective is to sustain musical traditions, musical creativity and to promote professionalism in performance. The curriculum needs to consider the readiness of the elements, especially those pertaining to culture and community, which form the foundation of knowledge. The curriculum should develop learners on the basis of their interests and potentials and promote a local program which is attentive to local contexts. Finally, the curriculum should consider the diversity of culture and needs of the community.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1129/812

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 38 Paradigm for the development of a Lanna music curriculum in Higher Education in Northern Thailand Khanithep Pitupumnak Faculty of Fine Arts, Chiang Mai University 239 T.Suthep, A. Muang, Chiang Mai 50202, Thailand e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 10 August 2018 Cite this article (APA): Putipumnak, K (2018). Paradigm for the development of a Lanna music curriculum in High Education in Northern Thailand. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 38-57. Abstract This article reviews the status of Lanna music in higher education, offering suggestions for the development of Lanna music in Northern Thai universities. The researcher adopts a phenomenological method, utilising data from a number of interviews (N=20) and observations. The results suggest that Lanna music in higher education plays a significant role in shaping the cultural identity of the community. This unique style of music is often taught as a core area of study, as an extension to existing music curricula, or is being offered elsewhere as a general subject of study pursued by non-music students. In the development of Lanna music curricula, the main objective is to sustain musical traditions, musical creativity and to promote professionalism in performance. The curriculum needs to consider the readiness of the elements, especially those pertaining to culture and community, which form the foundation of knowledge. The curriculum should develop learners on the basis of their interests and potentials and promote a local program which is attentive to local contexts. Finally, the curriculum should consider the diversity of culture and needs of the community. Keywords: institutionalisation, Lanna music, Northern Thailand, traditional music curriculum, traditional music education Introduction The word ‘Lanna’ is used to delineate a cultural space in northern Thailand, consisting of eight provinces to include Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Lampoon, Khanithep Pitupumnak 39 Lampang, Phayao, Phrae, Nan and Mae Hong Son. The Lanna culture dates back 700 years at the very least; it is a culture which combines the ways of life of various people living together or apart within the region. Through the ages, the Lanna culture has undergone numerous transformations in accordance with economic, political and cultural factors, both at the national and international levels. Subsequently, in 1997, a state-constituted initiative was created, which was fuelled by the works of various historians, conservationists, artists and locals, in order to revive the Lanna tradition. The Lanna renaissance was carried out through different means such as preservationist work, research, activities, recontextualisation and education (Akins & Binson, 2011; Pitupumnak, 2017; Kanteewong, n.d.). During this time, numerous groups and organisations committed to the preservation and transference of the Lanna culture were formed, including: The Center for the Promotion of Arts and Culture, the Lanna Wisdom School and various community music projects. The Thai Government saw it fit to mandate the sustainability of culture as one of four key objectives of higher education, the others being teaching, research and academic services. Music is an aspect of the Lanna tradition which has seen developments much like other arts. Lanna music has owed its longevity and survival because it was required and necessarily to accompany many Northern Thai cultural events. Some forms of music have lost their appeal, whilst others continue to evolve, responding to changes in social conditions. In any case, the revivalist trend of late has seen many lost musical traditions restored. In the academic sphere, there has been a surge of interest in Lanna music both in Thailand and abroad. (Akins & Binson, 2011; Dyck, 2010; Pitupumnak, 2014) From the music education perspective, Lanna music is transmitted in two ways: the formal and informal education (Akins & Binson, 2011). The informal education of Lanna music includes self-learning, musical training at the house of music masters, musical learning as part of communal activities and so forth. The strength of this former method of transmission is that the learners become involved at the very start of their interest. They become aware of the musical contexts in which they operate, learning about the place of music in a multidimensional society. They learn about change, adaptability, variable social demands, creativity in response to social demands and so forth. Learners of all ages and genders can participate at this level of music education (Pitupumnak, 2017). However, the informal education systems still lacks the element of professionalism, in that it does not lead to job security or to other creative avenues – all important factors in the development of Lanna music and musicians. As for transmission within the formal education, Lanna music is often inserted into existing music curricula, or even as part of extra-curricular activities. Having said this, the Bunditpatanasilpa Institute, which was established by the Ministry of Culture, has developed a curriculum of Lanna music, in effect since 2012. Lanna music is undergoing significant changes on an aggregate level, which is a cause for major concern, as it may lead to the disappearance of this unique music style. Obviously, it is critical for Lanna music to evolve and develop in order to initiate more creativity and knowledge, and to create future career opportunities for artists. Nevertheless, there are major weaknesses in the management system. The Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 40 succession depends on the individual, the teacher, the community leader, or the manager (Pitupumnak, 2017). The Lanna music that exists in higher education however, is not appropriately suited to develop academic knowledge, traditional music education creativity and superior performance (Pitupumnak, 2017; Thongkam, 2014). Therefore, the need for the development of transmission and specialisation of Lanna music intensifies. The development of musical skills, creative and academic work, performance forms and opportunities, as well as the adaptation of the musical profession to new global trends and challenges should thus be the central aim of the (new) Lanna music curriculum in formal education. This article presents the status of Lanna music in higher education and the paradigm for the development of a Lanna music curriculum in higher education so to reflect social conditions and 21st century demands. Lanna Music Lanna music is considered as one of the most widely distributed music in the Northern Thai region. Historically, Lanna music was documented around 650 years ago based on inscriptions found at Phra Yuen Temple in the Lampoon province, built in 1370 (The inscriptions in Thailand Database, 2006). Still, some historical evidence of Lanna music indicates the types of instruments used at the time, including: kong (gong), klong (drums), salaw (a two-stringed fiddle), etc. In addition, historical documents showcase the role of music in the society for entertainment, warfare, or in ceremonial events (Na Nakorn, 1973; Vichiankeaw & Wyatt, 2004). Today, Lanna music is categorised into two types, namely: traditional Lanna music and contemporary Lanna music. Artists may choose to play either type of the music or may choose to play both forms. Traditional Lanna music consists of a number of instruments and ensembles. The klong(s) or drums, which are the traditional drums of local people, are influenced by the neighbouring cultures (Thammati, 2007). These drums are often used as drum ensemble to accompany traditional dancing in festivals, especially in the religious context (Dyck, 2010). The pat-kong ensemble, which is similar to the pi-phat ensemble, is seen in many regional cultures including central Thai, Lao and Cambodian, and contains musical instruments such as pat or ranad (wooden xylophone), kong wong (gong circle), nae noi (small oboe), as well as nae luang (large oboe), klong deng ting (a double-faced large drum). The important role of the pat-kong ensemble is that it is used in various festivals and blessings for auspicious and propitious ceremonies. The saw (singing) is a traditional performance consisting of singers called Chang Saw, who can be either male or female singing with pi joom (quartet of free-reed pipes) and sueng (a four-stringed lute) (Dyck, 2010). The singers sing the lyrics by memory and improvisation. The saw plays an extremely important role in the Lanna society in terms of being an amusement at festivals and other ceremonies (Wongskul, 2001). Currently, the singers try to use the easier and modern languages for audience’s better understanding, and to improve the response to the performance (Chatipun, 1997). Moreover, saw is seen as a way to express and raise certain social issues (Kananai, Khanithep Pitupumnak 41 2012). The Salaw-Saw-Seung ensemble is a new ensemble developed at the time of the local stream. This ensemble contains musical instruments such as salaw, sueng, klui (bamboo flute) and klong pong pong (a double faced drum). Formerly, these instruments were played only for personal entertainment. (Thammati, 2007, Songned, 2011). The salar-saw-seung is widely known in the Thai society because of its soft music style associated with the image of people in the northern society with the objective to support tourism in mass media and for advertising purposes. (Masiri, 2009) Lanna contemporary music, however, is one that has been improved and developed from the traditional form. Traditional Lanna ensembles are played with Western music instruments, and a number of popular songs have been re-written and re-arranged for the purpose of this ensemble (Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Culture, 2018). The contemporary pat-gong is performed with a drum set, keyboard, electric guitar, electric bass, and some wind instruments. Thai popular songs and plang-lok-tung (Thai country music) are arranged to perform in festivals and spiritual dance ceremonies (Masiri, 2009). Likewise, the sor has been added and changed its rhythms in ways to make it more entertaining. In addition, some Lanna artists, such as Jaran Manophet, Panuthat Apichanathong, Bring-kop Warauri have adopted Lanna music including both songs and musical instruments to use in the form of a Western ensemble; a pop band or an orchestra (Sumrongthong, 2009) Lanna music today has a relatively clear standpoint in social dimension. This unique style of music not only plays a role in entertainment and for rituals, it also plays a significant role in the identity of the society. It clearly contributes to the economy through the tourism business, and it certainly plays a part in improving the well-being of people in the society (Pitupumnak, 2017). In the dimension of professionalism, there are numerous traditional and contemporary Lanna musicians involved in the music scenes and performances. From the past until now, the succession of Lanna music has held through a ‘spiritual-teacher’ belief system, which is the basic belief in transfer of knowledge and which was originated from the original Lanna people (Sumrongthong, 2009). In addition, the inheritance of Lanna music is related to the concept of community music education, which is a process of learning, absorbing and imitating, by creating musician’s and teacher’s identity (Pitupumnak, 2015). Lanna music was previously inherited and maintained in the society by informal education and therefore, the existence of Lanna music in the community is becoming clearer when the Thai society has a local stream or localism (Pitupumnak. 2017). Localism has clearly existed in the policy of the Government since 1967 (Office of the national economic and social development board, 2016). This policy has an impact on the development of Lanna music in term of performing, music composition and arrangement, as well as in learning and teaching in the community, along with the academic study of this unique art. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 42 Institutionalisation of traditional music (ITM) in Thailand The concept of institutionalisation of traditional music refers to the transformation and ways of teaching and learning traditional music from informal education to formal education. Many countries around the world have developed traditional music education in a form of conservatory, which is a type of Western music that is considered as formal education (Frank, 2014). Hill (2009) proposed that there are factors influencing ITM, namely: political and ideological agendas, nationalist agendas and leaders. The curriculum should therefore be dependent on the context of each culture and university. The ITM affects traditional music in many ways. Hill stated that “These programs can have huge impacts not only on musical transmission methods, but also on aesthetics, repertoire, style, performance practices, creative opportunities, hierarchies, political manipulation, economic considerations, valuation, status, and public perception” (p. 207-208). Meanwhile Frank (2014) argued that folk music curriculum had developed many aspects of local music such as creativity, academic knowledge, profession and identity development. In term of the content and pedagogy in the curriculum, Frank (2014) suggests that learners must learn a variety of music, study theories and basics of notation, contemporary composition techniques and improvisation. For pedagogy, there are some controversies in ITM about the difference of pedagogy in conservatory and traditional forms. Frank stated that “the nature of traditional music itself allows for students to decipher it and make it their own” (p. 76). Students in the conservatory have to follow a score or composition, as well; they ought to determine the best way to perform. Therefore, the pedagogy is dependent on the character of music, instructors, as well as institution and department setting. In the context of Thailand, ITM is evident when a change of government takes place, which results in political and educational actions. Traditional Central Thai music, or court music, was supported by government agencies and was used as a national music, titled classical Thai music, and was developed as a course in higher education by College of Dramatic Arts, Ministry of Culture (Thuntawech, 2017). This music has now been expanded to many universities around the country with the aim of preserving and transmitting national music. In the meantime, folk music, music in other regions, has been included in higher education in the form of elective courses (Sumrongthong, 2009). Some universities have developed folk music as a curriculum, especially in the north eastern part of Thailand. In term of music curriculum development in a Thai context, some research has suggested that the music curriculum, both Western and traditional music, should be in line with the needs of learners, societies and economies, similar to the changing world of economics, and development of professionalism (Boonjae, 2014, Thuntawech, 2017). Moreover, there are laws and criteria that must be taken into account, namely the National Education Act and The Thai Qualifications Framework for Higher Education (TQF). The National Education Act emphasises that cultural inheritance is one of the means of education. It is the duty of the school to promote and integrate the cultural values with the teaching of all levels (Office of the education council, 2018), and to ensure that the TQF has set the curriculum Khanithep Pitupumnak 43 standards in the field of Fine Arts. The content of the course should thus include: history, music, music theory, musical skills and music technology (Office of the higher education commission, 2016) Research Methodology The researcher used a phenomenological approach, which describes participants’ interpretation of their lives experiences about a concept or a phenomenon (Creswell, 2017). The interpretation of experience is emphasised and presented as a theme and a sub-theme (Manen, 2003). The participants were selected following the theory of ‘concept sampling’, which examines individuals who can contribute to the evolution of a theory or concept (Creswell, 2007). 20 participants (N=20) from five institutions in Northern Thailand were selected including: 12 faculty instructors of Lanna music (code I1-I12), three administrators (code A1-A3), two independent scholars/experts (code S1, S2), and three (Lanna) musicians (code M1-M3). The researcher used various criteria for selecting each group of participants. The faculty instructors were chosen based on their academic standing or expertise, i.e. they had to be Lanna music instructors at the time of the research, had expertise in Lanna music, or had done prior research in respect to Lanna music. Furthermore, a number of faculty participants were also involved in developing curriculums. For the administrator’s group, the researcher considered those who were heads of the music department. The independent scholars/experts were selected based on their area of interest in researching Lanna music and education. In addition, the researcher selected well-known musicians, who demonstrated continual musical work and performance, as well as recording and composition of music. During July-December 2017, formal interviews were conducted to collect data from each participant by questioning them about their experience regarding Lanna music in the society, in their profession, transition, education and institutionalisation. The researcher also utilised non-participant observation for collecting data about Lanna music, which appeared in the community and at the University. All data were managed by transcription, coding and analysis of specific statements and themes (Creswell, 2017). The Status of Lanna Music in Higher Education Lanna music is part of tradition, and tradition, as per governmental policies, constitutes an important part of higher education (Office of the education council, 2018). Findings suggest that Lanna music is manifested in higher education in the following forms: Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 44 Lanna Music as Cultural Identity Lanna music offers a cultural identity, demonstrating the receptivity of university personnel and dictates campus policies and activities. As highlighted in most universities’ mission statements, the institution itself has to play a role in the preservation of arts and culture. The university has to offer, in terms of activities, succession and research on culture. Participant A1 stated that “Lanna music helps in fostering the cultural identity in our space. We are here. We have to make Lanna music reputable”, Participant A2 indicated that “Our university serves the local community. We cannot neglect Lanna music.” Revivalist efforts began in Thai universities prior to 1993. Regionalisation in Northern Thailand is another factor in fostering the Lanna cultural identity. Musical clubs were established to offer opportunities for students to learn about or partake in Lanna music. Lanna music is employed in various occasions, such as in university activities or in institutional music. On top of this, Lanna music has also attracted the interest of university researchers. Lanna music is also an attraction for artists and musicians, and a means of increasing the value of performance. This area of creative endeavour is often referred to as “Applied or Contemporary Lanna Music”. This form of art is developed both within higher education and by independent musicians. It has been incorporated into many performances such as light and sound productions, telling the story of Chiang Mai’s past and similar stories . The development of music so far has an air of completion about it. Lanna music has become fused with Western music. I personally have done this for many years with nice tunes. Modern listeners enjoy it and some companies are interested in circulating it. (Participant I1) In any case, from the university’s point of view, Lanna music is more useful as a cultural identity than as a profession or academic pursuit. Focus is therefore often given to the restoration and preservation of Lanna music, generally through extra-curricular activities or as part of an existing curriculum. Lanna Music as Communal Activity From an academic perspective, Lanna music is often considered a folk tradition that is still serving the locals. Lanna music has its responsibilities to the community in several aspects, including the carrying out of religious rites (for instance, spiritual dances or funeral rites). Furthermore, Lanna music is also being fostered as a cultural identity, functioning as a tool for the development of youth and the elderly. These aspects have received much attention from university-based scholars in ethnomusicology and community music education. Studies show that learners are taught a Lanna tradition that is responsive to changing social contexts. There exist several bodies of knowledge integral to this system of education (in addition to musical skills), including music history, music and culture, as well as cultural transformations and changing demands for music, etc. (Pitupumnak, 2017). Khanithep Pitupumnak 45 Lanna Music As an Important Core of a Music Education Curriculum Although Lanna music has not yet become a specialised curriculum, it has been combined as part of music education curricula, which comprises of Western music, Central Thai music and folk music. The reasons for this grouping are twofold: 1) as an effort for preservation and 2) to equip students with a wide range of skills necessary to be able to teach different forms of music at school. Participant I8 stated that “The music education curriculum consists of Thai music because it is a national treasure; Western music because it is international treasure; and, Lanna music because it is a local treasure.” Furthermore, Participant A1 stated that “The music education curriculum needs to create teachers with two areas of expertise: Thai and Western music. In Chiang Mai, folk music forms the third category.” Candidates in music education, therefore, need to be trained in a variety of musical traditions, in essence becoming music generalists since schools may not be able to afford specialists. A music teacher may have to oversee all kinds of school- level music depending on the school management. In some cases, the music teacher is also responsible for teaching visual arts and dance. Lanna Music as a General Subject Several universities offer courses in Lanna music, or in some cases Lanna music is admitted into the scope of pre-existing courses among Music Appreciation, Music and Rituals, or Ethnic Music (Akins, & Binson, 2011). Lanna music is taught both to students of Thai or Western music, or to non-music students. These may be general education (GE) courses or free electives. In addition to this, subjects relating to society and local history may have a musical aspect to them; these may engage students in Lanna music without going too deeply into theoretical or historical details. Thai music was usually the subject-matter of the Music Appreciation course – nowadays, folk or Lanna music is also taught. Sometimes, history, which is a general subject, also includes Lanna topics, the ways of life of the Lanna people, including Lanna music, so that students may become acquainted with and better understand their own culture. (Participant I1) Based on this wealth of information, it is evident that Lanna music is part of culture, the fostering of which should be one of higher education’s main objectives. This mission is focused on conservation in all shapes and forms, including the development of cultural identity, research, along with the creation of bodies of knowledge for use in curricula or in individual subjects. These observations suggest that universities should place a great deal of significance on the instruction of Lanna music. In spite of this, Lanna music has not yet been developed as a specialised curriculum under the Ministry of Education, which is an important—yet untapped— avenue for further growth in this area. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 46 Paradigm for the Development of a Lanna Music Curriculum in Higher Education This paradigm towards a specialised Lanna music curriculum offers a roadmap for further development in response to social needs and context. The following are findings based on interviews, and analysed below under the succeeding headings: Objectives of the Curriculum The participants provided information regarding the objectives that relate to their experience. The key concept of the data is preservation and creativity. The participants stated that: In the creation of a curriculum, emphasis must be placed on preservation, in tandem with the application of Lanna music to newer contexts. (Participant A1) The integration of traditional and Western music must be emphasised. The participant I3 pointed that: Considerations must be given to the integration between Lanna and Western music. In some cases, curricula place an over-emphasis on Western music at the expense of local music. Methods of learning may include rearranging of folk music for modern usage, or utilising traditional instruments. (Participant I3) From the viewpoint of the ability, graduates become prospective music teachers or musicians of good quality and are able to use materials of Lanna music as a foundation for their own creative work in terms of teaching innovation and music creativity. In order to study the music, one must have the capacity to combine the original with the new. Then, connect and adjust them as they best suit our society and culture. (Participant I4) One participant state that “the thinking process is an important outcome for developing any creative work”. I think we should focus on the "idea" of thought because we lack the thinking process. We like imitation. If I am asked, it must be rebuilt. For example, we may not take music across species. We might create a Lanna Symphony which is a Salo, Sor, Sueng in Symphony. (Participant I5) The graduates are expected to have the ability to develop their own ideas after graduation. The participant I6 said that: I think the graduates will have their own ideas, creativity in self-development and finally, they can create their own work which will be a successful point.” (Participant I6) Khanithep Pitupumnak 47 In addition, the traditional way of Lanna music should be included in the curriculum as a basis for creativity. The practical teaching, such as the teaching of “Bhu Cha drums, Phu Jae and Sa Bad Chai, are all aimed to teach the students to understand and to apply these into their works. (Participant I3) The main objective of a Lanna music curriculum should therefore be 1) to restore bodies of knowledge that help in preserving and acting as the way for the transference of Lanna music, 2) to foster Lanna music creativity based on traditional music and music of other cultures, and 3) to ultimately lead to professionalism (musician and music teacher) in modern-day society. This concept is in line with the demands of higher education in its objective to preserve local traditions, as well as to respond to the demands of society and the learners themselves. Availability of Resources In the northern regions of Thailand, there is a wealth of cultural resources due to diversity of peoples and cultures, folksongs, artists and teachers, independent musicians and other musical events. Much has been documented in photographs, videos, sound clips and other sources, which lend themselves to classification and scholarly investigation. The participants stated that: Different materials can be found within our area. We have ethnic diversity. We have different types of play. All these things can be incorporated into a creative work to create a new kind of performance. Different musical identities can be found throughout the northern provinces. (Participant I8) From a viewpoint of a musician, participants should include a variety of cultural materials in their creative work. The participant M2 said that: We have ethnicity. We have a variety of traditional games. We have a set of fabrics that can be used for further creative thinking in order to make a new show. It looks like it is our selling point. (Participant M2) On the other hand, the body of knowledge of Lanna music inherited from a ‘master’ or ‘Khru’ is an important resource, and should be further developed. The participant A3 proposed that: We have a lot of knowledge and wisdom. Also, there are a number of experts called Pho Khru and Mae Khru. But, their knowledge have not yet been fully utilized and transferred into practical textbooks. In order to create a curriculum, we have to initiate these. (Participant A3) In respect to instructor’s competencies, Thai laws require instructors in higher education to have several qualifications, such as possessing a related degree in at least a master's level, as well as having conducted research or produced academic publications (Office of the higher education commission, 2015). Nevertheless, in reality, those who have accurate knowledge of folk music and a Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 48 high level of education are almost non-existent. It is, therefore necessary to develop certain criteria in order to identify the actual abilities of instructors and local artists, who are capable of providing higher education. Some universities in Thailand have the criteria to support those who are highly talented yet lack the knowledge. This includes national artists or those who have received national awards. Participant A3 pointed out that: You need to set specific criteria to support good artists, who can teach in the university. They may need to have recognized achievements, and there should be a committee or board to review their background, as those who have a Ph.D. in Lanna music are not existent. (Participant A3) In the process of developing a Lanna music program, the university must invest in such facilities like music rooms, musical instruments, computer programs, recording rooms and showrooms. These facilities need to be available and well- equipped in order to best serve learners and have maximum impact in terms of learning outcomes. However, some participants revealed that: Folk music has to stay and continue with villagers. We have to place emphasis on teaching-learning and performance in the community. Considering the fact that musical instruments are often made by the villagers themselves, musicians (students) may have to create their own musical instruments. (Participant S1) One of the participants stated that the program should begin from what’s available, and gradually be expanded from that point on. What we have for the support is gradual accumulation. We started by learning from what we had before, and have gradually created both knowledge and things. (Participant I9) However, the quality of the curriculum needs to be considered. The participant A2 said that: We cannot expect to have all facilities ready and then start designing a curriculum. We ought to ensure that we create high quality curriculums, while the facilities are being developed. (Participant A2) The participants stated that they could use the facilities that had already available, and what they needed in terms of high investment, they could accumulate or gradually build up. Participant A2 stated that “But, we must critically think about the quality of teaching and the quality of our students.” For the development of a Lanna music program, the participants stated that the readiness of resources should be taken into account. This includes providing information regarding the availability of resources, including knowledge, personnel and facilities. These are elements that are related to the community and the original space of teaching-learning of Lanna music. In addition, the knowledge of Lanna music, in its entirety, appears in various aspects of music theories, music history, Khanithep Pitupumnak 49 practical techniques and the music culture. It is in the practice of wisdom and succession with oral tradition. However, the academic knowledge developed in the character of textbooks is limited and not comprehensive. Therefore, the university needs to support research and development of knowledge in various fields as a basis for curriculum development. Development of Learners Based on Interest and Potential Lanna musicians are diverse. Before enrolling in higher education, students learn Lanna music in various ways based on their musical interests and through their preferred learning styles. The learners may learn from their parents, masters, friends, or by themselves and via resources available on the Internet including YouTube. Some musicians may play only one type of Lanna music, while others may be interested in playing multiple types of music, including the ability to perform traditional Lanna dance. This diversity affects the qualification of the students that need to be broadly defined. As we have observed over the years and as it is evident from existing courses, our students are very different. Many of them, who are capable of playing Lanna music, come from different places. We try to get them to use that ability. If we will do the Lanna music course, a broad set of criteria must be set and it cannot be specific. (Participant A1) The difference between students directly impacts their recruitment criteria. The participant A2 stated that: The criteria for student recruitment must be diverse and flexible. We need to see that students have the potential to further develop in their own way. (Participant A2) Consideration must also be given to the development of learners based on differences in their interests and potentials. One method of folk performance involves artists being able to develop musical forms by themselves, both in traditional and contemporary styles. The learner must therefore be able to develop his own expertise, as well as learning about other different types of music in order to achieve creative autonomy. Participant I5 stated that “students must create their own work according to their own potential.” In order to develop the potential of learners, besides creating courses and curriculum content, the participants agreed that teachers have a great impact to support and encourage students to develop their full potential. Every student has different needs and goals. Some like folk music and come to study folk music from local experts. Students come to study with us, which opens their world and encourages them to further learning. (Participant A1) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 50 In addition, it is the teacher’s duty to lead students and to help them develop their potentials. The participant I7 stated that: Teachers do need to help and point out what students can do. Previously, with Thai music and Western music we try to do that. (Participant I7) From a different perspective, universities are a place of learning and intellectual exchange between learners. The duty of the teacher is to find inspiration and to offer advice. The curriculum should therefore foster a diverse learning experience, so that learners may receive the knowledge needed to accompany their own creative pursuits. The Provision of Diverse Knowledge, Leading to Professional Qualification The music industry in Northern Thailand, including the Thai society, is divided into two major groups: musical profession (musicians, music composers, producers); and music teachers (teaching in public schools, private schools and private studios). Each line of work can be subdivided into very specific categories. In this case, Participant I11 informed that: We do not know what graduates will choose after their graduation. Some people learn to become an artist, while others study liberal arts and finally pursue a teaching job. These are based on the opportunity they encounter. (Participant I11) Graduates will soon face diversity and expectations. Graduates, who become music educators, are required to have a diverse understanding of different forms of music. Although, in higher education, students will have their own major areas of expertise, they may be encouraged to learn instruments with which they are unfamiliar, or even learn subjects for which they have not been adequately prepared, for instance physical training or drawing. At the same time, school standards differ from place to place in funding, in the quality of the staff, location, social influence and so forth. In face of this great diversity, graduates must adapt and be able to handle a wide range of unexpected situations. A graduate from a Lanna music curriculum must respond to the needs of different local schools. In addition to Lanna music, he may have to be trained in Thai music. Upon graduation he may land a job in a faraway school, or one lacking adequate budget. He will have to demonstrate abilities in Thai music, Western music and folk music. (Participant S2) The desire of most schools is to establish school bands capable of attending various school activities, representing the school in contests and putting the school’s name in good repute. A number of schools therefore are in need of regular teachers capable of organizing bands. The curriculum should respond to this demand by producing candidates able to conduct bands of both folk, Thai and Western music. Khanithep Pitupumnak 51 Participant I10 stated that “In some situations, schools expect music graduates to be able to form bands, whether it is for western, Thai or folk music.” In the music profession, diversity of knowledge leads to more creativity and innovation, which should be one of the main objectives of the adaptable music curriculum. The design of the curriculum, in addition to requiring students to develop expertise in their own disciplines, must also train them to think in more cosmopolitan terms, leading to more diverse opportunities within the profession. The participant said that – in case of Thai music students: Thai music students only learn about Thai music. So when they encounter Lanna music or other musical traditions, they come to a dead end. Even in terms of the notation – they’re only often taught the notation of Thai music, and none of the Western. They come to a dead end. (Participant I11) Reading western notations is a necessary skill for communication between traditional and western musicians. The participant A1 stated that: When they encounter Lanna or Western musicians, they have problems communicating with them. Learning about other musical traditions or foreign notation may be a necessity.(Participant A1) In addition, students also need to know various styles of music, which help them to satisfy customers’ different needs. The participant M1 said that: I work as a freelance, composing a number of songs. The key I found is to determine different needs of customers. Even when we have our own ways, we have to consider what customers want or what we should offer our customers. We need to know a lot. Knowing just native music or Western music is not enough. (Participant M1) The curriculum therefore needs to prepare the graduates to face the diversity and expectations. Students should have a grasp of different traditions of music, whether it is Lanna, Western or the music of other cultures. This process of learning should tie in with concepts of ethnic music, as well as that of music education and creativity, so that the students may achieve a more wholesome integration in their works. Freedom to Develop a Local Curriculum The design of a Lanna music curriculum, which is mainly concerned with a local body of knowledge, should be given enough freedom and flexibility to engage with the local context. Even if curricula must be written with social, economic, cultural and political considerations in mind, in Thailand, curricula must conform to governmental policies, known as Thai Qualifications Framework for Higher Education. Every curriculum must rigorously follow these guidelines. On top of this, additional rules set by the Teachers’ Council apply to the development of post- graduate curricula. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 52 The criteria laid down by the Teachers’ Council present a lot of difficulties. The university should have some flexibility and freedom in curricular decision- making, so that they may decide on what’s best based on local contexts. Regional curricula will be different due to social, environmental and cultural differences. (Participant I12) Such criteria may be rigorous in certain areas, such as in regulating the qualifications of the teaching faculty and the distribution of credits and modules, to name a few examples. However, a context-aware curriculum can still be designed based upon relevant bodies of knowledge to ensure the design of courses and course contents are in alignment with the vision of the university. In any case, this must measure up against the standards of the profession and the field of study. Significance Given to Cultural Diversity For curriculum development, it is important to consider the diversity of students together with institutions that play a significant role in developing academic knowledge, as well as the need to focus on the diversity of Lanna music culture. As mentioned earlier, the word ‘Lanna’ encapsulates traditions within the Northern Thai regions. In this way, Lanna is by definition a diverse conglomeration of traditions based on fluctuating population. Moreover, this may also include the surrounding music cultures that influence Lanna music, such as Burmese music culture, Tai, Laos, etc. A Lanna music curriculum should therefore reflect this essential diversity rather than confining itself to a singular mainstream musical tradition. The participants said that: A Lanna music curriculum should not place, at its heart, a singular emphasis on Lanna music, but rather attend to ethnic diversity. (Participant I8) What is the real Lanna music? What kinds of Lanna music should be included in? The Lanna music program is not going to be only concerned with salaw, saw, sueng, and pat-kong. (Participant S1) Lanna music is therefore not just the music of Chiang Mai, the central hub of the region, but also the music of other cultural minorities, such as music from the hilltribes, or music in each province in Northern Thailand. Each province has its own history of royal courts such as Nan, Payao, Chiang Rai. The Mae Hong Son province however, derives much of its influence from the Shan peoples of Myanmar. Moreover, each province has its own way of playing music, which deserves its unique research endeavour and learning. This local history and the way of playing are important parts of developing a Lanna music curriculum. In addition, the program should also include Western music that has played a role in Lanna music, specifically Lanna contemporary music. In consequence, the development of the Lanna music program requires the use of branch concepts and Ethnomusicology in order to define the subject and direction. As participant A3 stated: Khanithep Pitupumnak 53 To make students understand the diversity, it is crucial to get them involved with a background culture and to provide them a view on the musical culture; it is a subject that is Ethnomusicology. (Participant A3) In terms of cultural diversity, both music and other related cultural elements are the hallmarks of Lanna music as well as folk music, similar to many cultures around the world. The curriculum needs to take into account the direction of curriculum development. A Curriculum for the Community As it was pointed out under the topic of “Availability of Resources”, the participants emphasized that the Lanna music program cannot be separated from the community, even if it is taught in the university. Lanna music has its roots in communal tradition. Beyond the university, the community is a place for creativity and transmission, with an active and continuously developing musical scene (i.e. developing new musical forms, new styles of performance, etc.) Lanna music courses must work with communities because knowledge and meaning of Lanna music are in the community. Music is born with people and is developed with the artists and the audience. These people are in the community. (Participant S3) The community is therefore an ideal place for learning about Lanna music. The curriculum must therefore seek to develop its vision, its faculty, contents and learning activities to reflect this social reality. Courses might include Music in Modern Day Rituals, Music Aesthetics and Society, Community Music, Community Music Education, the Management of Professional Lanna Ensembles and so forth. Additionally, credits could be awarded to students for experience working in the community as a way of encouraging mutual work between the university and the community. The participants said that: In order to design the subjects, institutions must consider what kinds of essential knowledge students need to learn. Consider the need and the changes that will occur. (Participant I4) The critical point is that how it will also connect with the community in terms of both the knowledge and teaching, or even the credits transferred. (Participant S3) Conversely, the university is an academic space for Lanna music, attending to the preservation and improvement of important bodies of knowledge – knowledge currently in the possession of an ageing generation of teachers and artists. Participant A1 said that “There are problems within the present method of cultural transmission. The teachers are getting older, but education can preserve this wealth of knowledge.” All this knowledge demands to be preserved and studied in a systematic way. Many universities see value in this work and have tried to collect these bodies of knowledge in the form of research that is managed by the faculty or researchers. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 54 In any case, research must continue to be promoted, expanded and in turn be fed back into the curriculum-building process. Conclusion This article reviews the status of Lanna music in modern educational institutions and offers a paradigm for the development of a Lanna musical curriculum. The results suggest that, presently, Lanna music in higher education plays a role in shaping the cultural identity of the region. Lanna music is a communal activity and a field of study for many researchers in universities. Lanna music is also a central aspect of a music education curriculum, in which students must take courses in Western, Central Thai and folk music. Additionally, Lanna music is a general subject taught to non-music students, or a subject incorporated into other existing courses. The development of a Lanna music curriculum should adhere to the following paradigm. The goal of the curriculum should be to preserve and develop existing musical traditions. Considerations must be given to the availability of resources, in particular, the cultural resources which form vital foundations for the creation of bodies of knowledge. Students should be developed based on their interests and existing potentials. Certain flexibility and freedom must be afforded to the development of a local curriculum, which responds to local contexts and demands, reflecting national standards and criteria. The curriculum should take into consideration cultural diversity and the possibility of integration with the community. Furthermore, from the demand and the perspective presented above, it is evident that the development of a Lanna music program must include the concept of music education and ethnomusicology, music performance and creativity in order to provide students with a broader understanding of various cultures, conveyances and musical creations. This research will be the principle platform for developing Lanna music curriculum in higher education, especially in the northern region of Thailand. This research intends to create a starting point for developing ideas and paradigms that are necessary to support other studies which may lead to the successful development of the curriculum in a systematic manner, and which is in line with the changing societies of the 21st century. Future studies should be developed to include details on the components of the curriculum, especially Lanna music theory, Lanna music history, Lanna musical practice and Lanna music pedagogy. These are important factors for teaching and learning. Higher education and community would help support each other's content, learning and teaching, as well as the measurement and evaluation, including transferring credit from community teaching and learning to formal education. Khanithep Pitupumnak 55 Acknowledgements The contents of this article derive from a research entitled ‘The Paradigm of the music study in Higher Education in Northern Thailand for 21st Century’, sponsored by the Thailand Research Fund (TRF) and received great support from Chiang Mai University, the Faculty of Fine Arts, and all contributing informants. Reference Akins, J., & Binson, B. (2011). Transmission of traditional lanna music in Chiang Mai: Continuity and change in a contemporary urban environment. City, Culture and Society, 2(4), 243-254. DOI:10.1016/j.ccs.2011.08.00 Boonjae, A. (2014). Krabunkan plianplaeng lae naewnom khong kanson dontri nai sathaban udomsueksa : koranisueksa mahawittayalai rajabhat Bansomdegchaopraya[Change process and new trends of music teaching: a case study of Bansomdegchaopraya rajabhat university]. (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Mahidol University, Nakornpathom, Thailand. Chatipun, C. (1997). Kan rap khawsan dan chariyatham chak sue puenban praped sor khong prachachon nai ampher San Kam pang, changwat Chiang Mai [The reception of moral information from a tradition folk, in Sankampang: A case of "saw"] (Unpublished master’s Thesis). Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Education research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ.: Pearson Education. Creswell, J. W. (2017). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). USA.: SAGE Dyck, G. P. (2010). Musical journeys in Northern Thailand. Massachusetts, MA: Minuteman Press of Fall River. Frank, A. (2014). That’s the way I’ve always learned: The transmission of traditional music in higher education (Electronic Theses and Dissertations, Paper 2381). Retrieved form http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/2381 Hill, J. (2009). The influence of conservatory folk music programmes: The Sibelius Academy in Comparative Context. Ethnomusicology Forum, 18 (2), 207- 241, DOI: 10.1080/17411910903141882 Kananai, P. (2012). Kan prappian botbat lea nati phue kan damrongyu khon “saw” thamkhlang boribot khong sangkhom ti plianplaeng : koranisueksa khanaso amphoe Maerim changwat Chiang Mai [Role Changing and Existence of “Saw” Among Dynamic Social Context: A Case Study of “Saw” Bands in Mae Rim District, Chiang Mai Province]. Phikante Journal, 8(1), 25-32 Kanteewong, T. (n.d.). The re-contexualisation of Lanna traditional music in Chiang Mai province, Thailand. Retrieved from http://www.cujucr.com/downloads/pdf_7_2009/Thitipol%20Kanteewong.pd f Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (38-57) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 56 Manen, M. V. (2003). Researching lived experience (2nd ed.). London, Ontario: Althouse Press. Masiri, P. (2009). Pat kong: Wong pi-pat nai boribot sangkhom Chiang Mai patchuban [Patt Gong : Pi Phat Lanna in present context of the Chiang Mai society] (Unpublished Master’s thesis). Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang rai, Thailand. Na Nakorn, P. (1973). Khlong Nirat Haribhunjaya [Nirat Haribhunjaya poem]. Bangkok: Prachan. Office of the education council. (2018). Phraratchabanyat kansueksa 2542 [National Education Act B.E. 2542]. Retrieved from http://www.onec.go.th/index.php/book/BookView/10 Office of the higher education commission. (2015). Kenmattatan laksut radap parinyati 2558 [the criteria of the undergraduate curriculum B.E. 2558]. Retrieved from http://www.mua.go.th/users/hecommission/doc/law/ohec%20law/2558%20 gradu%202558.PDF Office of the higher education commission. (2016). Mattatan khunnawut radup parinyati sakha silapa kamsat 2558 [Thai qualifications framework for higher education in Fine arts B.C. 2558]. Retrieved from http://www.mua.go.th/users/tqf-hed/news/news6.php Office of the national economic and social development board. (2016). Phaen phattana saetthakit haengchat chabapti 2 (2510-2514) [The 2nd national economic and social development plan (1967-1971). Retrieved from http://www.nesdb.go.th/main.php?filename=develop_issue Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Culture. (2018). Sueng chord : Nawattakam dontri Lanna nai sattawatmai [Sueng Chord: the invention of Lanna music instrument in the new century] (research report). Chiang Mai: Author. Pitupumnak, K. (2014). Dontri Lanna: Kan wichai domtri chatphanwitthaya nai radab bandit suesa [Lanna music: Ethnomusicological research in graduate study level]. Plang Dontri, 20 (4), pp 28-35. Pitupumnak, K. (2015). Attalak kru dontri puenmueng nuea koranisueksa phokru Manop Yarana, phokru Un-ruean Hongtong lea kru Bunying kanthawong [Northern Thai Traditional Music Teachers’s Identities : The study case of Manop Yarana, Un-ruean Hongtong, and Bunyinng. Kanthawong]. Journal of Fine Arts, 6 (2), 138-169 Pitupumnak, K. (2017). Nueaha lea krabunkanrian-kanson nai rabop dontri chumchonsueksa nai puenti changwat Chiang Mai [Content and Teaching- Learning process in community music education in Chiang Mai province, Thailand]. Journal of Fine Arts, 8 (2), 265-320 Songned, K. (2011). Kan suepthot salo nai wattanatham Lanna [The inheritance of sa-law in Lanna music culture] (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Mahidol University, Nakornpathom, Thailand. Sumrongthong, B. (2009). Phitikam lea kwamchue ti kiawkhong kap wattanatam kan seup thot dontri Lanna [the Rites and Beliefs associated with the Khanithep Pitupumnak 57 transmission of musical culture in Thailand’s Lanna Region] (research report). Bangkok: The Thailand Research fund. Thammati, S. (2007). Natta duriyakan Lanna [Lanna Dance and Music]. Chiang Mai: The Center for the Promotion of Arts and Culture CMU. The inscriptions in Thailand Database. (2006). Charuak wat pra yuan [the inscriptions at Pra Yuan temple]. Retrieved from http://www.sac.or.th/databases/ inscriptions inscribe_detail.php?id=188 Thongkam, C. (2014). Dontri phuenban kap kan pen laengrianru khong changwat Nan [Local music and being learning resource of Nan province]. Area Based Development Research Journal, 6(4), 65-109. Thuntawech, S. (2017). The ideal Thailand music institute in higher education in the 21st century (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Mahidol University, Nakornpathom, Thailand. Vichiankeaw, A. & Wyatt, D. K. (2004). Tamnan Pueng Muang Chiang Mai [The Chiang Mai chronicle] (2nd ed.). Chiang Mai: Silkwormbooks. Wongskul, S. (2001). Kan khong yu khong phleng phuenban (sor) nai changwat Chiang Mai [Retention of Traditional Lanna folk song (Sor) in Chiang Mai Province] (Unpublished master’s Thesis). Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Biography Khanithep Pitupumnak is currently a lecturer at the Department of Thai Arts, Faculty of Fine Arts, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. Pitupumnak is interested in fields of Ethnomusicology, Community Music Education, and Multi-Cultural Music Education.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

Australian culture, canon, contemporary popular music, electric guitar, pedagogy

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/838

A Pedagogical Canon for Electric Guitar: An Australian Cultural Perspective

This study aimed to develop an up-to-date canon for electric guitar for use in popular music education in Australia through research of relevant industry data. A prospective pedagogical canon of ten songs was derived and discussed with suggestions for further curricula content and exemplars proposed. Quantitative and qualitative methodologies were employed to analyse data collected from a variety of industry sources. Findings of the study revealed some enlightening cultural insights from the perspective of Australian music education. The development of electric guitar culture in Australia was shown to be driven by international influences with Australia following the lead from the United States and the United Kingdom rather than offering uniquely Australian input. These factors may have led to a potential stifling of a uniquely Australian electric guitar culture via the widespread use of pedagogical methodologies that have simply adopted international content rather than focussed on development of local input.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/838/574

58 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 A Pedagogical Canon for Electric Guitar: An Australian Cultural Perspective Daniel A. Lee Charles Darwin University, Australia e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 1 September 2018 Cite this article (APA): Lee, D. (2018). A pedagogical canon for electric guitar: An Australian cultural perspective. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 58-77. Abstract This study aimed to develop an up-to-date canon for electric guitar for use in popular music education in Australia through research of relevant industry data. A prospective pedagogical canon of ten songs was derived and discussed with suggestions for further curricula content and exemplars proposed. Quantitative and qualitative methodologies were employed to analyse data collected from a variety of industry sources. Findings of the study revealed some enlightening cultural insights from the perspective of Australian music education. The development of electric guitar culture in Australia was shown to be driven by international influences with Australia following the lead from the United States and the United Kingdom rather than offering uniquely Australian input. These factors may have led to a potential stifling of a uniquely Australian electric guitar culture via the widespread use of pedagogical methodologies that have simply adopted international content rather than focussed on development of local input. Keywords: Australian culture, canon, contemporary popular music, electric guitar, pedagogy. Daniel Lee 59 Introduction This paper reports on a study, conducted in Australia, which investigated the development of an instrumental teacher’s personal canon of exemplars for use in delivering tuition on the electric guitar within a popular music education framework. The purpose of the development of the canon was for the personal reference of an instrumental instructor as a basis to derive a series of lesson plans which consistently address important pedagogical factors in teaching electric guitar. The setting that formulated the framework for this study is a private instructor teaching Australian secondary students in one-on-one instrumental tuition. The term ‘canon’ is often used to describe a list of compositions which a student of a particular instrument would be expected to include in their standard repertoire. However, in this study, in the absence of an alternative terminology, the term ‘canon’ is used to describe a list of songs for pedagogical reference, not performance expectations. It is anticipated that other instrumental tutors could replicate this approach to derive their own personal pedagogical canon informed by their particular socio-cultural locale. The canon developed in this study was aimed to be both musically and pedagogically relevant for students of electric guitar to develop them for the current global music marketplace. The majority of Western art instruments already have their own canons and, in many cases, dedicated pieces have been written expressly for a specific purpose of developing the students’ technical or musical development. These compositions are found in the curricula of music education institutions and organisations globally. The role the electric guitar has played in twenty-first century music is complex and dynamic crossing many genre borders and pioneering new ones. As a result, a natural evolution of a canon for electric guitar has not occurred. The research project addressed the following question: Which compositions constitute a relevant repertoire for an electric guitar tuition curriculum? In order to position the findings within a global perspective of cultural and pedagogical significance, the following secondary research question was also investigated: What is the place and identity of Australian culture, through the lens of the electric guitar canon, in a globalised context? Since the introduction of the Internet, the global music marketplace has undergone significant changes. In conjunction with other technological developments there has been a trend towards online marketing and self-produced music. The musician employment marketplace has experienced a shift toward a globalised perspective. The next generation of musicians will be competing on an international stage, via the Internet and their education should be preparing them for this. With a focus on commercial compositions rather than purely educational or technical works, a student’s repertoire is potentially more practically focussed as they enter the global marketplace as an early-career professional musician. Careful selection of an educational canon may still allow an instructive focus on technique, as well as musical theory and general knowledge by using appropriate significant historical and relevant compositions. Jodi Fisher makes a case for the use of songs 60 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 in place of exercises; “students will learn the most from songs, they are the perfect vehicle for learning both theory and technique” (Fisher, 2005, p. 72). From a broader view on pedagogy, Pratchett states, “The best kind of education possible is the one that happens while you think you’re having fun” (Pratchett, 2014, p. 120). It is the belief and experience of the author that students will enjoy learning songs more than technical exercises and a carefully derived pedagogical canon of songs can be designed to contain the technical and theoretical content found in method books and curricula. Methodology The study used a mixed methodology of quantitative and qualitative processes. This is now common practice in the social sciences (Sarantakos, 2013) and is becoming more typical in music research (Wise, 2014). The decision to use a mixed methods approach was made due to the type of data collected. The research was conducted through analysing information from syllabuses, curricula, publications and industry discourse ranging from the 1950’s to the current era. The data collection also reflected the influence of the Internet on instrumental electric guitar tuition by the inclusion of data from Internet-only sources and publications with a strong Internet presence. Syllabuses from music examination boards and guilds in Australia, the United States of America, Canada and the United Kingdom provided initial sources of quantitative data enabling the establishment of a list of songs occurring most frequently across the globe in modern guitar curricula. A second relevant source of data was industry discourse, internet sites and other current industry media offering tutorage in electric guitar. Table 1 shows the data sources for the syllabus and industry discourse data sets and their nationalities. The third source of data was the personal records of the researcher, an Australian music educator, collected across ten years. The music educator’s lesson plans comprise repertoire selected for pedagogical reasons and is heavily influenced by student feedback, via personal discourse on the choice of material and also by students’ requests. Quantitative analysis was used to initially tabulate data from the primary sources to identify potential canon content by frequency of occurrence in pedagogical settings. Table 2 shows twenty most frequently listed songs from each of the three data sets and the frequency of occurrence. This list formed the basis for the qualitative analysis. Daniel Lee 61 Table 1 Data sources and nationalities Syllabus data source Nationality Industry discourse data source Nationality Australian Music Examinations Board Contemporary Popular Music course Australia Guitar World: 50 Greatest Rock Songs United States of America Boosey & Hawkes Registry of Guitar Tutors Rock Guitar Syllabus United Kingdom VH1: Greatest Songs of Rock and Roll United States of America Canada Conservatory Canada New Musical Express: 50 Greatest Guitar Solos United Kingdom Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority Australia Guitar World: 100 Greatest Guitar Solos United States of America Heanor School of Music United Kingdom Rolling Stones Magazine: Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time United States of America Australian Guild of Music and Education Australia Guitar Alliance: Top Classic Rock Songs United States of America Trinity College London, Pop and Rock United Kingdom Guitar Habits: 20 Guitar Classics Netherlands Hot Rock Guitar United States of America Guitar Tricks: Jam Sessions Songs United States of America Berklee College of Music United States of America 10 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time - For Dummies United States of America The qualitative component of the study was conducted using critical analysis as the methodology. The researcher felt this methodology most closely supports the intended research process (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Each of the songs in the table above were examined for pedagogical value by cross referencing their content to studies, etudes and compositions found in guitar tutor and method books. The tunes found to contain the most comparatively similar content were considered to be of higher pedagogical value and therefore greater status for the purpose of the 62 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 canon being derived in this study. For example the Australian publication Progressive Lead Guitar (Turner & White, 1979a) is a very popular guitar tutor book in Australia. The first lesson introduces the twelve-bar-blues harmonic progression and through a series of exercises builds a riff based blues exercise. The Ray Charles composition ‘What’d I Say’ is an example of a simple riff-based blues composition. Figure 1 shows the Turner and White exercise and Figure 2 shows Charles’ ‘What’d I Say’ for comparison. Table 2 Top twenty songs in each data set # - frequency of occurrence within each data set. Syllabuses # Industry Discourse # Tutor Log # Sunshine of Your Love 7 Stairway to Heaven 9 What’d I Say 342 Whiteroom 4 Freebird 6 Hey Joe 233 Under the Bridge 4 Hotel California 6 Sweet Home Alabama 149 The Wind Cries Mary 4 Smells Like Teen Spirit 6 Boom Boom 132 Sweet Child of Mine 4 Sweet Child of Mine 6 Flintstones Theme 87 Sultans of Swing 4 All Along the Watchtower 6 All Along the Watchtower 77 Paranoid 4 Beat It 5 La Bamba 60 Crossroads 4 Crossroads 5 Sunshine of Your Love 52 You Shook Me All Night Long 3 Purple Haze 5 Purple Haze 51 Wonderful Tonight 3 Whole Lotta Love 5 Vertigo 51 Tears In Heaven 3 Bohemian Rhapsody 4 Summer of ‘69 48 Stairway to Heaven 3 Crazy Train 4 Hero (Nickleback) 47 Panama 3 Eruption 4 Can’t Stop 45 One (Metallica) 3 Johnny B. Goode 4 Zebra 43 Misty 3 Layla 4 La Grange 40 Living on a Prayer 3 Walk This Way 4 Kryptonite 39 Little Wing 3 You Really Got Me 4 Bad to the Bone 37 Layla 3 Back in Black 3 Johnny B. Goode 36 How High the Moon 3 Comfortably Numb 3 Are You Gonna Be My Girl 35 Hey Joe 3 Killing in the Name 3 Hotel California 35 Daniel Lee 63 Figure 1 Progressive Lead Guitar- ‘Exercise 4’ (Turner & White 1979a, p. 12) Figure 2 ‘What’d I Say’ (Charles, 1959, transcribed by Author) Using Fisher’s justification of tunes in place of exercises it is argued that ‘What’d I Say’ has the same pedagogical function as the exercise, however, presents it in a more aesthetically pleasing manner for the student and is therefore of more pedagogical value. This process was utilised to examine the content of the highest ranking twenty tunes from each data source. Other publications used for cross referencing purposes include Complete Method for Modern Guitar (Bay, 1948), Be Dangerous on Rock Guitar (Daniels, 1986), Hal Leonard Guitar Method (Schmidt, 1977), A Modern Method for Guitar (Leavitt, 1966), Complete Course in Jazz Guitar (Baker, 1955) and Progressive Rhythm Guitar (Turner & White, 1979b). These publications were chosen due to their status within the Australian guitar community and their historical significance with the wider global guitar community. Another consideration in the determination of each song’s pedagogical value was skills transferability. Tunes which contained content that was relevant for a high 64 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 number of other compositions were also considered of high pedagogical value and therefore greater status for the canon being derived in this study. For example, the Bob Dylan composition ‘All Along the Watchtower’ was found to contain a harmonic progression that was very common and with the addition of another chord produced another progression that was also extremely common. This presents a high level of skills transferability and opportunities for a tutor to present further skills development in a scaffolded progressive fashion. Figure 3 shows the chord progressions found in Dylan’s ‘All Along the Watchtower’ and the Percy Mayfield composition ‘Hit the Road Jack’ presented in the key of C minor for comparison. Figure 3 ‘All Long the Watchtower’ (Dylan, 1968) and ‘Hit the Road Jack’(Mayfield, 1960) (Transcribed by author). It is argued that the skills introduced by learning ‘All along the Watchtower’ can be further developed to learn ‘Hit the Road Jack’ and many other compositions with similar chord progressions. Therefore, as ‘All along the Watchtower’ presents the skill set in its simplest form it has foundational pedagogical value as seen from the perspective of the development of the canon in this study. This musical content analytical stage of the study was followed by the development of an instrumental tutor’s personal curriculum for a global perspective guitar tutorial program, designed around the use of a ten-song canon. Qualitative data analysis was conducted into each song to also verify its historical significance, and cultural status in the global guitar community. Findings From the data collected by the methods listed above and the subsequent analysis via the mixed methodology approach utilised, a canon for electric guitar was derived comprising ten songs. Limiting the canon to ten songs was chosen to manage the Daniel Lee 65 scope of the study and also to fit with industry standards where ‘Top Ten’ is a common theme. Table 3 presents the canon and includes cultural and historical data. Table 3 Electric Guitar Canon, Cultural and Historical Details Song title Composer(s) Country of origin Date of release Do Re Mi Richard Rogers and Oscar Hammerstein USA 1959 Sweet Home Alabama Ed King, Gary Rossington and Ronnie Van Zant USA 1974 What’d I Say Ray Charles USA 1959 All Along the Watchtower Bob Dylan USA 1968 Boom Boom John Lee Hooker USA 1962 Sunshine of Your Love Pete Brown, Jack Bruce and Eric Clapton UK 1968 Layla Eric Clapton & Jim Gordon UK 1972 Johnny B Goode Chuck Berry USA 1958 Sweet Child O’ Mine William Rose, Saul Hudson and Jeffrey Isbell USA 1988 Stairway to Heaven James Page and Robert Plant UK 1971 Three of the songs within the canon were released in the 1950’s, three in the 1960’s, three in the 1970’s and one in the 1980’s. This represents a broad spread across the history of the electric guitar and gives a sense of the period of time required for a song to reach canonical status. A broad spread of popular music genres is represented with blues, country rock and heavy rock all being represented in conjunction with mainstream rock and roll. ‘Do Re Mi’ is the only song composed for use in a musical. All of the songs have been featured in movies and also appear frequently throughout popular culture. ‘Do Re Mi’ did not appear on the top twenty lists of the three data sets. However, it can be considered a prime exemplar for teaching the Major scale, which other tunes in the list also include, and therefore was included in the canon. It could, at the will of an instrumental tutor, be interchanged with other socio-culturally relevant Major scale tunes including “the Flintstones Theme” which can be found in the tutor log data set. 66 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Discussion This paper’s main aim is to discuss the cultural significance of the canon developed in the study from the perspective of Australian electric guitar culture. It was observed that within the canon derived in the study there are no songs composed by Australian composers. This may indicate a possible attitude that Australian music is not valued globally within the paradigm of electric guitar culture. It is, however, reflective of the Australian guitar culture in general; ‘for the most part Australians followed America and Britain in embracing the guitar’ (Johnson & Gordon, 2011, p. xx). This may have led to a potential stifling of a uniquely Australian electric guitar culture via the widespread use of pedagogical methodologies that have simply adopted international content rather than focussed on development of local input. This phenomenon has also been observed to be problematic in other countries including Ghana (Otchere, 2015) where it was found that only a small proportion of music being taught in local universities was of African origin. Otchere argues that teaching music is an effective way of teaching about culture as a whole and it is the role of the education system to both maintain and further develop local cultures. Other studies in Thailand (Putipumnak, 2018) and Malaysia (Shah & Saidon, 2017) support the role of music education in helping shape cultural identities and the development of local curricula. Musaeva, Chan and Augustine (2017) highlight the pertinence of addressing this phenomenon due to the twenty-first century technological developments in communication and the easy access to non-local cultural influences. Within the quantitative data, the top-ranking songs composed by Australian artists were by AC/DC, one of Australia’s most successful music industry exports. However, the research found that their compositions offered no unique pedagogical qualities for a global electric guitar canon that were not found in compositions by American guitarists. The song ‘Back in Black’ ranked highly in the data, however, when examined for guitar pedagogical content, it was found to be a re-working of the blues artists’ products from the previous generation. This fits with AC/DC guitarist, Angus Young’s (b1955) own perspective of the birth of rock and roll; ‘Rock music has been around since the days when Chuck Berry put it all together. He combined the blues, country and rockabilly and put his own poetry on top and that became rock and roll’ (Young, 2015, p. 1). Congruent with the results of the qualitative research, this also fits well with Young’s early learning styles. He was self-taught resourcing himself with blues records and lessons in magazines: Because we grew up in Australia, to find information about a lot of blues guys I used to go to the library and find the jazz magazines. They didn't even sell them at the time in newsagents and stuff. So I'd go into the library and read all about what these people were playing, like Muddy Waters and Elmore James. (Young, 2001 para. 10) This presents an image of a person who was serious about his own music education, however, the system of guitar education in Australia at the time was not Daniel Lee 67 meeting his personal needs. Young understood the content and direction his learning needed to take and became self reliant on resources out of necessity. However, this was at the expense of learning from and also investing in local culture. Young’s guitar riff in the AC/DC song ‘Thunderstruck’ resembles a technical exercise similar to many found in the American method books. Figures 4 and 5 show a comparison of the riff in ‘Thunderstruck’ and an etude from Mel Bay’s 1948 Modern Method for Guitar. Figure 4. ‘Thunderstruck’, main riff (Young & Young, 1990, transcribed by author) Figure 5. ‘Etude’ - Mel Bay (Bay, 1948, p. 39) These two examples, together with examinations of earlier blues compositions, including John Lee Hooker’s ‘Boom Boom’ in back to back comparison with ‘Back in Black’, do not show any musically annotatable content of distinct Australian cultural origin being added to the global guitar pedagogy by AC/DC. This may suggest that at the time, there was nothing unique, from an international perspective, within the Australian electric guitar culture. The study found that Australian rock and roll guitar culture is a hybrid of the corresponding American and British cultures. There were some unique Australian inventions found within the paradigm of this study, but none were significant enough to manifest in the canon using the methodology chosen. One aspect of Australian music culture that does stand out is the pub-rock flavour of Australian music. This can be found in the music of Australia’s biggest 68 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 rock exports AC/DC, INXS, Men at Work and Silverchair, as well as more recent bands including Jet and Wolfmother. Figure 6 shows an excerpt from Wolfmother’s song ‘Joker and the Thief’. Here we see another similarity with Mel Bay’s Etude in figure 2 and AC/DC’s ‘Thunderstruck’, suggesting a long- lasting influence of AC/DC. Figure 6. ‘Joker and the Thief’, opening riff (Stockdale, Ross & Heskett, 2005, transcribed by author) A 2014 market report showed electric guitars were the best selling musical instruments in Australia and their growing market share is reinforcing ‘the guitar’s continued standing as the preeminent instrument in popular music’ (AMA, 2015). Historically, guitars have been part of Australian culture since white settlement: “… it can safely be assumed that the earliest arrivals to Australia brought a good many [guitars] with them” (Johnson, 2011, p. 16). The popularity of the guitar within Australia rapidly rose after World War Two: Yet while rock and roll may have catapulted sales, guitars have always been popular. It is true in Australia as much as anywhere else in the world. The early folk music surges of the forties … played their part in keeping the instrument a common sight on Australian verandahs … as well as concert venues and dance halls. (Johnson, 2011, p. 3) The electric guitar’s popularity first boomed after the birth of rock and roll: “This country followed America in the fifties with a rush on guitar sales at the birth of rock and roll” (Johnson, 2011, p. 3). The Electric Guitar in Australia - History and Education It has been established that the electric guitar is popular in Australia and consequently has a strong position in local culture. This raises a question regarding why we have not created a globally recognised guitar style. Is it not reasonable to have expected by 2015, we would find a uniquely local electric guitar culture? Discussing the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century situation in Australia, Johnson (2011) states; “Classical guitar playing was itself very much based on the European study and, despite some classical compositions showing small signs of folk influence, the European tradition reigned until well into the twentieth century” (p. 17). This attitude may have set the foundations for what was to follow with the electric guitar. Free instrumental music tuition in Australian Daniel Lee 69 government schools commenced in 1962, providing private, one on one, tuition (Lierse, 2005, p. 277). The formal training of instrumental music tutors in the early sixties is assumed to have been in the European Classical genre. These tutor’s own traditional styles and methodologies may not have been relevant to the students wishing to learn blues based American music which had evolved through an aural tradition. The formalised method books offered technical exercises, however, these books also offered little relevance. As a result, electric guitar students often learnt by aurally copying American and British music. We have seen the attitude of Young in being self-reliant on resources. His only lessons were “… in the form of watching his brother play” and “listening mainly to old rock and roll records a la Chuck Berry” (Rosen, 2011 para 11). Another example of this paradigm is Ian Moss (b1955), lead guitarist from Australian rock band Cold Chisel. He grew up in Alice Springs, in Central Australia, first learning to play the guitar there. However, Moss was also self-taught by transcribing from records, which due to his remote locale needed an extra level of perseverance; “If you heard a song on the radio it took an eternity for your local store to get that single” (Moss, 2015). We see here another guitarist who was serious about his musical education and used the most relevant, available resources to achieve his goals. Cold Chisel songs are generally recognised for their deep lyrical content which fit the bush ballad style of story telling narratives. The cultural value of this has not gone unrecognised as “Chisel songs [are] forever immortalised in Australia’s music canon” (Delaney, 2015 para 17) and more than one of their songs, ‘Khe Sahn’, ‘Bow River’ and ‘Flame Trees’, have each, in turn, been glorified as Australia’s unofficial national Anthem (Delany, 2015). However this study is about the electric guitar’s position in Australian culture rather than lyricists. Moss is now recognised as one of the greatest guitarists in Australia, typically topping polls of local musicians, listeners and music journalists. He offers something distinctive to the Australian guitar culture because “… he has used his influences to mould a unique musical voice, rather than a transparent template of what has come before him” (Laska, 2015 para 19). However, Cold Chisel’s commercial success overseas has been limited. Due to this, Moss’s unique guitar playing has not made significant inroads into the international electric guitar culture. Therefore, due to the methodology chosen for this study, his influence was not evidenced in this study. Tommy Emmanuel’s story also shares the common thread of self-resourced education. Growing up in Muswellbrook, a small country town in New South Wales, his mother showed him the basics so he could accompany her while she played the lapsteel. From then he has been entirely self-taught, transcribing by ear: “I learnt everything by ear. I have never read a piece of music in my life ... I can do it quicker by ear. I tried to learn to read music when I was about eighteen years old and I was just no good at it” (Emmanuel, n.d. para. 13). The common thread we see among significant figures in the Australian guitar culture is a desire and passion for up to date music that outpaced the educational resources of the time. The Easybeats were the first Australian rock and roll group to have an international hit. The formation of the band has been regarded, by a panel of experts, 70 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 as the greatest moment in Australian rock music history (Kerin, 2007). Their hit single ‘Friday on my Mind’ from 1966 reached number six on the UK charts and number 16 in the United States of America. The guitar part to ‘Friday on my Mind’ is also similar to the picking etudes found in the method books. All five members of the original line-up were from families that migrated from the United Kingdom and Europe to Australia after World War Two. The musical flavor of the Easybeats was similar to the British invasion bands of the same period. Their name suggests homage to the Beatles. Similarly, all but one of the members of AC/DC were born in Scotland and migrated to Australia in their childhood prior to 1960. When their lead singer Bon Scott died in 1980, he was replaced with Scottish born Brian Johnson. A common thread of migration families can be found within the stories of other early Australian music icons. How much this had an effect on their music is not clear. However, it cannot go unnoticed in an analysis of the place of Australian musicians within the global electric guitar culture paradigm. An examination of the Australian published method books also reveals the impact of the United Kingdom and United States of America’s cultural influence on local music. The first two books in the Koala Publications’ Progressive series published in 1979 (Turner & White) feature little Australian content. With the exception of the exercises composed by the authors all the musical examples are from the UK or USA. Their Guitar Method Book 2 from 1996 begins with the C Major Scale then follows with the traditional Irish song ‘Londonderry Air’, ‘Country Gardens’ from the United Kingdom, then after some chord exercises ‘Banks of the Ohio’. Throughout the book there are songs from other cultures as diverse as Spanish, Russian, Caribbean and German. There are no songs featured by Australian composers. The Progressive series Guitar Method Book 1 does, however, contain ‘Waltzing Matilda’. It was found that this lack of local content in Australian published method books extends back to the earliest examples. Don Andrews’ Plectrum Method Book 1, from 1971, also contains no Australian composed content other than the author’s own etudes and exercises, but instead draws upon the repertoire from other Western cultures. The Electric Guitar in Australian Indigenous Music One area that Australian musicians have had an opportunity to express a unique voice and potentially influence global music culture is within the paradigm of Indigenous Australian music. Within this sub-genre, the musicians using electric guitars typically utilise Western techniques and musical concepts with the superimposition of Indigenous instruments and lyrical content. It was observed by the researcher that the contemporary indigenous music had a strong reggae influence and it could be suggested that this is due to links to shared themes of cultural oppression. As such, no uniquely Australian new musical or pedagogical content can be found within the indigenous peoples’ popular music from the perspective of electric guitar education and for the purposes of a pedagogical guitar canon. Daniel Lee 71 Global Electric Guitar Culture If one teaches music from another culture in place of local content, there is a risk of students not learning their own cultural heritage. This could potentially lead to a global mono-culture and a loss of localised cultural identities. However, with careful attention to musical cultures, the electric guitar could be used as a starting point for studying other cultures. Carfoot explains the guitar has “traversed so many 20th century musical cultures’ that it becomes a useful way to study socio-cultural ideologies” (Carfoot, 2006, p. 36). Virag opened his presentation at the 2013 Vancouver TED conference with the following statement: “In recent years technology has completely transformed the way that we listen to music, we share music, access it, create it and perform it” (Virag, 2013). The hyper-connectivity of today’s world is making unique musical cultures more difficult to sustain. The position of the electric guitar within Australian culture is already heavily influenced by cultures from the United Kingdom and the United States of America. The future possibilities of Australian guitar culture developing a unique identity within the international perspective may be now greatly reduced by the presence of the internet. In the twenty-first century, students of the guitar are exposed to influence by artists from international cultures as much as they are from their own. The canon developed in the study is evidence of ongoing international influence within the Australian electric guitar culture. However, it was found that internationalism is not unique to Australia within the paradigm of electric guitar culture. Japanese youth have adopted western rock and roll and its sub-genres and fully immersed themselves into the culture surrounding the music. This is evidenced by audience members during American guitarist Brian Setzer’s (b1959) 2001 Japanese tour who showed their commitment to the American culture by sporting rockabilly inspired apparel and hairdos and driving American hot rods. Globalisation and the Internet have influenced the spread of rock and roll culture across Asia. Changes have escalated since the inception of the internet in the early 1990s: In the late 1990s, the Okinawan popular music scene changed dramatically. A younger generation seems to have appeared, independent from other popular music since postwar Okinawa. Hardcore, punk and hip-hop have won large audiences in Okinawa and some musicians collaborate with musicians abroad in the so-called alternative rock scene. (Ogura, 2003, p. 469) In 2007, Japan was the second biggest market for electric guitars manufactured in China and the third biggest market for electric guitars manufactured in America (Music Trades, 2011). This global spread of popular music culture also now reaching Africa: The process of globalisation has been of a tremendous impact on African societies while the status-quo of expressive cultures have obviously not remained the same due to this factor with popular music gradually becoming homogenized to fit into 72 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 the western stereotypes. The Nigerian popular music has been greatly influenced by the dictates and progression in the international scene due to global communication and cultural flows. (Adedeji, 2014, p. 467) The current status of the various international electric guitar cultures is pointing towards a possible future homogenous musical style. Further research into the influence of globalisation and the potential development of a global mono- culture, particularly within the framework of electric guitar cultures, may be needed to assess the situation completely. Guitars in Australian Popular Music Culture According to the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), the biggest selling single in Australia by an Australian artist is ‘Somebody that I used to know’ by Melbourne artist Gotye (Aria.com.au, 2015). The guitar plays a fundamental role in the accompaniment of this song and there are both acoustic and electric guitars on the recording. The harmonic structure of this song is identical to American composer Bob Dylan’s ‘All Along the Watchtower’, in the key of D Minor. The second best selling single in Australia by an Australian artist is ‘Battle Scars’ by Adelaide born Guy Sebastian (Aria.com.au, 2015). This song uses the almost ubiquitous harmonic structure demonstrated in the ‘Four Chord Song’ by Axis of Awesome, typically expressed in Roman Numerals as: I V VIm IV. Third on the list is ‘Boom Boom’ by Sydney based dance-pop group Justice Crew. (This song bears no similarity to John Lee Hooker’s tune of the same name that features in the canon.) Justice Crew’s ‘Boom Boom’ features no harmonic motion at all in the verses or chorus sections. Instead these sections utilise a repeating Minor scale riff. In its bridge section the harmonic structure is again based on that of ‘All Along the Watchtower’ with some rhythmic displacement. A common thread emerges as one continues down the list. It seems, from this study that, an Australian guitar student could learn the necessary skills to perform Australian popular music using pedagogical methodologies employing repertoire by composers from the United States of America and the United Kingdom. Alternatively it is therefore equally viable that an Australian guitar student could also learn the skills necessary to perform international popular music by studying repertoire by Australian composers. Instrumental Electric Guitar Music There are no instrumental compositions, songs without lyrics, in the electric guitar canon developed in the study. However, instrumental compositions were present in the data researched. The theme from Spiderman and Tommy Emmanuel’s ‘Stevie’s Blues’ ranked well in the data. Another instrumental recording within electric guitar Daniel Lee 73 culture, ‘Jessica’ appear multiple times in the data. Released in 1973 by The Allman Brothers it has received renewed interest since being adopted, in 2002, by BBC television program Top Gear as their theme and also its inclusion in the 2006 video game Guitar Hero II. ‘Miserlou’ is a traditional, Middle-Eastern, anonymously composed instrumental tune made popular within the electric guitar culture by Dick Dale’s 1962 version. ‘Miserlou’ has also received renewed interest since being featured on Guitar Hero II and was found in the primary source data. ‘Wipeout’, an instrumental twelve-bar-blues riff based composition, was also present in the data. Instrumental music was once common in the popular music sales charts. However, in recent decades this trend has become increasingly rare. In January 2000, Kenny G’s instrumental version of ‘Auld Lang Syne’ reached number seven on the Billboard charts and the only other instrumental to reach the top 40 since is Martin Garrix’s ‘Animals’. In Europe there is a slightly different picture. In 2006, French electric guitarist Jean-Pierre Danal’s instrumental album Guitar Connection reached number one on the French charts. The website Tunecaster.com lists the top 100 instrumental singles since the 1960’s. Table 4, formulated from this data, shows the decline in popularity of instrumental music within popular culture over the past five decades: Table 4 Top 100 Instrumental Songs Since 1960 71 23 5 3 1 0 20 40 60 80 1960's 1970's 1980's 1990's 2000's This data is from the United States of America. There is no comparative data readily available for Australian instrumental music sales. However, it is anticipated this trend would be similar in Australia. Instrumental compositions for electric guitar were found to be present only within esoteric guitar culture discourse and there were very few within the data pool. 74 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Conclusion The study investigated the current status of songs within the global electric guitar culture in order to develop a canon derived of culturally and historically significant songs with pedagogical value. By a process of data collection and reduction, followed by triangulation and analysis, the research developed a canon that is grounded in curriculum for electric guitar pedagogy. It was found that no songs in the canon for electric guitar developed in the study were of Australian origin and Australian electric guitar culture is primarily a hybrid of the styles developed in the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Further research might be necessary to investigate the question of the cultural role of curriculum. Should a pedagogical canon, such as the one derived in this study, be formulated with the deliberate intent of enculturation, cultural preservation or, conversely, cultural diversification via music education? If so, how would this best be approached? Are there adequate compositions in the Australian repertoire of guitar based contemporary popular music to address the pedagogical content found in the canon derived in this study? These questions are worthy of further investigation. It is proposed that this topic is relevant in every nation and of growing pertinence since the development of the internet and the rapid cultural exchange it permits. It is suggested that Australian popular music culture has long had a fascination with American music and this has influenced the pedagogical resources found in this country. Evidence for this can be found in Australian guitar print material since the earliest days of the electric guitar and modern popular music. For example, Australian guitarist Don Andrews’ book Jazz Guitar Solos (Andrews, 1961) published in 1961 contains arrangements of entirely American compositions and an advert on the rear cover by the Australian publisher for one of their other publications states ‘At last and up to date American tutor has been written for modern guitar’. How much this attitude has influenced the development of any potential uniquely Australian cultural idioms in the electric guitar culture can only be speculated. Whether this is cause for concern is also worthy of further investigation. It was found that by generating a canon comprising of ten songs as exemplars, a foundation for a curriculum that contained the pedagogical value found in the studies and etudes within conventional guitar method books and tutorials could be established. Recommendations for supplementary repertoire have been left open for a music educator to shape and personalise the curriculum to the individual needs of their students. Bannister writes, “The canon is not a list, but rather a tool of education and a means of distributing cultural capital” (Bannister, 2006, p. 82). This description fits both the canon derived in this study and the findings of the analysis. The study found the guitar’s role in popular culture to be primarily one of a supporting role for singers. Although there were a few cases of the electric guitar taking the lead role in instrumental music, these were the exception rather than the rule. However, in eight of the ten songs the electric guitar played the lead role for a segment of the recording during solo sections. These were mostly improvised solos or riff based introductions. Daniel Lee 75 A curriculum based on a repertoire of ten songs should ideally contain material that forms the foundation of pedagogical pathways to further repertoire. The presence of the twelve-bar-blues in any canon for modern popular music is vital as it has been the cornerstone of many sub-genres. An electric guitar canon should also include riff based tunes. Within rock and roll it is often the guitar riff that initially captures the listener; “I never remembered the rest of the song, all I remembered was that riff” (Skolnick, 1996, p. 27). For pedagogical value there must also be present in such a canon songs that present opportunities for technical development as well as understanding of fundamental genre theoretical traits. This explains the presence in the canon of the song ‘Do Re Mi’, an excellent tool for teaching the C Major scale. A canon for electric guitar should also contain songs with lead guitar solos. Solos are a large part of electric guitar culture; “solos tend to inspire legions of guitarists to attempt to unlock their technical and tonal mysteries and at the very least they permeate the 6-string community’s collective unconscious” (Guitar Player Staff, 2011 para 1). Most of all a canon, derived for pedagogical purposes, for the electric guitar must contain songs that are recognisable globally as part of the established electric guitar culture. References Adedeji, W. (2014). Negotiating globalization through hybridization: Hip Hop, language use and the creation of cross-over culture in Nigerian popular music. Language in India, 14(6), 497-515. AMA (Producer). (2015). Australian attitudes to music. [online article] Retrieved from http://www.australianmusic.asn.au/australian-attitudes-to-music/ Andrews, D. (1961). Jazz guitar solos. Melbourne: J. Albert & Son Pty Ltd. Aria.com.au (Producer). (2015). Aria charts - accreditation - 2013. Retrieved from http://www.aria.com.au/pages/httpwww.aria.com.aupagesaria-charts- accreditations-singles-2013.htm. Baker, M. (1955). Mickey Baker's complete course in jazz guitar. New York, NY: Lewis Music Publishing Co., Inc. Bannister, M. (2006). Loaded: Indie guitar rock, canonism, white masculinities. Popular music, 25, 77-95. doi:10.1017/S026114300500070X. Bay, M. (1948). Mel Bay's complete method for modern guitar. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay Publications. Carfoot, G. (2006). Acoustic, electric and virtual noise: The cultural identity of the guitar. Leonardo Music Journal, 16, 35-39. Charles, R. (1959). What'd I say. Washington, DC, NY: Atlantic Records. Daniels, R. (1986). Be dangerous on rock guitar: Port Chester, N.Y: Cherry Lane Music Company. Delaney, B. (2015, October 16). Cold chisel: Writing Australia's unofficial national anthems since 1973. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/oct/06/cold-chisel-writing- australias-unofficial-national-anthems-since-1973. 76 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (58-77) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Dylan, B. (1968). All along the watchtower. New York, NY: Columbia Records. Emmanuel, T. (n.d.). MA-001 Tommy Emmanuel. Justin Guitar.com. Retreived from https://www.justinguitar.com/guitar-lessons/tommy-emmanuel- interview-text-ma-001. Fisher, J. (2005). Teaching guitar. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred publishing. Johnson, C. N., & Gordon, C. G. (2011). Guitar: The Australian journey. West Geelong: Barrallier Books. Kerin, L. (Producer). (June 15, 2007). Easybeats to Oz rock history list. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2007-06-13/easybeats-top-oz-rock- history-list/68364. Laska, A. (2015) Who is Australia's best guitarist? News Corp poll reveals top ten players/Interviewer: K. McCabe. News.com.au. Retreived from https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/who-is-australias-best- guitarist-news-corp-poll-reveals-top-ten-guitar-players/news- story/793af6493d8e41cca699543dc7daacd2. Leavitt, W. (1966). A modern method for guitar. Boston, MA: Berklee Press. Lierse, S. (2005). The development of instrumental music programs in Victorian government schools 1965-2000 (PhD), RMIT. Retrieved from http://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/eserv/rmit:161170/Lierse.pdf (161170). Mayfield, P. (1960). Hit the road Jack. New York, NY: ABC-Paramount. Moss, I. (2015). Ian Moss exclusive interview. Do the Yarra Valley, [online article]. Retreived from https://www.dotheyarravalley.com.au/ian-moss-exclusive- interview/. Musaeva, M., Chan, C. C. S., & Augustine, C. (2017). Application of Ivan Galamian principles for Violin learning thwough Malaysian folk tunes. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 7(11), 522-536. Music Trades. (2011). The massive ultimate-guitar online community. Music Trades, February 2011, 182-186. Ogura, T. (2003). Military base culture and Okinawa Rock ' n' Roll. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 4(3), 466-470. doi:10.1080/1464937032000143823. Otchere, E. (2015). Music teaching and the process of enculturation: A cultural dilemma. British journal of Music Education, 32(3), 291-297. doi:10.1017/S0265051715000352. Pratchett, T. (2014). A slip of the keyboard: Collected non-fiction: London, UK: Doubleday. Putipumnak, K. (2018). Paradigm for the development of a Lanna music curriculum in higher education in Northern Thailand Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 38-57. Rosen, S. (2011). Angus Young of AC/DC opens up in his first guitar world interview from 1984. Guitar World, August 23, 2015. Sarantakos, S. (2013). Social research, 4th ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Schmidt, W. (1977). Hal Leonard guitar method. Winona, MN: Hal Leonard. Daniel Lee 77 Shahanum Mohd Shah & Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon (2017). Developing a graded examination for the Malay Gamelan. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(1), 14-29. Skolnick, A. (1996). In J. A. Stix, Y. (Ed.), Rock riffs for guitar. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. Staff, G. P. (2011). The 40 most influential rock guitar solos. Guitar Player, June 15. Stockdale, A., Ross, C., & Heskett, M. (2005) Joker and the thief. Sydney: Modular Recordings. Turner, G., & White, B. (1979a). Progressive lead guitar. Hindmarsh, South Australia: Koala Publications. Turner, G., & White, B. (1979b). Progressive rhythm guitar. Burnside, South Australia: Koala Publications. Virag, Z. (Producer). (2013). Music education: Collaborative student driven learning. [Video File] Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFFrT8xqwwk. Wise, S. (2014). Mixed methods: The third research community. In K. A. Hartwig (Ed.), Research methodologies in music education (pp. 183-198). Newcastle, U.K. : Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Young, A. (May 24 2001) AC/DC's Angus Young: The rock and roll Peter Pan/Interviewer: J. Eluscu. Rolling Stone. Young, A. (2015) Thirty great guitarists - Including Steve Vai, David Gilmour, and Eddie Van Halen - Pick the greatest guitarists of all time/Interviewer: G. W. Staff. [online article]. Retreived from https://www.guitarworld.com/magazine/30-30-greatest-guitarists-picked- greatest-guitarists. Young, A. & Young, M. (1990). Thunderstruck. New York, NY: ATCO Records Biography Daniel Lee is an Australian musician and educator with over 20 years experience in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. After graduating from Elder Conservatorium with a degree in jazz guitar performance he has pursued a career balancing performing and educating. From directing jazz orchestras to performing solo gigs and everything in between, he brings his experience as a performer to his education, aiming to maintain industry relevance at all times. Following his undergraduate studies and modelling his passion for life-long learning he has completed a post-graduate diploma in education and a Masters degree in international education. He is currently enrolled in a PhD in music education.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

Malaysian women music teachers, music entrepreneurs, pull motivations

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/839

Understanding the Pull Motivations of Malaysian Women Music Teachers as Music Entrepreneurs

Entrepreneurship generally refers to small business ownership which implies quality of innovation and initiative in creating a new venture. Previous studies on entrepreneurship have indicated that pull and push factors in motivation and the environmental influences are the two main dynamic aspects that prompt women into their decision in creating their own business. In the Malaysian context, some women music teachers have ventured into establishing music businesses after several years of contribution in music teaching. What are the pull factors and influences that prompted these women music teachers into music business ownership after some years of music teaching? This study aims to examine and explore the pull motivational and influencing factors of why women music teachers endeavour in setting up music studios, music schools and entering into small music business ownership. In-depth interviews were conducted with 3 women music entrepreneurs and data was analysed for emerging themes. The findings provided evidence for the better understanding of the pull motivational and influencing factors of the women music entrepreneurs.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/839/575

78 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Understanding the Pull Motivations of Malaysian Women Music Teachers as Music Entrepreneurs Cheong Ku Wing Cultural Centre, University of Malaya Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 5 September 2018 Cite this article: Cheong, K.W. (2018). Understanding the pull motivations of Malaysian women music teachers as music entrepreneurs. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 78-99. Abstract Entrepreneurship generally refers to small business ownership which implies quality of innovation and initiative in creating a new venture. Previous studies on entrepreneurship have indicated that pull and push factors in motivation and the environmental influences are the two main dynamic aspects that prompt women into their decision in creating their own business. In the Malaysian context, some women music teachers have ventured into establishing music businesses after several years of contribution in music teaching. What are the pull factors and influences that prompted these women music teachers into music business ownership after some years of music teaching? This study aims to examine and explore the pull motivational and influencing factors of why women music teachers endeavour in setting up music studios, music schools and entering into small music business ownership. In-depth interviews were conducted with 3 women music entrepreneurs and data was analysed for emerging themes. The findings provided evidence for the better understanding of the pull motivational and influencing factors of the women music entrepreneurs. Keywords: Malaysian women music teachers, music entrepreneurs, pull motivations Introduction Entrepreneurship refers to small business ownership which implies quality of innovation, initiative and creativity in establishing a new venture. Drucker (1985) defined entrepreneurship as an innovation that endows the existing resources with new capabilities for the creation of business. It is a process of starting a business with the ability and readiness in developing, organising and managing a business Cheong Ku Wing 79 venture for the reward of making profit characterised by innovation, risk-taking and growth (Mirchandani, 2005, p. 253). The characteristics of an entrepreneur are described as an individual who aims to create new products with different values (Drucker, 1985, p. 22); in search of change; respond to the changes; and further exploit the changes as an opportunity (p. 28). He further identified creativity and innovation as the significant qualities in entrepreneurship in which entrepreneurs draw the inspiration and integrate into innovation. Motivation is a forward drive that propels one towards the direction in realising self-goal. Entrepreneurial motivation that maintains the entrepreneurial spirit plays an important role in shaping the entrepreneurs’ direction, intensity, and persistence. Shane, Locke and Collins (2003) proposed that human motivation has vital influence on entrepreneurial decision (p. 257) and significant contribution to the entrepreneurial creative engagement in ‘rearrange’ or ‘recombine’ resources in new and noble ways (p. 259). From previous studies on entrepreneurial motivation, influencing factors are summarised as achievement needs, risk taking, tolerance for ambiguity, locus of control, self-efficacy and goal setting, independence, drive and passion (Aftan & Hanap, 2018; Barba-Sanchez & Atienza-Sahuquillo, 2017; Shane, Locke, & Collins, 2003). The women’s entrepreneurial motivations to start up for business are varied. In earlier study, Orhan (2005) surveyed on the women’s motivational factors into the ownership of small business and the findings indicated that personal background in terms of education and professional experience; family influence and other push and pull factors contribute to the entrepreneurial decision. He discussed that push factors are characterised by behaviour manifested with external rewards and challenging conditions which are out of necessities such as dissatisfaction, frustration and boredom with previous job; striving for a job; wishing for a flexible schedule to balance between work and family; and supplementing the limited means of family income. However, entrepreneurial pull motivations are characterised by personal aspiration in entrepreneurial challenges to unleash entrepreneurial potential and to prospect the ‘future value for the individuals’ (p. 4). Orhan (2005) further elaborated that independence and self-fulfilment are the prime pull factors which motivate women to start a business. Other motivation includes flexibility, social contribution and affiliation (p. 4). Besides push and pull motivations, environmental factors are the drive that leads women into entrepreneurship Previous and recent studies have suggested few push/pull factors that influence women’s decision into entrepreneurship, which includes independence and self-achievement, time flexibility to manage the time balance juggling between work and family (Chamorro-Premuzic, Rinaldi, Akhtara, & Ahmetoglul, 2014; Mas- Tur, Soriano, & Roig-Tierno, 2015; Orhan, 2005). Pandey (2013) also suggested personal satisfaction, self-actualisation and self-confidence as the interacting motivational factors among the women entrepreneurs. Nassif, Andreassi, Tonelli, and Fleury (2012) identified women’s entrepreneurial competencies that relate to entrepreneurial motivation included perceptions of potentialities and opportunities; desires, leadership; interpersonal skills; social concerns and commitment. Music teachers as a profession have combined identities as musicians and 80 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 educators, which draw on different fields of knowledge and expertise. Elliott (1995) identified the qualities of an excellent music teacher as one who are musically, pedagogically, philosophically, psychologically savvy (p. 309). Professionally, the impression of private music teachers’ has always been characterised as entrepreneurial (Smith, 2014, p. 70). Smith described the entrepreneurial qualities of music teachers as ‘good musicians’; ‘responsible’ and ‘collaborative’ and competent in ‘administrative details’; good in communication skills, clearly and confidently; ‘recruitment’; and ‘agents of social change’ (pp. 70-72). The nature of the music teacher’s profession is generally described as free- lance, flexible, and in a way, self-employed teaching from home studio or commute to students’ home, or part-time basis engage their music teaching at the music schools or music centres. Successful music teachers often exhibit their entrepreneurial qualities and career choices in search of autonomy and independence. In recent years, Malaysia has seen a considerable increase in music teachers setting up own music school and music business. These music teachers have shown to be enterprising in the pursuit of realising their creative potential, moving their career forward and venturing into music business ownership after some years of contribution in music teaching. The growing number of music entrepreneur may be associated with music teachers who seek new challenges to find new meaning in their career through entrepreneurial accomplishments. Though, what are the attractive factors that draw the music teachers to set up a music business, so called ‘baby’ which demands much of their attention, time investment and care? What are the entrepreneurial motivations that prompt them into a music business and to have an ownership of a music school? Previous studies have discussed on entrepreneurship and women entrepreneurs (Chamorro-Premuzic, Rinaldi, Akhtara, & Ahmetoglu, 2014; Mas- Tur, Soriano, & Roig-Tierno, 2015; Suárez-Ortega & Gálvez-García, 2017; Tlaiss, 2015). However, there is a paucity of research and scarce literature which investigate the area of music teachers as music entrepreneurs. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct studies to understand the entrepreneurial motivations and the influencing factors that draw female music teachers into music business. Methodology The in-depth phenomenological interview method was employed to generate insights of three women music entrepreneurs about their entrepreneurial motivations and influencing factors on embarking a music business. In-depth interview is the most common qualitative method in used in social research (Denzin, 1989; Morris, 2015). As stated by Morris (2015), interview is a ‘powerful way to collect data’ (p. 1), it enables the interviewees to share their thoughts and reflections; recall memories and experiences; express motives and interpretations; articulate understandings and perceptions (p. 5) of the concerned issues. Cheong Ku Wing 81 Participants This case study used a small number of participants to examine the interview discourse in depth. A case study is a detailed and comprehensive analysis of one or few individuals (Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun, 2012, p. 21). The participants were 3 music teachers who have been contributing their music and music education knowledge, experience and expertise to the music industry, while simultaneously managing own music school. The case selection was based on purposive sampling and the selection criteria depended on the success of the participants’ music entrepreneurship, years and duration in the music industry. The selection of participants was through referrals and recommendation based on the stipulated criteria, which includes extensive experience, evidence of status and reputation as a music teacher and music entrepreneur. The music entrepreneurs in this study commenced their teaching career in their early 20’s. After several years of teaching as private music teachers and teaching at a music school, gaining sufficient knowledge and experience for entrepreneurial application, decision was made to establish their music business in their mid-20s. In Van der Boon (2005), the majority of the women who considered venture into their own business were aged 35. The introductory contact with the music entrepreneurs was made through WhatsApp Messenger followed by e-mails to clarify the aim of the study. They were advised that their responses gathered from the interview would remain anonymous. For the discussion in this study, the identity of each participant was coded as Music Entrepreneur 1 (ME1), Music Entrepreneur 2 (ME2), and Music Entrepreneur 3 (ME3) according to the sequence of the date interviewed. Data Collection and Data Analysis Procedures The interviews were conducted at their music business premises, a location which is familiar and comfortable (Oltmann, 2016) for the interviewees to allow ‘flexible and free-flowing interaction’ (Morris, 2015, p. 3). English was used as a medium of communication as it is the first language of all participants and the interviewer. The flow of the interviews involved the questions and responses between interview- interviewee to capture the depth and richness of the participants’ entrepreneurial experience for a detailed study and analysis. The length of interview for each participant was for about an hour. The interview process was modelled on Seidman’s (2013) three-interview series which involves 3 phases: (1) focused life history; (2) details of experience; and (3) reflection on the meaning (pp. 20-23). Face-to-face semi-structured in-depth interview process was conducted commencing with general questions concerning their personal demographics (age, marital status, educational background and music teaching experiences). This was followed by some general questions to gain information on the music business (years of entrepreneurial experience, setup of the music business). This was then sequenced by semi-structured questions to explore the participants’ entrepreneurial motivation, goals and aspiration focussed on the 82 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 motivational factors, entrepreneurial decision-making process, entrepreneurial process, influencing factors and personal characteristics. The interviews conclude with participants’ reflection on the meaning and significance of music entrepreneurship in their work and life. The interviews were audio-recorded with prior obtained permission from the participants. The qualitative interview data is the primary source of data collection. Interviews data were transcribed verbatim, read and checked for accuracy with repeated listening to the recording. The transcription was analysed employed naturalistic coding to generate insights on the participants’ entrepreneurial motivation and the influencing factors. To ensure the trustworthiness of the collected data, the final full transcripts were e mailed to the participants for their acknowledgment of accuracy. This is followed up by telephone calls to clarify some ambiguous issues. Meaningful patterns from the interview data were identified through the thematic analysis. The data analysis procedure follows the 6-phase process of thematic analysis suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006) that is, familiarisation with the data, preliminary coding, developing themes, and revising themes, defining and establishing themes, extracting meaningful data, presenting the analytic narrative discourse. The transcribed interview manuscript was read, re-read and critically examined. Meaningful patterns were identified through the process of familiarisation, immersion and coding of the data. The preliminary codes were generated with constant comparison with the purpose of study and also with the findings of the previous studies to seek and identify new themes. Inter-coder reliability test was conducted to calculate similarity percentage using Kappa analysis from SPSS. The Cohen’s Kappa was used to quantify the degree of agreement between the coders. The Kappa value between Coder 1, 2 and 3 ranged from .71 to .86. , which is considered as reliable. Thematic Discussion Music teachers have their individual core values and motivations that drive them to choose entrepreneurship. In this study, the findings indicate the similarities and differences among the music entrepreneurs in their motivational needs in entering music business to realise their potential in music entrepreneurship. Thematic analysis of the interview data identified the entrepreneurial motivations which included personal pull motives like self-fulfilment, passion, meaningful experiences, challenges, opportunities seeking and professional collegial affiliation; and environmental factors include family and home environment; mentor and role model; and meaningful experience. These emerging themes are discussed accordingly below. Self-fulfilment According to Gewirth (1998), self-fulfilment is an ideal to actualise one’s deepest Cheong Ku Wing 83 passion and capacities; for the inner best to develop and emerge through aspiration and potentialities (p. 3) which embody excellence and achievement. ME 1 said that after gaining relevant teaching experience and some meaningful exposures, she was aspired to challenge herself to explore a more meaningful and purposeful professional life as a music educators. Her original intention was personal, to start off a music school with ideal music curriculum for her children to receive high- quality music education. She further emphasised her vision is to prioritise the quality in the provision of music education and to share the gift of music. It was her aspiration to design a holistic music curriculum to stimulate enthusiasm; to cultivate interest and to develop music knowledge and creativity among young musicians. For ME 1, My ultimate goal is to provide meaningful musical experiences to the music students. It is worthwhile to devote my efforts and resources to attain this vison. It is the sense of satisfaction and gratification through many efforts that keeps me focussed, grounded and sustained. Similarly, ME 2 also shared the same concern indicating that high standards in music education is her lifelong devotion and challenges to promote musical and meaningful learning experiences to enhance and support students’ musical achievement. She stated that her notion of music education is to emphasise the musical quality, for every students to develop artistic musicianship and musical abilities. She explained that music it is important for music students to love, appreciate, and enjoy music. She advocated that music learning is not about examination, but to engage students in active music making for the aesthetic purposes. She strongly believed that every child has the potential to achieve a high level of artistic performance to their musical expression in emotion and for their own enjoyment. She indicated that, Everyone has an innate ability to learn. It is my educational ambition and responsibility to nurture positive musical behaviour among young musicians. As with the others, ME 3 also expressed the same commitment in placing values and quality of music education in the lives of the students. She recognised the entrepreneurial journey as a process of sustaining efforts and achievement which foster fulfilment with much perseverance and patience. However, she also remarked that it is enjoyable and gratifying: It is the challenge and responsibility of music educators to assure high-standards of quality in the music teaching-learning process, to educate and to inspire young musicians to achieve their musical goals and to realise their creative potential to the fullest. When asked on their views on self-fulfilment as a music entrepreneurship owner as compared to the entrepreneurial characteristics of a private music teacher, ME 1 and ME 2 paused and reflected; and commented that the needs of self-fulfilment as 84 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 a music educators are similar for both identities. They unanimously agreed that the ownership of a music school business with a larger setting provides space, resources and manpower to organise and support music projects like master classes, choir, orchestra, ensembles and music festivals. Also, in a wider societal context with a larger scale of collaborative resources enable them to explore new and innovative ways to address issues in music teaching and learning and share the ideas to the community. ME 2 further emphasised that the entrepreneurial context enables the exploration, discussion and presentation of her music education ideology to the community in a sustainable and innovative ways, which is largely shared by entrepreneurial music activities and projects. She said, I enjoy organising music concerts and activities….it is worthwhile and rewarding to be part of talent nurturing, providing environment for the young musicians to develop their performance skills; to inspire musical excellence……and most importantly positive attitudes to embrace musical values. ME 1 also vision her entrepreneurial setting as a platform to provide support to the young and individual musicians for the development of music talents and potential; a place to provide assistance and opportunity to the young budding musicians in their career development. ME 3 reflected insightfully stating that it is meaningful to share an important part of our musicians’ lives with others, helping and shaping them to achieve their aesthetic ideals. The music entrepreneurs also shared that the self-fulfilment is not of the desire of material goals. The monetary reward from the music business is secondary incentive and less important as compared to what stated by ME 2, is to bring about a community which concerned about aesthetic excellence and artistic standards. Previous studies also indicated that women were pulled and motivated towards entrepreneurship to achieve self-fulfilment (Tlaiss, 2015), gratification and satisfaction (Przepiorka, 2016). Kokun (2015) indicated that professional self- realisation maps ‘clear and meaningful ways of professional self-fulfilment’ (p. 19); and professional self-fulfilment shapes ‘life self-fulfilment’ through manifesting own potential and abilities (p. 20). In this study, all three music entrepreneurs concurred that self-fulfilment is the key motivation of their efforts in music entrepreneurship which has great impact on their music profession and continuously unfolds their full potentials as musician and music educator. They were pulled towards entrepreneurship for their personal desires of fulfilling aspiration to achieve quality in music education and to help young musicians to realise their musical potentials. To these music entrepreneurs, their contributions to the young musicians in musical achievement are meaningful and purposeful as music educators and their vision can be realised through efforts and resources of their entrepreneurship. The self-fulfilment is realised through self- actualisation; characterised by professional aspiration; and self-realisation of their professional vison, efforts and resources. As noted by Maslow’s (1987) hierarchy of needs theory, self-actualisation is the self-growth towards self-fulfilment of the highest needs culminated in the Cheong Ku Wing 85 gratification of meaning and values in life. The women music entrepreneurs actualise their self-fulfilment through their entrepreneurial journey, potentials, experience, purposes and attainment to realise their life values and goals. Passion Entrepreneurial passion has gradually gained much interest by researchers (Bhansing, 2017; Cardon, Zietsmab, Saparitoc, Matherned, & Davise, 2005; Cardon, Wincent, Singh, & Drnovsek, 2009). Laaksonen, Ainamo and Karjalainen (2011) explored the entrepreneurial passion among heavy metal musicians and conceptualised passion as the motivational drive for entrepreneurship which evidenced in their genuine love for work with pride and commitment. It is also the entrepreneurial desire that facilitates innovation with ‘empowerment, energy and a drive for perfection’ and enables ‘opportunity recognition and execution’ (p. 31). The music entrepreneurs in this study recognise their self-identity as musicians, educators and entrepreneurs. It is through these professional identities that their passion and love for music and education are manifested through. They metaphorically relate the entrepreneurial product as their ‘baby’ in which effort and energy have invested with sustaining commitment. As appraised by ME3, it is a devotion to ‘nurture with love and passion’ and to maintain strong emotions and enthusiasm in sustaining the entrepreneurial activities. The passion in music teachers is significant in fuelling their entrepreneurial motivation in taking challenges in their professional lives. According to the participants, these challenges give them meaning and purpose in life in fulfilling their own mission to achieve self-value in providing best music education to the community and society. All participants expressed that their passion for music and education is vital in sustaining their entrepreneurial endeavour; an ‘essential attribute underpinning and driving entrepreneurship’ (Dalborg & Wincent, 2015, p. 975). ME 1 shared her ideals, Music education is my passion … to nurture and inspire young musicians … it is important to enhance their music journey with good and committed teaching. She emphasised the importance of passion, Passion leads to excellence and stimulated creativity. According to her, the passion for music profession is the constant motivation to continually appropriating and adapting teaching ideas and strategies to create a challenging, enriching music learning environment for the students. Creating and generating strategies and challenges are effective in building and strengthening entrepreneurial skills. As stated by Bhansing, Hitters and Wijngaarden (2017), passion is the crux of entrepreneurship which nurtures creativity and enables entrepreneurs to recognise new opportunities and gives meaning to the 86 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 entrepreneurial accomplishments. These music entrepreneurs shared their entrepreneurial journeys and revealed that they are musicians and music educators at heart with limited previous knowledge and experiences of founding a business. However, they reflected that passion plays a central role as the personal drive to entrepreneurial achievement and creativity. ME 1 commented that, I do not have any knowledge nor experience in business, it is not the monetary that I am looking for … it is always the creative musical achievement and excellence in music education that matters” (ME1) ME 2 added that, It is not just the entrepreneurial passion; it is also the passion for music and teaching that ignite this music business. They concurred that music belongs to every child and everyone. It is their passion to share this gift, through their professionalism and their entrepreneurial activities to reach out and initiate contact to the community to have the ‘spark of joy’ through music. In sum, passion plays an important role in driven us to success and achievement, it is a powerful drive to ‘create, invent, and improve’ (Spinelli & Adams, 2012, p. 40). It is regarded as the vital characteristics of successful entrepreneurs (Cardon et al., 2009). Entrepreneurial motivation cantered round the entrepreneurial passion. This passion is not just the ‘business’; itself but also the music teachers’ professional passion. Challenges and Risk-taking Entrepreneurs are prepared for challenges and risks in the entrepreneurial process. All three music entrepreneurs indicated that facing challenges and risk-taking are inevitable in entrepreneurship; element of risk is an important entrepreneurial skill to develop strategic thinking and planning. ME 2 shared her experiences as a young entrepreneur organising music activities and music festivals in her entrepreneurial path. She recalled that: I was young and lesser in experience; however, it was my nature of risk taking that propels my career forward … I am also very responsive the changes and risk. Risk-taking provided her great opportunities for meaningful learning; learning from mistakes; experience success and failure in pursuing the entrepreneurial activities and ventures. ME 1 said that she has gained much knowledge and experience through her entrepreneurship process, not just as a music teacher but also a manager and business owner in which she enjoyed these diverse Cheong Ku Wing 87 identities. All 3 music entrepreneurs indicated that entering into entrepreneurship was an opportunity for knowledge acquisition, personal challenge and growth. They emphasised their entrepreneurial goals are not by the pursuit of profit-making. However, they also indicated their concerns on managing the operational expenditure and the responsibility and effort to maintain and grow their music business. ME 2 commented that it is important to share professional knowledge, experience and enjoyment with others. For her, the music venture is a platform for sharing and working with other music teachers. She passionately commented that: It is a way to help and support each other in achieving the common vison for the excellence in music education. They exclaimed that sharing musical and teaching knowledge is an important challenge; which gives meaning and purpose in self and professional development; and agreed that the challenges they face in music entrepreneurship was not pivot on monetary rewards but to share their expertise, beliefs, values; the philosophy and principles of music education with other fellow colleagues. ME 2 noted that the reward is humanistic that gives meaning, purpose and profound value, not just to her music profession but her life. ME 3 shared collective view the others indicating that her music entrepreneurial intention was to achieve her personal life themes and life values and as well as contributing to the others, students, novice music teachers and colleagues. These music entrepreneurs have well established themselves in the music industry and received good reputation as music educator. They reflected that these lifelong challenges have given meaning and purpose to their personal and professional lives. Their values and goals as an excellent music teacher are established on reflective learning to bring about appropriate musical and educational challenges for self-growth and self-knowledge. It is their desire, challenge and responsibility to be acknowledged as an excellent and influential role model for novice music educators and also to share their vision, passion and enthusiasm to others in realising the values of music and music education. They do not pivot their challenges and achievement on material or monetary rewards but have deep convictions sharing the value of music and music education with others. Wallevik (2015) indicated that the challenge in 21st century entrepreneurship is the strategy of combining roles and resources to gain growth in music business (p. 15). Arora (2015) emphasised the importance of entrepreneurs to be adaptive to changes for sustainable innovation. In this study, the women music entrepreneurs pursue their life values and goals; take up challenges and risks; and unleash their entrepreneurial potential through professional self-knowledge and self- growth. 88 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Opportunities Seeking The successful entrepreneurs are characterised by their ways of creating opportunities. They are always in pursuit of imagined opportunities, setting and attaining goals. In the music industry, entrepreneurship is vital in musicians’ professional lives (Barker, 2017). It involves abilities in seeking, recognising and advantaging emerging opportunities and creative skills for sustainability. Music entrepreneurship, setting up music business and music school is a locality based entrepreneurship to serve the community. Among the entrepreneurial opportunities, identification of a strategic business location is considered a vital component. For the music entrepreneurs in this study, the ownership of a music business is to seek a career forward advancement from their job as piano/music teacher teaching from home. They agreed that business locality signifies business opportunities and it is utmost important to search and recognise an ideal location to establish their music business. Further, they indicated that other than establishing a business, they also desire to continue the have the balance between career and family. Therefore, the selection of a strategic locality is utmost important for them to commute between home and business location. Moreover, music business location is ultimate important to place and space that is convenient and comfortable for the customers (music students and their parents). Other than opportunities seeking for business locality and its potential, seeking and creating opportunities for promising ideas; strategy to implement the ideas; checking on the efficiency of the planning; and realising the aspiration is a process involving continuous efforts. ME 2 positively stated that as entrepreneurs, she has dreams to achieve; an aspiration to actualise. ME 1 and 2 both stated that their musical and pedagogic knowledge are the sources for creating opportunities. From their prior professional knowledge and experience, they recognise the importance of Arts education as a whole. They set forth to the entrepreneurship with a vision of integrating music with other arts like dance, drama and visual arts (painting and drawing). ME 2 said: Music and dance are closely related and have common characteristics in enhancing each other. She elaborated that opportunities seeking is to combine and recombine resources, The combination of two arts disciplines will deepen and broaden music or art learning. From the pedagogic perspectives, she suggested that it is vital for pianists to play dance music and to accompany the dances. It is an enjoyable way of learning in developing musical skills, and to foster a better understanding of the dances and hence improve their music interpretation. She said: Cheong Ku Wing 89 The pianists will increase their repertoire through accompanying the dancers; they will also develop and improve their other musicianship skills like sight reading. At the same time, they learn about dances and the interpretation of these dances. ME 1 also strongly emphasised that her dream and vision is to have music and dance school. From her earlier experience, she realised the importance of musicians to understand dance music, as these two arts are closely related. She indicates that there are holistic ways of learning music and values eclectic approaches to music learning. Both ME 1 and 2 are not impulsive in achieving their goals. Other than having clear goals, they also have strategic plan well mapped. ME 2 indicated that she may be spontaneous in her creative ideation, but definitely she is not impetuous in her decision-making and plan execution. She said: I am realistic with my plan….I need time to develop the students performing ability before they are able to accompany the dances musically and professionally. ME 3 also shared that she had a long-term plan for her choir to attain international level. She reflected that there were much dissatisfaction and rejections in the earlier years and there were times of contemplation to persevere and move forward or let go the dream and move out. She said, however, I am emotionally determined and persistent to embrace disappointment and failures and keep moving forward. There were much efforts and energy devoted to reflect, evaluate, synthesise ideas, implement strategic plan. She expressed gladly that in the recent years, the continual efforts joint with the other colleagues, and the community of students and parents have yield fruitful and desirable outcomes through clear plan and professional commitment. In this study, the music entrepreneurs combine their passion for creativity; problem finding and solving skills with business strategies and innovation. As stated by Short, Ketchen, Shook and Ireland (2010), ideas and dreams have possibilities to evolve into opportunities; idea germination is the seeding stage of creative process and dreams are to be realised through aspirations and planning. These music entrepreneurs achieve their dreams with sustaining vital engagement maintaining full involvement to their work which involves attention, energy, meaningful engagement and enjoyment. Professional Collegial Affiliation Hill (1987) proposed four dimensions of affiliation motivation in support of maintaining closeness in interpersonal interaction for (1) social comparison; (2) emotional support; (3) positive stimulation; and (4) attention. Private music teachers generally teaching at home and working in isolation can be exhausting. To teach in an environment with co-operative and friendly relationship among colleagues can be potentially contribute to positive attitude and effective teaching. Professional 90 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 collegial affiliation refers to working in environment with collegial collaboration and partnership; companionship and interaction among colleagues with shared vision and responsibility. This affiliation creates a community and network for music teachers to share expertise, knowledge and experiences. ME 1 believed that working together and being with co-workers or colleagues who are committed to a common purpose can enhance the professional development especially with shared goals and values in music education. Collegiality between music colleagues is important in ensuring quality and maintaining excellence in the standards of music professionalism. Music teachers working together in a collegial affiliated environment provide and motivation in sustaining the professional in-depth expertise. Collegial relationships provide space and scope to develop professional self-regulation in developing the maturity in their profession; in musical skills, knowledge and experience in music performance and teaching. The self-regulation process enables music teachers to monitor, evaluate, provide feedback and emotional self-control oneself and also direct each other to work towards achieving goals; help and support each other to increase own professional capacity leading to a successful music teaching career. ME 2 shared her views on the collegial affiliation in music entrepreneurship where the music teachers make progress in their professional development, increase job opportunities, provide sense of team and cultivate team work. The affiliation motivation or the desire for warm relations with others (Hill, 2009, p. 410) is the need to maintain warm and close relationships with others (McClelland, 2010); and the need to connect, associate and interact with other people in warm and congenial ways (Hill, 2009, p. 410). Music teaching-learning require warm interpersonal relationships between teachers-students-parents and collegial interactions. Music teaching requires much communication and close and warm relationships with students and their parents. Working and teaching in isolation at home can be stressful and causing burn out. The music entrepreneurs stated that they enjoy working with various types of people and gaining emotional satisfaction. ME 2 said that: I love working with other colleagues and young people than working alone, it is not exciting. They also indicated their high priority on the relationships and friendships with others. Warmth and friendliness are considered as the important personal characteristics of a music teacher and entrepreneur. In order to establish and to maintain affiliation, they share emotionally about friendship, ME 1 said, I enjoy sharing ideas and experiences with friends and colleagues. ME 3 established a choir 25 years ago and expressed fondly that its great enjoyment working with young people. She said, Cheong Ku Wing 91 We are like a big family. The diverse activities in the choir enable the students to share varied musical experiences…..these varieties enable the members to develop creativity, positive attitudes and broaden musical thinking. She positively thinks that the experiences of collaborating with each other open opportunities for musical and social possibilities where students learn to discover and unleash their own potentials through learning to work with each other. ME 2 indicated that working private as a music teacher can be very lonely professionally and lacking emotional support in some stressful situation. However, in the entrepreneurial establishment and environment, there are more “colleagues” where the collegial “closeness and communication” enable each individual to share and acquire emotional support and positive affect. She said, “It is fun and enjoyable to work together with friends instead of working and teaching alone at home” and draws entrepreneurial inspiration from other, “I find inspiration for creative ideas when working together with others”. She views collegiality as a valuable relationship to be treasured. It is a celebration of their mutual passion of music learning and teaching, their creativity and a powerful source for professional growth. Attention, praise and respect from others have the least concern from the participants. ME 1 as an experienced music educator and music entrepreneur reflects that: There is always praise and criticism … I embrace criticism; it is a valuable tool for sharpening each other … and (she paused) … be humbled by compliments and praise. These women music entrepreneurs shared their views on constructive elements in social comparison, emotional support, positive stimulation and attention through collegial interaction. As stated by Hill (1987, 2009), social comparison is the desire to reduce ambiguity, uncertainty and confusion through seeking through seeking information about the opinions, beliefs, attitudes and expectation and other socially relevant attributes . Hill (1987) also referred emotional support as reducing negative affects through social contact (p. 1008); to obtain relief from stress and fear through receiving sympathy, compassion, and nurturance. Further, Hill’s (1987) also transpired the notion of positive stimulation as an important social incentive that receives gratification from pleasant relationships which gives a sense of closeness to others (p. 1009) which involves a desire for affection, love, intimacy and sense of belonging (Hill, 2009, p. 419). Lee (2005) in the study of women entrepreneurs also noted that the desire to engage with social contact is to experience the positive affect of stimulation related to interpersonal closeness and communication (p. 184). Family and Home Environment Through the interviews, the participants shared that musical orientated environment has enhanced their childhood with music-rich experience. ME 3 remembered her childhood home environment as musical. She recalled that her parents’ enjoyment in 92 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 performing arts provides her a unique musical experience and opportunity of cultural encounter, My parents enjoy performing arts especially music. We had lots of exposure to cultural activities during my childhood and youth. ME 1 and 2 participated actively in church and school musical activities. They were provided much opportunity to play leading roles in church festive musical productions and musicians at school ceremonies. ME 2 shared her fond memories: I am always acted as Mary in the Christmas musical play! Both ME 1 and 2 both shared the some responsibilities serving at church and school, they remembered their early memories: I am the pianist for the church, when I was just an advanced beginner at piano playing…..and to play the piano accompany the singing the national and school anthem during school ceremonies. They indicated that the immersion in musical environment during childhood and youth provided them the musical enculturation which promotes aesthetic attitudes that inspire them to challenge themselves to approach music education from a more holistic perspective and prepare them into music entrepreneurship. From the findings, it was indicated that the family influence on these music entrepreneurs was not the exposure to business idea but environmental surrounding with music, arts and cultural enculturation and to acquire aesthetic values that shape their future. These childhood music environment and experiences made important contribution to their entrepreneurial impulse. It was found in the previous studies that parental influence and early life experience has it relationships to leadership skills in the future (Avolio, Rotundo, & Walumbwa, 2009; Drennan, Kennedy, & Renfrow, 2005) as entrepreneurs. Mentor and Role Model The decision to become a music entrepreneur can be influenced by few factors. Often, there is an influential individual, a role model or a mentor. Role model refers to individuals who ‘stimulate or inspire other individuals’ (Bosma, Hessels, Schutjens, Van Praag, & Verheul, 2012, p. 410) in career decision and goals achievement. Studies were conducted to investigate the influence of role model on potential entrepreneurs and indicated the positive impact on nascent entrepreneurs’ intentions in business start-up (Van Auken, Fry, & Stephens, 2006) and boost perceptions of entrepreneurial feasibility and desirability (Fellnhofer & Puumalainen, 2017). Zozimo, Jack and Hamilton (2017) conducted a study on young entrepreneurs observing role models (parents, teachers, colleagues, other entrepreneurs). The findings yield significance results in entrepreneurial learning Cheong Ku Wing 93 and gaining entrepreneurial experiences from the role models at different contexts. A recent study conducted by Wyrwichm, Sternberg and Stuetzer (2018) indicated a contradict view in which a failed role model can trigger negative attitude and entrepreneurial fear of failure. In this study, the women music entrepreneurs attributed the positive and valuable influence of their mentors and role models. ME 1 credited the influence and guidance from her mentor as the sparks that stimulate her to engage on entrepreneurship. She acknowledges her mentor as: He is the role model with multi-expertise ... with much innovative ideas and strategies in music education and music business. ME 2 and 3 regard their spouse as mentors, as they encourage and inspire them to set own life goals and support their individual efforts to attain success. All of them also identified their music teachers as their role model whom they admire their achievement and dedication to their work and aspire to becoming like them. They remembered their role model, other than being a music teacher; they have their unique entrepreneurial qualities and personality. ME 1 described her role model as “creative and able to attract students” and enterprising with “innovative business strategies”, while ME 2 praised her inspiring role model as “musical”, “accomplished pianist” whom makes efforts to enhance and improve students’ lives through music. ME 3 said she is thankful to the choir teacher whom has an impact on developing and nurturing on her future entrepreneurial endeavour in setting up a community choir to improve quality of life, and wellbeing of young people. In sum, role models have a profound influence on their entrepreneurial intention and activities. The characteristics of the role model described by the participants are similar to Bosma et al (2012) accounts of the presence of a role model who provided important functions such as ‘confidence’, ‘stimulate’, ‘motivate’, ‘practical advice’ (p. 418) and ‘inspire’, ‘support’ (p. 418). Meaningful Experience The decision to start a business can be prompted by various reasons. In a longitudinal study, Schoon and Duckworth (2012) examined the lives of 6116 young people from birth to the age of 34 in their commitment to entrepreneurial career. The contributing concepts examined include family background (socioeconomic and parental role model); and personal attributes (academic ability, social skills and self-concepts). Their finding indicates that early life experience shapes the prospect career choice and predicts entrepreneurial decision. Colombatto and Melnik (2007) also suggest that early work experience has positive impact on entrepreneurship. Beni, Flectcher and Chroinın (2018) proposed some features of meaning experience including social interaction, fun, challenges, relevant learning and delight (p. 1). From the interview, the data shown significant information on the 94 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 participants’ experience traveling abroad in their youth has great influence on their latter entrepreneurial intentions. They stated that traveling is a meaningful experience where they assimilate cultural awareness and benefits. ME 2 indicated that her travel grant from a prestige music conservatoire in her youth provided meaningful experience to learn and grow from cultural experience. She stated that the traveling experience has positive impact on her personal qualities, such as personal development, gaining new perspectives and self-confidence which are vital as an entrepreneur. Similarly, ME 3 also shared her traveling experience, where she had performing opportunities in foreign countries and was aspired for her students to have similar experiences. She stated that traveling is not just for pleasure but a means of learning, to understand culture and creative activities in a wider perspective. Her choir group has performed several times abroad where the members gained educational benefits include independence; life skills include problem solving and communication. She acknowledged that meaningful traveling experience has rewards in developing entrepreneurial aspiration in her music career. ME 1 enjoys traveling, she shared her experience fondly: …seeing new places, making new friends provide new perspectives, new way of knowing, new way of thinking. Hensel (2015) examined the impact of travelling experience among 3 music participants and identify ‘travel is transformative’ (p. 13) which changes one’s perspectives in worldview, enhances cultural enrichment and understanding. Travelling also the benefits of educational value in developing life skills and generate new knowledge (p. 14).As Stone and Petrick (2013) suggested, traveling is educational and the best way to learn and interpret experiences; and broadening the mind (p. 1). ME 1 further reflected on the learning from traveling, stating that the value and merit of these experiences had enrich her music and teaching experience, and widen her entrepreneurial horizon. She further explained that the traveling experience has its continual contribution in her entrepreneurial development in generating creative ideas, innovative strategies, rethinking self-fulfilment, gaining new knowledge and new perspective of entrepreneurial values. Other than travelling as meaningful experience, previous studies have indicated the relations between environmental factors and entrepreneurial intention (Orhan, 2005, p. 7). It was stated that the decision on choosing entrepreneurship possibly grounded in family environment or presence of inspiring role models (Orhan, 2005, p. 8) and prior meaningful experience. The music entrepreneurs in this study have indicated that their pull motivation into music entrepreneurship are characterised by family and environment, role models and meaningful experience. Closing Comments The purpose of this study was to explore the pull motivational and influencing factors of the entrepreneurial intention of the Malaysian women music Cheong Ku Wing 95 entrepreneurs. From the analysis of the interview data, eight emergent themes clustered about the pull motivation and environment factors that influence the entrepreneurship intention. Themes related to pull motivation include: (1) self- fulfilment; (2) passion; (3) challenge and risk taking; (4) opportunities seeking; and (5) professional collegial affiliation. Themes related to environment factors include: (1) family and home environment; (2) mentor and role model; and (3) meaningful experience. Drawing from the findings, it is indicated that the participants have individual personality traits, characteristics capabilities and personal resources to achieve success in the music business. The motive force that initiates the drive to venture into music entrepreneurship is to fulfil their aspiration for self-growth; to challenge their potential in realising the creative achievement and to strive for excellence in the quality of their music profession. The participants also revealed that professional knowledge and experience were favourable conditions and vital stimulant for their competencies and self-confidence. The environmental factors were also effectively shaping their attitudes towards challenges and changes. As suggested by Van der Boon (2005), pull factors that attract women into enterprise include: (1) self-fulfilment; (2) self-determination; (3) sense of accomplishment; (4) control; (5) profit and rewards; (6) challenges; and (7) family security (p. 163). Similarly, Stefanovic, Prokic and Rankovic (2010) also indicated that personal attributes like determination for independence; innovative direction; risk-taking and desire to succeed are essential for successful entrepreneurship (p. 254). Fisher and Koch (2008) also described entrepreneurs as “optimistic, extroverted, energetic, self-confident, and visionary” (p. 1); competitive, risk taking and risk seeking (p. 3). Gerald Klickstein shared a quote from Isaac Stern saying that “To be musician in the service of music is not a job; it is a way of life” in The Musician’s Way (2009, p. 299). Indeed, as musicians, loving music is a way of life; as a music educator, passion in teaching is the way of life; as a music entrepreneur, innovation and creativity is the way of life. To the music teachers as entrepreneurs in this study, it is a “way of life”, a gratifying process for self-fulfilment. Artistic vision and education vision is another way to expand their knowledge and skills; not just seeking for opportunities but to create opportunities. Their value and belief include high level of performance; seeking for musical excellence; equipped themselves with entrepreneurial tools and aspired to be the one that to inspire the others and also be inspired. The music entrepreneurs integrate these professional identities and qualities to attain achievement in their music entrepreneurship. In sum, the participants in this study can be regard as ‘pure entrepreneurs’ (Orhan, 2005, p. 13) with innovative ideas and aspired to transfer into reality. These innovative ideas and strategies derived from their prior meaningful experience which fuel their enthusiasm and passion as the driving force for entrepreneurship. They were attracted to ‘educational entrepreneurship’ (Hess, 2007, p. 23) to immerse and engage in an innovative process to quality in music education. The findings provide insights into the entrepreneurial motivation and influencing factors of female music teachers venturing into music entrepreneurship. The study delimitated to only the 3 female music teachers which is a relatively small 96 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 sample size. In order to have a broader understanding, it is suggested to explore more perspectives from a larger sample. This study also focusses on music entrepreneurs who have been in the music business for 25 years. For the future studies, it is suggested to explore music entrepreneurs of different experiences, comparing nascent and novice music entrepreneurs with the experienced music entrepreneurs for a deeper understanding of entrepreneurial motivation and process. Funding This research (project number: BK030-2016) was based on a grant awarded by the University Malaya Research Fund Assistance (BKP). References Aftan, Y., & Hanapi, M. (2018). The impact of entrepreneurial motivation on small business performance in Iraq. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(1), 409-419. Arora, R. (2015). Perspectives of entrepreneurship and its impact on stakeholders’ co-creation. In H. R. Kaufmann, & S. R. Shams (Eds.), Entrepreneurial challenges in the 21st Century: Creating stakeholder value co-creation (pp. 1-11). UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Avolio, B. J., Rotundo, M., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2009). Early life experiences as determinants of leadership role occupancy: The importance of parental influence and rule breaking behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(3), 329-342. Barba-Sánchez, V., & Atienza-Sahuquillo, C. (2017). Entrepreneurial motivation and self-employment: Evidence from expectancy theory. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 13(4), 1097-1115. Barker, A. (2017). Music Entrepreneurship. In K. Peppler (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of out-of-school learning (pp. 517-522). Thousand Oaks, California, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Beni, S., Fletcher, T., & Chroinın, D. N. (2018). Using features of meaningful experiences to guide primary physical education practice. European Physical Education Review, 1-17. Bhansing, P. V., Hitters, E., & Wijngaarden, Y. (2017). Passion inspires: Motivations of creative entrepreneurs in creative business centres in the Netherlands. The Journal of Entrepreneurship, 27(1), 1-24. Bosma, N., Hessels, J., Schutjens, V., van Praag, M., & Verheul, I. (2012). Entrepreneurship and role models. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(2), 410-424. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. Cardon, M. S., Zietsmab , C., Saparitoc , P., Matherned , B. P., & Davise , C. Cheong Ku Wing 97 (2005). A tale of passion: New insights into entrepreneurship from a parenthood metaphor. Journal of Business Venturing, 20(1), 23–45. Cardon, M., Wincent, J., Singh, J., & Drnovsek , M. (2009). The nature and experience of entrepreneurial passion. The Academy of Management Review, 34(3), 511-532. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Rinaldi , C., Akhtara , R., & Ahmetoglu, G. (2014). Understanding the motivations of female entrepreneurs. Journal of Entrepreneurship & Organization Management, 3(1), 1-6. Colombatto, E., & Melnik, A. (2007). Early work experience and the transition into entrepreneurship. Journal of Entrepreneurial Finance and Business Ventures, 12(1), 9-26. Dalborg, C., & Wincent, J. (2015). The idea is not enough: The role of self-efficacy in mediating the relationship between pull entrepreneurship and founder passion. International Small Business Journal, 33(8), 974-984. Denzin, N. K. (1989). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Drennan, J., Kennedy, J., & Renfrow , P. (2005). Impact of childhood experiences on the development of entrepreneurial intentions. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 6(4), 231 - 238. Drucker, P. F. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship: Practice and principles. New York: Harper & Row. Elliott, D. J. (1995). Music matters: A new philosophy of music education. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.: Oxford University Press. Fellnhofer, K., & Puumalainen, K. (2017). Can role models boost entrepreneurial attitudes? International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management, 21(3), 274–290. Fisher, J. L., & Koch, J. V. (2008). Born, not made: The entrepreneurial personality. London: Praeger . Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Gewirth, A. (1998). Self-Fulfillment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Helsel, B. R. (2015). To tour or not to tour: A case study in music education ensemble travel. Excellence in Performing Arts Research, 2, 1-22. Hess , F. (2007). The case for educational entrepreneurship: Hard truths about risk, reform, and reinvention. Phi Delta Kappan, 89(1), 21-30. Hill, C. A. (1987). Affiliation motivation: people who need people ... but in different ways. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(5), 1008-1018. Hill, C. A. (2009). Affiliation motivation. In M. R. Leary , & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 410-425). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Klickstein, G. (2009). The musician's way: A guide to practice, performance, and, wellness. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Kokun, O. M. (2015). Professional self-fulfilment of skilled people of different professional groups and specialities. Social Welfare. Interdisciplinary Approach, 5(2), 19-32. 98 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (78-99) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Laaksonen, L., Ainamo, A., & Karjalainen, T. M. (2011). Entrepreneurial passion: An explorative case study of four metal music ventures. Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 13(1), 18-36. Lee, J. (2005). Women entrepreneurs in Singapore. In S. L. Fielden , & M. J. Davidson (Eds.), International handbook of women and small business (pp. 178-192). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). Delhi, India: Pearson Education. Mas-Tur, A., Soriano , D. R., & Roig-Tierno, N. (2015). Motivational factors of female entrepreneurs. In V. Ramadani , S. Gërguri-Rashiti , & A. Fayolle, Female entrepreneurship in transition economies (pp. 31-44). London: Palgrave Macmillan. McClelland, D. C. (2010). The achieving society. Martino Fine Books. Mirchandani, K. (2005). Women's entrepreneurship: Exploring new avenues. In S. L. Fielden, & M. J. Davidson (Eds.), International handbook of women and small business entrepreneurship (pp. 253-263). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar . Morris, A. (2015). A practical introduction to in-depth interviewing. London: Sage. Nassif, V., Andreassi, T., Tonelli, M., & Fleury, M. T. (2012). Women entrepreneus: Discussion about their competencies. African Journal of Business Management, 6(26), 7694-7704. Oltmann, S. (2016). Qualitative interviews: A methodological discussion of the interviewer and respondent contexts. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 17(2). Orhan, M. (2005). Why women enter into small business ownership. In S. L. Fielden, & M. J. Davidson (Eds.), International handbook of women and small business entrepreneurship (pp. 3-16). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Pandey, V. (2013). Factors influencing entrepreneurial motivation of women entrepreneurs. BVIMSR’s Journal of Management Research, 5(2), 101-108. Przepiorka, A. (2016). What makes successful entrepreneurs different in temporal and goal-commitment dimensions? Time & Society, 25(1), 40-60. Schoon, I., & Duckworth, K. (2012). Who becomes an entrepreneur? Early life experiences as predictors of entrepreneurship. Developmental Psychology, 48(6), 1719-1726. Seidman, I. (2013). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences (4th ed.). New York: Teachers' College Press. Shane, S., Locke, E. A., & Collins, C. J. (2003). Entrepreneurial motivation. Human Resource Management Review, 13(2), 257-279. Short, J. C., Ketchen Jr, D. J., Shook, C. L., & Ireland, R. D. (2010). The concept of “opportunity” in entrepreneurship research: Past accomplishments and future challenges. Journal of Management, 36(1), 40-65. Smith, J. (2014). Entrepreneurial music education. In M. Kaschub, & J. Smith (Eds.), Promising practices in 21st century music teacher education (pp. 61- Cheong Ku Wing 99 78). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Spinelli Jr, S., & Adams, R. (2012). New venture creation: Entrepreneurship for the 21st century (9th ed.). New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies. Stefanovic, I., Prokic, S., & Ranko, L. (2010). Motivational and success factors of entrepreneurs: the evidence from a developing country. Zbornik Radova Ekonomskog Fakultet au Rijeci, 28(2), 251-269. Stone , M. J., & Petrick, J. F. (2013). The educational benefits of travel experiences: A literature review. Journal of Travel Research, 52(6), 731 - 744. Suárez-Ortega, M., & Gálvez-García, R. (2017). Motivations and decisive factors in women's entrepreneurship. A gender perspective in education and professional guidance. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 237, 1265 – 1271. Tlaiss, H. A. (2015). Entrepreneurial motivations of women: Evidence from the United Arab Emirates. International Small Business Journal, 33(5), 562- 581. Van Auken, H., Fry , F., & Stephens, P. (2006). The influence of role models on entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 11(2), 157-167. Van der Boon, M. (2005). Women into enterprise-a European and international perspective. In S. L. Fielden, & M. L. Davidson (Eds.), International handbook of women and small business entrepreneurship (pp. 161-177). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Wallevik, K. (2015). The future of entrepreneurship: Concept and context. In H. Kaufmann, & S. R. Shams (Eds.), Entrepreneurial challenges in the 21st century: Creating stakeholder value co-creation (pp. 12-23). UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Wyrwich, M., Sternberg, R., & Stuetzer, M. (2018). Failing role models and the formation of fear of entrepreneurial failure:A study of regional peer effects in German regions. Journal of Economic Geography, 1-21. Zozimo, R., Jack , S., & Hamilton, S. (2017). Entrepreneurial learning from observing role models. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 29(9- 10), 889-911. Biography Cheong Ku Wing is a senior lecturer at Cultural Centre, University of Malaya with a special interest in music education and music pedagogy. Her other research areas include musical thinking skills and musical creativity.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

harmony, intonation, melodic direction, tone quality, wind instrument beginners

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/840

Benefits of Listening for Harmony on the Performance of Wind Instrument Beginners

One of the greatest challenges for wind instrument beginners is developing the ability to listen for harmony when practicing and performing. Even though harmony is one of the most fundamental musical elements in western art music, attaining such a listening proficiency can be especially difficult for wind instrument beginners who are much more accustomed to focusing on a single melodic line, which can in turn have significant implications for the students’ performance. This study accordingly investigated the benefits of listening for harmony on first-year wind instrument students in the Young Artists Music Program (YAMP) at the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. The students who participated in the study were selected because they had no previous experience playing harmonic instruments and received a score of no higher than 69 percent on their aural skills entrance exams. The main purpose of the study was to explore the ways in which developing the students’ aptitude in listening for harmony might aid in improving their basic performance. After gathering information from observation, sound recording, field notes and interviews, the results from this study indicate that developing the students’ skills in listening for harmony can benefit their intonation, tone quality and sense of melodic direction, all of which are important aspects of wind instrument performance.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/840/576

100 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (100-116) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Benefits of Listening for Harmony on the Performance of Wind Instrument Beginners Prapassorn Puangsamlee1, Kyle Fyr2 College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, 73170 Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Published online: 5 September 2018 Cite this article (APA): Puangsamlee, P. & Fyr, K. (2018). Benefits of listening for harmony on the performance of wind instrument beginners. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 100-116. Abstract One of the greatest challenges for wind instrument beginners is developing the ability to listen for harmony when practicing and performing. Even though harmony is one of the most fundamental musical elements in western art music, attaining such a listening proficiency can be especially difficult for wind instrument beginners who are much more accustomed to focusing on a single melodic line, which can in turn have significant implications for the students’ performance. This study accordingly investigated the benefits of listening for harmony on first-year wind instrument students in the Young Artists Music Program (YAMP) at the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. The students who participated in the study were selected because they had no previous experience playing harmonic instruments and received a score of no higher than 69 percent on their aural skills entrance exams. The main purpose of the study was to explore the ways in which developing the students’ aptitude in listening for harmony might aid in improving their basic performance. After gathering information from observation, sound recording, field notes and interviews, the results from this study indicate that developing the students’ skills in listening for harmony can benefit their intonation, tone quality and sense of melodic direction, all of which are important aspects of wind instrument performance. Keywords: harmony, intonation, melodic direction, tone quality, wind instrument beginners, Introduction The famed French-American oboist Marcel Tabuteau noted that “As good advice to my young friends—wind players—I want to warn them against the general tendency to try to imitate without having had the basic technique necessary to perform” (McGill, 2007). A convincing argument can be made that the ‘basic technique’ Prapassorn Puangsamlee & Kyle Fyr 101 Tabuteau mentions could be more broadly interpreted to mean a combination of technical skill and musical knowledge that must be developed prior to performance. Just what are some of the fundamental techniques and areas of musical knowledge that are most important for wind instrument beginners, however? This article argues that harmony is one of the most fundamental musical elements in Western music that can be can used to enhance the performance of wind instrument beginners. Though the primary focus for wind instrument students is often on playing single-line melodies, harmony is an essential, defining feature of those melodies—an element that, as authors such as Kostka, Payne, and Almen (2013) point out, also applies to solo pieces without accompaniment. Even though there is no single generally accepted method for how wind instrument students should play a single melodic line based on the harmony, there is nevertheless a good deal of previous scholarship which indicates how important harmony is for musicians in many ways. For example, harmony has been shown to affect pitch perception and is noted for driving listeners’ expectations of direction in music (Kim, 2013; Laitz & Bartlette, 2010; Ratner, 1983). The process of developing skills in listening for harmony among wind instrument beginners is related to a variety of factors tied to their musical experiences. Because wind instruments can generally be considered melodic rather than harmonic instruments, beginning wind instrument students tend to be unfamiliar with the notion of playing a single melodic line while thinking about the harmony at the same time. Wind instrument students with previous experience playing harmonic instruments have already had some opportunity to develop their skills in listening for harmony, however, this is a mitigating factor worth considering. Finally, it is worth keeping in mind that hearing and listening are not the same thing, as listening is more related to understanding in music than hearing is (Jensen, 2000; Wedin, 2015). In order to examine the benefits of listening for harmony on young wind instrument students, three first-year students from the Young Artists Music Program (YAMP) at the College of Music, Mahidol University were selected to participate in a case study. The students selected for the study accordingly had no previous experience playing harmonic instruments. Since one of the main objectives of the study was to explore how listening for harmony could benefit students’ performance, students were selected from among those who received scores of no higher than 69 percent on the aural skills portion of their entrance exams, meaning that the aural skills of the selected students showed room for improvement. Students’ skills in listening for harmony are admittedly not something that can be developed overnight, so the study employed a multi-step process in which the participants’ harmony listening skills were examined in the context of working on basic wind techniques outlined by David McGill (2007), which consisted of long note exercises, scales and phrasing. Data was then collected throughout the observation process using a variety of tools, as detailed in the methodology section of this article. Though this study was limited to a group of selected participants from the Young Artists Music Program (YAMP) at the College of Music, Mahidol University (Thailand), the results seem to indicate potential benefits for young wind instrument students in general. 102 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (100-116) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Background Basic Wind Instrument Technique McGill advocates that the goal of the instrumentalist “is to help the public to forget the instrument and immerse themselves in the music” (2007, p. 161). He proposes that reaching this goal starts with basic techniques such as long note exercises, scales and phrasing. The conceptual framework for this study is accordingly based on the idea of merging technical skill and musical knowledge through working on these three basic wind techniques, as summarised in Figure 1. Figure 1. The conceptual framework and the series of basic wind techniques employed in this study. Long note exercises. Long note exercises are some of the most difficult practice tasks for wind players, but these exercises help wind players to develop good air control as well as working on their dynamic range, tone color and intonation. McGill (2007) notes that these exercises can also be useful in helping wind instrument students in make music with expression. Scales. Working on scales is a basic exercise that of course plays a major role in many students’ practice routines. McGill (2007) advocates playing scales Prapassorn Puangsamlee & Kyle Fyr 103 musically, and not simply seeing them as exercises to build technique, suggesting that one way to accomplish this goal is to focus on listening to the intervals within the scales. Phrasing. For the purposes of this study, phrasing refers to the process by which performers divide successive notes into groups (Sadie, S., & Tyrrell, J., 2001; Kennedy, M., & Kennedy, J. B., 2007). The eminent American oboist John de Lancie remarked, “Everybody talks about music being the international language. So when you play to other musicians … you should play in such a fashion so [they] … could be taking dictation and would have no problem understanding what you’re doing” (McGill, 2007). This quote seems to imply that musical phrasing can support both musicians’ and listeners’ understanding in music. It is therefore an important skill for wind instrument students to learn to divide musical phrases as clearly as possible, and perhaps the most important factor in doing so is harmony. The Importance of Listening for Harmony The importance of harmony is a long-standing topic in music theory scholarship. One of the most prominent music theorists to explore the relationship between melody and harmony was Jean-Philippe Rameau, who posited that melody and harmony are associated with each other based on the rules of harmony. Moreover, he advocated that, when composing music, melodies should not stand alone, but each part should relate to each other, causing him to conclude, therefore, that “It is harmony then that guides us and not melody” (Rameau, 1971, pp. 145-146). As previously noted, however, this can be a difficult concept to understand for young wind instrument students whose primary focus is on playing single-line melodies. Some more recent studies also underscore the importance of listening for harmony in performance, a topic closely related to the study presented here. For example, the musical context of harmony has been shown to affect pitch perception and is noted for driving listeners’ expectations of direction in music (Kim, 2013; Taher, 2012). Knowledge of harmonic context has similarly been shown to help music students understand characteristics of sound as tension or release (Servias, 2010). Furthermore, a number of authors, such as Karpinski (2000) and Lisk (1996), describe how musicians’ skills in listening for harmony can help produce more sensitive, meaningful performances, and although these listening skills are difficult and time-consuming to achieve, the payoff is substantial. Methodology A qualitative case study was employed to investigate the benefits of listening for harmony on young wind instrument students, following the criteria outlined by Ashley (2008), Creswell (2013), Thomas (1988) and Yin (2009). The participants in the study were first-year wind instrument students from the Young Artists Music Program (YAMP) at the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand, who had no prior experience playing a harmonic instrument and who received a score of no 104 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (100-116) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 higher than 69 percent on the aural skills portion of the Thailand International Music Examination (TIME), which YAMP uses to assess students’ knowledge and skills in music theory and aural prior to entering the program. Five students at YAMP were found to fit the above criteria, and three of these students agreed to participate in this study. There were twenty observation sessions for each participant, with the duration of each session approximately 20-30 minutes. An important priority for the study was to observe the benefits of listening for harmony through the students’ practice, without any instruction, guidance or suggestion from the researcher. Data Collection Data for the study was collected in a variety of ways, as summarised below. Observation. Observation was the main process used in this study to collect data. The researcher was present while the participants practiced the basic technique exercises and recorded their practice sessions, but did not guide the students or give any suggestions on how to practice the exercises. Interviews. Interviews were also conducted to obtain additional information from the participants to supplement the data from the observations. The interviews provided the opportunity to gain further perspectives on the participants’ experiences while practicing the basic technique exercises with regard to the following: a) Participants were asked to describe how they thought about harmonic context while playing long notes (specifically, what were their reasons for choosing particular notes, what went through their minds as they played the notes, and how did this process correspond to their previous practice experiences). b) In addition, participants were asked to describe their thought processes and what they were trying to listen for when playing a melody without hearing the harmonic reference sounds. Basic technique exercises. A few basic technique exercises were used in this study to investigate how listening for harmony might improve basic performance, and were developed with a focus on fundamental wind techniques. The basic technique exercises were of three types, with four different purposes, as follows: a) Long note: Two sets of long note exercises were used to investigate how the participants listened in the context of harmony while playing a single note. In Long note exercise I, the participants were asked to play a note while imagining a harmonic context of their choice; in Long note exercise II, the participants were first asked to imagine a harmonic context provided by the Prapassorn Puangsamlee & Kyle Fyr 105 researcher before playing a given note, and were later provided a reference sound. The long note exercise pattern is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Long note exercise b) Scales: The participants were first asked to play five-note patterns consisting of the first five notes of a major and minor scale, ascending and descending. Later, the participants were asked to play full major and harmonic minor scales, ascending and descending, and finally they were asked to play scales in thirds. In each case, the participants were asked to play along with a variety of harmonic progressions in order to investigate the participants’ sense of harmonic change while playing the same melodic pattern (see Figures 3 through 8). Figure 3. Five-note scale patterns, major key Figure 4. Five-note scale patterns, minor key 106 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (100-116) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 5. An example of a harmonised major scale Figure 6. An example of a harmonised harmonic minor scale Figure 7. An example of a harmonised major scale played in thirds Prapassorn Puangsamlee & Kyle Fyr 107 Figure 8. An example of a harmonised harmonic minor scale played in thirds c) Phrasing: Adagio Cantabile (shown in Figure 9) was an eight-bar piece of music written specifically for this study by the composer Attakorn Sookjaeng. It was used to investigate how participants played a long melody based on the context of harmony. Figure 9. Adagio Cantabile by Attakorn Sookjaeng Reference of Harmonic Sound (RHS). RHS is the harmonic structure that was provided with the basic technique exercises. The RHS provided a possible harmonic progression for each of the basic technique exercises. Logic Pro X. It is a digital workstation that the researcher used to record the participants practicing the basic technique exercises. 108 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (100-116) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 10. Practice observation plan Results and discussion The purpose of this study was to explore the ways in which developing students’ aptitudes in listening for harmony might aid in improving their basic performance. The participants’ results with regard to the basic wind techniques that were observed in the study—(a) long note, (b) scales, (c) phrasing—will be presented in this section. Long note This portion of the study consisted of long note exercise I and long note exercise II, each of which was divided into three sessions, which dealt with diatonic notes, flat notes and sharp notes. Long note exercise I: to investigate how the participants listened in the context of harmony while playing a single note. In Long note exercise I, the participants were asked to play a single note while imagining a harmonic context of their own choice. Based on answers that the participants provided when asked at the beginning of the exercise whether they thought about harmony before playing, it was evident that they initially had a similar practice manner in which they mainly did not imagine the harmonic context before playing the notes. One of the participants answered the question rather meekly, saying, “I just played the note itself, I did not think about the chord or key”. Another participant also said, “I did not consider the chord of the note and have never thought about it before”. All of the participants agreed to try imagining the harmonic context again, however. Although the participants most often chose a harmonic context in which their note was simply the root of a triad, they began to demonstrate the potential, with repeated practice, to imagine a harmonic context before playing a note. Prapassorn Puangsamlee & Kyle Fyr 109 Long note exercises II: to investigate how the participants played a single note based on a given harmonic context before and after listening to reference sounds. Before the participants listened to the reference of harmonic sounds (RHS), it was found that they had different ways of finding their notes based on the harmony, such as matching the pitch with their study pieces. One of the participants stated, “While I play this note, I tried to think about my solo pieces that start with the note G but I cannot remember what chord the piano part played”. Another participant said, “I think about an arpeggio to understand the position of the notes”. After the participants played a note without listening for the RHS, the researcher provided an RHS and asked them to play the note again. All of the participants remarked that they felt a difference between when they played by themselves and then played after hearing the RHS. One participant mentioned that “It feels like a different note” and this is reflected in the more stable tone quality participants displayed after listening to the RHS. In Figures 11 and 12, the blue- colored sound waves correspond to participants 1 and 3 playing a single note four times before listening to the RHS, while the green-colored sound waves correspond to participants 1 and 3 playing a single note four times after listening to the RHS. In each of these figures, note the participants’ improvements in consistency of tone after listening to the RHS – a smooth shape of the sound wave in the green box below. Figure 11. Comparison of Participant 1’s stability of tone when playing a single note, before and after listening to the RHS 110 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (100-116) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Figure 12. Comparison of Participant 3’s stability of tone when playing a single note, before and after listening to the RHS When trying to imagine the harmonic context before playing, participants tended to simply describe the tone color as bright or dark, which affected intonation as well (McGill, 2007). When playing major chord harmonies, the participants tended to play the notes brighter than necessary, which made them rather sharp, whereas when they chose a minor chord harmony, their intonation tended to be flatter than usual. During the long note exercise observation sessions, when the participants listened to the RHS and practiced the exercise accordingly, they gained a better awareness of their intonation. Overall, practicing long note exercises with the RHS appears to have benefited the participants with regard to tone quality and intonation. Scales Scales formed the most substantial part of the basic technique exercises, consisting of five-note patterns, major and minor scales, and third-interval scales, all of which were used with the purpose of investigating the participants’ sense of melodic direction based on harmonic progression. The participants initially tended to hear the harmony rather than listening for it, paying more attention to fingering techniques, beats, and tempo rather than listening for harmonic movement. It was therefore clear that technical problems created significant barriers for the participants to developing their skills in listening for harmony, although in later observations each participant began to make progress in this respect. Throughout the observations, participants were asked to play the scale exercises following a three-step process: 1) play the scale patterns on their own; 2) play along with an RHS, in the form of recorded tonal harmonic progressions; and 3) play the scale exercises on their own once again while trying to imagine the harmonic progressions they had been given in Step 2. The results from Step 2 of the process, in which participants were provided an RHS along with their scale exercises, showed that the participants began to infuse their scale playing with a greater sense of shaping and phrasing (especially toward the ends of phrases), Prapassorn Puangsamlee & Kyle Fyr 111 corroborating the arguments of many writers—such as Roig-Francoli (2003), Karpinski (2000), and Naus (1998)—that playing scales with harmony can help make the melodic line more directed and meaningful. Figure 13 illustrates a couple of important aspects of Participant 3’s playing with regard to the scale exercises. First, note the evolving sense of phrase shaping in Step 2 (see the green sound waves). Although the participant’s playing in Step 3 (represented by the light blue sound waves) initially reverted to a melodic shape more resembling that from Step 1 (the dark blue sound waves), the phrase shapes eventually began to more closely approximate the sound waves from Step 2, exemplifying the participant’s progress in recalling their sense of phrasing while playing with the RHS. Figure 13. Sound waves from the five-note scale exercise of Participant 3 Phrasing The short piece Adagio Cantabile was then used to investigate how participants played a long melody based on the context of listening for harmony. The results showed that listening for harmony helped the participants’ sense of phrasing in two different ways. First, Participant 2 mentioned, “I can play this piece in one breath, but when I listened for the harmony, I felt that I had to take a breath only this place and it made me play easier and understand the direction”. As can be seen in the circled areas of Figure 14, it was clear that the participant found an appropriate place to breathe after listening for harmony, after not finding such a place the first time around. The sound waves shown in this figure thus support the notion that listening 112 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (100-116) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 for harmony benefitted the participant with regards to a ‘sense of phrasing’. Figure 14. Participant 2’s phrasing in Adagio Cantabile, before and after listening for harmony Figure 15. Notes that Participant 3 listened for in the piano accompaniment part of Adagio Cantabile Prapassorn Puangsamlee & Kyle Fyr 113 Secondly, after first playing the melody alone, another participant then used the harmony to adjust their intonation, noting that “I listened for the note of the piano part that was the same as my solo part”. Figure 15 shows the notes that Participant 3 listened for in the piano accompaniment part. An encouraging result can be found in the fact that the participant did not always simply try to listen for notes that matched the lowest or highest notes in the piano part; rather, the participant showed the ability to also listen for other notes within the chords that the piano played. Although this was initially an unfamiliar manner of practicing, the participant began to show an aptitude for thinking vertically (harmonically) as well as horizontally (melodically). Figures 16 and 17 then compare the sound waves from when Participant 3 practiced the piece, first without accompaniment and then with accompaniment, indicating that listening for harmony the second time around helped the participant achieve a more directed, balanced sense of phrasing. Figure 16. Participant 3’s phrasing when playing Adagio Cantabile without accompaniment Figure 17. Participant 3’s phrasing when playing Adagio Cantabile with accompaniment Conclusion The young wind instrument students who participated in this study freely admitted that they initially focused on playing their instruments without an awareness of the context of harmony. In addition, their notions of tone color were rather limited, and concerns about technique tended to supersede thinking about tone, intonation, and phrasing, which created certain barriers to developing their performance. As the participants became open to the idea of practicing single-line melodic patterns based 114 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (100-116) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 on the context of listening for harmony, however, they demonstrated significant progress in the aforementioned areas and also began to develop increased confidence when playing their instruments (as summarised in Figure 18). Figure 18. The process in which participants developed their skills in listening for harmony throughout the study and some notable results of the process Although the participants initially lacked confidence in listening for harmony, by practicing with a reference of harmonic sound (RHS) they demonstrated the potential to improve their performance in a variety of ways. First, when the participants regularly practiced a single melodic line while listening for harmony, they were able to discover a means of improving their tone quality and intonation during performance. Second, by listening for harmonic progressions, the participants could begin to better understand the direction of a single melodic line, which led to being able to play the exercises with a greater awareness of phrasing. Furthermore, practicing in this manner helped reduce the pressure participants felt when playing difficult passages, as by shifting their focus from executing challenging technical skills to listening for harmony, the participants began to play phrases with a more directed flow from beginning until the end. Recommendations for Future Study While this study was limited to a group of selected participants from the Young Artists Music Program (YAMP) at the College of Music, Mahidol University (Thailand), it would be intriguing to explore how the ideas presented here could be applied to young wind instrument students in different locations and environments. In addition, the harmonic progressions used in this study were limited to basic tonal Prapassorn Puangsamlee & Kyle Fyr 115 progressions; it would be of interest to explore how changing the scope in this respect would work with different groups of study participants. Finally, although the results of this study indicate that listening for harmony can be very beneficial in developing young wind instrument students’ performance, it is also rather clear that for many inexperienced wind instrument students, understanding all of the ideas about practicing in this manner can be very difficult without guidance. This study has accordingly presented a step-by-step process by which young wind instrument students may work toward achieving this goal. Finding ways to incorporate this method of practicing into students’ private instrument instruction and more generally into music education curricula is a clear goal for the future in order to develop new methods of music learning for young wind instrument students in Thailand. References Ashley, L. D. (2008). Case study research. In J. Arthur, M. Waring, R. Coe, & L. V. Hedges, Research methods & methodologies in education (pp. 102-107). London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches. California, CA: SAGE Publication, Inc. Jensen, E. (2000). Listening and learning. In Music with the brain in mind (pp. 77). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Karpinski, G. S. (2000). Aural skills acquisition: The development of listening, reading and performing skills in college-level musicians. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Kennedy, M., & Kennedy, J. B. (2007). Phrase. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music (pp. 577). Oxford, New York, NY: Oxford University Press Kim, J. N. (2013). Online processing of tonal melodies: Effects of harmonic expectations. ProQuest Dissertation & Thesis. (ProQuest No. 1446721903). Kostka, S., Payne, D., & Almen, B. (2013). Harmony in Western music. In Tonal harmony: with an introduction to twentieth-century music (pp. xi-xiv). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Laitz, S. G., & Bartlette, C. (2010). Graduate review of tonal theory: a recasting of common-practice harmony, form and counterpoint. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Lisk, E. S. (1996). Listening and hearing. In The creative director: Intangibles of musical performance (pp. 24). Ft. Lauderdale, Fla.: Meredith Music Publications. McGill, D. (2007). Sound in motion: A performer's guide to greater musical expression. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Naus, W. J. (1998). Beyond functional harmony. Advance music. Rameau, J.-P. (1971). Treatise on harmony. New York, NY: Dover Publications. Ratner, L. G. (1983). The musical experience: Sound, movement and arrival. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman. Roig-Francoli, M. A. (2003). Harmony in context. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Sadie, S., & Tyrrell, J. (2001). Phrase. In The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians (Vol. 19, pp. 633). New York, NY: Grove. Servias, D. (2010). Towards confident and informed musicianship: A curricular synthesis of theory, ear training, and harmony, achieved through the acquisition of keyboard 116 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (100-116) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 skills. ProQuest Dissertation & Thesis. (ProQuest No. 275683757). Taher, C. (2012). Pitch perception in changing harmony. ProQuest Dissertation & Thesis. (ProQuest No. 1013441390). Thailand International Music Examination (TIME). (2011). About TIME. Retrieved December 18, 2016, from TIME, Thailand International Music Examination: http://www.timemusicexam.com/en/about/about.php Thomas, R. M. (1988). Approaches to gathering data: Case studies. In Conducting educational research: A comparative view (pp. 81). Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey. Wedin, E. N. (2015). Listening - hearing. In Playing music with the whole body: Eurhythmics and motor development (pp. 35). Stockholm: Gehrmans Musikforlag. Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods. Los Angeles, LA: Sage Publications. Young Artists Music Program (YAMP). (2018). Young Artists Music Program. Retrieved February 20, 2018, from Young Artists Music Program: https://www.music.mahidol.ac.th/yamp/ Biography Prapassorn Puangsamlee is a Ph.D. candidate in music education from the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. She has received a Master of Arts (Music) in Music Education and Bachelor of Music in Music Business from the College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. She is currently a teacher of Music for Early Childhood and flute teacher at the Music Campus for General Public (MCGP) Seacon Bangkae, Bangkok, Thailand, where she has taught since 2013. She has also taught in Music Campus for General Public (MCGP) Paragon and Seacon Square, Bangkok, Thailand. She has previously taught music subjects such as Teaching Practicum at the graduate level as well as Music Performance (Flute) and Small Ensemble (Flute ensemble) at the undergraduate level. Her areas of interests include topics in music in higher education, music education, music pedagogy and music business. Kyle Fyr is the musicology department chair and the Master of Arts program chair at the College of Music, Mahidol University (Thailand). He received a PhD in music theory with doctoral minors in music history and piano performance from the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music in 2011, writing a dissertation focusing on proportionality and performance issues in piano works of John Adams. From 2011-13, he was an Assistant Professor of Music Theory at the University of Northern Colorado. He has presented papers at a variety of conferences throughout the US and UK, and has published in the Journal of Music History Pedagogy, the Malaysian Music Journal, Music Theory Online and Notes. He also has a forthcoming publication in the journal Music Theory and Analysis.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

China, Cuba, cultural understanding, multicultural music education

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/841

The Effects of a Chinese and Cuban Music Programme on the Cultural Understanding of Elementary Children

This study aims to examine whether the American elementary students increase their cultural understanding after a six-week multicultural music programme on China and Cuba, considering factors of age, gender and learning needs. The use of Edwards’ (1994) levels of cultural understanding as a research tool and the way in which this approach can motivate children learning were examined. Participants were 110 second and fifth graders of two schools in New Jersey. Interviews were administered before and after the programme and classroom observations were conducted. Data indicated that such multicultural music programme has increased children’s cultural understanding and reduce their stereotypes on other people. Different levels of cultural understanding have been demonstrated. It was easy for children to achieve the basic level (i.e. Level 1: Knowledge) but it became more and more difficult as the levels proceed (i.e. Levels 2-4: Awareness, Sensitivity and Valuing). Therefore, multicultural music education can serve important educational goal of increasing cultural understanding, motivate student learning and provide an interdisciplinary education to students.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/841/577

Lily Chen-Hafteck 117 The Effects of a Chinese and Cuban Music Programme on the Cultural Understanding of Elementary Children Lily Chen-Hafteck UCLA Herb Alpert School of Music. University of California, Los Angeles, USA e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 17 October 2018 Cite this article (APA): Chen-Hafteck, L. (2018). The effects of a Chinese and Cuban music programme on the cultural understanding of elementary children. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 117-133. Abstract This study aims to examine whether the American elementary students increase their cultural understanding after a six-week multicultural music programme on China and Cuba, considering factors of age, gender and learning needs. The use of Edwards’ (1994) levels of cultural understanding as a research tool and the way in which this approach can motivate children learning were examined. Participants were 110 second and fifth graders of two schools in New Jersey. Interviews were administered before and after the programme and classroom observations were conducted. Data indicated that such multicultural music programme has increased children’s cultural understanding and reduce their stereotypes on other people. Different levels of cultural understanding have been demonstrated. It was easy for children to achieve the basic level (i.e. Level 1: Knowledge) but it became more and more difficult as the levels proceed (i.e. Levels 2-4: Awareness, Sensitivity and Valuing). Therefore, multicultural music education can serve important educational goal of increasing cultural understanding, motivate student learning and provide an interdisciplinary education to students. Keywords: China, Cuba, cultural understanding, multicultural music education Introduction Need for Multicultural Education due to Diverse Student Population Today, student population in most of the American classrooms is often diverse in cultures, languages, abilities, and so on. However, most of the U.S. public school teachers are white who grew up in middle-class communities (Gay, Dingus & Jackson, 2003) Although the number of teachers from minority groups has increased in recent 118 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (117-133) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 years, the gap between the percentage of minority students and minority teachers continues to persist in the USA (Ingersoll, Merrill & Stuckey, 2014). Therefore, most teachers are not prepared to teach diverse students, and need to learn about culturally responsive pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 2004; Vavrus, 2002). Culturally responsive teaching acknowledges the legitimacy of the cultural heritages of different ethnic groups that affect students’ dispositions, attitudes and approaches to learning. It teaches students to know and praise their own as well as others’ cultural heritages (Gay, 2010). Otherwise, we can easily fall into the prejudices of the ‘culture of poverty’, the overgeneralisation that poor people share certain predictable values and behaviours such as being unmotivated, having weak work ethics, parents not being involved in children’s education, being linguistically deficient, abusing drugs and alcohol, which are not valid in most cases (Gorski, 2008). A lot of our students’ ethno-cultural attitudes and believes have been acquired early in life and they are usually deeply rooted. Marks & Coll (2009) found that American children already show social awareness by labelling racial groups at the age of three. By the ages of four and five, they start to develop the ability to identify oneself from others. At the ages of seven or eight, children have developed stable and consistent social identity. Between ages six to twelve, children are often trying to make sense of who they are in terms of race, ethnicity, and culture. Thus, it is important to provide a multicultural education early in life so that they can understand and appreciate the people of diverse cultural origins who live around them at these early formative years. Multicultural education, which is in line with culturally responsive teaching, promotes equity in educational opportunities for students from diverse groups. However, it may not achieve its goal if the teacher thinks that it is simply content integration (Banks, 2004). Teachers need to adjust their approaches to achieve other dimensions including knowledge construction, equity pedagogy, prejudice reduction and empowering school culture and social structure that can move education to a higher level in the learning and understanding of cultures. Multicultural Music Education and Cultural Understanding Music both expresses and is influenced by the culture from which it comes. The rich cultural knowledge within traditional music and songs makes them useful resources for teaching children about their own culture and that of others. Elliott (1989) indicated that “a dynamic multicultural music curriculum offers the possibility of developing appreciations and new behaviour patterns not only in relation to world musics, but also in relation to world peoples.” (p.18) Multicultural approach to music learning is important in American schools because it reflects the cultural diversity of the world and of the USA by promoting a music curriculum representing musical experiences of a variety of ethnic-cultures (Anderson and Campbell, 2010). Legette (2003) supported this idea, advocating for the need of more multicultural training in both the pre-service and in-service teacher education as the student population becomes more and more culturally diverse. There is a large body of research in neuroscience, psychology of music, cultural musicology, sociology, anthropology of music suggesting that music has the capacity to promote empathy and social/ cultural understanding (Clarke, DeNora & Vuoskoski, Lily Chen-Hafteck 119 2015). Music as a tool that fosters social bonding and group cohesion has been demonstrated by Kirschner and Tomasello (2010). They found among the four-year-old children that joint music-making increased subsequent spontaneous cooperative and helpful behaviour. They argued that music making, including joint singing and dancing, encourages the participants to keep a constant audio-visual representation of the collective intention, which is to share the goal of vocalising and moving together in time. This can satisfy the intrinsic human desire to share emotions, experiences and activities with others, and thus ultimately increase prosocial in-group behaviour and cooperation. Therefore, the power of music in promoting our social well-being is demonstrated. There are a number of research studies that showed positive effects of multicultural music programmes on children’s attitude towards foreign cultures. Edwards (1994) investigated the impact of four instructional approaches utilising American Indian music on 4th grade students’ attitude towards American Indian culture and music – large-group lessons with authentic instruments, an American Indian guest artist, use of authentic instruments in small-group learning centres, and the use of non- authentic instruments in small-group learning centres. A 6-week instructional period that contained 12 lessons was presented to four groups of children with the four teaching approaches plus a control group with no treatment. Significant difference was found between the experimental groups and the control group. It was found that the children were capable of the four levels of cultural understanding, ranging from a biased view (ethnocentrism) to unbiased view (cultural valuing) on a continuum. 1. Instructional knowledge, skills & attitudes: Children acquire learning of the instructional materials; 2. Cultural awareness: Children become aware of the differences and similarities of various cultures; 3. Cultural sensitivity: Children’s feeling and affect are involved; and 4. Cultural valuing: An unbiased view of the value of another culture. The first level occurs when students become more knowledgeable of the culture, which are learning outcomes resulting from the instructions. Then, students’ views become gradually less biased with the second level where they increase their awareness of other cultures that may be different and similar. Further up the scale of decreasing biases, the third level involves emotions in addition to the cognitive understanding of the culture while the fourth and final level is an unbiased view when students see the value of the culture. Edwards concluded from her data that children can unlearn previously-held cultural biases through instruction and develop cultural sensitivities that extend beyond knowledge. In another study, Nam (2007) investigated children’s perceptions about, attitudes towards and understandings of cultures other than their own as they encountered music from various cultures during their general music classes. The music lessons in two elementary schools were observed during three months. One group worked on African drumming whereas the other group worked on listening examples from a variety of cultures. Questionnaires and interviews were administered before and after the observation period. Positive attitudes towards multicultural music instruction 120 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (117-133) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 were found. Using Edwards’ levels of cultural understanding as the basis of her analysis, she found that most children demonstrated cultural awareness and sensitivity while few demonstrated cultural valuing. She contended that although embedding multicultural music into the curriculum may aim at minimising biased views, a ‘supermarket approach’ where children were exposed to a lot of different cultures may limit cultural understanding. Therefore, Nam recommended a more in-depth and carefully guided study of few cultures in order to develop cultural understanding more effectively. Tu (2009) examined the effect of a Chinese music curriculum on cultural attitudes towards the Chinese people, improving tonal discrimination skills, singing accuracy of tonal patterns and accuracy of singing Chinese lyrics. Participants were third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade students who received daily exposure of 10-minute Chinese music lesson during 10 weeks. Standardised tests including ‘Children’s Attitudes toward Chinese’ (CATC), ‘Intermediate Measures of Music Audition – Tonal’ (IMMA), ‘Tonal Pattern Performance Measure’ (TPPM) were used for measurement at the pre- and post-tests. It was found that children’s attitudes toward Chinese people and tonal pattern singing accuracy were improved, but not tonal discrimination skills. Accuracy of the Chinese lyrics was over 70% Sousa, Neto and Mullet (2005) has conducted a study in Portugal where its largest group of foreign immigrants come from Cape Verde, a former Portuguese colony in Africa, and there is evidence of pro-white-skinned/ anti-dark-skinned stereotyping. Therefore, the researchers investigated whether Portuguese children would change their attitudes towards Cape-Verdeans after learning the songs from Cape Verde. Eighteen units of Cape-Verdean music instruction were provided to 193 children aged 7-10 years. Pre-test and post-test using Preschool Racial Attitude Measure II (PRAM II) were administered to measure children’s racial attitude. Results suggested that there was a reduction of stereotyping of Cape Verdeans in the experimental group, but this was found among the 9- and 10-year-olds, not the 7- and 8-year-olds. Therefore, age difference was shown to be a significant factor in this study. I, (Chen-Hafteck, 2007a) have examined the effects of an interdisciplinary programme on Chinese music and culture. A programme based on the sociocultural approach to multicultural music education whereby students learn about the music together with its sociocultural context was introduced to 250 fifth- and sixth-grade children in three schools in New York, USA. Findings showed that whether multicultural music education experience can lead to positive cultural understanding and attitude depends on many factors, including teachers’ attitude, teaching approach, and the students’ learning environment. A flexible student-centred curriculum using the sociocultural approach can enhance an increase in cultural and musical knowledge, learning motivation, positive attitude towards people from other cultures, and self- confidence for students from the minority cultures. Effects were strong among students studying in a multicultural environment than those in a monocultural setting. From the various research studies discussed above, it is important to note that multicultural music lessons need to be well-designed with varied activities such as presenting information on the cultures, singing songs, dancing, moving and creating. In this way, they can provide a comprehensive learning experience that enhances students’ cognitive, social, physical and emotional development (Ilari et al., 2013). It is also a Lily Chen-Hafteck 121 good example of interdisciplinary approach to education, integrating the arts and social studies. In summary, there is strong argument supporting the positive influences of learning multicultural music on children’s understanding and appreciation of people from cultures other their own. The notion of cultural understanding has been expanded in the 21st century competencies (Soland, Hamilton & Stecher, 2013) as developed by international educators. Global awareness is one of the interpersonal competencies, demonstrated when a student feels empathy for people from different cultural backgrounds, and when he/ she shows an understanding of the interpersonal nature of people, institutions and systems. Thus, this adds another dimension to Edward’s (1994) levels of cultural understanding, which goes beyond unbiased view of other people. Rationale for Current Study However, research studies in this topic are still lagging behind. It seems that the relationship between learning multicultural music and cultural understanding is a complex issue. Such relationship can be affected by numerous factors. First and foremost, it is the assessment on children’s cultural understanding. It is questionable whether it can be measured through standardised psychological tests (Sousa et al, 2005; Tu, 2009) or observed through qualitative methodology (Edwards, 1994; Nam 2007; [author’s name removed]). Then, it is further complicated by the teachers’ attitude and teaching approaches, that can yield different results (Nam, 2007; [author’s name removed]). In addition, the environment where the students live in, whether they are in touch with people from other cultures, can also influence the relationship between the multicultural music programme and cultural understanding. Given the complexity of the issue, the present study has been designed to follow up the previous study [author’s name removed] by collecting more first-hand information from the children. In the 2007 study, data have been collected through teachers and administrators. In the present study, personal interviews with the participating children and researchers’ observations of the lessons were the main tool in providing data that may deepen our understanding of the issue. As a follow-up study, the teaching materials on Chinese music and culture developed in the previous New York study were used again. In addition, new materials on Cuban music and culture were developed and taught, because in New Jersey where this study took place, there is a large population of Cuban immigrants and enhancing cultural understanding of Cuban people will be beneficial to children living there. This can also show whether the effects of Chinese music also exist with the music of a different culture. Objective The objective of the present study was to investigate whether a multicultural programme combining the study of music and culture from China and Cuba has any effects on the cultural understanding of these two cultures among elementary children in New Jersey, USA. Cultural understanding was examined with reference to Edwards’ model (1994). 122 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (117-133) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 It serves as an evaluation tool along the biased-unbiased continuum, to provide analysis as to whether children increase their understanding about the cultures. The research questions of this study were: 1. Would the American elementary students increase their cultural understanding after a six-week multicultural music programme on China and Cuba? 2. If so, would this effect be different among elementary children of different ages, gender, and learning needs? 3. Are Edwards’ (1994) levels of cultural understanding useful measurement for research study on cultural understanding? 4. In what way can lessons incorporating music from world cultures motivate children learning? Method Design of the Study Six weekly lessons were taught by me (of Chinese origin) and a research-assistant (of Cuban origin) to 110 students from eight classes of 2nd grade and 5th grade children in two multicultural and co-educational public schools in New Jersey – two 2nd and two 5th grade classes (ages 6-7 and 10-11) from each school. A bilingual 2nd grade class with Spanish-speaking children and a special education 5th grade class with children being diagnosed as ‘Learning Disabled’ were included. School 1 has a majority of African American students and School 2 has a majority of Hispanic students. Student population in the public schools of the State of New Jersey is diverse. Purposive sampling has been used so that the effects of multicultural music education on elementary children of diverse population can be observed. The purpose was to look at whether there are changes in students of varied backgrounds before and after the multicultural music programme. The 6 lessons covered the following topics, selected because their potential to enhance student understanding of the two cultures and to be learned through integrating music activities such as listening, moving, singing, dancing and playing instruments. Active music-making activities were designed so that students can be engaged in the learning processes. The enjoyment of these lessons was important to generate a positive experience among the participants. 1. History & Geography of China and its people, integrated with an introduction to traditional folk songs and music 2. Chinese philosophies integrated with music for enlightenment/ meditation and images of traditional paintings 3. Chinese festivals integrated with festive music, which was preceded by an introduction to Chinese musical instruments 4. History & geography of Cuba and its people, integrated with an introduction to traditional folk songs and music Lily Chen-Hafteck 123 5. Everyday life of Cuban People: Street vendors and musicians; influence of African culture in Cuban music and dance; Cuban musical instruments 6. Cuban Festivals, Carnivals, its music and dance Data Collection Interviews were conducted with the participating children before and after the six lessons. They were asked to respond to a simple open-ended question: “What do you know about China/ Cuba and Chinese/ Cuban people?” The purpose was to find out what children had to say by themselves without directing them towards any preconceived subjects. Researcher often asked follow-up questions based on students’ answers to lead the conversation into a deeper understanding of student thoughts. So although this is only one question, researcher made sure that the data was adequate in terms of length and depth, providing the data needed for learning about students’ level of cultural understanding. At first, the interviews happened during lunch break when the researcher called them one after another into a quiet room. However, this was very time-consuming and soon it became apparent that it was impossible to interview all the participating children in this way, given the limited amount of time. So the researcher had to interview the children in a nearby location such as a corner of the cafeteria or playground. Given the limitations in time and location, the researcher could only take written notes to record the interview data. In addition, all the lessons were video-recorded. Observational notes were taken based on the researchers’ teaching experiences and video data. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analysed, complementing each other. Data Analysis First, a score was generated from each interview by each child by counting the number of statements that reflect cultural understanding. The statements that are untrue cannot demonstrate cultural understanding were not counted. For instance, one of the children got mixed up between Chinese and Japanese languages, and said that the Chinese people say kinochiwa (which is Japanese) to greet each other. The zero scores, which indicated that the children did not give any answer, were also recorded. In addition, each statement was coded according to Edwards’ (1994) four levels of cultural understandings that were adapted to this study because these levels were originally findings from a study, not a research tool. So I need to specify more clearly how they can be used for data analysis. The coding was based on the nature of the statements collected from the children: (1) Knowledge: Correct factual information; (2) Awareness: Comparison between self and others; (3) Sensitivity: Feelings for the others; and (4) Valuing: Unbiased value/ global view of self and others (see examples in Discussion section). While the numerical scores were used as the basis of comparison, the meanings of the texts from the interview data were also analysed to provide a more in-depth qualitative understanding into the quantitative data (as discussed later in the ‘discussion section’). Furthermore, the observational notes taken after each lesson and after reviewing the video data, were analysed and provided insight into children’s learning 124 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (117-133) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 processes during the study. Finally, student’s t-test with equal variance assumed was carried out in comparing the pre- and post-test interview data for China and Cuba respectively. Moreover, a one-way ANOVA was used looking at pre- to post- test pairwise score increases for China and Cuba separately, to determine if there were significant differences when categorising by grade (age), gender and class (varied learning needs). Each comparison was run as a separate one-way ANOVA test. The only significant findings were with class and grade with the CUBA students. For the statistical analysis, the total number of children considered was 82. This was because 28 children were not available for both of the interviews. Results The pre- and post-test results (n = 82) clearly showed a significant difference in the children’s increased responses before and after the programme both in their cultural understanding of China (df = 162, t=-7.17, p = 2.49e-11) and Cuba (df = 162, t=-9.28, p < 2.2e-16). Interestingly, a higher gain in cultural understanding has been found in Cuban music and culture as compared to Chinese music and culture, though this is not statistically significant (see Table 1 and Figure 1). The majority of responses were under the first level of cultural understanding, with less under the second, even less under the third and rare under the fourth level (see Figure 2). This means that the higher the level of cultural understanding, the lower the number of responses that fell under the category. No significant difference has been found across schools and gender for all data as well as grades and class of the China data. The only significant difference found was among the grades (F = 4.001, df = 1, p = 0.05) and classes (F = 2.3842, df = 7, p = 0.03) from the data of Cuba (see Tables 2-3 and Figure 3). Table 1 Student’s t-test with equal variance results on children’s interview responses before and after the programme Pre-test Post-test M (SD) M (SD) t df China 2.65 (1.96) 5.24 (3.04) -7.17*** 162 Cuba 1.20 (1.82) 5.23 (3.53) -9.28*** 162 Note. *** = p ≤ .001 Lily Chen-Hafteck 125 Figure 1. Children’s interview responses before and after the programme Figure 2. Children’s interview responses at the four levels of cultural understanding 126 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (117-133) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Table 2 One-Way Analysis of Variance of Grade effects on children’s interview responses on Cuba Source df SS MS F p Between groups 1 43.6 43.61 4.001 0.0489* Within groups 80 871.9 10.90 Total 81 915.5 Note. * = p ≤ .05 Table 3 One-Way Analysis of Variance of Class effects on children’s interview responses on Cuba Source df SS MS F p Between groups 7 168.5 24.07 2.384 0.0296* Within groups 74 747.1 10.10 Total 81 687.5 Note. * = p ≤ .05 Lily Chen-Hafteck 127 Figure 3. Class differences in children’s interview responses on Cuba before and after the programme Discussion Multicultural Music Programme can Increase Children’s Cultural Understanding From the results, it is clear that children have increased their cultural understanding on China and Cuba after the programme. The fact that children knew little about Cuba at the start of the project contributed to the higher gain in their responses about Cuba than China at the end of the project (see Figure 1). Indeed, as I was conducting the pre-test interviews, I was surprised to observe how much children had already learned about China through the media, friends who are Chinese, and the popular Chinese restaurants that are everywhere in New Jersey (and many places in the world too!). On the other hand, a lot of the children could not tell me anything about Cuba before the programme even though there were many Cubans living in the area. Moreover, contrary to my expectation, even children who were immigrants from other countries in South America knew more about China than Cuba at the start of the study. This showed that it was actually important to introduce Cuban music and culture to the children there. The increase in cultural understanding among the children was further supported by the fact that there were a lot more children who could not provide any answer before the programme than after the programme. It accounted for 15% versus 1% of the participating children for their responses on China and 56% versus 3% of the 128 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (117-133) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 children for their responses on Cuba before and after the programme respectively. This phenomenon is particularly obvious among the responses on Cuba. Furthermore, after the project, there were much more responses relating to singing, dancing and languages which were important topics of the programme. Thus, children’s learning from the programme has been demonstrated. From an analysis of the interview data, it was found that the stereotype responses of the two cultures were evident before the programme and they were replaced by more realistic and true concepts of the cultures at the end of the programme. Examples of the stereotype responses that were recorded from the interviews before the programme include: All of them look the same (China) Some people are dangerous in China because they like fighting (China) They are black (Cuba) These responses were such a contrast to the responses collected afterwards: I learned what Chinese people look like. They look different, not the same. (China) People from different places came there, example, African people. (Cuba) Therefore, these data suggested that those students have probably moved away from an ethnocentric/-biased view towards Chinese and Cuban cultures. Interestingly, such increase was not affected by children’s ages, gender and learning needs. In other words, the 2nd and 5th graders; boys and girls; the bilingual, learning disabled, and typical children all demonstrated an increase in cultural understanding. This does not support the findings of the strong age factor in the study of Sousa et al (2005). Such difference can probably be accounted for by the differences in methodology. Sousa et al used a standardised psychological test to assess attitude towards other people whereas the present study used open-ended interview to assess cultural understanding. It is possible that children of younger ages may find it easier to express their opinion through verbal interviews than written questionnaires, or vice versa. Another possible explanation is that those Portuguese children at ages 7-10 in Sousa et al.’s study may respond more differently than the 2nd (7-8 years) and 5th (10-11 years) grade American children of this study. Further studies where children of the same age range from specific cultures responding to both interviews and questionnaires will be needed to provide insight into the age factor. The class differences that were significant with Cuban data need to be further examined (Figure 3). Reflecting on my observations during the lessons, it becomes clear that the class differences are closely related to children’s learning attitude. A pattern can be observed in which the more positive and well behaved the classroom atmosphere, the higher the gains in cultural understanding. For instance, among the eight classes, the highest gains in cultural understanding of Cuba occurred among the class of 5th graders, which was a well-behaved class with children being very eager to learn. The students in this class could recall the whole Chinese song all by themselves without my help just one week after I taught them. On the other hand, the 2nd grade class, which showed the Lily Chen-Hafteck 129 lowest gains in cultural understanding of Cuba, was a class where the children got easily distracted and overexcited. Classroom management was quite an issue in this class, though these children were also motivated to learn. Not to say my research assistant who has less teaching experience, even I found it quite a challenge to teach this class. Therefore, students’ learning attitude is an influential factor that can affect the extent to which they increase their cultural understanding. Teachers need to build a good learning attitude among the children to maximise cultural understanding. In this study, it has been observed that musical activities provided an enjoyable and pleasant experience for children in their learning of music and cultures, and that in turn promoted more positive responses. Therefore, the inclusion of music into the multicultural programme can provide a strong motivational force in developing cultural understanding. Toward a High Level of Cultural Understanding As seen in Figure 2, it seems to be easy to increase the cultural knowledge, that is the first level of cultural understanding. Yet for the other higher levels of understanding, it is much harder to develop among the children within a six-week period. Here are some examples of responses collected under each of the four levels of cultural understanding: Table 4 Examples of interview data collected across the four levels of cultural understanding Level Example Justification Level 1 Knowledge They eat Chinese food. (China) factual information Level 2 Awareness Their instrument is different from those in the US. (Cuba) comparison Level 3 Sensitivity It’s an important culture. (China) expression of feelings Level 4 Valuing People who sing the music, they’re not shy, they’re not afraid if people laugh at them. I like that. For example, when I am short, they laugh at me. I like that. I’m not afraid of it anymore. (Cuba) unbiased view, global awareness The words from this student who demonstrated Level 4 Valuing showed that the high level of cultural understanding is something precious that educators want to see in their classroom. The findings of this study regarding the limited amount of high levels of cultural understanding among the children echo with the findings of Nam (2007), who felt that an in-depth study of few cultures would do a better job in promoting high 130 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (117-133) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 level of cultural understanding than a superficial study of many cultures. Further research providing a programme with a more extended period of time without studying too many cultures is needed to confirm this relationship. Measurement of Cultural Understanding It is a challenge to measure cultural understanding. It is an abstract construct that cannot be easily observed or measured. The present study used Edwards’ (1994) four level of cultural understanding as a reference point to assess children’s cultural understanding. It has shown to be a useful research assessment tool. While organising the interview data into four levels, it helps to organise the data without which it becomes impossible to determine objectively the extent of understanding. Moreover, the concept of cultural understanding as a continuum that ranges from biased to unbiased view is helpful in showing the degree of understanding so that we can place the data collected accordingly, which in turn can allow for comparison and analysis. I found it very useful to use the quantitative data as the basis to indicate the amount and direction of changes. Through the words of the children, I was able to tap into their thinking to a certain extent that provided further insight into those numbers. Therefore, the qualitative data can provide meaning and explanations to the information indicated by the quantitative data and both qualitative and quantitative data together give us a more complete picture of children’ learning and development of cultural understanding. Children are Motivated to Learn about World Musics and Cultures In this study, the two researchers served the roles of both the teacher and researcher. The first-hand teaching experiences during the study were most gratifying. It was evident from the observations that the teaching materials on Chinese and Cuban music and cultures brought novelty, interest and challenges that motivate children learning. Children asked a lot of questions out of curiosity. After each activity, they often asked: “Can we do that again?” Such positive responses were also evident from my previous studies (Chen-Hafteck, 2007b; 2010). It is clear that music has provided the motivation to learn. Multicultural programme without music cannot be the same. Music activities can vivify and humanise the social studies class that might otherwise become a dry recitation of dates and facts (Rosenbloom, 2004). It is interesting to note the level of engagement of the children during the study. Some children came to me at my second lesson, speaking some Chinese that they learned by themselves from a library book that they took out from their own initiatives following my first lesson. It was amazing to see how the children from the ‘Learning Disabled’ class who were considered having difficulty in paying attention showed themselves to be absolutely focused during the meditation activity to Chinese music. The classroom teacher who was present at that time was surprised and thrilled. She told me afterwards that she could not believe her eyes. In another classroom, we saw an African-American 5th grade boy who was totally absorbed into a Chinese dance song, incorporating some hip-hop dance moves into his dance. At that moment, he showed that he felt the rhythm and beat of the Chinese song, and decided to express himself in Lily Chen-Hafteck 131 his own personal way that originated from his culture. It should be noted that although I showed some basic moves that were authentic to the Chinese dance for this song, I also allowed space for children to improvise their own moves. This particular student has combined both the Chinese moves and movement from his own culture. It then became his new interpretation of the music through movement. Therefore, I would consider this as an example of cultural understanding, which is superior to what some other students who just copied what I did. Conclusion Multicultural music education can increase the cultural understanding of unfamiliar cultures among elementary children, across different ages, language backgrounds and learning abilities. Acquiring basic level of understanding (knowledge) can easily be achieved, but not so much for higher levels (awareness, sensitivity & valuing). Therefore, music educators need to be aware of such challenge and try to facilitate children’s development of high level of cultural understanding. Introducing multicultural music in classroom can be an excellent educational experience for students. It can serve important educational goal of increasing cultural understanding, motivate student learning and provide an interdisciplinary education to students through integrating the study of music and culture or social studies. Therefore, it is recommended that multicultural music education should be promoted more widely in the classroom. Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge the support of the project’s research assistants, Monica Fontaine and Jenna Cipolla. Special thanks are also due to Dr. David Joiner at Kean University for his kind assistance with the statistical analyses of the data. References Abril, C. R. (2006) Learning outcomes of two approaches to multicultural music education, International Journal of Music Education, 24, 30-42. Chen-Hafteck, L. (2007a). Contextual analyses of children's responses to an integrated Chinese music and culture experience. Music Education Research, 9, 3, 337- 353. Chen-Hafteck, L. (2007b). In search of a motivating multicultural music experience: lessons learned from the sounds of silk project. International Journal of Music Education, 25, 3, 223-233. Chen-Hafteck, L. (2010). Discovering world music and children’s worlds – pedagogy responding to children’s learning needs. In A. C. Clements (Ed.), Alternative approaches in music education: Case studies from the field (pp. 41-55). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. 132 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (117-133) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 Banks, J. A. (2004). Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and practices. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee Banks (Eds.). Handbook of research on multicultural education (2nd ed., pp. 3–29). San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. Campbell, P. S. & Scott-Kassner, C. (2007). Music in childhood: From preschool through the elementary grades (3rd ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson Schirmer. Clarke, E., DeNora, T. & Vuoskoski, J. (2015). Music, empathy and cultural understanding. Physics of Life Reviews, 15, 61-88. Edwards, K. L. (1994). North American Indian music instruction: Influences upon attitudes, cultural perceptions, and achievement. Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe, 1994. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, 130. Elliott, D. J. (1989). Key concepts in multicultural music education. International Journal of Music Education, (1), 11-18. Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Gay, G., Dingus, J.E. & Jackson, C. W. (2003, July). The presence and performance of teachers of color in the profession. Unpublished report prepared for the National Collaborative on Diversity in the Teaching Force. Washington D.C. Gorski, P. (2008). The myth of the culture of poverty. Poverty and Learning, 65(7), 32- 35. Ilari, B. et al (2013). Singing and cultural understanding: A music education perspective. International Journal of Music Education, 31(2), 202-216. Ingersoll, R., Merrill, L. & Stuckey, D. (2014). Seven trends: The transformation of the teaching force. CPRE Report (#RR-80). Philadelphia, PN: Consortium for Policy Research in Education, University of Pennsylvania. Kirschner, S. & Tomasello, M. (2010). Joint music making promotes prosocial behaviour in 4-year-old children. Evolution and Human Behaviour, 31, 354- 364. Ladson-Billings, G. (2004). New directions in multicultural education. Complexities, boundaries, and critical race theory. In J.A. Banks & C.A.M. Banks (Eds.). Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 145-166). New York, NY: MacMillan. Legette, R. M. (2003). Multicultural music education attitudes, values, and practices of public school music teachers. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 13(1), 51- 59. Nam, I. (2007). Children’s perceptions about, attitudes toward, and understandings of multicultural music education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Arizona State University, USA. UMI No. 3287989. Rosenbloom, A.F. (2004). High school music studies and social studies: an interdisciplinary approach. Music Educators Journal, 90 (3), 41-45. Soland, J., Hamilton, L.S. & Stecher, B.M. (2013). Measuring 21st century competencies: Guidance for educators. RAND Corporation/ Asia Society/ Global Cities Education Network. Sousa, M.R., Neto, F. & Mullet, E. (2005). Can music change ethnic attitudes among children? Psychology of Music, 33(3), 304-316. Lily Chen-Hafteck 133 Tu, M. (2009). The effects of a Chinese music curriculum on cultural attitudes, tonal discrimination, singing accuracy, and acquisition of Chinese lyrics for third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest, UMI Dissertations Publishing (Accession Order No. 3392598). Vavrus, M. (2002). Transforming the multicultural education of teachers: Theory, research and practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Biography Lily Chen-Hafteck is professor of Music Education and Chair of faculty at UCLA Herb Alpert School of Music. She is a Fulbright scholar who holds a Ph.D. from University of Reading, U.K. and received postdoctoral research fellowship at University of Pretoria, South Africa and University of Surrey Roehampton, U.K. She has held leadership positions of International Society for Music Education (ISME) as member of its ‘Board of Directors’, chair of its ‘Young Professionals Focus Group and Early Childhood Commission’; served as the ‘Eastern Division Representative’ of the Early Childhood Special Research Interest Group, National Association for Music Education (NAfME) and World Music Representative of California Music Educators Association (CMEA). She is the founder of the ‘Educating the Creative Mind’ project, funded by National Endowment for the Arts; and a co-investigator of ‘Advancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing’ (AIRS) project, funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

collaboration, ‘in-betweenness’, transcultural practice, transmission, transformation

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/842

Inbetweenness: Transcultural Thinking in my Compositional Practice

This article explores the notion of ‘in-betweenness’ through transcultural thinking in my compositional practice. My thinking has been inspired by Tim Ingold’s philosophical idea of ‘wayfaring’ as a way to navigate processes by which insights emerge from collaborative investigations. 'Interbreathment’ is one of the earlier projects focusing on music and dance collaborations. Associated with a gong installation, this particular project explored a hybrid form of notation between musical and choreographical elements engaging with Chinese, as well as Malaysian indigenous cultural references (Kadazandusun) in which I sought a creative threshold for opening up new cultural dialogues to deepen my experience and understanding of the notions of entanglement and of how highly diverse elements can be unified through collaboration in my compositional work.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/842/578

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 134 Inbetweenness: Transcultural Thinking in my Compositional Practice Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah Borneo Heritage Research Unit, Faculty of Humanities, Arts and Heritage, Universiti Malaysia Sabah e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 20 December 2018 Cite this article (APA): Lee, C.T.I (2018). Inbetweenness: Transcultural thinking in my compositional practice. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 134-158. Abstract This article explores the notion of ‘in-betweenness’ through transcultural thinking in my compositional practice. My thinking has been inspired by Tim Ingold’s philosophical idea of ‘wayfaring’ as a way to navigate processes by which insights emerge from collaborative investigations. 'Interbreathment’ is one of the earlier projects focusing on music and dance collaborations. Associated with a gong installation, this particular project explored a hybrid form of notation between musical and choreographical elements engaging with Chinese, as well as Malaysian indigenous cultural references (Kadazandusun) in which I sought a creative threshold for opening up new cultural dialogues to deepen my experience and understanding of the notions of entanglement and of how highly diverse elements can be unified through collaboration in my compositional work. Keywords: collaboration, ‘in-betweenness’, transcultural practice, transmission, transformation Introduction There is a difference between ‘between’ and ‘in-between’ ... Where between is liminal, in-between is arterial; where between is intermediate, in-between is midstream (Ingold, 2015, p. 147). During the period of my PhD studies (2013-2018), I attempted to find creative perspectives intensely connected to experiences emerging from my cultural background. I am a fourth-generation member of the Chinese diaspora within a multicultural country, Malaysia, where a focus on differences between races, cultures, and religions strongly informs social and political relations. Within the Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 135 context of a fairly young developing country that integrates a rich cultural diversity, the subject matter of making intercultural art and questioning definitions of cultural identity has over the years occupied the Malaysian artists who especially engage their creativity within the contemporary art world. One of the significant artistic movements happening in Malaysia is that local scholars, artists, musicians and composers have sought out a ‘common language’ and cultural identity across the country with which they can associate their work within the communal society, and thereby claim to be local artists. This social phenomenon is referred to Syed Ahmad Jamal, a senior Malaysian modern painter, who depicts the processes around cultural identity formation amongst artists as follows: Contemporary Malaysian art has made its mark as an expressive form of the living national culture. In the short span of 25 years since Merdeka1 Malaysian artists have responded to situations and events in the developing nation. Malaysian artists currently move in various directions of commitment – drawing material from myths and legends, probing into questions of identity, regional cultural heritage, personal cosmology, ambiguity of pictorial space, social-political issues, contextual situations with Islam as central to artistic involvement, extension of calligraphic gestures, physical properties of material, dichotomy of traditional and contemporary values, etc. (Jamal, 1982) [cited in Khairuddin, N.H., Yong, B., & Sabapathy, T.K., 2012, p. 16.] Syed Ahmad Jamal’s comment shows the great diversity of cultural sources that artists look to where it can be extremely difficult to find commonalities due to the many levels of social, religious and regional differences. The ideal of finding an emergent unity between differences, however, also raises questions around sustaining and transmitting very specific cultural practices to support community cohesion within a sometimes fragment identity politics and this has also been very much part of my everyday experience as an artist in Malaysia. Different waves and groups of ‘powers’2 including a Malay-Islamic narrative of Malaysian art, a Chinese narrative of Malaysian art and a ‘muhibah’3 version have been implemented across the nation since then and dominated the cultural discourse in various ways. The phenomenon of changing values and perceptions around a cultural story is illustrated in an article, ‘Love Me in My Batik’, written by Yee I-Lan (2012). She talks about how times and processes changed the cultural meaning and the identity of batik through forceful political events and activities, exploring how batik cloth falls into the embrace of popular culture as well as the machinations of state propaganda, becoming a kind of ‘political kitsch’ or a ‘skin’ veiling the concept of national identity and eventually transforming into a medium of sources, subjects and motifs in relation to one or other race, tradition, culture, locality and faith. This notion of what can be recognised as a national artistic identity has become even more complex, challenging and problematic due to the fact that identity itself is constantly shifting and transforming from ‘identity’ into ‘identities’ (and vice versa) over time and from one generation to another. Composers based in West Malaysia–including Chong Kee Yong, Yii Kah Hoe, Saidah Rastam, Abdul Razak Abdul Aziz Johan Othman, and Tazul Tajuddin, whose musical works are Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 136 strongly associated with intercultural elements–have drawn on diverse multicultural worlds to access materials whereby they could establish their musical language and identity. Their work has been given prominence, in particular with the emergence of a contemporary musical scene in Malaysia that can be dated to the first Kuala Lumpur Contemporary Music Festival, in 2009 (KLCMF 2009).4 By contrast, in East Malaysia, where I grew up in Sabah5, musical activity has been more research- oriented along ethnomusicological lines that focus on subject areas such as ethnicity, documentation, the popular music scene, and music education. There is, however, surprisingly little work written about compositional creativity, movements and practices, and specifically how composers engaging in a contemporary musical scene in Malaysia might tackle, integrate and develop their work and how they respond to the challenging task of cultural integration alongside with their artistic thinking. Finding the ‘In-Between’ The seeds of the work undertaken in this PhD project can be found in my master’s thesis ‘Chinese calligraphic thinking in my compositional work’ (Lee, 2012). Although this previous research into how one’s cultural ‘mother tongue’ can affect and stimulate one’s compositional thinking, my subsequent work has moved into a much more hybrid and in-between space. I strongly resonated with eminent anthropologist Tim Ingold’s idea of ‘correspondence’ in relation to the words ‘between’ and ‘in-between’, which expanded my thinking about intercultural dialogue. The ‘between’ can be regarded as a ‘bridge’, an intermediate space in which one is able to link, join and integrate elements when corresponding with two different aspects at the same time. The ‘in-between’ has no particular ‘object’ or point of location; it does not have a specific ‘connector’ to enable it to correspond from two sides. The ‘in-between’ is a back-and-forth-interactive-space, a movement passing, twisting, and interacting directly without any absolute point, where one undergoes the movement of a process in an interstitial state of ongoing activity. Another interpretation suggested by Homi Bhabha (1994) is that cultural hybridity is continually shaped through an emergence within a three-dimensional world, the ‘be- coming’ of itself. To me, both Ingold and Bhabha point out a new way of conceiving cultural hybridity, away from an interchange between terms to an interstitial world of becoming. Previous Works The breakthrough moment for me in terms of this shift in thinking occurred with my first cross-disciplinary project, Tōng- 通 - (2012), a ten-minute work and project commissioned by and involving the Asian Contemporary Ensemble (ACE). The project involved artists from different areas of artistic expertise and cultural backgrounds: a contemporary dancer, Tang Sook Kuan; a storyteller, Rosemarie Somaiah; and a conductor, Wong Kah Chun. It explores the Mengahau ceremony, celebrated by the Lotud people in Sabah, Malaysia. The unstable nature of such a Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 137 rich project made me acutely aware of the impacts and changes I was undergoing. I had previously tried to avoid any uncertainty, especially with my plan to complete the music beforehand. What I discovered in the process of collaboration was that the music presented on the stage was no longer the same as it was originally planned, but it was ‘becoming other’. The ‘becoming’ or ‘crossing-over’ through collaboration with the dancer, the storyteller, the musicians and the stage itself during each session of discussion seemed to be re-identifying themselves naturally, even though no further changes were made to the musical notation. To me, this transformative experience—a piece of music eventually becoming another kind of work—was powerfully authentic. This realisation strongly relates to how Ingold describes the intimate relationship between ‘making’ and ‘growing’: “Moments of making punctuate the process of growing” (Ingold, 2015, p. 120). What I understand from this is that creative work can be thought of as cultivated rather than made, or the practice of making is the process of being responsive to conditions, to stimuli and opportunities for interaction that evolve in a similar way to how organic things grow in nature. The contribution of the other artists, for example in Tōng-通- (2012), was not identified with any one individual at the final stage but made a new whole. I saw how I could unlock this new side of creativity, through a practice underpinned by co-creative contact and interpenetration with other creative energies. From the musical point of view, thinking about ‘growing’ as an embryonic process of development of one’s musical creativity brings to mind Bryn Harrison’s statement that silence is not something that exists between events but rather its existence is pregnant with anticipation (Glover & Harrison, 2013, p. 44). What Harrison mentions here is his experience of the space of silence in listening to Beuger’s Calme Étendue (Spinoza) (1997). The point that interests me is how Harrison perceived the silence through the process of listening as the other ‘world’, which is being fertilised, particularly through his use of the word ‘pregnant’. Harrison goes on to describe this musical world as a new ‘life’ that has been evolved by a continual progression through musical activity, which seems to me to be strongly related to the temporal idea of how an organic space is anticipated and re- established. This abstract notion of ‘reciprocal-association’, or, so to speak, ‘making-in-growing’ and ‘growing-in-making’ has led me to investigate how a new musical identity can be created through collaboration, and this idea of parallel ‘growing through living’ processes provided me with another artistic perspective to think about cross-cultural and collaborative processes. Drawing again on Ingold’s work, specifically his lecture ‘To learn is to improvise a movement along a way of life’ (2010), I find highly appealing the idea that ‘knowledge’ is not received and cannot be transferred directly through any pre- specified means from any traditional, theoretical, or systematic framework. Rather, creative knowledge is ‘made’ as a result of a continual movement of activities through which one is physically engaged and through putting oneself into the world of learning through practice. Ingold also argues that the essence of self-knowledge and one’s creativity are actually not rendered directly either from the object or the person but through a process of ‘growing’ within. This notion of knowing, being Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 138 involved and observing through learning, responding to and reflecting upon the world will then signify a direction, a path for someone from one stage to another, from one moment in time to another, until they reach the end of their ‘finished’ work. It is a journey of discovery through knowing the world or perhaps, as Ingold says, a ‘guided rediscovery’ in his lecture ‘To learn is to improvise a movement along a way of life’ (XdoctorbutcherX, 2010). What so interests me about this ‘wayfaring’ idea, however, is the process of its ‘be-coming’, which I can relate to my own process of creative evolution in which a diverse range of experiences of artistic interchange fertilised and guided the directions and development of ideas in my musical work. The aim of this project, Interbreathment, therefore, is not to look at interculturality in terms of surface features of a specific contemporary musical style. It is inappropriate for me, at least at this stage, to establish a new musical grammar, compositional system, or any ‘oriental’ aesthetic so to speak, due to the fact that Interbreathment is the first attempt to know how I actually might operate in an intercultural world. Besides, I am also aware that this is not a means of corroboration of my compositions as musicological theory or framework. Therefore, the following project of this particular project will not apply and discuss directly any specific musicological framework but will rather focus more on the development of each work itself, bringing together discussion of compositional questions and methods, and thoughts from a range of philosophical areas. In terms of the methodology, I have applied Ingold’s idea of ‘wayfaring’ to my own compositional process as a seemingly meandering journey through multiple cultural references that is about enrichment at every step rather than a focus on pre-determined goals. Learning Skills For Intercultural Exchange: Interbreathment [M]uch if not all of what we are accustomed to call cultural variation in fact consists of variations of ‘skills’. By skills I do not mean techniques of the body, but the capabilities of action and perception of the whole organic being (indissolubly mind and body) situated in a richly structured environment. (Ingold, 2000, p. 5) Tim Ingold’s comment above suggests that it is the quality of perception and interaction of knowing and learning that enables one to relate to a practice of cultural exchange. He contends that distinctive cultural knowledge consists of different types of ‘skill’. This is not a matter of learning a physical technique from others b,ut of building up a new form of ‘skill’ involving other modes of perception and different priorities. In other words, if one wants to have cultural exchange with others, one has to establish a new way of understanding by knowing the holistic relationship rather simply duplicating a physical technique. That is, to learn a new skill requires the ability to assimilate the other’s cultural embodiment. This is a vital process to gaining awareness of a different cultural sensibility and knowledge. Although Ingold provides an anthropological view of technique in his writing, e.g.: The Perception of the Environment (Ingold, 2000), he does not, however, provide very specific examples about the process and the practice of how a new skill is actually embedded and made operational. This concern became my focus in a series Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 139 of artistic collaborations. Background of Interbreathment In the summer of 2013, I invited the Malaysian dancer/choreographer, Tang Sook Kuan to collaborate with me on a project exploring these kinds of transformations through learning skills within cultural exchange. Interbreathment is an evening-long performance-installation piece exploring dialogues between music and dance. I wanted to increase my awareness of this highly complicated and challenging process of exploring how transcultural exchange and musical identity can actually be shaped and how choreographic ideas can be translated into musical ideas to create the form of a performance. In beginning my investigation, I take the word ‘exchange’ as something which can be understood as a process of alternation. In his article ‘Identity and difference in a globalised world’, Melucci (1997) said that ‘Change is a goal that we find desirable and towards which our search for the new and different is directed’. In other words, change is an action of adjustment, blurring the identity of two sides in order to discover a new entity through which the adjustment contributed by both sides suggests and distributes an alternative result. In my experience of collaboration, I have found it highly difficult to identify exactly what sort of exchange is taking place and what are the influences taken and distilled, especially when this process of transformation is saturated with dimensions of multi-cultural layers. As a young composer coming from a multi-racial nation, Malaysia, this idea of cultural entanglement is often held up as an ideal. Yet in practice, there are many areas of separation between cultures on the basis of ethnicity, religion and cultural traditions. The focus on interdisciplinary practice in my work, therefore, is a way of questioning and examining my assumptions about identity formation. This concept, through an ambiguous process of discovery that blurs something in order to unlock new layers of meaning, was central to my working process. I began my project by looking for analogues between my musical world and the physical world of dancers. The Collaboration Between Dancers and Musicians In his article, ‘Choreographic objects’, William Forsythe, the prominent American dancer and choreographer, says of choreography: “The word itself, like the process it describes, is elusive, agile and maddeningly unmanageable” (Forsythe, 2011, p. 90). Although the word itself, ‘choreography’, seemed problematic, complicated and challenging, I was fascinated by the organic process of the development and practice of its working, which Forsythe explained as follows: “choreography elicits action upon action: an environment of grammatical rule governed by exception, the contraction of absolute proof visibly in agreement with the demonstration of its own failure” (Forsythe, 2011, p. 90). I found a resonance with this element of uncertainty or rather dynamic fluidity, by which a dancer experiences, moves and choreographs his/her movement, and could connect it to the way I read a written Chinese character. That is, when Forsythe comments that “choreographic thinking being what it is, proves useful in mobilising language to dismantle the constraints of this Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 140 degraded station by imagining other physical models of thought that circumvent this misconception” (Forsythe, 2011, p. 91), this, to me, is similar to the way in which the reading of Chinese calligraphy suggests other imaginative spaces. In reading Chinese brush calligraphy, I find myself tracing the strokes with a kind of internal physical dance, mentally writing the strokes as I read. One can excavate the energy of these traces by experiencing the embodiment of the character through the process of writing in order to decode these ‘imaginary routes’ created by the strokes through reading. Ling Hwai-min, the artistic director of Cloud Gate Dance Theatre, explored this subject extensively in his Cursive Trilogy, a series of works based on Chinese calligraphy that combined the ancient practice of Chinese physical disciplines, including meditation, martial arts and Tai Chi Tao Yin, an ancient form of Chi Kung (Ya-Ping, 2009). To instil and penetrate these ideas and methods into one’s physical body, Ling’s strategy was to ask the dancer to imitate the trace of the marks in the calligraphic masterpieces by Wang Xizhi and others, as well as to study the Chinese calligraphy of Wei-chung Huang (Figure 1). Figure 1. A scene taken from the first series of Cursive Trilogy, the cursive, one of a typified example demonstrating how the dancer uses her body as a metaphor to ‘write’ the Chinese character ‘永’ (‘eternity’). Choreographical Notation The dancer adopts the style, shape, and dynamism of the calligraphy, copying the lines as if he or she was a student learning to write a piece of Chinese calligraphy and allowing the calligraphy to inform and articulate the choreographic grammar, including its rhythms, pulses and dynamics (Kin-Yan, 2010). In my own work, I began my first experiment by sorting out some of the musical as well as choreographical ideas and reformulating them into a kind of fragmented hybrid Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 141 notation. My intention, however, is neither to create nor invent a new chorographical musical notation, but to use my musical experience and knowledge as a strategy for discovering the plausible potential relationship between language, sound, and movement in how choreographic ideas can be translated into musical ideas and vice versa. I wanted to find representations of visual and sounding elements as a creative way to open up, navigate, and unfold the collaborative dialogue in this project. Figure 2. I took a Chinese poem titled ‘贡 （ 貢 ） 。 抗’ written by Chong Kee Xin and fragmented its characters to create an invented choreographical notation (Figure 2) for Tang to read and work with. Figure 3. Alternatively, some of the characters might have only one writing form (Figure 3), represented as a single unit. The Chinese characters played an important role in this score and are treated as the raw material for the notation. Each unit of the score is formed using two different writing forms: traditional and simplified forms of Chinese characters, shown within a bracket. Each of these characters has then been de-/reconstructed and subdivided later into different sizes and shapes, functioning as a musical pattern or phrase and serving as material for Tang to design her choreography. The score, whose components look more or less like familiar Western musical notation, includes different ranges of dynamic marks together with a four- line musical staff. Each line indicates the approximate registers and positions (from low [on floor] to high [jumping]) that the body should execute, arrows to show changes in position, breathing indications, acceleration markings and fermatas, and these musical components were used by Tang as the basis for directing and creating her physical movements and gestures. These fragmented scores are the basis of the work’s emergent structural form and meaning, which were then further reformulated, fragmented and re-joined, appearing later in different sizes to create Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 142 new choreographic patterns, phrases and passages creating multiple relationships from a micro to macro level (Figure 4). Figure 4. An extract of the score (reproduced version) illustrating the opening passage of the choreography starting from a solo dance followed by a duet form. Another example (reproduced version) showing how the fragmented notation is reshaped and extended to a larger scale. The process of working with this hybrid notation allowed us to combine mixtures of physical and musical elements crossing simultaneously with Chinese linguistic and sounding elements held by the written characters themselves. The result was a highly complex sense of multiplicity. While reading and interpreting these characters, there were challenges to processing the information across the different meaning levels of the notation due to the hybrid notation and the material itself being highly spatial and inflected. For the choreographer, movements that have been constituted with several dimensional layers of parameters, including facial expression, body movement, dynamics, speed, gestural form and shape, cannot be fully captured and expressed on paper. Unlike a conventional Western music notation in which each note represents a single unit of sound, marks such as a note-head in this case encapsulate multiple layers of activities and impulses shared across three different logical models: language, sound and movement. Each of these, however, fuses together rather like a ‘chord’ or a ‘cluster’ rather than projecting as a ‘single-tone’ concept. My intention was neither to create a style nor constrain movement but to Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 143 create a situation for stimulating the movement of creative imagination through a process of ‘re-learning’. The structure as well as process of working with the notation was quite flexible due to the openness and ambiguity of the material itself. After a brief description through communication, there were no further explanations indicated in these initial fragmented-scores. Tang started her first experiment by re- imagining and transforming her body and movement like a Chinese calligraphic brushstroke to ‘read’ and ‘write’ the score as a series of tracings. However, because the original meaning, context and logical structure of the Chinese character had been disrupted, the structure of these new forms of the characters gave rise to passages of activity whose interior ‘pillars between the joins’ seemed to offer new insights into the meaning of the poem. In other words, in order to access the information of these new Chinese characters, Tang and I had to learn seemingly familiar words in a new way. Tang’s approach was to reorganise my sketch fragments of a dance notation into her own version, which she wrote out on A3 size paper (Figure 5). Figure 5. One of the early sketches illustrating how Tang translated and reformulated her chorographical ideas from the notation I created. What I found particularly interesting about her sketch is the way in which she created an interlocked relationship amongst the characters by weaving together the units. She therefore expanded the complexity of the connections and the networking between the elements of the score fragments that I had provided. Her sketch, which then replaced my first notations as the reference score, became the central medium for communicating our developing ideas for navigating our later discussion and negotiation. This process of transformation through translation can Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 144 be seen as an example echoing my earlier idea of wayfaring of how one’s creativity can be (re-)emerged and (re-)established organically by others through working process(es) through which one’s authenticity as well as their territory has been blurred and re-contextualised. Creating a Gong Installation At a centre of the work is a set of 52 Kadazandusun traditional gongs, new and old, of different sizes and with different tunings, which are suspended throughout the performance space (Figure 6). Figure 6. The final appearance setting of the gong installation, and the diagram of distribution. Two dancers and three musicians move through this gong installation. Each musician are set at the right-hand side of the space, playing different instruments and also moves in the space performing with the dancers (Figure 7). Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 145 Figure 7. Performer 1: 2 gongs in B♭2 and G2 (behind the slenthem), 2 gongs (speaking gong and normal tawag in C♯3), slenthem pentatonic in C2, sompoton (traditional kadazandusun bamboo mouth organ). Performer 2: 21-pipe soprano sheng and 36-pipe soprano sheng. Performer 3: 1 gongs (speaking gong and normal tawag B2), metal kulintangan. One of the dancers also plays together with the musicians in the fifth section [the dance solo]: 2 gongs A3 (speaking gong and one normal tawag). The gong can be considered the most important musical element symbolising the core of the musical culture among the Indigenous people of the Malaysian and Indonesian archipelago – what the German ethnomusicologist Abels calls ‘The so-called gong-chime belt of Southeast Asia’ (Abels, 2015, p. 33).6 My journey in forming this gong installation can be traced to the discovery of what I called the ‘speaking gong’, a very unique set of traditional Kadazandusun gongs with complex and mobile sounds found in a costume storeroom at the University of Malaysia, Sabah (Figure 8). Figure 8. The three speaking gongs. There is nothing extraordinary about these gongs at first sight. The design of these instruments, in fact, is similar to other gongs except that these three are Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 146 profoundly exceptional and unpredictable in their sound. It seems to me that these gongs had been stored because of their faulty distorted sound, but this was exactly what fascinated me as a composer to explore how to transform these ‘failures’. These three gongs produced a very interesting multiphonic texture projecting a two-dimensional musical layer simultaneously including a sustained tone and a glissando tone (from low to high). The glissandi of each gong, however, are quite flexible and adjustable in their interval within a range of approximately a minor third, determined by the dynamic level with which they are played. For example, the smallest of these three gongs (sanang) produces an approximate end pitch of A3 with a minor 3rd glissando effect starting from F♯3 (Figure 9). Figure 9. The musical texture created by the sanang. The proximity of this interval, however, depends on the dynamic; the louder the gong is played, the wider the interval. When the gong is played even more loudly, it will produce a C♯5 pitch, which sounds together with the changing tone. In order to revitalise the faulty identity of these speaking gongs, I reviewed and formulated the traditional concepts of the gongs’ identity and functions as follows. Firstly, the gong is an object to produce sound and used to provoke a sense of one’s cultural identity, especially as a stimulus for tuning one’s imagination in the live performance of ritual. Secondly, without further discussing the detail about the complexity of the gong’s spectral structure, despite the exceptional cases of the three speaking gongs with their complex effects, each gong basically represents a single unit of sound which only forms part of a motive, or pattern when played in an ensemble. This principle is found in most of the Southeast Asia region, especially in gamelan music. In most of these traditional gong repertoires, highly complex musical textures are created by using interlocking techniques to create different patterns, textures, and layers as the foundation of the musical practice. Thirdly, the physical mobility of the gong is limited. Since the gong functions primarily as an accompanying musical instrument, basically, its location on the stage is fixed, and there is generally no physical movement with the instrument. To break down the barriers, as I started to become more aware of the relationship and the impact of the entanglement between the instruments and the performers within a performance stage, I sought to remodel the image of these gongs by re-considering the meaning of their spatiality and identity, and by re- positioning them. My first approach was to unlock the gongs from a traditionally static position by rethinking the gong as a living object instead of just an accompaniment to dance performance. This notion of thinking the gongs as part of Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 147 the body of the stage instead of as instruments, moving from an ‘ensemble’ to a ‘stage’, eventually led me to the direction of creating a gong installation which then became an essential element of the articulation of the space through which the dialogue of the creativity of our collaboration unfolded. The interior architectural concept of the gong installation was derived from the form of the Chinese traditional audience chamber (Figure 10), which was adopted to form the installation’s outer structure by coupling each speaking gong with another tawag, hanging and placing them on the barre at different corners (on the left, middle and right side) of the stage (Figure 6). Figure 10. Wen-su-Ko library, Ch’ing dynasty, 1782, interior view of audience chamber, Shen-yang, Liaoning. From Chung-Kuo mei shu ch’üan-chi, chien-chu i-shu pien, vol. 1, Kung-tien chien-chu (Peking: Chung-Kuo chien-chu kung-yeh ch’u-she 1987), pl.153 (Carey, 1999). The positioning of the musicians and the speaking gongs was inspired by the spatial arrangement of furniture, scrolls and Chinese calligraphic couplets in traditional Chinese interior design (Figure 11). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 148 Figure 11. Sketching the gongs’ positions on stage based on the arrangement of the Chinese audience chamber. This arrangement was used to harmonise and incorporate the forces between the positive and the negative energies represented and generated by the musicians and the dancers within the stage. Aside from the three speaking gongs, we collected 52 different new and old kulitangan7. Each of these gongs was then distributed and hung in the room to articulate architectural space, forming a kind of ‘body’ with which the dancers and musicians could interact (Figure 12). Figure 12. The whirling kulintangan. Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 149 Suspended in the space, these whirling kulintangan take on a very expressive life and seem to ‘speak’ with many inflections of sound in the space, creating a visually spectacular mobile environment for the performers in which either side of the gong can be sounded and the sound dispersed by swinging and spinning the gongs. In response to Ingold’s discussion of how one’s experiences, knowledge and creativity are accumulated and shaped organically by the changing context of the environment, and to deepen my transcultural understanding through exchange, I invited musicians to participate in the process of making music together with the dancers in a sequence of workshops. Over time, this implementation gradually formed a reciprocal relationship, in which I strongly experienced a kind of alchemical exchange as dancers and musicians started experimenting by assimilating each other’s performative embodiment. Through my observation, this choreographic activity then seemed to transfer into the musicians’ bodies. For example, one of the musicians who played the metal kulintangan seemed to have applied this ‘skill’ in their musical performance practice. During the working process, she assimilated Tang’s experimental behaviour and her choreography into her practice, using beaters to rub across the surface of the metal plates in a circular motion whilst moving and changing the positions of the metal kulintangan to create different forms of modes with which her musical material in the later live performance is associated. As the pitch order of the instrument was constantly re-organized throughout the performance, it created interesting musical patterns and textures, a ripple-like effect between pitches and noises just as Tang created noises as she adjusted the gongs on the floor. From these collaborative workshops I created a constellation of musical events and decided to weave all the findings, experiences and knowledge I had discovered and learnt throughout the working process by staging a performance to broaden the surface between my artistic perception and physical experience. For the finished work, I staged the reciprocal relationship of elements to unfold the musical as well as choreographical activities of the previous workshop stages. This allows the performers to generate and operate the vocabularies between sound and the movement in a live situation, and so further unlock and open up the conversations between all these elements. I did this without assigning any written specification or using a musical score but through a process of exchange incorporating ideas from all participants using words, notes and sketched diagrams. This communication greatly enriched real-time performance reactions from the performers. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 150 Figure 13. Tang selected five different kulintangan with different pitches, placed them on the floor, and experimented with her choreography by using the surface of the body of the kulintangan to create different platforms. Figure 14. A scene showing how the instruments led Tang to experience different body movements and affected the way she choreographed her dance. This is especially when Tang moved and re- adjusted the spaces between each instrument. Figure 15. A scene showing how Tang explored other possibilities by moving away the instruments. Figure 16. A moment showing how Tang experimented a rather challenging choreographical gesture. Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 151 Table 1 The structural form of the 23-minute performance-installation piece can be divided into six sections indicated with different themes with an approximate timeline. (*) each event’s total approximate duration (**) approx. starting time in the video First event (*4mins) Second event (*1min) Third event (*4mins) Fourth event (*4mins) Fifth event (*5mins) Sixth event (*6mins) (**00:00) (**03:30) (**04:30) (**08:40) (**12:36) (**17:10) The opening Tracing the mark of the space and the spacing within the stage The whirling kulintangan Choral section The dialogue between the speaking gongs, dancer and sheng The conversation between the whirling kulintangan In terms of form, these events are not designed for rigidity or for restrictive purposes but were a means of creating a situation to navigate amongst multiple voices in this project where performers could express themselves and correspond with others within an open interactive space. While structuring these events, I also chose to unfold the dialogue between the dancers, the musicians and the gong installation in a more flexible way, allowing a certain freedom of choice for the performers to channel and strengthen their ideas and energy easily through these activities, although there are several fixed choreographic events between the sections. In a sense, the stage itself was treated as an opened-ended score: the movements, sounds and energies become part of the materials – components or parameters within the notation. In other words, the stage can be seen as a ‘moving’ score. Although each event in the diagram above appears to be a discrete structure with a strong narrative form, my idea is that these musical events are not meant to be separated but should be seen as comprising a whole within which the energies articulated and shared between the events are interconnected. During the performance, each performer has to observe and listen to how others contributes and elicits reactions. This idea was inspired by the first score I made for Tang in which I wanted to bring a notion of symbiosis to how elements and people relate underlying a mutual sense of understated, implied conversation. The first event provokes a sense of ‘in-betweenness’, of crossing worlds between static and non-static states. A feeling of past, present and future co-existing through breathing, waiting, and moving can be considered the prelude in this performance (Figure 17). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 152 Figure 17. A scene taken from the beginning of the first event capturing the moment in which the dancers use their breathing as a signal for communication purposes during the performance. The opening with the kulintangan and the slethem creates a long duet passage with bow whilst the dancers remain still. Following this is a long canon-like choreographic passage created by the dancers, projecting sometimes mirroring/symmetrical patterns as well as traditional Kadazandusun choreographic gestures combined with movements crafted from the earlier sections. This choreographic pattern, interpenetrated with a sometimes improvisational language, is articulated using breathing as the synchronizing factor. The performers adjust their body rhythm, energy and articulation during the performance. Through this, the dance creates signals for the musicians who respond with a rather slow, calm, meditative sort of musical situation and atmosphere. Begun and led by the dancers, the second event is a short transition to the following section in which the dancers freely criss-crossed the stage without touching the instruments. The dancers proceeded by transforming their body movements, imitating the gestural movement of the twirling gong, using the spaces in-between the whirling gongs hung on the stage accompanied by an intermittent repetitive pattern of sounds created by the sheng (Figure 18). Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 153 Figure 18. A scene from the second event portraying the moment how the dancer assimilated the movement of the whirling gongs into their physical body. This activity has been terminated slowly in the later passage as the performers shift to the beginning of the third event, which begins with a story- telling-like situation in which the performers transform their bodies into gongs and start making contact with them by holding them and covering their face with them like a mask whilst reciting a short poem about the Kadazandusun creation story (Figure 19). Figure 19. A scene showing the dancers reciting poems to the kulintangan about the kadazandusun creation story. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 154 Having been twisted in the air after the recitation, each spinning whirling gong here creates an interesting visual effect resonating to the live music created from the ensemble as if they were speaking, talking and interacting with others. This interactive activity creating a sense of confusion resulting in an interesting spatial effect with energies intertwined between the visual, sonic and kinetic elements throughout the process in which the intensity of the music from the ensemble as well as the dynamism of gongs on the stage are gradually raised to the extent where the dancers started speeding up their activity. The fourth event extended the performers’ voices, creating a ritual- ceremonial atmosphere, by bringing the musicians onto the stage with the dancers to perform, interact, explore and operate different sound worlds within the gong installation, enriching and bridging their performances by creating an imaginary ‘choir’ (Figure 20). Figure 20. A scene portraying how the performers exploring the spatial acoustic of the setting to re-create an imaginary ‘choir’. Each performer continually imitated and responded to the sounds on the stage freely and in a more personal and imaginative way. Although the order was not fully restricted and was left to the preference of the performer, the procedure was that while playing or making a sound, whilst choosing and playing the instrument on stage, each performer had to re-imagine the instrument’s sound that either they or the others created and recreate this with their voices. The fifth event provokes a very strong local ritual sense of performance, forming an imaginary ‘trio’ setting inspired by the architectural setting and bringing the dance and musical dialogue onto the stage with a solo dancer and a sheng player (Figure 21). Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 155 Figure 21. A scene demonstrating how the imaginary ‘trio’ setting is being conducted Figure 22. A scene depicting how the whirling gongs is being operated by one of the musicians This gong trio, led by one of the musicians acting like a conductor, creates a murmuring speech or chant-like conversation that is shaped and intercut by a sometimes interlocking rhythmic pattern. It is performed in an improvisational manner whilst continually corresponding and integrating indirectly and intermittently with other elements, including the dance solo and the music played by the player. This spatial idea, pairing elements of Chinese interior architecture and musical elements, and formed by the positioning of instruments and performer at opposing positions in the room, shows another example of how I integrated and extended the hybrid elements into my work. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 156 The last section is a finale in which some of the previous materials and activities, including the ‘canon’ pattern of choreography at the opening as well as the scene of twisting gongs, are recapitulated (see Figure 22). The highlight of this section was the conversation that the whirling gongs themselves created by chance This conversation happened during a moment of accidental contact between the whirling gongs, starting from approximately 17:10, when one of the musicians joining the stage action started to move the whirling kulintangan one by one freely across the stage. With so much movement on stage, the kulintangan would sometimes accidently come into contact with each other or one of the performers. The resulting chance elements created an interesting situation in which the whirling kulintangan on stage seemed to be talking not only to other kulitangan but also to be interacting with the dancers and the music from the ensemble as equal partners, echoing sound and movement with an irregular dialogue of contrapuntal textures. Associated with different artistic forms of languages between sounds and movements, this constellation of musical activities undergoing within a certain structural frame engaged with improvisational approach has been constantly punctuating moments in which the character, the identity of the work itself seemed to be re-established throughout the working processes. This transformative experience provided me with a deeper understanding of the holistic interconnectivity between my work and others and how the collaboration forms and hybridises material through which a new structural form has been arisen, which it resonances to what Pugh Kitingan (2017) addressed in her article ‘Source, sounds, and meanings of turali (noseflute) music in Dusunic cultures of Sabah’, of how turali music is being shaped and re-contextualized over the time by the personal artistry of the performer. What I have encountered and discovered throughout the discourse, by applying the idea of wayfaring to my compositional practice, is an ever deeper and more complex understanding of the dimensions of ‘in-betweenness’ in which one’s cultural identity, language and creativity transforms and evolves through the process of emergence, a movement, an experience of emergent creative energy in which one sees a dynamic relation between the ‘positive’ aspects of something coming into being as well as the ‘negative’ ground from which it arises. Conclusion In response to the earlier discussion from Tim Ingold about the ‘skill’ relating to the practice of cultural exchange, the starting point of this project can be actually traced back to the moment especially when I discovered the ‘otherness’ from the sketch drawn by the dancer. This was the breaking point at which I started realising the emergent power of cultural exchange through collaboration through which the score I created for the dancer has been transcended to create a new form of vocabulary through the power of (re)translation. Such encounter became even stronger during the live performance session when the materials and the energies that have been activated between the performers have been intertwined and dissolved until a point at which they are hardly identified with any one party but the ‘becoming’ of itself. Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah 157 One of the challenges that I have encountered throughout the exchange especially during the improvisational performance was that although this notion of intercultural exchange seemed ideal as a ‘passport’ to cross into another territory to gain knowledge for my work, the result of the exchange itself in fact seemed to be pushing me towards an unknown place that does not belong to any particular party but itself. This confusion happened especially during the live, improvisational performance when we barely explained which material had we contributed or borrowed from others, leading me to questions of what sort of musical surface I should look at; what sort of dialogue should be held, delivered and presented; and how should I, as a composer, respond to these in my musical works through musical notation in my (future) work. Endnotes 1 Merdeka, a Malay word which literally means Independence Day. 2 Further reading can be found in Khairuddin, Yong, B., & Sabapathy (2012). 3 The term muhibah is derived from an Arabic word hubb, signifying a universal love or affection. Further definition and reading can be found in Ibrahim (2013). 4 This was a historical event gathering and promoting artists and composers within the Southeast Asia region held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from Friday 27th to Sunday 29th November 2009, organised by Goethe-Institute Malaysia and the Malaysian Composers Collective, together with event co-organiser SEGi College Subang Jaya. 5 North Borneo (or east-Malaysia), the place where I was born and lived. 6 Abels (2015) discusses how dance and gongs are an essential core for people to maintain their cultural identity. There is an experience of cultural self-recognition through movement and music whereby people retrieve personal/cultural memory through the ‘encapsulated cultural signal’ of the gong while the movement of the dance serves as a compass by which one navigates the people back to a cultural ‘home’. 7 Kadazandusun traditional gongs, one of the popular percussive instruments found especially throughout South East Asia, are used in sets to play melodies. References Abels, B. (2015). Musicking home in the Southeast Asian island world. Contemporary Music Review, 35, 33–43. Bhabha, H. (1994). The location of culture. London: Routledge. Cary Y., L. (1999). Calligraphic couplets as manifestation of deities and markers of building. In E. John B. (Ed.), The embodied image: Chinese Calligraphy from the Jon B. Elliott collection (pp. 361–375). Princeton: The Art Museum, Princeton University. Forsythe, W. (2011). Choreographic objects. In S. Spier (Ed.) William Forsythe and the practice of choreography: It starts from any point (pp. 90-94). London: Routledge. Glover, R. & Harrison, B. (2013). Overcoming form: Reflections on immersive listening. Huddersfield: University of Huddersfield Press. Ibrahim, H. (2013, October). Muhibah for a sustainable framework of inter-religious relations in Malaysia. Poster presented at Joint Seminar between the Department of Usuluddin & Comparative Religion, Kirkh, IIUM And Cismor, Doshisha University, Kyoto On ‘Shariah, Governance and Interreligious Relations’, 26th October 2013 at the International Islamic University Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol.7 (134-158) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 158 Ingold, T. (2000). The perception of the environment. London: Routledge. Ingold, T. (2010). To learn is to improvise a movement along a way of life. [Seminar]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lDaaPaK-N5o. Ingold, T. (2015). The life of lines. Oxford: Routledge. Jamal, S.A. (1982). Seni Lukis Malaysia-25 Tahun. Kuala Lumpur: Balai Seni Lukis Negara. Kin-Yan, S. (2010). Calligraphic kinesthesia in the dancescape: Lin hwai-min’s cosmopolitical consciousness in the Cursive Trilogy. Dance Chronicle, 33 (3), 414– 441. doi:http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01472526.2010.517496. Lee, C.T. (2012). Chinese calligraphic thinking in my compositional work (unpublished Master thesis). Retrieved from http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/17532/1/ctileefinalthesis.pdf. Melucci, A. (2015). Identity and different in a globalized world. In P. Werbner & T. Modood (Eds.), Debating cultural hybridity: Multicultural identities and the politics of Anti- Racism (pp. 58-69). London: Zed Books Ltd. Pugh Kitingan, J. (2017). Sources, sounds and meanings of turali (noseflute) music in Dusunic cultures of Sabah. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(2), 1-28. XdoctorbutcherX. (2010, Jan 1). Tim Ingold - to learn is to improvise a movement along a way of life (part 1). [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lDaaPaK-N5o Yee, I.l. (2012). Love me in my batik. In N. H. Khairuddin, B. Yong, & T. K. Sabapathy (Eds.), Imagining identities: Narratives in Malaysian Art (pp. 262-278). Kuala Lumpur: RogueArt. Biography Lee Chie Tsang Isaiah is a composer, lecturer, and research Fellow of the Borneo Heritage Research Unit in the Faculty of Humanities, Arts and Heritage at Universiti Malaysia Sabah. He has currently finished his PhD in composition, funded by Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) and The Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), at the University of Huddersfield (United Kingdom) with principal supervisor Professor Liza Lim and co- supervisor Professor Aaron Casiddy. His current work is concerned with exploring and re- framing interdisciplinary perspectives related to hybrid oral traditions found in East Malaysia to provoke new possibilities for sounds, spaces and creativity in his compositional work focusing on music and dance collaborations with Indigenous Malaysian references, aural/oral traditions in Hakka poetry, and traditions of pattern making related to Borneo bead work. His music evokes the notion of energy as flowing movement and significant colour bringing together Asian performance aesthetics, western contemporary classical approaches as well as aspects of indigenous East-Malaysian (Kadazandusun) ritual forms.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

chamber music, composition, cross-culture in music, hill tribe music, performance

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/843

Sounds of Lisu Music to New Music for Guitar and String Quartet

The chamber work Mood, scored for Guitar and String Quartet, was inspired by my fieldwork in Pang Ma Pha, Mae Hong Son province in the Northern part of Thailand. I worked with the musician guru Fu Deua who taught me about folk music of the Lisu, the hill tribe. I decided to adapt this music for a Western ensemble to connect a new audience with this little-known musical culture. Mood uses standard string techniques such as plucking and strumming to imitate the sounds of the Sue-bue, a Lisu three-stringed instrument. My compositional process was an exploration of the integration of musical traditions. Through the sound of Western Instruments and the procedures of development, variation, and improvisation, Mood expresses and transforms the original musical idiom it borrows from the Lisu’s tune. This paper describes the process behind Mood, both regarding its underlying philosophy and the compositional procedures I used. Besides, I discuss how Mood relates to other forms of dance music within the Western classical tradition, all of which involve similar integrations of folk and classical music elements.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/843/579

Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 159 Sounds of Lisu Music to New Music for Guitar and String Quartet Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee School of Music, Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music 2010, Arun Amarin 36, Bang Yi Khan, Bang Phlat, Bangkok, Thailand e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 20 December 2018 Cite this article (APA): Suwanpakdee, S. (2018). Sounds of Lisu music to new music for guitar and string quartet, Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 159-179. Abstract The chamber work Mood, scored for Guitar and String Quartet, was inspired by my fieldwork in Pang Ma Pha, Mae Hong Son province in the Northern part of Thailand. I worked with the musician guru Fu Deua who taught me about folk music of the Lisu, the hill tribe. I decided to adapt this music for a Western ensemble to connect a new audience with this little-known musical culture. Mood uses standard string techniques such as plucking and strumming to imitate the sounds of the Sue-bue, a Lisu three-stringed instrument. My compositional process was an exploration of the integration of musical traditions. Through the sound of Western Instruments and the procedures of development, variation, and improvisation, Mood expresses and transforms the original musical idiom it borrows from the Lisu’s tune. This paper describes the process behind Mood, both regarding its underlying philosophy and the compositional procedures I used. Besides, I discuss how Mood relates to other forms of dance music within the Western classical tradition, all of which involve similar integrations of folk and classical music elements. Keywords: chamber music, composition, cross-culture in music, hill tribe music, performance Introduction Lisu community in Mae Hong Son founded in Pai, and Pang Ma Pha district are a Mongoloid ethnic group, along with other major groups, such as Hmong, Lahu and Karen. The original dwelling of the Lisu ethnic group is in the area of the Mae Kong River and the Salween River in China. The Lisu immigrated from Burma into Thailand at the beginning of the twentieth century (1924 A.D). Lisu has the only Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 160 language for speaking and borrows words from Yunnan, but has no written component (Conrad, 1989). Lisu music making is a cultural attribute that establishes hill tribal identity. The music of the hill tribes generally is radically different from the music of the Thai traditional music in the instrumental and singing styles. Only men are allowed to perform on Lisu musical instrument, but both sexes can sing. The spirit of Lisu music usually is used in the religion functions in their culture. Musicians will play and dance by stamping on the ground at the same time in the famous festival named "Kin Wo," or Lisu's New Year; it is the same period with the Chinese New Year in February. The Lisu people celebrate by traditionally sharing their foods and dancing together after the past year's hard work on their agriculture (Maehongson province, 2016). In the ceremony of Lisu, music is performed together with the dancing; it is the Lisu spirit. People in the community participate, using the same footsteps along with holds the hand. This illustrates a way of Lisu community, and there are no specific skills required. The people may be confused with the footsteps; then the people may laugh. That is key to community participation with music. Folk tune carries out their actions with deep concentration to the repeated sounds of music by mouth organ. Many of them dance with their eyes closed (Larsen, 1984). My journey began in January 2017. I was given an opportunity to work with local musicians and focused on the Lisu hill tribe of the Pang Ma Pha district, Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand, an anthropology fieldwork area. While there I came to know a Lisu traditional musician, Fu Deua, Lisu music guru and shaman. He is a spiritual leader of the community (Figure 1). Deua shared many folk tunes, performed on the local musical instruments. Figure 1. Fu Deau, music kuru, shaman Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 161 Communication between us, while we worked together, was a problem because he could not speak or understand the Thai language very well. However, we were able to communicate through musical gestures. On occasion, we relied on a translator to moderate some specific discussions. Compositions Inspired By Folk Music The folk tune is one of material or ingredient that we can motivate the idea of composition. The musicians who are looking for the inspiration that reflects his or her culture, something as basic and displays as the meal of the day and the combination inside a topic it makes can be an option (Johnson, 2017). I interviewed two interdisciplinary composers: Jean David Caillouët (1975 – present), sound artist and Anothai Nitibhon (1978 - present), music activist and composer on the topic “Composition inspired by folk music” to reflect the idea of how the possibility of folk music can motivate their composition’s conceptions. Caillouët explained that he borrowed the elements of folk tune to create the new work, which is the essential elements behind any folk music yet could not be systematized or captured through western notation easily. Additionally, he mentioned his interview with Kit Young, American expertise in Myanmar music who said she thinks it is a mistake that Myanmar researchers and musicologists try to transcribe everything because they might fail to address the most critical element of Myanmar music. One example is the space between the phrases, which is not really a fermata, or a complete beat, but is actually a cultural breathing space. Caillouët addressed three important things while that one working on the cross-cultural music should be aware of such as 1) The shortcoming of being too mindful of Western musicology or even ethnomusicology 2) The necessity for understanding the cultural setting in which this music exists. More important than analysing this music itself is to see the connection between it and the mean for sustenance, food, nature, or the beautiful clouds. 3) The sound of the music, which captures the rhythm and vibration physically. This is essential to many folk tunes (personal communication, Jean David Caillouët, 11 December, 2018). In addition, Caillouët gave an example that is related to his interview for a research project that he worked with Yos Vaneesorn, a famous clarinet player in Thailand. The research showed the process of captured sound that includes transcribing, analysing, and transposing of pī nae, the Northern Thai folk oboe, the instrument featured prominently in the Phra Abhai Mani. The first approach was to use the exact notation, which turned out to be the wrong direction. Then, they decided to engage with sound in a 'tactile' way in their research by emphasising and a sense of hearing and embracing the intuitive process. For the methodology, the goal is not to find the idea of exact notation but to find their hidden voice. This seemed to be free the performers to engage in a series of improvisation and development. (Vaneesorn, 2015). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 162 The second interviewee, Nitibhon, shared her experiences in her compositions that were inspired by folk tunes. The folk tune became the source materials in her pieces. Nitibhon gave me an example of process and techniques in her compositions. For instance; in a chamber Opera Phra Lor, inspired by Thai literature and traditional tune from the Northern part of Thailand normally performed by Pin-Bpia, a meter of single-string is stretched with wood produced by harmonic. She developed and integrated the idea of Thai singing’s elements into contemporary music score written in the Western style. Related to the first piece aforementioned, she continued to develop the technique into a new piece entitled ‘Lilit Phra Lor’ an advanced composition that used the element of folk music and poetry developed through oral transmission and linked with the music via an improvisational process. The written score showed the melodic line comprising of folk tunes alternated with improvisational passages. ‘Manorah’ for Thai reciter and orchestra, and ‘Dukkha’ for double bass and string quartet are two compositions borrowed and developed from the folk tune elements but still maintaining the idea of folk tune structures and drawing the accompaniment around the tunes (personal communication, Anothai Nitibhon, 11 December, 2018). From the compositions examples of Nitibhon, I found that there are many approaches to compose or create music inspired by folk music. There is the possibility to develop the idea of music making such as creating an arrangement, a new composition or contemporary performance. Following this idea of Nitibhon, the performers can maintain freedom of performance in their music making. This will become a musical dialogue between cultural insiders and outsiders. It will lead to making music with a different interpretation. In Western classical music, Béla Bartók (1881 - 1945), the Hungarian composer and ethnomusicologist, he claimed folk music as his musical mother tongue. The relationship between his folk-music studies and the compositional practices he adopted from the Western classical tradition are well documented. Bartok developed methods for adapting and transforming elements of folk music. He categorised their rhythmic features and adapted them through, quotation, imitation, and absorption (Leong, 2004). We owe Bartok a debt not only for preserving and promoting Hungarian folk music but for leading other musicians and composers to respect all folk music traditions. I was inspired to compose a piece that borrowed the local musical idiom from Lisu community on guitar and string quartet. I was inspired by two great repertoires composed for this kind of the ensemble and aforementioned by Bartók musical perspective idea of composing. Firstly, ‘Quintetto’ composed by Leo Brouwer (1939 - present) was written in 1957 (Brouwer, 1994). This composition inspired me in its display of Afro-American tunes and jazz element. The second piece, I focus on the ‘Five Tango Sensations’ composed by Astor Piazzolla (1921 - 1992) (Piazzolla, 2002), a composer who revolutionised the traditional tango to ‘Nuevo Tango’. This piece he dedicated to Kronos quartet in 1989, it originally composed for bandoneon and string quartet, the colour and timbre of piece represented Argentinian musical idiom in tango musical style in the different sense moods. I elaborated on the Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 163 influence of these two compositions into my composition in ‘the idea of composing’ section. Ethnic musical identities are different in each culture. Their social contexts and natural environments shape them. Folk music often contains beauty and simplicity without the complexity of the structure (Lidskog, 2016). Folk tunes are an intrinsic part of social engagement between members of a community. For example, folk music is part of many rites and ceremonies the world over. Following Bartok’s example, many musicians and scholars today, myself included, are committed to preserving these musical traditions for the next generation. Methodology In my composition Mood, I was primarily interested in transmitting to people in urban environments something of the ethos of life in rural Thailand. The little-known music from the Lisu community can reveal the simplicity and meaning of country life to accomplish this goal; I worked through four stages of cross-cultural music-making (Figure 2): 1) learning – I explored the musical ideas and culture of the Lisu by working with local musicians. 2) composing – I composed a chamber music composition inspired by the local musical culture. 3) performing – I performed a piece that I composed to share my understanding of the Lisu music and way of life for people who live elsewhere. 4) transmission – I told the story of the Local community to audiences. I aimed to increase the public’s understanding and awareness of the Lisu people and culture. Appreciation of Lisu music and culture can help remove the stigma that many urban people, unfortunately, hold against those who live in remote rural areas. Figure 2. Criteria of creative work processes Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 164 Learning: Exploring Lisu Musical Culture Deau demonstrated Lisu music by playing the local instrument called the Folu. It is an original musical instrument from Lisu culture (see figure 3). The shape of the instrument is different from the khaen of northeastern Thailand. The Folu sounds like the Khaen since the sound is produced by freeing reeds mounted in the bamboo pipes. The lowest pitch constantly sounds like a drone and ornamented above. Khaen performers always play in the style of variation and improvisation. In Thai, we called this ลายแคน (“Lai Khaen”), in English “the way” that reveals how a virtuoso performs (Adler, 2010) For the performance of Folu, the same style of performing is used. As with the Khaen, the performer uses the drone for ornamenting and improvising. After Deau introduced me to the Folu, I interviewed him about the music that he performed with me. Figure 3. Folu, mouth-reed organ From Original Sound to Western musical notation The melody at its core originates from a traditional tune I came across while working with the local Lisu hill tribe. In particular, a song called ‘พี่สาวมาด้วย’ (Pi Soa Ma Duay) or ‘Sister comes with me’ in English. This traditional tune expresses gentle feelings and engages the community through a dance structured by a rhythmic pattern that punctuates the melodic line. It contains a simple melody. The performer plays this melody again and again while improvising, ornaments, variations and changing the accompaniment drone. When I analysed the melody, I discovered some striking similarities between its constituent motives (Figure 4): Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 165 1. The melody at the rehearsal mark A is similar to that at rehearsal mark C. Both of them begin with a pickup note. 2. The melody at the rehearsal mark B is similar to rehearsal mark D. The last note of the rehearsal mark D measure can be performed either as “Si flat” or “Re”. Figure 4. Original tune ‘Sister comes with me’ Original Tune Related To Dance The sound of Lisu relates to traditional dancing. Dancing with the local musicians was a crucial element of my musical study. I charted the dance steps to better understand the relationship between music and dance in Lisu culture. There are seventeen intuitive footsteps. I documented the dance steps with ‘L’ for the left foot, ‘R’ for the right foot and numbers to show the sequencing of the moves. (Figure 5). In performance, the musician plays the original melody on Folu together while dancing. When the piece is completed, the musician will start over again. I worked on this piece with the local guru, following his footsteps together while playing the melody on the melodica. I found that the dancing and the music always occurred together; they were as two sides of the same coin. Moreover, the local musicians engaged the people in the community to participate in the way of harmonious through the musical culture, for instance; the tune is performed in ceremonies or on special occasions such as the Lisu New Year. People will join the dance and follow the footsteps of the shaman who leads them in the dance. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 166 Figure 5. To synthesise the Lisu traditional dancing, related to the original melody Figure 6. Ale demonstrated a traditional song performed by Sue-bue Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 167 Inspiration from the Lisu musical instrument During my fieldwork, I was introduced to another Lisu musical instrument called the Sue-bue. This instrument is like a three-stringed guitar. This instrument is possible to play by plucking the strings and regularly playing two or three strings at the same time. One string typically sounds like a drone. It is also possible to strum the Sue-bue like a guitar. (Figure 6). Ale Jubcheau, a young local musician, played this instrument for me. The local master Fu Duae had trained him. He seemed to be new hope for the Lisu musicians. I witnessed him demonstrate he a traditional piece in front of his master. The master observed him carefully, and then he said: “Ale’s performing was not too bad, but he needs to improve his musical skill on Sue-bue continuously”. The Idea of Composing Music As Clifford Geertz noted, “art and the equipment to grasp it are made in the same shop” (Blacking, 1995). Thus, musical knowledge will lead us to an understanding of how to select the materials for creating new works. For example, the instrumental structure and performance practices of the Sue-bue are similar to those of the guitar, so, it is possible to compose using the relation between the two musical instruments. The original tune performed by Folu and the traditional musical instrument, Sue-bue, which I learned to play, inspired me to compose a chamber work based on the Lisu musical culture. By adapting the music for a Western ensemble and in a Western musical style, I aimed to communicate the traditional tune to people who would not otherwise have a chance to hear it. My composition, titled Mood, is scored for guitar and string quartet. The guitar takes on the role of the Sue-bue and colours the beautiful melodic lines and harmonic textures of the string quartet. Several composers before me have written for this instrumental combination. I synthesised two works with different styles. Firstly, I examined ‘Five Tango Sensations’ composed by Argentine nuevo tango composer, Astor Piazzolla. He is a well-known tango composer and bandoneon player. In this work, Piazzolla seeks out a new musical style by synthesising traditional the Spanish tango with elements of classical and jazz music. The work, composed in 1989, is scored for bandoneon and string quartet. This composition is Piazzolla’s last major work and was dedicated to the Kronos quartet (Mauriño, 2002). The music expresses human sensation in five movements as follows: asleep, loving, anxiety, despertar (waking), and fear. The guitarist Manuel Barrueco later arranged this composition for guitar and string quartet. Secondly, I studied the guitar and string quartet work composed by the famous Afro-Cuban guitarist, Leo Brouwer. This composition has three movements: fast, slow, fast tempo respectively. Brouwer composed this work in 1957, at a time in which is musical style was influenced primarily by Bartók and Stravinsky (Kronenberg, 2008). The characteristics of his composition reveal a new style. Brouwer combines Cuban musical elements that stem from his cultural roots, including traditional forms and gestures (Thachuk, 2001). These Cuban elements are particularly evident in the rhythmic patterns of his compositions. Through his compositions, Brouwer extended the techniques of guitar playing. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 168 In these two compositions, Piazzolla and Brouwer used this combination of guitar plus string quartet combination. Both also evoke the styles of their musical cultures. Both pieces were inspired by dance music in different cultures.In the composition Mood for guitar and string quartet, I strive to evoke the ethos of the Lisu musical culture; particularly, the profound wisdom that its simplicity. Mood establishes a dialogue between the folk tune and the Western cultures through the musical idioms borrowed from local Lisu music. Mood captured the sound and of Lisu community for example; The strumming the strings on guitar and string quartet show the spiritual feeling of the pulse of Lisu strumming dance that inspiring by the folk tune in the composition. The double-stopped of string players present the sound of drone that encouraging by Folu and feel natural in the perfected interval as the perfect fourth and perfect fifth interval in the piece. The composition represented the inspiration of the wind's sound by using the glissando together with tremolo performing techniques from the low tone to the highest pitches. Mood begins with a guitar solo based on the original Lisu tune that I would like to present as the main idea of this composition. I wish to present this traditional song clearly so the audience will understand it the first time they listen to the piece. It evokes the sound of nature and elements of Lisu life that are related to the traditional Lisu dance. It includes elements based on the Sue-bue’s performing technique such as plucked strings. I re-harmonised the second line and require it to be performed sotto voce (see figure 7). The cello then joins in and supports the melody by playing the long pedal tone on the note ‘La’. Figure 7. Guitar demonstrates the original theme Violin 1, violin 2 and viola play a glissando and tremolos to reach the highest pitch they can. I used these techniques to evoke sounds of nature, such as birds, wind and sounds of the Lisu village. This passage will repeat two times (Figure 8). Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 169 Figure 8. Glissando and tremolo technique The music links to the next section. The guitar plays an ornamented version of the theme as a bridge. In this section, the quartet reveals the motive by the significant interval of a second while the guitar strums. Because of Folu’s frequency, the pitch sounds between “Re” and “Mi” in Western musical notation. Due to this feature, I combine those two pitches in my composition. The quartet then changes from arco to pizzicato and plucks quietly while the guitar plays an octave of varying pitches. At bar 38, the time signature changes to 3/4 making the music feel more rhythmically unstable (Figure 9). Figure 9. Pizzicato section and an adding extra beat in 3/4 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 170 An ostinato pattern begins in measure 39 at the rehearsal mark C. Broken chords on open strings are played first by the cello and then are taken up by violin 2 and violin 1. The guitar and violin 1 imitate, ornament and develop motives presented earlier (Figure 10). Figure 10. Ostinato begins by the cello A technically demanding passage for the guitar is comprised of sextuplets, the top note of each bar quietly reaches from “La sharp” to “Re sharp” on the first string of the guitar. The other five guitar strings are played open. At the same time, violin 1 develops the melodic line, and the others string instruments accompany the guitar and violin 1 (see figure 11). This idea was modelled after Piazzolla and Brouwer compositions. They always present the guitar line as outstanding part. The string quartet generally plays more of an accompanying role, and they sometimes present elements of the melody. Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 171 Figure 11. Open-string section on guitar Later, the strings quartet instruments play broken chords across their strings, moving in contrary motion from one another. Through this section, the strings play across a wide range of pitches. The guitar and the cello tremolo continue playing an expanded version of the theme (Figure 12). I developed the idea of the unison passage based on my studies of the quintets of Piazzolla and Brouwer. A retrograde of the glissando and tremolo passage discussed earlier (Figure 8) leads to the high pitches played by guitar and the strings. This passage (Figure 13) relates to the music at the beginning (see figure 8). At the end of the composition, the motive is heard again played by the cello while the other instruments accompany by strumming chords. The final chord is played plucked and then arco (Figure 14). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 172 Figure 12. A part of the broken chord section of the high string instruments Figure 13. Retrograding the idea of glissando and tremolo Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 173 Figure 14. Ending of the piece Compositional Structure Table 1 Mood for guitar and string quartet: compositional structure Bar Number Composition 1 - 15 - Guitar plays the Lisu theme - Rehearsal mark A, - Cello supports with pedal note “La” from pick up to Bar 6 16 - 20 - Viola, violin II and violin I take part respectively 21 - 24 - High strings increase their dynamic by using glissando and tremolo techniques to reach notes as high as possible 25- 28 - Guitar ornaments the theme 29 - 32 - Rehearsal mark B - Motives are transformed and played on high strings in various pitch classes - Cello plays drone by using the second major interval Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 174 Bar Number Composition 33 - 38 - Transition: Strings plays pizzicato, creating a sound similar to that of the plucked guitar 39 - 42 - Rehearsal mark C - Cello plays the chord on open strings while the guitar strums the chord on the off-beats 43 - 45 - Viola, violin II play ostinato, at a perfect fifth 46 - 50 - Violin I and guitar take part in integrating motives and imitation respectively 51 - 58 - Cello and violin II introduce the integrated motive and imitation again respectively 59 - Time signature changes from 2/4 to 3/4 - An extension bar, unison 60 - 61 - Time signature changes from 3/4 to 2/4 - Strings play pizzicato - Guitar pick-up to rehearsal mark D 62 - 73 - Rehearsal mark D - Violin I presents the modulation theme, it found; simple notes combine with triplet and quintuplet - Guitar plays sextuplets on the open strings, changing notes on the first string 74 - Time signature changes from 2/4 to 3/4 - Transition played by the guitar 75 - 76 - Time signature changes from 3/4 to 2/4 - Strings play unison with tremolo starting at the second beat 77 - 91 - Strings present the original theme, in D-flat major 92 - 98 - Rehearsal mark F - Violin I plays the sixteenth notes broken chord - Guitar and cello play a motive from the main theme in a rhythmic pattern 99 - 113 - Guitar and cello join the accompaniment of broken chords that the two violins have played Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 175 Bar Number Composition 114 - 115 - Guitar plays the transition 116 - 122 - Strings play sixteenth notes to build up to the next section 123 - 126 - Rehearsal mark H - Strings increase their dynamic by playing glissando and tremolo to reach the note as high as possible during the first two bars then retrograded the idea 127 - 137 - Transition using the natural harmonic notes with a little movement in the viola line 138 - 171 - Musical elements that appeared before are combined - The appearance of the principal motive, drone, broken chord in the strings, chord strumming by guitar, and the ostinato 172 - 179 - Retrograde of the glissando and tremolo from the beginning 180 - 184 - Motives appear again on the cello, with pizzicato accompaniment by the high string Performance and Transmission I organised two concerts in different venues to explore the relationship between dance and music in different cultures. The programme presented the guitar and string quartet aforementioned, works by Brouwer and Piazzolla along with this new composition. These repertoires represented the voices in each of their respective musical cultures. Additionally, all three works related to dance, I invited two tango dancers from my country to join in the performances. We discussed their preference regarding the choreography, and they indicated their preference for a tango. They danced the tango during ‘Loving’, the second movement of the Piazzolla piece. Their dancing made the performance more alive. Mood was first performed at the Sangita Vadhana Hall, Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music, Bangkok, on Wednesday 9th August 2017. Two weeks later it was performed again at the Yamaha Music Hall, Yamaha Music Academy (Headquarter), Bangkok on Tuesday 22nd August 2017 (Figure 15). The performances at the Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music was recorded and can be viewed on my Youtube channel (Suwanpakdee, 2017). The performances are yet another way of sharing this music with others. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 176 Performance Evaluation Both performances had an audience of around one hundred and a fifty. Of these, thirty audience members replied to evaluation forms that were given out with the programs. The evaluation form is divided into four sections as follows: 1. performance, 2. organisation, 3. utilisation, and 4. overall by rating scale, Likert scale. It coded by the five levels of agreement: 5 -strongly agree, 4 -agree, 3 -neither, 2 -disagree, and 1 - strongly disagree. The averages and standard deviations were interpreted as follows; 4.51-5.00 means excellent, 3.51- 4.50 means good, 2.51-3.50 means moderate, 1.51- 2.50 means fair, 1.00-1.50 means poor. Figure 15. The first performance at the Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music Table 2 Results the questionnaire. List Mean SD. Interpretation 1) Performance Duration of the performance 4.77 .504 Excellent Interest 4.53 .629 Excellent Knowledge 4.67 .547 Excellent 2) Organisation Service 4.67 .711 Excellent Venue 4.73 .521 Excellent Public relation 4.43 .817 Good 3) Utilisation Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 177 New experiences 4.73 .521 Excellent Developing knowledge 4.50 .682 Good 4) Overall 4.73 .521 Excellent The result shows that the average overall satisfaction score was 4.73 out of 5. For most categories, the average score was "excellent." Only two categories received an average score of ‘good’ Some comments from the audience questionnaires were as follows: 1) The repertoire is impressive, and the concert referred to show the related of dances of the different musical culture. 2) The promotion of the performance should be doing more. 3) Mood, it is the creative musical work. 4) It is a rare item. I appreciated this concert so much.” Conclusion This study demonstrates that a traditional musical dialect presented in short and straightforward melodies it can be analysed and combined with traditional Western classical music to create a new and fresh cross-cultural musical work. For the cross- cultural music process, I engaged in required several stages of work. Each stage was necessary to the success of the composition, as this paper demonstrates. These stages, described above were learning, composing, performing and transmission. 1) Learning: fieldwork to gain direct experience while working with the people on site. 2) Composing: reviewing the repertoire and its link to the idea of cross-cultural music. Working with the musical material I learned in the first stage. On this stage was the basis for Mood. 3) Performing and transmission: creating the performances and demonstrating my understanding of local culture to audiences; sharing my experiences with others with a focus on the principles of traditional music. This study demonstrates a way of working to create cross-cultural musical works. I hope that this work will lead to further stylistic explorations and new musical works that are similarly cross-cultural. As a musician, I would like to increase awareness of traditional tunes that are little-known from the tribal hill area. This music is particularly valuable because it leads to an understanding of the beauty of the hill tribe area and the value in living a simple life close to nature. In this case, the new composition is a tool to transmit these ideas beyond where the Lisu people’s voices reach. This work is an attempt to combining traditional Lisu music and classical music. Mood can serve as a link connecting people who live in rural and urban areas. This work is thus a kind of dialogue between different cultures in the abstract and mysterious language of music. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (159-179) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 178 References Adler, C. (2010, November, 2017). Khaen: the bamboo free-reed mouth organ of Laos and Northeast Thailand Notes for Composer. Retrieved from http://christopheradler.com/khaen-for-composers.pdf Blacking, J., Byron, R., & Nettl, B. (1995). Music, culture, & experience: Selected papers of John Blacking. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Brouwer, L. (1994). Quintetto per chitarra e quartetto d'archi.University of Michigan: Ricordi. Conrad, Y. (1989). Lisu identity in Northern of Thailand: A problematique for anthropology. In J. M. a. B. Vienne (Ed.), Hill tribes today (pp. 191-221). Bangkok: White Lotus- Orstom. Johnson, W. A. (2017). Sedap Cycle: A multi-movement 'compositional tour' of Malaysian cuisine. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(1), 73-97. Kronenberg, C. (2008). Guitar composer Leo Brouwer: The concept of a 'universal language'. Tempo, 62(245), 30-46. Larsen, H. P. (1984). The music of the Lisu of northern Thailand. Asian Folklore Studies, 43(1), 41-62. doi: doi:10.1111/issj.12091 Leong, D. (2004). Bartók's studies of folk rhythm: A window into his own practice. Acta Musicologica, 76(2), 253-277. Lidskog, R. (2016). The role of music in ethnic identity formation in diaspora: a research review. International Social Science Journal, 66(219-220), 23-38. doi:10.1111/issj.12091 Maehongson province, c. h. (2016). Annual report. Retrieved from http://www.maehongson.go.th/th/inventories/briefing/send/2-briefing/7- nhs_brife2559.html. Mauriño, G. (2002). Le grand tango: The life and music of Astor Piazzolla. Maria Susana Azzi Simon Collier, Music and Letters, 83(1), 274. Piazzolla, A. (2002). Five tango sensations. In M. Barrueco (Ed.), arranged for Guitar and String Quartet: Tonos Music GmbH. Suwanpakdee, S. (2017). Mood Ensemble music maker: Guitar and string quartet. Bangkok: Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music (PGVIM). Thachuk, S. (2001). Brouwer: Guitar music (N. K. a. B. Silver, Trans.). In N. Kraft (Ed.), Decameron Negro (El) / Preludios Epigramaticos (Vol. 2). Ontario, Canada. Vaneesorn, Y. a. C., Jean David. (2015). Phra Abhai Mani: A musical adaptation of a Thai epic for clarinet ensemble. Paper presented at the European Platform for Artistic Research in Music (EPARM), University of Music and Performing Arts, Graz, Austria. Acknowledgement This article was presented at the 3rd International Music and Performing Arts Conference (IMPAC2018) held at the Faculty of Music and Performing Arts from 13- 15 November 2018. It was selected to be published in the IMPAC2018 Malaysian Journal of Music Special Issue but upon agreement with authors and the editorial board, published as part of the MJM annual volume. Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 179 Biography Dr Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee currently works as an Assistant to the President for Student Affairs and is full-time lecturer at Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music (PGVIM), Bangkok, Thailand. He is also the project manager of the semi-professional youth orchestra (PYO). His primary research interest is to explore new and experimental musical paths in composition and performance. He is a founder of the contemporary ‘Ensemble Music Makers’, a collective group that proposes novel approaches to performance, experimenting with many musical styles, from Western classical music to new contemporary compositions. ‘Music for Society’ is an ideal to bring his musical passion to the wider public who are non-musicians by creating musical activities that are participatory. Suppabhorn graduated with a Bachelor degree in music performance (first class honour) from Silpakorn University and holds a Master of Arts from Mahidol University. In 2017, he received his Doctoral in Fine Arts from Chulalongkorn University where he was a recipient of an outstanding government scholarship.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

acoustic events, New York City, noise pollution, socio-economic status, soundscape, urban soundscape

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/844

The Urban Soundscape: Analysing the Spatiotemporal Distribution of Acoustic Events and its Influence on the Racial/Ethnic Composition of New York City Neighbourhoods

Past research has shown that the effects of prolonged exposure to urban acoustic noise are both detrimental to mind and body. In recent years, studies have also indicated that the socially disadvantaged are more susceptible to environmental hazards such as noise pollution. This paper aims to fill a gap in literature through the evaluation of urban soundscapes by analysing the spatiotemporal patterns of acoustic events within selected New York City (NYC) neighbourhoods and comparing the datum to the socio-economic data of the urban environments. In this paper, the author aims to address this question, ‘Does racial/ethnic composition of each neighbourhood influence how acoustic events are distributed, and in what way does this relate to the socio-economic status of each location?’ This study focuses on seven neighbourhoods within the New York City metropolitan area, each location representing one of the seven levels of noise metadata found on NYC’s 311 noise map. The ambient soundscape of each location was recorded for 30 minutes over four different time intervals across three days, comprising in a total of 45 hours of raw data. Acoustic events were extracted and annotated for saliency and classed according to soundscape components, which were then compared against the racial/ethnic demography of NYC. The findings in this study partially aligned with past research in which communities of lower socio-economic status with higher proportions of non-Caucasian communities were susceptible to higher levels of noise exposure. Additionally, this study also aligned with the hypothesis that high numbers of acoustic events negatively correlate to the socio-economic composition of neighbourhoods.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/844/580

Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 7 (180-194) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 180 The Urban Soundscape: Analysing the Spatiotemporal Distribution of Acoustic Events and its Influence on the Racial/Ethnic Composition of New York City Neighbourhoods Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi Department of Music and Performing Arts Professions, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University, New York, 10003, NY, USA e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 20 December 2018 Cite this article (APA): Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi. (2018). The urban soundscape: Anlaysing the spatiotemporal distribution of acoustic events and its influenced on the racial/ethnic composition of New York City neightbourhoods, Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 180-194. Abstract Past research has shown that the effects of prolonged exposure to urban acoustic noise are both detrimental to mind and body. In recent years, studies have also indicated that the socially disadvantaged are more susceptible to environmental hazards such as noise pollution. This paper aims to fill a gap in literature through the evaluation of urban soundscapes by analysing the spatiotemporal patterns of acoustic events within selected New York City (NYC) neighbourhoods and comparing the datum to the socio-economic data of the urban environments. In this paper, the author aims to address this question, ‘Does racial/ethnic composition of each neighbourhood influence how acoustic events are distributed, and in what way does this relate to the socio-economic status of each location?’ This study focuses on seven neighbourhoods within the New York City metropolitan area, each location representing one of the seven levels of noise metadata found on NYC’s 311 noise map. The ambient soundscape of each location was recorded for 30 minutes over four different time intervals across three days, comprising in a total of 45 hours of raw data. Acoustic events were extracted and annotated for saliency and classed according to soundscape components, which were then compared against the racial/ethnic demography of NYC. The findings in this study partially aligned with past research in which communities of lower socio-economic status with higher proportions of non-Caucasian communities were susceptible to higher levels of noise exposure. Additionally, this study also aligned with the hypothesis that high numbers of acoustic events negatively correlate to the socio-economic composition of neighbourhoods. Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi 181 Keywords: acoustic events, New York City, noise pollution, socio-economic status, soundscape, urban soundscape Introduction Soundscape is the musical composition of our world. Much like the more traditional definitions of music and sound, it contains timbre, pitch, duration, loudness, texture, and spatial location. Although it shares similarities, this ‘musical composition’ is endless, presumably without an end, and once it is heard, it is never heard of the same way again. Listening to music can enhance ones state of being. Listening carefully to our environment can enhance one’s life. Our worldly experience is made more interesting as it allows us to use and engage our senses properly; it encourages us to listen a little carefully, enhancing our lives. Our acoustic environment is a collection of sounds from all sources that can be heard by persons occupying a particular space. It is an environment that is shaped by all kinds of different sounds that originate from multiple sources, which are present in space and time. It is also shaped by the modification of sound as it travels from source to listener. How it is shaped is primarily based on the sources that are present, the location of the listener and the conditions along the path of its transmission (Brown, Gjestland, & Dubois, 2016). In the context of an urban space, the acoustic environment is a complex system that links with the physical, psychological and social factors within its immediate community (Farina, 2014). This modification of sound is not limited to only one reflecting surface; multiple reflections may and can occur off various surfaces within the area. The aural experience of the urban acoustic environment is also dependent on the present sound sources, the location of the listener, and the propagation conditions along the path of the sound from source to receiver which then varies according to the time of day, and from one season to another (Brown et al., 2016). Soundscape can be defined as a combination of sounds that arises from an immersive environment. The sonic information collected within a said space and place refers to both natural and environmental sounds created by humans and can be distinguished into three categories. In the attempt to classify and identify the sounds sources present in our environment, Gage, Ummadi, Shortridge, Qi, and Jella (2004) proposed a system to categorise the origins of all sounds into one of three components: 1) geophony – sounds produced by non-biological natural agents; 2) biophony – sounds produced by living organisms, and; 3) anthrophony – sounds produced by humans and man-made objects. Community Level Inequality To Estimated Noise Exposure In And Outside Of The United States The study of noise and its relationship to socio-economic status across communities in the US has been on-going for the past 40 years. The earliest reports of inequality in noise pollution in the US were described in a study by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the 1970s. It indicated that survey respondents who belonged to communities of higher socio-economic status lived in quiet neighbourhoods and Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 7 (180-194) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 182 reported lower presence of noise originating from airplanes, traffic, and human vocalisation, but a higher presence of noise from motorcycles, garden power tools and sports cars (U.S EPA, 1977). There is a general assumption that people living in noisy neighbourhoods are from communities that are from the lower income bracket and are more prone to higher crime rates, health problems, and achieve lower educational attainment. But applying the same assumption to more diverse metropolitan areas such as New York City, may not be entirely accurate as illustrated in the Noise Severity Level (NSL) data used in this study that demonstrates high socio-economic status of particular neighbourhoods may not always correlate to lower NSL. In another example, a study by Tamura et al. in 2017, reported links to improvements in body weight and blood pressure of the urban poor to the noisiest neighbourhoods of the city. In Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, as well as Montreal in Canada, in both cases, it was found that communities of lower socio-economic status or communities that had a higher proportion of ethnic minorities were exposed to higher noise levels. In Minnesota (Nega, Chihara, Smith, & Jayaraman, 2013), it was reported that there was a significant increase in traffic noise as block group median household income and housing value decreased and the proportion of ethnic minority of residents and those above 18 years of age increased. Spatial models were used in Montreal to estimate the association between race/ethnicity and socio-economic status through modelling the mean 24-hour traffic noise levels in 7,456 city blocks. Here too, it is observed that there was an increase in noise levels as the proportion of low-income and non-white individuals increased (Carrier, Apparicio, & Séguin, 2016). Similar to this, a study conducted by Casey et al. in 2017, suggested that there was an inequality in the spatial distribution of noise pollution along racial/ethnic and socio-economic lines across the contiguous United States. Multiple indicators of neighbourhood socio-economic context such as poverty, unemployment, linguistic isolation, high proportion of renters and those who did not finish high school, were associated with the increase night and daytime noise. Additionally, neighbourhoods with higher population of African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians were found to have higher noise levels. There were several studies conducted outside of the US and Canada with mixed results due to their focus, which was more on the socio-economic status as an explanatory variable. In a study conducted at 123 schools near Heathrow Airport in the UK in which they measured the estimated noise exposure, it was reported that in a sub analysis, students that were eligible for free lunches were associated with higher noise exposure (Haines, Stansfeld, Head, & Job, 2002). In Birmingham, UK, a study revealed that there was a weak association between daytime noise levels with higher proportions of Black residents at the enumeration district level (Brainard, Jones, Bateman, & Lovett, 2004). In Marseilles, France, it was found that census blocks with intermediate socio- economic status had the highest estimated exposure to road noise, whereas in Berlin, Germany, there was no direct link between socio-economic status and noise exposure at the planning unit level (Lakes, Brückner, & Krämer, 2014). Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi 183 In Hong Kong, Lam and Chan (2006) reported a weak but statistically significant relationship between lower educational attainment and income to higher nose exposure. In Germany (Kohlhuber, Mielck, Weiland, & Bolte, 2006) and Wales, UK (Poortinga, Dunstan, & Fone, 2008), it was indicated that individuals who belonged to lower socio-economic status reported higher levels of neighbourhood noise. Contrary to these findings, a study in Paris, France, found that residents of neighbourhoods with the highest housing values and the highest levels of educational attainment reported the highest estimated noise exposures (Havard, Reich, Bean, & Chaix, 2011). Disproportionate Exposure and Distribution of Noise Based on Socio-Economic Status and the Influence of Politics The distribution and disproportionate exposure of noise among communities of different socio-economic statuses is uneven. Some groups are exposed to higher levels of noise when compared to others. Past studies have revealed evidence that suggests a connection between the marginalised and the poor to higher levels of exposure to noise. Several studies on environmental justice in the US have suggested that the magnitude of exposure to hazardous waste and air pollution is in line with the social gradient in which those who belong to ethnic and racial minority groups, as well as the poor and the uneducated, are exposed to pollution at a greater scale (Mohai and Saha, 2007; Bell and Ebisu, 2012; Hajat, Hsia, & O’Neill, 2015). A recent study has found that there is an inequality in the spatial distribution of noise pollution along racial, ethnic, and socio-economic lines across the contiguous United States in which several indicators of neighborhood socio-economic contact such as poverty, unemployment, linguistic isolation, high proportions of renters in the neighbourhood and those who have not obtained a high school diploma, were associated with an increase in daytime and night time noise. Neighbourhoods with higher proportions of Native American, Asian, African American and Hispanic residents and lower socio- economic status were at the most risk to higher noise exposure (Casey et al., 2017). The unbalanced distribution of noise among communities can be linked to the imbalances of political power between the poor and the wealthy. In the US, there is an asymmetry in political power along economic, ethnic, and racial lines within highly segregated metropolitan areas because this kind of asymmetry in political power spatially binds minority communities and the working class through the concentration of poverty and the lack of economic opportunity, as well as lending policies and housing development that is highly exclusionary towards these marginalised communities (Massey and Denton, 1993). It is theorized that communities comprised of people of colour and the poor are disproportionately exposed to environmental hazards due to factors which include weak enforcement of regulations in marginalised neighbourhoods, as well as the lack of capacity to engage with people of the community in making decisions on appropriate land use (Pulido, 2000; Morello- Frosch, 2002). This kind of power imbalance can potentially lead to disparities in exposure to environmental hazards such as noise, air pollution and hazardous Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 7 (180-194) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 184 materials because the more influential and powerful residents have the ability to influence decisions about the locations of undesirable land use in ways that are beneficial to their community (Morello-Frosch and Lopez, 2006; Cushing, Morello- Frosch, Wander, & Pastor, 2015). Evidence suggests that spatial segmentation of neighbourhoods, workplaces and basic service locations due to the Core Based Statistical Area (CBSA) level racial segregation increases vehicle travel miles (Morello-Frosch and Jesdale, 2006) which can potentially contribute to noise pollution. Additionally, the more affluent residents have the monetary means to invest in noise abatement technologies such as air- conditioning, and triple-paned windows. This means that residents of the higher income bracket potentially have lower actual exposure to noise compared to poorer individuals living in neighbourhoods that are exposed to the same estimated levels of noise. Methodology Location Selection and Noise Severity Levels Location selections were made in reference to a publicly available noise map based off noise complaints to NYC311, which is an information hotline that provides all of New York City’s government services, as well as complaints.1 Data was mapped by census tract and it revealed seven levels on the noise gradient. In this study, classical music terms were used to describe each of the seven levels, ranging from pp (pianissimo – very quiet) to fff (fortissisimo – very, very loud). In selecting the locations based on its noise severity level (NSL), as well as its ease of access and walkability, the recordings took place in locations listed in Table 1. For this study, the concept of noise severity level is based on the seven-degree scale of noise complaints as reflected in the NYC311 noise map. Each level of NSL is based on the quantity of collected noise complaints within each neighbourhood, independent of its amplitude or source. Recording Days, Time, Duration and Equipment Recording for each location was over the course of three days for 5 weeks. Recording days were determined to be carried out on Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday of each week. These days were considered ‘neutral days’. Each day was separated into four Time Windows (TW) to reflect the changes that may occur throughout the day within the same acoustic environment. There was the exception of Governors Island, in which the recording days remained the same but time windows were reduced to three a day. This is due to the limitations in accessibility in which the ferries to and from the island operated from 10:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. on weekdays (Table 2). Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi 185 Table 1 List of recording locations arranged by position of the NSL NSL Location (Num.) Site AHDI pp Nolan Park (L1) Governors Island 9.062 pp GI Outlook Hill (L1a) Governors Island 9.062 p Prospect Park Chaim Baier Music Island (L2) Prospect Park 5.109 mp Marion Hopkinson Playground (L3) Bedford-Stuyvesant 3.391 mf Vanderbilt St & Prospect Park Southwest (L4) Windsor Terrace 4.287 f Paley Park (L5) Midtown 8.254 ff Lincoln Center Plaza (L6) Upper West Side 8.61 fff TKTS Times Square (L7) Midtown 8.254 Table 2 Time blocks for each recording day for all locations TW Governors Island All Other Locations TW1 10:00 a.m. – 12:00 p.m .9:00 a.m. – 12:00 p.m. TW2 1:00 p.m. – 3:00 p.m. 1:00 p.m. – 4:00pm TW3 4:00 p.m. – 6:00 p.m. 5:00 p.m. – 8:00 p.m. TW4 9:00 p.m. – 12:00 a.m. In total, ninety recordings were made, which came up to a total of 45 hours of raw soundscape data. All samples were recorded in 44.1kHz/24 bit on a Zoom H4n Pro field recorder. A pair of Ultrasone HFI-450 closed headphones was used for monitoring. Socio-Economic Data Data used in this study was sourced from The American Human Development Index (AHDI)2. It is a numerical measure made up of what is considered to be the three basic ingredients of human well-being which is based on the human development concept: 1) health; 2) education, and; 3) income. The 2011-2015 American Community Survey (ACS)3 provided data for racial/ethnic demographics by block group variables. The ACS is a nationwide survey that is designed to provide data on the changes that happen at a community level. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 7 (180-194) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 186 Acoustic Detection, Annotation and Classification Detection and extraction of sound events were executed using the Rapid Annotator (Raptor). This software is a MATLAB based sound analysis toolbox (currently unpublished) and it is used for rapid human annotation of sound objects. Raptor was developed as part of the Citygram team (Park and Lin, 2017). Each recording sample produced approximately 1,500 individually extracted acoustic events ranging between one to ten seconds per event. Acoustic events were annotated based on a two- step process in order to decompose the acoustic perception. The first task was to annotate each event to one of the three saliency levels (background/mid-ground/foreground). In this study, saliency can be described as the relationship of sounds or the combination of, to a single observer that falls into one of the three positions of prominence (back-, mid-, fore-). The second task was to assign and identify each acoustic event to one of the twelve sounds classes which was based on the 10 most commonly reported noise complaints on NYC311 (Table 3), which was then categorised into one of the three soundscape components. In order to determine the density of each individual recording, an extraction of the total number of acoustic events per sound class per audio sample was performed. Statistical Analysis Due to the number of samples collected, to ease the calculation process, averages of acoustic events were calculated according to different combinations for each location: 1) average acoustic events (AAE) by total of all days, 2) AAE by total of all time windows, 3) AAE by total per day, and 4) AAE by total per individual time window. The Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to test the significance of the trend. The measure of the strength of linear associations between two variables is denoted by r-. In this study, r2 was used for the convenience of easing other possible operations. It takes on a range from +1 to -1 in which the value of 0 indicates no correlation between the two variables. A value greater than 0 indicates a positive correlation, a value less than 0 indicates a negative correlation. The correlation strength is determined by the closeness of the value r2 to either +1 or -1, depending on whether the relationship is positive or negative. Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi 187 Table 3 4 Categories of soundscape components and its sub-classes Geophony Biophony Anthrophony 1) Rustling leaves/Heavy winds/Water 2) Birds/Insects/Wildlife (chirping, squawking, screeching) 4) Road/Marine traffic (honking, beeping, fog horn) 9) Footsteps, running, crunching, skateboard, bicycle passing 3) Domesticated animals (barking, whining, panting) 5) Road traffic (passing/idling/engine start/screeching) 10) Music (passing music from car) 6) Road traffic (siren wailing 11) Human voice (talking, shouting, laughing) 7) Low flying aircraft 12) Other (unidentifiable events, night time ambiance) 8) Banging, construction noise, machines, vents, sprinklers Results and Analysis Based on past studies of noise exposure and its relationship to race/ethnicity, it was found that census blocks of lower socio-economic status with higher proportions of non-Caucasian/white ethnicities were susceptible to higher levels of noise exposure across the contiguous United States. For the purposes of this study, race/ethnicity categories were arranged to include the major racial groups as such: 1) Caucasian/White; 2) African American/Asian; 3) Native American/Others. This is because analysis of more detailed ethnic groups and sub-groups returned inconclusive results and this form of grouping produced better correlations. In this study, it was found that the increase of acoustic events were in line with the hypothesis, where by higher acoustic event averages resulted in a percentage population increase of non-white ethnicities. This study has also indicated that the correlation between low average acoustic events to a higher percentage of Caucasian/White is strong. This means that the higher the number of Caucasian/White groups in a neighbourhood indicates a decrease in acoustic event average among these eight New York City locations. Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3 have been arranged in such a way to include a third variable, the AHDI. This has been done by colour coding the data points. The Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 7 (180-194) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 188 trend line will remain as it can serve as a general marker to how the two variables within the 2D space interact. As for the correlation for AHDI in the 3D space, this can be seen relatively clearly by the colour gradients as illustrated in these graphs. The relative vertical change in colour can be compared to the relative horizontal change in colour to aid in visualising any patterns within the data. The colours used, range from a white to dark orange, where white indicated a low AHDI (based of the minimum value of 3.391), and the dark orange indicates a high AHDI (based off the maximum value of 9.06). With this in mind, by looking at all three graphs, there is a clear pattern that as the average acoustic events increases, the AHDI is expected to fall. These graphs showing the proportions of racial demographics help paint a clear picture if any one racial group is affected by the change in average acoustic events and the AHDI. Figure 1. Percentage proportions of Caucasian/White ethnic group to Average Acoustic Events (AAE) and The Measure of America’s 2014 American Human Development Index (AHDI) per neighbourhood. Figure 2 demonstrates a strong correlation between the increase in average acoustic events to the increase in percentage proportions of African American and Asians (R2 = 0.45659) as well as a decline in the AHDI. Figure 1 on the other hand, there is a strong correlation between an increase in average acoustic events to the decrease in the percentage population of Caucasian/White (R2 = 0.3758) resulting in an increase in the AHDI. An increase in acoustic event occurrences results in the decrease in population percentage in Native American/Others group (R2 = 0.16836) although in this case, there seems to be only a weak correlation in the AHDI reduction as there is no incredibly clear progression of a light to dark coloured AHDI indicator or vice versa, as illustrated in Figure 3. This was further confirmed in Figure 4 in which the population percentage of Native American/Others group was plotted Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi 189 against the AHDI to reveal a weak trend line (R2 = 0.02097) thus confirming that the percentage population of this group has little to no effect on the AHDI. Figure 2. Percentage proportions of African American and Asians ethnic groups to Average Acoustic Events (AAE) and The Measure of America’s 2014 American Human Development Index (AHDI) per neighbourhood Figure 3. Percentage proportions of Native Americans and Others ethnic group to Average Acoustic Events (AAE) and The Measure of America’s 2014 American Human Development Index (AHDI) per neighbourhood Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 7 (180-194) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 190 Figure 4. Percentage proportions of Native Americans and Others ethnic group to The Measure of America’s 2014 American Human Development Index (AHDI) per neighbourhood As for the vertical component which is population numbers of race/ethnic groups, the same trend seems to be present here as well – as the population numbers go up, the AHDI reduces. In summary, the AHDI of each neighborhood is affected by the number of acoustic events recorded as well as the population percentage in both the Caucasian and the African American/Asians group, but in the Native American/Others group, the increase or decrease in percentage population between neighborhoods does little to influence the increase or decrease in AHDI. Discussion and Conclusion In observing the relationship between the distribution of acoustic events and the socio- economic status, the collected data demonstrates that urbanites living in neighbourhoods on the lower end of the AHDI spectrum were exposed to increased occurrences in acoustic events. In terms of racial/ethnic composition of neighborhoods, findings revealed that in most cases, as the proportions of non-white ethnicities and the number of average acoustic events increased, the AHDI of these neighbourhoods decreased. This aligned with past studies in which communities of lower socio-economic status with higher proportions of non-white communities were exposed to higher noise levels. Several studies in the past found that communities who belong to a lower socio-economic status which had higher proportions of ethnic minorities were exposed to higher noise levels (Nega et al., 2014; Carrier, Apparicio, & Séguin, 2016; Kohlhuber et al., 2006; Poortinga et al., 2008). This study produced similar findings in which the increase of average acoustic events resulted in an increase of non-white Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi 191 proportions with lower AHDI. In the case Native American/Others, the opposite affect was found in which the increase of acoustic events resulted in a decrease in this group of non-white individuals but in relation to the AHDI, correlations were not strong and the percentage population of this group has little to no affect on the AHDI. This is in partial contrast to a study by Casey et al., (2017) in which it was determined that neighborhoods with higher populations of African Americans, Asians, Hispanics and other minority groups are exposed to higher noise levels. These findings are quite possibly caused by the very small proportions of this non-white ethnic group within the locations in question for this study, therefore their affect is minimal. In summary, the collected data demonstrated that 1) urbanites living in neighborhoods on the lower end of the socio-economic spectrum were exposed to increased occurrences of acoustic events; 2) the increase in proportions of non-white ethnicities correlated with the increase of acoustic events, which in turn decreased the overall AHDI standing of these neighbourhoods, in most cases; 3) a geographical expansion for future studies would allow for a more accurate representation of the relationship between urban soundscape and its socio-economic factors. Urbanisation is expanding rapidly and this means exposure to noise pollution that can have detrimental effects on human health and body, which can result in increased stress, blood pressure, heart rate, cardiac output (Evans, Hygge, & Bullinger, 1995; Lercher, 1996), diminished capacities in neurocognitive functions, mood disorders and neurodegenerative diseases (Tzivian et al., 2015), cardiovascular disease (Gan, Davies, Koehoorn, & Brauer, 2012), hypertension (van Kempen and Babisch, 2012), and behavioral problems in children (Hjortebjerg et al., 2016). Although there are several noise abatement methods in place such as laws and noise regulations that have been enacted in several countries throughout the world, these laws are based on definitions of excessive noise in terms of volume and manage sounds as waste. In order to fully understand our urban acoustic environment and how it affects our quality of life, the author hopes that the findings in this research study will fill a gap and add to the existing literature by introducing another dimension to soundscape studies for the purpose of improving the standards of living of urban communities. This paper is part of a larger project and a web-based repository was created to better represent the data to a larger audience through an interactive platform. For a more in-depth look at the data collected for this study in its entirety, this website can be viewed at http://urban-soundscapes.com. References Bell, M. L., & Ebisu, K. (2012). Environmental inequality in exposures to airborne particulate matter components in the United States. Environmental health perspectives, 120(12) 1699. Brainard, J. S., Jones, A. P., Bateman, I. J., & Lovett, A. A. (2004). Exposure to environmental urban noise pollution in Birmingham, UK. Urban Studies, 41(13), 2581-2600. Brown, A. L., Gjestland, T., & Dubois, D. (2016). Acoustic environments and Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 7 (180-194) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 192 soundscapes. In J. Kang and B. Schulte-Fortkamp (Eds.), Soundscape and the Built Environment (pp. 1–16). CRC Press. Carrier, M., Apparicio, P., & Séguin, A. M. (2016). Road traffic noise in Montreal and environmental equity: What is the situation for the most vulnerable population groups?.Journal of Transport Geography, 51, 1-8. Casey, J. A., Morello-Frosch, R., Mennitt, D. J., Fristrup, K., Ogburn, E. L., & James, P. (2017). Race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, residential segregation, and spatial variation in noise exposure in the contiguous United States. Environmental Health Perspectives 125(7), 1–10. Cushing, L., Morello-Frosch, R., Wander, M., & Pastor, M. (2015). The haves, the have-nots, and the health of everyone: The relationship between social inequality and environmental quality. Annual Review of Public Health, 36 (1), 193-209. Evans, G. W., Hygge, S., & Bullinger, M. (1995). Chronic noise and psychological stress. Psychological Science, 6(6), 333-338. Farina, A. (2014). Soundscape Ecology: Principles, Patterns, Methods and Applications (1st Edition). Springer Netherlands. Gage, S., Ummadi, P., Shortridge, A., Qi, J., and Jella, P. K. (2004). Using GIS to develop a network of acoustic environmental sensors. In ESRI International Users Conference, 15-28, San Diego, CA. Kang, J., & Schulte-Fortkamp, B. (Eds.). (2016). Soundscape and the Built Environment. CRC press. Gan, W. Q., Davies, H. W., Koehoorn, M., & Brauer, M. (2012). Association of long-term exposure to community noise and traffic-related air pollution with coronary heart disease mortality. American journal of epidemiology, 175(9), 898-906. Haines, M. M., Stansfeld, S. A., Head, J., & Job, R. F. S. (2002). Multilevel modelling of aircraft noise on performance tests in schools around Heathrow Airport London. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 56(2), 139-144. Hajat, A., Hsia, C., & O’Neill, M. S. (2015). Socioeconomic disparities and air pollution exposure: a global review. Current environmental health reports, 2(4), 440-450. Havard, S., Reich, B. J., Bean, K., & Chaix, B. (2011). Social inequalities in residential exposure to road traffic noise: an environmental justice analysis based on the RECORD Cohort Study. Occupational and environmental medicine, 68(5), 366-374. Hjortebjerg, D., Andersen, A. M. N., Christensen, J. S., Ketzel, M., Raaschou- Nielsen, O., Sunyer, J., ... & Sørensen, M. (2016). Exposure to road traffic noise and behavioral problems in 7-year-old children: A cohort study. Environmental health perspectives, 124(2), 228. Kohlhuber, M., Mielck, A., Weiland, S. K., & Bolte, G. (2006). Social inequality in perceived environmental exposures in relation to housing conditions in Germany. Environmental research, 101(2), 246-255. Lakes, T., Brückner, M., & Krämer, A. (2014). Development of an environmental justice index to determine socio-economic disparities of noise pollution and Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi 193 green space in residential areas in Berlin. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 57(4), 538-556. Lam, K. C., & Chan, P. K. (2006). Socio-economic status and inequalities in exposure to transportation noise in Hong Kong. Transportation, 2(1), 107- 13. Lercher, P. (1996). Environmental noise and health: An integrated research perspective. Environment International, 22(1), 117-129. Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Harvard University Press. Mohai, P., & Saha, R. (2007). Racial inequality in the distribution of hazardous waste: A national-level reassessment. Social problems, 54(3), 343-370. Morello-Frosch, R. A. (2002). Discrimination and the political economy of environmental inequality. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 20(4), 477-496. Morello-Frosch, R., & Jesdale, B. M. (2006). Separate and unequal: residential segregation and estimated cancer risks associated with ambient air toxics in US metropolitan areas. Environmental health perspectives, 114(3), 386. Morello-Frosch, R., & Lopez, R. (2006). The riskscape and the color line: examining the role of segregation in environmental health disparities. Environmental research, 102(2), 181-196. Nega, T. H., Chihara, L., Smith, K., & Jayaraman, M. (2013). Traffic noise and inequality in the twin cities, Minnesota. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 19(3), 601-619. Park, T. H., & Lin, J. (2017). Rapid Annotator (Raptor). Computer Software. Version 0.1.1 [Unpublished]. Poortinga, W., Dunstan, F. D., & Fone, D. L. (2008). Neighbourhood deprivation and self-rated health: The role of perceptions of the neighbourhood and of housing problems. Health & place, 14(3), 562-575. Pulido, L. (2000). Rethinking environmental racism: White privilege and urban development in Southern California. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 90(1), 12-40. Tamura, K., Elbel, B., Chaix, B., Regan, S. D., Al-Ajlouni, Y. A., Athens, J. K., Meline, J., Duncan, D. T. (2017). Residential and GPS-defined activity space neighborhood noise complaints, body mass index and blood pressure among low-income housing residents in New York City. Journal of Community Health, 42(5), 1–9. Tzivian, L., Winkler, A., Dlugaj, M., Schikowski, T., Vossoughi, M., Fuks, K., Weinmayr, G., Hoffmann, B. (2015). Effect of long-term outdoor air pollution and noise on cognitive and psychological functions in adults. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 218(1), 1-11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1977). The urban noise survey. 550/9-77- 100, Washington, DC. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/nscep Van Kempen, E., & Babisch, W. (2012). The quantitative relationship between road traffic noise and hypertension: A meta-analysis. Journal of Hypertension 30(6), 1075-1086. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 7 (180-194) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 194 Endnotes 1 Mapping last year’s 311 noise complaints. Retrieved from http://bl.ocks.org/nerik/raw/90c087a3f0fe96f8a2ce/#13/40.7620/-73.9667 2 American Human Development Index by community district. Retrieved from http://www.data2go.nyc/ 3 United States census bureau. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/searchresults.xhtml?refresh=t Acknowledgement This article was presented and published as proceedings of the 3rd International Music and Performing Arts Conference (IMPAC2018) held at the Faculty of Music and Performing Arts from 13-15 November 2018. It was selected to be published in the IMPAC2018 Malaysian Journal of Music (MJM) Special Issue but upon agreement with authors and the editorial board, published as part of the MJM annual volume. Biography Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi earned her Master of Music in Music Technology from the Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and Human Development at New York University. Additionally, she holds both a Diploma in Music and a Bachelor in Music Performance (Hons.) from Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM). Having had the opportunity to experience the cacophony of city life in both Kuala Lumpur and New York City, her interest lies in the study of urban soundscapes and its impact on the urban dwellers quality of life. Her current focus is on the analysis of spatiotemporal patterns and soundscape components of the urban acoustic environment, and its relation to the socio economic and racial/ethnic demography of metropolitan cities, with the hopes of improving the urbanites standard of living as well as to preserve its sonic heritage.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

arrangements, four hand, nineteenth century, piano, reception, transcriptions

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/845

Four-Hand Piano Transcriptions and the Reception of Symphonic Repertoire in Nineteenth-Century Europe

In the nineteenth century, listening to a symphony was a rare and precious treat. Few could afford to attend the symphony regularly, and even those who could would be lucky to hear a favourite work once every few years. There was, however, one way for nineteenth-century music lovers to hear their favourite symphonies anytime on demand: by playing arrangements. Arrangements of symphonies, particularly those for piano four-hands, were phenomenally popular. Amateur musicians would play through arrangements before a concert to familiarise themselves with unknown works and after to re-experience the music they enjoyed. In the twentieth century, recordings took over this function. Today, it is not the sonic magnificence of the orchestra that is rare and precious; it is the act of music-making. This paper examines the roles that four-hand piano transcriptions played in the reception of symphonic repertoire during the nineteenth century and, by way of conclusion, suggests some pedagogical applications of the findings. The history of four-hand piano transcriptions demonstrates the crucial role that active participation in music-making plays in the understanding and enjoyment of symphonic repertoire.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/845/581

Elissa Miller-Kay 195 Four-Hand Piano Transcriptions and the Reception of Symphonic Repertoire in Nineteenth-Century Europe Elissa Miller-Kay Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music 2010 Arun Amarin Soi 36, Bang Yi Khan, Bang Phlat Bangkok, Thailand 10700 email: [email protected] Published online: 28 December 2018 Cite this article (APA): Miller-Kay, E. (2018). Four-Hand Piano Transcriptions and the Reception of Symphonic Repertoire in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 195-207. Abstract In the nineteenth century, listening to a symphony was a rare and precious treat. Few could afford to attend the symphony regularly, and even those who could would be lucky to hear a favourite work once every few years. There was, however, one way for nineteenth-century music lovers to hear their favourite symphonies anytime on demand: by playing arrangements. Arrangements of symphonies, particularly those for piano four-hands, were phenomenally popular. Amateur musicians would play through arrangements before a concert to familiarise themselves with unknown works and after to re-experience the music they enjoyed. In the twentieth century, recordings took over this function. Today, it is not the sonic magnificence of the orchestra that is rare and precious; it is the act of music-making. This paper examines the roles that four-hand piano transcriptions played in the reception of symphonic repertoire during the nineteenth century and, by way of conclusion, suggests some pedagogical applications of the findings. The history of four-hand piano transcriptions demonstrates the crucial role that active participation in music-making plays in the understanding and enjoyment of symphonic repertoire. Keywords: arrangements, four hand, nineteenth century, piano, reception, transcriptions Introduction Until relatively recently, most people who attended classical music concerts also played instruments themselves. In fact, audiences were often referred to as ‘amateurs’ a word that connotes an ability to play as well as an enjoyment of Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (195-207) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 196 listening. Naturally, many amateurs wanted to play the same music at home that they enjoyed hearing in the concert hall. This resulted in a veritable craze for arrangements—particularly for the piano. As Temperley (1959) observed of the London concert scene, Every work, whether a symphony, an opera, an oratorio, or a song, that gained popularity in public performance, was promptly arranged for the pianoforte solo or duet, and sold in large quantities to the thousands of amateurs who wished to revive in their own homes the pleasures they had experienced in the concert-room. (p. 35) The situation was similar in other European cities. As reported in the Leipzig Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (1863), four-hand arrangements had gained such extraordinary popularity, that despite the many more or less practical arrangements of all significant old and new works written for instruments or voice, eager four-hand performers who are accustomed to working through a half- dozen symphonies, quartets, or the like in an afternoon or evening can scarcely be supplied with enough new material. (cited in Christensen, 1999, p. 258) Arrangements allowed people living outside of major cities to experience repertoire they may otherwise never get a chance to hear. In 1822, a reviewer for the Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review opined, the passion for arrangements is, we think, a little run mad.—It however has its benefits: it extends very widely the knowledge of the greatest composers, for there are many persons, in the provinces especially, who have few other chances of becoming acquainted with their works. (Vol. 4, p. 229) Even in major cities, amateurs often had to wait years to hear a given symphony. During the decade from 1880-1890, for example, a Viennese Beethoven enthusiast had to wait almost a decade to hear each of his symphonies performed once by a professional orchestra (Botstein, 2009, p. 7). Composers thus recognised that arrangements were the primary form in which their music would be disseminated. Brahms, a frequent arranger of his own music, indicated in a letter to his publisher just how important four-hand arrangements were, “I have devoted myself to a noble occupation: arranging my immortal [Requiem] so that it can also be enjoyed by four-handed souls. Now it cannot perish” (Van Camp & Ottley, 2002, p. 59). Beethoven arranged his seventh symphony for piano himself, and authorised other composers such as Moscheles and Clementi to make arrangements of many other works. At the same time, he expressed annoyance at the numerous shoddy, unauthorised arrangements of his compositions being made. ‘Arrangement’, he complained, “is a thing against which now-a-days (in times so fruitful—of arrangements) a composer has to strive in vain” (Grove, 1962, p. 16). Arrangements allowed—or to look at it another way, required—music lovers to actively engage in the music-making process. Most arrangements required more than one player and thus playing them was an inherently social activity. For Elissa Miller-Kay 197 these reasons, arrangements facilitated both deep musical contemplation and social engagement. The Family Orchestra While arrangements were made for various instrument combinations throughout the nineteenth-century, it was the four-hand piano transcription that reigned supreme. Why was this genre in particular so popular? One reason undoubtedly was the widespread popularity of the piano itself. Over the course of the century, piano sales soared throughout Europe and North America. In the United Kingdom, for example, Broadwood, one of the premiere manufacturers, sold approximately 1000 pianos in 1810, up from about 250 per year in the early 1790s (Taylor, 2010, p. 127). In 1850, approximately 23,000 pianos were made in the United Kingdom and, by 1910, the number had increased to 75,000 (Ehrlich, 1990, p. 222). Pianos were made in a remarkable variety of shapes and sizes: from small cottage uprights to squares, to concert grands. As befitting the capitalist spirit of the times, there was a piano for almost any income level. The piano was a standard fixture in middle and upper-class homes, and the ability to play was an expected accomplishment for any young women of standing. All these piano owners and players were constantly in search of new music to play. Publishers released a vast and diverse array of repertoire: small parlour pieces, arrangements of popular tunes, serious concert works, virtuosic showpiece, and all manner of chamber music. Piano duets were particularly popular. Adolph Hofmeister’s catalogue of published music for 1845 contains 49 pages listing four- hand repertoire. To compare, the listing for music for piano and violin runs about half as long, 24 pages (Hofmeister, 1845). The piano was particularly well suited to the task of realising an orchestral score. Unlike other domestic instruments such as the violin, guitar and flute, the piano could approach the sound of a large ensemble. As the nineteenth-century progressed, this ability only improved. In 1800, most pianos had a range of five octaves. By the 1860s, seven octaves were standard—a more comfortable size for four hands to fit along. The introduction of cast iron frames in the mid-century allowed for the piano strings to be held under greater tension, thus increasing the resonance. The damper control was moved from a knee lever to a foot pedal where it could be used frequently with ease. The principal motive underlying all of these changes was a desire to make the instrument more orchestral. Playing styles evolved hand in hand with these technological developments. The following passage from Fétis and Moscheles’ piano method (cited in Rowland, 1993) contrasts Liszt’s playing in the 1830s with that of Hummel, a pianist of the previous generation, [Liszt’s] school is the most complete deviation from that of Hummel that can well be imagined. Delicacy of touch is by no means the chief object of this master, whose ideas are directed to increasing the powers of the piano, and to the necessity of making it, as much as possible, resemble the effects of an orchestra. Hence those peculiar combinations produced by the frequent employment of the pedals, united to various peculiar modes of striking the keys. (p. 107) Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (195-207) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 198 Of course, both the playing abilities and the instrumental capacities in an average domestic setting would not be comparable to that of a Liszt concert. Still, the aesthetic shift suggests there was a new ideal to aim for. And, with two players instead of one, amateurs might hope to occasionally reach Lisztian volumes, if nothing else. In 1877, John Hullah, a well-known British music teacher, tellingly referred to the piano as the ‘family orchestra’ (Hullah, 1877). This points to the centrality of orchestral transcriptions to the piano’s domestic function. Intimacy and Grandeur Piano duets are the most intimate form of chamber music. They are the only genre within the classical tradition where two players share a single instrument. When playing a four-hand duet, two players sit side by side, one playing the higher register and the other the lower. The two players must merge their sound in a way that is required in no other setting. Instead of dialog and contrast, we have two players matching their sound and playing as one. As Edward Cone (1974) colourfully described it, the players become a single ‘four-handed monster’ (p. 135). Consider, for example, the following passage from Beethoven’s ‘Archduke’ Trio Op. 97 (Figure 1). These measures feature an ornamented triplet line that is played by the piano in the original trio. In the four-hand version arranged by Czerny, the line is split between the two players. For a successful performance of the duet, the line must be seamlessly transferred from one player to the other as if they are one. With transcriptions of large ensemble works, such as a symphony, the players become a far more powerful ‘four-handed monster’; one that controls an entire symphony of sound. This challenges Brett’s (1997) characterisation of four- hand arrangements, namely that they “tame the concert-hall repertory of symphonies and chamber music for the drawing room” (p. 153). Arrangements were not designed to tame the concert repertoire. Instead, they were designed to transport the grandeur of the symphony into the home environment. Evidence of this can be gleaned from the scores themselves. Arrangers often go to great lengths to squeeze as much sound out of the piano as possible. Figure 2, for example, shows the opening measures of a four-hand arrangement of Wagner’s Der fliegende Holländer. In measures 13-14 and 17-18, the arranger, Louis Oesterle, has added crescendos to encourage the players to play as loudly as possible. These crescendos are not found in the orchestral score. Elissa Miller-Kay 199 Figure 1. Beethoven, ‘Archduke’ trio Op. 97, first movement mm. 32-41. Four-hand arrangement by Carl Czerny, (Vienna: Tobias Haslinger, c. 1838). Figure 2. Overture to Wagner’s Der fliegende Holländer. Four-hand arrangement by Louis Oesterle (1909). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (195-207) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 200 Hands-On Experience Arrangements helped to facilitate a deeper understand of serious music. The British composer William Crotch noted in 1818, that ‘the advancement of musical taste’ was largely due to “the more general performance on the piano forte of musical originally intended for an orchestra” (Crotch, 1818/1999, p. 215). Unlike at a concert, amateurs at home were in control of the music. In the passage below, a writer for the Leipzig Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (1865) discussed how repeated readings of the same score could help amateurs better understand complex, serious music—in this case, Beethoven’s symphonies, overtures, and string quartets. This ‘domestic music contemplation,’ as the author called it, was likely a major factor in the acceptance and understanding of serious repertoire in the nineteenth-century, What help is it for the familiarity of such profound works if at most one can hear each of these works performed once a year (a chance only those lucky enough to live in Vienna have)? The music is performed, and, understood or not, time passes inexorably by. Another piece follows or the concert ends, and the performers pack up their instruments. How different it is on the piano during domestic musical contemplation. One repeats a piece that is not immediately clear two or three times, perhaps picking it up again in a few days, until it has become transformed to flesh and blood, and one knows thoroughly every succession and each individual detail. After such study (which is not uncommon even among amateurs) one can soon form a completely different judgment concerning the most difficult of Beethoven's ‘last’ quartets. (cited in Christensen, 1999, p. 263) Playing four-hand transcriptions and attending concerts were mutually reinforcing activities. Concerts provided the impetus for amateurs to buy and play transcriptions and, since playing is a far deeper form of musical engagement than listening, transcriptions enriched the public’s appreciation and understanding of serious music, thus increasing their appetite for such works in the concert hall. Evidence of this reciprocal relationship can be seen in the title pages of many symphonic transcriptions. Figure 3, for example, shows the title page of a four-hand transcription of Haydn’s ‘Surprise’ Symphony Hob. I:94 published around 1800. The title makes reference to Salomon’s famous concert series at which the symphony was premiered. Similarly, the title page of a four-hand transcription of Haydn’s symphony in B-flat major, Hob. I:108 published in 1815 includes the subtitle “As Performed at the Philharmonic Society” (see figure 4). Figure 5 shows an advertisement from The Musical World (1838) for recently published music by Beethoven—the paragon of serious music. Arrangements and piano works are listed side by side. Notably, the first and last items listed are both arrangements of the nine symphonies. Judging by the total number of editions published, arrangements of Beethoven’s symphonies eclipsed his piano sonatas in terms of their popularity in the opening decades of the nineteenth-century (Hirsch and Oldman, 1953). Elsewhere I have argued that Beethoven’s piano sonatas became popular with amateur musicians only after they were performed on public concerts (Miller-Kay, Elissa Miller-Kay 201 2016). The greater popularity of symphony arrangements in the first half of the nineteenth century is thus evidence of a link between public performance and domestic music-making. Figure 3. Title page of Haydn ‘Surprise’ Symphony, likely arranged by W. Watts and published by Birchall and Co. (c. 1800). Figure 4. Title page of Haydn Symphony symphony in B-flat major, Hob. I:108, arranged by D. Bruguier and published by Chappell and Co. (c. 1815). Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (195-207) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 202 Figure 5. Advertisement in The Musical World (1838). Four-hand arrangements played important roles in the lives of professional musicians as well. In conversation with Robert Craft, Stravinsky (1960) recalls the following from his lessons with Leokadiya Kashperova, which he began in 1899, “she tried to discourage my interest in Wagner. Nevertheless, I knew all Wagner’s works from the piano scores…we played Rimsky’s operas together, four-hands, and I remember deriving much pleasure from Christmas Eve this way” (p. 25). And, Isabelle Vengerova (1929), a prominent American pianist and pedagogue, reminisced on the important role that four-hand arrangements played in her early musical education, …the piano was the first medium through which music was revealed to me. I was not quite five years old when I listened to the playing of my elder sisters, who almost every evening used to play ‘four hands.’ It was Mozart’s Symphony in G minor which led me over to my dreams. Impressions of childhood often stay with us for life, and so this symphony remains fixed in my memory as the most beautiful and touching music. (p. 114) Many composers mention four-hand playing in reference to friendships with each other. For example, Saint-Saëns relays the following story regarding his friendship with Anton Rubinstein (cited in Huneker, 1911), I acquired his friendship in deciphering upon his own piano the orchestral score of his Ocean Symphony. I read very well then, and his symphonic music, written large and black, was not very difficult to read. From this day a lively sympathy united us; the simplicity and evident sincerity of my admiration touched him. We were together assiduously, often played together for four hands, subjected to rude tests the piano which served as our field of battle, without regard to the ears of our hearers. It was a good time! We made music with passion simply for the sake of making it, and we never had enough. I was so happy to have encountered an artist who was wholly an artist, exempt from the littleness which sometimes makes so bad a barrier around great talent. (pp. 387-88) Elissa Miller-Kay 203 Similarly, Nikolay Kaschkin, a music critic and piano professor, spoke of playing four-hand repertoire with Tchaikovsky as an after dinner entertainment, Left to ourselves we immediately went to the piano...and began to play arrangements for four hands, of which Tchaikovsky had a large store. We often played Brahms, whom he esteemed very highly for his seriousness and sincerity, and his contempt for superficial success; but at the same time he had not much sympathy with his music, finding it cold and dry. (Newmarch, 1900, p. 95) Four-hand playing served many of the same purposes for professionals as for amateurs. It was a social activity—a meaningful way of engaging with other musicians in friendship. It was also, of course, educative. To judge from various memoirs and journals, many prominent nineteenth-century composers came to know the music of their predecessors and contemporaries principally by playing arrangements. Some composers would also arrange music for the piano at sight, as Saint-Saëns relays in the above quote. Many nineteenth-century composers also worked as arrangers. Wagner claimed that he learned a great deal as a young composer from transcribing Beethoven’s ninth symphony for the piano, and Brahms worked as an arranger in his youth under the pseudonym, ‘G. W. Marks’ (Christensen, 1999). Later in life, Brahms arranged many of his own works for the piano. Sometimes, however, his attitude towards arrangement would turn sour. When sending a four-hand arrangement of his piano concerto to his publisher, he instructed that his name be left off the title page, do not mention my name as the arranger! After all, it is just a lot of scribbling, and it does not look right if the Master himself creates out of his own work as ungainly a monstrosity as a 4-hand concerto is bound to be! (Avins, 1997, p. 288) The Value of Inauthenticity How is a work transformed when it is arranged for piano? In the preface to his solo piano arrangements of Beethoven’s symphonies, Liszt explains the transformation with two analogies, I will be satisfied if I stand on the level of the intelligent engraver, or the conscientious translator, who grasps the spirit of a work and thus contributes to our insight into the great masters and to our sense of the beautiful. (Liszt, 1865/1998, preface, italics added) The analogies of the engraver and translator are both apt. Transcription can be like translation: adapting music from the language of the orchestra to that of the piano. Like any expert translator, a good arranger must be fluent in both languages. At the same time, a piano arrangement will always contain less colour than its orchestral original; there are simply fewer colours to play with. In this sense, the art of transcribing is very much like that of engraving: reducing a colourful painting to a black-and-white copy. The more expertly crafted a transcription is, the more like a Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (195-207) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 204 translation it is. The less thoughtfully produced it is, the more it has in common with an etching. Etchings, incidentally, just like this second class of transcriptions, were mass produced. However, the etching-like lack of colour in transcriptions has its benefits. E. T. A. Hoffmann (1810) hints at this in his famous review of Beethoven’s fifth symphony, “The piano reproduces the great work as a sketch reproduces a great painting, and the imagination brings it to life with the colours of the original” (Charlton, 1989, p. 251). The role of the imagination is a key. Playing transcriptions requires the players to not only exercise their technical and musical abilities, but their musical memories and powers of imagination. “Attending a concert after such private study,” wrote a reviewer for the Leipzig Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (1842), “one’s ear will be struck by the fresh colours of the instruments...an advantage that is not to be dismissed lightly” (Christensen, 1999, p. 263). The fact that four-hand arrangement played by amateurs would pale in comparison to the sound of a live symphonic performance was an advantage, not a disadvantage in that it made the live event that much more magnificent. In this way, four-hand transcriptions are at the opposite end of the spectrum from the high fidelity recordings of today. With modern recording equipment and post-production editing software, today’s recordings can sound cleaner and more vividly coloured than live performances. In the twentieth century, not only did four-hand arrangements become unnecessary, they also became aesthetically objectionable. Performers and critics increasingly valued what was authentic; what was true to the composer’s intensions. For example, in a survey of English editions of Beethoven’s music made in the composer’s day, Hirsch and Oldman (1953) noted that many of the composer’s more popular works ‘had to submit’ to the ‘indignity’ of arrangement (p. 2). These comments reveal a great deal about how arrangements were viewed in the 1950s. Hirsch and Oldman’s statement would most certainly have struck nineteenth-century amateurs as strange. Pedagogical Applications This study provides strong evidence for the important role that active engagement plays in music appreciation. In nineteenth-century Europe, four-hand piano transcriptions served important social and educative functions, and were enthusiastically embraced by amateurs and professional musicians alike. The enjoyment of listening to symphonic repertoire in the concert hall and playing it at home mutually reinforced one another. The rise of recordings in the early twentieth century and the concomitant demise of transcriptions has made contemporary classical music culture far more passive. While a wholesale revival of four-hand transcription playing would be neither be desirable nor possible, the practice can serve as a useful model and source of inspiration to those who wish to encourage more active engagement with symphonic repertoire today. There are several ways the culture of four-hand playing can be adapted to suit our modern world. Firstly, music teachers would find advantage in reviving the Elissa Miller-Kay 205 link between at-home playing and concert attendances. Prior to or after a concert, students of any instrument would benefit from reading through arrangements or excerpts from the repertoire performed. The history of arrangements demonstrates the important role that this kind of active engagement plays in musical understanding and appreciation. Ensemble playing and sight-reading activities can be integrated into college level music study in both areas of music theory and music history. In music history in particular, it is common for students to be given listening assignments. These could be replaced by playing assignments. Students could prepare easy and/or short arrangements from the repertoire to be discussed and play these for each other in class. Following these in-class performances, recordings could be played, bringing to light the added colour of the original version. Along similar lines, pre-concert talks for lay audiences could be made more helpful and enjoyable through the inclusion of interactive activities. Such activities could be as simple as singing the main themes from an upcoming symphony in a call and response manner. This would help familiarise audience members with the musical themes they were about to hear and would also add an interactive, social dimension to the concert. More effective, although more logistically challenging, would be pre-concert reading parties wherein a few members of the orchestra would meet with interested parties to read through selections from an upcoming concert together. These readings could be organised flexibly, to accommodate any and all instruments. The unpredictable sound of the ensemble at each party would only add to the fun. Such events would not be performances; the goal would not be to faithfully reproduce the music as the composer intended. Instead, the purpose would be to share the joy of music-making. These parties would be similar in ethos to that of Saint-Saëns’ and Rubenstein’s four-hand playing as described by Saint-Saëns above. Studying the musical and social functions of arrangements in the nineteenth century brings the changes that have manifest in the last hundred years or so into sharp relief. As recordings are replaced by the internet, the culture of classical music is once again undergoing a tectonic shift. Awareness of the nineteenth-century musical practices discussed herein can help performers, educators and music scholars move towards a more varied and engaged future for classical music performance and appreciation. References Avins, S. (Ed.). (1997). Johannes Brahms: Life and letters. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Botstein, L. (2009). Time and memory: Concert life, science, and music in Brahms’s Vienna. In W. Frisch (Ed.), Brahms and his world (pp. 3-29). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Brett, P. (1997) Piano four-hands: Schubert and the performance of gay male desire. Nineteenth-century music 21(2), 149-176. doi:10.2307/746896 Charlton, D. (ed.). (1989). E. T. A. Hoffmann’s music writings: Kreisleriana, the poet and the composer, music criticism (Martyn Clarke, Trans.). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (195-207) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 206 University Press. Christensen, T. (1999). Four-hand piano transcription and geographies of nineteenth-century musical reception. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 52(2), 255-298. doi:10.2307/831999 Cone, E. (1974). The composer’s voice. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Crotch, W. (1999). Introductory lecture. In H. L. Irving (Ed.), Ancients and moderns: William Crotch and the development of classical music, (pp. 212–18). Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. Ehrlich, C. (1990). The piano: A history (revised ed). Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Grove, G. (1962). Beethoven and his nine symphonies (3rd. ed.). New York, NY: Dover. Hirsch, P. & Oldman, C. B. (1953). Contemporary English editions of Beethoven. Music review, 14, 1-35. Hofmeister, A. M. (1845). Handbuch der musikalischen literatur (3rd ed., Vol. 2). Leipzig, Germany: Friedrich Hofmeister. Retrieved from https://imslp.org/wiki/ Special:ReverseLookup/101201 Hullah, J. (1877). Music in the house (2nd ed.). London, UK: Macmillan and Co. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/musicinhouse00hullgoog Huneker, J. (1911). Franz Liszt. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/franzliszt00huneuoft Liszt, F. (arr.). (1998). Beethoven symphonies nos. 1-5 transcribed for solo piano (A. Walker, trans.). Mineola, New York, NY: Dover (Original work published 1865) Miller-Kay, E. (2016). The virtuosity of interpretation: The performance history of Beethoven’s piano sonatas in London, 1800-1880 (Doctoral Thesis). New York University, New York. Newmarch, R. (1900). Tchaikovsky: His life and works. New York, NY: The Bodley Head. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/tchaikovsky008090mbp Oesterle, L. (arr.). (1909). Overture to Wagner’s Der fliegende Holländer. New York, NY: Schirmer. Retrieved from https://imslp.org/wiki/Special:ReverseLookup/ 155318 Rowland, D. (1993). A history of pianoforte pedalling. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. Stravinsky, I. and Craft, R. (1960). Memories and commentaries. Garden City, New York, NY: Doubleday and Co. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/memories commenta1960stra Taylor, I. (2010). Music in London and the myth of decline. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Temperley, N. (1959). Instrumental music in England, 1800–1850 (doctoral thesis). doi: 10.17863/CAM.15935 Van Camp, L., & Ottley, J. (2002). A practical guide for performing, teaching, and singing the Brahms “Requiem.” Los Angeles, CA: Lawson-Gould Music Publishers. Vengerova, I. (1929). The piano as it seems to me. In Overtones: The monthly publication of the Curtis Institute of Music 1(5), 114-116. Retrieved from https://archive.org/ details/overtones1930curt Biography Dr. Elissa Miller-Kay is a lecturer in Piano Performance and Musicology at the Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music in Bangkok, Thailand. Her principal research interests are Beethoven reception, nineteenth-century performance practices, and piano pedagogy. Dr. Miller-Kay holds degrees in Piano Performance from Oberlin College (Bachelor of Music), Elissa Miller-Kay 207 Mannes College (Master of Music), and New York University (Doctor of Philosophy). Her dissertation examined the reception and performance history of Beethoven’s piano sonatas in London, 1800-1880. Dr. Miller-Kay also holds a Licentiate Diploma in Piano Performance (First Class Honours) from the Royal Conservatory of Music in Toronto, Canada. Performance awards include first prize at the International Beethoven Piano Sonata Competition in Memphis, TN (2009) and the Ben Steinberg Musical Legacy Award (2006).

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

Parkinson’s disease, Parkinsonian Dysarthria, voice characteristics, therapeutic singing

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/846

Voice Characteristics of People with Parkinson’s Disease (PwP): An Overview on Baseline Vocal Characteristics and Guidelines for Therapeutic Singing

Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease in which the symptoms of the disease are worsen over time. Core symptoms of the disease are such as tremor-at-rest, rigidity, postural instability, and bradykinesia. Apart from these motor-problems, other problems such as sleep disorder, sensory abnormalities, neuropsychiatric disorders also exist. In addition to the motor-problems, latest literature documented 80-90% of the people with Parkinson’s Disease (PwP) are prone to develop voice impairment known as Parkinsonian Dysarthria, when symptoms deteriorate, causing loss of communication, difficulties in swallowing and breathing that are psychologically devastating and life threatening. Growing research in music therapy (MT) and music-based rehabilitative activities worldwide documented positive effects on PwP. A local research using therapeutic singing as rehabilitative model at the Malaysian Parkinson’s Disease Association (MPDA) also have reported positive benefits in improving vocal problems in the Malaysian PwP. In this research, some primary and preliminary data on the vocal characteristic, including baseline vocal loudness (VL), pitch range (PR) and respiratory rate (RR) were obtained among 22 local PwP prior to examining effects of singing on PwP. Findings of this study showed that the PwP speak softer than the normal accepted range. The findings also showed that they have tendency to develop rapid breathing, and their average pitch range while singing is limited within the range of G#3 – B4. These findings can further propose guidelines for voice rehabilitation models based on the preliminary voice characteristics concluded in this study.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/846/582

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (208-224) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 208 Voice Characteristics of People with Parkinson’s Disease (PwP): An Overview on Baseline Vocal Characteristics and Guidelines for Therapeutic Singing Ang Mei Foong Department of Music, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 28 December 2018 Cite this article (APA): Ang, M.F. (2018). Voice characteristics of people with Parkinson’s disease (PwP): An overview on baseline vocal characteristics and guidelines for therapeutic singing. Malaysian Journal of Music, 7, 208-224. Abstract Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease in which the symptoms of the disease are worsen over time. Core symptoms of the disease are such as tremor-at-rest, rigidity, postural instability, and bradykinesia. Apart from these motor-problems, other problems such as sleep disorder, sensory abnormalities, neuropsychiatric disorders also exist. In addition to the motor-problems, latest literature documented 80-90% of the people with Parkinson’s Disease (PwP) are prone to develop voice impairment known as Parkinsonian Dysarthria, when symptoms deteriorate, causing loss of communication, difficulties in swallowing and breathing that are psychologically devastating and life threatening. Growing research in music therapy (MT) and music-based rehabilitative activities worldwide documented positive effects on PwP. A local research using therapeutic singing as rehabilitative model at the Malaysian Parkinson’s Disease Association (MPDA) also have reported positive benefits in improving vocal problems in the Malaysian PwP. In this research, some primary and preliminary data on the vocal characteristic, including baseline vocal loudness (VL), pitch range (PR) and respiratory rate (RR) were obtained among 22 local PwP prior to examining effects of singing on PwP. Findings of this study showed that the PwP speak softer than the normal accepted range. The findings also showed that they have tendency to develop rapid breathing, and their average pitch range while singing is limited within the range of G#3 – B4. These findings can further propose guidelines for voice rehabilitation models based on the preliminary voice characteristics concluded in this study. Keywords: Parkinson’s disease, Parkinsonian Dysarthria,voice characteristics, therapeutic singing, Ang Mei Foong 209 Introduction Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease that is caused by reduction in the dopamine (that serves as a neurotransmitter in the nervous-system) in which the symptoms of the disease deteriorate over time (Lim, Puvanarajah, Lee, Chee, Viswanathan, Tan, Chong & Azrin, 2012; Schulz & Grant, 2000). PD causes both motor and non-motor symptoms, and it has a tendency to provoke mental health issues (Aarsland, Larsen, Karlsen, Lim, & Tandberg, 1999; Branchi, D'Andrea, Armida, Cassano, Pezzola, Potenza, Morgese, Popoli, & Alleva, 2008; Jankovic, 2008; Meireles & Massano, 2012; Rutten, Ghielen, Vriend, Hoogendoorn, Berendse, Leentjens, van der Werf, Smit, & van den Heuvel, 2014). There are four core symptoms in PD: tremor at rest, rigidity, bradykinesia (slowness), and postural instability. However, more of other motor-symptoms, such as freezing and dyskinesia also observed among PwP at different stages of the disease (Dyduch & Załuska, 2014; Jankovic, 2008; Lim, Fox, & Lang, 2009; Politis, Wu, Mollis, Bain, Chaudhuri & Piccini, 2010). The non-motor symptoms are such as constipation, pain, sleep disorders, cognitive impairments, poor memory, slowness in psychological responses, problems of visuospatial functioning (Aarsland, Larsen, Karlsen, Lim, & Tandberg, 1999; Jenkinson, Peto, Fitzpatrick, Greenhall, & Hyman, 1995; Meireles & Massano, 2012; Pagonabarraga, Kulisevsky, Strafella, & Krack, 2015), and sensory motor integration impairments (Clark, Adams, Dykstra, Moodie, & Jog, 2014; Jankovic, 2008; Ramig, Fox, & Sapir, 2007; Richardson, Sussman, Stathopoulos, & Huber, 2014). These symptoms could emerge before the manifestation of the motor problems (Lim et al., 2009). In addition to that, PwP frequently suffers from neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as depression (Branchi et al., 2008), anxiety (Rutten et al., 2014), apathy (Pagonabarraga et al., 2015), hallucination/delusions (Meireles & Massano, 2012) and psychosis (Aarsland et al., 1999). Speech Impairments in Parkinson’s Disease Among the motor-problems the PwP are facing, voice impairment in PD is one of the most prominent symptoms. Studies pointed out that PwP are prone to develop hypokinetic dysarthria (HD, also known as Parkinsonian dysarthria), a voice and speech production problem due to PD (Miller, Noble, Jones, & Burn, 2006; Ramig et al., 2007). Some early studies in the 1980s suggested that there are 50% of PwP presenting communication difficulties (Scott & Caird, 1983). Later studies in 2006 proposed that the percentage of PwP who showed impairments in speech is close to 80% (Miller et al., 2006); and more recent studies by Ramig and Fox predicted that there are near to 90% of the PwP demonstrating deficits in speech (Ramig et al., 2007), which has raised an alarming alert to this problem. HD happens when movements of the larynx reduced due to inadequate muscle activation. Typical symptoms in HD include softness in speech (hypophonia), monotone (dysprosody), imprecise articulation (slurred in speech), vocal tremor, and quality of voice becoming hoarse and breathy; on the other hand, the inactive movements in the lungs and respiratory systems resulted in reduced Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (208-224) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 210 breath supports (Buetow, Talmage, McCann, Fogg, & Purdy, 2014; Elefant, Baker, Lotan, Lagesen, & Skeie, 2012; Fogg-Rogers, Buetow, Talmage, McCann, Leao, Tippett, Leung, McPherson, & Purdy, 2015; Haneishi, 2001; Ramig et al., 2007; Schulz & Grant, 2000). HD is generally regarded as part of the natural deterioration of PD, however, in addition to the natural deterioration of the disease, it was also reported that PwP who had undergone Deep Brain Surgery (STN-DBS, deep brain surgery of the subthalamic nucleus) has higher tendency to manifest voice impairments (Wertheimer, Gottuso, Nuno, Walton, Duboille, Tuchman, & Ramig, 2014). Another study filed report that speech impairments in PD could be an adverse drug event to Dopamine Agonist (DA), which is a common pharmacological treatment for PwP (Cacciatore, Simone, Patrocinio, & Sallustio, 2012). There are a few major impacts on the PwP and their caregivers due to the changes in their vocal quality and speech intelligibility in their daily lives. A qualitative study identified and characterized four main impacts due to speech impairments from the PwP’ perspectives: 1) interaction with others; 2) problems with conversations; 3) feelings about intelligibility; and 4) the voice. The main concern among the PwP was not merely about the change of voice itself but the poor communication that resulted in loss of dignity (Miller et al., 2006). The impaired voice and speech doesn’t only affect the PwP but it also creates serious impact on the PwP’ caretakers and their immediate family members, as it causes frustrations and further leading the PwP to withdraw from the daily conversations as well as social events, which then increase the risks of developing psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety which seriously affect their quality of life (Aarsland et al., 1999; Miller, Deane, Jones, Noble, & Gibb, 2011; Miller et al., 2006; Ramig & Fox, 2007). Treatments in Parkinsonian Dysarthria The present treatments for PD are mainly pharmacological. Medications such as levodopa (L-dopa) is often used to treat motor symptoms in PD. L-dopa is used to restore dopamine level in the brain, where the reduction of which is the cause of the disease. Common levodopa-containing drugs are such as Madopar® and Sinemet® (for initial state of PD); other medications such as selegiline, amantadine, dopamine- agonists can also be prescribed (Lim et al., 2012). For treatments related to speech impairments in PD, there are studies which have reported unsatisfactory outcomes from both pharmacological and surgical treatments (Pinto, Ozsancak, Tripoliti, Thobois, Limousin-Dowsey, & Auzou, 2004; Schulz, Greer, & Friedman, 2000). Both treatments filed speech deficits in PwP following STN-DBS (Wertheimer et al., 2014) or reported as an adverse drug event following DA (Cacciatore, Simone, Patrocinio, & Sallustio, 2012). Even though both treatments reported significant improvements to the limbs’ motor functions, however deficits in speech intelligibility were reported, the studies thus concluded that improvements in limbs do not associate with improvements in voice. Ang Mei Foong 211 In contrary to pharmacological and surgical treatment, behavioral treatments such as speech therapy and music therapy that focus on conscious and repeated training to strengthen vocal muscles appears to be a more effective way to treat HD (Atkinson-Clement, Sadat, & Pinto, 2015; Pinto et al., 2004; Schulz & Grant, 2000). Among speech therapies, the Lee Silvermann Voice Treatment® (LSVT) has proven over these two decades to have received positive results in treating speech impairments in PwP. Vast literatures and meta analyses documented the effects of LSVT in treating HD among PwP and majority of which reported positive outcomes in the parameters of vocal loudness, phonatory, articulation, and respiration. The classic LSVT is conducted four times per week within 4 weeks and it was claimed that the effects could last for two years after treatment (Ramig & Fox, 2007). On the other hand, growing number of research in MT, including MT that focus on singing as intervention, also demonstrated positive effects in improving motor functions, speech impairments, facial expressions, and mood among PwP (Elefant, Lotan, Baker, & Skeie, 2012; Elefant et al., 2012; Evans, Canavan, Foy, Langford, & Proctor, 2012; Haneishi, 2001; Pacchetti, Mancini, Aglieri, Fundarò, Martignoni, & Nappi, 2000). More specifically, a few studies in MT have shown singing techniques to have helped to extent chest capacity, improves respiratory muscles movements and hence helps to improve breathing, leading to significant improvements in voice productions (Evans, Canavan, Foy, Langford, & Proctor, 2012; Tanday, 2016). Another small study that examines efficacy of Music Therapy Voice Protocol (MTVP) on speech intelligibility (how speech is comprehensible) and vocal intensity revealed some small but positive improvements in the acoustic variables which include speech intelligibility, vocal intensity, maximum vocal range, maximum duration of sustained vowel phonation, vocal fundamental frequency, vocal fundamental frequency variability and mood. MTVP runs for three times weekly for a duration of 12-14 weeks. Even though some parameters didn’t achieve statistical significance due to small sample size (N=4), however improvements in means were detected and it was suggested that singing may influence vocal projections leading to improvements in speech (Haneishi, 2001). Other similar studies were carried out thereafter. A study done by Elefant et al. in 2012 also reported significant positive effects in singing quality and vocal range but reported no changes to quality of speech. The intervention was based on group singing, participants received 60-minutes singing intervention in small group setting for 20 consecutive weeks. There were 10 PwP who are stable responders to levodopa and in Hoehn and Yahr scale (stage 2 or 3) participated in this one-group repeated measure design study. Research result showed significant improvements in five of the six singing qualities (fluency, singing accuracy, intensity of dB, consistency of dB, voiceless, voiced) at Time 2 and 3 (p < .01), as well as voice range and the Vocal Handicap Index (VHI) physical subscale at Time 3 (Elefant et al., 2012). In addition to the above studies, another two-years longitudinal study in UK reported small but significant improvements in laryngeal elements and small degree of improvements in participants’ self-rating quality of life, suggesting that group singing helps to prevent deterioration in voice and to maintain voice quality among Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (208-224) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 212 the PwP (Evans et al., 2012). Another study of PwP’ experience in Choral Singing Therapy (CST) in New Zealand reported that choral singing helped PwP to self- manage some consequences of their conditions, which include low mood, social isolation and communication difficulties (Fogg-Rogers et al., 2015). Voice Characteristics Even though growing researches have been focused on testing the efficacy of music- based therapeutic protocols on voice impairments in the PwP, but limited research had reported the voice characteristics of the PwP. These include finding out the baseline in vocal loudness, pitch ranges and respiratory rates in the PwP. These baseline data are important to allow voice-rehab instructors or music therapists to draft a more reasonable rehabilitation plan that is feasible and possible for the PwP to master, in order to achieve the overall rehabilitation purposes and to avoid any unforeseeable harm to the voice due to a wrong choice of repertoire. A good decision on the repertoire takes account of the baseline ability of the PwP and a good set of repertoires will be able to achieve rehabilitation objectives without probability to harm the voice. Methodology and Procedures A total of 22 PwP from the Malaysian Parkinson’s Disease Association participated in a research that study effects of a singing protocol on PwP. These PwP consisted of 10 males (45.5%) and 12 females (54.5%) ranging in age from 45 to 86 years old (M=68.4 y/o), with 45 years old (y/o) being the youngest participant and 86 y/o being the oldest participant, with a mean age at 68.41 y/o (SD=8.921). The research participants had lived with PD for a mean time of 8.7 (SD=5.715) years, ranging from 1 year to 20 years (M=8.77 years). The participants in this study were first measured their baseline vocal parameters before following through a series of voice rehabilitation activities. The vocal parameters in this study focused on better understanding the vocal problems/ symptoms following HD, hypophonia (vocal loudness), issues related with breathing, and dysprosody (monotonous, lack of pitch range in speech). Therefore, the baseline vocal parameters that were measured in this study included both the minimum amplitude (softest voice) at read and maximum amplitude (loudest voice) at read; respiratory rate; as well as both minimum pitch (lowest note the PwP can reach) and maximum pitch (highest note the PwP can reach). Each procedure will be further elaborated in the description below: Vocal Amplitude. Both min amplitude and max amplitude data were obtained when participants were reading a passage at their normal comfortable volume, mimicking a closest possible situation to normal daily speech. The sound meter was placed at the distance of 8cm from the participants’ mouth, data were noted in decibels (dB). The data for vocal amplitude was obtained through a smartphone app (see Figure 1) that functions as a sound pressure level (SPL) meter called Sound Meter V.1.6.13 developed by Smart tools co. Both min and max score (softest and loudest) Ang Mei Foong 213 of sound level could be detected during a same measurement time. Figure 1 shows a sample of data, it can be clearly seen that the min score (softest voice) and max score (loudest voice) in a reading session were obtained, in which the min=62dB and max = 79 dB. Figure 1. An example of acoustic data through ‘Sound Meter’ app. Respiratory Rate. Respiratory rate refers to the number of breaths per minute. Healthy adults’ respiratory rate is ranged between 12-20. In the context of this study, Respiratory Rate in PwP is measured with smartphone app named iCare Respiratory Rate V.3.6.0 (see Figure 2) in the unit of breath-per-minute. Respiratory rate data was obtained when the participants are at relaxed sitting posture before a singing activity takes place. Figure 2 shows the overview of the smartphone app. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (208-224) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 214 Figure 2. iCare respiratory rate app. Pitch Range. Pitch range was measured individually to determine the lowest and the highest pitch a participant could reach. PwP tend to speak in monotone with a decreased pitch range thus affecting the quality of their speech, hence it is important to understand the issues by grasping their baseline pitch ranges and to further drafting rehabilitation plan to expand their pitch range. Participants were asked to sing a set of researcher’s created vocalises (see Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, and Figure 6) and each vocalise was played on a music keyboard to accompany participants and assessed by the researcher. Both the highest (max) and lowest (min) pitches were recorded according to musical notation and then translated to frequency (Hz) when analyzing data. Figure 3. Vocalise Type A. Figure 4. Vocalise Type B. Figure 5. Vocalise Type C Ang Mei Foong 215 Figure 6. Vocalise Type D. Results Vocal Amplitude Table 1 below shows the descriptive statistics of the min vocal amplitude at read. Lowest min vocal amplitude score was noted at 45dB, whilst highest min vocal amplitude score was noted at 58dB, with its mean score=52.09dB among the 22 PwP participants. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of Min Vocal Amplitude at Read N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation AMP read min 22 45.00 58.00 52.0909 3.71495 Valid N (listwise) 22 Table 2 below listed out the frequencies of min vocal amplitude by number of participants. Highest frequencies of min vocal amplitude were noted at 52dB (4 participants) which is very close to the mean min vocal amplitude score. Table 2 Frequencies of Min Vocal Amplitude by Number of Participants Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 45.00 1 4.5 4.5 4.5 46.00 1 4.5 4.5 9.1 47.00 1 4.5 4.5 13.6 48.00 1 4.5 4.5 18.2 49.00 3 13.6 13.6 31.8 51.00 1 4.5 4.5 36.4 52.00 4 18.2 18.2 54.5 53.00 1 4.5 4.5 59.1 Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (208-224) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 216 54.00 2 9.1 9.1 68.2 55.00 2 9.1 9.1 77.3 56.00 3 13.6 13.6 90.9 57.00 1 4.5 4.5 95.5 58.00 1 4.5 4.5 100.0 Total 22 100.0 100.0 Similarly, Table 3 below shows the descriptive statistics of max vocal amplitude at read. Lowest max vocal amplitude noted was 65dB, whilst highest max vocal amplitude was noted at 86dB, with its mean score=74.68dB among the 22 PwP participants. Table 3 Descriptive Statistics of Max Vocal Amplitude at Read N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation AMP read max 22 65.00 86.00 74.6818 4.83427 Valid N (listwise) 22 Table 4 below shows frequencies of max vocal amplitude by number of participants. Highest frequencies of max vocal amplitude were noted at 75dB (4 participants), which is also very close to the mean max vocal amplitude score. Table 4 Frequencies of Max Vocal Amplitude by Number of Participants Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 65.00 1 4.5 4.5 4.5 66.00 1 4.5 4.5 9.1 70.00 2 9.1 9.1 18.2 72.00 2 9.1 9.1 27.3 73.00 2 9.1 9.1 36.4 74.00 2 9.1 9.1 45.5 75.00 4 18.2 18.2 63.6 Ang Mei Foong 217 76.00 3 13.6 13.6 77.3 78.00 1 4.5 4.5 81.8 79.00 1 4.5 4.5 86.4 81.00 1 4.5 4.5 90.9 82.00 1 4.5 4.5 95.5 86.00 1 4.5 4.5 100.0 Total 22 100.0 100.0 Respiratory Rate For respiratory rate, it is important to note that the healthy respiratory rate in a healthy adult should be within the range of 12 to 20 breaths per minute. Table 5 below showed descriptive statistics of the scores of the respiratory rate with min score = 14 breaths/min and max score = 28 breaths/ min, with its mean score = 20 breaths/min. The mean score shows that the respiratory rate was within the healthy range however it was at the border of the higher side signifying a risk to rapid breathing. Table 5 Descriptive Statistics of Respiratory Rate N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation RESPIRATORY R 22 14.00 28.00 20.0000 3.08607 Valid N (listwise) 22 To understand this scenario better, frequencies of respiratory rate by number of participants were listed out, as shown in the Table 6 below. The table displayed that 13 participants’ respiratory rate was within the healthy range of 12 to 20 breaths/min, whilst 9 participants’ respiratory rate had gone above 20 breaths/min, with the highest frequencies noted at 19 breaths/min and 22 breaths/min (4 participants each). This has raised some alarming alert in issues related with breathing among the PwP. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (208-224) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 218 Table 6 Frequencies of Respiratory Rate by Number of Participants Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 14.00 1 4.5 4.5 4.5 16.00 1 4.5 4.5 9.1 17.00 2 9.1 9.1 18.2 18.00 3 13.6 13.6 31.8 19.00 4 18.2 18.2 50.0 20.00 2 9.1 9.1 59.1 21.00 2 9.1 9.1 68.2 22.00 4 18.2 18.2 86.4 24.00 2 9.1 9.1 95.5 28.00 1 4.5 4.5 100.0 Total 22 100.0 100.0 Pitch Range Being monotonous is a prominent symptom in Parkinsonian Dysarthria, it is of utmost importance to investigate both the min pitch (lowest frequency, Hz) and max pitch (highest frequency, Hz) of a PwP to subsequently being able to draw a singing-based voice rehabilitation plan with good recommendation to repertoires in order to expand pitch range. Table 7 Descriptive Statistics of Min Pitch N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Variance Pitchmin 22 191.04 138.59 329.63 214.2741 53.18449 2828.590 Valid N (listwise) 22 Table 7 above shows the descriptive statistics of min pitch among the 22 participants, the lowest score of min pitch was noted at 138.59Hz (equivalent to C#3), whilst the highest score of min pitch was noted at 329.63 (E4), with a total difference in 15 semitones. The mean score of min pitch is noted at 214.2741Hz (G#3), signifying that averagely the lowest note PwP can reach at baseline is at G#3. Ang Mei Foong 219 Table 8 Descriptive Statistics of Max Pitch N Range Minimu m Maximu m Mean Std. Deviation Variance Pitchmax1 22 634.61 196.00 830.61 500.8364 161.96049 26231.19 9 Valid N (listwise) 22 Table 8 above shows the descriptive statistics of max pitch among the 22 participants, the lowest score of max pitch was noted at 196Hz (equivalent to G3), whilst the highest score of min pitch was noted at 830.61 (G#5), with a total difference in 25 semitones. The mean score of max pitch is noted at 500.8364Hz (B4), signifying that, in average, the highest note PwP can reach at baseline is at B4. Table 9 Transcription of Musical Notes to Unit in Frequency (Hz), adapted from Computer Science Department, Aarhus University, UK Discussion The purpose of this study aimed to explore the baseline vocal parameters among the PwP that include vocal amplitude (loudness), respiratory rate, and pitch range. Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (208-224) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 220 These three parameters were noted as the most prominent symptoms in voice disorders among the PwP, which has seriously affected the effectiveness in delivering voice and/or participate in any daily conversation due to the inaudible volume due to shallow breathing and monotonous pitch. The findings of the study revealed that mean min vocal amplitude at read was at 52.09dB, signifying that the softest voice of the PwP in a daily conversation is averagely lower than the normal conversation amplitude standard which is commonly accepted at 60dB. However, the mean max vocal amplitude at read was noted at 74.68dB, indicating that the loudest voice of the PwP in a daily conversation is still audible. Taking consideration of both min vocal amplitude and max vocal amplitude that should happen normally in a daily conversation following the normal fluctuations of speech patterns, the min vocal amplitude noted in this study revealed that the softest voice in the PwP were below the standard average and posited possibilities of difficulties for listeners to capture all the speech of the PwP due to inconsistency of volume. On the other hand, the baseline respiratory rate was at the higher side of the healthy range, the mean respiratory rate was noted at 20 breaths/min, showing that the PwP were probably having a higher tendency to develop rapid breathing due to shallow breathing, in another word, the PwP prone to take more breaths than normal in a given time (minute). Singing activities generally teach an individual to amplify the voice through vocal techniques such as mastering diaphragmatic breathing techniques, training the voice with better vocal resonance via controlling both the consonants and vowels, as well as training the vocal muscles to be in a better closure (Bennett, 2017; Pabon, Stallinga, Södersten, & Ternström, 2014; Sataloff, 2015). With such, it is hypothesized that with the vocal training through singing, one would be able to have a better control to their vocal and breathing muscles, hence being able to breath deeper to avoid shallow breathing, as well as producing louder voice through better control to the vocal fold’s closure. This study also disclosed that the baseline mean min pitch was 214.2741Hz (G#3), and the baseline mean max pitch was at 500.8364Hz (B4). This gives a general yet very helpful overview to music therapists as well as music-based activities’ instructors to repertoire planning. A good repertoire plan leads towards successful outcome to expanding pitch ranges; however, a bad repertoire plan could lead to other vocal complications such as more vocal strains, voice damage and laryngeal fatigue. Conclusion, Implications and Recommendation for Future Research The findings of the baseline vocal parameters in the study concluded that the PwP speak in a volume lower than the normally accepted range, they have a tendency to develop rapid breathing due to shallow breathing, and their average pitch range while singing is limited within the range of G#3 – B4. Ang Mei Foong 221 These baseline data do not only revealed the current voice problems in the PwP but also give a clear guideline to music therapists as well as music-based activities’ instructors, including voice experts and composers to further planning and/or composing songs that is specifically designed and composed for this cohort, for the purpose of improving voice parameters with vocal training through gradual increment in the level of difficulties of songs in terms of dynamic changes, demands in breathing control with long/short musical phrases and pitch range. Moreover, it also gives the voice activities executives a clearer direction into designing a voice rehabilitative program that better fits into the needs of the PwP. However, it is recognizable that there were several limitations of this study. First, the study was conducted only among the members in the Malaysian Parkinson’s Disease Association where the members are mostly living in Kuala Lumpur or Selangor. Hence, the result in this study is not generalizable to the wider PwP in Malaysia. Thus, it is recommended that a national scale investigation in the voice characteristics among the PwP should be carried out in order to obtain the data that is more of representative. Secondly, the parameters that were examined was limited to vocal amplitude, respiratory rate and pitch range, as these were being noted as the most prominent symptoms in voice disorders among the PwP; however, not forgetting that there are also other problems in voice and speech among the PwP such as faded articulation and vocal hoarseness, thus it is important to recommend that more thorough investigation on voice characteristics should be carried out in order to acquire a more comprehensive understanding on the voice problems of this cohort. Though the result was not able to be generalized to a broad PwP population, and that the parameters being examined were not comprehensive, this study provides an overview in the vocal problems and voice characteristics in the PwP. Music or singing based voice rehabilitation programs for PwP are relatively new in Malaysia, these findings were clearly able to propose an evident direction and draw a clear guideline into shaping a voice rehabilitative program that is of benefit to the PwP in Malaysia. References Aarsland, D., Larsen, J. P., Karlsen, K., Lim, N. G., & Tandberg, E. (1999). Mental symptoms in Parkinson’s disease are important contributors to caregiver distress. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 14(10), 866–874. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199910)14:10<866::AID- GPS38>3.0.CO;2-Z Atkinson-Clement, C., Sadat, J., & Pinto, S. (2015). Behavioral treatments for speech in Parkinson’s disease: meta-analyses and review of the literature. Neurodegenerative Disease Management, 5(3), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.2217/nmt.15.16 Bennett, G. (2017). The science of singing : A voice lesson from anatomy and physiology (pp. 0–15). Cedarville University. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/research_scholarship_symposium/2017/ Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (208-224) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 222 podium_presentations/1/ Branchi, I., D’Andrea, I., Armida, M., Cassano, T., Pezzola, A., Potenza, R. L., Morgese, M. G, Popoli, P., Alleva, E. (2008). Nonmotor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease: Investigating early-phase onset of behavioral dysfunction in the 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rat model. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 86(9), 2050–2061. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.21642 Buetow, S. A., Talmage, A., McCann, C., Fogg, L., & Purdy, S. (2014). Conceptualizing how group singing may enhance quality of life with Parkinson’s disease. Disability and Rehabilitation, 36(5), 430–433. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2013.793749 Cacciatore, F. M., Simone, D. De, Patrocinio, D., & Sallustio, V. (2012). Adverse drug reaction to dopamine agonists (DA) or appearance of a typical sign of Parkinson’s Disease induced by DA. Basal Ganglia, 2(3), e1–e87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baga.2012.10.001 Clark, J. P., Adams, S. G., Dykstra, A. D., Moodie, S., & Jog, M. (2014). Loudness perception and speech intensity control in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Communication Disorders, 51, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2014.08.001 Dyduch, A., & Załuska, M. (2014). Depression in Parkinson’s disease: the effectiveness and risk of pharmacotherapy. Clinical review. Psychogeriatrics : The Official Journal of the Japanese Psychogeriatric Society, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyg.12078 Elefant, C., Baker, F. a, Lotan, M., Lagesen, S. K., & Skeie, G. O. (2012). The Effect of Group Music Therapy on Mood, Speech, and Singing in Individuals with Parkinson’s Disease -- A Feasibility Study. Journal of Music Therapy, 49(3), 278–302. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmt/49.3.278 Elefant, C., Lotan, M., Baker, F. a., & Skeie, G. O. (2012). Effects of music therapy on facial expression of individuals with Parkinson’s disease: A pilot study. Musicae Scientiae, 16(3), 392–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864912458917 Evans, C., Canavan, M., Foy, C., Langford, R., & Proctor, R. (2012). Can group singing provide effective speech therapy for people with Parkinson’s disease? Arts & Health, 4(1), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/17533015.2011.584883 Fogg-Rogers, L., Buetow, S., Talmage, A., McCann, C. M., Leao, S. H. S., Tippett, L., Leung, J., McPherson, K. M., Purdy, S. C. (2015). Choral singing therapy following stroke or Parkinson’s disease: An exploration of participants’ experiences. Disability and Rehabilitation, 8288(November), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2015.1068875 Haneishi, E. (2001). Effects of a music therapy voice protocol on speech intelligibility, vocal acoustic measures, and mood of individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Music Therapy, 38(4), 273–290. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmt/38.4.273 Jankovic, J. (2008). Parkinson’s disease: Clinical features and diagnosis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 79(4), 368–376. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2007.131045 Jenkinson, C., Peto, V., Fitzpatrick, R., Greenhall, R., Hyman, N. (1995) Self- Ang Mei Foong 223 reported Functioning and Well-being in Patients with Parkinson's Disease: Comparison of the Short-form Health Survey (SF-36) and the Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire (PDQ-39). Age and Ageing, 24, 505-509. Lim, S.-Y., Fox, S. H., & Lang, A. E. (2009). Overview of the extranigral aspects of Parkinson disease. Archives of Neurology, 66(2), 167–172. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurol.2008.561 Lim, S.-Y., Puvanarajah, S., Lee, M. K., Chee, K. Y., Viswanathan, S., Tan, A. H., Chong, K. T., Azrin, K. (2012). 2012 Consensus Guidelines for the Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease. Meireles, J., & Massano, J. (2012). Cognitive impairment and dementia in Parkinson’s disease: Clinical features, diagnosis, and management. Frontiers in Neurology, MAY(May), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2012.00088 Miller, N., Deane, K. H. O., Jones, D., Noble, E., & Gibb, C. (2011). National survey of speech and language therapy provision for people with Parkinson’s disease in the United Kingdom: Therapists’ practices. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders / Royal College of Speech & Language Therapists, 46(2), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.3109/13682822.2010.484849 Miller, N., Noble, E., Jones, D., & Burn, D. (2006). Life with communication changes in Parkinson’s disease. Age and Ageing, 35(3), 235–239. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afj053 Pabon, P., Stallinga, R., Södersten, M., & Ternström, S. (2014). Effects on vocal range and voice quality of singing voice training: The classically trained female voice. Journal of Voice, 28(1), 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2013.06.005 Pacchetti, C., Mancini, F., Aglieri, R., Fundarò, C., Martignoni, E., & Nappi, G. (2000). Active music therapy in Parkinson’s disease: An integrative method for motor and emotional rehabilitation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 386–393. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-200005000-00012 Pagonabarraga, J., Kulisevsky, J., Strafella, A. P., & Krack, P. (2015). Apathy in Parkinson’s disease: Clinical features, neural substrates, diagnosis, and treatment. The Lancet Neurology, 14(5), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00019-8 Pinto, S., Ozsancak, C., Tripoliti, E., Thobois, S., Limousin-dowsey, P., & Auzou, P. (2004). Review treatments for dysarthria in Parkinson ’ s disease. Neurology, 3(September), 547–556. Politis, M., Wu, K., Molloy, S., Bain, P. G., Chaudhuri, K. R., & Piccini, P. (2010). Parkinson’s disease symptoms: The patient’s perspective. Movement Disorders, 25(11), 1646–1651. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.23135 Ramig, L., & Fox, C. (2007). Speech disorders in Parkinson’s disease and the effects of pharmacological, surgical and speech treatment with emphasis on Lee Silverman voice treatment (LSVT). Parkinson’s Disease Foundation News and Review. Ramig, L. O., Fox, C., & Sapir, S. (2007). Speech disorders in Parkinson’s disease and the effects of pharmacological, surgical and speech treatment with emphasis on Lee Silverman voice treatment (LSVT). Handbook of Clinical Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (208-224) ISSN 2600-9366, eISSN 2600-9331 224 Neurology (Vol. 83, pp. 385–399). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0072- 9752(07)83017-X Richardson, K., Sussman, J. E., Stathopoulos, E. T., & Huber, J. E. (2014). The effect of increased vocal intensity on interarticulator timing in speakers with Parkinson’s disease: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Communication Disorders, 52, 44–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2014.09.004 Rutten, S., Ghielen, I., Vriend, C., Hoogendoorn, A. W., Berendse, H. W., Leentjens, A. F. G., … van den Heuvel, O. A. (2014). Anxiety in Parkinson’s disease: Symptom dimensions and overlap with depression and autonomic failure. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2014.11.019 Sataloff, R. T. (2015). Book Review: Singing and Science: Body, Brain and Voice. Journal of Voice, 29(1), e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2014.06.010 Schulz, G. M., & Grant, M. K. (2000). Effects of speech therapy and pharmacologic and surgical treatments on voice and speech in Parkinson’s disease: A review of the literature. Journal of Communication Disorders, 33, 59–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9924(99)00025-8 Schulz, G. M., Greer, M., & Friedman, W. (2000). Changes in vocal intensity in Parkinson’s disease following pallidotomy surgery. Journal of Voice:Official Journal of the Voice Foundation, 14(4), 589–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0892-1997(00)80015-6 Scott, S., & Caird, F. I. (1983). Speech therapy for Parkinson’ s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 46(October 1982), 140–144. Retrieved from http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/46/2/140.full.pdf+html Tanday, S. (2016). Feature How the power of singing is helping patients to breathe again. The Lancet Respiratory, 2600(16), 2600. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213- 2600(16)00002-3 Wertheimer, J., Gottuso, A. Y., Nuno, M., Walton, C., Duboille, A., Tuchman, M., & Ramig, L. (2014). The impact of STN deep brain stimulation on speech in individuals with Parkinson’s disease: The patient’s perspective. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders, 20(10), 1065–1070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2014.06.010 Biography Mei Foong is a soprano and an opera singer. She graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts from National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU, Taiwan). She furthered her vocal studies at Conservatorio di Musica Santa Cecilia (Rome, Italy) and subsequently gained her master’s degree at the University of Melbourne (Australia). She is now a PhD candidate at University Putra Malaysia (UPM), in which her present research focuses on the effects of singing for voice rehabilitation on people with Parkinson’s Disease (PwP). She has given several research presentations on voice rehabilitations on PwP at a few international conferences. Earlier this year, she was awarded and recognised as the Goodwill Ambassador for the Malaysian Parkinson’s Disease Association (MPDA).

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 7 (2018)

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/140

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1157

Editorial

The Malaysian Music Journal Volume 7 presents twelve articles involving issues on music education, composition, musicology, music therapy and interdisciplinary studies involving urban soundscapes. The first seven articles present current trajectories on music education in Taiwan, Philippines, Thailand, Australia, United States and Malaysia. In ‘Exploring young children’s communication development throughthe soundbeam trigger modes in the holistic music educational approach for young children’ programme’, Liza Lee and Ho enlighten us on a music education programme in Taiwan known as the ‘Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children Programme’ (HMEAYC). This programme capitalises on the language of music to communicate knowledge and instructions. One of the activities in this programme utilises the soundbeam technology to enhance communication development among children including those with special needs. This technology aids special needs students in expressing their thoughts through musical sounds triggered from their limbs. Through qualitative and quantitative research, Lee and Ho showed that both mainstream and special needs children demonstrate achieved positive communication development through the use of the soundbeam technology. This research affirms the efficacy of therapy through music education.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1157/826

MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC Volume 7 2018 ISSN 2600-9366 e-ISSN 2600-9331 Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjong Malim, Perak 2018 ii iii MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC Volume 7, 2018 Editorial Clare Suet Ching Chan v Exploring young children’s communication development through the soundbeam trigger modes in the ‘holistic music educational approach for young children’ programme Liza Lee Han-Ju Ho 1 Assessing Poiesis as an effective approach to integrating music and visual art Janel G. Bauza-Wahiman 20 Paradigm for the development of a Lanna music curriculum in higher education in Northern Thailand Khanithep Pitupumnak 38 A pedagogical canon for electric guitar: An Australian cultural perspective. Daniel A. Lee 58 Understanding the pull motivations of Malaysian women music teachers as music entrepreneurs Cheong Ku Wing 78 Benefits of listening for harmony on the performance of wind instrument beginners Prapassorn Puangsamlee Kyle Fyr 99 iv The effects of a Chinese and Cuban music programme on the cultural understanding of elementary children Lily Chen-Hafteck 116 Inbetweenness: Transcultural thinking in my compositional practice. Isaiah Lee Chie Tsang 133 Sounds of Lisu music to new music for guitar and string quartet Suppabhorn Suwanpakdee 159 The urban soundscape: Analysing the spatiotemporal distribution of acoustic events and its influence on the racial/ethnic composition of New York City neighbourhoods Shuraifa Asmah Shad Saleem Faruqi 180 Four-hand piano transcriptions and the reception of symphonic repertoire in nineteenth-century Europe Elissa Miller-Kay 195 Voice characteristics of people with Parkinson’s disease (PwP): An overview on baseline vocal characteristics and guidelines for therapeutic singing Ang Mei Foong 208 v Editorial Cite this editorial (APA): Chan, C.S.C. (2018). Editorial. Malaysian Journal of Music Journal, 7, vi-viii. The Malaysian Music Journal Volume 7 presents twelve articles involving issues on music education, composition, musicology, music therapy and interdisciplinary studies involving urban soundscapes. The first seven articles present current trajectories on music education in Taiwan, Philippines, Thailand, Australia, United States and Malaysia. In ‘Exploring young children’s communication development through the soundbeam trigger modes in the holistic music educational approach for young children’ programme’, Liza Lee and Ho enlighten us on a music education programme in Taiwan known as the ‘Holistic Music Educational Approach for Young Children Programme’ (HMEAYC). This programme capitalises on the language of music to communicate knowledge and instructions. One of the activities in this programme utilises the soundbeam technology to enhance communication development among children including those with special needs. This technology aids special needs students in expressing their thoughts through musical sounds triggered from their limbs. Through qualitative and quantitative research, Lee and Ho showed that both mainstream and special needs children demonstrate achieved positive communication development through the use of the soundbeam technology. This research affirms the efficacy of therapy through music education. ‘Poiesis’ is a programme in the Philippines developed as a response to the National Association of Music Education’s (NafME) trajectory of integrating the learning of shared concepts in the arts such as ‘repetition and contrast’ or ‘balance and symmetry’ through integrating the visual arts and music. Through qualitative research on Poiesis, Bauza-Wahiman in ‘Assessing Poiesis as an effective approach to integrating music and visual art’ affirm that understanding and appreciation of these shared concepts were enhanced through integrative learning. Pitupumnak presents the current status of Lanna music in the educational institutions in ‘Paradigm for the development of a Lanna music curriculum in higher education in Northern Thailand’. He presents views on how Lanna curriculum should be incorporated into the Thai national curriculum standards. Pitupumnak presents opinions of experts who posit that the national curriculum should aim to sustain musical traditions, vi highlight local musical traditions, emphasis on cultural diversity and engagement with the community. Daniel Lee critiques the current international, namely United States and United Kingdom focused musical repertoire for electric guitar pedagogy in Australia. Through a quantitative survey of the music examination syllabus, industry discourse, Internet sites and industry media, Lee discovers the lack of musical selections from local musical resources. In ‘A pedagogical canon for electric guitar: An Australian cultural perspective’, Lee, D. suggests a canon of repertoire incorporating local content that suffices the guitar level of the student. In ‘Understanding the pull motivations of Malaysian women music teachers as music entrepreneurship’, Cheong examines the reasons for Malaysian women’s attraction to entrepreneurship in music through the founding of music studios, schools and small music business ownership. She summaries her findings to eight emergent themes categorised under two themes – pull motivation and environmental influences. Puangsamlee and Fyr provide evidence that the learning of harmony contributes to performance enhancement among wind instrument beginners. Generally considered as performing a melodic rather than harmonic instrument, wind instrumentalists are seen as less experienced in the performance of harmonic passages compared to pianists or guitarists. The study conducted in ‘Benefits of listening for harmony on the performance of wind instrument beginners’ recommends some approaches to introducing harmony among wind beginners a means toward enhancing performance. In ‘The effects of a Chinese and Cuban music programme on the cultural understanding of elementary children’, Chen-Hafteck conducted a six-week programme that aimed at enhancing the understanding of culture through a multicultural musical experience of China and Cuban music. Utilising Edward’s (1994) assessment instrument, Chen-Hafteck showed that elementary school children in New Jersey’s cultural appreciation increased and negative cultural stereotyping reduced. Isaiah Lee, in his article titled, Inbetweenness: Transcultural thinking in my compositional practice” illustrates the concept of ‘in-betweenness’ in his compositional practice. Isaiah Lee discusses his composition from the perspective of a transitional approach rather than a final creative product. This article presents a composer’s postmodern perspective of composition, a view that places importance on processes rather than final performances of creative works. Inspired by the music of the Lisu, a hill tribe in northern Thailand, Suwanpakdee shares his approaches to the composition of Mood, a work composed for guitar and a string quartet. In ‘Sounds of Lisu music to new music for guitar and string quartet’, Suwanpakdee explains how he combined vii inspiration and knowledge from his fieldtrip experience of Lisu music with his education on western musical composition techniques in a new composition. In an interdisciplinary research on soundscape and urban living, Shuraifa, in ‘The Urban soundscape: Analysing the spatiotemporal distribution of acoustic evens and its influencing the racial/ethnic composition of New York neighbours’ presents her analysis on urban soundscapes at six locations in the United States. Her study assists urbanites in understanding whether exposure to noise may be detrimental to their health. Kay in ‘Four-hand piano transcriptions and the reception of symphonic repertoire in nineteenth-century Europe’ examines the value of performing four-hand piano transcriptions of symphonic works. Her study sheds light on how performing arrangements of four-hand piano music can serve as a pedagogical tool to facilitate the understanding of compositional techniques in symphonic scores. In the last article, Ang discusses the voice characteristics of people afflicted with Parkinson Disease. Her study serves a guide for the development of voice rehabilitation models. This study demonstrates how musical analysis may facilitate improvement in physical well-being. Clare Suet Ching Chan Chief Editor Malaysian Journal of Music

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 2 (2017)

aerophones, Dusunic cultures, flute, Sabah, transformation, turali noseflute

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/139

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/830

Sources, Sounds and Meanings of Turali (Noseflute) Music in Dusunic Cultures of Sabah

The turali noseflute (also known as turahi among some of the Kadazan Dusun of Tambunan) is traditionally played solo as a form of personal entertainment and expression among most of the indigenous Dusunic societies of Sabah, the east Malaysian state of Northern Borneo. This instrument has the same basic structure and performance technique in all Dusunic communities where it is played, but can vary in length. In most cases, as among the Lotud Dusun and some of the Kadazan Dusun, its music expresses happiness and imitates the melodies of traditional songs. Among the Rungus, it can also be played by a novice priestess (bobolizan) to help her memorise the melodies of ritual chants (rinait) when practising alone outside of the ritual context. Its soft sound is also considered soothing when played at night in the longhouse. For the Kadazan Dusun in the central part of Tambunan District, however, turali music expresses melancholy and usually copies patterns in the stylised crying of female mourners during a wake. It is not played during mourning, but months or years later to express sorrow for a deceased relative. Drawing upon more than thirty-five years of research by the author, this article compares and contrasts different examples of turali music, discussing the sources, sounds and meanings of the music, and showing the transformation of vocal motifs and emotive patterns into melodies played with the instrument. These motifs and patterns may vary and transform over time, based on the personal artistry of the turali player whose cultural aesthetics are shaped by her or his individual improvisatory skills yet rooted in the tradition.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/830/566

Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 1 Sources, Sounds and Meanings of Turali (Noseflute) Music in Dusunic Cultures of Sabah1 Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan Borneo Heritage Research Unit, and Faculty of Humanities, Arts and Heritage Universiti Malaysia Sabah e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 30 December 2017 Cite this article (APA): Pugh Kitingan, J. (2017). Sources, sounds and meanings of turali (noseflute) music in Dusunic cultures of Sabah. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(2), 1-28. Abstract The turali noseflute (also known as turahi among some of the Kadazan Dusun of Tambunan) is traditionally played solo as a form of personal entertainment and expression among most of the indigenous Dusunic societies of Sabah, the east Malaysian state of Northern Borneo. This instrument has the same basic structure and performance technique in all Dusunic communities where it is played, but can vary in length. In most cases, as among the Lotud Dusun and some of the Kadazan Dusun, its music expresses happiness and imitates the melodies of traditional songs. Among the Rungus, it can also be played by a novice priestess (bobolizan) to help her memorise the melodies of ritual chants (rinait) when practising alone outside of the ritual context. Its soft sound is also considered soothing when played at night in the longhouse. For the Kadazan Dusun in the central part of Tambunan District, however, turali music expresses melancholy and usually copies patterns in the stylised crying of female mourners during a wake. It is not played during mourning, but months or years later to express sorrow for a deceased relative. Drawing upon more than thirty-five years of research by the author, this article compares and contrasts different examples of turali music, discussing the sources, sounds and meanings of the music, and showing the transformation of vocal motifs and emotive patterns into melodies played with the instrument. These motifs and patterns may vary and transform over time, based on the personal artistry of the turali player whose cultural aesthetics are shaped by her or his individual improvisatory skills yet rooted in the tradition. Keywords: aerophones, Dusunic cultures, flute, Sabah, transformation, turali noseflute Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 2 Introduction The transformation or appropriation of existing music into other forms and genres involves various processes that have been widely discussed in the literature. Writing in the context of Western musicological discourse that began from his analysis of the music of Charles Ives, for example, Burkholder (1994) identified fourteen interrelated processes or typologies of musical borrowing from ‘modeling’ to ‘extended paraphrase’ that are used as compositional techniques across historical periods and musical genres (p. 854). More recently, Williams (2009) uses various case studies to examine in detail the processes of musical borrowing and intertextuality inherent at various levels and dimensions in hip-hop music and discusses the listeners’ response to the various genres. Drawing from an ethnomusicological perspective of music as sound that is organised into socially accepted patterns (Blacking, 1995, p. 33), this article examines the transformation of music from different sources to form turali noseflute music among Dusunic communities in Sabah, the east Malaysian state on northern Borneo. The semi-transverse noseflute turali (also known as turahi among the Kadazan Dusun of older villages in the central part of Tambunan District, and tuahi in one village among the coastal Kadazan of Penampang District) has the same basic structure wherever it is found. Although its length may vary according to culture and personal preference, it consists of an open-ended piece of narrow sumbiling bamboo (called sumbihing in central Tambunan, and humbising in Penampang) with an air hole in the top, one thumb hole in the middle of the back and three finger holes in the lower front. This is similar to many noseflutes found in the Philippines (Maceda, 1990, pp. 197, 199). The turali should not be confused with the rare suling todung (suling: flute, todung; nose) occasionally played among the Kadazan Dusun in the Kiulu to Ranau, which has a back air hole near the closed top, two pairs of finger holes on the front, and is held vertically from the nostril. The turali is played as a solo form of personal expression in non-ritual contexts among most of the ancient indigenous Dusunic ethnic groups of Sabah, including the Rungus, Lotud, Kimaragang, Tobilung, Labuk-Kinabatangan Dusun, Kuijau, and others, as well as the Kadazan Dusun, Sabah’s largest ethnic group.2 In exploring turali performance, I seek to answer the following questions. What are the sources of turali music, that is, from where does the individual musician derive her or his creative inspiration? How is the source utilised to form turali music? What is the meaning of particular turali music, that is, what does the individual performer express, and how do any listeners perceive the music? After examining turali construction and performance technique, examples from among the Kadazan Dusun of Tambunan, the Rungus of Kudat and the Lotud of Tuaran will be discussed, to answer these questions (Figure 1).3 Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 3 Figure 1. Map of Sabah showing the villages and administrative districts from where the musical examples discussed here originated (Source: Oliver Valentine Eboy, GIS Laboratory, Faculty of Humanities, Arts and Heritage, Universiti Malaysia Sabah) Turali Construction and Performance Technique The length of a turali varies according to culture and individual preference, as well as the nature of the available bamboo. Among the Rungus and the Labuk- Kinabatangan Dusun, it can be as short as 35 centimetres, while the turali played by the west coastal Kadazan Dusun of Kinarut can be over a metre long. In the Kadazan Dusun culture of Tambunan, the turali usually varies from 45 to 65 centimetres in length, while in the far southeast of the District it is up to a metre long. As will be shown below, the Lotud have two turali, named according to their length. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 4 When constructing a turali, the performer cuts a length of the bamboo with a node at one end. He or she uses a sharp knife or pais to trim the node and bore a hole therein. This will become the top end for blowing across. A piece of hot wire is used to bore the first hole at the back or ventral side which is located more or less in the middle of the length of bamboo. The circumference of the bamboo is then measured with a piece of string. A mark is cut with a pais in the surface of the bamboo on the front or dorsal side, at a point directly opposite the first hole on the back. This may be a small cut or a line encircling the circumference of the bamboo. After this, similar cuts or lines are used to mark circumference lengths below this point. The first (upper) front hole is then bored with a hot wire at a distance of one circumference length below this first mark. The second (middle) and third (lower) front finger holes are then formed one and two circumference lengths below the first front hole respectively, so that all three front holes are equidistant (Figure 2). On some turali, however, the distance between the first and second front holes may be slightly longer than the circumference, sometimes up to one and a times the circumferencial length, according to the preferred pitches of the performer. This technique of constructing a noseflute by measuring the circumference with a string is similar to that used for making some noseflutes in the Philippines (Maceda, 1990, pp. 197-198). Sometimes, the surface of the bamboo where the three front holes lie is cut away to form a groove, especially if the surface is rather thick. This groove is said to support and enhance the movement of the fingers over these holes. During performance, the turali is usually held with the left hand in the middle and its lower end lying across the palm of the right hand. The thumb of the left hand operates the hole at the back in the middle of the instrument, while third, second and first (pointer) fingers of the right hand control the first, second and third front finger holes respectively, while (Figure 3). This hand arrangement can be reversed according to preference or if the performer is left handed. The nose hole at the top of the instrument is usually held against the nostril on the opposite side from the hand that operates the three front holes, but the other nostril may be used if preferred (or if the performer has a cold in the nose and cannot use the usual nostril). Breath from the nostril passes across the open top hole, producing a soft breathy sound (Figure 4). In Tambunan during the early 1980s, the late Mr. Tinggi Ungkiban of Kg. Sungoi in the south central part of the District modified the turali into an endblown mouthflute. On the modified mouth turali, the node end remains closed, and a long somewhat oval-shaped air hole is cut near the top on the left of the ventral side below the node, then a mouthpiece or sumpang (“ring fastener”) is added. This sumpang is a bamboo ring that fits around the top end to cover half of this upper hole, and it extends above node end of the turali. The thumb and finger holes of the modified turali are in the same positions as on the traditional instrument, and the same fingering is used during performance. When playing this modified turali, however, the performer presses his or her lips against the sumpang and blows with the mouth. Although the top of the instrument appears closed with the ring around it, the breath is forced between the inner surface of the mouthpiece and the rim of the Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 5 node to flow across the new air hole on the upper left at the back of the instrument, thus producing sound (Figures 5 and 6). Figure 2. General measurements for constructing a turali. Figure 3. Hand positions when playing a turali, by Madam Gontit Poyotuk of the Kadazan Dusun community of Kg. Tikolod, Tambunan (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 3 April 2012) Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 6 Figure 4. Madam Gontit blowing her turali. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 3 April 2012; see also Pugh-Kitingan 2012, p. 170) Tinggi’s reason for this physical transformation of the turali was because the noseflute is considered difficult to play compared to an endblown mouthflute, and he hoped that its modification would increase its popularity thereby ensuring its continuity. The music played with the mouthflute is the same as that of the traditional turali, except that the volume of the modified instrument is louder and somewhat piercing in its upper octave compared to the softer sound of the traditional instrument. The names used for the various parts of the instrument vary according to the language, dialect and personal preference of the individual performer. As shown in Figure 5 among the Kadazan Dusun of Tambunan, for example, the turahi players Madam Kimoi and her sister the late Madam Jinulim of Kg. Timbou referred to both the nose hole on the traditional instrument and the upper back air hole under the mouthpiece on the modified flute as pongunian (‘the place where the tuni or sound comes out’), while pongirusan (‘the hole that manages the sound’) referred to the thumb hole at the back of the instrument which determines its basic pitch. They called the three lower finger holes collectively mokorudu. Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 7 Figure 5. Structure of the traditional turali (turahi) and its modified version from Tambunan. (See also Pugh-Kitingan 1988, p. 38; 2003, p. 15) Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 8 Figure 6. Madam Kimoi of Kg. Timbou, Tambunan, playing her modified turahi which has a mouthpiece around the top end. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 20 July 1985) Tinggi, however, used the term kabang (‘mouth’) for the hole added below the mouthpiece of his modified turali, while he referred to the back thumb hole and lower front finger holes as pongombiton. This term connotes ‘strumming’ and is normally used to describe the up and down finger movements when playing a stringed instrument. In the case of the turali, he used this term because the finger movements above the holes resemble plucking or strumming the various strings on a tongkungon, an idiochordal bamboo tube zither, and on the strings on a sundatang lute. Mr. Joseph Amat of Kg. Kuala Monsok in the far southeast of the District, who played a traditional long turali, used a similar term kombiton for the thumb and fingerholes on his instrument, but explained that the nosehole was poobusan pinobo todung or ‘the place where the breath from the nose comes out’ (Pugh-Kitingan, 1988, p. 55; 2003, 38). Other performers often simply call the nose and finger holes on their turali ‘holes’. Madam Layang Ungkat, a performer from the Labuk-Kinabatangan Dusun Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 9 community of Telupid in the middle of Sabah, used the term lubang (‘hole’) for each of the holes, while the Lotud performers from Tuaran District, Madam Lansaran Pawig and Madam Isim Amai called them each lobu turali (‘turali hole’). Music of the Kadazan Dusun Turali/Turahi from Tambunan Tambunan District is a large inland upland plain surrounded by the Crocker and Trusmadi Ranges (see map in Figure 1). In the northern hills and in the far southeastern part of the District, turali music is played for entertainment. It may imitate the tunes of traditional songs, or can copy the melodic patterns of various rinait (long sacred ritual poetry), suggesting it was once used by novice bobolian or traditional priestesses to practice the melodies of the chants as an aid to memorising the long poetic verses, outside of their ritual contexts. It can also be played early in the morning as ‘wake-up’ music for a family. In the older central to south central villages on the plain, however, the sound of the turali is considered ‘melancholy.’ Its music may sometimes express longing for an absent beloved, but it usually copies the patterns of pogigiad or crying by female mourners or mogigiad only in these villages during a wake (from miad ‘to cry’). The turali, however, is not played during mourning for the dead, because all music is forbidden except for pogigiad and dunsai, the solemn gong ensemble music played for three days prior to burial that announces a death to the living and the world of the dead. Months or years later, however, the turali is played here to express sorrow and remembrance of a deceased relative.4 In their overview of research on interrelationships between music and language, Feld and Fox (1994) devote a section to mourning laments as stylised sung-spoken intersections. They note that worldwide these laments are usually gendered as women’s genres. The performative event may include features such as crying breaks, voiced inhalation and sobbing. Some laments consist purely of vocables, while others may use conversational everyday speech, and yet others are articulated in formal speech registers with distinct metrical structures and utilise “highly affect-laden lexical or discourse areas” that may include relationship terms (Feld & Fox, 1994, pp. 39-43). In Tambunan, mogigiad are usually women, although I recall one wake where a man also joined in the pogigiad. Each mogigiad cries individually and the composite sounds of many voices often produces layers of vocalised sound. Pogigiad is based on short poetic phrases in which the words cried reflect the relationship of the mourners to the deceased. ‘Idi Idi oroi Idi’ is for a mother who has died; ‘Amaiya Amaiya oroi Amaiya’or ‘Amaiyai Amaiyai oroi Amaiyai,’ depending on the individual mourner, for a father; ‘Oto Oto oroi Oto’ or ‘Oyou Oyou oroi Oyou’ for a child; ‘Aka’ Aka’ oroi Aka’’ for an older sibling; ‘Adi’ Adi’ oroi Adi’’ for a younger sibling. Idi, Amai, and Oto or Oyou are familial or pet names for ‘mother’ (Ama’), ‘father’ (Apa’) and ‘child’ (Tanak) respectively, while oroi is a poetic variant of odoi, an expression of sadness. In some families, the name Ama’ is a term of address for a father, and Idi connotes an older person. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 10 Pogigiad is usually a form of heightened speech, although some mourners seem to use a soft melodic singing voice, while others sob the words. Two examples of pogigiad for a deceased mother are shown in Figure 7. The repeated word Idi has a rising pattern of pitch, roughly at the interval of a third, with a stress on /-di/. This syllable is sometimes sustained, as in the second example. The second syllable of the expression of sorrow oroi is also sustained on a higher pitch, before it cascades down to the word Idi, often at the melodic interval of a fifth. Some performers do not utter a falling cascade, but merely step down to the lowest pitch level. Although, pogigiad is normally in heightened speech, some performers appear to utilise a tritonic scale-like pattern focused on intervals of thirds with the fall of a fifth at the end of the utterance. Figure 7. Rhythmic and melodic patterns for pogigiad cried for a deceased mother from central villages of Tambunan District. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, from attending family wakes in Tambunan over 35 years) Figure 8 shows a short excerpt from the start of a mouth turahi performance by Madam Kimoi of Kg. Timbou. It is based upon pogigiad for a deceased mother (Figure 6). Kimoi’s turahi has a range of two octaves and is based on a pentatonic scale-like pattern without semitones. This is the same instrument that was played by her sister, Madam Jinulim, also in imitation of pogigiad for a deceased mother, which was discussed previously (Pugh-Kitingan, 1988, pp. 28-29, 47; Pugh- Kitingan, 2003, pp. 14-17). It is an endblown turahi, and the space between the first and second front finger holes is slightly longer than that between the second and front third holes that lie a circumference length apart. Unlike Jinulim’s music which was wholly pentatonic, Kimoi’s performance tends to be tetratonic in the upper octave, and pentatonic in the lower octave. Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 11 Entire range of pitches played on the tuahi: 8ve- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -] Key to synbols: = tremolo; = sounds ¼ tone higher than written; = end of melodic line Figure 8. Short excerpt of turahi music for remembering a deceased mother, by Kimoi of Kg. Timbou, Tambunan. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, recording PUG-KIT Kg. Timbou 850720/5) Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 12 As in Jinulim’s music, Kimoi’s entire performance consists of the alternation of episodes in the higher octave or upper register, with sections in the lower octave. Each episode consists of melodic lines that end with a pause either on the tonic pitch or the pitch a fifth above this, here for convenience referred to as the ‘dominant’. As in the turahi piece by Jinulim, this performance opens in the louder upper register with a slow downward stepping motif spanning the upper octave followed by line 2 which consists of a phrase of two descending motifs from the pitch a third above the tonic. The material in lines 3 to 5 provides the basis for generating the other melodic lines in the example, in both upper and lower octaves. Table 1 analyses the iterative structure of this short excerpt from the performance. Just as each mogigiad has her own style of crying that is clearly recognisable as pogigiad, so each tuahi/turali performer has their own style which recalls aspects of the mourning crying. The tetratonic tendency of Kimoi’s music in the upper octave may be similar to some pogigiad, although her pentatonic lower octave and also Jinulim’s previously discussed pentatonic performance equally reflect the crying. For the listener, however, it is not the actual pitches played by the turahi that recall pogigiad, but rather the repetitive shapes outlined through the music of the instrument. Elements of the pogigiad for a deceased mother can be perceived in the motif shapes in Kimoi’s turahi performance through repeated upward motifs of intervals of thirds and the fall to the tonic at the end of lines (Figure 9). Sustained high pitches on the pitch an interval of a fifth above the tonic recall the long drawn out second syllable in the expression oroi in pogigad, while sustained lowest pitches with tremolos suggest sobbing on the second syllable of the concluding word Idi. In terms of Burkholder’s typology of borrowing (Burkholder 1994, p. 854), turahi music may be described as a “stylistic allusion” to pogigiad for a deceased mother. It does not directly copy the actual pitches of the crying, but alludes to these through the shapes of the motifs played. The rapid repeated upward motifs alternately in the upper then lower octaves convey a sense of different voices crying individually at a wake. According to Kimoi and Jinulim, the turahi, as it is named in the ‘Tambunan’ sub-dialect spoken in some villages on the plain, was created many generations ago when the Kadazan Dusun of today’s Tambunan District still lived in longhouses.5 A woman and her seven mute daughters lived in a separate house in the bush, some distance from their longhouse. One day, the woman died. Unable to cry out and in deep grief, the daughters could only weep. One of the daughters cut a length of sumbihing bamboo and formed a turahi. Since she could not use her mouth to cry pogigiad, she played the pogigiad patterns with the instrument using her nose. When the villagers heard the haunting sound of the noseflute coming from the forest, they came running and found the daughters mourning over their mother. Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 13 Table 1 A summary of the structure of the turahi music excerpt by Kimoi in Figure 8. Octave Line Phrasal and Motif Material Upper octave Line 1 Downward stepping motif spanning upper octave, ending on the tonic. Line 2 Phrase of two descending motifs from pitch a third above the tonic; ends on the tonic. Line 3 Rapid upward motifs based on intervals of thirds and fifth; ends on the dominant. Line 4 Similar rapid upward motifs to line 3 that eventually fall to the tonic. Line 5 A combination of melodic material from both lines 3 and 4 that is joined in the middle by a syncopated figure and repeated notes on the pitch a major third above the tonic; falls momentarily to the tonic, then ends on the dominant, but in the lower octave. Lower octave Line 6 Based on melodic material in line 3. Line 7 Based on motifs from line 4, but concludes on tonic in upper octave. Upper octave Line 8 Melodic repetition of line 5 that ends on the tonic. Line 9 Repeats melodic motifs from line 3. Line 10 Repeats melodic material from line 5, but ends on the tonic as in line 8. Line 11 Expansion of motifs in line 4; here serves as a bridge into the lower octave. Lower octave Line 12 Draws on material from lines 5, 8 and 10, but includes the fifth pitch; ends on the tonic in the lower octave. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 14 Idi motifs: Oroi Idi motifs: Figure 9. Motifs suggesting pogigiad in Kimoi’s turahi music. Tinggi and other performers in villages on the plain towards the south have a similar story about the origin of the turali, but their story concerned a father and seven mute sons. Since then, the turahi or turali in older villages in Tambunan has been associated with an expression of sorrow when remembering a relative who has passed away. Tinggi also said that the turali can also be played to express sadness in other contexts, such as longing for an absent beloved. During the 1970s, the turahi was introduced into the Penampang area on the west coast where it is called tuahi in the coastal Kadazan dialect of Penampang District. There, it was taken up by the late Mr. Stephen Jintoni Lojuwin, who played melancholic music with the instrument. Although his music did not directly imitate crying during mourning (the Kadazan of Penampang usually do not cry mogigiad), one of his tuahi pieces is today played over Radio Malaysia, after News broadcasts in the Kadazan Dusun language, to announce the list of recent deaths among the Kadazan Dusun across Sabah. From this, many people assume that the turali is played to announce a death, but this is incorrect. This tuahi performance is considered an appropriate musical introduction for this radio program, whereas dunsai gong music that announces a death in a village is ritually prohibited outside of its actual mourning context. Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 15 Among the Kadazan Dusun of Tambunan, the turali like other solo instruments, including the suling mouthflute, sompoton mouthorgan, bungkau palmwood jew’s harp, idiochordal tongkungon bamboo tube zither, and the rare strummed double-stringed jackfruit wood sundatang lute, is played by both men and women. Music of the Rungus Turali Among the Rungus of Kudat, parts of Kota Marudu and Pitas Districts of northern Sabah, the turali is only played by women. The Rungus turali is comparatively short when compared to the Kadazan Dusun noseflutes, at around 35 centimetres long, and its three front finger holes are usually equidistant (Figure 10). Figure 10. Madam Inompiling of the Rungus community of Kg. Bavanggazo, Matunggong, Kudat District, playing her turali. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 20 November 2011) Music of the Rungus turali sometimes draws upon the tunes of secular songs, but usually directly imitates the melodies of Rungus rinait, the huge corpus of ritual chants, especially when the instrument is played by a novice bobolizan (priestess). Chanting styles of rinait vary from loud to soft ‘singing’, from heightened speech to monotonous whispering, according to the nature of the long verses articulated, and their place in the ritual. Logogenic melodic patterns used in chanting rinait serve to support and maintain the articulation. Rinait fall into pairs of lines. The first in the daily language is for the human world, while the second (of the same meaning) is in the ritual language for the spiritual realms. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 16 Although it is not a ritual instrument and is not performed during ritual, turali performance provides an opportunity for the novice priestess to memorise the music of various rinait and helps her to recall the verses, while practicing in a non- ritual context when the articulation of the actual verses is prohibited (Laura W.R. Appell, personal communication, 2002). Rinait can only be chanted during the correct ritual ceremony. It is believed that their performance outside of the ritual context will incur the wrath of the supernatural world. Hence, the need for an alternative sound medium, such as the soft sound of the turali, to practice the melodies of the various rinait. A short turali performance by Madam Inompiling of Kg. Bavanggazo, Kudat District, is shown in Figure 11. This is based on an excerpt of rinait that she learned as a young woman. The music utilises tetratonic melodic material without semitones and in this particular example only the lower register of the instrument’s range is played. As suggested in the key following the transcription, the second lowest pitch sounds a quartertone lower than written and the intervals are not exactly as in western tempered scales. The phrasal and motif structure of this turali piece by Inompiling is outlined in Table 2. This short piece consists of only seven lines, but the rinait from which it was it was derived would have been part of a longer chant. The logogenic patterns of the ritual poetry are directly imitated in this turali performance. The rising motif to the sustained pitch, which opens lines 3, 5 and 7, other rising and falling minor thirds and recurring falling major third figures onto the tonic pitch are taken directly from melodic patterns in chanted rinait, which can be based on tritonic and tetratonic scale-like patterns without semitones depending on the type and purpose of the particular rinait (see Figure 12). Tremolos on the tonic pitch at the ends of sections also recall the chanting patterns of verses in rinait that have lines ending in long monotonal articulation. Motifs with similar rising and falling intervals of major and minor sounding thirds are also often found in the older secular singing genres of the Rungus. These motifs can be expanded and varied as the performer develops her personal turali music repertoire beyond imitating rinait. When practicing rinait, a novice bobolizan normally utilises the lower quieter octave of the turali range, as in this example. She may, however, use the slightly louder higher octave, just as some rinait are loudly chanted, and Inompiling also performed another piece in the higher octave on the same occasion as that discussed here. Using Burkholder’s typology, the music of Inompiling’s turali performance can be described as completely modeling the music of the rinait, because it directly copies the melodic and rhythmic patterns of the chanting, but without articulating the words. Among the Rungus, the turali was always a women’s instrument because of its use by novice ritual specialists of the traditional religion, who are always women. Although it was and still is used by a novice bobolizan to practice the music of certain rinait chants, the turali is essentially a non-ritual instrument that can be played for entertainment in any secular context by a skilled woman, regardless of her religious affiliation.6 Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 17 For the listener, its soft sound is said to be soothing and to have a calming effect. If the performer plays at night in her family’s private apartment in the longhouse, the families in other apartments will hear the soft turali and children will settle down for the night. Main pitches in this turali performance: Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 18 Key to symbols: = tremolo; = sounds ¼ tone lower than written; = end of melodic line Figure 11. Turali performance by Madam Inompiling of Kg. Bavanggazo, Kudat imitating rinait. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, video clip 20 November 2011) Table 2 A summary of the structure of the turali piece by Inompiling in Figure 11. Register Line Phrasal and Motif Material Lower register (throughout this example) Line 1 Brief introduction characterised by a long tremolo on the lowest (tonic) pitch Line 2 Begins with a rising motif followed by two descending phrases, both ending in long tremolos on the tonic. Line 3 Begins with a distinctive rising motif that leads to a pause on the highest pitch which sounds a sixth above the tonic. This motif is followed by expanded melodic patterns from the first descending phrase of the second line, and ends with a tremolo on the tonic. Line 4 Consists of two phrases drawn from the last two phrases of the second line, each ending in a tremolo on the tonic. Line 5 Based on the melodic patterns of the third line that opens with the rising motif to pause on the highest pitch. Line 6 The two phrases of line 4 are repeated here, but the second phrase is shortened Line 7 Based on the melodic patterns of the third (and fifth) line that opens with the rising motif to pause on the highest pitch. Figure 12. Selected melodic motifs from Rungus rinait. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, from Moginum ceremonies at Kg. Ontolob, Kota Marudu, September 2007) Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 19 Music of the Lotud Turali Like the Rungus, the turali is also played solo by women among the Lotud of Tuaran District on Sabah’s west coast. The Lotud have two turali, the turali toniba (“short turali”) and the turali do anaru (“long turali”). The shorter turali is around 60 centimetres long (Figure 13), while the longer instrument has a length of up to 1 metre. Unlike the Rungus turali on which the three front finger holes are equidistant, the space between the first and second finger holes on both Lotud turali is longer than the circumference. Both the turali toniba and turali do anaru are solo instruments performed for personal entertainment, and the same music can be played on either instrument. Music of the Lotud turali does not normally imitate the chanting of rinait by a tantagas or Lotud priestess. Instead, it usually copies the tunes of non-ritual songs, or can be the personal creation of the performer. The transcription in Figure 14 shows the start of a performance using the turali toniba by Madam Lansaran of Kg. Dungan, Tuaran (see Figure 13), who held the flute in her left palm and to her left nostril because she had a cold in the nose. This is her own composition entitled “Buio-Buio” (“free style”). Lansaran said that she often plays this to welcome guests who come to her home, as a form of greeting and entertainment. It essentially expresses her feelings of happiness. This piece appears to utilise a quasi-hexatonic scale-like pattern, and its range extends almost across two octaves. The perceived tonic is the starting pitch of the excerpt (here notated as E flat two octaves above middle C). Each of the five pitches above this starting pitch in the higher register sounds an octave above the five pitches in the octave below the tonic, except for the highest upper register pitch which is a ninth above the fifth highest pitch in the lower octave. The latter sounds a whole tone below the tonic and a semitone above the fourth pitch. The presence of semitones in scale-like systems and traditional music in Sabah is uncommon. But this pitch is not used melodically to form a semitone with the fourth lowest pitch. It occurs momentarily in forming upward motifs near the beginnings of lines that start from the tonic, as well as in bridging lines leading into passages in the lower octave. The musical form consists of sections in the upper register interspersed with episodes in the lower octave. Its music is characterised by rapid embellished ascending triplet motif runs up and down the upper register, followed by similar motifs in the lower octave. The sound of the turali is very soft, especially in the lower octave where it is almost inaudible at the end of the excerpt. Although she described this piece as being in free style, Lansaran does use compositional techniques such as imitation and variation within her music. Most lines in the higher sections end with a long pause either on the pitch a fifth above the tonic, or on the pitch a whole tone above the tonic. The concluding pitch of a line is usually the starting pitch for the next line. Table 3 summarises the phrasal and motif structures in the excerpt. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 20 Figure 13. Madam Lansaran Pawig of Kg. Dungan, Tuaran plays the Lotud turali toniba. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, 6 August 1985) Since the performance is composed entirely by Lansaran and is not derived directly from existing vocal music, it has free rhythm. To the listener, the music conveys a vivid sense of exuberant joy and demonstrates the virtuosity of the performer. This sense of joy is especially reflected in the upward rise to the pause on the highest pitch in line 2, followed by descending triplet motifs to the pitch above the tonic. Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 21 (Excerpt = 63 seconds) Pitches of the turali by ear: Key to symbols: = tremolo; = end of melodic line Figure 14. Excerpt of turali piece Buio-Buio by Madam Lansaran Pawig of Kg. Dungan, Tuaran. (Source: Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan, recording PUG-KIT Sabah Museum 850806/7) Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 22 Table 3 A summary of the structure of Buio-Buio excerpt by Lansaran in Figure 14. Register Line Phrasal and Motif Material Upper register Line 1 Consists of ascending triplet-like motifs from the starting (tonic) pitch up to the sustained ending pitch a fifth above the tonic. Line 2 The melody ascends to the highest sustained pitch that lies a seventh above the tonic, before descending in triplet figures down to the pitch lying a whole tone above the tonic. Line 3 This starts with the opening motif of line 1, which is extended and concludes with the closing phrase of line 2. Line 4 A variation of line 3 material, but starting from the pitch a whole tone above the tonic with an inversion of the opening motif shape, and extension of its closing phrase. Line 5 A shortened version of line 1. Line 6 A shortened version of the second phrase in line 2. Line 7 A variation of line 4 with the opening motifs shortened, but the second phrase intact Line 8 Begins with the opening motif of line 1, but extends into repetitions of the pitch a whole tone above the tonic before ending with a descending motif that concludes on the pitch a whole tone below the tonic. This line functions as a bridge between the upper register material and the lower octave material in line 9 Lower register Line 9 Begins with an expansion of the closing motif of line 8, before descending into the lower octave utilising motif material derived from lines 1 and 2 Pieces of Lotud turali music that copy the tunes of songs tend to have more clear-cut rhythmic structures and repetitive melodic patterns directly derived from the sung source. Sections may also alternate between upper and lower octaves. For the Lotud, the soft sound of the turali expresses happiness and a sense of peace. It is a traditional classical genre performed by a skilled soloist, but it is not associated with ritual or ritual music. Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 23 Observations on Fingerhole Positions, Turali Tunings and Music When writing about flutes from Austronesian cultures of the Philippines, Maceda (1990) noted that many have a central back hole that divides the air column into two. This produces a pitch an octave higher than the fundamental. He noted that most mouthflutes of this kind have three lower front holes, located at distances of measured circumferential lengths. After careful measurements and calculations, he concluded that “The mid-bore system of scale measurement produces mostly a four- tone structure, not a pentatonic structure.” (pp. 198-203). He also noted that in some flutes, “auxiliary tones are produced by half opening holes being played” and “overblowing produces melodies in two octaves, resulting in a wider musical range” (ibid., p. 202). He further pointed out that imprecision and slight changes in measurements, friction, and uneven internal bamboo tube quality may produce different pitches outside of a tetratonic scale system (ibid., pp. 203-204). From examining the musical examples discussed here, it can be seen that the open central back hole does produce a pitch an octave above the fundamental especially in the performances by Kimoi and Inompiling. Melodies can be played in two octaves for each of the three instruments discussed, and the upper octave pitches are much louder than those in the lower octave, indicating that overblowing may be used to produce these. Of the three instruments, however, only the Rungus turali appeared to be based on a tetratonic scale-like system, although the pitches in the music was primarily determined by imitating Rungus rinait which can be tritonic or tetratonic. The Kadazan Dusun turahi largely produced pentatonic music without semitones, and the Lotud turali example was based on a hexatonic system with a semitone in the lower octave. These differences may be partially determined by the placement of the front finger holes on the three instruments. On the Rungus turali discussed here, the three front finger holes are equidistant, each a circumference length from the other. Among the front holes on the turahi and the Lotud turali, however, the first finger hole is almost a circumferential length and a half from the second. In playing her piece Buio-Buio (‘free style’) Lansaran may have also employed techniques such as half opening her finger holes to produce additional pitches, while other variations in measurements and friction may also have contributed to the distinctive pitch arrangement of her instrument. Conclusions From the foregoing, it can be seen that the turali noseflute has essentially the same basic structure wherever it is played among various Dusunic cultures in Sabah. Its sound is soft and its music uses melodic material that can range across two octaves. The lower octave is comparatively softer than the higher. When playing the turali, performers draw upon their emotions and can utilise genres of vocal music as sources for their music. They employ various compositional techniques for creating Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 24 their music. Turali music also conveys different meanings according to its culture and source. Among the Kadazan Dusun, turali music from the northern and southern parts of Tambunan District may imitate secular song tunes and the melodic patterns of rinait or ritual chants, but among older villages on the central part of the plain, the turahi or turali is based on the crying motifs of pogigiad by female mourners at a wake. Rungus turali music can also imitate secular songs, but is traditionally used by a novice priestess to practice the Rungus rinait. Among the Lotud, the turali player draws upon the tunes of traditional secular songs, or she can create her own music. The transformation of vocal music patterns into turali music involves various processes, depending on the nature of its source. When drawing upon Kadazan Dusun pogigiad, the performer uses an iterative process in which the main crying motif is repeated rapidly, forming long phrases in both upper and lower octaves. These are interspersed with drawn-out pitches at the ends of phrases, that recall the words oroi or Idi and often with tremolo that suggests sobbing. Variations can be developed by the individual performer to create a personal style. But the overall performance reflects its origin from pogigiad, and listeners can perceive patterns within the music with shapes that connote the crying. For learning rinait as among the Rungus, however, turali performance is a direct melodic and rhythmic imitation of the chanted music, usually in the lower register of the instrument but sometimes at an octave higher. The logogenic origin of music is clearly heard in its melodic patterns, especially in the long tremolos on the tonic pitch at the ends of sections. Over time, these melodic patterns can be developed as the individual performer’s self-composed turali music. Lotud turali music may also copy the tunes of secular songs, or be the free composition of the performer. In the latter case, the turali player draws purely upon her happy emotions and expresses these in sound. Her compositional processes involve creating a theme and developing this by the repetition and variation of motifs across the two octaves of the instrument. The meanings expressed by the performer through turali performance are clearly perceived by listeners. For the Lotud, the Rungus and generally among the Kadazan Dusun, the turali is a happy instrument played for entertainment and personal expression. Even when its music imitates the chanted rinait, the Rungus say its soft sound is emotionally soothing and conveys a sense of calm that helps families to settle down for sleep at night. During Lotud free-styled turali performances, as in the example above, listeners readily grasp the meaning of the music. Phrases of ascending triplet-like motifs to the higher pitches of its upper range, followed by descents to the lower range convey a clear sense of exuberant joy and happiness. Among the Kadazan Dusun on the central part of the Tambunan plain, however, the sound of the turahi or turali is described as melancholic. Through melodic transformation of elements of pogigiad with the instrument, the performer expresses deep sadness when remembering a deceased loved one, even years after a death. Listeners also associate its sound with sadness and longing, and perceive Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 25 elements from the mourning laments that are embellished and developed in the music. Although it is not played during mourning for the dead when the performance of all music is forbidden (except for dunsai), turali music in Tambunan draws upon the pogigiad crying during mourning as an expression of deep grief and continuing loss. Transformation is thus seen in turali performance among Dusunic societies in Sabah as the feelings of the performer are articulated through the musical sound of the instrument, by drawing upon and frequently directly imitating the melodic patterns of certain vocal music genres for its composition. Meanings inherent in the music, expressed through the development of melodic motifs and phrases, are recognised by listeners within the culture concerned. The turali is thus a vehicle for the personal emotional expression of the skilled performer. Over time, the skilled turali player may vary and transform these motifs and phrases according to her or his individual improvisatory skills, as well as the cultural aesthetics of the tradition. Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge all the turali performers who have played their music for me to record over the years, particularly Mdm. Kimoi and the late Mdm. Jilulim, the late Mr. Tinggi, Mr. Joseph Amat, the late Mr. Stephen Jintoni, Mdm. Gontit, Mdm. Inompiling, Mdm. Lansaran, the late Mdm. Isim, Mdm. Layang, and also the Mr. Molikum who showed me how to make the traditional instrument. I especially want to acknowledge the late Mrs. Laura W.R. Appell, ethnographer and wife of Professor George N. Appell, who first told me about the use of the turali for memorising rinait among novice bobolizan in Rungus culture. I also want to thank co-researchers in the field over the years, Dr. Paul Porodong, Environmental Anthropologist and Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Humanities, Arts and Heritage (FKSW) at Universiti Malaysia (UMS) for information on the Rungus, and Miss Judeth John Baptist, Senior Assistant Curator and Head of the Research Unit, Department of Sabah Museum, for further information about Lotud turali performance. Special thanks to Dr. Oliver Valentine Eboy of the GIS Laboratory, FKSW, UMS for producing the map in Figure 2, Miss Fifiana Christin Morie for converting my handwritten musical transcriptions into Sibelius software notation, and my husband Mr. Laurentius Kitingan, who first introduced me to the music of his culture in Tambunan over forty years ago, for scanning my diagrams for this article. Glossary Adi’ Adi’ oroi Adi’ – poetic utterances of stylised crying (pogigad) during a wake for a deceased younger sibling; Adi’ is a term of address for a younger brother or sister, while oroi is a poetic version of odoi, an expression of sorrow. Aka’ Aka’ oroi Aka’ – poetic utterances of stylised crying (pogigad) during a wake for a deceased older sibling; Aka’ is a term of address for an older brother or sister, while oroi is a poetic version of odoi, an expression of sorrow. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 26 Amaiya Amaiya oroi Amaiya / Amaiyai Amaiyai oroi Amaiyai – poetic utterances of stylised crying (pogigad) during a wake for a deceased father; Amaiya or Amaiyai are variants of Ama’ which is often used as a familial term of address for Apa’ or ‘father;’ oroi is a poetic version of odoi, an expression of sorrow. bobolian – Kadazan Dusun priestess, also called bobohian in the 'Tambunan’ dialect spoken among some of the older central villages of Tambunan District and bobohizan in Coastal Kadazan dialect of Penampang District bobolizan – Rungus priestess bungkau – jew’s harp made from polod palm skin dunsai – solemn gong ensemble music for the dead played during a wake among older villages in Tambunan District; its sound expresses mourning and is said to announce a death to the living, as well as to the dead who will travel on to the afterworld or Nabalu humbising – see sumbiling Idi Idi oroi Idi – poetic utterance of stylised crying during a wake for a deceased mother; Idi is a poetic term of address for Ama’ or ‘mother,’ while oroi is poetic for odoi, an expression of sorrow. mogigiad – mourners, usually women, who cry stylised laments around the body of the deceased during a wake, among older Kadazan Dusun villages of Tambunan District; from miad ‘to cry’ Oto Oto oroi Oto / Oyou Oyou oroi Oyou – poetic utterances of stylised crying during a wake for a deceased child; Oto and Oyou are poetic pet names for tanak or ‘child’, while oroi is poetic for odoi, an expression of sorrow. pais – a small, very sharp metal knife, traditionally used for intricate work in making solo musical instruments and refined handicrafts; there are various sizes of pais, used according to the intricacy of handiwork required pogigiad – stylised crying around the body of the deceased by mogigiad who are usually female relatives of the deceased; the expressions cried identify the deceased as a mother, father, child, older sibling or younger sibling; from miad ‘to cry’ rinait – long poetic ritual verses memorised and recited by priestesses in traditional religious ceremonies among indigenous Sabahan cultures; each culture has its own rinait sompoton – Kadazan Dusun mouthorgan with a gourd wind-chamber, a double-layered raft of eight bamboo pipe resonators containing polod palm skin reeds suling – endblown mouthflute with five or six fingerholes suling todung – rare noseflute played by men in the Kiulu to Ranau area; it has a different structure from the turali Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 27 sumbiling – thin bamboo species, also known as sumbihing in the ‘Tambunan’ dialect of Kadazan Dusun, spoken among some villages on the central part of Tambunan District, and humbising in the Coastal Kadazan dialect of Penampang District sundatang – long-necked strummed lute made from one piece of jackfruit wood with two brass or wire strings tantagas – Lotud priestess tongkungon – idiochordal tube zither made from large poring bamboo turali – noseflute with a central back thumb hole and three lower front fingerholes, played among Dusunic peoples in Sabah; known as turahi in the ‘Tambunan’ dialect spoken among some of the older central Kadazan Dusun villages of Tambunan District, and tuahi among coastal Kadazan Dusun of Penampang District turali do anaru – ‘long turali’ of the Lotud turali toniba – ‘short turali’ of the Lotud Endnotes 1 This article has been developed from a paper of the same title that I presented at the com- bined conference of the Musicological Society of Australia and the New Zealand Musicolog- ical Society, at the Queensland Conservatorium of Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia, from 18 to 21 November 2013. It is based on field research over 35 years of my life in Sa- bah. 2 Sabah has over 50 Austronesian isoglots, of whom around 32 are indigenous to the state. The indigenous peoples of Sabah speak languages mostly from the ancient Dusunic, Murutic and Paitanic families of languages. Historically, the Kadazan Dusun were the both largest Dusunic group and the largest ethnic group in Sabah. 3 For convenience, these musical excerpts have been transcribed into Western staff notation from ear. This does not mean, however, that the pitches shown are exactly as in Western tempered scales. At best, the transcriptions are approximations describing the music played. 4 The genres of pogigiad and dunsai do not occur among villages in the northern or far southeastern parts of the District, and hence turali music there is not based on pogigiad. 5 Like other indigenous peoples of Borneo, the Kadazan Dusun formerly lived in longhouses in which each family had its own private apartment. The smallpox epidemic of 1904 to 1905 and the Japanese occupation of North Borneo during World War II led to the demise of the longhouse among the Kadazan Dusun and in most places, although they still predominate among the Rungus and most Murutic groups. 6 Most indigenous peoples of Sabah are Christians, while some have converted to Islam and others continue to follow their traditional religions. Today, around 95% of Rungus are Chris- tians, mainly of the Protestant Church in Sabah (Lutheran), while over 4% follow the tradi- tional Rungus religion and less than 1% are Muslims (pers. comm. Dr. Paul Porodong, Rungus anthropologist, 2007). Although the numbers of practicing bobolizan have declined over the years, Rungus women continue to play the turali as a pastime. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (1-28) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 28 References Blacking, J. (1995). Culture and experience: Selected papers of John Blacking. Edited by Reginald Byron with a Foreword by Bruno Nettl. Chicago & London: Chicago University Press. Burkholder, J. P, (1994). The uses of existing music: Musical borrowing as a field. Notes 50(3), 851-870. Feld, S. & Fox, A.A. (1994). Music and language. Annual Review of Anthropology 23, 25- 53. Maceda, J. (1990). In search of a source of pentatonic hemitonic and anhemitonic scales in Southeast Asia. Acta Musicologica 62(2/3), 92-223. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (1988). Instruments and instrumental music of the Tambunan Kadazan/Dusun. Sabah Museum and Archives Journal 1(2), 24-61. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2003). Alat-Alat muzik dan muzik instrumental Kadazan Dusun Tambunan. Kota Kinabalu: Pejabat Kebudayaan dan Kesenian Negeri Sabah. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2004). Selected papers on music in Sabah. Kota Kinabalu: Kadazandusun Chair, Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Pugh-Kitingan, J. (2012). Kadazan Dusun. Siri Etnik Sabah. Kuala Lumpur: ITBM-UMS. Williams, J. (2009). Musical borrowing in hip-hop music: Theoretical frameworks and case studies. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Nottingham. Biography Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan is a Professor of Ethnomusicology, and Fellow of the Borneo Heritage Research Unit in the Faculty of Humanities, Arts and Heritage at Universiti Malaysia Sabah, where she previously held the Kadazandusun Chair (2003-2012, 2013- 2015). She graduated Bachelor of Arts with Honours (Class I) from Monash University (1976) and Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Queensland (1982), with theses on the music of the Huli of Papua New Guinea. She first came to Sabah in 1977 having married a member of the Kadazan Dusun, Sabah’s largest indigenous ethnic group, in 1976. Over the years she has conducted ethnomusicological research among many of Sabah’s cultures. Winner of two PEREKA gold medals, her research interests include music and language, music, dance and ritual processes, organology, ethnographic mapping, and the sociolinguistic review of Ethnologue descriptions of languages in Sabah. She is a fellow of the Borneo Research Council, an Executive member of the ICTM Study Group on Performing Arts of Southeast Asia, sits on two expert committees of Jabatan Warisan Negara Malaysia, and was Adjunct Research Fellow of Anthropology in the School of Political and Social Enquiry, Monash University (2009-2010).

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 2 (2017)

gamelan, Javanese dance, knowledge transmission, learning, wayang

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/139

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/831

Approaches to Learning Traditional Performing Arts in Central Java through a Direct Encounter

This paper examines learning approaches that are used by Javanese practitioners of traditional performing arts, including gamelan musicians, dhalang (puppet masters of wayang) and dancers. Based on fieldwork interviews and participant observation in and around Surakarta (Solo), Central Java, I described five learning approaches that have in common a direct encounter with live performing arts, which triggers an immediate learning process. These are learning by ear, simultaneous imitation, rehearsing and performing, exposure and absorption, and learning by association. Each learning approach is described based on the artists’ own accounts of teaching and learning, and supported by pre-existing literature in cognition studies and ethnomusicology. I show that most practitioners have engaged in multiple learning approaches, and also that knowledge of one art form often enables or aids learning in other art forms. Javanese performing arts continue to be popular and sustainable. The learning approaches examined in this paper contribute to such success because they support sites for knowledge transmission through direct encounters with arts as they are performed.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/831/567

Rachel Hand 29 Approaches to Learning Traditional Performing Arts in Central Java through a Direct Encounter Rachel Hand Department of Southeast Asian Studies, National University of Singapore 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, AS8 #06-01, Singapore 119260 e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 30 December 2017 Cite this article (APA): Hand, R. (2017). Approaches to learning traditional performing arts in Central Java through a direct encounter. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(2), 29-48. Abstract This paper examines learning approaches that are used by Javanese practitioners of traditional performing arts, including gamelan musicians, dhalang (puppet masters of wayang) and dancers. Based on fieldwork interviews and participant observation in and around Surakarta (Solo), Central Java, I described five learning approaches that have in common a direct encounter with live performing arts, which triggers an immediate learning process. These are learning by ear, simultaneous imitation, rehearsing and performing, exposure and absorption, and learning by association. Each learning approach is described based on the artists’ own accounts of teaching and learning, and supported by pre-existing literature in cognition studies and ethnomusicology. I show that most practitioners have engaged in multiple learning approaches, and also that knowledge of one art form often enables or aids learning in other art forms. Javanese performing arts continue to be popular and sustainable. The learning approaches examined in this paper contribute to such success because they support sites for knowledge transmission through direct encounters with arts as they are performed. Keywords: gamelan, Javanese dance, knowledge transmission, learning, wayang Introduction Traditional Javanese performing arts include gamelan music, wayang puppetry and dance.i In this paper I examine approaches for learning across these three art forms, and focus in particular on situations where there is a direct encounter between the learner and the performing arts, triggering an immediate learning process.ii Analysing these learning processes shows that people tend to make use of a range of approaches for learning, rather than relying on a single one. By examining such approaches, we can better understand how knowledge is transmitted in traditional 30 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Javanese performing arts and therefore how new generations of performers are created. Based on interviews with performers and supported by pre-existing literature, I have divided the ways in which practitioners learn performing arts through a direct encounter into five learning approaches. The first three, learning by ear, simultaneous imitation, and rehearsing and performing, all take place at the time when performing arts activities are being conducted. Exposure and absorption, the fourth approach, can be a subconscious and unintentional process. The fifth, learning by association, refers to learning one part by knowing another and highlights the links between different art forms where knowledge of one enables a practitioner to learn another. Based on extensive fieldwork observations and interviews with practitioners and arts teachers, each section of the paper will explain what the learning approach is and examine how it works in practice. Previous research about learning processes in Javanese gamelan music has been conducted by ethnomusicologists. Perlman (2004) describes how the mind draws on different types of memory, reasoning and cognitive processes, and states that “this cognitive heterogeneity … explains why music can be mysterious to its own expert practitioners” (p. 18). Perlman and Brinner (1995) both provide systems of categorization for the types of knowledge held by gamelan musicians. Perlman (2004) uses categories of implicit and explicit knowledge, where implicit knowledge is acquired slowly but can be quickly summoned to action and where explicit knowledge may be hard to immediately put into practice (p. 22). Brinner (1995) discusses procedural and declarative knowledge types. Declarative knowledge refers to factual information whereas procedural knowledge is about how to do something (p. 39). He goes on to describe a process where “by applying procedural knowledge to a stock of declarative knowledge of prototypical pieces, a musician gains declarative knowledge, increasing his or her knowledge of repertoire” (Brinner, 1995, p. 148). In addition to ethnomusicological works, this paper examines dissertations by Indonesian students. These dissertations describe the life of a single senior performing artist in considerable detail, and frequently include information about how that artist learnt to play gamelan, dance or perform wayang. In many cases, the artist studied outside the context of a formal school-based education at a time before attending school was expected. Waridi (1997) wrote his Master’s dissertation on the highly respected musician Martopangrawit. He includes descriptions of Martopangrawit’s family background, education and how he learnt gamelan music, as well as details of his career. Harisna’s 2010 dissertation about gamelan musician and composer Suyadi Tejopangrawit is another example of a biographical work about a musician that is useful for researching knowledge transmission. He describes how Suyadi used approaches such as learning by ear and ascetic activities in order to learn to play gamelan. Whereas the above works focus on gamelan music, in this paper I take a broader approach, including other art forms. This is because, in the context of knowledge transmission, the same practitioners are often active in more than one art form and their knowledge of one significantly informs their ability to engage in the others. Supanggah (2011) writes, “in the world of traditional arts in Java, there are Rachel Hand 31 no strict boundaries between the art of pedhalangan, karawitan, and/or dance” (p. 268). This paper will show that not only gamelan musicians but also dancers and dhalang (puppet masters of wayang) use a range of approaches to acquire knowledge of various types. The five approaches discussed here can be found in many genres of performing arts across Southeast Asia and beyond. However, there have been few detailed studies of learning outside the context of formal education. In Southeast Asia, studies of knowledge transmission have tended to focus on the role of the teacher. Wong (2001) and Giordano (2011) have written about the wai khru ceremony, where students of Thai music pay respects to their teachers. Mrázek (2008) describes how both the teacher and the musical instrument are imbued with spiritual significance in Thai music, bound to each other, as part of the relationship between the teacher and student (pp. 80-81). Kitley (1995) suggests that in Bali, a similarly powerful, though perhaps less complex, teacher-student relationship can emerge when she describes how traditionally “the teacher and pupil have an idealised relationship where dedication, love and loyalty mean more than money” (p. 49). A study that explores learning beyond lessons and classes is Growing Into Music, conducted by five academics from the United Kingdom and Azerbaijan. It focuses on the music of Mande jeli musicians of Mali and Guinea; Langa and Manganiyar folk musicians of Rajasthan; hereditary musicians in the Hindustani art music of North India; ashiq bards and mugham musicians of Azerbaijan; rumba musicians of Western Cuba; and the musica llanera ‘plains music’ tradition of Venezuela. The project website states: “Learning music is accomplished largely by osmosis and imitation, often without a great deal of conscious intent. Children may develop an unselfconscious musical confidence born of inherited or deeply-nurtured authority” (Growing Into Music). While the Growing Into Music project focused on children learning music, following their progress over several years, in this paper I have used interviews with adults and teenagers to find out how they learnt performing arts when they were young. Nettl (2005) states that “to all kinds of music scholars, one of the most important things about a musical culture is how it, as it were, transmits itself. Considering this, ethnomusicologists have contributed modestly on the general nature of … different forms of transmission” (p. 292). Exploring approaches to knowledge transmission beyond that which is guided by a teacher, a book or a recording is an effective way to find out how practitioners have learnt their performing arts, and therefore how a performing arts culture is able to survive. I became interested in the way Javanese performing arts are learnt in Java after studying gamelan music first in the United Kingdom and then in Central Java. I lived in Surakarta and studied gamelan music, on its own and in the context of wayang and dance from 2008 to 2017. This included two years studying at Institut Seni Indonesia Surakarta (Indonesian Arts Institute Surakarta) from 2008 to 2010. I also took lessons with teachers, participated in community rehearsals and performances, and was an observer at many performing arts events during this period. My PhD research gave me the opportunity to ask questions about how Javanese practitioners had learnt their arts. 32 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Learning by Ear Javanese writers refer to the term kupingan as an approach for acquiring knowledge, taken from the Javanese word kuping or ‘ear’, and therefore translated here as ‘learning by ear’. Waridi (1997) gives an example of kupingan as “a person who is interested in learning gamelan always going to places where gamelan events are held”. He goes on to explain how this approach was considered effective before notation was commonly used, but that it requires a long period of time “because it is not a direct process of learning and teaching between a student and a teacher” (pp. 34-35). Harisna (2010) notes that in order for learning by ear to be successful, “it must be supported by perseverance and the willingness of individuals to repeat the results of their observations. The outcome is apparent when the person has memorised the material taught” (p. 42). We can see that for learning by ear the onus is on the student to learn, without a specific teacher. This is different to being taught aurally, where a teacher plays a passage that is repeated by the student. In kupingan (as in all of the approaches covered in this paper) there is no specific teacher doing the teaching. The concept of learning by ear is more easily applied to gamelan music than to dance or wayang, which obviously incorporate important visual elements. Although I have translated kupingan as learning by ear, simply listening and playing, with less of a focus on learning, may be more accurate. The elderly musician Subiniiii captures the idea very well: “[Whatever instrument you play], as long as you’ve heard it you can play it” (Subini, personal communication, 20 January 2014). Gamelan maker and musician Joko Sabeyan explained that this is a process which begins at a very young age, “Kupingan is every time we hear a note, especially gamelan, oh this is sléndro [tuning], this is pélog [tuning]. From when we are little we can already feel this is pélog. I could already do this from a young age” (Joko Sabeyan, personal communication, 23 February 2014). Being able to differentiate between the pitches of the sléndro and pélog scales used in gamelan can be seen as the first step in developing a good ear, and tends to be a skill readily acquired by children surrounded by these musical tones. Subini explained how she never made a big effort to learn gamelan music through listening. “I also don’t know, I’m surprised at myself, every time I play it I know it, by just listening I can play it” (Subini, personal communication, 20 January 2014). The dhalang and musician Hali Jarwo Sularso felt that the concept of playing together was related to learning by ear. He said, “Kupingan is when lots of friends play gamelan and they remember it all, without using notation. But if they are asked to write notation they can’t do it.” (Hali Jarwo Sularso, personal communication, 9 February 2014). Their enhanced listening ability is used to play together as an ensemble, but they are also reliant on the support of the ensemble, so their ability to play together does not necessarily translate into individual knowledge. For musicians who didn’t grow up surrounded by gamelan music, it appears to be more difficult to learn by ear.iv The gamelan teacher and musician Surono commented: To be honest, for me, learning gamelan relies more on [my head], not my ear. Because my background…was that I began to know the arts world [as a teenager], Rachel Hand 33 so my ears weren’t very good at learning…. [Because] I didn’t feel it from a young age, different to [my cousin] Sujarwo. Even when he was a newborn, Sujarwo was already in that environment.... For me, I rely more on notation. I am quite slow at learning by ear. (Surono, personal communication, 2 March 2014). The musician Bambang Siswanto, however, was able to train himself to learn by ear: Sometimes a person’s hearing is absolute and this is good and can be effective, sometimes not. Like me, at the beginning it was not effective. My eyes were effective, through following the movements [of a musician’s hands] with my eyes…. The notes were not important, but the way of moving. But in order to remember it, after I had been learning for a while, listening was more effective…. If the whole gamelan is sounding, I can still hear [the instrument] I want to hear. Once I could do that, listening became effective. (Bambang Siswanto, personal communication, 26 March 2014) The singer and musician Sukaeni linked the idea of learning by ear to perasaan or feeling. She explained how she could play pieces that she didn’t know the name of and hadn’t necessarily played before, by following other instruments (Sukaeni, personal communication, 23 March 2014). As we shall see in the next section, this idea of simultaneous imitation is key to the ways in which Javanese musicians and dancers learn and play together. The musician Wakidi Dwidjomartono also described learning by ear as being related to feeling, and to the idea of alami (‘natural’) performing artists, a term he applies to himself, meaning those who learnt outside the formal education system.v He defined kupingan as listening and then memorising (Wakidi Dwidjomartono, personal communication, 10 May 2014). However, for the other musicians and performing artists I spoke to, there was no explicit process of memorisation at work, rather a seemingly automatic transition from listening to reproducing with very limited conscious effort on the part of the musician or artist. In his book about music and cognition, Levitin (2006) describes how most people become expert listeners by age six because we have “incorporated the grammar of our musical culture into mental schemas that allow us to form musical expectations” (p. 216). Perhaps it is these mental schemas that allow performing artists, especially those who grew up surrounded by arts, to learn through listening alone. Simultaneous Imitation Simultaneous imitation is an approach used by gamelan musicians and dancers but not by dhalang, since there is usually only one dhalang performing at a time. Gamelan musicians use these approaches to play pieces they may not have played before or do not remember. With the instruments of the gamelan taking on different roles, musicians can join in with a piece by following other instruments, responding immediately to aural cues. Brinner (1999) describes how “a Javanese musician must listen interpretively” and respond appropriately to particular cues (p. 24). Elsewhere he defines this as a process of deductive imitation, which “involves idiomatic 34 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 translation or transformation of an essence abstracted from perceptual input” (Brinner, 1995, p. 138). In other words, the musicians follow instruments that may be played differently to their own, using the heterophonic structure of the music to play together. He describes how the gamelan ensemble forms an interactive safety net, allowing musicians to follow along without creating problems for the overall music of the ensemble (Brinner, 1995, pp. 179-180). Bambang Siswanto explained to me how he could use such deductive simultaneous imitation for some instruments but not others: “If I don’t know the piece at all, I can still play gendèr for it (a tube-resonated metallophone that plays a central role in the ensemble), but I certainly cannot play rebab (a two-stringed bowed lute, a leading melodic instrument) or bonang (a set of horizontal pot gongs, another important melodic instrument). I can play balungan (one of several instruments playing the basic skeletal melody). I can follow the bonang or the saron panerus (a high-pitched metallophone that anticipates the skeletal melody)” (Bambang Siswanto, personal communication, 26 March 2014). In this way, the use of simultaneous imitation enables musicians to play a much larger repertoire than the pieces they have committed to memory. Levitin (2006) describes the concept of chunking, where musicians remember schemas for familiar sequences and use faking to fill in between by replacing a gap with something “stylistically plausible” (p. 215). In Javanese gamelan this is referred to as ngawur. It can occur when a gamelan player does not know the piece they are playing, and is playing an elaborating instrument.vi They must try to get by through a combination of deductive simultaneous imitation and filling in their part by faking it at times when a cue from another instrument is not immediately apparent. For instruments that can easily rely on cues for all their notes, ngawur is unnecessary. As well as a way to survive a performance, simultaneous imitation is an important approach for learning, which can be used at rehearsals and informal playing sessions as well as during performances. Suparno used this approach to learn gamelan: I only imitate. So I don’t use notation, I just imitate. For example, playing demung sometimes I see who is next to me and just copy them. After a long time, [the material] has gone in here (indicates his head). (Suparno, personal communication, 21 January 2014) Whereas the approach of learning by ear is focused on listening, in simultaneous imitation a performer concentrates on doing. They are engaged in listening, but must respond almost instantaneously to what they hear by moving, playing an instrument or vocalising. There is less time to consider what one has heard, as an immediate reaction is required. This is an important skill for professional gamelan musicians to acquire in order to access increased repertoire, but it is also a learning approach in itself, as information gained whilst playing music enters the memory without an explicit process of memorisation. This is similar to the approach taken during dance classes. In palace-style dance, the dancers are expected to have fully memorised the dance routine for any performance. It is during the learning process that Rachel Hand 35 simultaneous imitation is one of the most common approaches for teaching and learning. During a group dance class, the dancers are positioned so that less experienced students can see their more expert counterparts. This is so that they can simultaneously imitate them, and learn through moving as they dance. The dance teacher Umiyati Sri Warsini commented that if a new student approaches her, she suggests they just join in at first, dancing at the back of the class (Umiyati Sri Warsini, personal communication, 16 May 2014). The desirable type of imitation in this case is not deductive; it is unlikely that a dance student can deduce their own role from following a different role. For dance, an exact imitation is the end-goal, as a number of students usually learn the same role together. Figure 1. Dancers rehearsing at the Mangkunegaran Palace, Surakarta. The dancers on the left are turning around to look at their peers and find out what the next movement should be. (Source: Rachel Hand, 26 June 2013) While this type of imitation is restricted to group classes for palace-style dance, for village-style masked dance, learning through simultaneous imitation can take place during a performance for dances with more than one of the same character. Beja Nugraha explained that he learnt on stage rather than through rehearsals: When I did masked dance for the first time, the learning process from my father was direct [in performance], not through rehearsals. Yes, in 1995 in Jakarta, at Taman Mini no less, that was the first time I did the masked dance, following Father. My role was at the back. (Beja Nugraha, personal communication, 23 February 2014) 36 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Beginner dancers often start by performing simple roles where several people are dancing the same routine. Processes of simultaneous imitation and interpretation like this are key to the way people learn gamelan and dance. They can take place during classes, rehearsals and performances, and are a vital skill for performing artists, both as a way to survive professional life and as a learning approach. Learning through Rehearsing and Performing A rehearsal of Javanese performing arts is referred to as a latihan, but whereas in English the word rehearsal often means preparation for a specific performance, there are many routine, weekly or twice-weekly latihan held in and around Surakarta where professional and amateur musicians or dancers come together to play music or dance for enjoyment. As Sutton (1993) notes, a latihan “is valued in its own right” (p. 18).vii Young or less experienced performers sometimes attend rehearsals as a way to learn from more knowledgeable players. In many cases a rehearsal is led by a professional musician, who may act as a kind of teacher, selecting repertoire for the group and helping less experienced participants, but rarely instructing individuals in exactly what they should play. Sutton (1993) points out that “little is said by a group leader unless the resultant sound is too disorganised or misconceived” (p. 19). An example of this is the senior musician Suripto Hadi Martono, who runs a number of rehearsals held in people’s homes and at community spaces, which cater to participants from a range of backgrounds, amateur and professional, old and young. Musicians learn from each other at these sessions, picking up variants of melodic phrases, drumming patterns, and ideas for arrangement of repertoire. They can engage in simultaneous imitation as discussed in the previous section, and may also be allowed to choose some of the repertoire of the rehearsal. Outside the formalised classroom and away from their teachers, musicians can try out particular styles or melodies in a musically supportive atmosphere. Whereas gamelan music and dance are learnt at rehearsals, a dhalang does not usually learn through routine group rehearsals. Rehearsals for wayang, if held at all, are in preparation for a performance and tend to be aimed at rehearsing the musicians, rather than the dhalang himself. Only sections of the wayang show are practised, with the focus on those parts with particularly unusual or challenging musical accompaniment. It is unusual for a professional dhalang to rehearse his part at all in the context of a rehearsal.viii The line between rehearsal and performance is not particularly clear-cut in terms of the way the music is played. Sutton (1993) notes that “the distinction between performance and rehearsal in Java is much less sharply drawn than in the West” (p. 17). At both rehearsals and performances, musical pieces or suites are played through in their entirety without stopping. Learning therefore also takes place at a performance in a similar way to at a rehearsal. Soetarno (1997) describes the wayang performances put on by famous dhalang Anom Soeroto every thirty-five Rachel Hand 37 days for his Javanese birthday, as “fostering a sense of family among dhalang, also for gaining experience, exchange of thoughts, exchange of creativity, and this in turn enriches the experience of the soul” (p. 18). For children, the time immediately before a performance was traditionally an opportunity for them to try out the gamelan instruments and play with the wayang puppets. Although I have witnessed this at village performances, it is no longer the norm. Supanggah (2011) notes that “many performances today are more formal or ‘closed’ in nature, with an increasing gap between the artists and the audience” (p. 254). Nonetheless, while children nowadays rarely get the chance to try the instruments before a show, performances still provide an opportunity for children to learn by watching and listening, and sometimes by becoming the performer themselves. Many of my informants described their first experiences performing as on stage with no rehearsal. In some cases, such as Suparno’s account below of his first wayang performance which took place in the 1950s, this was actually the first time they had taken part in a particular performing art at all. [My first time] holding wayang puppets was at Gondo’s place, at a ruwatan ritual performance. The person having the ritual done was my sister, Gondo, who had knocked over a rice cooking pot. The person doing the ruwatan ritual was Mbah Masaran … During the day I was asked by my father to perform wayang after the ritual. Me, even though I was only a young child and my speaking wasn’t good. I said I couldn’t do it. “How come you can’t do it? It’s only the follow-on after the ritual. At home you play with wayang puppets. You should put that into practice at the performance at your own sister’s place.”… Now, a child doesn’t have knowledge of dramatic skill (sanggit). But I was brave enough to come forward. In the first scene the characters hadn’t even greeted each other, but were angry straight away about the whereabouts of the wedding party. My father laughed from behind the wayang screen. “What is this kid doing?!” Of course, after I had finished as we were going home, [he said,] “What were you thinking? People with guests they haven’t even greeted but are immediately angry?!” I couldn’t do it yet, but would be able to in future. So, starting from being laughed at, I was then trained so things ran more smoothly, at that time using the mucuki model. (Suparno, personal communication, 21 January 2014) 38 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Figure 2. A child dhalang, Kuntawijaya, performs mucuki in Sekalekan village, Klaten. Note the small platform he is sitting on so he is the right height for the screen. (Source: Rachel Hand, 20 February 2016) Despite being laughed at, Suparno’s first performance didn’t put him off wayang. His father expected him to jump from playing with puppets at home to performing a complex story on stage. It is likely that he was aware that his young son would be unable to perform properly, but children are forgiven for performing badly, and being on stage, being laughed at, could help move Suparno’s learning along. The mucuki system, as a way for a child dhalang to practice in a real performance situation continues to exist to this day, with a young child, most frequently from a dhalang family, taking to the stage and becoming the dhalang for around thirty minutes before the main performance begins. With the gamelan musicians already in place to accompany them and the audience beginning to arrive, a child dhalang can get some exposure and feel what it is like to be the dhalang, before he or she is able to perform a whole story. Mucuki performances tend to feature just one or two scenes, with a focus on battles rather than speech, as child dhalang tend to have better puppet manipulation skills than they have knowledge of textual content. Many of the dhalang I spoke to had performed mucuki when they were young, often before their father’s show. The dhalang Wulan Sri Panjang Mas describes how she is teaching her son wayang by encouraging him to perform mucuki before her performances: Rachel Hand 39 When he was in class six of primary school I said to him, “Son, you are going to be a dhalang. Here’s the text, you read it.” I taught him and he could do it, so I gathered together his classmates from school. I trained them to play gamelan, to accompany him. Then when it was his first performance at home … everyone knew that my child was a dhalang … Then, after a while, if I had a performance in Klaten or wherever, my son could already perform wayang, I told him to perform mucuki before my performance. (Wulan Sri Panjang Mas, personal communication, 7 March 2014) As well as wayang, gamelan is also often learnt through performing. The singer Sutarmi learnt to sing by performing for her father’s wayang performances as a child in the 1970s. She explained that she started out only singing simple repertoire and then learnt other pieces by listening to them. She also learnt to play some gamelan instruments in this way (Sutarmi, personal communication, 23 February 2014). Hali Jarwo Sularso described how he learnt to play gamelan through performing as a child in the 1950s, starting by playing gong at all-night wayang performances: The gong came first ... When I was little I would sleep and then be woken up at 3 a.m. to play gong. Oh yes, I was so happy! After that came bonang, after gong, bonang … Once I had memorised bonang, then came kendhang (a set of two- headed drums that control the tempo). (Hali Jarwo Sularso, personal communication, 9 February 2014) Later, as an adult, he continued to learn while performing, but from his friends and peers: If we gathered …, then I could check. Oh, if that is the case, my rebab-playing the other day was wrong. It was often like that with my friends…. If there were a gamelan performance I would definitely play kenong (large pot gongs that mark structural points in the music), but [listen to] that rebab playing. Yes, until the kenong was wrong because I wasn’t [concentrating]. (Hali Jarwo Sularso, personal communication, 9 February 2014) Hali Jarwo Sularso is a dhalang as well as a gamelan musician. He has learnt wayang from watching other dhalang and takes elements that he likes as inspiration for his own performances: When a dhalang performs there is humour, there is sulukan (sung verse), puppet manipulation, keprak (percussive signals and effects), and what do I like? If the keprak is good I use it. Wow, the jokes are good, I will use them. But I don’t write them down, I put them in here (indicates his head) and they are in. Wow, the story is good … Yes, I use it. So in the past I learnt to perform wayang by watching wayang performances until the end. I never went home early, never, I stayed until the end so that the story could finish. (Hali Jarwo Sularso, personal communication, 9 February 2014) 40 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 He finds it easier to absorb and retain information through watching wayang performances if he is playing the gamelan rather than just spectating, so if the dhalang is a friend of his and there is space, he will join the musicians for some of the performance. Traditionally, two wayang performances were held for an event, one during the day, which was considered less important, and the other at night, from around 9 p.m. until the morning. This night performance was considered the more significant one and would feature the main dhalang. He might ask a younger brother or a son to perform for the daytime performance as an opportunity to practise on stage. In addition to the daytime performances providing a forum for less experienced dhalang to perform, they were also the place for beginner gamelan musicians to explore the gamelan. Joko Sabeyan describes how there was even a relaxed attitude towards who played the gamelan at some night performances: At performances in the past it wasn’t like it is now, now it is quite strict. For example, if someone is the dhalang, the gamelan musicians are from [the leader] Wito, for example, one club. If another person from outside the club wants to swap, perhaps they are shy or not allowed to, it’s like that. In the past whoever wanted to could play, while learning ... In the past children could play the gamelan. Before, when father was performing, it was children who played the gamelan, his grandchildren usually, and this wasn’t considered an issue back then. Even the host of the event didn’t consider it a problem. Nowadays it is made into a problem. “Why are children learning at this performance!?” Some people are like that. (Joko Sabeyan, personal communication, 23 February 2014) He told me that nowadays there are far fewer opportunities for beginners to join performances like this. Nonetheless, within these constraints, learning while performing is still an important way in which young artists acquire knowledge and skills. Clearly, performing is crucial to the learning process, and importantly, performing comes at an early stage in learning, when an artist may have mastered very little. As soon as he or she knows barely enough to perform, perhaps knowing how to play only one or two instruments and not even a whole gamelan piece, or perform a single wayang scene or a few dance steps, a young artist is pushed into their first performance, often by older relatives. While gamelan and dance students certainly learn through rehearsing as well, it is these initial, often unplanned, performances that they remember. For young dhalang, there is often no rehearsal before their first performance, which may be preceded by learning through exposure and absorption alone. Rachel Hand 41 Figure 3. Now a rare occurrence, children join in playing the gamelan at a wayang performance in Manjungan village, Klaten. Here, Sukaeni is showing her niece, Nining Dewi Larasati, how to play saron, and her nephew, Nanang Kris Utama, is playing saron at the front. (Rachel Hand, 9 August 2013) Exposure and Absorption While the learning approaches described in the preceding sections involved intention on the part of the learner, some performing arts knowledge is gained through exposure and absorption, a process of osmosis that takes place without any effort on the part of a learner or a teacher. This unintentional learning occurs in many places, including performances and rehearsals, and is likely to be a particularly strong factor in the learning of those artists growing up with performing arts at home. Since a person’s learning capacity is greatest during childhood, being surrounded by performing arts activities at home can make a significant contribution to a person’s knowledge and skill at a subconscious level, without requiring any intention or effort. Levitin (2006) compares acquisition of a music culture to language acquisition and explains that “our ability to make sense of music depends on experience” (p. 106). Children growing up with music have a head-start in terms of the amount of music they experience compared to those growing up in non- musical households. A dissertation about dance teacher S. Maridi describes a process of natural absorption of knowledge: 42 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 For S. Maridi, learning to dance occurred naturally; as a child there is an automatic desire to play. He often played imitating the movements of his father when he was dancing from behind him ... S. Maridi’s behaviour caught the attention of his father. His father then started to teach him the techniques of good dancing. (Kusumawati, 2002, pp. 25-26) From this we can see that as a child, S. Maridi was never forced into learning dance, but when he showed interest of his own accord, this was noticed and encouraged by his father who was himself a dancer. Such exposure and absorption during childhood is key for many artists whose initial interest in performing arts begins as a result of this. Hali Jarwo Sularso defined wayang as his hobby when he was a child and told me how he loved to watch performances whenever possible (Hali Jarwo Sularso, personal communication, 9 February 2014). Sujarwo Joko Prehatin described how, when his cousin Surono had set up a small wayang screen at home to practise wayang, “I indirectly joined in with learning even though no one was teaching me. I just held the wayang puppets and played in the style of a person performing wayang” (Sujarwo Joko Prehatin, personal communication, 31 January 2014). For some children of performing artists, the assumption was that they would be able to do performing arts anyway, without any direct instruction. The dhalang Beja Nugraha described his father Tukas Gondo Sukasno as being very harsh on him, expecting him to learn without any direct tuition. He was required to make full use of any exposure to wayang by watching performances with maximum attention: If he performed, I really learnt. When Father performed wayang, when my older brother performed, when my uncle performed, then I learnt …[through] watching. I didn’t even want to play gamelan ... My father, if he educated me, he was very strict…. If I was confused, I was scolded. ‘If you are watching wayang, what are you looking at?’ Like that, I was told off. (Beja Nugraha, personal communication, 23 February 2014) In this way, unintentional absorption of performing arts is transformed into intentional learning, though the forum of a performance remains the same. Watching performances and intentionally learning is common among performing artists. Bambang Siswanto described how he was able to learn a great deal from watching specifically at a time when his ear was not yet fully trained to learn by listening alone: How do Wakidjo’s hands move when he plays gendèr or rebab or kendhang? It’s his hands that move, because I couldn’t catch the idea of sound from the kendhang. I just knew, I was told, it’s good, that’s all. So how does he make that sound? When I was close to him I could ask him. If not, I could only watch…. Then later there was a different kendhang player, it was different, even the sound was different. And then I asked, which one was better? I didn’t actually know which one was better. Only at that time, since it wasn’t a problem for the other kendhang player, it must have meant that it was good, that was all. My thinking was like that. That Rachel Hand 43 drumming was good. There were people back then who were sensitive. If it wasn’t nice sometimes they would move, look over or whatever …, basically they moved as an effect of him playing something. That meant I could get it, oh whoever made that less nice, it could be felt, even though I didn’t know the detail of it. (Bambang Siswanto, personal communication, 26 March 2014) We can see from this that through watching, Bambang began to learn about what makes a performance considered good by the musicians, knowledge which he could then use when playing gamelan himself. Exposure to live performances or rehearsals is essential to building up this kind of knowledge; media such as notation and recordings simply cannot convey such details, and even learning from a teacher in a classroom or individual lesson does not provide this kind of interactional information which is crucial to becoming a good gamelan musician. Wulan Sri Panjang Mas grew up in a village in Wonogiri and, as a child, was only exposed to her father’s wayang performances. She explained that when she started to watch wayang by other dhalang, in particular in Surakarta, she would often ask questions about what she was seeing: Before I didn’t know any Surakarta dhalang, I was just with my father. Then, afterwards, I got to know senior Surakarta dhalang. If I watched a wayang, coincidentally there would be one who would sit next to me. If there was a scene that I didn’t know I would often ask. And the dhalang who sat next to me would explain. (Wulan Sri Panjang Mas, personal communication, 7 March 2014) For Wulan, unintentional exposure to performing arts as a child led to her intentionally learning from exposure to different dhalang as an adult, and therefore greatly widening her knowledge. The musician Wakidi Dwidjomartono too, having been exposed to gamelan in his local community from a young age, began to take advantage of this, learning for himself when he saw others play gamelan. For example, back then there was Dalimin’s bonang playing, Cipto Suwarso’s bonang playing, which I paid attention to, watched. For example, if I wanted to learn bonang, I would watch that bonang player. Wow, he is so good, and then wow, his bonang playing is like this. (Wakidi Dwidjomartono, personal communication, 10 May 2014) He describes his learning approach as some kind of inexplicable transformation: I asked myself, how am I suddenly able to play a bit, play gendèr, play rebab? I didn’t take lessons with anyone, didn’t study … I was just left as I was. But suddenly, alone, yes that. Perhaps there was already a talent or a gift from there … a heavenly gift. (Wakidi Dwidjomartono, personal communication, 10 May 2014) This was the same response I received when I asked my rebab teacher, Darsono Hadiraharjo, how he was able to remember the whole of the lengthy piece Gendhing Krawitan off by heart. He told me he had just got up one day and been able to play it, which he also referred to as a heavenly gift (anugerah). 44 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 I argue that these kinds of seemingly instant acquisitions of knowledge are in fact the result of years of exposure and absorption, usually beginning from birth or in early childhood. This kind of exposure from a very young age sets the stage for being able to do performing arts. However, exposure alone is clearly inadequate for becoming a performing artist. Practitioners must make use of this exposure in some way if they wish to excel in performing arts. Those people who only acquired knowledge unintentionally through exposure and absorption without supporting this with other forms of learning were able to do arts to some extent but would not become professional performing artists. Learning by Association One of the key traits that unite almost all professional Javanese performing artists is that they tend to be multi-skilled. It is well known that most gamelan musicians are proficient on many instruments of the gamelan and can often sing vocal parts. Many singers can also play gamelan to some extent. However, it is less commonly acknowledged that many artists can do more than one art form. For example, many dhalang can play gamelan, and indeed it is often considered necessary to be a good dhalang. Some dhalang can also dance and they make use of this knowledge when making puppets dance on the screen. Professional dancers understand the cues given to them from the keprak and often know some of the drumming patterns that accompany the dances, being able to vocalise them if they don’t have drumming technique. Gamelan musicians who play for dance or wayang (and I would argue that this is what most professional musicians do nowadays since gamelan-only events are comparatively rare) must understand a great deal of what is happening on stage or on screen and many gamelan musicians can also dance or perform wayang a bit, although they may have never performed professionally. With all these overlaps in knowledge between the different art forms, learning one art form can help a performer to acquire knowledge in another art form, through learning by association, and according to my research, this is frequently what happens. Many of my interviewees were capable of performing more than one art form, or at least had some specialised knowledge in multiple art forms. Hali Jarwo Sularso is not only a dhalang but is also an expert musician. He explained: It’s like this, for the dhalang’s art one must be able to play gamelan. If a dhalang can play gamelan that is really good and they will be respected by the gamelan musicians ... This is different to a dhalang who can’t play gamelan. If he wants to signal to end a piece, he can’t. I don’t like that. I learnt to perform wayang and also to play gamelan. (Hali Jarwo Sularso, personal communication, 9 February 2014) Similarly, in order to play gamelan for wayang accompaniment, it is advisable to know some wayang-specific repertoire: “The rebab has to be able to play sulukan, right? Because it guides the sulukan. The rebab player must know. Same for the gendèr player—ada-ada (a style of sung verse used to create an atmosphere), sulukan, they must be memorised” (Hali Jarwo Sularso, personal communication, 9 February 2014). Rachel Hand 45 Surono described how knowing dance can help with wayang: “For us, because we already know about dance, for performing wayang, [I know the] movements, the original movements, and afterwards I can transfer that to wayang movements, so it is much better” (Surono, personal communication, 2 March 2014). And vice-versa, how wayang can help with dance: “For example, in masked dance it isn’t just about dancing but there is also dialogue. That also helps. Because I can already perform wayang, I am able to use it in masked dance” (Surono, personal communication, 2 March 2014). Bambang Siswanto frequently plays gamelan to accompany wayang. He took evening classes in wayang so that he would be better at this. I thought I should know how it felt to perform wayang so that if I am playing gamelan I can make the connection, like that, make the link. If the dhalang wants this, that, oh these notes like this means it will finish …, this code means he wants a gendhing, this code is for a pathetan and so on. (Bambang Siswanto, personal communication, 26 March 2014) As a child, Wakidi Dwidjomartono learnt kendhang from a dance teacher, although he wasn’t learning dance himself. There were dance rehearsals, there were never gamelan rehearsals …, it was all dance. The children were around 10 years old, 15 years old. We—I joined the gamelan—we accompanied on the gamelan, and I learnt a little kendhang, and I was told, “That’s wrong, it should be like this,” and I was given examples by the teacher, like that. (Wakidi Dwidjomartono, personal communication, 10 May 2014) It is usual for dancing teachers to be very familiar with drumming patterns. When teaching dance during rehearsals at the Mangkunegaran Palace, Umiyati Sri Warsini sometimes corrects the kendhang player by vocalising the drumming for particular dance steps. Sujarwo Joko Prehatin learnt to dance the Klana character in masked dance by first playing kendhang for his uncle and his cousin to dance over the years. Due to the drumming being closely linked to the dance movements, by playing kendhang, Sujarwo learnt the dance for himself. Much of the vocabulary of the different art forms is the same; many drumming patterns are named after dance movements, while gendèr patterns take their names from vocal texts. For someone who has already learnt one art form, it will be much easier for them to learn another, due to the musical and extra-musical links between them. These links between art forms are utilised by performing artists to aid their learning by making associations between different parts of their knowledge when they are performing. 46 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Conclusion In this paper I have examined some of the ways in which the Javanese learn traditional performing arts. I have not focused on specific repertoire for each learning approach, beyond making distinctions between the different performing arts where appropriate. This is because I have found that for these types of knowledge transmission, practitioners are rarely able to be specific about the repertoire learnt through a given approach. Knowledge is not learnt in such convenient chunks – one piece of music through imitation and another by ear – but instead is acquired in a more mixed-up way. In addition, there is more than repertoire being learnt through these approaches, with other aspects of artistry such as rasa or feeling, style (both institutional and personal) and technique being considered important. These different elements and repertoires, acquired through multiple learning approaches, come together to create each performing artist. The approaches examined here have in common their use of a direct encounter between the learner and the performing arts, with learning taking place at the time when the art is being performed. This temporal nature of learning is significant for several reasons. Firstly, in order to learn in this way, artists must be fully open to receiving knowledge as the performance is taking place, and often while they are actually performing themselves. Brinner (1999) describes a type of performing that involves “heightened listening that is both broad, scanning all the lines of sound for useful information, and focused, searching for particular types of information that will be most helpful” (p. 32). For dancers, as well as listening to the gamelan, they must be fully aware of their co-dancers’ positions and movements, without actually turning to look at them. As well as being a way to perform, I would argue that this type of heightened awareness, whether aural, visual or kinetic, is also a way to learn performing arts, and is utilised in the learning approaches described in this paper. The second point of importance related to these approaches is that they can only work for artists who have the opportunity to be exposed to and engage in performing arts on a very regular basis. Attending a weekly rehearsal or class, as is often the case for those learning gamelan overseas, cannot offer the same learning experience as being almost constantly exposed to performing arts, which in Java rarely means just gamelan music without wayang or dance. While it cannot make up for a childhood immersed in gamelan music, foreign students who study in Java can benefit from increased exposure to Javanese performing arts and perhaps acquire some of the skills for using the learning approaches discussed in this paper. While living in Solo for several years I made use of some of these learning approaches, in particular learning through rehearsing and performing, and learning through simultaneous imitation. I also ensured I was frequently exposed to gamelan music by attending performances and other arts events as often as possible. Traditional performing arts continue to be sustainable in Java, populating several specialist schools and colleges, and drawing audiences in the thousands to large performances. Smaller events continue to make use of gamelan, wayang and dance for entertainment and ritual purposes. When artists perform, they learn through doing while also providing opportunities for other artists to learn through Rachel Hand 47 watching. The approaches for learning examined in this paper, which rely on frequent encounters with arts as they are performed, therefore both support and are supported by the continued popularity of traditional performing arts. In this paper I have shown that when we look beyond formal education, lessons and teaching materials, learning can take place in many different contexts. Furthermore, Javanese practitioners understand and can explain how they have learnt using these approaches. They are aware that much of their knowledge and skill has been gained in contexts outside formal education, and through direct contact with arts as they are performed rather than through books and other media. I would expect many of these learning approaches to be present in other performing arts cultures. Further study of how such learning takes place outside the classroom would be very welcomed. Endnotes 1 This paper is based on research conducted during my PhD studies, which were funded by the National University of Singapore. Research was conducted in the city of Surakarta (Solo), Central Java, and in surrounding villages. Prior to beginning my PhD. I spent four years living in Surakarta, studying gamelan both at an institution and in the community, as well as participating in many performing arts events. Part of this paper was presented at the BFE/RMA Research Students’ Conference 2016 under the title “Knowledge Transmission in Javanese Gamelan Music: A Survey of Methods for Learning”. 2 This paper does not, therefore, cover learning approaches which use a mediator such as learning from notation, from recordings, from ascetic practice or from teachers in lessons and classes. I describe these approaches elsewhere (Hand, 2016, pp. 201-244, 283-323). 3 I have included a very brief description of each interviewee’s position in performing arts (musician, dancer, etc). Including a lengthier biography for everyone interviewed is beyond the scope of this paper, but more information about these artists can be found elsewhere (Hand, 2016, pp. 430-448). 4 It is difficult to analyse whether growing up surrounded by gamelan music actually makes it easier to learn by ear due to the many other factors that affect a person’s ability to learn. However, cognition research supports this theory. Levitin (2006) describes how “basic structural elements are incorporated into the very wiring of our brains when we listen to music early in our lives” (p. 107). Growing up surrounded by gamelan music hardwires it into a person’s brain from the beginning of their life, thus creating a predisposition to learning it in the future. 5 This concept of a ‘natural’ artist suggests, somewhat unhelpfully in my opinion, that learning outside school is somehow more of a natural process, and that arts schooling is perhaps ‘unnatural’ in some way. Nonetheless, it offers a way for non-schooled artists to define themselves without negatively emphasising their lack of schooling. 6 An elaborating instrument is one that elaborates on the basic melody. Each elaborating instrument has its own idiomatic style for interpreting and elaborating its part. 7 A PhD dissertation by Jonathan Roberts (2015) provides a detailed account of amateur gamelan groups in Surakarta and examines “the social organisation of ensembles and the social implications of participation” (p. 41). 8 While wayang is taught at schools and institutions in Java, these classes use a teacher as a mediator between the performing art and the learner, and are not therefore discussed in this paper. 48 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (29-48) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 References Brinner, B. (1995). Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Brinner, B. (1999). Cognitive and interpersonal dimensions of listening in Javanese gamelan performance. The World of Music, 41(1), 19-35. Giordano, John T. (2011). Teacher’s heads. Prajñā Vihāra, 12( 2), 123-142. Growing into music: A multicultural study of musical enculturation in oral traditions. Retrieved from http://www.growingintomusic.co.uk. Hand, R. E. (2016). Knowledge transmission and the family in traditional Javanese performing arts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. National University of Singapore, Singapore. Harisna, R. W. (2010). Kesenimanan Suyadi Tejopangrawit dalam karawitan gaya Surakarta. Unpublished bachelor dissertation. ISI Surakarta, Indonesia. Kitley, Y. (1995). Rote learning in Bali: Studying the music of the Wayang Theatre. Research Studies in Music Education 5, 47-54. Kusumawati, E. (2002). Metode penampilan, cara mengajar tari S. Maridi. Unpublished bachelor dissertation. STSI Surakarta, Indonesia. Levitin, D. J. (2006). This is your brain on music: The science of a human obsession. New York, NY: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Mrázek, J. (2008). Xylophones in Thailand and Java: a comparative phenomenology of musical instruments. Asian Music, 39(2), 59-107. Nettl, B. (2005). The study of ethnomusicology: Thirty-one issues and concepts. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Perlman, M. (2004). Unplayed melodies: Javanese gamelan and the genesis of music theory. Berkeley: University of California Press. Roberts, J. (2015). The politics of participation: An ethnography of gamelan associations in Surakarta, Central Java. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Oxford University, United Kingdom. Soetarno (1997). Reflektif budaya Jawa dalam pertunjukan wayang kulit. Research report, STSI Surakarta, Indonesia. Supanggah, R. (2011). Bothékan – garap karawitan: The rich styles of interpretation in Javanese gamelan music book 1 & 2. Surakarta: ISI Press. Sutton, R. A. (1993). Variations in Central Javanese gamelan music: Dynamics of a steady state. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University, Special Report No. 28. Waridi, R. L. (1997). Martopangrawit, empu karawitan gaya Surakarta, sebuah biografi. Unpublished masters dissertation. Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Wong, D.A. (2001). Sounding the center: History and aesthetics in Thai Buddhist performance. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Biography Rachel Hand was awarded a PhD in Southeast Asian Studies from the National University of Singapore in 2017. Her dissertation examines knowledge transmission, heredity and education in Javanese gamelan music, wayang and traditional dance from the 1920s to the 2010s. She has presented papers on her research at several international conferences. Rachel also has a BA and MMus in Ethnomusicology from the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 2 (2017)

behaviour, challenging behaviours, children, group musical activities, socio-emotional

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/139

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/832

The Effects of Group Musical Activities on Children’s Behaviour

The study sought to examine the effects of group musical activities on children’s challenging behaviour. Six Grade Five students participated in this mixed-method case study. Qualitative data were gathered from observations, interviews, and written outputs. The quantitative data used the BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (BarOn EQ-i: YV) instrument to measure socio-emotional skills and behaviour levels. The qualitative results suggested that group musical activities such as listening and moving to music, singing, instrument-playing, improvising, and composing positively affected the behaviours of children in terms of (1) being considerate of others’ feelings, thoughts, and ideas; (2) doing one’s best in a role or task given; (3) focusing; and (4) being creative and confident. Analysis of the t-test of the BarOn EQ-i: YV, pretest and posttest result, with a range from 0.087 to 0.973 at 0.05 significance level, was not significant which was possibly due to the threats to validity such as history and experimental mortality. However, a comparison of the pretest and posttest raw scores of individual students revealed mixed results.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/832/568

Shiela Jay P. Pineda 49 The Effects of Group Musical Activities on Children’s Behaviour Shiela Jay P. Pineda Faculty of University of the Philippines Integrated School Ma. Regidor St., Cor. Quirino Avenue, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 30 December 2017 Cite this article (APA): Pineda, S.J.P. (2017). The effects of group musical activities on children’s behaviour. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(2), 49-70. Abstract The study sought to examine the effects of group musical activities on children’s challenging behaviour. Six Grade Five students participated in this mixed-method case study. Qualitative data were gathered from observations, interviews, and written outputs. The quantitative data used the BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (BarOn EQ-i: YV) instrument to measure socio-emotional skills and behaviour levels. The qualitative results suggested that group musical activities such as listening and moving to music, singing, instrument-playing, improvising, and composing positively affected the behaviours of children in terms of (1) being considerate of others’ feelings, thoughts, and ideas; (2) doing one’s best in a role or task given; (3) focusing; and (4) being creative and confident. Analysis of the t-test of the BarOn EQ-i: YV, pretest and posttest result, with a range from 0.087 to 0.973 at 0.05 significance level, was not significant which was possibly due to the threats to validity such as history and experimental mortality. However, a comparison of the pretest and posttest raw scores of individual students revealed mixed results. Keywords: behaviour, challenging behaviours, children, group musical activities, socio- emotional Several studies have established the relationship of musical engagement and behavioural development. As a shared human activity, music-making affects behaviour through interactions and influences the collective understanding of individuals (Merriam, 1964; Kaplan, 1990; Elliot, 1995; Bowman, 2002; Burnard & Younker, 2010). More specifically, musical engagement can be used to achieve the following: encourage interaction during problem-solving activities, develop 50 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 decision-making skills and positive attitude such as acceptance, empathy, and cooperation, and provide a means for individuals to express their creativity (Anshel & Kipper, 1988; Hoffer, 2002; Rief, 2005; Moore, 2002; Kirschner & Tomasello, 2010; Cohen, Laya, Sangiorgio, & Iadeluca, 2011; Cross, Laurence, & Rabinowitch, 2011). In studies among children, music has been connected to their enhanced self- perception, improved social skills and behaviours, positive well-being, and stronger sense of community and ethical perspective (Standley, 1996; Stamou, 2002; Majoribanks & Mboya, 2004; North, Tarrant, & Hargreaves, 2004; Schnitzlein, 2006; Hallam, 2010; Allsup & Westerlund, 2012). In the Philippines, a study on the effects of music on children’s character found that music has a significant correlation to the following set of attitudes: focus and concentration; participation and cooperation; and confidence and courage (Schnitzlein, 2006). Moreover, music has also been used as an intervention to address (1) behavioural concerns in clinical treatments (Aldridge, 1993; Choi, Lee, & Lee, 2008; Davoli, 2008; Gooding, 2011); and (2) challenging behaviours of students with special needs (Greher, Hillier, & Poto, 2010; Machalicek, O’Reilly, Beretvas, Sigafoos, & Lancioni, 2007; Whipple, 2004). In the clinical setting, music as an intervention tool through music therapy has been used in combination with play therapy for children and as group music therapy for adolescent psychotherapy (Aldridge, 1993). In the school setting, music classrooms have shown to be an ideal setting for building socio-emotional skills which are important in stimulating brain development and in reducing at-risk behaviours in school (Jacobi, 2012). National organizations reiterate the importance of conducting early intervention programs especially among children with challenging behaviours (Fox, Dunlap, & Powell, 2002). This is mainly because interventions applied during the latter years of child development become more difficult as the child’s environment changes and becomes more complex (Foster, Brennan, Biglan, Wang, & Al-Ghaith, 2002; De Mers, Tincani, Van Norman, & Higgins, 2009). This current study sought to add evidence on the importance of using musical engagement as an effective intervention by examining the effects of group musical activities on challenging behaviours. This study also aims to fill the research gap on mixed-method studies relating group musical activities and behaviour-challenged school children in the Philippines. Moreover, this study intends to support the music education paradigm of musical engagement as a social activity and its impact to the development of children using enjoyable experiences with music (Bowman, 2002; Burnard & Younker, 2010; Elliot, 1995; Hallam, 2010; Kaplan, 1990; Merriam, 1964). The study is premised upon the assumption that music has non-musical outcomes such as behaviour as discussed by Hallam (2010). Method Design and Instrumentation This research used a mixed-method case study with a one group pre-posttest design (Riebehl, 2001; Saunders, 2005; Abanes, 2010; Cozby & Bates, 2012; Yin, 2013; Shiela Jay P. Pineda 51 Creswell, 2014). Group musical activities served as intervention for the case study participants who were identified to have demonstrated challenging behaviours in school. Qualitative data were gathered through observations, interview, and written outputs during and after the group musical activities. Quantitative data were gathered using the BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (BarOn EQ-i: YV), a published instrument for measuring the emotional-social intelligence of children and adolescents, as a pretest and posttest tool (Bar-On, 2000; Bar-On & Parker, 2000). The instrument consists of seven socio-emotional scales namely: (a) Intrapersonal; (b) Interpersonal; (c) Stress Management; (d) Adaptability; (e) General Mood; (f) Total EQ; and (g) Positive Impression. The reliability of the instrument has an average of α=.84 that ranged from low .65 (Interpersonal scale) to high .90 (Total EQ, Stress Management, and General Mood) internal scale consistency (as cited in Killgore & Yurgelun-Todd, 2007). It has a satisfactory internal reliability of different scales (e.g. α= .84 for the Intrapersonal scale and α=.89 for the total test) (as cited in Bermejo, Prieto, Fernández, Soto, & Sainz, 2013). Participants The participants were selected through purposive sampling (Creswell, 2012). The school guidance counsellor identified ten Grade Five students whose challenging behaviours in school necessitated parent-teacher conferences for behaviour processing, monitoring, and guidance. (The term ‘challenging behaviours’ in this study refers to the negative behaviours which in order to be addressed needed the collaboration of the student, teacher, guidance counsellor, and parents.) Letters with details on the purpose and methods of the study were sent to the parents to request their students’ participation. Out of the ten students invited, six were allowed to participate in the study. Table 1 shows the general profile of the participants including their age, grade level and family set-up. Each participant was assigned a code name. These profiles provided an initial context in understanding (1) the socio-emotional characteristics and behaviours of the students in relation to their age and (2) the relationships and interactions of the students with their family members. 52 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Table 1 General profile and home set-up of the students Case Study Sex Age Grade Level Immediate Family Set-up Cleo Female 11.9 Grade 5 Father and Mother 1 younger brother 1 younger sister Roger Male 11.2 Grade 5 Father 1 older brother (Mother is an Overseas Filipino Worker) Kaloy Male 11.6 Grade 5 Father and Mother 1 younger brother Yan Male 11.2 Grade 5 Father and Mother 3 younger sisters (older sister already has a family and is not staying with Yan at home) Santi Male 11.5 Grade 5 Father and Mother (no siblings) Charo Female 11.8 Grade 5 Stepfather and Mother 1 younger half-sister (biological father is not staying with Charo at home) Procedure Prior to the administration of group musical activities as intervention, a pre- intervention phase was done to provide a deeper understanding of the students’ behaviour in the context of their musical activities at home and in their music classes. At this stage, data were gathered from the (1) students’ portfolio in their music classes (observations, archival records, and creative outputs); (2) interviews with the parents, teachers, guidance counsellor, and case study participants; and (3) responses to a questionnaire used to profile and design plans for the music sessions. The behaviour descriptions primarily stemmed from the guidance report but were validated through parent-teacher conferences and interviews with the students. The data were coded using the techniques presented by Ryan and Bernard (2003). As a result of the coding process per group, the following challenging behaviours of the students were identified: (1) being insensitive to others; (2) being easily angered; (3) being overly sensitive; (4) having annoying behaviours; and (5) having the tendency to hurt others verbally or get into physical fights. In addition, the coding process showed unique characteristics for each case which included (1) Cleo being competitive; (2) Roger being overly talkative and playful; (3) Kaloy being passive even when he is hurt by his classmates and showing lack of confidence or assertiveness; (4) Yan being overly sensitive and showing lack of assertiveness; (5) Santi being disobedient; and (6) Charo being argumentative and Shiela Jay P. Pineda 53 pessimistic towards people and situations. Table 2 below summarises the challenging behaviours of the participants. Table 2 Summary of challenging behaviours Cleo Roger Kaloy Yan Santi Charo Bossy Competitive Being overly sensitive Easily angered Tendency to hurt others verbally or physically Overly talkative Too playful Annoying Annoying Gets into fights Being overly sensitive Passive Lacks confidence / assertiveness Annoying Being overly sensitive Lacks assertiveness Disobedient Easily angered Gets into fights Bossy Easily angered Pessimistic Tendency to hurt others verbally Argumentative Note. Challenging behaviours common to all respondents are in boldface. After administering the pretest, the intervention was done through group musical activities or music sessions. The students met twice a week within their school day for a 30-minute music session. During the group musical activities, observations on the students’ behaviour, interaction, and performance of the musical activities were recorded through field notes and video recording. Table 3 shows the summary of group musical activities. At the end of the intervention, interviews with the students and their parents were conducted to see if there were changes in the students’ behaviour as a result of their participation in the group musical activities. The students were also asked for their feedback and personal assessment of their behaviours and experiences in relation to the musical activities. The BarOn EQ-i: YV was then employed for posttest. 54 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Table 3 Summary of musical activities Group Musical Activities (30-minute music sessions) I. Preparation: Relaxation and Focusing 1. Breathing Exercise 2. Vocal Warm-Up II. Group Musical Activities Listening and Moving to Music Singing Playing of instruments and other sound sources Improvising Composing Activity 1: Singing ‘Music Touches Children Most of All’: A Simple Family Musical (Scene) (Duration: 4 Meetings) Activity 2: Combining Singing, Playing, and Improvising ‘Day-O’ (Duration: 2 Meetings) Activity 3: Combining Marching, Playing, and Singing ‘When the Saints Go Marchin’ In’ (Duration: 1 Meeting) Activity 4: Composing a ‘A Friend Song’ (Duration: 1 Meeting) Activity 5: Singing ‘Ako’y Isang Pinoy’ (‘I Am A Filipino’) (Duration: 1 Meeting) Activity 6: Improvisation Exercise (Duration: 1 Meeting) Description of the Musical Activities The 30-minute musical activities that were done twice a week consisted of listening and moving to music, singing, playing of instruments and other sound sources, improvising, and composing. The activities were framed around the musical problem-solving approach with the teacher as a facilitator, scaffolding as the students process ideas or make decisions in and for their music-making (Wiggins, 2001). Problem-solving and its uses in socio-emotional learning in music have been documented by Adamek, Darrow, and Jellison (2013), Atkinson (2015), and Jacobi (2012). The planned music sessions were also guided by the ideas of Merriam (1964), Kaplan (1990), Elliot (1995), Bowman (2002), Burnard and Younker (2010), Hallam (2010) and to keep the group musical experience enjoyable and to achieve goal of socio-emotional development. The activities started with a preparation routine of breathing exercises and vocal warm-up. Then the group musical activities were presented as a musical challenge through role-taking, setting of parameters in addition to the lesson goals, and division of labor (Rief, 2005; Burnard & Younker, 2010). In every activity, the students were encouraged to describe their experience in making music and to give positive feedback about themselves and others for self-regulation and motivation (McPherson & Zimmerman, 2002; Maehr, Pintrich, & Linnenbrink, 2002). Shiela Jay P. Pineda 55 The first activity, Singing ‘Music Touches Children Most of All’: A Simple Family Musical (Scene), was a combination of singing and acting for the purpose of forming bonds with peers and enhancing positive interactions (Lau, 2008; Abeles & Cordero, 2010). The musical challenge was to perform the song as if in a scene from a hypothetical musicale entitled A Simple Family Musical. The students had to conceptualise a particular scene, assign character roles along with their song parts, and perform with simple blockings or actions. They were asked to invite other classmates to serve as audience after they practiced. The second activity, Combining Singing, Playing, and Improvising ‘Day- O,’ had the students take turns being the ‘leader’ and ‘follower’ for the call-and- response parts the song. The musical challenge was for the leader to sing the ‘call’ part and improvise on the tune on the second round. The role for the rest of the group as followers was to sing the ‘response’ while playing their selected percussion. After the activity, they described each other’s improvisation of the tune and their experience making music. This activity was geared towards developing confidence, creativity, and teamwork especially through singing, instrument- playing, and improvisation (Greher, Hillier, & Poto (2010); Gooding, 2011). The third activity, Combining Marching, Playing, and Singing ‘When the Saints Go Marchin’ In,’ allowed the group to take turns being the ‘leader’ and ‘follower’ to encourage their focus and cooperation (Moore, 2002; Kirschner & Tomasello, 2010). The challenge for the ‘leader’ was to assign instruments for the group and lead the band in marching. The challenge for the ‘followers’ was to play the instrument assigned to them while moving. The students were asked to share their thoughts about each other as leaders and about the decisions they made when they were asked to lead. The fourth activity, Composing ‘A Friend Song’, had each student become a composer because the musical challenge was to describe a good friend and then create an original tune to his or her descriptions. This activity aimed to open opportunities for sharing and accepting ideas and working together towards a goal (Davoli, 2008; Cross, Laurence, & Rabinowitch, 2011). They were advised to rehearse their original tunes until it sounded stable to them. Their answers were then connected to comprise a one-stanza song. The group practiced singing the different melodies made. They were asked to play instruments to accompany their singing. Afterwards, they were also asked to share about their ideas for the song and to give their opinions regarding the importance of their individual contribution to the whole group’s output. For the fifth activity, Singing ‘Ako’y Isang Pinoy’ (‘I Am A Filipino’), the musical challenge was to sing in unison and according to their assigned parts, similar to popular singing groups like One Direction. The purpose of this activity was for the students to reflect on their sense of self and national identity as they practice and perform together with excellence (Anshel & Kipper, 1988; Bowman, 2002; Gardiner, 2000; Abeles & Custodero, 2010). The sixth and last activity, Improvisation Exercise, challenged the students to think of positive things about each other based on their musical experiences together and improvise a tune to it as they share their feedback. This activity was designed to give an opportunity for each one to be creative, to express appreciation, 56 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 and to feel accepted (Majoribanks and Mboya, 2004; Cohen, Laya, Sangiorgio, & Iadeluca, 2011; Gooding, 2011). Analysis Qualitative data were analysed using content analysis for themes (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). The themes were culled from the related literature (Bar-On, 2000; Schnitzlein, 2006). In order to control researcher bias, the thematic content analysis was validated by the research adviser while the reliability of the data response was confirmed through the triangulation of interviews, observations, and student written outputs. An external music teacher validated the observation results of the group musical activities through the music session videos. A questionnaire was given to the external music teacher as guide in validating noted observations. The validation process from the adviser and external music teacher confirmed the results of the qualitative analysis as acceptable and sound. The quantitative results from the BarOn EQ-i: YV test were analysed through a paired sample t-test with a 0.05 level of confidence. A comparison of pretest and posttest raw scores was also employed in the analysis because the nature of the data takes into account individual differences of ‘human attributes, ability, personality, motivation, and mood’ (Kline, 2000). Results and Discussion Qualitative Data Qualitative results from the thematic content analysis of observations, interviews, and written outputs showed that there were changes in the behaviour of the children in terms of (1) being considerate of others’ feelings, thoughts, and ideas; (2) doing one’s best in a role or task given; (3) being focused; and (4) being creative and confident. These themes summarised the behavioural changes that the students demonstrated during and after the intervention. Table 4 shows who among the students demonstrated the specific change in behaviour. Moreover, upon analysis of the qualitative findings and how they relate to the literature supporting this study, it was found that the encompassing themes which influenced students’ positive behaviours during the group musical activities relate to (1) enjoyment and togetherness (Hallam, 2010) and (2) principles on musical engagement and its social context (Merriam, 1964; Kaplan, 1990; Elliot, 1995; Bowman, 2002; Burnard & Younker, 2010; Hallam, 2010). The discussion of these findings is detailed in the paragraphs that follow. Shiela Jay P. Pineda 57 Table 4 Students and their Demonstrated Behavioural Change Behavioural Changes Cleo Roger Kaloy Yan Santi Charo (1) Being considerate of others       (2) Doing one’s best in a role or task given     (3) Being focused    (4) Being creative and confident      Findings on students and their improved behaviours. Aside from these four changes, analysis of the students’ behaviour as documented from the observations, interviews, and written evaluation, revealed more specific improvements. These improvements are summarised for each student below. Cleo. Patience was one of the most observable behaviour of Cloe during and after the intervention. This was manifested in her effort to listen to her groupmates ideas and suggestions without reprimanding them even when they started making jokes or became overly playful. When teased, she expressed disagreement but simply laughed about it with the other person. At home, her father remarked that Cleo has shown patience by managing her temper and emotions. Her adviser and guidance counsellor also noted her improvement on controlling her anger. Even Cleo mentioned that she was able to better deal with others and establish friendships during the musical activities. In her written evaluation, she shared about seeing the ‘good and bad qualities’ of her groupmates as she participated in the sessions. According to her, one of things she needed to improve on was on being careful with words (‘I should also watch the words coming out of my mouth’). Roger. In all the activities, Roger actively participated and showed enjoyment with the group. His enjoyment was sometimes accompanied by making funny remarks especially when the boys in the group joked around, too. However, an immediate reminder to practice self-control was enough for him to focus back on the musical activity. In an interview with Roger’s grandmother, she shared that although Roger still needed to be reminded, he improved on following instructions and lessened the tendency to complain and talk back. The guidance counsellor and his advisor also observed Roger’s need for reminders; but they observed that he had minimised provoking people through teasing. His adviser said that it was no longer Roger who would start a bad joke. According to Roger, the group musical activities helped him discover his capabilities that improved his confidence. Aside from that, he said his tendency to be very talkative and annoying to others was minimised because he intended to focus on the task. In Roger’s written evaluation, he wrote that being able to improvise ‘Tagalog lyrics’ (Tagalog is one of the languages in the Philippines) may have helped him improve his behaviour. Kaloy. Kaloy actively involved himself in working with the group to solve a musical challenge like in the Simple Family Musical. He expressed his unique ideas 58 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 and suggestions freely, which was welcomed by the group. However, there was still a time when his remarks annoyed and distracted some of his groupmates. Kaloy calmed himself when it was already singing time. The group, with the researcher, processed the situation after the performance in the context of how 'bandmates' should adjust to one another despite differences and misunderstandings. In his interview, he mentioned that the role-playing task in the Simple Family Musical helped him understand his groupmates. According to him, being able to understand others minimised his tendency to annoy or making teasing remarks. In the written output, he recognised that teasing others was part of his funny nature but realised that it was one thing he has to improve on. This ability to monitor himself was observed by the guidance counsellor and his advisor. They noted that he continued to blurt out ideas and jokes but he was not into fights. In addition, Kaloy’s mother said that the group musical activities were helpful to her son’s behaviour despite being absent for the majority of the sessions. She agreed that Kaloy may have benefitted from the musical activities in developing good behaviours and in dealing with challenging ones. Yan. During one of the sessions when he became sensitive over Kaloy and Santi’s joke about him, Yan was able to show a degree of resilience by not quitting the activity, leaving the group, or sulking. Despite his weakness in handling jokes and negative remarks, he performed his best by singing his parts confidently and putting up with the activity and with his groupmates until the end. Singing was one of the activities where he exhibited much focus, talent, and confidence. He made creative variations to melodies used in some songs. His father mentioned that the group musical activities supported his son’s passion for music and singing, which in turn seemed to have affected how Yan dealt with his siblings and his classmates. He had observed that Yan refrained from hurting his siblings despite feeling angry. Moreover, the school guidance counsellor observed that Yan has better emotional awareness and shows ability ‘to empower himself’ or boost his self-regard. This self-awareness was also evident in Yan’s assessment of himself. Yan remarked in his interview that the group musical activities were helpful in making himself better (‘a good person recently’) although he indicated that he needed to improve on being more energetic. Through the activities, he said he discovered good things about himself that made him feel contented like his voice type (‘I am an alto singer even[though] I am a boy. I am happy with the voice that was given to me by The God’). Being more confident was an aspect he said he was able to improve on. He also mentioned that somehow, in a session when he was teased by some groupmates, he managed to be steadfast and was able to control his emotions. The musical sessions for him became a time when he found his schoolmates really kind and playful. Santi. Despite of being remarked as disobedient, Santi during the group musical activities, was able to follow the leader, carry out his role in the group, relate with others, and perform his assigned roles as a singer or instrumentalist. There were times when he needed some prompting in order to follow, like during the breathing exercises and vocal warm-ups; but he participated in every process of Shiela Jay P. Pineda 59 the musical activities and did his best in complying though he preferred playing the beat box. Like Kaloy, singing his assigned part calmed him down from laughing around during the activities. Santi’s mother mentioned in an interview that she saw the group musical activities beneficial for Santi in helping him with his challenging behaviours. She expressed that her son shared about the activities (e.g. his role in the Simple Family Musical) and that he looked forward to the music sessions. She believes that the group musical activities gave Santi a sense of belongingness (e.g. an instance when her son still wanted to make friends even after his teasing and joking went too far). For her, being more empathic was an area Santi needed to improve on. In terms of following instructions, she mentioned that Santi would comply but reminders and explanations were still necessary because he had the tendency to get distracted by many things. The guidance counsellor and adviser also mentioned about Santi’s need for reminders but is was observable that he no longer provoked fights. These changes were also recognised by Santi as he noted that being patient and kind to people were his good behaviours during the group musical activities (‘I know how to be patient and kind to people’). When asked to explain how the musical activities were helpful to him, he mentioned about teamwork where he had to work with others in singing and composing songs. He believed that working together was fun and good for establishing friendships. As a realisation, he mentioned in his written output that he needed to develop ‘being loving to people’. Charo. Charo showed self-control in dealing with groupmates who were difficult to work with. When the boys did not follow or pay attention immediately, she reacted in her usual strict attitude by reprimanding them. However, it was not in a hurtful way like before. During the planning of a performance, she considered others’ suggestions and enjoyed trying them out. Even though she has Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Charo was able to control herself and manage to focus on the musical activities with others. Like Cleo, Charo exerted her best effort during the group activities. She followed instructions carefully and concentrated on the tasks, much more when she was assigned the singing parts. Although she was shy when it came to singing alone, Charo did her best in trying to be confident, even with a small voice. In an interview with Charo’s mother, she said that her daughter showed better self-control even if she was still being overly active. Dealing with others and being more confident were the other areas Charo seemed to improve on. The guidance counsellor and adviser also had a similar remark with the way she socialised and dealt with others. The group musical activities may have helped Charo’s behaviours in a way according to Charo’s mother, even if she missed other sessions. Possible reasons for not attending the activities, except the Simple Family Musical and the last meeting, were Charo’s preference for other activities like outdoor play or being with other friends. In an interview with Charo, she said the group musical activities helped her slightly. She expressed that the musical activities helped improve her creativity and ability to relate with difficult people. An example she cited was in controlling her anger when her groupmates failed to understand or follow immediately. In her written output, she perceived that being joyful, being a good listener, and being able to improvise music were her 60 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 good behaviours in the group activities. However, she noted that she needed to be more patient and ‘open-minded.’ Findings on the musical challenges and behaviour. The socialisation process during the musical activities became another factor for the students to practice self-regulation processes for musical learning (McPherson & Zimmerman, 2002). Reinforcements, guidance, social structuring, and help given by others facilitated motivation and monitoring, as well as the students’ effort to adjust their way of learning, performing, and behaving (Maehr, Pintrich, & Linnenbrink, 2002). The musical challenge is linked with the social component of solving problems together which involves negotiations and interactions among the participants of the group. This is supported by Elliot’s (1995) ideas on how music and music-making operates in a social context and how creative and critical- thinking skills are involved and developed in problem-solving settings for musical understanding (Wiggins, 2001). The discussion that follows was organised according to musical activity and the musical challenge. Singing with assigned roles and parts. The challenges in the Simple Family Musical were in the task of singing in unison and with assigned parts and in planning and rehearsing together given a short time. The family roles they came up with had an effect in the way they regarded each other during the succeeding sessions. This jumpstarted the group to get more comfortable with each other because the particular role they played in this ‘family musical’ allowed them to form bonds with peers (Abeles & Custodero, 2010) by way of paying attention to the one singing, waiting patiently for their turn, and making sure they sound together with their partners or in unison. Majoribanks and Mboya (2004) support this idea of music being a safe place to express oneself and be accepted by others. Moreover, in a study about singing games to enhance social skills by Lau (2008), these positive behaviours that relate to confidence, establishing and maintaining positive interactions and relationships, and enjoying and accepting each other were seen in the findings. In another singing activity, a conflict emerged among the boys. The musical challenge of being assigned a singing part may have challenged the students’ sense of security and in being identified with the group (Bowman, 2002; Abeles & Custodero, 2010). However, embodying a singing ‘boy band’ (since only the boys were present), Kaloy, Roger, Santi, and Yan still became responsible and confident with their assigned parts. The activity paved a way for the boys to assess themselves by answering processing questions on how to relate with 'bandmates' who have different personalities but are equally important in the ‘boy band.’ The musical activity may have alleviated the tension that could trigger uncontrolled anger and fighting (Choi et al., 2008) and built their self-esteem when they sang their parts correctly (Gardiner, 2000). Combined moving to music, instrument-playing, singing and taking turns in leading and following. Aside from making music, the students enjoyed being the leader assigning roles (instrumentalist, singer, or movement in-charge) and being given different roles. The ‘followers’ paid attention and followed the decisions of Shiela Jay P. Pineda 61 the ‘leader.’ There were negotiations but every turn ended with a unified performance. Moore’s (2002) study supported the idea of including varied movements to songs to increase attentiveness on on-task behaviours. While the amount of engagement in the song increased, off-task behaviour decreased. Confidence and teamwork as instrumentalists. The instrumentalist role appealed to the participants and observably became the favoured option between being assigned a singing or improvisation role like for Cleo and Santi. But when asked to perform on the spot, there were hesitations. In the group, Santi showed confidence when playing the beat box for the group. Hallam and Prince (2000) revealed in their study that playing instruments were found beneficial to students in the development of enjoyment of music, a sense of accomplishment, confidence, and self-discipline. In addition, as the group played percussion instruments, they listened to each other and considered the kind of playing or rhythms necessary. They made rhythmic patterns, complimented one other's beats, and controlled the dynamics or volume level of their playing. To sound harmonious, the group achieved teamwork when they made music through instruments and other sound sources (Hallam and Prince, 2000). Original contributions in improvising and composing. The freedom experienced by the group through song improvisations can be credited to Roger’s initial contributions to this kind of activity in an effortless way. Since he was a natural in improvising tunes, he was able to start the activity that prompted the others to overcome shyness and try improvising. The group enjoyed recalling each other’s version of the same lyrics. Similar to the experience of advanced musical ensembles, the students’ initial participation was very much likely influenced first by the positive feedback they received from others, and their continued participation was because of the positive experiences they had with both the music and with others (Hewitt and Alan, 2012). Additionally, in the composition activity, the students helped each other in weaving the sentences into a song and they were allowed to vary some parts if they could not remember the initial tune. Listening to and singing the ideas they associate with friendship became a ‘comfort factor’ for the group (Hoffer, 2002) and enabled them to understand what others consider to be a good friend (Cross et al., 2011). Findings on the enjoyment and togetherness in the musical challenge. The students’ engagement and enjoyment enabled their harmonious interactions with one another towards a goal. According to Hallam (2010), the primary consideration for musical engagement to have an impact on the personal and social development of children is that the experience should be enjoyable and rewarding. The students’ active involvement in the group musical activities provides evidence of their enjoyment. In addition, the students’ tendency to make jokes and invite laughter during their group conversations also add evidence on how much the students enjoyed doing their tasks which resulted in a successful musical output like a composed song or a performance. 62 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Aside from a successful musical output, the enjoyment experienced and the lessons learned by the students as they fulfilled their roles in the group were heightened when they succeeded together despite difficulties in meeting the challenges and in working with others. The children experienced different ways of considering other people’s ideas, interests, and feelings in the group musical activities. Riedel (1964), cited by Paul and Ballantine (2002) supports the idea of ‘sociability’ of music in giving a ‘feeling of belonging to a group’ and the ‘feeling of togetherness through the performance of music.’ The musical activity or task with peers necessitated the communication and role-playing for a successful performance (Burnard & Younker, 2010). The students positively took their roles and learned from this. Cleo and Charo, for instance, learned how to improve their way of dealing with challenging groupmates. Roger, Kaloy, Yan, and Santi learned how to follow rules and cooperate with other people. Concerning Charo’s ADHD, the group musical activities involved her in ‘cooperative learning’ by practicing ‘interdependence,’ ‘individual accountability,’ and social skills beneficial to students with such condition (Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec, 1998, cited by Rief, 2005). What resulted from the group musical experiences of the students in music- making and working with others also validated a study by Cross, Laurence, and Rabinowitch (2011) which showed that empathy and creativity are developed in ‘group musical practices.’ The emphatic processes at work in a ‘collaborative creative musical activity’ directed the children to consider the thoughts and feelings of others. Laurence (2010) also reiterated this emphatic process at play when children are ‘musicking’ (music-making in the context of relationships with the music and the people making the music) and where this can lead to ‘further musicking.’ Also, as the students engage in developing musicianship and valuing of others, they also develop their self-esteem (John, 2004). According to John (2004), ‘active musicianship’ through ‘music-making and music listening’ and the affective or emotional dimension of students should go together and must be developed in “social contexts.” The effects seen in the case study participants in the area of improving social competence and personal development relate to the results of the music intervention program called Music is Fun by Schnitzlein (2006). In her study, positive results were seen in the character traits of the students in terms of the following: ‘focus and concentration,’ ‘participation and cooperation,’ and ‘confidence and courage.’ Quantitative Data Quantitative findings from the two-tailed paired t-test of the group’s BarOn EQ-i: YV results were not significant (see Table 5). However, the differences in the pretest and posttest raw scores varied per student (see Tables 6-10). Shiela Jay P. Pineda 63 Table 5 Summary of BarOn EQ-i: YV T-test Result BarOn EQ-i: YV Scales Pretest and Posttest T-Test Results P-Value (two-tailed) Remarks Intrapersonal -2.011 0.101 Not significant Interpersonal -0.264 0.802 Not significant Stress Management -0.036 0.973 Not significant Adaptability -0.271 0.797 Not significant Total EQ -0.586 0.583 Not significant General Mood Scale 0.257 0.087 Not significant Positive Impression -1.874 0.120 Not significant Table 6 Intrapersonal scale results Participants Pretest Result Posttest Result Raw Score Interpretation Raw Score Interpretation Cleo 15 Average 15 Average Roger 14 Average 16 Average Kaloy 12 Average 15 Average Yan 14 Average 15 Average Santi 9 Very Low 16 Average Charo 20 Very High 20 Very High Table 7 Interpersonal scale results Participants Pretest Result Posttest Result Raw Score Interpretation Raw Score Interpretation Cleo 39 Average 38 Average Roger 35 Low 26 Markedly Low Kaloy 38 Average 29 Very Low Yan 32 Low 39 Average Santi 33 Low 39 Average Charo 38 Average 39 Average 64 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Table 8 Stress management scale results Participants Pretest Result Posttest Result Raw Score Interpretation Raw Score Interpretation Cleo 22 Very Low 24 Very Low Roger 35 Average 30 Average Kaloy 33 Average 35 Average Yan 19 Markedly Low 28 Low Santi 36 Average 31 Average Charo 29 Low 27 Low Table 9 Adaptability scale results Participants Pretest Result Posttest Result Raw Score Interpretation Raw Score Interpretation Cleo 30 Average 35 High Roger 27 Average 26 Average Kaloy 31 Average 22 Very Low Yan 28 Average 24 Low Santi 24 Low 35 High Charo 34 High 36 High Table 10 Total EQ scale results Participants Pretest Result Posttest Result Raw Score Interpretation Raw Score Interpretation Cleo 53 Average 56 Average Roger 54 Average 50 Low Kaloy 56 Average 50 Low Yan 47 Low 53 Average Santi 49 Low 57 Average Charo 62 Average 63 High In this study, possible threats to validity of the quantitative data that were identified by Cozby and Bates (2012) and Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2013) and were present—history and experimental mortality. Since the treatment and test schedules were done during a part of the students’ lunch time, changes (cancellation of classes, sickness, or personal choice) took place during the course of the musical intervention affecting the regularity of set conditions (time, place, and group Shiela Jay P. Pineda 65 attendance). These factors could have affected the results for Kaloy (sickness) and Charo (choice) resulting in the possibility for variance of the group result. Other factors affecting the results may have been the time interval between the Pre- Intervention and Post-Intervention tests. While some of the qualitative and quantitative findings complement each other, other results were found to be contradictory. The possible factors for these discrepancies may be the following: 1) Reliability of the BarOn EQ-i: YV instrument; 2) Language of the test; 3) Schedule of the treatment and the test-taking; 4) Failure to complete the treatment sessions; and 5) Limited time frame for the treatment. A study done by Al Said, Birdsey, and Stuart- Hamilton (2013) among Omani children recommended standardizing the instrument for that particular population. This could be the case for Roger who was consistently present and involved in the group musical activities. His results showed a decrease, except in the Intrapersonal scale, which did not coincide with the qualitative findings. Although Said et al. (2013) used the shorter version of the BarOn Youth Version inventory to make it suitable for their population, the recommendation by the authors is worth noting because it was pointed out that one of the limitations of the BarOn EQ-i: YV could be its heavy reliance on language comprehension. The test might not be appropriate for students with language and reading problems (2013) and need to be standardized for the Filipino norm. In Roger’s case, having a difficulty in English, language could have been a factor affecting the results. However, considering the pretest and posttest raw scores, some of the quantitative results supported qualitative findings particularly that of Cleo, Santi, and Yan’s Total EQ result; Cleo and Santi’s Adaptability result; Yan’s Stress Management result; and Santi’s Intrapersonal result. Conclusion and Recommendations The study found that group musical activities could help improve children’s behaviour to a certain extent as the qualitative and quantitative results are mixed. As the children faced musical challenges together, positive behaviours were practiced in their musical and social interactions. The students revealed changes in their behaviour in terms of self-esteem, understanding others, managing emotions, cooperation, being focused, and doing one’s best. One of the significance of this study is to build on Hallam’s (2010) idea to make the musical experiences enjoyable to benefit children having difficulties in dealing with negative behaviours. Parents, teachers, and guidance counsellors can also gain from the study through added knowledge and understanding of the value and function of music in the children’s lives, particularly on music-making activities with others. Music educators can consider applying problem-solving approaches in the music classroom to build the students’ socio-emotional skills and partner with the school in giving music intervention to those with challenging behaviours. In terms of protocol, the use of the BarOn EQ-i: YV in music intervention may be used to monitor socio-emotional behaviour. However, this study suggests further reliability testing of the instrument 66 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 for the Filipino population to strengthen the instrument’s applicability for the Filipino children and adolescents The study recommends curriculum-makers and music educators to prioritise group musical activities as an integral part of the music curriculum in school because it can serve as a means of intervention for regular school children. Music educators also need to consider shifting the focus from the music and performance to their students through a transformative music pedagogy (Cameron & Carlise, 2004). Future research should venture into making longitudinal studies of group musical activities in improving socio-emotional behaviours or other mixed-method studies such as mixed-method ethnography or narrative research and embedded experimental or correlational designs. Also, new research can focus on a particular social and emotional behaviour like the study about empathy and music-making by Cross, Laurence, and Rabinowitch (2001) for a deeper understanding of how music can help improve children’s behaviour. In terms of employing quantitative measures, the study recommends that the following factors be considered: the sample size in relation to the type of study or statistical analysis, increasing the number or duration of musical sessions, conducting a similar study in a music class setting, and establishing observation checklists and norms. There are still more opportunities for research in the area of music and children’s behaviour and character development, especially in the Philippines. This study hopes to encourage researchers to add more to this field and for music educators to continue in their pursuit to help in the holistic development of students through music. References Abanes, K. (2010). Parenting, custodial arrangement, and socio-emotional adjustment of children of separated parents. Unpublished masters thesis. University of the Philippines: College of Education. Abeles, H.F. & Custodero, L.A. (2010). Critical issues in music education: Contemporary theory & practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. Adamek, M., Darrow, A., & Jellison, J. (2013) Music therapy practice and self- determination for students with disabilities. Paper presented at the 2013 National In-Service Conference: Hot Topics in Special Music Education, www.nafme.org/wp-content/files/Store/Digital-Products/hot_topics_cart.pdf Al Said, T.B.T, Birdsey, N., & Stuart-Hamilton, I. (2013). Psychometric properties of bar-on emotional quotient inventory.” International Journal of Learning Management System, 1(2), 13-24. Retrieved from http://www.naturalspublishing.com/files/published/ej337t87282jft.pdf Aldridge, D. (1993). Music therapy research 1: A review of the medical research literature within a general context of music therapy research. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 20(1), 11-35. Retrieved from mustherapy.narod.ru/mtreview.pdf Allsup, R. E. & Westerlund, H. (2012). Methods and situational ethics in music education. Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education,11(1), 124–48. Retrieved from http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/AllsupWesterlund11_1. pdf Shiela Jay P. Pineda 67 Anshel, A. & Kipper, D.A. (1988). The influence of group singing on trust and cooperation. Journal of Music Therapy, 25(3), 145-155. Retrieved from westallen.typepad.com/files/anshel-jmustherapy-1988.pdf Atkinson, P. (2015). Social emotional learning in the music classroom: A cross-case analysis of teacher experiences in the rock and roll academy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The University of Alabama: Graduate School Bar-On, R. (2000). Emotional and social intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i). In R. Bar-On and J.D.A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook Of Emotional Intelligence: Theory, development, assessment and application at home, school and in the workplace. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Bar-On, R., & Parker, J.D.A. (2000). The BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (EQ-i:YV): Technical manual. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems. Bermejo, R., Prieto, M.D., Fernández, M.C., Soto, G., & Sainz, M. (2013). A cognitive- creative profile of emotional talent. New Approaches in Educational Research, 2(1), 12-16. DOI: 10.7821/naer.2.1.12-16. Bowman, Wayne. (2002). Educating musically. In Richard Colwell and Carol Richardson (Eds.), The new handbook of research on music teaching (pp. 63-84). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Burnard, P. & Younker, B. (2010). Chapter 11: Towards a broader conception of creativity in the music classroom: A case for using Engestöm’s Activity Theory as a basis for researching and characterizing group music-making practices. In R. Wright (Ed.), Sociology and music education (pp. 165-191). Vermont, USA: Ashgate Publishing Company. Cameron & Carlise (2004). What kind of social climate do we create in our music classrooms?. In Lee R. Bartel (Ed.), Questioning the music education paradigm (pp. 21-38). Ontario, Canada: Canadian Music Educator’s Association. Choi, A., Lee, S., & Lee, J. (2008). Group music intervention reduces aggression and improves self-esteem in children with highly aggressive behavior: A pilot controlled trial. Advance Access Publication, 7(2), 213–217. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem182 Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Research method in education. London: Routledge. Cohen, M. L., Laya, S. H., Sangiorgio, A., & Iadeluca, V. (2011). At-risk youth: Music- making as a means to promote positive relationships. In G. MacPherson (Ed.), Handbook of Music Education (pp.185-202). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Cozby, P. & Bates, S. (2012). Methods in behavioral research. 11th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. 4th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Cross, I., Laurence, F., & Rabinowitch, T. (2011). Empathy and creativity in group musical practices: Towards a concept of emphatic creativity. In G. MacPherson (Ed.), Handbook of Music Education (pp.185-202). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Davoli, C. (2008). Reaching urban youth exposed to violence through music therapy a literature based study. Unpublished thesis. Retrieved from http://idea.library.drexel.edu/bitstream/1860/2990/1/Carrie%20Davoli.pdf 68 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 De Mers, C., Tincani, M., Van Norman, R. (2009). Effects of music therapy on young children’s challenging behaviors: A case study. Music Therapy Perspectives, 27(2), 88-96. https://doi.org/10.1093/mtp/27.2.88 Elliot, D.J. (1995). Music matters: A new philosophy of music education. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Foster, S.L., Brennan, P.; Biglan, A., Wang, L., & Al-Ghaith, S. (2002). Preventing behaviour problems: What works. In Educational Practices Series 8. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/publications/Education alPracticesSeriesPdf/prac08e.pdf Fox, L., Dunlap, G., & Powell, D. (2002). Young children with challenging behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4(4), 208-217. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/10983007020040040401 Gardiner, M. (2000). Music, learning, and behavior: A case for mental stretching. Journal for Learning Through Music, 1(1). Retrieved from http://music-in- education.org/articles/1-R.pdf Gooding, L. F. (2011). The effect of a music therapy social skills training program on improving social competence in children and adolescents with social skills deficits. Journal of Music Therapy, 48(4), 440-462. Retrieved from http://jmt.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/440.full.pdf Greher, G.R., Hillier, A., Dougherty, M., & Poto, N. (2010). Soundscape: An interdisciplinary music intervention for adolescents and young adults on the autism spectrum. International Journal of Education & the Arts, 11(9). Retrieved from http://www.ijea.org/v11n9/ Hallam, S. (2010). The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people. International Journal of Music Education, 28(3), 269–289. Retrieved from http://ijm. doi: 10.1177/0255761410370658 Hallam, S., & Prince, V. (2000). Research into instrumental music services. Retrieved from core.kmi.open.ac.uk/download/pdf/4154301.pdf Hewitt, A. & Allan, A. (2012). Advanced youth music ensembles: Experiences of, and reasons for, participation. International Journal of Music Education, 31(3), 257– 275. Retrieved from http://ijm.sagepub.com/content/31/3/257 Hoffer, C. (2002).Music Listening Today. New York, NY: Schirmer. Jacobi, B. (2012). Opportunities for socioemotional learning in music classrooms. Music Educators Journal, 99(2), 68, 70-74. John, B. (2004). Chapter 18: Relating music and affect: An alternative model for structuring music instruction. In L.R. Bartel (Ed.), Questioning the Music Education Paradigm Vol. 2 of the Biennial Series, Research to Practice, (pp. 258-269). Canada: Canadian Music Educators’ Association. Kaplan, M. (1990). The arts: A social perspective. Cranbury, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. Killgore, W. & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2007). Neural correlates of emotional intelligence in adolescent children. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7(2), 140- 151. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com.ph/scholar_url?hl=en&q=http://www.researchgate.net/p ublication/6167714_Neural_correlates_of_emotional_intelligence_in_adolescent_ children/file/9fcfd50ae496aee515.pdf&sa=X&scisig=AAGBfm2tPvEFgLBZh- _g5VZ88qlgPDtntA&oi=scholarr&ei=SYSXU92yAYz48QXPr4LADw&ved=0C BsQgAMoADAA Shiela Jay P. Pineda 69 Kirschner, S. & Tomasello, M. (2010). Joint music making promotes prosocial behavior in 4-year-old children. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31, 354–364. Retrieved from http://www.eva.mpg.de/psycho/pdf/Publications_2010_PDF/Kirschner_Tomasell o_2010.pdf Kline, P. (2000). Standardising the test. In The handbook of psychological testing (2nd Ed.) (Chapter 4). Retrieved from http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=lm2RxaKaok8C&printsec=frontcover&sou rce=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Lau Wing Chi, M. (2008). Using singing games in music lessons to enhance young children’s social skills. Asia-Pacific Journal for Arts Education, 6(2), 1-28. Retrieved from http://www.ied.edu.hk/cca/apjae/Vol%206%20No%202.pdf Laurence, F. (2010). Chapter 15: Listening to children: voice, agency and ownership in school musicking. In R. Wright (Ed.), Sociology and Music Education (pg. 243- 262). Vermont, USA: Ashgate Publishing Company. Lehmann, A.C., Sloboda, J.A., & Woody, R.H. (2007). Psychology for musicians: Understanding and acquiring the skills. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Machalicek, W., O’Reilly, M. F., Beretvas, N., Sigafoos, J., & Lancioni, G. E. (2007). A review of interventions to reduce challenging behavior in school settings for students with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 1(3), 229-246. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wendy_Machalicek/publication/222818237_ A_review_of_interventions_to_reduce_challenging_behavior_in_school_settings_ for_students_with_autism_spectrum_disorders/links/0deec52afc103e8620000000/ A-review-of-interventions-to-reduce-challenging-behavior-in-school-settings-for- students-with-autism-spectrum-disorders.pdf Maehr, M.L., Pintrich, P.R. & Linnenbrink, E.A. (2002). Motivation and achievement. In R. Colwell and C. Richardson (Eds.), The new handbook of research on music teaching and learning. New York: Oxford University Press. Majoribanks, K., & Mboya, M. (2004) Learning environments, goal orientations, and interest in music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52(2), 155-166. McPherson, G.E. & Zimmerman, B.J. (2002). Self-regulation of musical learning: A social cognitive perspective. In R. Colwell and C. Richardson (Eds.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Merriam, A.P. (1964) Chapter 7: Learning. In The anthropology of music. Chicago: Northwestern University Press. Moore, R. (2002). Influence of multicultural singing games on primary school children’s attentiveness and song preferences in music class. International Journal of Music Education, (39)31, 31-39.doi: 10.1177/025576140203900104 North, A., Tarrant, M. & Hargreaves. D. (2004). The effects of music on helping behavior: A field study. Environment And Behavior, 36(2), 266-275.doi: 10.1177/0013916503256263 Paul, S.J. & Ballantine, J.H. (2002). The sociology of education and connections to music education research. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning. New York, NY: Schirmer Books. Reibehl, D. M. (2001). Co-curricular music lessons improve student behavior: A case study. Action research. Retrieved from www.angelfire.com/band2/pmmack/casestudy Rief, S.F. (2005). How to reach and teach children with ADD/ADHD: Practical techniques, strategies, and interventions (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ryan, G. & Burnard, H. R. (2003). Techniques to identify themes. Field Methods, 15(1), 85- 70 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (49-70) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 109. doi: 10.1177/1525822X02239569 Schnitzlein, B.D. (2006). Developing children’s character through music: A case for philosophy of education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. UP Diliman: College of Education. Sink, P.E. (2002). Behavioral research on direct music instruction. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning. New York, NY: Schirmer Books. Stamou, L. (2002). Plato and Aristotle on music and music education: Lessons from ancient Greece. International Journal of Music Education, 39, 3-16.doi: 10.1177/025576140203900102. Standley, J. (1996). A meta-analysis on the effects of music as reinforcement for education/therapy objectives. In R. Deasy (Ed.), Critical links: Learning in the arts and student academic and social development (2002). Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership. Retrieved from http://www.artreachsandiego.org/research/CriticalLinks.pdf Saunders, J. (2005). The case study as a method for exploring expert music teaching. Brock Education Journal, (15)1, 32-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.26522/brocked.v15i1.62 Whipple, J. (2004). Music in intervention for children and adolescents with autism: A meta- analysis. Journal of Music Therapy, 41 (2), 90-106.doi: 10.1093/jmt/41.2.90 Wiggins, J. (2001). Teaching for musical understanding. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Biography Shiela Jay Pineda is a music instructor for Grades 3 to 6 in the University of the Philippines Integrated School. She graduated with the degree of Master in Music Major in Music Education.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 2 (2017)

acoustic, alto recorder, extended techniques, sonic exploration, spectral music

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/139

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/833

Sonic Exploration of Alto Recorder for Nadi Bumi: Applied Research in Contemporary Classical Music Composition

Musical acoustic research has defined acoustic properties of fundamental recorder techniques for sound production that provide valuable insights into the process and techniques of contemporary classical music composition. Nonetheless, the exploration of musical acoustic properties from extended techniques of the recorder, especially for alto recorder, is not distinctly defined, scientifically and artistically. This research aims to: 1) study the scientific and artistic profiles of the alto recorder’s extended techniques found in contemporary classical recorder music compositions and 2) discuss newly discovered extended techniques derived from the earlier alto recorder extended techniques. The musical composition of Nadi Bumi is a derivation of applied research based on empirical studies of the earlier and new extended techniques sound production of the instrument. The musical ideas of the piece were associated with bone whistle or flute, Fibonacci series, Schumann Resonance and spectral music techniques. This research employed narrowband short-time Fourier Transform (STFT) spectrogram analysis, absolute scale non-linear decibel loudness seismograph analysis and music composition analysis based on selected score excerpts of contemporary recorder music composition and its controlled audio recording environment of alto recorder sound production sampling. Ultimately, this research enabled sonic exploration of new alto recorder extended techniques and is anticipated to become a reference framework for the future artistic development of alternative alto recorder music compositions.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/833/569

Ainolnaim Azizol 71 Sonic Exploration of Alto Recorder for Nadi Bumi: Applied Research in Contemporary Classical Music Composition Ainolnaim Azizol Faculty of Music, Universiti Teknologi Mara Level 11, Menara SAAS, UiTM Main Campus, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 30 December 2017 Cite this article (APA): Ainolnaim Azizol (2017). Sonic exploration of alto recorder for Nadi Bumi: Applied research in contemporary classical music composition. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(2), 71-93. Abstract Musical acoustic research has defined acoustic properties of fundamental recorder techniques for sound production that provide valuable insights into the process and techniques of contemporary classical music composition. Nonetheless, the exploration of musical acoustic properties from extended techniques of the recorder, especially for alto recorder, is not distinctly defined, scientifically and artistically. This research aims to: 1) study the scientific and artistic profiles of the alto recorder’s extended techniques found in contemporary classical recorder music compositions and 2) discuss newly discovered extended techniques derived from the earlier alto recorder extended techniques. The musical composition of Nadi Bumi is a derivation of applied research based on empirical studies of the earlier and new extended techniques sound production of the instrument. The musical ideas of the piece were associated with bone whistle or flute, Fibonacci series, Schumann Resonance and spectral music techniques. This research employed narrowband short-time Fourier Transform (STFT) spectrogram analysis, absolute scale non-linear decibel loudness seismograph analysis and music composition analysis based on selected score excerpts of contemporary recorder music composition and its controlled audio recording environment of alto recorder sound production sampling. Ultimately, this research enabled sonic exploration of new alto recorder extended techniques and is anticipated to become a reference framework for the future artistic development of alternative alto recorder music compositions. Keywords: acoustic, alto recorder, extended techniques, sonic exploration, spectral music 72 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Contemporary Classical Music: The Writing Process of Nadi Bumi Throughout the experiences of the composer in formal music learning, music composition is a process of organising sound within a time frame in horizontal intervallic motion (rhythm) and vertical intervallic motion (melodic). The combinations of melodic lines in layers produce harmony with various textures, such as homophony, polyphony (counterpoint) and heterophony. These sounds work as a medium or bridge to communicate between composer and listeners, traditionally to express adjective elements such as feelings, textures, colours, and moods. However, the composer opines that in contemporary classical music, conceptual idea and logic are expressed in the music through embedding scientific elements into musical elements, which can be observed in mathematical and computer music. Additionally, the composer believes that in order to write or produce something such as a formula or a prototype music creation, an in-depth study or research encompassing various methods of systematic inquiry on ‘how, what, when and why’, is thus highly indispensable to solve practical problems which lead to applied research. This involves the action of sampling, observing or experimenting (empirical) and analysing, to name a few, in terms of discerning qualitative data, quantitative data, or both. Nadi Bumi was composed as a quasi- aleatoric and spectral music piece for amplified alto recorder in F. The piece was written for New Recorder Music 2016 (a composition competition) organised by Association Flauto Dolce Lausanne and was premiered at Church Saint-Laurent in Switzerland. Recorder The recorder is a Western traditional end-blown aerophone instrument with a whistle mouthpiece, also known as internal-duct flute or fipple flute. The instrument has existed since the Iron Age and is among the earliest surviving instruments dating back to Middle Ages (documented in the Netherlands in 1940). Today, the recorder is available in a wide variety of ranges (Table 1) with different sizes, materials, designs and central or fundamental pitch tunings. Baroque and contemporary recorders have relatively similar designs, shaped with a tapered bore, consisting of three joint parts: 1) mouthpiece head or the upper joint with internal cylindrical bore, 2) middle joint and 3) the foot joint. Conversely, the Renaissance recorder is constructed of a single or two joint parts, the upper and foot, with a relatively straight cylindrical pipe (O’Brien and Hass, 1999). Ainolnaim Azizol 73 Table 1 Recorder types, central tunings, lengths, and voice range (Source: O’Brien and Hass, 1999) Recorder type or name Central tunings Length (metre) Voice ranges (C4 = middle C) Garklein C6 0.16 - 0.18 C6 - D8 Sopranino F5 0.20 F5 - G7 Soprano or descant C5 0.32 C5 - D7 Alto F4 0.47 D4 - G6 Voice flute D4 0.50 D4 - A5 Tenor C4 0.65 C4 - D6 Bass F3 0.85 - 0.89 F3 - G5 Great bass C3 1.10 - 1.15 C3 - D5 Contrabass F2 2.00 F2 - E4 Sub-great bass C2 1.95 C2 - D3 Sub-contrabass F1 2.40 - 2.50 F1 - G3 The alto recorder, also known as the treble recorder, is a non-transposed instrument with a diatonic tuning system of a central pitch of either F4 or G4 (alto recorder in F or G). These are the fundamental pitches produced by the fipple or whistle mouthpiece of a recorder (open hole fingerings). Alto recorders are available in different sets of temperaments that vary based on the recordists’ stylistic preferences, musical repertoire style or genre and musical performance or orchestration settings (Table 2). According to Bennetts et al. (1988), traditional recordists prefer to tune their recorder in just intonation1 (JI) rather than in equal- temperement2 tuning system for unaccompanied solo repertoire unless the style or genre of the repertoire requires so or is performed in ensemble with other equal- tempered instruments such as the piano. Elder (1964), mentioned that changes in air temperature, humidity and blowing pressure affect the vibrational energy levels of air molecules and musical instrument materials, which significantly alter the tuning of any wind instruments. Nonetheless, the type of alto recorder materials, air temperature, humidity and space acoustics affecting sound production quality (e.g. loudness degree, timbre and tunings), is not a major concern for Nadi Bumi since electronic amplification and 74 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 fine tunings are employed. Furthermore, Nadi Bumi did not specifically indicate any type of tuning system for the recorder. Table 2 Alto recorder f’ (F4) temperament tunings from different Baroque and Renaissance recorder designers and makers used at present (Lander, 1996) Sonic exploration from extended techniques According to Burtner (2005), ‘extended techniques’ refer to non-traditional or unconventional methods of playing musical instruments through which unusual and new sounds are produced in an explorative, experimental and artistic manner. Recorder types Recorder fingering systems Recorder designers and makers Recorder temperament tunings Renaissance alto English fingering system with double holes on lower notes J. Steenbergen A4 = 440 Hz J. Denner A4 = 415 Hz A4 = 440 Hz P. Bressan A4 = 415 A4 = 408 Hz A4 = 392 Hz Baroque alto English/ Baroque fingering system with double holes on lower notes Stanesby Jr. A4 = 415 Hz English / Baroque fingering system with double holes on lower notes Rottenburgh A4 = 410 A4 = 415 Hz Hotteterre fingering system with single holes Hotteterre A4 = 440Hz English / Baroque fingering system with double holes on lower notes Bizey A4 = 392 Hz Ganassi fingering system with single holes Ganassi A4 = 466 A4 = 460 A4 = 440 A4 = 415 Ainolnaim Azizol 75 O’Kelly (1990) mentioned that extended techniques began to be explored since the 17th-century classical Western art music, and it distinctively developed and became prominent during 20th- and 21st-century contemporary art music through new musical notation symbols, which frequently functioned as a musical sound effect. Recorder extended techniques usually explore spectral or timbral quality in monophonic and multiphonic sounds through manipulation of fingering, embouchure, blowing, vocalised tone, tonguing and prepared techniques. The sonic results of recorder extended techniques can be categorized into two groups; definite and indefinite pitch. Among the first development of extended techniques for alto recorder was Sweet (1964) by Louis Andriessen, a piece dedicated to Frans Bruggen. The composer introduced a highly attacked plosive and percussive playing techniques indicated with a Bartok pizzicato symbol (Figure 1). After the composer has identified and evaluated all recorder scores and audio recordings that employed extended techniques (Table 3), Meditation (1975) by Ryōhei Hirose (Figure 2), which underlines vocalised tone and embouchure manipulation, was selected as a reference piece for Nadi Bumi musical composition. The sonic aesthetic approach to the extended techniques present in Meditation, which the composer regarded as fluid, ethereal and organic, is similar to the soundworld of Nadi Bumi. These extended techniques were further analysed through scientific profiling to identify the acoustic mechanisms and to develop a new form of extended techniques that align with the artistic idea of Nadi Bumi, which are discussed further. Figure 1. Excerpt of Sweet (1964) by Louis Andriessen with extended technique playing indicated by a musical notation symbol similar to Bartok pizzicato on top of semiquaver notes at the forte (f) passage (Source: TheModernRecorder, 2012) 76 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Table 3 Contemporary classical music recorder repertoires with extended techniques (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) Composer Title Instrumentation Year Louis Andriessen Sweet Alto recorder 1964 Luciano Berio Gesti Alto recorder or Tenor recorder 1966 Sylvano Bussotti Rara from La Passion selon Sade Soprano recorder 1966 Makoto Shinohara Fragmente Tenor recorder 1968 George Crumb Lux aeterna Soprano, bass flute (doubling soprano recorder), sitar and two percussionists 1971 Ryōhei Hirose Meditation Alto recorder or Tenor recorder 1975 Ryōhei Hirose Lamentation Two alto recorder, tenor recorder and bass recorder 1975 Eugene Bozza Interlude Soprano recorder or Alto recorder or flute 1978 John Cage Three Three recorders (various range) 1989 Maki Ishii Black Intention I Soprano recorder 1976 Arvo Pärt Pari Intervallo (recorder version) Soprano recorder, alto recorder, tenor recorder and bass recorder 1976 Arvo Pärt Arbos Two soprano recorder, two alto recorder, two tenor recorder, bass recorder and three triangles (ad lib.) 1977 Maki Ishi Black Intention IV Two alto recorder, tenor recorder and bass recorder 1980 Ainolnaim Azizol 77 Figure 2. Excerpt of Meditation (1975) by Ryōhei Hirose featuring extended techniques focusing on vocalised tone and embouchure manipulation (Source: TheModernRecorder, 2013) Data Acquisition Fundamental of the recorder’s musical acoustics Fundamentally, the sound of the recorder is triggered by the air blown from the mouth into the recorder mouthpiece, which is modified according to the manipulation of fingering, embouchure, volume and speed of the blown air stream and tonguing movements. Similar to the descant and tenor recorder, the alto recorder consists of three joint parts: head joint, or top, which acoustically functions as air jet amplifier and resonator, mid joint as acoustic oscillator and foot joint as an acoustic resonator. According to Elder (1964), the recorder is classified as a musical instrument with a jet-edge resonator. The resonator driver located at the recorder head, which consists of a tapered windway or duct, orifice, lip, window, edge, blade or labium (Figure 3). An air jet stream is produced at the orifice by compressed air blown along the tapered duct. The air jet stream is sliced at the blade edge, generating air turbulence, which follows the Bernoulli principle. The turbulence generates a whistle tone or edge tone and drives the air inside the bore or air column of the recorder mid and foot parts to oscillate, producing an audible standing wave in which the pitch is determined by the wave length along the bore. For this research, the sound production of the instrument was recorded using spot microphone technique with AKG C415 B at the open end hole of the acoustic resonator (foot), acoustic oscillator (mid), air jet amplifier-resonator (window-head) and the recordist’s mouth. 78 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Figure 3. Acoustic mechanism of a recorder (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) Conventional extended techniques Extended techniques can be classified into two categories: definite pitch, in which a listener is able to discern and notate the pitch; and indefinite pitch, in which a listener perceives difficulty in identifying the exact pitch. However, the pitch recognition is largely influenced by the fluctuation speed between silence and sound (rhythms), the degree of sound amplitude (dynamics) and the range of frequencies (pitches). For example, in Meditation, pitches in the extended technique of whistling tone can be recognised if slow, steady rhythm and constant dynamic range are performed. In this case, the whistling tone is played ad libitum (freely) in terms of pitch range, dynamic, and rhythms which make the pitches barely recognisable. During a video rehearsal and discussion of Nadi Bumi via Skype, the recordist, Pauchard (2016) stated that definite pitch in conventional extended techniques for alto recorder are: 1) microtones, 2) multiphonics from non-harmonic distortions, 3) pitch bending at a slow tempo, 4) pitch-based flutter tonguing, 5) definite pitches from headpiece playing and without headpiece playing and 6) definite pitches from circular breathing. Meanwhile, indefinite pitch conventional extended techniques for alto recorder are; 1) multiphonics from harmonic distortions, 2) rapid and irregular rhythm-based sound production, 3) white noise tone, 4) plosive tones, 5) instrument body noise created by hitting and blowing, 6) timbral fluctuation by breath manipulation and prepared technique, 7) indefinite pitched based flutter tonguing, 8) overblown and 9) indefinite pitches from headpiece playing and without headpiece playing. Audio Sampling and Frequency-Pitch Mapping Audio sampling and frequency-pitch mapping methods are applied to provide visual characteristics to respective alto recorder extended techniques sound production for scientific and artistic profiling, which may eventually lead to the development of new alto recorder extended techniques other than new musical notation and acoustic synthesis-physical modeling. The conventional extended techniques for alto recorder sound production was sampled at 44100 Hz sampling rate and a 16-bit Ainolnaim Azizol 79 depth from a contemporary plastic recorder in F (F4) tuned at A4 = 440 Hz in well- tempered tuning system. The audio sampling system consisted of two AKG C451 B microphones, an AVID Mbox 2 analogue-digital signal converter interface, a Pro Tools 10 HD digital audio workstation and an Izotope Ozone Insight spectrum analyser plugin. The AKG C451 B microphone frequency response was calibrated to nearly flat frequency response (Figures 4 and 5) to achieve non-personalised alto recorder frequency or colour sampling. Absolute scale non-linear decibel loudness seismograph analysis was employed to measure the loudness or sound pressure level (SPL) in decibel (-dB) which affects the frequency-pitch production of alto recorder. The spectrogram described the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) fixed at narrow band linear frequency with 4096 fast Fourier transform (FFT) Hanning window size that enables the display of individual harmonics with uniform frequency spread and good frequency resolutions. Figure 4. Nearly flat frequency response achieved by equalising AKG 451B microphone tailored frequency response at 5 kHz to 20 kHz (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) 80 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Figure 5. EQ3 7-Band Equalisation with high pass filter (HPF) at 300 Hz with 24 dB/octave, and bell curve between 5 kHz to 20 kHz with flat curve belly around -4 dB between 1kH to 15 kHz (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) Table 4 Five new extended techniques derived from multiphonics of alto recorder (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) Multiphonics Types Playing Techniques Slap echo multiphonic A multiphonic played by flutter tonguing with suddenly loud playing and gradually fade out. Reverse tape multiphonic A multiphonic played by flutter tonguing with gradually loud playing and gradually fade in. Amplitude modulation multiphonic A multiphonic played by alternately increasing and decreasing the air volume and speed or alternately open-close the foot hole with palm or other wind resistant materials. Tremolo multiphonic A multiphonic played by fingering tremolo and vocalised tone. Double Tremolo multiphonics Two multiphonics played by fingering tremolo and vocalised tone tremolo. Ainolnaim Azizol 81 Analysis and Discussion Sonic Exploration and Insight Multiphonics are typically performed with different combinations of fingering pitch notes and long vocalised tone notes (singing) with or without vibrato and glissandi (pitch bending). Based on the spectrogram analysis of multiphonics (Figure 6), the resultant frequency (a combination of frequencies generated from the vocalised tone and blowing into the alto recorder air column) showed stable and several missing harmonics or phantom harmonics. The resultant harmonics were easily exploited by the vocalised tone and air stream behaviour (speed and volume) or embouchure (Figure 7). Combinations of two or three playing techniques that manipulate both vocalised tone and lip-tongue embouchure have enabled the composer to discover five new extended techniques derived from multiphonics (Table 4). Figure 6. Spectrogram analysis (hertz, Hz) of single note and multiphonic playing with uniform fundamental frequencies (thick bright lines) from constant loudness of fingering pitch note G4 which later simultaneously played with vocalised tone note pitch C4 with just intonation (JI) ~262 Hz. (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) 82 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Figure 7. Spectrogram analysis (hertz, Hz) and loudness of multiphonics consist of sustained G4 fingering note pitch with five vocalised tone pitch notes (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) Ainolnaim Azizol 83 Changes in the size of the window and foot hole opening using hand or other wind resistant materials have been used as conventional extended techniques for pitch and timbre manipulation. Spectrogram analysis (Figure 8) shows a single note pitch sound production at the foot hole with less blowing air or breathing noise produced slightly softer sound than the sound produced at head-window and mid- fingering holes (Figure 9). This has led to the new extended technique idea of manipulating the air movement going out from the recorder. The recorder can be prepared with a mini-size Elizabethan collar or E-collar (cone-like megaphone), made from a plastic or metal sheet installed outside the bore of headpiece along the alto recorder window (Figure 10) which enables the sound to be focused and projected towards stereo perception listeners at a particular vector, resulting to sound localisation or spatial effect at a 360-degree horizontal plane and a 180- degree vertical plane. Figure 8. Spectrogram analysis indicating airy noise level projected at window and foot hole from the same sound source of A♭4 (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) Figure 9. Loudness level (decibel, -dB) of A♭4 (sound wave) with microphone placement at 0.05 meter from window or lip and foot hole (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) A♭4 captured with microphone placement at 0.05 meter from foot hole A♭4 captured with microphone placement at 0.05 meter from window or lip 84 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Figure 10. Top view of an alto recorder prepared with mini size E-collar made from plastic or metal sheet for alto recorder sound localization or spatial projection (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) Whistle tone is another conventional extended technique typically used for flute which can also be applied to alto recorder. Whistle tone (characterised as a thin, silky, transparent and airy sound with high harmonics) is generated by means of frequency modification of the air column’s vibration. As reflected in the spectrogram analysis (Figure 11), three important determinants of the whistle tone quality are embouchure (lip tension and aperture) adjustment, airstream speed or pressure alteration and the length of the vibrating air column within the tube. This technique is played either by; 1) blowing normally at the mouthpiece and very carefully shading the window with a finger, which produces limited variations of high harmonics and 2) blowing with a transverse flute embouchure at the first hole (fingering hole number 1 near window) with free, alternate fingerings which produces variations of high harmonics. Conceivably, a combination of the aforementioned playing techniques would enable the whistle tone to be further explored and manipulated. Consequently, the composer has established a new extended technique of whistle tone by adapting transverse-flute-style playing in addition to timbral and dynamic fluctuation (wah-wah effects, a gradual loud-soft or terraced dynamics) through controlling of the size of the foot hole using hand or other wind resistant materials. Ainolnaim Azizol 85 Figure 11. Spectrogram analysis of whistling tone technique with small numbers of high harmonics (with missing fundamental frequency) and dense airy noise (scattered pixels). (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) Composition of Nadi Bumi The composition process of the piece began with recorder instrumentation study, which led to the sonic exploration of the instrument. However, while studying the alto recorder instrumentation and extended techniques, research and discussion on musical acoustics and musical aesthetics of alto recorder extended techniques were discovered to be very limited. Hence, this situation has elicited the interest to investigate and develop new extended techniques for alto recorder for application in the composition of Nadi Bumi. The sound idea development for the 7-minute piece emphasised ‘tone gestures’ and timbral changes, which involved spectral music techniques and timbral associations of ancient bone flute or whistle with recorder and primitive tone gestures (Figure 12). 86 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Figure 12. Research process of composing Nadi Bumi (Source: Ainonaim Azizol, 2016) According to Juan G.R. (2008), tone as in sound is made of single or multiple sound waves with specific sonic characteristics such as loudness, articulations, and timbre. The idea of tone gestures classify and categorise the specific set of tones produced by the extended techniques and non-extended technique tones. This set of tones was organised similarly to the organising of pitches in a series of melodic gestures based on pitch-scale tonality function. These tones are described in the arrangement of low-high tone range, rather than specific tuning melodic intervals range in pitch-scale tonality function (Figure 13). Tone gestures consist of the vertical motion of tones between high and low registers and horizontal motion of rhythmic displacements, while melodic and harmonic gestures focus on one particular event of motion: the motion of pitches between a high and low register with a specific set of pitches based on tonality. Therefore, a flexible and boundless sonic landscape can be crafted on the musical canvas of Nadi Bumi through tone gestures. Nadi Bumi used alto recorder due to the ethereal timbre quality compared to other recorder ranges. With a duration of 7 minutes, the piece consists of 7 systems (each 60 seconds in length) with two voice lines which both are played simultaneously by a recordist (solo). These staves were individually divided based on unique sonic ideas and the idiomatic expression of Fibonacci numbers3 (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 and 13). For example, the composer has decided to divide the fifth stave into 13 tone gesture cells, by which each cell holds unique tone gestures such as short pitches, different dynamic range, and octave register. Music duration: 7 minutes Ainolnaim Azizol 87 The voicing lines of the alto recorder and definite pitch of humming-like vocal tones in the tone gesture cells are influenced by the frequential structure of the harmonic partial series constructed from the Schumann resonances (SR) spectrum peaks (7.83 Hertz), as the fundamental frequency or first harmonic partial (f) of the extremely low frequency (ELF) of the electromagnetic resonance produced by lightning discharge between the ground and ionosphere. The frequency (7.83 Hertz) is multiplied by the harmonic partial numbers (fx1, fx2, fx3…) up to the octaves of the alto recorder voice range (Table 5). For example, overtone series, amplitude modulation or amplitude vibrato, frequency modulation and ring modulation are reflected by the peculiar, primitive and explorative sound of conventional and new alto recorder extended techniques. The timbral changes work between harmonic and melodic consonance-dissonance and tension-release of tone gestures in vertical and horizontal motion. The composer decided to use several new types of multiphonics discovered in this research in which the sound world is suitable for the sonic idea of the piece (Figure 14). The spatial extended techniques (E-collar) was not applied in the piece due to the unknown acoustic environment and stage setting of the music performance. Figure 13. Tone gestures concept derived from pitch-scale tonality function (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) 88 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Figure 14. Fibonacci numbers in relation to number of tone gestures cells and selected new extended techniques used (Source: Ainolnaim Azizol, 2016) Amplitude modulation multiphonic Transverse-flute style playing whistling tone Tremolo multiphonic Reverse tape multiphonic Ainolnaim Azizol 89 Table 5 Relationship of harmonic partials on Schumann Resonance fundamental frequency with alto recorder frequency and pitch range Harmonic Partials Number (N) Fundamental at 7.83Hz x (N) in Hertz (Hz) = A Well-tempered Tuning in Hertz (Hz) = B Alto Recorder Pitch Note A-B in Herts (Hz) 45 352 ≈ 349 F4 3 47 368 ≈ 370 F#4 -2 50 392 = 392 G4 0 53 415 = 415 G#4 0 56 438 ≈ 440 A4 -2 59 462 ≈ 466 A#4 -4 63 493 ≈ 494 B4 -1 67 525 ≈ 523 C5 2 71 556 ≈ 554 C#5 2 75 587 = 587 D5 0 79 619 ≈ 622 D#5 -3 84 658 ≈ 659 E5 -1 89 697 ≈ 699 F5 -2 Conclusion The analysis, discussion, and discovery of seven possible new sonic qualities in extended techniques are conducted through scientific and artistic profile studies on the sound production of alto recorder and its conventional extended techniques. A mixture of multiple sound waves and other mechanical vibrations, including the manipulation of the alto recorder’s acoustic properties, produced new tones which can be in pitched, un-pitched, musical and non-musical form. The idea and term of tone gestures were coined and used to substitute the pitch-scale tonality function in Nadi Bumi and previous work of the composer on duo trumpet in B-flat entitled fragments I. The concept of tone gestures gave two dimensions of sonic imaginary space. Future studies to explore and discover new extended techniques on prepared techniques for alto recorder and other recorder range (e.g. bass recorder and sub- bass recorder) are highly recommended to create continuity, fresh, alternative, creative and artistic profile for new recorder music composition. 90 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Endnotes 1 Just intonation (JI) is a musical tuning system having intervals that are acoustically (harmonically) pure. 2 Equal temperament is a tuning system in which the frequency interval between every pair of adjacent notes has the same ratio. It is the common musical scale used for the tuning of pianos and other instruments of relatively fixed scale. 3 The Fibonacci numbers appear in nature and in music. Notes in the scale of western music are based on natural harmonics that are created by ratios of frequencies. Ratios found in the first seven numbers of the Fibonacci series (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8) are related to key frequencies of musical notes. Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge Gertrud Kuhn (President of Association Flauto Dolce Lausanne, Switzerland) and Marc Pauchard (recordist for Nadi Bumi) for the indispensable opportunity and meaningful collaboration, and Mohamed Taufiq Omar (Research Assistant) who contributes substantially to the preparation of the manuscript. The research facilities and financial support provided by the Universiti Teknologi MARA are also duly acknowledged. References Ainolnaim, A. (2016). Nadi Bumi: Extended techniques for alto recorder & science. Paper presented at the Second (2nd) International Performing Arts and Music Conference (IMPAC2016): Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia. Retrieved from http://impac2016.upsi.edu.my/index.php/online-proceedings Ainolnaim. A. (2016). Nadi Bumi for amplified alto recorder in F [Performed by Marc Pauchard. Recorded by RTS Espace 2 Radio]. New Recorder Music Festival 2016. Lausanne, Switzerland: L’Association Flauto Dolce. AKG Acoustics Gmbh. (2015). AKG 451B Reference condenser vocal microphone. Retrieved from http://cloud.akg.com/10243/c451_manual.pdf. Bali, J. (2013). Introduction to the avant-garde for recorder players. Budapest: Editio Musica Budapest. Barata, A. (1988). Sources of information on woodwind multiphonics: An annotated bibliography. Perspectives of New Music, 26(1) 246–56. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/833328. Bennetts, K., Bousted, B., & Bowman, P. (1988). The quarter-tone recorder manual. Celle: Edition Moeck 2084. Boubaker, H. (2015). Leçons de respiration circulaire [Circular breathing lessons]. Retrieved from http://heddy.boubaker.free.fr/Respiration-Circulaire.shtml. Burtner, M (2005). Making noise: Extended techniques after experimentalism. Retrieved from http://www.NewMusic.Box.org. Clark, P. (1970). The recorder [sic.]. Recorder and Music Magazine, 3(7) 235–36. Retrieved from http://www.recordermagazine.co.uk/rm_index.htm. Ainolnaim Azizol 91 Chamberlain, N. (2011). Extended flute technique. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kp9mm1zApSs Dunn, J. (2001-2004). Audio precision application note #5: Measurement techniques for digital audio. Oregon: Audio Precision, Inc. Retrieved from http://www2.electron. frba.utn.edu.ar/~jcecconi/Bibliografia/13%20-%20Medicion%20de%20 Amplificadores/Documentos/AudioPrecision_AN5_DigitalAudioMeasurement.pdf Elder, S.A. (1964). Physicists and fipple flute at APL. Retrieved from http://www.jhuapl.edu/techdigest/views/pdfs/V03_N3_1964/V3_N3_1964_Elder.pdf Goedhart, D. (2015). Het spelen van hedendaagse blokfluitmuziek [Playing contemporary recorder music]. Retrieved from http://www.angelfire.com/fl/flautonuovo/ Enieuws09.html. Grossmann, V., & Cesar, M. (2010). Developing a hybrid contrabass recorder: Resistances, expression, gestures and rhetoric. Proceedings from NIME 2010: The International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, 223–28. Sydney. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254200082_Developing_a_Hybrid_ Contrabass_Recorder_Resistances_Expression_Gestures_and_Rhetoric Hauwe, W. V. (1984–1992). The modern recorder player. 3 vols. London: Schott Edition 12150, 12270, 12361. Retrieved from http://www.read4freebooks.com/ recommendations-book/the-modern-recorder-player. Hawkins, S. J. (1776). A general history of the science and practice of music. 5 vols. London: T. Paine & Sons. Retrieved from http://imslp.org/wiki/A_General_ History_of_the_Science_and_Practice_of_Music_(Hawkins,_John). Horringa, D. (1991). De electronische blokfluit – Een interview met Michael Barker [The Electronic Recorder, an Interview with Michael Barker]. Retrieved from http://www.angelfire.com/fl/flautonuovo/Enieuws03.html. Juan G.R. (2008). The physics and pschopysics of music: An introduction (Fourth ed.). New York, NY: Springer. Kientzy, M. (1982). Les sons multiples aux flütes à bec [Multiphonics on the Recorder]. Paris: Editions Salabert. Izotope. (2016). Izotope Insight. Retrieved from http://valdez.dumarsengraving.com/multiphonics.pdf Lander, N.S. (1996). Recorder home page: Technique: Extended technique. Retrieved from http://www.recorderhomepage.net/technique/extended-technique/. Lavry, D. (2004). Sampling theory for digital audio. Lavry Engineering, Inc. Retrieved from http://lavryengineering.com/pdfs/lavry-sampling-theory.pdf Mayer-Spohn, U., & Takahashi, K. (2014). The recorder map. Retrieved from http://recordermap.com/. Mersenne, M. (1637). Seconde partie de l’harmonie universelle, livre cinqueisme. Des instruments à vent [Second part of “Harmonie universelle”. Wind instruments]. Paris: Ballard. Retrieved from http://imslp.org/wiki/Harmonie_universelle_(Mersenne,_Marin). Müller, H. (2015). Técnicas contemporâneas para flauta doce [Contemporary Techniques for Recorder]. Retrieved from http://www.helciomuller.mus.br/tecnicas.html. O'Brien, E. and Haas, E. (1999). About Woods used to make recorders. Retrieved from http://www.vonhuene.com/topic.aspx?name=recorderwood. O’Kelly, E. (1985). The recorder in twentieth-century music. Vol. 1: The recorder, its music and technique in the twentieth century; Vol. 2: A catalogue of twentieth-century recorder music. M.Phil., London: Goldsmith’s College, University of London. 92 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (71-93) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 O’Kelly, E. (1990). The recorder today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.my/books?id=zweJqOFJKz8C&pg=PR4&lpg=PR4& dq=O%E2%80%99Kelly,+E.+(1990).+The+Recorder+Today.&source=bl&ots=0WV _4XTtXx&sig=FxQqekokScCkwFzMd-XEMFnryY4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEw i4x7iunKrYAhWCopQKHdPCDW0Q6AEIPjAE#v=onepage&q=O%E2%80%99Kell y%2C%20E.%20(1990).%20The%20Recorder%20Today.&f=false O’Kelly, E. (1995). The recorder revival. II, The twentieth century and its repertoire. In Thomson, J.M., & Rowland-Jones, A, The Cambridge Companion to the Recorder (66-152). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rechberger, H. (1987). Die blockflöte in der zeitgenössischen Musik [The recorder in contemporary music]. Typescript. Finnish Music Information Centre: Helsinki. Roll-Hansen, N. (2003). Why the distinction between basic (theoretical) and applied (practical) research in the politics of science (Report). The London School of Economics and Political Science. Retrieved from http://www.lse.ac.uk/CPNSS/research/concludedResearchProjects/ContingencyDisse ntInScience/DP/DPRoll-HansenOnline0409.pdf Rowland-Jones, A. (1993). Putting the clock back. The Recorder: Australia's Journal of Recorder & Early Music, 17(12), 12. Sarah Jeffery / Team Recorder. (2017). Intro to contemporary / extended techniques for recorder! Team recorder. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=meaESDXNmm0 Schmidt, U. (1981). Notation der neuen Blockflötenmusik: Ein Überblick [Notation of new recorder music: an overview]. Celle: Moeck. Retrieved from https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/1221736. Sebastiani, C. (1563). Bellum musicale inter plani et mensuralis cantus reges, de principatu in musicae prouincia obtinendo, con tendentes. Strassburg: Pauli Machaeropoei [Messerschmidt]. Retrieved from http://imslp.org/wiki/Bellum_musicale_(Sebastiani, _Claudius). TheModernRecorder. (2012). Louis Andriessen: Sweet (1964). [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NB0GtseEvQc TheModernRecorder. (2013). Ryohei Hirose: Meditation (1975). [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sbqFk07DPtE Troman, R. (1985). Souffle [Breath]. Flûte à bec & instruments anciens, 13/14, 15.UCL. (2003). Acoustics of Speech and Hearing. Retrieved from http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/courses/spsci/acoustics/week1-10.pdf. Uffenbach, Z.C. (1934). London in 1710: From the travels of Zacharias Conrad Von Uffenbach. London: Faber & Faber. Wells, P. G. (2000). Giving the fingers. I, Conventions in the Notation of Contemporary Recorder Music. Recorder Magazine, 20(2): 59–62. Yorita, R. (2014). Using Spectral Analysis to Evaluate Flute Tone Quality. The Faculty of California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2422&context=theses. Ainolnaim Azizol 93 Biography Ainolnaim Azizol is a Malaysian pianist, composer and sound artist. He received his Masters of Music in Music Composition at the Royal Birmingham Conservatoire and his Bachelor of Music in Piano Performance and Pedagogy at Universiti Sains Malaysia. Since 2010, he has written a collection of compositions that incorporate traditional elements from both local and foreign music in a contemporary music style. His award-winning compositions such as C-lat, Badang!!!!, Fragments, Nocturne, Konstruktif, and Nadi Bumi, have been performed in Malaysia, Indonesia, Japan, Singapore, Portugal, Switzerland, Germany and United Kingdom. Ainolnaim currently works as a lecturer in music composition at the Faculty of Music, Universiti Teknologi Mara. Visit http://www.ainolnaim.wordpress.com for more information about the author.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 2 (2017)

Ghanaian folk songs, Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe, Bb atɛntɛbɛn

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/139

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/834

From Ghanaian Folk Song to Contemporary Art Music for Bb Atɛntɛbɛn and Piano

In recent decades, many Ghanaian composers have incorporated traditional Ghanaian folk tunes into their western-influenced compositional works. Among them are Ephraim Amu, Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia, Nicholas Nichodemus Kofie, and Cosmas Worlanyo Kofi Mereku who used folk tunes as themes for extended musical compositions. These compositions represent the hybrid cultural identity of Ghanaian composers whose roots are entrenched in traditional and Western musical cultures. This article focuses on the compositional technique I, as a modern composer, utilised in integrating the musical elements and features of ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’, a Ghanaian folk song into a new contemporary art music composition for the Bb atɛntɛbɛn (a modified traditional bamboo flute) and piano. In this new composition also titled Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe, I extended beyond the standard tuning systems of the modified Bb atɛntɛbɛn by structuring the piece based on sonata form. The sonata form contains modulation from the tonic triggering me to include two new chromatic pitches, expanding the capabilities of the modified Bb atɛntɛbɛn. In this article, I argue for new possibilities of atɛntɛbɛn ‘neoclassical’ compositions by combining compositional techniques from western classical and Ghanaian traditional music.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/834/570

94 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 From Ghanaian Folk Song to Contemporary Art Music for Bb Atɛntɛbɛn and Piano Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe Department of Music and Dance, Faculty of Arts, College of Humanities and Legal Studies University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Published online: 30 December 2017 Cite this article (APA): Adjahoe, M.Q. (2017). From Ghanaian folk song to contemporary art music for Bb atɛntɛbɛn and piano. Malaysian Music Journal, 6 (2), 94-114. Abstract In recent decades, many Ghanaian composers have incorporated traditional Ghanaian folk tunes into their western-influenced compositional works. Among them are Ephraim Amu, Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia, Nicholas Nichodemus Kofie, and Cosmas Worlanyo Kofi Mereku who used folk tunes as themes for extended musical compositions. These compositions represent the hybrid cultural identity of Ghanaian composers whose roots are entrenched in traditional and Western musical cultures. This article focuses on the compositional technique I, as a modern composer, utilised in integrating the musical elements and features of ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’, a Ghanaian folk song into a new contemporary art music composition for the Bb atɛntɛbɛn (a modified traditional bamboo flute) and piano. In this new composition also titled Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe, I extended beyond the standard tuning systems of the modified Bb atɛntɛbɛn by structuring the piece based on sonata form. The sonata form contains modulation from the tonic triggering me to include two new chromatic pitches, expanding the capabilities of the modified Bb atɛntɛbɛn. In this article, I argue for new possibilities of atɛntɛbɛn ‘neoclassical’ compositions by combining compositional techniques from western classical and Ghanaian traditional music. Keywords: Ghanaian folk songs, Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe, Bb atɛntɛbɛn. Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 95 Introduction In modern Ghana, the study and performance of musical instruments is a core subject in some of the music programmes in secondary and tertiary institutions. These programmes require the students to perform music composed for African/Ghanaian traditional musical instruments as well as western musical instruments. The Bb atɛntɛbɛn is also studied and performed for practical examinations in the institutions. Atɛntɛbɛn is the traditional bamboo flute of the people of Kwahu in the Eastern Region of Ghana, which, initially had three or four pitch-holes and was held transversely like the western flute. Most of these pieces arranged for the Bb atɛntɛbɛn are combined with piano accompaniment. According to Flolu and Amuah (2003), the study of music (western music) began in the then Gold Coast (now Ghana) during the period of the Mission Schools in the 1880s to train local workers to teach hymn singing in the churches. In the 1950s, the mission schools’ music programme taught the students music theory up to the level of the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (ABRSM Grade V and VII). Ward (1939), a British music educator and historian, wrote: African music and European music will certainly influence each other in the future. Gold Coast teachers can do African music a great service by studying it, understanding it, teaching it; and by knowing European music well enough to see what help the two can give each other. A European can give Africans no help in the study of African music; but he may be able to help them to understand and enjoy better music of his own race (Ward, 1939, xii, cited in Flolu and Amuah, 2003, p. 12). The usage of folk songs as themes for large musical works has been a common practice for centuries. Kerman (1980) and Forney and Machlis (2007) among others, stated that for several centuries, many composers have realised that folk songs provided rich inspirational resources for compositions. Again, Forney and Machlis, asserted that, The interest in folklore and the rising tide of nationalism inspired Romantic composers to make increased use of the folk songs and dances from their native lands. As a result, a number of national idioms—Hungarian, Polish, Russian, Bohemian, Scandinavian, and eventually American—flourished, greatly enriching the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic language of music. (Forney and Machlis, 2007, p. 234) The style and elements (melodic, rhythmic and harmonic structures as well as textual contour) of Ghanaian folk songs were recognised as compositional materials for art music very early in Ghana in the 1920s (Agordoh, 2002, p. 140). Agordoh again records that Ephraim Amu (1899-1995) uniquely advanced the integration of indigenous music in church worship in the Presbyterian and the Evangelical Presbyterian Churches in Ghana by creating the consciousness of the artistic potential of the tonal inflection and rhythmic flow of both the Akwapem 96 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Twi and Ewe languages. Agordoh emphasised that this trend is observable in Amu’s compositions including Hadzidzi Ame Ƒe Gbɔgbɔ and Agbexɔxɔ mɔ (p. 144). Agordoh added that other composers such as Isaac Daniel Riverson (1901-1967), Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia (b. 1921), Michael Kofi Amissah (1923-2010) and many others wrote anthems in their various languages “in the style of traditional tunes for churches and concerts in schools” (Agordoh, 2002, pp. 149-162). While western music was taught in mission schools, the study of traditional African/Ghanaian music was neglected in the school system then. The imposition of western music and culture into the education system soon created dissatisfaction among many Ghanaian citizens. Consequently, the music curriculum in the Mission Schools of Ghana was re-evaluated in 1924 (Flolu and Amuah, 2003, p.12). Forsythe (1940) wrote: African children should be taught African music alongside European music. Only in this way can we expect to create an African school of composition, which will necessarily have to be a fusion of African and European idioms. Of course all this rests with individual genius, but (we) look forward to the day when great works by African composers, works stamped with that originality and depth that is African’s will be heard in concert halls of the world (1940, pp. 174-75, cited in Flolu and Amuah, 2003, pp. 12-13). Ghanaian music composers have been developed since Ephraim Amu’s era in 1926 when he was teaching at Akropong (Agordoh, 2002, p. 146). Agordoh again provides a comprehensive list of pioneer composers who had included traditional musical elements into art songs as follows: Ephraim Amu, Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia, Nicholas Zinzendorf Nayo, Alfred Entsua-Mensah, Otto Boateng, Samuel George Boateng, Frank Kofi Nyaku, Atta Annan Mensah, Charles Graves, Ernest Safo, Joseph Michael Teye Dosso, Joseph Samuel Maison, Robert George Kodzo Ndo, Michael Kofi Amissah, Isaac Daniel Riverson, Francis Onwona Safo, Adolphus Ato Robertson Turkson, Walter Komla Blege, and Kenn Kafui (pp. 146-166). The Traditional and Modified Atɛntɛbɛn In Ghana, the traditional atɛntɛbɛn was used to accompany singing, drumming, dancing and to mourn the dead. According to oral history, there is no accurate fact record about the origin of the atεntεbεn, but it became famous among the people of Kwahu after one man named Akwasi Fori was found playing the instrument to mourn his dead uncle. Akwasi Fori continued to play a particular tune for three days at the bank of a river and drowned himself afterwards. This tune is named ‘Akwasi Fori’ after the first performer. Although it exists in variety of versions, it is heard especially among the Akan-speaking people of Ghana to announce and mourn the dead. Figure 1 shows a photo of Ephraim Amu playing the traditional atεntεbεn. Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 97 Figure 1. Photograph of Ephraim Amu playing the traditional atɛntɛbɛn. (Source: Agyemang, 1988, p. 65) The traditional version of the atɛntɛbɛn with three pitch-holes produced four pitches while the four pitch-holes atɛntɛbɛn created five pitches. This is confirmed by Agyemang (1988) who stated that in 1926-27, Ephraim Amu, a Ghanaian composer found that “the Kwahu flute could not produce all the notes of the scale played on the Ewe and other Akan ethnic flutes” (p. 79). The ranges and scales of the traditional three pitch-holes as well as the four pitch-holes atɛntɛbɛn can be found in Figures 2 and 3 respectively. Figure 2. The range and scale of the three pitch-holes traditional atɛntɛbɛn. Figure 3. The range and scale of the four pitch-holes traditional atɛntɛbɛn. Amu was the first composer who first introduced the music of Ghana into the national music programme. He combined western music with African drumming and piping into the musical activities at the Presbyterian Teachers 98 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Training College (now Presbyterian College of Education) at Akropong and Achimota School at Accra where he taught from the years 1926-1933 and 1934- 1937 respectively (Flolu and Amuah, 2003, pp. 6-13). The music programmes at national schools encountered difficulty in arranging music for traditional atɛntɛbɛn tuned to its own unique system of four and five pitch scales with western musical instruments adjusted to equal temperament. After examining the organology and tuning system of the traditional atɛntɛbɛn, Amu decided to develop a new atɛntɛbɛn, which would enable his students to play songs composed in Western diatonic scale. Amu sought permission from the Asante King Otumfuo Nana Sir Osei Agyeman Prempeh II to learn how to manufacture and play the atɛntɛbɛn. The Asante King allowed Amu to be taught by his (the King’s) master flautist and maker Opanyin Kofi Poku (Agyemang, 1988, p. 79). Although progress was slow because every initial success came with its own challenges, Amu succeeded by increasing the number of pitch-holes to seven thereby increasing the number of possible pitches of the atɛntɛbɛn (Figure 4). Today, Amu’s modified atɛntɛbɛn has seven pitch-holes tuned in Bb, C and D major to western standard equal temperament. Unlike the traditional atɛntɛbɛn which is held diagonally (Figure 1), the modified atɛntɛbɛn is played vertically (Figure 4). Amu emphasised in an interview that the most common atεntεbεn in Ghanaian schools, colleges and universities is the atεntεbεn in Bb (Adjahoe, 1987, pp. 8-12) (Figure 5). Figure 4. Amu plays his newly developed/modified atɛntɛbɛn. (Source: Agyemang, 1988, p. 66) Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 99 Figure 5. A photograph of the front and back views of modern Bb atɛntɛbɛn used in Ghanaian schools, colleges and universities. (Source: Adjahoe, 2016a, p.1) Due to its mode of manufacturing, the atεntεbεn could only play music written in its ‘natural’ key (the key in which it is tuned). Today, (2017), there are a number of works by African/Ghanaian composers for the Bb atεntεbεn in Bb major using its ‘natural’ scale. However, Amu suggests that in order to expand beyond this limitation, music for the Bb atεntεbεn should be written in the key of C major. He said: “… music for the Bb atεntεbεn must be written in the key of C major, this way, the Ghanaian traditional bamboo flute would also be considered a transposing musical instrument like the trumpet in Bb” (Adjahoe, 1987, p. 13). Amu and his students wrote music for this instrument in the transposed key of C major using only the diatonic pitch, which became the model for other composers. So, in Ghana, most composers compose music for the atεntεbεn using the western diatonic pitches in the key of C major (Figure 6). 100 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Figure 6. An illustration of the diatonic western musical notes capable of being produced on the Bb atεntεbεn using the key of C major. (Source: Adjahoe, 2016a, p.3) In an attempt to increase the possibilities of pitch production in the musical instrument, Nana Danso Abiam composed music that explored the use of two additional chromatic notes for the Bb atεntεbεn (Craig Harris, 2017); F#4 and Bb4 (Adjahoe, 2016a, pp. 15-20). The Pan-African Orchestra (PAO) formed by Nana in 1988 travelled across Africa to perform music compositions for the modified atεntεbεn and other traditional instruments including the atɛntɛbɛn, gonje, kora and gyile. His mission with the PAO, originally a 30-piece ensemble, had been to explore the classical foundations of traditional African music and to cultivate an integrated continental art form through new compositional and orchestral techniques (Appiah, 2015). Through examining several experimentations on alternative fingering techniques by Nana Danso Abiam, Togbe Kodzo Amu (Ephraim Amu’s youngest son) I have discovered that the instrument can perfectly play music written in the following keys: C major, F major, G major, A minor and the Aeolian modes of C, F Mouth-hole Hole 6 Hole 5 Hole 4 Hole 3 Hole 2 Hole 1 Sound- hole Back pitch- hole Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 101 and G (Adjahoe, 2016a, p. 28). As a composer, performer, instructor of piano and a number of Ghanaian traditional instruments—notably the Bb atɛntɛbɛn, Ghanaian traditional drums and gyile—I have been composing music for my students using varieties of themes. These themes may be self-composed or inspired from Ghanaian folk songs. The aim of this article is to demonstrate that music for the Bb atɛntɛbɛn can be composed in various other keys than the ‘natural’ key of the instrument. I present 1) the compositional technique I utilised in integrating the musical elements of ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’, a Ghanaian folk song, into a new contemporary art piece; and 2) the development of a hybrid composition that represents my identity as a modern Ghanaian composer with roots in Ghanaian traditional culture and western influenced musical heritage. I present new experiences in composing music for the Bb atɛntɛbɛn through my composition titled a Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe, a contemporary art music for Bb atɛntɛbɛn and piano. I also highlight the musical features of Ghanaian folk songs and ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’. I discuss the inspiration for this new composition and explore composition techniques for the Bb atɛntɛbɛn. Inspiration to Compose Art Music based on Ghanaian Folk Songs I attended Peki Secondary School (now Peki Senior High Secondary School) between 1974 and 1979 in Peki Avetile. During this period, Ephraim Amu was also living in Peki Avetile, his home-town, as a retired music teacher, composer and educator. I became attracted to Ephraim Amu’s music through his youngest son, Togbe Kodzo Amu, who was always playing music on the atɛntɛbɛn, while I accompanied him on his father’s grand piano. Togbe Kodzo Amu and I most often performed his father’s compositions. As we performed the music, I realised that Ephraim Amu integrated the musical themes and features of Ghanaian folk songs in his musical compositions. Consequently, I developed interest in the folk songs of my ancestral tribe, Ewe. Later, in my career as composer, I was motivated further by Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958) who stated that “The art of music above all other arts is the expression of the soul of a nation. The composer must love the tunes of his country and they must become an integral part of him” (Forney and Machlis, 2007, p. 357). I am also enthused by Béla Bartók’s (1881-1945) quotation: What is the best way for a composer to reap the full benefits of his studies in peasant music? It is to assimilate the idiom of peasant music so completely that he is able to forget all about it and use it as his musical mother tongue. (Forney and Machlis, 2007, p. 359) I employed Ewe and other Ghanaian folk songs as themes to write contemporary art music for the following genres: Bb atɛntɛbɛn and piano, voice and piano, Bb atɛntɛbɛn trios, and quartets and piano solo. The discussion of my art music Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe as an expression of my style stems from Apel’s (1997) declaration that, 102 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 In a musical composition, ‘style’ refers to the methods of treating all the elements—form, melody, rhythm, etc. In practice, the term may be applied to single works (e.g., the style of Tristan compared to that of Die Meistersinger); to composers (the style of Wagner compared to that of Beethoven); to types of composition (operatic style, symphonic style, motet style, church style); to media (instrumental style, vocal style, keyboard style); to methods of composition (contrapuntal style, homophonic style, monodic style); to nations (French style, German style); to periods (baroque style, romantic style); etc. Also, such terms are sometimes used in combination, e.g., ‘Beethoven’s symphonic style,’ ‘German romantic style,’ ‘instrumental style of the baroque,’ etc (pp. 811-812). Thus, I present the compositional techniques I have utilised including espousing the musical elements of ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’ to articulate and expound my own creative compositional technique of a contemporised version of Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe for Bb atɛntɛbɛn and piano. In this art music Nyav- Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe I have demonstrated Béla Bartók’s assertion by assimilating the idiom of the folk tune. I have completely forgotten all about it through the musical creative processes expressed in the work. This means I have used the folk song as my musical mother tongue to illustrate my roots in Ghanaian traditional music, which has been influenced by Western musical culture. The tendency of incorporating traditional elements in new music is still ongoing in today’s Ghana. We can mention names such as Cosmas Worlanyo Kofi Mereku, and Nicholas Nichodemus Kofie who incorporated traditional musical elements in their contemporary art songs. Young Ghanaian composers were taught by the older ones at one time or the other. For example, I was taught by Adolphus Ato RobertsonTurkson during my years as an undergraduate. I remember submitting my early compositions to Ephraim Amu to vet when I visited Peki Avetile in the holidays. I was also fortunate to be trained by Michael Kofi Amissah when I was pursuing my Master of Philosophy in Music Theory and Composition. Then also, Cosmas Worlanyo Kofi Mereku was the principal supervisor for my doctoral thesis. Ghanaian Traditional Music and Folk Songs Apel (1997) asserts that folk song is the category of music that is found among rural communities. He continues to say that this type of music is distinctly opposed to art music, which is the work of musically trained composers (p. 323). In addition Nketia says, Ghanaian traditional music is the music of traditional institutions, which were developed, in the pre-colonial period. It represents the artistic expression of Ghanaians in response to the needs and pressures of their own environment. Examples of this music are work songs (such as those sung by fishermen, craftsmen and farmers), funeral dirges, lullabies, and the music that accompanies the celebration of such rites as circumcision, puberty and marriage. This music is Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 103 predominantly vocal, and its texts reflect the socio-cultural circumstances in which it is functional. (Nketia, 1978, p.1; cited in Agawu, 1984, p. 38) Nketia’s description of Ghanaian traditional music rightly demonstrates the various songs that can be classified as traditional or folk songs. ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe ’, the folk song used for this art music was developed in the pre- colonial period and has not been acculturated by western musical elements. It is vocal, and its texts “reflect the socio-cultural circumstances in which it is functional” (Nketia, 1978, cited in Agawu, 1984, p. 1). Musical Features of Ghanaian Folk Songs Ghanaian folk songs are usually short due to their functions as vehicles of communal expression for joy, grief, entertainment, correction of bad behaviour, initiation of rites, worship, rituals, work and detest of wicked as well as authoritative rulers (Nketia, 1974, pp. 21-24; Agordoh, 2002, p. 28; Younge, 2011, p. 36). As vehicles of communal expression of various emotions, the Ghanaian folk song is structured in what is commonly known as ‘call-and-response’ and ‘cantor- and-chorus’ forms. These musical forms permit a leader to introduce the music while the community provides the response or the chorus (Nketia, 1974, pp. 189- 205; Younge, 2011, p. 36). Consequently, Ghanaian folk songs have very few texts that convey the paramount or the intended messages (Nketia, 1974, pp. 189-205; Younge, 2011, p. 190). Very often, Ghanaian folk songs have one tonality in tetratonic, pentatonic, hexatonic, septatonic modes (Nketia, 1974, pp. 116-124). Tonal inflections play a significant role in expressing the meaning of the text in Ghanaian folk songs. Hence, the melodies are constructed to mirror the tonal inflections of the language of the society (Nketia, 1974, pp. 186-188; Agawu, 1984, p. 39; 1988, pp. 127-144). Ghanaian folk songs have repetitive patterns found either in the melody or rhythmic organisation (Nketia, 1974, pp. 168-174, pp. 180-188). The characteristics enumerated above can be said of the folk song ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’. I have also illustrated how I incorporated these traits in the art music. The detailed analysis of this folk song and the art music can be found below. ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’ (Folk song) From a personal experience, ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’ is one of the favourite songs of the egbanegba dance of the Ewe of Ghana is. The egbanegba dance is performed by women but accompanied with three drums and two bells by men. The master-drum is known locally as Ʋugã which means ‘big drum’. It is supported by asiʋui ‘hand-drum’ and ʋuvi ‘little drum’. As a recreational dance, the egbanegba dance was performed on Sundays after the week’s farming activities. The Egbanegba Dance Ensemble of Peki Avetile in the Volta region of Ghana was vibrant in the 1980s and 1990s because the ensemble was always performing during regional and national ceremonies. Today, the troupe performs only at the funeral of a member. The Ewe people or Eweawo as they locally call themselves are one of the major tribes of Ghana. They occupy a very vast stretch of land in the 104 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 southeastern corridor of Ghana sharing a border with the people of the Republic of Togo. The title of the folk song, ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’ literally means ‘the derogatory remark about me has already been heard in the community’. This is a typical folk song that functions as a vehicle for the expression of grief in the society. It was composed as a result of the circulation of falsehood about one man who found himself defenseless in the community. Although it is difficult to trace the year in which the incident happened, it is understood from the text that the man actually resorted to singing the music as a means of consoling himself and to ask the community to sympathize with him (Esi Amewu, personal communication, 1990). ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’ is in ‘call-and-response’ form; and it is in a septatonic mode that includes two pitches of the seventh note (Figure 7). Figure 7. The septatonic mode of the folk song ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’. (Source: Adjahoe, 2017) In the transcription (Figure 8), the text of the ‘call’ (measures 1-6) reveals the main message and invites the community to participate in the performance. This way, the community would share in the sentiments of the member. A variation on the ‘call’ (measures 9-10) built on the main concept—the derogatory remark— invites the community to respond once more. ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’ also has its melody constructed to mirror the tonal inflections of the society like other Ghanaian folk songs. It has very few words to facilitate communal participation and therefore, appropriate for many repetitions. I have witnessed the performance of this song by the Egbanegba Dance Ensemble of Peki Avetile in the 1990s. The music was sung approximately fifteen times. Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 105 Figure 8. Transcription of the folk song ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’. The texts of the folk song in Ewe and its translation in English are presented below: Text in Ewe Call: Etu gbɔmeɖoɖoe; Be wɔwɔnyuie megali o Kpɔɖa! Nyav- nyee tu gbɔmeɖoɖoe Response: Wɔwɔnyuie megali o Call: Nyav- nyee tu gbɔmeɖoɖoe Response: Ayee!! Wɔwɔnyuie megali o Text in English Call: The community has heard the derogatory remark; No need to behave well Look! My derogatory remark has reached the community Response: No need to behave well Call: My derogatory remark has reached the community Response: ‘Ayee!!’ No need to behave well This folk song can be analysed in two sections. Each section includes a ‘call’ and a ‘response’. I have used these features in the art-music; so, I will refer to them as ‘first call’, ‘first response’ or ‘second call’ and ‘second response’. Call Response Call Response 106 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Table 1 Illustration of the structure of the art-music Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe Piano Introduction Theme Tonality Measures Built on the second ‘call’ of the folk song C major 1-2 Exposition First Theme Bridge Passage Second Theme Retransition1 Tonality C major C major F major (Ending with a brief return to C major) F major Measures 3-36a 36b-38 39-46 47-50 Development Second Theme Retransition2 Tonality F major C major Measures 51-68 69-72 Recapitulation Second Theme (And new musical idea) Retransition3 First Theme (Without repeat) Coda Tonality C major (Brief modulation to G major) C major C major C major Measures 73-100 101-102a 102b-119 120-121 I have written the art music Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe in a modified sonata form (Table 1) with a two-measure first theme (Figure 9). Figure 9. The first theme of the art music. Structurally, the theme of the art music is taken from the ‘first call’ or the beginning statement of the folk song. The reason is that, I want the traditional society to identify the folk song in the art-music. Then, by creative design, Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe begins with a three-measure piano introduction built on the ‘second call’ of the folk song and modified at the end to pave way for the statement of the theme in the Bb atεntεbεn (Figure 10). Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 107 Figure 10. The three-measure piano introduction of the art-music Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe, built on the ‘second call’ in the folk song. The rhythmic structure of the theme has been used extensively in shaping the melodic pattern of both the Bb atεntεbεn and the piano. For example, the piano introduction is immediately followed by melodic extensions shaped on the rhythmic model of the theme and created as dialogue between the Bb atεntεbεn and the piano (Figure 11). Figure 11. Melodic extensions shaped on the rhythmic model of the theme as dialogue between the Bb atεntεbεn and the piano. 108 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 The beginning section of the art music is further lengthened by introducing another melodic/rhythmic structure of the folk song; this time, it is the ‘first response’ in measures 11-16. With a variation, the sample is prolonged and repeated. The piano accompaniment is designed on the rhythmic pattern of the second measure of the main theme (Figure 12). Figure 12. The introduction of the melodic/rhythmic structure of the ‘first response’ in Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe. In order to repeat the art music as in measures 3-16, I re-stated the ‘second call’ of the folk song in measures 17 and 18 (Figure 12). This enables me to use the technique of repetition as a means of extending the beginning section of Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe in measures 19b-32. A third occurrence of the ‘second call’ (measures 33 and 34) leads the art-music into a bridge passage (Figure 13) and serves as a transition to a four-measure second theme in F major (Figure 14) as ‘call-and-response’ between the piano and the Bb atεntεbεn. The second theme is designed in ‘call-and-response’ form to depict the structure of the folk song; but its melody does not articulate the melodic structure of the folk song. This is a personal creativity technique to exemplify that the new music is a blend of Ghanaian traditional and western musical elements. Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 109 Figure 13. The bridge passage that serves as a transition to the second theme. Figure 14. The second theme of the art-music Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe as call and response between the piano and the Bb atεntεbεn. The distinguishing feature of this second theme (as quoted above) is that, although the theme is written in the subdominant major it has returned to the tonic at the end. This is contrasting to the customary construction of the second theme in classical sonata form, most often in the dominant major (Kamien, 1998, p. 156; Kerman, 1980, p. 257). In the classical sonata form, the development section of the music is characterised by manipulating the two themes as well as sub-themes created from the two main themes in varieties of keys (Kamien, 1998, pp. 156-157; Kerman, 1980, p. 257). But in this music for the Bb atɛntɛbɛn and piano, the development section is illustrated by a third set of musical design again in the subdominant major in measures 51 to 68 (Figure 15). End of first theme and its development The bridge passage to second theme Call Response Extension 110 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Figure 15. The third set of musical design that expresses the development section of the second theme in the art-music Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe. A return to the tonic, usually referred to as recapitulation is effected with a four-measure link from measure 69 to 72 as shown (Figure 16). Figure 16. The second link that returns the music into the tonic. Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 111 Additionally, in the classical sonata form, the recapitulation features both the first and second themes as well as other sub-themes of the music in the tonic (Kamien, 1998, p. 156; Kerman, 1980, p. 257). However, the recapitulation of Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe, prominently exhibits the second theme and the new musical idea in measures 73 to 100 (Figure 17). Figure 17. The second theme and the third musical idea of Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe are re-written in the tonic and treated as the development section of the work. 112 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Through a very brief final bridge passage (measures 101-102 in Figure 18) the music finally ends with the restatement of the first theme and its extension as part of the recapitulation. Figure 18. The final bridge passage in Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe leading to the recapitulation. Conclusion The art music Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe extracts a theme from a Ghanaian folk song and incorporates it into western classical style composition, expressing my identity as a crossbreed of Ghanaian traditional and British/Western musical cultures. The folk song also titled ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’ has two sections. Each section has its ‘call’ and ‘response’, which, were used as the main theme, piano introduction, or an interlude. The rhythmic patterns of the sections were also integrated in the art music as supporting accompaniment in the piano or in the construction of the melodies of the new music. The tonal organisation of the folk song was also used to construct the melodies. Utilising sonata form from European influence and the Bb atɛntɛbɛn results in a type of ‘Ghanaian Neoclassical’ music: two disconnected ‘classical’ elements joined together for a new work. History discloses that the first people to research into African music were celebrated non-African ethnomusicologists including John Blackings, Simha Arom, Erich M. von Hornbostel, and A. M. Jones. To me, these researches marked the beginning of the globalisation/internationalisation of every kind of music performed by human societies. In Ghana, Ephraim Amu developed the traditional bamboo flute (atɛntɛbɛn) of the people of Kwahu to enhance its usage in playing Ghanaian as well as non-Ghanaian music. Traditional knowledge about the new instrument (Bb atɛntɛbɛn) is that its music could only the written in the ‘natural’ mode because it is impossible to design the positions for Western chromatic notes on the instrument. In this article, I have attempted to change the fashion of this knowledge that, through the development of alternative fingering techniques for the Bb Final bridge passage Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 113 atɛntɛbɛn (Adjahoe, 2016c, pp. 15-37), music for the instrument can be written in the following Western diatonic keys: C major, F major, G major by using my alternative fingering techniques. I have illustrated this with my composition entitled Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe whose exposition travelled through the keys of C and F majors. The development section of the music reversed the approach; thus, it progressed through F major into C major. The recapitulation had a brief modulation into G major and finally re-established the music in C major. I have effectively performed the music using my fingering techniques in the video recording. Additionally, I have discovered that music for the Bb atɛntɛbɛn can be written in A minor and the Aeolian modes of C, F and G. My experimentation on the alternative fingering techniques in the production of chromatic notes is geared towards the internationalisation of the Ghanaian bamboo flute. This is my contribution towards the enhancement of the pedagogical processes involved in the teaching and learning of Ghanaian traditional musical instruments for performances in the world’s concert halls. Acknowledgment This article was based on research developed from a paper presented and published as proceedings to the 2nd International Music and Performing Arts Conference (IMPAC2016)(22-24 November 2016). References Adjahoe, M. Q. (1987). Atɛntɛbɛn ensemble music. (Unpublished project work presented to the Department of Music, University of Cape Coast). Adjahoe, M. Q. (2016a). New trends in Bb atɛntɛbɛn music for colleges and universities. Cape Coast: University of Cape Coast Press. Adjahoe, M. Q. (2016b). Anthology of Bb atɛntɛbɛn music for colleges and universities. Cape Coast: University of Cape Coast Press. Adjahoe, M.Q. (2016c). From Ghanaian Folk Songs to Contemporary Art Music: The Style of Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe. In Mohd Kipli Abdullah, Chan, C.S.C, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon, Augustine, C. and Mumammad Fazli Taib Saearani (Eds). Proceedings of the 2nd International Music and Performing Arts Conference (IMPAC2016)(22-24 November 2016), 198-225. Tanjong Malim: Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Agawu, V. K. (1984). The impact of language on musical composition in Ghana: An introduction to the musical style of Amu. Ethnomusicology 28 (1), 37-73. Agawu, V. K (1987). The rhythmic structure of West African music. Journal of Musicology 5 (3), 400-418. Agordoh, A. A. (2002). Studies in African music (Revised Edition). Sogakope: Comboni Printing School. Agyemang, F. (1988). Amu the African. Accra, Asempa Publishers. Apel, W. (2000). The Harvard dictionary of music. Cambridge, Ma: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 114 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 2 (94-114) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 Appiah, K. (2015, 7 March). To Nana Danso Abiam. Retrieved from https://www.graphic.com.gh/entertainment/music/to-nana-danso-abiam.html. Craig, H. Artist biography. Retrieved from https://www.allmusic.com/artist/pan-african- orchestra-mn0001610789/biography Flolu, J. & Amuah, I. (2003). An introduction to music education in Ghana for universities and colleges. Accra. Primo Press. Forney, K. & Machlis, J. (2007). The enjoyment of music: An introduction to perceptive listening (Tenth edition). New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company Inc. Kamien, R. (1998). Music: An appreciation (Third edition). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Kerman, J. (1980). Listen (Third edition) New York, NY: Worth Publishers, Inc. Nketia, J. H. K. (1974). The music of Africa. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company Inc. Younge, P. Y. (2011). Music and dance traditions of Ghana: History, performance and teaching. London: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Biography Adjahoe, Mawuyram Quessie is a senior lecturer in music theory and composition in the Department of Music & Dance, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana, since September 2002. After his Bachelor of Music degree programme, he continued with the Master of Philosophy in Music Theory & Composition, and Doctor of Philosophy in Music Composition all in the University of Cape Coast. He writes music for: Bb atɛntɛbɛn and piano; Bb atɛntɛbɛn ensembles, trios, and quartets; voice and piano; piano; and Gyile (Dagaaba traditional xylophone) Orchestra. From August 2012 to July 2014, he was appointed Head of the Department of Music and Dance in the University of Cape Coast. His publications include two articles written in 2009 and 2011 respectively; and three books which were completed in 2016. He has strong passion towards enhancing the pedagogical processes of Ghanaian traditional musical instruments.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 2 (2017)

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/139

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1156

Editorial

The Malaysian Music Journal presents two articles on ethnomusicology, one on music education and two on music composition in Volume 6, Number 2. In the first article, ‘Sounds, sources and meaning of turali (noseflute) music in Dusunic cultures in Sabah’, Jacqueline Pugh Kitingan compares the sound sources and inspiration to the melodies played on the turali (a nose flute) among the Kadazan Dusun of Tambunan, the Rungus of Kudat and the Lotud of Tuaran in Sabah. Sound sources vary according to culture and range from Kadazan Dusun mourning laments, Rungus ritual chants and Lotud secular songs. Her article examines the improvisatory skills and techniques utilised by these turali musicians in recreating the sounds from the original sources.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1156/2918

MALAYSIAN MUSIC JOURNAL Volume 6 Number 2 December 2017 ISSN 2232-1020 e-ISSN 0128-2158 Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjong Malim, Perak 2017 ii iii MALAYSIAN MUSIC JOURNAL Volume 6 Number 2 December 2017 Editorial Clare Suet Ching Chan v Sources, sounds and meanings of turali (noseflute) music in Dusunic cultures of Sabah Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan 1 Approaches to learning traditional performing arts in Central Java through a direct encounter Rachel Hand 29 The effects of group musical activities on children’s behaviour Shiela Jay P. Pineda 49 Sonic exploration of alto recorder for Nadi Bumi: Applied research in contemporary classical music composition. Ainolnaim Azizol 71 From Ghanaian folk song to contemporary art music for Bb atɛntɛbɛn and piano Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe 94 iv v Editorial Cite this editorial (APA): Chan, C.S.C (2017). Editorial. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(2), v. The Malaysian Music Journal presents two articles on ethnomusicology, one on music education and two on music composition in Volume 6, Number 2. In the first article, ‘Sounds, sources and meaning of turali (noseflute) music in Dusunic cultures in Sabah’, Jacqueline Pugh Kitingan compares the sound sources and inspiration to the melodies played on the turali (a nose flute) among the Kadazan Dusun of Tambunan, the Rungus of Kudat and the Lotud of Tuaran in Sabah. Sound sources vary according to culture and range from Kadazan Dusun mourning laments, Rungus ritual chants and Lotud secular songs. Her article examines the improvisatory skills and techniques utilised by these turali musicians in recreating the sounds from the original sources. In the second article, ‘Approaches to learning traditional performing arts in Central Java through a direct encounter’, Rachel Hand highlights five learning approaches among Javanese practitioners of traditional performing arts – learning by ear; simultaneous imitation; rehearsing and performing; exposure and absorption; and learning by association. This article fills the gap in written literature on how practitioners of the oral tradition learn. It provides important insights and awareness to musicians on the diverse approaches to musical acquisition. Shiela Pineda affirms the positive affects of group musical activities on children’s behaviour in her article titled, ‘The effects of group musical activities on children’s behaviour’. Shiela measured the socio- emotional skills and behavioural levels of the children after musical intervention using the BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (BarOn EQ-i: YV) instrument. This study is important because it empirically supports the benefits of music education in children development. This data provides evidence for music educationalists advocating for the importance of music in the national curriculum and among communities. vi Ainolnaim Azizol and Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe share two interesting ways to how their musical compositions were created in the third and fourth article respectively. Ainolnaim Azizol discusses how music acoustic research and new technological possibilities have enhanced his contemporary musical composition on the alto recorder in his article ‘Sonic exploration of alto recorder for Nadi Bumi: Applied research in contemporary classical music composition’. Examination of research on extended techniques on the alto recorder led to the discovery of new extended techniques that contributed to his contemporary musical compositions. In the final article for this issue, Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe explores how utilising the sonata form in his composition, which combines a traditional Ghanaian song titled ‘Nyavɔ Nyee Tu Gbɔmeɖoɖoe’, with western music compositional techniques, resulted in the expansion of the capabilities of the modified Bb atɛntɛbɛn (a modified traditional bamboo flute). The inclusion of two chromatic pitches required for modulation in the sonata form extended beyond the standard tuning system of the modified Bb atɛntɛbɛn. This article presents how integrating the musical elements from different musical traditions may lead to new musical possibilities for performance on a musical instrument. Clare Suet Ching Chan Chief Editor Malaysian Music Journal

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 1 (2017)

age and creative achievement, John Adams, John Cage, musical style analysis, Steve Reich

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/138

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/824

Age 40, Year of the ‘Signature Work’: The Cases of Cage, Reich and Adams

The ‘signature works’ of John Cage, Steve Reich and John Adams—4’33”, Music for Eighteen Musicians and Nixon in China, respectively—are widely considered landmarks in recent American music and also parallel one another in a fascinating way, as the completion of each signature work dates from the year its composer turned forty. This article investigates the role of each signature work in its composer’s stylistic development, studies the factors that led to the works’ creation, discusses what made these works so innovative, and examines common threads among the three composers’ career arcs in order to explore how their fortieth years became so pivotal in the context of their overall output. Is this age-related correspondence just an extraordinary coincidence or might it suggest broader correlations? Studies on age and creative achievement by psychologist Dean K. Simonton and others suggest that such correlations in fact exist and that the age of forty may be particularly significant, thus corroborating the significance of the intriguing age-related parallels among the careers of Cage, Reich and Adams.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/824/560

Kyle Fyr 1 Age 40, Year of the ‘Signature Work’: The Cases of Cage, Reich and Adams Kyle Fyr College of Music, Mahidol University, 25/25 Phutthamonthon Sai 4 Road Salaya, Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, 73170 Thailand e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 16 June 2017 Abstract The ‘signature works’ of John Cage, Steve Reich and John Adams—4’33”, Music for Eighteen Musicians and Nixon in China, respectively—are widely considered landmarks in recent American music and also parallel one another in a fascinating way, as the completion of each signature work dates from the year its composer turned forty. This article investigates the role of each signature work in its composer’s stylistic development, studies the factors that led to the works’ creation, discusses what made these works so innovative, and examines common threads among the three composers’ career arcs in order to explore how their fortieth years became so pivotal in the context of their overall output. Is this age- related correspondence just an extraordinary coincidence or might it suggest broader correlations? Studies on age and creative achievement by psychologist Dean K. Simonton and others suggest that such correlations in fact exist and that the age of forty may be particularly significant, thus corroborating the significance of the intriguing age-related parallels among the careers of Cage, Reich and Adams. Keywords: age and creative achievement, John Adams, John Cage, musical style analysis, Steve Reich Introduction The careers of John Cage, Steve Reich and John Adams parallel each other in a striking way: each composer completed what can be convincingly called his ‘signature work’ in the year he turned forty. Cage unveiled his revolutionary composition 4’33” in his fortieth year, Reich turned forty in the same year he completed his landmark work Music for Eighteen Musicians, and Adams likewise turned forty in the year he produced his ground-breaking opera Nixon in China. In light of this remarkable correspondence, this article examines the role each signature Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (1-13) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 2 work played in its composer’s aesthetic and stylistic development, investigates the factors that led to the works’ creation, discusses what made these works so innovative and explores common threads among the three composers’ career arcs as a means of demonstrating how their fortieth years became so pivotal in the context of their overall output. In order to contextualise the intriguing age-related parallels among the careers of Cage, Reich and Adams, this article first surveys noteworthy studies in the field of psychology by Dean K. Simonton and others which suggest that such correlations between age and defining artistic achievements are more than mere coincidence and that the age of forty may hold particular significance in this regard. Just what makes a signature work? For the purposes of this study, each of the works in question must fit all of the following criteria: 1) it is a work for which the composer is widely recognised; 2) it represents a significant turning point in the composer’s career; 3) it represents a sort of culmination of the composer’s previous work; 4) it is a composition whose style and/or techniques have exerted a lasting influence on the composer’s subsequent works; 5) it is a composition that has exerted significant influence on American art music and on Western art music in general during the post-World War II era. Supplementing these five criteria, the signature work label is most compellingly applied when the composer personally acknowledges the piece’s significance or at least holds it in high esteem. Although there is certainly a degree of subjectivity involved in classifying any piece as a composer’s signature work, the criteria listed here effectively limit which compositions may be persuasively placed into this category. Studies on the relationship of age and creative achievement The question of whether creativity and achievement are somehow related to age is an avenue of inquiry with a long history. Perhaps the earliest scholarly study was George M. Beard’s Legal Responsibility in Old Age, which dates back to 1874. Based on a survey of 450-500 historical ‘high achievers’, Beard determined that “men are at their best at the time when enthusiasm and experience are most evenly balanced”, deducing that “this period, on the average, is from 38 to 40” (Beard, 1874, p. 8). While Simonton notes that Beard’s theory “is more conceptual than mathematical and hence leads to no precise predictions that can be subjected to empirical tests”, he nevertheless grants that in spite of its simplicity, the study has a respectable amount of explanatory power (Simonton, 1988, p. 260). Harvey C. Lehman then presented a much more rigorous study in his influential 1953 book, Age and Achievement, summarizing roughly three decades’ worth of research on this issue (Lehman, 1953). Lehman’s most noteworthy conclusion, after studying the relationship of age and achievement in a wide variety of professions, was that all endeavours surveyed displayed a single-peak age curve in relation to achievement. Simonton notes that Lehman’s age curves, which were derived from individuals’ landmark contributions, brought him criticism from some other scholars, perhaps unsurprisingly given the implication that achievement would generally deteriorate in Kyle Fyr 3 the later years of individuals’ careers (Simonton, 1988, p. 256). Some of Lehman’s critics, most notably Wayne Dennis, disputed the method of tabulating outstanding contributions instead of focusing on total productive output (Dennis, 1966, pp. 1-8). Later research by Simonton would suggest a consistently positive linkage between quality and quantity of output, however, thus mitigating the effect of these criticisms (Simonton, 1988, p. 254). Recently, Dean K. Simonton has published prolifically on this subject, studying the relationships between age and career achievement across a wide variety of disciplines. In a study highly pertinent to the examination of the signature works of Cage, Reich and Adams presented in this article, Simonton examined the careers of 120 selected composers, ranging chronologically from the sixteenth century to the early twentieth century, yielding a representative sample of Western art music composers whose careers provided data from which broad trends regarding age and creative achievement could be extrapolated (Simonton, 1991). Simonton’s selected composers’ output was analysed according to two measures: themes and works. In terms of themes, which Simonton defined as the melody, motive, or subject that constitutes a building block of a composition, the mean age at which the composers studied achieved their ‘best hit’ or most acclaimed theme was found to be 39.68. As per the works measure, the mean age at which the composers studied produced their ‘best hit’ or most illustrious composition was found to be 40.78, a remarkably close concordance with the themes measure (Simonton, 1991, pp. 834-835). Furthermore, Simonton’s study corroborated Lehman’s most noteworthy conclusion: that creative endeavours tend to display a single-peak age curve in relation to achievement (Simonton, 1988, p. 251). In addition to these thought-provoking conclusions, Simonton’s study is notable for its attention to potentially problematic details, such as compensating for the ‘noise’ introduced by the prolific yet short-lived careers of composers such as Mozart and Schubert. While Simonton acknowledges that there are of course individual variations within any sample, his study intriguingly suggests that composers’ fortieth years tend, on average, to produce the signature works for which their careers are most often associated. The fact that Cage, Reich and Adams all completed their signature works in the years they turned forty raises a provocative question: are these striking age- related parallels simply a coincidence or might they be precise exemplars of the broader correlations regarding age and creative achievement indicated in studies such as Simonton’s? The following inquiries into the career arcs and signature works of Cage, Reich and Adams endeavour to shed light on the factors behind these remarkable correspondences and in turn reveal some noteworthy similarities in the composers’ aesthetic and stylistic development. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (1-13) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 4 The Case of John Cage (1912-1992) Leading up to 1952 The early career of John Cage followed a fascinating arc, beginning with a desire to find new sounds, followed by captivation with the very antithesis of sound (silence), which in turn fed into a near complete relinquishment of compositional control in favour of chance and indeterminacy. Cage’s search for new sounds was exemplified by his Sonatas and Interludes of 1946-48 (age 34-36), a work for prepared piano widely acknowledged as the finest composition of his early period (Pritchett, 1993; Bernstein, 2002; Nicholls, 2007). This work is highly organised not only in terms of the sequence of pieces within it but also in its sophisticated proportional structures—a means of compositional organisation that Cage often employed, beginning with 1939’s First Construction (in Metal). The piano preparation is also quite intricate; forty-five pitches are altered by placing various materials inside the piano, in turn creating exotic, mesmerizing sounds that often evoke the sounds of a percussion ensemble more than a piano. The Sonatas and Interludes represented a high point of development for Cage, both in terms of technique and emotional expressivity. Because of the variations in sounds from piano to piano, however, Cage quickly realised that this type of composition represented a certain lack of control, a situation that originally disconcerted him but later pleased him greatly (Bernstein, 2002, p. 84). The Sonatas and Interludes brought Cage’s aesthetics into greater focus yet also provided a springboard to further developments. In the late 1940s and 1950s, Cage became increasingly fascinated with Zen Buddhism and the I-Ching and also became renowned for his lectures, a number of which were later collected in his landmark 1961 book Silence. The frequently cited ‘Lecture on Nothing’ from 1950 not only outlines Cage’s nascent philosophies about detachment and non- possession, but is structured like a musical composition. James Pritchett posits that the lecture is therefore “no longer just a conduit for information, but both an explanation and a concrete demonstration of ideas” (Pritchett, 1993, p. 55). The most significant turning point in Cage’s evolution, however, came in 1952, roughly five years after composing Sonatas and Interludes. It was then, in his fortieth year, that Cage presented his most well-known demonstration of ideas about ‘nothing’ with the ‘silent piece’ 4’33”. 4’33” and beyond David Nicholls posits that the shocking boldness of Cage’s 4’33” has made it “without doubt [his] best-known and least-understood composition … his major aesthetic statement and the focus of much uncomprehending criticism” (Nicholls, 2007, p. 58). For a pianist to walk on stage and then ‘not play’ seems a liberating expansion of musical possibilities on one hand but paradoxically a total renunciation of what constitutes a musical work on the other. Michael Broyles notes that 4’33” predictably caused a stir and although audiences are often still not sure whether to Kyle Fyr 5 take it seriously, Cage in fact took the work very seriously, calling it his most important piece (Broyles, 2004, p. 185). Cage’s ideas for 4’33” apparently originated in 1948 and took about four years to cohere into their eventual form. The revelatory event that ultimately led him to compose 4’33” was his experience in an anechoic chamber at Harvard University in either 1951 or 1952; Pritchett (1993) says the event occurred in 1951, but Nicholls (2007) says it occurred in 1952, a discrepancy most likely due to Cage’s own conflicting recollections of the date. In any case, Cage fully expected to experience silence when entering the soundproof room, but found that he actually heard two sounds: his nervous system and his blood circulating (Cage, 1967, p. 134). Nicholls notes that Cage thus had to “follow through to its conclusion the logic of accepting … the plethora of ambient unintended sounds that constantly surround us” (Nicholls, 2007, p. 59), what Stephen Whittington suggests might be termed a sort of ‘borrowed soundscape’ (Whittington, 2013, p. 14). By following this logic in 4’33”, Cage made an artistic statement that seriously questioned what music is and what it can be, using a piece ostensibly featuring nothing but silence to illustrate his newfound conviction that “in fact, try as we may to make a silence, we cannot” (Cage, 1961, p. 8). The question for Cage after 4’33” was clear: where could he go from here? While this work opened the door for his indeterminate pieces that followed, 4’33” swung the pendulum as far as it could go aesthetically, meaning that subsequent indeterminate works could arguably represent only glosses or variants on it (Broyles, 2004, p. 186). Cage then seemed to come full circle in the 1970s by returning to a role of composer-as-craftsman, revisiting aesthetic notions that he had rejected with the ‘non-intention-based’ aesthetic of 4’33” and his subsequent indeterminate compositions (Pritchett, 1993, pp. 164-175), which was perhaps an indication, as Sharon Williams suggests, that Cage’s earlier idealism had by the 1970s become tempered by pragmatism (Williams, 2013, p. 93). 4’33” was thus for Cage a culmination of his early work, a watershed that opened the door to seemingly infinite new possibilities, yet also a point of departure from which no truly new path could be traversed—his only choice was to eventually reaccept some or all of what had been discarded. It can be argued that 4’33” was in fact a seminal turning point not just for Cage but for American music as a whole, what Kyle Gann calls “a kind of death of music that renders a rebirth possible” (Gann, 2006, p. 384). The main factors that led Cage to compose this work are threefold: 1) its inspiration was in part derived from insights realised in a successful earlier composition (Sonatas and Interludes); 2) it represented the natural endpoint of philosophical ideas regarding silence, nothingness and non-possession that had been building for years before; and 3) these bourgeoning philosophical notions were in part crystallized yet in part repudiated by a noteworthy life event (his experience in the anechoic chamber). Cage’s fortieth year was thus marked by a confluence of events that profoundly affected and sharply focused his compositional aesthetics, leading to the creation of his signature work—a piece that represented a culmination of his ideas to that point yet simultaneously a clear shift in favour of new directions. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (1-13) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 6 The Case of Steve Reich (b. 1936) Reich on Cage Steve Reich is frequently cited as one of the pioneers of musical minimalism, a style of music that at least on the surface seems to have much in common with Cage’s music. In fact, Keith Potter posits that 4’33” “must in some sense be regarded as the ultimate minimalist statement” (Potter, 2000, p. 5). Jonathan Bernard cautions, however, that although minimalists may have originally regarded Cage as a sort of kindred spirit, “it can be persuasively argued that the music of chance ultimately served the minimalists as a negative ideal, an example of what not to do” (Bernard, 1993, p. 97). For his part, Reich noted that he “received no satisfaction whatever” from Cage’s music, that Cage in fact gave him “something to push against” (Reich, 2002, p. 159). That Reich sought to distinguish his aesthetic ideals from those of Cage should not be interpreted as a lack of respect, however, for Reich recalls that he appreciated Cage’s personal integrity and consistency, affirming that Cage “had a vision and followed it with remarkable purity” (Reich, 2002, p. 165). The two composers’ career trajectories also parallel each other in notable ways, including the convergence of factors stimulating the completion of their signature works during the years in which they turned forty. Leading up to 1976 Reich’s early compositional style is frequently associated with the phasing process exemplified in works such as Come Out (1966) and Piano Phase (1967), the aesthetics of which are eloquently captured in his seminal 1968 essay ‘Music as a Gradual Process’. In this essay, Reich proclaimed that he was not referring to the compositional process itself, “but rather pieces of music that are, literally, processes”, then further clarified that “I want to be able to hear the process happening throughout the sounding music”, thereby differentiating himself from Cage as clearly as possible (Reich, 2002, p. 34). It was upon returning from a trip to Ghana, however, that Reich’s mature style truly began to take shape with the ensemble work Drumming (completed in 1971 at age 35), which absorbed some of the spirit and techniques of the Ghanaian music that he studied and played. Drumming is the final expansion and refinement of the phasing process, as well as the first use of four new techniques: 1) the process of gradually substituting beats for rests (or rests for beats); 2) the gradual changing of timbre while rhythm and pitch remain constant; 3) the simultaneous combination of instruments of different timbre; and 4) the use of the human voice to become part of the musical ensemble by imitating the exact sound of the instruments. (Reich, 2002, p. 64) Following a stylistic evolution similar to that of Cage, for Reich this successful earlier composition served as a high-water mark in his aesthetic development to that point yet also paved the way for his signature work, which he would likewise complete about five years later. As Potter affirms, Drumming is “an Kyle Fyr 7 important breakthrough both technically and stylistically … but it was not until March 1976 that Reich was able to complete Music for Eighteen Musicians, the work which capitalized on these developments and took them forward to an altogether new level” (Potter, 2000, p. 211). Music for Eighteen Musicians and beyond The completion of Music for Eighteen Musicians (completed in 1976, with first sketches dating to 1974) signified a turning point for Reich in a variety of ways. Potter calls it a watershed in part because it marks the end of Reich’s interest in minimalism per se (Potter, 2000, pp. 151-152). Paul Hillier agrees with this assessment, arguing that by 1976, using the word ‘minimalist’ to describe Reich’s music was beginning to look “mean-spirited, and worse, misguided’’ (Hillier, 2002, p. 4). K. Robert Schwarz similarly contends that Music for Eighteen Musicians exemplifies a shift in Reich’s music toward greater intuition with less emphasis on process (Schwarz, 1990, p. 246), a position supported by Reich’s own remarks that he “made a great deal more choices” in this piece, and that it was “consciously composed with a feeling of liberating [himself] from strict structures” (Nyman & Reich, 2002, pp. 93-94). Shortly after finishing the piece, Reich noted that “there is more harmonic movement in the first five minutes of Music for Eighteen Musicians than in any other complete work of mine to this date” (Reich, 2002, p. 87). In addition, he emphasized the piece’s striking innovations in the realms of rhythm and temporality, remarking that it simultaneously features two types of rhythm: a regular pulse in the pianos and mallet instruments and the rhythm of the human breath in the voices and wind instruments. Finally, Reich described the novel way in which he exploited the rhythmic relationship between harmony and melody to create change or development as follows. A melodic pattern may be repeated over and over again, but by introducing a two- or four-chord cadence underneath it, first beginning on one beat of the pattern, and then beginning on a different beat, a sense of changing accent in the melody will be heard. This play of changing rhythm against constant melodic pattern is one of the basic techniques of this piece, and one that I had never used before. Its effect, by change of accent, is to vary that which is in fact unchanging. (Reich, 2002, p. 90) Music for Eighteen Musicians represents a continuation in the development of Reich’s construction of rhythmic patterns by gradually substituting beats for rests and the integration of human voices into an instrumental ensemble, ideas he first explored about five years prior in Drumming. Importantly, however, the piece also exemplifies the new directions in which Reich’s music would go afterward. Reich acknowledges that Music for Eighteen Musicians represented a change in the way he composed, recalling that he usually began his early pieces with a melodic pattern, but starting in 1976 he began using harmonic cycles to outline the structure of a piece (Hillier & Reich, 2002, pp. 217-218). This is a technique Reich would return Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (1-13) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 8 to many times in his subsequent works, including Variations for Winds, Strings, and Keyboards (1979), The Desert Music (1984), Sextet (1985), New York Counterpoint (1985), Three Movements (1986) and Electric Counterpoint (1987). Music for Eighteen Musicians thus on one hand represented a culmination for Reich of ideas originating in a successful work from about five years before (Drumming). Philosophically, however, the piece’s striking innovations and new approaches epitomized Reich’s desire to go beyond, or in a sense repudiate, some of his earlier viewpoints, underscoring his declaration that “the artists I admire are the ones that move on” (Nyman & Reich, 2002, p. 94). Potter notes that the ‘on-the- edge’ achievements of Music for Eighteen Musicians initially proved difficult for Reich to sustain or move on from; he completed no works after this for over two years, as “he had lost all compositional momentum and … was determined not to repeat himself” (Potter, 2000, p. 246). On the other hand, Potter acknowledges that a hiatus of this magnitude “now seems an important part of the work’s achievement as well as its historical significance” (Potter, 2000, p. 152). In a notable parallel with Cage, Reich’s fortieth year marked the completion of what would become his signature work—a piece simultaneously representing a culmination of ideas drawn from a successful composition about five years prior yet distinctly pointing toward new ideas and new directions. The Case of John Adams (b. 1947) Adams on Cage and Reich The career of John Adams has been influenced in no small part by both John Cage and Steve Reich. As Adams worked to find his voice as a composer during college and shortly after graduation, his main inspirational figure was Cage, who he considered “genuinely American and utterly original” (May & Adams, 2006a, pp. 9- 10). Adams recalls that he was a devoted follower of Cage for about a five-year period in the late 1960s and early 1970s, but even then, despite his interest in Cage’s philosophies, he “had to suffer extensive cognitive dissonance over the fact that [he] continued to get [his] emotional highs from Coltrane, Beethoven, Bartók, and Joplin (Janis, not Scott)” (Adams, 2008, p. 59). Before long, Adams began to drift away from Cage’s influence, feeling unfulfilled due to his conviction that “without the benevolent presence of Cage himself, the result of all the coin tossing and chance operations was more often than not emotionally cold and expressively indifferent” (Adams, 2008, p. 86). In 1974, Adams discovered an alternative inspiration in the music of Steve Reich, a composer he greatly admires to this day. Part of what attracted Adams was the elegance and sophistication of Reich’s aesthetic. What also impressed me about Reich’s music-making was that it was done at a high level of expertise and preparation. In contrast to the free, anarchic avant-garde ‘happenings’ I’d been involved with, Reich’s music used precision and balanced Kyle Fyr 9 counterpoint to create a sound world that was carefully organised, musically engaging, and sensually appealing. (Adams, 2008, p. 89) Although Adams did not set out to copy Reich’s style per se, the tightness and professionalism of Reich’s ensemble performances conveyed a sound world that resonated deeply with him. Adams recalls that the first time he heard Music for Eighteen Musicians, he felt that “the experience of pure aural pleasure, so long absent in contemporary classical music, had re-emerged from a long, dark night of the soul” (Adams, 2008, p. 95). The admiration between the composers is mutual; Reich has stated that “John Adams is a great composer and I am proud to have had even a small influence on his music” (Hillier & Reich, 2002, p. 233). Leading up to 1987 Harmonium, a large-scale work for orchestra and chorus commissioned by the San Francisco Symphony and written in 1980-81 at age 33-34, was the piece that, in the words of Michael Steinberg, “really put John Adams on the map” (Steinberg, 2006a, p. 80). It was in this work that Adams’s unique integration of minimalism into a traditional symphonic context first came to fruition. As Alex Ross would later argue, when Adams “began writing serious concert works that drew on minimalist techniques, he showed that classical forms were capable of absorbing almost anything” (Ross, 2006, p. 33). Interestingly, Adams’s relationship to the minimalist style has always been more tenuous than one might infer from reading the preceding paragraphs, however. While Adams found minimalism to be a source of inspiration and absorbed many minimalist elements into his own particular style, he notes that he never felt as closely bound as his predecessors to the processes and strictures of minimalism. Minimalist procedures pointed to a way. I felt that the classics of the style were ground-breakers for sure, but I also recognised that Minimalism as a governing aesthetic could and would rapidly exhaust itself. Like Cubism in painting, it was a radically new idea, but its reductive world-view would soon leave its practitioners in an expressive cul-de-sac. (Adams, 2008, p. 93) Adams’s reservations did not cause him to reject musical minimalism, but instead he sought ways to incorporate minimalist elements into a more expressive style, exemplified in Harmonium by sudden changes of texture, wide dynamic variations and large-scale formal architectures. Beginning with a minimalist- influenced repetition of the word ‘no’, the first movement builds to a number of roaring fortissimos and employs striking harmonic shifts underscoring the meaning of the text. Even the sparser second movement features a noticeable dramatic arc, and the third movement is boldly exuberant. Adams would achieve further success in this vein with the symphonic work Harmonielehre (1984-85), but it was a meeting with an up-and-coming young opera director around the same time that would plant the seeds for his eventual signature work. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (1-13) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 10 Nixon in China and beyond In 1983, Adams met Peter Sellars, who would become artistic director of the American National Theatre in Washington DC shortly thereafter. Sellars, who– like Adams, graduated from Harvard, was familiar with the composer’s work, and upon meeting him, proposed that they collaborate on an opera about President Richard Nixon’s historic trip to China in 1972. Adams agreed to stay in touch with Sellars but was initially reluctant, wondering “how he could have imagined me, who had never written a note for solo voice, as the ideal composer for such a project beggars understanding” (Adams, 2008, p. 127). Sellars notes, however, that he sought out Adams because after hearing the composer’s early instrumental works, he realised that “this is theatre music, which has the ability to build and sustain tension” (May & Sellars, 2006, p. 239). By late 1985, two years after Sellars’s request, Adams finally realised “not only that Nixon in China was a brilliant idea for an opera but that it should be composed by John Adams” (Adams, 2008, p. 128), and he eventually completed the opera in 1987. Adams ultimately became engrossed in the idea of writing Nixon in China for multiple reasons. First, he was drawn in by the charisma of the main characters, noting that for him “Nixon and Mao virtually embodied the twentieth century’s agonistic struggle for human happiness: capitalism versus communism … The lead characters were so vivid they literally cried out for operatic treatment” (Adams, 2008, p. 136). In addition to admiring Sellars’s vision for the opera, Adams marvelled at Alice Goodman’s extraordinary libretto, saying that she exhibited “a talent and technique that has nearly vanished from American poetical practice” (Adams, 2008, p. 136). Finally, he found the story itself very attractive, as it offered “the opportunity to move, during the course of three acts, from the plastic cartoon versions of public people that the media is always presenting us with, to the real, uncertain, vulnerable human beings who stand behind these cardboard cut-outs” (Porter & Adams, 1988, p. 26). Choosing the musical language for an opera whose aims were to be “both theatrically entertaining and psychologically acute” was quite challenging: in Adams’s words it was “a steep learning curve, but I revelled in it” (Adams, 2008, pp. 140-141). The music that Adams ultimately composed featured everything from evocations of minimalism, to big band music from the Swing Era, to Chinese Communist ballets. Adams further notes that the score is “emphatically triadic in a way that no other work of mine ever dared to be”, with “Technicolor orchestration” that reflects the influence of gaudy political propaganda (Adams, 2008, p. 144). Despite the many challenges that writing the opera posed, Adams was thankful that he “had the good fortune to understand one important thing even at that young age: that a good opera composer needs to be flexible and must learn to make his musical language capable of the slightest shift of mood or psychology on the part of his characters” (Adams, 2008, p. 144). Nixon in China is a remarkably innovative opera, one whose subject matter and treatment of its characters have become quite influential in the genre. Steinberg observed just how rare it was for audiences to encounter familiar, living characters Kyle Fyr 11 (all of whom could have conceivably attended the premiere) on the operatic stage (Steinberg, 2006b, p. 110), while Ross further noted that the pioneering treatment of contemporary subjects in Nixon in China set off a trend for what have in some circles become known as ‘CNN operas’ (Ross, 2006, p. 38). Though Adams makes no secret of his disdain for this label, he acknowledges that writing an opera dealing with current events and issues was such a novel idea in 1987 that it attracted an extraordinary amount of interest from musicians and the media (May & Adams, 2006b, pp. 229, 234). Nixon in China was in some ways a grand culmination of what Adams’s aesthetic philosophies had been pointing toward since Harmonium: music drawing on minimalist techniques yet replete with changes of mood and a palpable sense of drama. Like Reich, however, Adams found that his signature work also represented a need to keep developing his musical style. For his next opera, The Death of Klinghoffer (1991), in which he again collaborated with Sellars and Goodman, Adams realised that this opera’s darker subject matter meant he could not use the same ‘brightly-coloured’, triadic musical language he employed in Nixon in China, stating that “I discovered how composing for the operatic stage could have a hugely beneficial effect on the evolution of a composer’s musical language” (Adams, 2008, p. 171). Indeed, his subsequent stage productions, such as El Niño (2000) and Doctor Atomic (2005), have further witnessed Adams pushing his musical language in new directions, becoming progressively less influenced by minimalism and embracing a broader harmonic palette that includes darker shades rarely heard in his music before Nixon in China. Like Cage and Reich before him, Adams’s fortieth year was therefore the apex of developments spurred by a successful composition from about five years prior (Harmonium), yet simultaneously a turning point marking a substantial change in his style. In Adams’s case, this evolution was prompted by the unique challenge of writing for the operatic stage. Implications and conclusions John Cage, Steve Reich and John Adams all completed their signature works in the years in which they turned forty, an intriguing age-related correspondence precisely corroborating Simonton’s finding that composers’ fortieth years tend on average to function as a focal point of creative output. Studying these three composers’ overall career arcs from this perspective reveals some other notable parallels as well. Each composer’s signature work can be meaningfully traced to ideas originating in a successful piece written around five years beforehand: Cage’s 4’33” (1952) derives in part from Sonatas and Interludes (1946-48); Reich’s Music for Eighteen Musicians (1974-76) expands upon some ideas from Drumming (1971); and aspects of Adams’s Nixon in China (1985-87) first took root in Harmonium (1980-81). Each composer’s signature work can also be conceived as a natural outgrowth of his aesthetic developments in the years leading up to the composition. Intriguingly, however, in all three cases, the composer’s signature work also represented a sort of repudiation or reconsideration of compositional aesthetics developed up to that point. In other words, the composers’ signature works served not only as a Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (1-13) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 12 culmination of previous ideas but simultaneously marked a significant turning point in their respective careers. In light of the remarkable parallels observed in this study of Cage, Reich and Adams, there are a few factors that may merit further investigation in exploring the significance of age forty with regard to composers’ creation of their signature works. Future research could focus on how cultural dynamics and major historical events may at times influence when individual composers are likely to create their signature works and what works critics and audiences are likely to perceive as landmarks. In addition, the determination of a composer’s signature work seems to at least partially require the retrospective judgment of history, meaning that such appraisals are not always immutable. In spite of the aforementioned challenges, the studies of Cage, Reich and Adams presented in this article illustrate how considering the significance of age forty in relation to the composers’ signature works stimulates close examination of their overall output, which in turn provides valuable insights into the composers’ aesthetics and the forces that shaped their development. Exploring the careers of Cage, Reich and Adams from this perspective also emphasizes mutual connections and influences among the three composers and sheds light on the confluence of factors that made their fortieth years so pivotal, indicating that this approach offers an intriguing and fruitful avenue of inquiry into the composers’ career arcs and stylistic evolution. References Adams, J. (2008). Hallelujah junction: Composing an American life. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Beard, G. M. (1874). Legal responsibility in old age. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Bernard, J. (1993). The minimalist aesthetic in the plastic arts and in music. Perspectives of New Music, 31, 86-132. Bernstein, D. (2002). Music I: To the Late 1940s. In D. Nicholls (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to John Cage (63-84). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Broyles, M. (2004). Mavericks and other traditions in American music. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Cage, J. (1961). Silence. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Cage, J. (1967). A year from Monday. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Dennis, W. (1966). Creative productivity between the ages of 20 and 80 years. Journal of Gerontology, 21, 1-8. Gann, K. (2006). American music in the Twentieth Century. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning. Hillier, P. (2002). Introduction. In P. Hillier (Ed.), Steve Reich, Writings on music, 1965- 2000 (3-18). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hillier, P., & Reich, S. (2002). Steve Reich in conversation with Paul Hillier. In P. Hillier (Ed.), Steve Reich, Writings on music, 1965-2000 (216-241). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lehman, H. C. (1953). Age and achievement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. May, T. (2006). Introduction. In T. May (Ed.), The John Adams reader: Essential writings on an American composer (xiii-xviii). Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press. Kyle Fyr 13 May, T., & Adams, J. (2006a). John Adams reflects on his career. In T. May (Ed.), The John Adams reader (2-28). Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press. May, T., & Adams, J. (2006b). John Adams on Doctor Atomic. In T. May (Ed.), The John Adams reader (219-236). Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press. May, T., & Sellars, P. (2006). Creating contexts: Peter Sellars on working with Adams. In T. May (Ed.), The John Adams reader (238-248). Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press. Nicholls, D. (2007). John Cage. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Nyman, M., & Reich, S. (2002). Second interview with Michael Nyman. In P. Hillier (Ed.), Steve Reich, Writings on Music, 1965-2000 (91-97). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Porter, A., & Adams, J. (1988). ‘Nixon in China’: John Adams in conversation. Tempo, 167, 25-30. Potter, K. (2000). Four musical minimalists: LaMonte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pritchett, J. (1993). The music of John Cage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reich, S. (2002). Writings on music, 1965-2000. P. Hillier (Ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ross, A. (2006). The harmonist. In T. May (Ed.), The John Adams reader (29-44). Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press. Schwarz, K. R. (1990). Process v. intuition in the recent works of Steve Reich and John Adams. American Music, 8, 245-273. Simonton, D. K. (1988). Age and outstanding achievement: What do we know after a century of research? Psychological Bulletin, 104 (2), 251-267. Simonton, D. K. (1991). Emergence and realization of genius: The lives and works of 120 Classical Composers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (5), 829- 840. Steinberg, M. (2006a). Harmonium for large orchestra and chorus. In T. May (Ed.), The John Adams reader (80-88). Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press. Steinberg, M. (2006b). Nixon in China. In T. May (Ed.), The John Adams reader (110-119). Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press. Whittington, S. (2013). Digging in John Cage’s garden: Cage and Ryōanji. Malaysian Music Journal, 2 (2), 12-21. Williams, S. (2013). Uncaged: John Cage and conceptual approaches to participatory music- making. Malaysian Music Journal, 2 (2), 90-103. Biography Kyle Fyr is the musicology department chair and the Master of Arts program chair at the College of Music, Mahidol University (Thailand). He received a PhD in music theory with doctoral minors in music history and piano performance from the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music in 2011, writing a dissertation focusing on proportionality and performance issues in piano works of John Adams. From 2011-13, he was an Assistant Professor of Music Theory at the University of Northern Colorado. He has presented papers at a variety of conferences throughout the US and UK, and has published in the journals Music Theory Online and Notes.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 1 (2017)

assessment, graded examination system, Malay gamelan, music examinations, traditional music

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/138

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/825

Developing a Graded Examination for the Malay Gamelan

The traditional music of Malaysia appears to be sidelined in favour of music which is more accessible and readily available to the younger generation. The lack of exposure to traditional music breeds unfamiliarity of this music and hence is not appreciated or understood by most Malaysians. As music is an integral part of human culture, it is important for this genre of music to be sustained for the future generation. As compared to the availability of examination systems for Western music, there are no mechanisms for assessing musical attainment for the local music traditions in Malaysia. A structured system for assessing and awarding certificates based on levels of achievement in the local music traditions is needed which will provide a platform for musicians involved in the local music traditions to benchmark their achievements and obtain the necessary qualifications which can assist them in furthering their studies or gain employment. This paper discusses the development of a graded examination system for the Malay gamelan in an effort to sustain this tradition. This study used the qualitative method whereby both desk work and field work are conducted. Research methods used include observation of performances, being a participant-observer during practices, interview sessions and focus groups with various practitioners from Malaysia and Indonesia and audio/visual documentation. Guidelines on developing a graded examination system for the Malay gamelan are discussed.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/825/561

Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (14-29) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 14 Developing a Graded Examination for the Malay Gamelan Shahanum Mohamad Shah Department of Music Education. Faculty of Music, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40200 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, Sultan Idris Education University, 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 16 June 2017 Abstract The traditional music of Malaysia appears to be sidelined in favour of music which is more accessible and readily available to the younger generation. The lack of exposure to traditional music breeds unfamiliarity of this music and hence is not appreciated or understood by most Malaysians. As music is an integral part of human culture, it is important for this genre of music to be sustained for the future generation. As compared to the availability of examination systems for Western music, there are no mechanisms for assessing musical attainment for the local music traditions in Malaysia. A structured system for assessing and awarding certificates based on levels of achievement in the local music traditions is needed which will provide a platform for musicians involved in the local music traditions to benchmark their achievements and obtain the necessary qualifications which can assist them in furthering their studies or gain employment. This paper discusses the development of a graded examination system for the Malay gamelan in an effort to sustain this tradition. This study used the qualitative method whereby both desk work and field work are conducted. Research methods used include observation of performances, being a participant-observer during practices, interview sessions and focus groups with various practitioners from Malaysia and Indonesia and audio/visual documentation. Guidelines on developing a graded examination system for the Malay gamelan are discussed. Keywords: assessment, graded examination system, Malay gamelan, music examinations, traditional music Introduction Music examinations have existed for a long while with the purpose of recognising achievements and standards of performance. In graded examinations of musical Shahanum Mohamad Shah and Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon 15 performance, the demonstration of progressive levels of mastery differentiates the novice and the more accomplished musician. These levels are used to define increasing mastery in skills, techniques and knowledge required of a musician. These examinations require a live performance by the candidates. Within an examination, differentiation is by both content and outcome. Content is determined by repertoire selected to represent an appropriate level of difficulty for the grade to be examined while outcome is determined by the demonstration of performance expectations that match or exceed the minimum levels of mastery required (Robbins, 2007, p.5). As opposed to the numerous music examination boards found for Western classical and popular music traditions, music examination boards for traditional music genres are fewer in comparison. A review of literature indicates that examination systems have been developed for traditional or non-Western music instruments and music genres specifically in the Indian, Chinese, Scottish and Irish music traditions. Among these are the Carnatic Examination System and the Taali Foundation Music Examination System for Indian music and the Irish and Scottish Traditional Music Exam. These exams are similar to the examination systems for Western music instruments in that they are graded and require playing selected repertoire for the particular instrument opted by the candidates. As society becomes more sophisticated in this new millennium of technology and globalisation, Malaysia is facing greater and different challenges from those of the previous century (Razak, 2002; Yeoh, 1999). One such challenge is to preserve the nation’s cultural heritage and identity. While the government aims to prepare its people for global competition and focuses on science and technology, there is a strong tendency for the arts and culture to be continually sidelined. Almost three decades ago, Mohamed Ghouse Nasuruddin (1979) warned that Malaysians were becoming strangers to their own cultural heritage and were ignorant about local traditional and folk music to the extent that “they regard these arts as misfits in the contemporary world of disco dance and soul and rock music. This attitude is particularly noticeable in the urban areas where the Western style of life is the norm”. Nettl (1985) also pointed out that the speed with which Western music was added to the indigenous repertory—or replaced it—was indeed amazing. Studies by Shahanum (2000) and Yeoh (1999) show that teenage Malaysian students today not only prefer popular Western music but are unfamiliar with Malaysian ethnic music. Nettl (1985) stated that “the most significant phenomenon in the global history of music has been the intensive imposition of Western music and musical thought upon the rest of the world” (p. 3). In the case of Malaysia, the impact is great due to the long acculturation process that had occurred during more than 100 years of British rule in the country. It is not surprising that the music education practice in Malaysia is organised to a large extent around the great tradition of Western classical music. This can be observed at all levels of institutionalised music learning, from the design of the curriculum right to the teaching approaches used in the classrooms. Of this is the dependency on predominantly foreign music examination boards such as the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (ABRSM) and the Trinity College London International Music Exam Board. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (14-29) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 16 As the foreign examination boards are mainly for Western art and popular music and therefore lack the traditional music element, they do not help to inculcate appreciation towards local music traditions. Currently, there is no mechanism for assessing musical attainment for the local music traditions of Malaysia. As such, there is an overemphasis on Western art and popular music at the expense of promoting local music. A structured system of assessing and awarding certification based on levels of achievement in local music traditions is needed to provide a platform for musicians involved in the local music traditions to benchmark their achievement and obtain the necessary qualifications which can assist them in furthering their studies or gain employment. As with examination systems that cater for non-Western musical instruments, there is a need for a specific examination system for Malaysian local music traditions. In addition, the current standard grading of professional musicians can be used by the government and the music industry as a benchmark of musical attainment since examinations of performance are a form of qualifying examination for a professional association (Robbins, 2007). This will also address the sustainability of local music traditions and the musicians. The purpose of this study is to propose a graded examination system for the Malay gamelan in an effort to sustain the tradition. Literature Review Music examinations are typical in school and university music programmes. However, there are also independent bodies that offer music examinations that are open to all. Having its beginnings in England in Western classical music more than 150 years ago, examinations in popular music and jazz are also now being offered. These days, there are numerous music examinations for Western classical and popular music traditions with countries such as Australia and Japan establishing their own examination systems. These examinations require a live performance to be given, in which one or more examiners assess the performance. Depending on the examination system being taken; such as the Yamaha Music Examinations, the examination may include supplementary tests of knowledge and understanding or aspects such as improvisation and transposition. Theory examinations are also offered but are separated to the performance examinations. The practice of sending children for ABRSM piano and music theory lessons in Malaysia became a trend and had a social and symbolic significance amongst parents in the Malaysian urban society (Ross, 2002). ABRSM (2015) rightly claimed that most of the formal music education which young people receive in Malaysia is through private music schools or through a private teacher. Such is the widespread interest in Western music that many private music schools have become highly successful business enterprises operating from a chain of branches. Leung (2003) pointed out that in many Asian countries, the Western classical music traditions challenges the existence of local traditional music. To much extent, the hegemony of Western classical music traditions accounts for the slow progress and the lack of success in the efforts of incorporating the various local music traditions in Malaysian schools, and to a certain extent, its sustainability. This Shahanum Mohamad Shah and Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon 17 situation is indeed alarming and, if allowed to persist, may jeopardise the future survival of Malaysian music traditions. Music is an important part of a nation’s identity (Wan, 2008) and as such, emphasis should be given on developing local music traditions. Diverse musical practices in Malaysia exist but without a structured of training and assessment, which is academically accepted. Mohamed Ghouse Nasuruddin (1979) indicated that there is a pressing needed for action on the part of “the government and institutes of higher learning to counteract the various forces which can be detrimental to the existence and progress of the traditional performing arts” (p. 464). Many have voiced the need to establish an accredited national body with the purpose of localising the exam curriculum and materials as well as providing assessments of music students’ achievements (Ross, 2002; Choo, 2003; Mohd. Fadzil & Thia, 2005). The above discussion shows that formal education is a significant channel to create better appreciation and to promote traditional music amongst the younger generation. In other words, one of the key to the successful efforts of preserving the Malay music traditions is through a more structured curriculum, instruction and assessment in formal settings. While this may sound simple and straightforward, in reality it is an uphill and complex task to be implemented. This is because traditional music encompasses a different philosophy and practice from the Western music paradigm (Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Shahanum Mohd Shah, 2015; Shahanum Mohd Shah & Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon, 2016). Non-Western Music Examinations As mentioned above, there are not many music examination boards for traditional music genres. A review of literature indicates that examination systems have mainly been developed for traditional or non-Western music instruments and music genres specifically in the Indian, Chinese, Scottish and Irish music traditions. The London College of Music started to offer Graded Awards in Chinese music that are performed in Chinese and assessed by examiners from the Chinese music community (Robbins, 2007). In order to provide awards for Chinese instrumentalists and singers, and to allow both amateur and professional musicians to gain recognition of a recognised international standard, proposals to adapt traditional graded examinations in Western music to Chinese music was mooted in the early part of 2006. These new awards allowed a wide range of repertoire with assessments in Chinese by Chinese musicians trained as assessors. A framework of eight graded awards and progressions to the diplomas was subsequently offered by the London College of Music (Robbins, 2007). The Royal Conservatoire of Scotland offers the Scottish Traditional Music Graded Exams in instruments such as the fiddle (violin, viola or cello), accordion (button or piano key) and Scottish harp or clarsach. According to the examination manual, the assessment objectives are to provide clear milestones needed to build skills, knowledge and aural awareness required to perform Scottish music with authenticity and idiomatic dexterity. The exams are divided into four sections which are the performance of three pieces with fluency and continuity, a sense of style and Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (14-29) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 18 musical character; technical work (scales, arpeggios and technical exercises), quick study (playing back a short piece of music by ear or by sight) and practical and aural musicianship (comprising a short series of tests to encourage understanding of traditional rhythms and tune idioms and visual communication between master and pupil or between musicians in a session). Candidates are assessed by examiners who themselves are experienced performers in the instrument concerned. The London College of Music (LCM) Examinations offered by the University of West London also include examinations in Irish and Scottish traditional music in the subjects of solo instrumental and ensemble. Only Irish and Scottish music are accepted and all performances must be from memory. The Irish traditional music examination is offered for any one of the following instruments: fiddle, button accordion, piano accordion, melodeon, concertina, piano, guitar, uilleann pipes, harp, banjo, mandolin, whistle and flute. The Scottish Traditional Music examinations are offered in fiddle, cello, double bass, button accordion, piano accordion, melodeon, concertina, electronic keyboard, piano, Lowland and Highland pipes, harp, whistle, flute, guitar and voice. The examinations accept all regional styles, which are regarded as equally valid. The National University of Singapore Centre for the Arts offers instrumental courses and examinations in Chinese traditional music with the first examination held in 2004. Among the objectives of the examination are to set up an examination system that will be recognised and accepted by institutions in Singapore and abroad and to establish a set of guidelines for facilitating systematic training in Chinese musical instruments. Examinations are offered in 16 instruments among which are the erhu, dizi, guzheng, pipa, yangqin, ruan, liuqin, sheng, zhongyin sheng, suona, zhongyin suona, hulusi and guan. For the Basic level (Grade 1-3) and the Intermediate level (Grade 4-6), candidates are required to perform one set of study piece incorporating scales and two solo music pieces. For the Advanced level (Grade 7-8), candidates are required to perform one set of study pieces incorporating scales, sight-reading and two solo pieces in addition to an aural test. Candidates for the Diploma examination need to perform three music pieces and is graded by two examiners. The Central Conservatory of Music of China, China’s most senior musical institute, also offers the Overseas Technique Grade Examinations in Chinese musical instruments such as the erhu, pipa, yangqin, guzheng, zhongruan, suona and dizi. Materials emphasise core technique as the principal of assessment and materials are organised in increasing levels of difficulty. Performance levels for all instruments are classified from level one to nine with the highest ranking being the Performance Certificate. The examinations consist of technique and oral sections. In the technique section, candidates of Grades 1-6 are required to play one etude and one music piece, while for Grades 7-10 and Performance Certificate, candidates need to play one etude and two music pieces of the corresponding examination level respectively. In the oral section, candidates of Grades 1-6 are asked about the selected music and extracurricular questions of sight singing and rhythm, while the oral test for candidates of Grades 7-10 is replaced with evaluation of general performance, music expression and technique. The examinations are also conducted in Chinese Mandarin. Shahanum Mohamad Shah and Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon 19 Several music examinations in Indian music exist. The Institute of Performing Arts and Heritage offers graded examinations in all subjects of Indian classical music such as the tabla, kathak, sitar, Hindustani vocal, Carnatic vocal, harmonium, flute and dhoi under the World Music and Dance Examinations category. The examination for the tabla, as an example, is divided into four levels; Level 1 consists of Grades 1, 2 and 3, Level 2 consists of Grades 4 and 5, Level 3 consists of Grades 6, 7 and 8 and Level 4 consists of Grade 9. Grades 1 and 2 are divided into the practical with viva component, Grades 3 – 9 are divided into the practical and theory component but with weightage of marks being different according to the grade. For the viva component of Grades 1 and 2, candidates are asked questions pertaining to the understanding of terms, parts of the instrument or to give the life sketch of a tabla player from a given list. In Grades 3 – 9, the theory component is in the form of a written test containing multiple choice, true or false, diagram, notation etc., on topics covered in the practical and theory syllabuses. Examinations in Indian traditional music are also offered by the Academy of South Indian Music Board (London). A diverse range of exams and assessments are offered for voice and instruments and miruthanga (mridangam, tabla, ghatam and kanjira), from the Prep Test and Music awards for the earliest stages of learning through to professional diplomas at the highest levels of musical achievement. The examinations are also offered according to a graded system, from grade 1 to grade 8 and are divided into both theory and practical components. While the aforementioned examinations exist for individual instruments within a solo and ensemble context, there are no such recorded examinations for traditional music which focus on ensembles whereby the candidate is required to be able to perform all the instruments within the ensemble. This would lead to different implications with regards to many aspects of the examination, such as the syllabus and the assessment mechanism. Therein lies the difference in the examination system for the Malay gamelan which requires the candidate to play all the instruments within the ensemble. Assessments of Music Performance According to McPherson & Thompson (1998), music performance assessment is “the process by which one individual attempts to balance and synthesise the various qualities of a performance by another individual, with the aim of providing a judgement” (p. 12). The selection of evaluative criteria and evaluative instruments strongly shapes the evaluation process. The evaluation process may be defined as the implicit and explicit decisions that lead to an assessment. This process depends on a number of factors, including the training of evaluators, constraints placed on the evaluators, the physical environment and evaluator expectations (p. 19). In any form of examinations, assessment criteria are important as it provides guidance to examiners and students on the type and level of performance required. Criteria for assessment of performances, although from different examination boards, typically tend to include similar aspects. As an example, the NCEA (2006) assessment criteria for performance states the importance of the candidate and the Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (14-29) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 20 assessor knowing the context and conditions for assessment. Aspects to be considered in performance include technical skills, accuracy, musicianship, presentation, communication skills and ensemble awareness. For the Irish and Scottish traditional music examinations offered by LCM, candidates are expected to perform the set tunes and supporting tests with fluency and continuity, a sense of style and musical character (including the adoption of phrasing, dynamics and musical character associated with a particular region and community) and practical and aural musicianship (the ability to manipulate music by ear, the visual communication between master and pupil or between musicians in a session). Assessment criteria include fluency of music, style and sense of style, confident sense of tonal and ornamental control, appropriate to the pieces performed and a well-rounded and engaging programme. In addition to the performance of the musical instruments, other components of an examination include sight-reading, improvisation, ear tests and a viva voce. As indicated in the aforementioned section on traditional music examinations, some examinations include the theoretical section which asks candidates about the instruments, performers and the music. As stated in the manual, the Irish and Scottish traditional music exams are also designed to encourage the candidate to develop aural awareness of rhythm, melodic shape, echoing of phrases, extemporisation and harmonic accompaniment to a variety of tune idioms in a face- to-face situation with the examiner, secure intonation and a sense of performance. It can be summarised that irrespective of the examination system, some assessment criteria are similar and these would include: 1. Musical elements (accuracy of pitch, rhythm, text, articulation, score accuracy, etc.); 2. Instrument technique (the ability to control the instrument with musical intent); and 3. Presentation (expressivity with regard to phasing, inflection and style, collaborate musically with others). The review of related literature shows that established graded examinations are mostly for Western classical music. Only in the last 20 years has graded examinations been established for non-Western classical music genres. However, these examinations are limited to Chinese, Indian, Scottish and Irish music. Most of the existing graded examinations are also offered for solo instruments. In addition, for some of these examinations, assessment criteria are specific to the tradition and there is a viva voce component as well. Clearly, there is a need for graded examination systems for music from other musical traditions including that of Southeast Asia. As such, this study sought to develop a graded examination system for the Malay gamelan. Method This study is part of a project which aimed to investigate a structured approach for the assessment of musical attainment for musicians involved in Malaysian Shahanum Mohamad Shah and Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon 21 traditional music and to develop a graded examination syllabi for selected Malay traditional music. The study was conducted in three phases. The initial phase of the study involved desk work where secondary data were gathered. Reference materials on the teaching and learning traditions of traditional music were gathered from libraries, National Archives, Ministry of Information, Communication and Culture, State Arts Department and the Malaysian Examination Syndicate. In addition, existing music examination systems for both Western and non-Western music traditions practiced in other countries were analysed. Phase two of the research project involved fieldwork. The focus of the field work was on gathering data on how the gamelan is taught, learned and performed both in Malaysia and Indonesia. Observations of the teaching and learning practices as well as performances were documented in the form of field notes and audio visual recordings. The third phrase and the main method of collecting data for this study was through a focus group with a panel comprising of five gamelan practitioners with more than 15 years’ experience in teaching and performing the Malay gamelan. Their knowledge, experience and direct involvement as practitioners and/or academicians were vital for the purpose of the study and became the main criteria for selecting them as participants for the study. The focus group was conducted to identify the elements within the music examination system such as the syllabi, criteria for assessment, repertoire and contents. The data was then analysed and presented to the panel of experts again for verification. Findings Traditional music genres encompass a different theory, philosophy and practice from the western paradigm and differ markedly in the learning, teaching, knowing and understanding of the music. It is therefore imperative that these differences be taken into consideration when developing the graded exam for the gamelan as music differs from culture to culture with its own distinct meaning, values and musical function and the music is not generally theorised by performers but learned by playing the music (Dunbar-Hall, 2009). The Teaching and Learning Process The teaching and learning of the Malay gamelan differs from location to location and from teacher to teacher although the differences may not be markedly big. Nevertheless, it was a general consensus that the psychomotor, cognitive and affective domains were all equally important in the teaching and assessment of the gamelan. This is similar to the teaching of Western musical instruments, however, the attention given to each of the domains, for example, are seen in different ways particularly since the Malay gamelan is played as an ensemble. All the gamelan practitioners interviewed agreed that the teaching of the gamelan inadvertently begins with an introduction to the cultural context and Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (14-29) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 22 background knowledge of the genre before moving to the practical component. These include the origin and history, introducing students to the anatomy of the instruments and their role in the ensemble, performance practice, ethics during practice and in performance and the basic care and maintenance. As stated by the practitioners: Semua harus tahu dari permulaan…materi dasar...budaya, peranan, fungsi, alat muzik, muzik. [Everything needs to be known from the beginning…the basic materials...culture, role, function, music instruments, music.] Sekarang ini pantang larang yang biasanya jangan langkah atas alat, hormat peralatan sebab kita nak cari rezeki dengan dia...kena hormat...tak elok langkah. Letak kaki atas gendang begitu juga alat lain jadi tak sopan. [Nowadays the usual taboos is not to step over the music instruments, respect the musical instruments because we want to find sustenance through them ... respect ... it is not good to step over them. It is rude to place your foot on the gendang as well as other musical instruments.] The learning process of the gamelan is typically via the master and apprentice mode whereby students learn by observing and imitating the master. Playing music is taught and learned through practical activity, relying on repetition as the main mode of learning. The skill of playing an instrument is learned as one learns the music. Unlike learning Western music instruments, method books are not used. As such, technical exercises in the Western sense is not used in the learning process. One of the most important aspects in music making and music learning in the Western classical music tradition is reading music notation. Consequently, sight- reading skills and playing using notation are important aspects assessed in international graded music examinations. Reading music notation is not an authentic practice as far as most Malaysian traditional music is concerned as the tradition is sound-based and non-notated, although some form of notation may be used if teaching in an educational setting. As such, sight-reading skills and playing using notation are non-important aspects in the Malay traditional music-making and learning as it is in the teaching of Western music instruments. Traditionally, music learning is by memory and all practitioners expressed the importance of playing by memory so that players could play with the right ‘soul and feel’ and develop aural sensitivity. The following excerpt shows an example of a practitioner’s views regarding the use of notation in music learning and making: Muzik barat beza dengan muzik etnik di mana muzik barat ada notasi tetapi muzik etnik tidak ada. Kalau menggunakan notasi dalam gamelan, hanya sebagai kerangka, bukan untuk dimainkan. [Western music is different from ethnic music as notation is used in Western music but not for ethnic music. With the gamelan, notation is used as a framework, not for playing.] Shahanum Mohamad Shah and Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon 23 Knowledge, understanding and skills required at each grade are made explicit through the repertoire selected to be taught and examined in graded exams (Robbins, 2007). The selection of repertoire needs to take the relative level of knowledge and skills a musician has to have reached for a particular grade into consideration. Factors such as the interaction of techniques, skills, knowledge, appropriateness of content, levels of expectation and what is to be taught needs to be taken into account. Traditional music is not composed to accommodate the learner’s abilities, i.e., for children and for adults. There does not appear to be a division between repertoire for children to learn and those for adults. In terms of levels of difficulty though, there was general consensus among the practitioners that the teaching of repertoire advances according to levels of difficulty. Although practitioners were in agreement that repertoire progresses from simple to difficult, some had varying opinions in what they felt constituted simple or difficult repertoire. Some practitioners looked at it in terms of the length of the repertoire, the form, complexity of the melody and/or rhythm, while others considered the complexity of the gendang parts or the improvisation. In addition, the nature of the art form and the semi-improvisatory style of traditional music would require the inclusion of this aspect as criteria of assessment. The possibility of having various interpretations of a repertoire performed including improvisation depending on the location and performance practice of the group is another point of consideration. Bermula dengan yang mudah ke sukar dari segi panjangnya gendhing, tingkat kesukaran, tempo, pola irama. Bagi peringkat lanjutan, dimasukkan improvisasi. [Begin from simple to complex in terms of length of piece, level of difficulty, tempo, rhythm. For the advanced level, improvisation is added.] Kita kena ajar ikut step dia lah sikit-sikit, dari senang ke susah, tapi... senang ke susah ka, macam mana pun semua kena belajar jugak, sebab dia lagu wajib. Ada lagu boleh potong [tak perlu dipelajari] tapi lagu wajib tu kena belajar. [We need to teach gradually according to the steps, from easy to difficult, but… regardless of the difficulty, they all have to be learned because those are compulsory songs. There are songs that can be cut [do not have to be learned] but the compulsory songs have to be learned.] Muzik barat beda dengan muzik etnik di mana muzik barat ada notasi tetapi muzik etnik tidak ada. Kalau menggunakan notasi dalam gamelan, hanya sebagai kerangka, bukan untuk dimainkan. [Western music is different from ethnic music as notation is used in Western music but not for ethnic music. With the gamelan, notation is used as a framework, not for playing.] Kalau ikut orang dulu-dulu, dia gunakan hafalan. Benda ni makan masa...yang lama...sebab nak hafalkan...hafal bunyi, hafal main...kalau ada yang bertulis ni pun dia bukan macam sistem notasi barat, dia sekadar tulis...cuma istilah orang kampung...tapi dia kena hafal jugak...Bila main kita dah pandai tahap mahir tak boleh pakai skor dah. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (14-29) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 24 [For the old schools, they used rote. This thing takes time... a long one... because the need to memorise... memorise the sound, memorise the playing... even the notations written are unlike the Western notation, they were simply written... but in villagers’ term... yet they still need to memorise... When one reaches skilful playing, the score cannot be used anymore.] Sebenarnya tradisional ni memanglah dia hafal kan, tapi kalau nak dikembangkan [idea muzikal] bila ada skor...tak la semua nak kena hafal. [Of course the traditional music is to be memorised, but if the [musical ideas] are to be developed when there is a score… not everything is required to be memorised..] Affective Component Music is expressed differently for everyone. As an oral tradition, music is generally in the mind of the musician and controls the musician. As such, expression is an important component in teaching traditional music. All the practitioners interviewed were in consensus on the importance of rasa (feel) and jiwa (soul) that is to feel the soul of the music. In their opinion, rasa and jiwa can only be achieved through good understanding of the music tradition as well as through appropriate techniques of playing in order to get the right touch. In addition, all the subjects interviewed stressed that playing by ear is crucial in achieving the rasa and jiwa. Traditional music playing is a collaborative activity, relying on musical interdependency in close physical proximity. Being an oral tradition, there is somewhat limited verbal interaction involved in the learning process. Non-verbal forms of musical communication, such as eye signals and hand gestures, are used to facilitate the learning process. A community is created bonded by the musical necessity of listening to each other. As the gamelan is taught in a group situation, all group members are equally responsible for translating musical knowledge into musical sound. Gamelan playing is also communal in the sense that if one player is not available, another can take over. Therein lies another reason why gamelan players should know how to play all the instruments. Attitude, expression, cooperation, mutual understanding, unity, interaction of players and dexterity are key words used by the practitioners when discussing traditional music. Afektif merupakan komponen yang penting dalam penilaian di setiap tahap...pola fikir, sikap, perilaku, etika, penjiwaan, pengolahan rasa... Silibus perlu merangkumi semua ini dalam konteks budaya. [Affective is an important component in the appraisal of every level…pattern of thought, attitude, ethics, inspiration, feeling process… The syllabus needs to encompass all of these in cultural context.] Teknik orang dan teknik kerjasama...wiraga (hafal struktur muzik), wirama (tempo dan dinamik), wirasa (perasaan, mud dan ekspresi). [People technique and cooperation technique... wiraga (memorising the music’s structure), wirama (tempo and dynamics), wirasa (feeling, mood and expression).] Shahanum Mohamad Shah and Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon 25 Konsep gamelan adalah berpegang kepada satu rasa, kesepakatan, kebersamaan kunci kepada gamelan. [The concept of Gamelan is holding onto oneness, unity, togetherness is the key to gamelan.] The Malay Gamelan as an Ensemble A recurring issue that was raised by all practitioners was the consideration of the type of ensemble and the context of teaching traditional music and hence, the assessment of traditional music. In the case of the gamelan, all practitioners interviewed are of the opinion that students have to learn all instruments within the ensemble. Looking at the gamelan, it can be seen that there are many differences in characteristics when it comes to the gamelan ensemble as opposed to Western ensembles. The practitioners interviewed agree with Supanggah (2008) on the differences including the emphasis on togetherness with no individual instrument dominating, the importance of the high level of sensitivity and depth of feeling as opposed to personal virtuosity and the importance of aural sensitivity in playing the gamelan where musical dialogue occurs through listening. Given that the gamelan is an ensemble tradition, teaching occurs in a group and is highly repetitive. The practitioners interviewed generally agreed that it is important for gamelan musicians to learn all the instruments within the ensemble as a part of their training. Individual skills, the ability to cooperate within the ensemble and creativity within the context of the ensemble are also aspects assessed. The nature of the gamelan as an ensemble will demand different approaches to assessment. The assessment of the gamelan will require the student to rotate until a sampling of instruments from the various groups or all instruments have been assessed. As evidenced through observations and field notes during the data collection process, one aspect to be considered in determining the framework of an examination board for Malaysian traditional music genres is establishing a mechanism to assess the different instruments within the ensemble. Differentiating and equating the contributions of the different instruments within the ensemble will therefore also need to be accounted for. Discussion As indicated by McPherson and Thompson (1998), the selection of evaluative criteria and evaluative instruments strongly shape the evaluation process. Following the curriculum design, the assessment criteria for the gamelan need to be determined and as with any music instrument, must include among other aspects, the technical and musical competence, interpretative understanding and stylistic awareness. In traditional music, playing from memory, playing by ear and improvising are additional aspects that need to be considered. As the gamelan will be assessed in an ensemble setting, the criterion has to be ascertained for the performance of each instrument within an ensemble and as an ensemble. For ensembles such as the Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (14-29) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 26 gamelan where musicians are expected to play all the instruments, the allocation of marks has to consider the nature and function of the instrument. In terms of repertoire, the number of pieces to be assessed and the criteria for selecting repertoire, such as being easy to listen to, likeable, popular or standard pieces, need to be determined. In addition, if an instrument is used in different types of ensembles, consideration has to be given if assessment should be based on repertoire from a selected form of traditional music genre or repertoire from the various genres in which the instrument is used. Performance on different musical instruments may also be assessed differently because they involve different technical skills and are associated with different repertoire. Traditional music is, by nature, an oral tradition in which learning is by non- formal education, i.e., by listening, observing and playing. Aural sensitivity is very important where musical dialogue occurs through listening. In these genres examined, musical changes are marked or led by the gendang through aural signals. Emphasis is placed on cooperation and togetherness in the ensemble with no individual instrument dominating and in which a high level of sensitivity and depth of feeling are important as opposed to personal virtuosity (Supanggah, 2008). This leads to the implication that the affective component or jiwa (expression) is an important criteria of assessment. As an oral tradition, music is expressed differently for everyone. As such, expression is an important component in teaching traditional music. The possibility of having various interpretations of a repertoire performed, including improvisation and depending on the location and performance practice of the group has to be considered during assessment. The three domains of learning, i.e., the cognitive, psychomotor and affective, have to be cumulatively assessed. As stressed by the practitioners, there has to be a balance between performance skills, knowledge, thought patterns, attitude, conduct/behaviour and ethics that collectively make up the culture of the music tradition. Graded examination for the Malay gamelan Taking into consideration the data from the interview with practitioners, documentary research and the conclusions of the research, the following recommendations for the development of a graded examination for the gamelan is set out below: 1. The examination will assess the three domains of learning, i.e., cognitive, psychomotor and affective. 2. The syllabus will be divided into three levels: beginner (Level 1), intermediate (Level 2) and advanced (Level 3). Each level is further subdivided with beginner’s level having 3 grades (Grades 1-3), three grades in the intermediate level (Grades 4-6) and two grades in the advanced level (Grades 7-8). 3. Candidates will be examined on all instruments. Level 1 begins with the saron and colotomic instruments. As the level progresses, the improvisatory Shahanum Mohamad Shah and Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon 27 instruments (bonang and gambang) and the gendang are included. Improvisation, however, will only be introduced in Level 3. 4. Techniques specific to the Malay gamelan will be assessed such as damping, cincang, bunga (improvisation) and turun gambang. 5. Repertoire will progress according to the level of difficulty, both melodically and rhythmically, according to the length of the lagu. 6. Repertoire will be performed from memory. 7. The practical and theoretical aspects of a performance for assessing Malay traditional music will be included . a) The practical aspect relates to aspects assessed during the performance part of the exam and is further subdivided into two components which are musical and non-musical factors. The musical factor includes the technical dimension, musical dimension and presentation. The technical dimension refers to technical competence on an instrument in terms of tone production, intonation, the ability to perform a range of techniques with control and fluency and the accuracy of musical elements, which involves the accuracy of pitch, rhythm, tempo, articulation and text articulation. The musical dimension refers to the understanding of musical, stylistic and expressive issues. This involves musical awareness and interpretative understanding of the music performed including aspects such as phrasing, dynamics and ensemble awareness. Ensemble awareness refers to individual contribution to the cohesive sound of the group including awareness of intonation, blend and balance, tempo and style and unity of feeling. The affective component or jiwa is an important aspect to be assessed. In these genres examined, musical changes are marked or led by the gendang through aural signals. The non-musical factor of the performance section refers to elements such as attitude of the musicians when functioning in an ensemble, cooperation, rapport with the music and the instruments and mutual understanding among the musicians. b) The theoretical aspect includes a viva voce component, which concerns the knowledge of the music being assessed in terms of the history, background, instruments, repertoire and performance practice. Questions will be set according to the respective grade level and include questions on the comprehension of music elements, terms, techniques, instrumental functions, repertoire, musical style and an understanding of the aesthetics of the gamelan. 8. In contrast to examinations in Western musical instruments, sight-reading will not be examined. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (14-29) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 28 Conclusion The establishment of an assessment and certification system based on international graded music examination systems for local traditional music is crucial for the future survival and sustainability of Malay musical heritage. If the aforementioned suggestions are taken into consideration when designing the graded examination syllabus, the music and performance practice of this genre will be sustained. However, the effort towards the establishment of a system and standard is evidently quite challenging. Issues like authenticity and cultural imperialism need to be taken into considerations and addressed appropriately in order to ensure acceptance and success of the assessment and certification system to be developed. References ABRSM Annual Review 2005 (2005). Retrieved from http://www.abrsm.org/resources/abrsmAnnualReview05.pdf Choo, M. Y. (2003). Kesedaran dan kepentingan mewujudkan badan peperiksaan muzik tempatan di Malaysia. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kuching. Dunbar-Hall, P. (2009). Ethnopedagogy: Culturally contextualised learning and teaching as an agent of change. Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 8 (2), 60– 78. Leung, C.C. (2003). The role of Chinese music in secondary school education in Hong Kong. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. McPherson, G. E., & Thompson, W. F. (1998). Assessing music performance: Issues and influences. Research Studies in Music Education, 10, 12-24. Mohd. Fadzil Abdul Rahman & Thia, S. S. (2005). Establishing the Malaysian music examination board: Isn’t it timely? Paper presented at the 3rd Malaysian Music Education Conference, Perak. Mohamed Ghouse Nasuruddin. (1979). Dance and music of the performing arts of Malaysia. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Indiana University, Indiana, United States. Nettl, B. (1985). The western impact on world music: Change, adaptation, and survival. New York, NY: Schirmer Books. Razak Baginda. (2002). Malaysia in transition: Politics and society. Kuala Lumpur: Asean Academic Press. Robbins, J. H. (2007). Whose performance is it anyway? Reflections on examining music, meanings, standards, and reliability in an international context. Paper presented at the 33rd Annual IAEA Conference, Baku. Ross, V. (2002). External public piano examinations in Malaysia: Social and symbolic significance. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Deakin University, Victoria, Australia. Shahanum Mohd Shah. (2000). Relationships among musical style, ethnicity, age, gender, musical training, familiarity, intercultural tolerance and music preferences of Malaysian students. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Indiana University, Bloomington. Shahanum Mohd Shah & Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon. (2016). Sustainability of Malay traditional music via a graded music examination system: The Malay gamelan. In Shahanum Mohamad Shah and Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon 29 Santoso S. Kar. & Donie Fadjar Kurniawan. (Eds.) Proceedings Paradigms in Art Creations and Art Studies. The 1st International and Interdisciplinary Conference on Arts Creation and Studies, (pp. 56-69). Surakarta: ISI Press. Supanggah, R. (2008). Pengalaman mengurus, memperlengkap dan memperluas kaedah pengajaran seni di Sekolah Tinggi Kesenian Indonesian (pengkhususan seni muzik dan tari gamelan). Paper presented at the World Gamelan Symposium and Festival 2008, Terengganu, Malaysia. Wan, A. Kadir (2008). Muzik sebagai warisan perubahan dan identiti seni muzik kebangsaan. Paper presented at the Seminar Seni Muzik Kebangsaan 2008, Akademi Seni Warisan dan Kebudayaan, Kuala Lumpur. Yeoh, M. P. (1999) Music preferences of undergraduate students in a multi-musical country. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor. Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Shahanum Mohd Shah (2015). Penilaian dan pensijilan bagi muzik tradisional Malaysia berdasarkan model peperiksaan bergred antarabangsa. Malaysian Music Journal, 4 (1), 47-66. Biography Shahanum Mohamad Shah is an associate professor of Music Education at Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. She holds a Bachelor of Music (Performance) (Hons.) degree from Adelaide University, Australia, and a Master and PhD degrees from Indiana University, Bloomington, United States of America. Her primary research interests include psychology of music, teaching and learning or music, assessment and the Malay gamelan. Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon is an associate professor of Music Education at Sultan Idris Education University (UPSI), Tanjong Malim, Malaysia, where he teaches courses in music education and marching band techniques. Zaharul currently serves as the Dean of the Faculty of Music and Performing Arts at the university. He received his undergraduate degree in music from Southern Illinois University, United States of America (USA), and his master’s degree in education from the University of Houston, Texas, USA. Zaharul is one of the founding members of the Malaysia Band Association and the Malaysian Association for Music Education.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 1 (2017)

administrational strategies, ideal characteristics, music institute, music in higher education, music studies in Thailand

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/138

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/826

The Ideal Characteristics of Higher Education Music Institutes in 21st century Thailand

In the 21st century, there are many factors affecting the survival of music institutes. In Thailand, music in higher education has been a part of the Thai educational system for more than 80 years. Sixty-eight higher education institutes are reported to provide music degree programmes. The objective of this study was to investigate the ideal characteristics of higher education music institutes in Thailand in the 21st century. Participants selected through purposive sampling included eleven administrators from higher education music institutes in Thailand. This is a design study that used a qualitative approach by collecting data through the in-depth interview method. The results showed that the characteristics of the ideal music institute in Thailand in the 21st century could be explained as having three main parts: 1) administration and management— this deals with four major issues including the philosophy of the institute, styles of the institute, administration strategies and finances; 2) curriculum and instruction—this is concerned with levels of the study, purpose of the programme, content, teaching styles, evaluation and assessment, music activities and services; and 3) resources that include buildings and environment, library and databases, and human resources.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/826/562

Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 30 The Ideal Characteristics of Higher Education Music Institutes in 21st century Thailand Saya Thuntawech1, Somchai Trakarnrung2 1 College of Music, 2 Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University, Thailand e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 16 June 2017 Abstract In the 21st century, there are many factors affecting the survival of music institutes. In Thailand, music in higher education has been a part of the Thai educational system for more than 80 years. Sixty-eight higher education institutes are reported to provide music degree programmes. The objective of this study was to investigate the ideal characteristics of higher education music institutes in Thailand in the 21st century. Participants selected through purposive sampling included eleven administrators from higher education music institutes in Thailand. This is a design study that used a qualitative approach by collecting data through the in-depth interview method. The results showed that the characteristics of the ideal music institute in Thailand in the 21st century could be explained as having three main parts: 1) administration and management— this deals with four major issues including the philosophy of the institute, styles of the institute, administration strategies and finances; 2) curriculum and instruction—this is concerned with levels of the study, purpose of the programme, content, teaching styles, evaluation and assessment, music activities and services; and 3) resources that include buildings and environment, library and databases, and human resources. Keywords: administrational strategies, ideal characteristics, music institute, music in higher education, music studies in Thailand Significance and Background Music has been valued for a variety of reasons by every culture and society throughout history since the time of the ancient Greeks. Music served as a tool to elevate moral senses and values of the society, which brought along the concept of music education (Page, 2001; Suttachitt, 2012). A number of political writings by famous Greek and Roman philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle and Quintilian defined music as a tool for shaping civilisation. Its purpose was not only for personal entertainment, but also served as a tool to identify class in the society (Jackson, 2014). Until the present time, music has always been a necessary component of education. Philosophers who had roles in changing perspectives of the world on religion, politics and education paid regard to Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 31 music for its priceless value as the vital tool to pass on their ideas to following generations. At present, music learning and practice in higher education ranges from club activities, such as bands and choruses to formal degree programmes across the globe (Weber, 2001). In Thailand, music in higher education has been a part of the Thai educational system for more than 80 years since Luang Vichitvathakarn, the first director of the Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Public Instruction (Chandrasu, 2010; Suttachitt, 2012). In 2016, there was a total of 157 universities under the supervision of the Office of the Higher Education Commission and 113 music degree programmes provided by 57 public and private universities. Moreover, Bunditpatanasilpa Institute under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture offers four music Bachelor degree programmes in performance and education. Also, a Masters degree in Thai music performance through the collaboration of 11 network colleges under the institute’s supervision is offered to the public. Even though music institutes in Thailand are high in numbers, many institutes cannot manage their own organisations to achieve excellence. Some institutions are not capable of recruiting students to study or find their own identities. Chandrasu (2010) discovered issues in developing music in higher education in Thailand including qualifications of music graduates in Thailand that are not consistent. In the 21st century there are many challenges affecting the survival of higher education institutions. Duderstadt (2000) mentioned that universities are now facing various challenges such as the costs (initial and operating), price and value of a college education, the rising costs of academic excellence and the limitation of resources, the changing relationship with diverse constituencies, the changing social contract, the challenge of intellectual change and the relevance of the university. Furthermore, diversity in ethnicities, cultures, wealth status and human rights, including inequitable education access, are contributing to the university’s rough path to success in providing the best education. UNESCO’s Incheon Declaration for Education 2030 that states, “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”, is an example showing a vision for equity in education that leads to human fulfilment and sustainable development (UNESCO, 2015). Nevertheless, the familiar and famous conceptual quotes “Music for all” or “No one left behind” highlighting equality of education is difficult to achieve. Research in administrational strategies of the music university is limited. Related researches showed two types of studies. The first is the historical study of well- known institutions or music programmes in different countries (Orlando, 1946; Connor, 1955; Chay, 1981; Alberici, 2004; Chow, 2005; Archer, 2014; Powell, 2014). In the Thai social context, a historical study by Boonjae (2014) studied the changing process and music teaching trends using Bansomdejchaopraya Ratjabhat University as a case study. The history of the university can be classified in three eras based on the status of the institution: the teacher college period, the Rajabhat institute period and the Rajabhat university period. Five factors were identified as administrative supporters: human resources, equipment, budgets and funding, management and curriculum. Finally, the researcher suggested that the music department should be organised as a college in order to operate more efficiently administratively. Additionally, Chandrasu (2010) also studied the development of music education in Thailand’s higher education. Chandrasu found that music education development can be classified into five time periods: the Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 32 initial artist training (1934-1970), music teacher education by the teacher training department (1970-1976), production of university graduates (1976-1989), production of music scholars (1989-1998) and production of professional musicians (1998 - present). The other type of study concerns training for music careers in higher educational systems (Khongkhakul, 1976; Charoensook, 1985; Plourde, 2000; Mangan, 2005; Choi, 2013; Ivy, 2013). In the case of Thailand, Khongkhakul (1976) investigated the curriculum for music teacher training. Khongkhakul’s research on music education in Thailand at the time dealt with the lack of attention from Thai society that demonstrated inadequate training programmes, instructional materials and qualified teachers. The researcher suggested two types of music programmes: the liberal arts programme and the music educational programme. Khongkhakul also suggested that administrative issues were an essential concern for policy implementation in the future. In another study, Charoensook (1985) compared undergraduate music curricula in Thai and American universities and suggested a music curriculum for Thai universities. The National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) standards were used as the criteria in the study. Charoensook found that the degree programmes varied in programme offerings and course requirements and that Thai degree programmes failed to meet the NASM standards. Therefore, the researcher recommended that the NASM standards should be used as a basis for developing the Thai curriculum. This study’s primary concern is to investigate the ideal characteristics of music institutes for higher education in Thailand in the 21st century. This article will be beneficial for music administrators to use as a guideline to develop their music institutions and aims to provide effective reference tools for institutions in adjusting music programmes in the future. Literature Review Higher Education for the 21st Century Higher education has always been greatly affected by the changes in societies and in the world. Education is meant to provide for a better future and a path leading to good careers and meaningful lives. Duderstadt (2000) explained that several challenges affect higher education in the following ways:  the cost, price and value of a college education;  the rising costs of academic excellence and the limits on resources;  the changing relationships with diverse constituencies;  the changing social contract;  the challenge of intellectual change;  the increasing relevance of the university. Due to rapid changes in society and throughout the world, Duderstadt (2000) explained that the university should look beyond its specific goals and instead build the capacity to move toward the future. The real objectives of the university are: to remove limitations that hinder the institute’s responsiveness to the changing world; to remove unnecessary processes and administrative structures; to question existing assumptions Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 33 and arrangements; and to challenge, excite and encourage institute members to view institutional transformation as a terrific adventure. Duderstadt also suggested that the transformation process must include every aspect of the institution such as:  the mission of the university;  financial restructuring;  organisation and governance;  general characteristics of the university;  intellectual information;  relations with external communities;  cultural change. Rostan and Vaira (2011) discussed the issues of excellence in higher education for the 21st century, observing that international higher educational policy was increasingly shifting from quality to excellence that becomes an identity mark for higher educational institutions across the world. Three indicators of concern are shown in the study. The first indicator is the existence of many literatures related to the topic of excellence in higher education with either a critical view or an apologetic stance. A second indicator is ranking movement that is both a manifestation of the new global competitive environment and a driver of change in the field of higher education. A third indicator is detectable in national policy-making. Developed and developing countries have mostly been more engaged in promoting policies aiming to encourage respective systems and institutions to attain or maintain top level or world-class quality. This policy issue reflects the institutional and competitive pressures exerted by the global ranking movement on national systems and institutions. UNESCO (2014) published the UNESCO Education Strategy 2014-2021 that articulates the vision and strategic priorities. With regard to higher education issues, UNESCO focuses on three areas: distance and open higher education; internationalisation of higher education; and governance of higher education systems and institutions including quality assurance and recognition of qualifications. Moreover, during the World Education Forum 2015 at Incheon, Republic of Korea organised by UNESCO, UNICEF, the World Bank and many other international organisations, the announcement for the Incheon Declaration for Education 2030 was made. The declaration set out a new vision for education over the course of 15 years. The new vision emphasised to, “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”—inspired by a humanistic vision of education and development based on human rights and dignity as well as social justice, inclusion, protection, cultural, linguistic and ethnic diversity and shared responsibility and accountability. This vision is essential for peace, tolerance, human fulfilment and sustainable development (UNESCO, 2015). In Thailand there are several trends affecting educational policies. “Thailand 4.0” is a strategic approach announced by the government and is the main strategy toward developing the quality of education. General Dapong Ratanasuwan of the Ministry of Education mentioned tertiary education saying that the university should strengthen academic and research quality related to producing skilful labourers and craftsmanship to be applied to developing economics and different industries of the country such as the medical care and food industries, etc. (Janthem, 2016). Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 34 Prasarn Trairatvorakul, former Governor of the Bank of Thailand gave a speech on the topic of the “University in the different world” on 19 August 2016. His speech explained that the changing world influences universities to adapt their roles in three aspects: Creating people as lifelong learners. This is a challenge of the university to develop people of different characteristics to reach their highest potentials. The university must modify the learning process to encourage students to become lifelong learners by letting them discover themselves and promoting study skills. Creating knowledge and innovations. Encouraging collaboration and knowledge integration is a method of solving problems and creating innovations to serve society. Collaborative research with foreign universities will be essential to the world’s development. The university should offer multi-disciplinary programmes to prepare students for the changes. Moreover, we should not neglect the arts in understanding humanity. Any subject can become a beneficial innovation for the country. Innovation is not limited only to inventions of new technologies, but also ideas and modern practical ways that lead to social advantages. Using knowledge to benefit society. The university does not only aim to educate people, but its key mission is to lead people and apply existing knowledge to serve society. The university should be a pioneer in new ideologies and a shelter for innovators, leading them to make contributions for the betterment of society. Global and national changes affect Thai education as well. Luankaew (2016) commented on Thai educational transformation saying that the success of the transformation depends on keeping up labour competencies to match the changing needs of industries in the new economic trends. The areas in which the Thai work force lacks competencies most are language skills and technological literacy. In addition, there are gaps in working competencies. Furthermore, Luankaew suggested that the suitable educational system to drive the country toward the goals of “Thailand Economic 4.0” must focus on reducing learning through memorisation only. Teachers must also equip students with learning skills and encourage them to become lifelong learners. What this means is that new learning assessments must be different from the present style that focuses only on examinations. Historical Background of Music Studies in Thailand Music education existed in Thailand’s history long before being added to the standard curriculum for formal education. Teaching music in artists’ residences, the courts, and the temples were the principle music instruction systems since the Sukhothai period. Each system had different educational aims and pedagogical methods depending on the locations where music was taught (Suttachitt, 2012; Laovanich, 2013). Regarding the history of music studies in Thailand, Chandransu (2010) looked at the development of music education in Thailand focusing on higher education. The results found that the development of music in higher education in Thailand can be classified into five periods from 1934 to the present: Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 35 The initial artist training (1934-1970) This period is the preliminary period of music education in formal educational settings for a music profession. The national reformation policy for modernisation focused on being as civilised as Western countries. Hence, modern performing arts became one of the ideals in the government’s national agenda. The College of Dramatic Arts was established. Local music teachers who were qualified as experts in their music professions provided the teaching. However, these teachers did not hold music or educational degrees. In 1952, the college awarded high school and music certificates as a combination music and teacher training programme under the administration of the Fine Arts Department. Music teacher education by the teacher-training department (1970-1976) During this period, the government’s educational policy was based on increasing the numbers of students and teachers. Teacher training schools produced music teachers through higher vocational degree programmes. Later, the demands of degrees increased in educational management and curricula for music education degrees were created. Production of university graduates (1976-1989) Following the previous period, bachelor’s degree programmes in music education expanded into regional areas in Thailand in terms of increasing numbers of institutes and programmes. Production of music scholars (1989-1998) In this period the first master’s degree programme in the field of ethnomusicology was introduced to enhance the research qualifications of music related professionals. Following the programme, various music studies such as music education and musicology were taught in master’s degree programmes in many institutes. Production of professional musicians (1998- the present) Music programmes during this period were divided into several specific fields. Also, multidisciplinary courses in music were established in response to the needs of labour markets. Music major programmes expanded from pre-higher education to doctoral degree programmes. Chandransu (2010) also stated that even though music education was growing, there are problems in the quality of educational management. Her suggestions about management approaches include creating a diverse environment in education that includes different ages, genders and genres. Furthermore, education strategies should be changed and the government should be a part of the development. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 36 Current status of music studies in Thailand’s higher education Music institutes in higher education in Thailand can be separated into three groups: Music departments and faculties in universities Based on the history of music education in Thailand, music studies in the earlier times can be divided into two sections: music education and music performance. Later, music programmes offered specific majors such as music production, music business, music entertainment and other options to produce more specialised graduates to serve the demands of the labour market. Most of the music programmes in Thailand are considered liberal arts degree programmes conducted under the faculty of fine and applied arts or the faculty of humanities. On the other hand many music programmes lead to a bachelor’s of music degree under the faculty of music that aims to train professional musicians. Music teacher training programmes are popular. They are taught in many leading universities including Rajabhat universities in major cities such as Bangkok, Khon Kean and Chiang Mai. Music colleges in universities At the present many faculties and departments of music have attained ‘college’ status under University management. Seven colleges were founded. This paragraph is very short Bunditpatanasilpa Institute and the College of Dramatic Arts The College of Dramatic Arts was founded in 1934 as the first national education institute providing general and specialised subjects in music under the supervision of the Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Education. The aim of the college is to train teachers and professionals in traditional dance and music. In 1998, the Bunditpatanasilpa Institute was founded in order to offer bachelor’s programmes in Thai and Western dance, vocal and instrumental music and fine arts that expanded from its existing programmes. In 2008, the Institute merged with the College of Dramatic Arts, the College of Fine Arts and their branches to become part of the Bunditpatanasilpa Institute. In 2010, two master’s degree programmes in Thai traditional dance and Thai traditional music were opened for further studies to the public. The Office of the Civil Service Commission (2016) accredited over 300 music degrees in Thailand including vocational diplomas and bachelor’s to doctoral degrees in private and public institutions from the initiation launch of the first music programme. From information gathered in 2016 what is found is that there are over one hundred music degree programmes in 57 of 156 institutions under the supervision of the Office of Higher Education Commission (OHEC) with 15 institutes under public universities, 10 autonomous institutes, 34 institutes under the Rajabhat University group, one institute under Rajamangala University of Technology group and seven institutes under private institutions. Moreover, Bunditpatanasilpa Institute and 11 network institutes that Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 37 are under the supervision of Ministry of Culture, provide music programmes for vocational diplomas to master’s degrees. Information about music institutes in higher education are shown in the chart below: Figure 1. Number of higher educational institutions offering music programme. There are 118 music degree programmes in Thailand’s higher education system. Most of the programmes confer bachelor’s degrees (n = 94). Nearly 1/3 of the bachelor’s degree programmes are found in the Bachelor of Arts (n = 35), Bachelor of Education (n = 29), and Bachelor of Fine Arts or Fine Arts and Applied Arts (n = 20). There are nine Bachelor of Music degree programmes while 1 of 94 programmes is a Bachelor in Engineering major in Music Engineering and Production at the King Mongkut Institute of Technology Ladkrabang. At the graduate level there are 17 master’s degree programmes and 7 doctoral degree programmes in music studies. Most of the master’s degree programmes in music are in music education that is offered as a Master of Education (n = 6). There are five Master of Music degree programmes, four Master of Fine and Applied Arts degree programmes and two Master of Arts degree programmes. Most of the doctoral degrees are offered under the Doctor of Philosophy degree programmes (n = 4). Two of the doctoral degree programmes are offered in the field of Fine and Applied Arts and only one programme is offered under Doctor of Music. Information about music programmes at the higher education level is shown in the chart below: Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 38 Figure 2. Number of music degree programmes in Thailand by degree title. Methodology The central question addressed in this study is: What are the ideal characteristics for higher education music institutes in Thailand in the 21st century? The findings presented in this paper are derived from in-depth interviews. The participants were 11 Thai administrators who work in the following music institutes:  Bunditpatanasilpa Institute;  College of Music, Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat University;  College of Music, Mahasarakham University;  College of Music, Mahidol University;  Conservatory of Music, Rangsit University;  Duriyasilp College of Music, Payap University;  Faculty of Music and Performing Arts Activities, Burapha University;  Faculty of Music, Bangkokthonburi University;  Faculty of Music, Silapakorn University;  Princess Galyani Vadhana Institute of Music;  School of Music, Assumption University. Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 39 These institutes were either music faculties or colleges that operate independently as Faculty of the universities and not as music departments under a Faculty. To gather information the research instrument was designed to investigate the ideal characteristics of Thai higher education music institutes. The pilot study was employed to determine suitability and effectiveness of interview questions. The study consisted of 39 questions in 11 themes: general and context-related comments of Thai society in the 21st century, educational philosophy, the established identity of the institute, the institute’s administration, educational products and characteristics of the desired graduates, educational purposes and objectives, teaching methods, curricular content, faculties and staff, the institute’s environment and interviewing summary. The interviews took place at the interviewees’ institutes from March until October 2016. During the interviews, Thai language was used to reduce language barriers and to encourage smooth communication. Some of the questions had to be changed to adjust to different availabilities of each interviewee’s time schedule and to reduce redundant answers. The interviews were recorded and important issues were noted during the interviews. Through the documentary analysis approach the information was categorised by coding data in the interview transcriptions. Then the data was summarised to answer the research questions. Findings The fundamental elements of the ideal music institute should contain three main parts: Administration and Management Philosophy of the institute. The philosophy of the institute is the most important aspect guiding the institute with a mission to reach its vision. The institute’s administrators define the philosophy. Two main philosophical beliefs are; “Education as a tool for social development in the nation” and “The Arts fulfil each human being to live to his fullest”. Both aims are envisioned to lead the country forward and offering peace within the nation. Although these philosophical ideas are the traditional beliefs, they are referred to as the fundamental beliefs for a human development approach. Styles of the institute. The ideal music institute should definitely be diverse. There are three institute types that should exist in the country: the conservative university, the creative university, and the lifelong learning university. The conservative university should be used as a cultural preservation tool. This type of institute can teach various kinds of musical styles but should continue Thai traditional traits. Parallel to the conservative university, the creative university should be an institute to create new works for the world. The lifelong learning university ought to be part of all institutes. Every institute should take a role to accommodate everyone by offering music teaching and knowledge. In addition to providing courses in physical classrooms, virtual classrooms should also be offered so that everyone can access music courses anytime and anywhere. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 40 Finally, all three types of music institutes should ideally be academic hubs to exchange knowledge and for participants to present their work to the public. Administration strategies. Administrators are the key people in leading the institutes toward reaching goals. The interview participants mentioned that music instructors who may lack administrative and management skills lead most of the music institutes in Thailand. In reality, these instructors learn through on-the-job experiences and at the same time are still overloaded with heavy teaching workloads that result in having less time to focus on management. To lead a music institute successfully administrators should explore existing human resources in their institute and wisely manage resources as in this practical saying; “put the right man on the right job at the right time”. Finances. Financial issues were rarely mentioned in the interview. However, finances play an important role in driving the institutes and their projects toward success. The ideal institute should have funding from various sources and not only from the government. Curriculum and Instruction Levels of the study. A variety of programmes should be made available ranging from the bachelor’s level to the doctoral degree level as well as short-term programmes. In response to lifelong learning concepts, music programmes should offer not only degree programmes but should also provide courses for the public to learn interesting subjects. Furthermore, collaboration programmes with formal schools can be offered to the public as well. Purposes of the programmes. The purposes of the programmes should align with the institute’s philosophy and its concepts. Moreover, the institutes should take the lead in solving social problems by producing educated citizens, new research and innovations. Students should be trained with necessary skills by focusing on good practices encouraging students to develop critical thinking and to continue researching their questions. Content. The ideal music institutes should teach classical music as a foundational subject to enable students to attain sufficient music knowledge in comparison with other music learners. The students, particularly undergraduate students, should be taught subjects that are practical and ought to be guided on how to manage and balance their work and personal lives. Most importantly all content should be integrated so that music learners can use what they learn in a practical and holistic manner. Teaching styles. One teaching style cannot be used to teach all students efficiently. Instructional approaches in the music institute should be well balanced and use mixed methods. The instructors, students and the nature of the subject affect the composition of forms for the best possible teaching and learning methods. Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 41 Students should be trained through sufficient practical sessions with the master during live performances on stage. Students will experience and learn to solve problems in real performance situations. Moreover, there should be apprenticeship periods with master teachers. Evaluations and assessments. Evaluations and assessments should be varied. Students should be evaluated for their reliability and validity by using the approach of participating in projects based on real life situations. Music activities and services. The ideal institute should have activities and services to serve all walks of life in Thai society. Music camps, master classes and workshops, concerts, music competitions including music festivals should be established by the individual institute or via cooperation between institutes. Resources Buildings and environment. The ideal music institute should contain well- maintained equipment and musical instruments, an auditorium and other performance stages, practice rooms and recording studios. Moreover, musical sounds should surround the institute encouraging students to learn. Library and databases. The music library should be the first place to find information and to continue searching data endlessly. The essential value of music institutes is to assist students toward maximising their potentials. The characteristics of a music library should be specific to music with special assistance for music students. The library should have numerous kinds of items available to students such as recordings, manuscripts and music scores. The music librarians should have good background knowledge of music and be able to answer any questions about music resources. Online databases should be offered to users to compensate for limited hard copy music resources. Human resources. Human Resources is comprised of four components: faculties, staff workers, students, and alumni. Faculties. The institute needs talented masters as instructors and masters should also have the characteristics of being a good teacher. They should be competent in teaching, great in communicating with others and highly dedicated to students. Instructors must encourage students to explore knowledge outside the classroom and foster students to be good individuals. Additionally, instructors should always strive for self-improvement. Staff workers. Ideal staff workers in the music institute do not necessarily have to be musicians. However, music knowledge could be beneficial. It is requisite for staff workers to have an understanding nature of musicians, music learning and management. The institute requires people who understand the arts and arts organisation. The music institute’s staff workers should have a high level of skill in management and responsibilities with competency in technology and language. In addition, they should Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 42 be able to work well with different kinds of people and be good team players. They should have creative minds with the vision to help build inspiration in students. Furthermore, ideal staff workers are required to work flexible hours just like other professionals in order to accomplish their jobs. Students. The desired characteristics of ideal tertiary music graduates for Thailand in the 21st century are: Knowledge and academics skills. Possessing multiple skills is required for ideal music graduates in order to be competent in music related knowledge, technology and cultures. Music graduates should have other talents in addition to their music major skills. Musical competencies are necessary for the graduates such that graduates are required to practice many hours to master their musical talents and skills to meet standard requirements. Additionally, music graduates must learn other knowledge and general information about the changing world and different cultures as part of acquiring material for creating and integrating new pieces of work. Research skills are additionally required for music graduates at the master’s and doctorate levels. Professional skills. Ideal music graduates should know themselves well and have sufficient life skills with self-respect and respect for other people. They should work well with others, must be accountable, proud and dedicated to their professions. At the graduate level, ideal students must demonstrate leadership in academic work and in professional life. Moreover, the desired music graduates should have expertise in using technology and social media as an instrument to explore new perspectives and promote them selves to the world. Linguistic skills. English language competency is required for ideal music graduates. They should have linguistic skills to communicate with others and to make academic presentations at national and international conferences. Publishing in academic journals at the international level is required for master’s degree and doctoral degree students. Morals and ethics. Ideal music graduates must bring good morals and ethics to their professions with consideration for social and community concerns. The most honourable mission of ideal graduates is to use music to serve society. Alumni. This aspect was not one of the main discussions during the interviews. However, alumni members can take main roles in supporting new graduates by helping to create work connections and by making donations to support their institutions. Results The results show that to survive in any changing society the institutes should be concerned about the following trends and issues: Changes. There are many changes affecting the institute’s survival. The institutes should prepare themselves for changes in all operational aspects. Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 43 Lifelong learning. The institutes should educate their students to explore and to be self-learners. Moreover, the institute should be a learning centre to provide knowledge for everyone. The institutes may offer short courses to educate their alumni and those in the general public who want to develop their professional skills. Preservation. One of the roles of a university is to serve society. Preservation of cultures is one action that the institutes could contribute to society. By maintaining cultural practices as well as promoting Thai culture at the international level, the institute must be a place to share knowledge with future generations by encouraging audiences from the community and creating performances. Creativity and innovations. Preservation of traditional practices and the creation of new works should be considered as the approach to influence people as well as to change the world. The creation of fresh works and preservation of cultures should always be of equal importance. The creation of new works can provide inspiring material for people to live in a society undergoing transformation. Innovations can produce new methods of teaching, learning, practice techniques, and music composition ideas that are different from scientific methods. Local wisdom-based knowledge. Cultural diversity in Thailand is unique from others. This diversity should be used for creating the identity of Thai music institutes and performances as in the following examples: Musical content. Local knowledge can be used as material for new compositions and improvisations. Instruction and transmission processes: memorisation techniques and aural traditions can be adapted to ear training methods and performances, and apprenticeships. Related contexts. Local lifestyles, tales and beliefs may be inspirations for creating new productions. Diversity. The music institute should never limit itself only to Western musical content. In addition to Western music, the institutes should broadly teach students about local music and music from around the world. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 44 The relationships between these factors are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3. Diagram of the Ideal Music Institute for Thailand in the 21st Century. Discussion Although many issues appear in the findings, there are other issues that should be discussed as factors affecting the survival of Thai music institutes in the 21st century. Three major issues are discussed below as factors and causes of transformation: Social needs Diversity and Equity. There are various kinds of diversity in ethnicity, culture, wealth and human rights including inequitable access to education. “Music for all” or “No one left behind” are conceptual ideas to highlight that education must be accessible for all people. UNESCO’s Incheon Declaration for Education 2030 states, “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”, and is an example that demonstrates a vision for equity in education that leads to human fulfilment and sustainable development (UNESCO, 2015). Rapid changes. Changes occur rapidly around us. New knowledge is invented and takes the place of existing knowledge consistently. Communication through online networks and transportation around the world are much faster now than in the past. These phenomena surely affect people’s behaviours. They can be suddenly aroused with astonishing stimulations and also lose attention immediately. Duderstadt (2000) mentioned that there are several challenges faced by the university due to change: costs, price and the value of a college education; the rising costs of academic excellence and Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 45 limited resources; the changing relationship between diverse constituencies; the changing social contract; the challenges of intellectual change; and the increasing relevance of the university. Population structure. The participants in the study did not consider this issue. However, it is an important issue in a changing Thai society. Based on a study by the Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University (2006) on Thailand’s future population, the country’s population will decelerate in birth rates with the possibility of a near zero percent birth rate. This means that the population structure of Thailand in the future will change as birth rates fall and people live longer. Thai society is becoming an elderly society so that over the next 30 years, the number of elderly people will outnumber children that could possibly lead to decreases in the numbers of students in the institutes. Therefore, music institutes should adapt to this impending situation by providing optional courses for elderly people to substitute for reduced numbers of students in undergraduate programmes. Economics. The present society is transforming via a fourth industrial revolution or “Economy 4.0”, where technology is used instead of human resources in repetition or operational analytical works (Luankaew, 2016). This will lead to changes in business structures valuing innovations and knowledge over mass industrial production. Enterprises and labour markets will focus on creative and contemporary products rather than mass-market products. Moreover, future generations will find an irresistible urge to work via a freelance-working style and be less interested to be a part of companies. The institute should therefore produce graduates who can match new social needs and have their own identities. Technology and innovation. Most of the participants in the study similarly mentioned that technology is rapidly growing. Study participants mentioned that technology, especially mass media and social networking, are the main causes contributing to changes in people’s lifestyles. Access to information via new ways of communication can be easily accomplished. Innovation and related issues are the major considerations for educational institutions. Duderstadt (2000) explained that today’s society has shifted from the industrial revolution to a knowledge-driven society. As part of this change music institutes must be able to not only develop human resources, but to also be centres of knowledge management equipping students with knowledge and skills. Furthermore, the institutes are expected to be the resource centres that can accumulate, analyse, integrate, apply and create beneficial knowledge for society. Under Thailand’s “Economy 4.0” and according to statements from government officials, Thailand is transforming into a knowledge-driven society, a period of learning and knowledge integration within which virtual worlds and the non-virtual, real world are treated similarly (Luankaew, 2016). We should use our intellectual property and resources to develop innovations and maximise educational and social benefits. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 46 World excellence ASEAN and world competition. The institutes should think globally, in other words, aim for excellence at the international level. Graduates should be equipped with the knowledge and skills in order to be efficient and competitive in world labour markets where workers can flow freely across the global platform. The institutes’ missions should be to develop themselves toward reaching ASEAN (regional) and world standards. World rankings. World rankings are identity marks for higher educational institutions. In addition to producing excellent graduates, the institute should also strive for a high position in world rankings. Labour markets. The ASEAN community will be a new platform for labour competition that educational institutions should prepare themselves to be ready for. Having an open mindset to learn and become fluent in foreign languages, cultural awareness and cultural sensitivity are essential keys for adaptation to a changing world (Pitsuwan, 2016). Policies Government policies. With political uncertainties in Thailand, changes in leadership and the issuing of new administrative orders are inevitable. Often, it seems that there is no successful and practical application of policies created by the ruling parties toward the actual living conditions of people. Even though government administrators launch policies following world trends, these policies are mostly unrealistic or impractical. Thus, it is vital to actually put government policies into practice. The institutes as educational providers are responsible for nurturing leaders who are qualified to manage the country. Educational qualification assurances. The national educational qualifications framework was designed for several reasons. First, the framework is supposed to support the implementation of the guidelines set out in the National Education Act. Secondly, the purpose of the framework is to ensure consistency of standards and quality of process toward granting any degree title in Thailand and to certify academic awards that are equivalent to those granted by higher educational institutions in other countries. (Office of the Higher Education Commission, 2006). There must be assurances that there will be evaluations of the programmes so that students can attain high qualifications. In terms of music studies the participants mentioned that there are numerous problems especially with teacher and research qualifications. Cooperation policies. At the present, integrating and expanding new knowledge requires mutual cooperation with others. In order for Thailand and other countries in the ASEAN community to gain strong positions in the world, the music institutes should collaborate together to expand their knowledge and to enhance Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 47 themselves to be academic hubs throughout the region. However, there are only a few institutional collaborations that are in their early stages and that display few, tangible accomplishments. Conclusion For over 80 years of music studies in higher education in Thailand, music institutes have developed to respond to social demands and to survive in the changing society until the present. In the 21st century many issues including changes, government policies, technology and innovations, concepts of diversity and world excellence have affected the existence of the institutes. In order to produce socially desired music graduates, the music institutes should adapt themselves to make it possible for students to achieve their highest potentials. Music institute administrators are important as one group of key people who can drive institutes toward success in Thai society and in the world. References Alberici, M. (2004). A phenomenological study of transcendent music performance in higher education. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Missouri-St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri. Archer, P. A. (2014). A history of the Aaron Copland School of Music at Queen College of the City University of New York 1938-2010. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts. Boonjae, A. (2014). Change process and new trends of music teaching: A case study of Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat University. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. Chandransu, N. (2010). The development of music education in Thailand’s higher education. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. Charoensook, S. (1985). Undergraduate music curriculum in universities of Thailand and United State: A comparative study and recommended curriculum for Thai universities. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado. Chay, S. (1981). Analysis and history of curriculum in music education in Korean higher education; Implications for the future. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts. Choi, R. (2013). Keys to the future: A study of undergraduate piano education. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. Chow, M. M. (2005), Representing China musically: A Chinese conservatory and China’s musical modernity 1900-1937. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Connor, C. H. (1955). A study of the functions of Shenandoah College and Shenandoah Conservatory of Music. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Duderstadt, J. J. (2000). A university for the 21st century. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol 6, No. 1 (30-49) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 48 Ivy, W. (2013). Training the 21st century voice teacher: An overview and curriculum survey of the undergraduate experience. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. Jackson, T. (2014). Philosophy: An illustrated history of thought. New York, NY: Shelter Harbor Press. Janthem, J. (2016). Driven Thai education to Thailand 4.0. Retrieved from http://region1.prd.go.th/ewt_news.php?nid=46094 Khongkhakul, W. (1976). A curriculum for the training of music teachers in Thailand. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York. Laovanich, V. (2013). Marginalization of music subject in Thai basic education curriculum: An archaeology of knowledge approach. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. Luankaew, K. (2016). When Thailand 4.0 driven from education 2.0. In Sanpanya, 26, pp.1&4. Retrieved from http://apps.qlf.or.th/member/UploadedFiles/prefix-16072559-042327- 4g1SD1.pdf Mahidol University, Institute for Population and Social Research. (2006). Mahidol University population projections for Thailand, 2005-2025 March 2006 revision. Retrieved from http://www.ipsr.mahidol.ac.th/ipsrbeta/ FileUpload/PDF/Report-File-314.pdf Mangan, J. R. (2005). Divided choirs: Musicologists, music performers, and the course of music study in American higher education. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Columbia University, New York, New York. Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2016). Electronic accreditation system. Retrieved from http://e-accreditation.ocsc.go.th/acc/index.html Office of the Higher Education Commission (2006). National qualifications framework for higher education in Thailand: Implementation handbook. Retrieved from http://www.mua.go.th/users/tqfhed/news/FilesNews/FilesNews8/ NQF-HEd.pdf Orlando, V. A. (1946). A historical study of the origin and development of the College of Music of Cincinnati. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. Page, C. (2001). Universities I. In The new grove dictionary of music and musicians (2nd ed.)(Vol. 26, pp.135-147). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Pitsuwan, S. (2016). ASEAN overture: ASEAN and Postgraduate Studies. Retrieved from https://iptv.mahidol.ac.th/43584 Plourde, A. W. (2000). Training musicians to perform for and work with children: Case studies of innovative programs at the Eastman School of Music, the Manhattan School of Music, and the New England Conservatory. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Powell, A. F. (2014). Organizational identity in the history of the Longy School of Music. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts. Rostan M. & Vaira, M. (2011). Questioning excellence in higher education: An introduction. In Questioning excellence in higher education: Policies, experiences and challenges in national and comparative perspectives. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Suttachitt, N. (2012). Music education: Concepts and the essence (9th rev. ed.). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. Trairatvorakul, P. (2016). “Prasert trirst worakul”. Alumi looks to drive strategy Chula. “University in a world that is not the same”. Retrieved from http://thaipublica.org/2016/08/prasarn-trairatvorakul-chula-speech/ UNESCO (2014). UNESCO education strategy 2014-2021. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002312/231288e.pdf Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung 49 UNESCO (2015). Education 2030 Incheon declaration and framework for action: Towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002432/243278e.pdf Weber, W. (2001). Universities II. In The new grove dictionary of music and musicians (2nd ed.) (Vol. 26, pp.135-147). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Biography Saya Thuntawech completed a Bachelor of Education degree in Music Education with First Class Honors, Gold Medal and a Master of Education in Music Education at Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. Currently, she is a doctoral candidate in music education from College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. Saya works as a private piano teacher and part-time lecturer at Faculty of Art Education, Bunditpatnasilpa Institute, Thailand. Her areas of interests in research include topics in music in higher education, music pedagogy and piano accompanying. Somchai Trakarnrung is a native of Thailand and currently the Deputy Dean for International Language Development at Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University, Thailand. He graduated with ARCT (Hons) diploma in piano performance from the Royal Conservatory of Music of Toronto, and holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from Ramkhamhaeng University. He has received a Master of Arts in Language and Communication from the National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), a Master of Music Studies (Performance/Teaching) from the University of Melbourne, a Master of Music in Music Education from the University of Toronto and a Master of Business Administration from SASIN Graduate Business School of Chulalongkorn University. He also completed his doctoral degree in Music Education from University of Toronto. His areas of interests include topics in music in higher education, music in early childhood, music therapy and music business. Dr. Somchai Trakarnrung is currently a lecturer in music education at the College of Music, Mahidol University.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 1 (2017)

film music, Malay world, nationalism, postcolonial, Zubir Said

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/138

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/827

Scoring Tradition, Making Nation: Zubir Said’s Traditionalised Film Music for Dang Anom

The Malay-language films produced by the Cathay-Keris Studio in 1950s to 1960s Singapore were known for their ‘traditional’ narratives based on Malay folklore and legends set in the pre-colonial Malay world. Made during a period of nation-making in the region, these films used musical accompaniment that had to be culturally-rooted in the music of the Malay Peninsula while expressing the region’s aspirations for postcolonial independence. Interestingly, this task was undertaken prominently by the film composer, Zubir Said, who was not a citizen of Malay-majority Malaysia. Instead, he was commemorated as a national icon of Singapore, in which Malays form a minority. This paper aims to unravel the paradoxical process of ‘traditionalising’ national culture in a period of cosmopolitan postcoloniality in the Malay world. Through an intertextual study of his biography and film score analysed against the history of Malay nationalism, this article unravels the ‘traditionalised’ Malay musical aesthetic established through the musical compositions of Zubir Said in historically-themed Malay films. The article analyses the use of musical motifs and styles in Zubir Said’s music for Hussein Hanniff’s Dang Anom (1962). The juxtaposition of an aesthetically-traditional film score against the film’s anti-feudal narrative results in a critique of archaic notions of tradition that articulates a subversive message of ethical modernity, freedom and self-determination. In conclusion, this intertextual analysis of film, music and history reveals how the melodic construction or scoring of musical tradition on the silver-screen was concomitant with the postcolonial aspirations and contradictions of nation-making in the Malay world.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/827/563

Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 50 Scoring Tradition, Making Nation: Zubir Said’s Traditionalised Film Music for Dang Anom Adil Johan Institute of Ethnic Studies (KITA), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The Malay-language films produced by the Cathay-Keris Studio in 1950s to 1960s Singapore were known for their ‘traditional’ narratives based on Malay folklore and legends set in the pre-colonial Malay world. Made during a period of nation-making in the region, these films used musical accompaniment that had to be culturally-rooted in the music of the Malay Peninsula while expressing the region’s aspirations for postcolonial independence. Interestingly, this task was undertaken prominently by the film composer, Zubir Said, who was not a citizen of Malay-majority Malaysia. Instead, he was commemorated as a national icon of Singapore, in which Malays form a minority. This paper aims to unravel the paradoxical process of ‘traditionalising’ national culture in a period of cosmopolitan postcoloniality in the Malay world. Through an intertextual study of his biography and film score analysed against the history of Malay nationalism, this article unravels the ‘traditionalised’ Malay musical aesthetic established through the musical compositions of Zubir Said in historically-themed Malay films. The article analyses the use of musical motifs and styles in Zubir Said’s music for Hussein Hanniff’s Dang Anom (1962). The juxtaposition of an aesthetically-traditional film score against the film’s anti-feudal narrative results in a critique of archaic notions of tradition that articulates a subversive message of ethical modernity, freedom and self-determination. In conclusion, this intertextual analysis of film, music and history reveals how the melodic construction or scoring of musical tradition on the silver-screen was concomitant with the postcolonial aspirations and contradictions of nation-making in the Malay world. Keywords: film music, Malay world, nationalism, postcolonial, Zubir Said Introduction In 1953, the release of the first Malay film to include original background music by a local composer marked a watershed in the musical history of the Malay Peninsula.1 That composer was the already prolific bangsawan musician, record producer, and film song composer, Zubir Said. Until then, films of the Singapore- Adil Johan 51 based Malay film industry used pre-recorded European orchestral music to save on production costs (Rohana Zubir, 2012, pp. 82 & 84, citing Zubir Said, 1984, Reel 13). Following his foray into scoring film music, Zubir Said won two awards, first from the ‘Sixth Asian Film Festival’ in the category of ‘Best Film Portraying Traditions and Folk Music’ for the film, Jula Juli Bintang Tiga (The Magical Tale of The Three Stars, 1959, Dir. B.N. Rao), and then from the ninth in the category ‘Best Folk Songs and Dances’ for the film Dang Anom (1962, Dir. Hussein Haniff). These Malay-language films produced by the Cathay-Keris Studio in 1950s to 1960s Singapore were known for their ‘traditional’ narratives based on Malay folklore and legends set in the pre-colonial Malay world. Made during a period of nation-making in the region, these films used musical accompaniment that had to be culturally- rooted in the music of the Malay Peninsula while expressing the region’s aspirations for postcolonial independence. Interestingly, this task was undertaken prominently by the film composer, Zubir Said, who was not a citizen of Malay-majority Malaysia. Instead, he was commemorated as a national icon of Singapore, in which Malays form a minority. This was largely due to his penning of the Singaporean state’s national anthem, ‘Majulah Singapura (Onward Singapore)’. In analysing Zubir Said’s music in the film Dang Anom, this article aims to unravel the paradoxical process of traditionalising national culture in a period of cosmopolitan postcoloniality in the Malay world. Through an intertextual study of his biography and film score analysed against the history of Malay nationalism, this study will reveal how a ‘traditionalised’ Malay musical aesthetic was established through the musical compositions of Zubir Said in historically-themed Malay films. This musical aesthetic is discerned through an analysis of musical motifs and styles in Zubir Said’s music for Hussein Hanniff’s Dang Anom. The juxtaposition of an aesthetically-traditional film score against the film’s anti-feudal narrative results in a critique of archaic notions of tradition that, upon deeper analysis, subversively articulates a message of ethical modernity, freedom and self-determination. An intertextual analysis of film, music and history aims to reveal how the making of musical tradition on the silver-screen was concomitant with the postcolonial aspirations and contradictions of nation-making in the Malay world. Constituting Nation in Film Music Zubir Said was a paragon of the fluid Malay cosmopolitan of the postwar years. Born of Minangkabau descent in Bukit Tinggi, Sumatra, he embarked on a professional music career in Singapore in 1928 and eventually became a citizen in 1967, two years after the formation of Singapore. Prior to composing for film, he worked as a photographer for the Indonesian Embassy and managed the Indonesian Club in Singapore (Rohana Zubir, 2012, p.74). After composing Singapore’s national anthem, he was invited in 1957 to write a national anthem for the Federation of Malaya but all three of his submissions were rejected (pp. 106-107). Riding on the wave of emerging nationalism leading up to Malayan independence from British colonial rule, he passionately advocated for Malay nationalism in Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 52 music by composing numerous patriotic songs and writing nationalistic articles (Rohana Zubir, 2012, pp. 102-120; Zubir Said, 1956/1957, 1967, 2012a, 2012b). Zubir Said’s film music was composed with the intention of articulating a cultural style that embodied a Malay musical aesthetic, but he did this in a postcolonial environment that influenced the need of cementing an authentic musical tradition. In effect, his music constituted an aesthetic of nationhood in Malay vernacular films. While drawing from local folk music practices, though, he also had to adapt such music to the formal methods and structures of western orchestration for film.2 His authorial agency thus imposed what could be included (or excluded) to represent a Malay ‘mood’ or sound in his selection of instrumentation, melodies and textures (Rohana Zubir, 2012, p.82). In unravelling the postcolonial structures of knowledge that governed Zubir Said’s creativity I apply a methodology of intertextual musical analysis to consider the relationship of authorial agency and larger structures of power. The application of postcolonial analysis in studying music requires meticulous attention to textual detail, but always sees such analysis as subsidiary to the larger project of thinking through the implications of cultural expression for understanding asymmetrical power relations and concomitant processes of marginalization and denigration. (Born & Hesmondhalgh, 2000, p.5) However, to what extent are internal process of ‘marginalisation’ and ‘denigration’ present in Zubir Said’s music? For this study, instances of exclusion are more appropriately observed in the traditionalised Malay aesthetic of Zubir Said’s compositions. His film composition and arrangement methods involved processes of exclusion that ultimately left out certain local musical practices and traditional instruments in favour of modern instrumentation as this was what he deemed aesthetically acceptable and practical for the modern medium of film. For example, the vibraphone, used extensively in his film music, approximated the sound of the regionally-pervasive gamelan. A gamelan’s tuning does not adhere to western conventions but, the diatonic tuning of the vibraphone was seamlessly incorporated with other western instruments used such as pianos, saxophones, guitars and violins. These western instruments would then be used to reproduce Malay-sounding melodies derived from local genres such as asli and dondang sayang, albeit within a diatonic musical arrangement or score facilitated by western notation. Thus, Zubir Said was also exoticising, to an extent, the musical cultures of the Malay Peninsula and subsuming them under aesthetic boundaries of what he considered ‘traditional’ Malay music. This is not as explicitly problematic as non- western music portrayed in films from the west resulting in the ‘assumed vernacular’ film music (Slobin 2008a, pp. 25-29). The apparent auto-exoticism heard in Zubir Said’s film music can, instead, be considered a ‘constitutive vernacular’, as the postcolonial power relations that are present in western films musically representing the non-west were not an issue in Malay films. In the case of Zubir Said’s film music, the musical vernacular was not ‘assumed’ from a detached positionality, but rather created from the composer’s local cultural and political Adil Johan 53 position in constructing a sound for a Malay nation-in-the-making through Malay film music. More so, Zubir Said’s film music articulates the desire of Malay nationalists during the mid-1950s to early 1960s to actively create a modern national culture that was independent of colonial rule, but, ironically, not free of colonial-western criteria of nationhood. Thus, while Zubir Said was, retrospectively, reproducing a (western) ‘superculture’ of film music, such a system of musical production was ‘neither monolithic nor omnipotent’ and consistently gave way to ‘systematic cracks’ that allowed ‘for variation and even subversion’ (Slobin, 2008b, p. 60); especially considering that he saw himself as an important agent of postcolonial nationalism. I argue that Zubir Said and his compositions for film – despite the colonial and modernist limits within which they were created – had a crucially agential role in creating the sound palette of Malay national identity. Zubir Said’s personal motivations appear in his own writings on Malay music, which are enthusiastic about the prospects of Malay national autonomy. The following is an excerpt from an article he wrote in 1958, shortly after independence in the Malay Peninsula: During the age of merdeka music should as far as possible exert a positive influence on society. The music must be original, not imitations. Music should be the pride of the nation and convey the beliefs and values of the nation. During the age of merdeka music should arise from a creativity that is free to explore new forms and ideas, but at the same time rational, while staying true to what is indigenous to the nation, even for modern compositions. During the age of merdeka there should be an understanding that a nation’s creativity should not be an exercise in imitation, rather it should be an effort to discover new forms of national music, grounded on the artistic expressions of the nation. (Zubir Said 2012a, p. 95)3 Zubir Said’s manifesto on the importance of music in the construction of Malay nationalism reveals how he intended to create original music in his films that were also ‘rational’ in their references to a traditional Malay sound; more than that, he believed his compositions were ‘staying true to what … (was) indigenous to the nation, even for modern compositions’. Furthermore, the manifesto indicates the unquestionable importance that Zubir Said accorded his musical compositions in shaping the culture and character of the newly independent Malay nation. Zubir Said himself was no stranger to the vibrant political exchanges of the Malay community in Singapore. During the postwar period, he had weekly informal group meetings with his peers of Minangkabau descent that included important Singaporean-Malay figures such as Singapore’s first President, Yusof Ishak, the prominent journalist, Abdul Rahim Kajai and author Zainal Abidin Ahmad @ Za’aba (Zubir Said, 1984, Reel 12). It is highly likely that Malay-nationalist ideas about language and culture were exchanged in these meetings, with ideas from Zubir Said’s more politicised peers having a direct impact on him and his consequent work. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 54 While drawing noticeably on this literary activist environment, Zubir Said contributed to the nation-making project of Singapore and Malaysia through a selection of patriotically-themed songs written for a concert in celebration of Malaysia’s independence in 1957 (Barnard & Van der Putten, 2008, pp. 148-150). Notably, Zubir Said’s song, ‘Majulah Singapura’, that officially became a state anthem in 1959, would become the national anthem of Singapore upon the state’s separation from the Federation of Malaysia in 1965 (Rohana Zubir, 2012, pp 3-19). However, his location is complicated by Zubir Said’s fluid attachments to multiple spaces and identities: he was a citizen of the Dutch East Indies who migrated to Singapore to earn a living. While he subscribed to a strong patriotic attachment to ‘Malay’ (linguistic-cosmopolitan) nationalism, Zubir Said wrote the national anthem of a state that stood apart from neighbouring Malay nations as a ‘non-Malay’ state surrounded by the Malay world (see Rahim, 2009). Despite this apparent contradiction, it is undeniable that Zubir Said was influential in the process of Malay nation-making through music. Amidst Zubir Said’s musical articulations of self-determination, however, there remained a disjuncture between the new radical ideas of Malay film-makers and the rigid colonial structures of knowledge and power that largely remained in place in the industry. The Malay film studio industry in the 1950s had a social structure that loosely reflected the British colonial ideology of organising racial groups into specific labour roles: Chinese ‘entrepreneurs’ owned the studios and occupied technical positions (eg. camera operators, sound recordists, studio managers); Indians were the ‘creatives’ who directed, wrote scripts and occupied technical roles as well; and Malays were the ‘performers’ – the stars, musicians and composers4. Beyond the context of the entertainment industry, these socio-economic ethnic demarcations continue to feature in political contestations and negotiations of divergent ‘nations-of-intent’ in the postcolonial Malaysian state (Shamsul, 1996; Shamsul & Sity, 2006). By the early 1960s, Malays began taking on greater roles of authority in the studios as directors and writers, replacing the previously ‘imported’ directors from India 5. Zubir Said and Hussein Haniff worked for Cathay-Keris Studios, a Malay-language film studio operated by Ho Ah Loke, funded by the highly successful, Singaporean-based cinema company, the Cathay Organisation that was established in 1935 by Loke Wan Tho and his mother, Loke Cheng Kim. Thus, the creative economy exemplified here is one where the projection of ideas about postcolonial Malay nationalism on the silver screen were facilitated by the infrastructure and capital of Chinese-owned business. The rival Malay-film company, Shaw Brothers Malay Film Productions was, in parallel, funded by the Shaw Brothers who originated from Shanghai. While Peninsular Malaya had declared independence since 1957, Singapore was still a Straits Settlement under the administration of British empire. Film content produced in Singapore was routinely vetted by British censors. It is on this period of increasing Malay authorship, facilitated by Chinese capital in a colonial economy that I contextualise my musical- narrative reading of Dang Anom. Adil Johan 55 Traditionalising Film Music Music-making operated as a practice of nation-making in the postcolonial era of Singapore’s emerging Malay-language film industry. Music in Malay film was a means of making history through implying definitions of a ‘tradition’ demarcated by ethno-national boundaries. Concomitantly, Zubir Said’s music articulated emergent nationhood through the genre of historically-themed films.6 This expressive space required Zubir Said to imagine and create a sonically ‘Malay’ aesthetic by drawing from his experience in local popular performing arts such as bangsawan musical theatre (Rohana Zubir, 2012, p. 44; Hamzah Hussin, 2012, pp. 67-69). Music in Malay film, thus, provides an insightful example of how national narratives are shaped through the authorial and creative agency of individuals despite the limits imposed by postcolonial conditions, assumptions and ideologies. In this article, I analyse Zubir Said’s film music “as a means of making history: not only as a form of social action directed at realising a future, but also as a medium for the retrospective definition of tradition” (Waterman, 1990, p. 369). I refer to this as a process of traditionalising music in Malay film, in which Zubir Said’s film score is analysed as a historical text that uncovers the nationalistic sentiment of the Malay Peninsula in the 1950s and 1960s. The musical biography of Zubir Said and his creative process in composing for films reveals how Malay nationalists of the era conceived postcolonial sovereignty by evoking forms of cultural expression out of a pre-colonial past. This resonates with Smith’s (1995) notion of ‘ethnosymbolism’ that considers the evocation of myths, values and symbols of an ethnic group’s collective past in making a modern nation. Moreover, this cultural construction of nationhood, explained in Anderson’s (2006 [1983]) study, is “an imagined political community – and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign” (p.6). The conception of nation is defined by limiting boundaries such as geography, cultural communities or linguistic affinities while sovereignty relates to the nation imagined as being autonomous from ‘divinely ordained’ or ‘hierarchical’ dynastic spaces (p.7). What appeals greatly to music scholars is Anderson’s example of how cultural groups are recognised ‘not by their falsity/genuineness, but by the style in which they are imagined’ (p.6; cited in Waterman, 1990, p. 376). Studies of ‘expressive culture’ and nationalism thus provide an integral point of departure for observing how nation-making is articulated as creative processes in cultural practices (Waterman, 1990, pp. 377- 378). Furthermore, in line with Chatterjee’s (1993) views, I consider how music operates as an expression of ‘national discourse’ as ‘human constructs seeking the status of the natural’, positioned along ‘two… axes’ – one of ‘territorial sovereignty’ and the other, temporal, based on historical continuities and context (p. xi). I also draw inspiration from the substantial scholarly work that exists on modernist reformism in the ‘classicisation’ of Southeast Asian (Moro, 2004) and South Asian music (Subramanian, 1999, 2011; Bakhle, 2005; Weidman 2006; Schofield, 2010) in postcolonial contexts. While similarly in the Malay world, music as a cultural practice is often appropriated in nationalist projects of modernist reformism through the construction of musical traditions (Tan, 1993, 2005; Sarkissian, 2000, 2002). Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 56 It is in this way that the musical aesthetics found in the film music of Zubir Said are referential to a discourse about emergent nationhood by actively creating an imaginary ‘traditional’ style that nonetheless assumes a ‘natural’ status of Malayness. The notion that this ‘narrative of nationhood’ was created or imagined musically is evident in Rohana Zubir’s (2012) observations about her father when composing music for Malay films: Having composed contemporary, modern music and now legendary music, … (Zubir Said) found composing the legendary (historical-epic or mythical-themed film) music more challenging. For modern music he could listen to other recordings, but not so for legendary music, where he had to depend much on his own imagination. (p. 83) For Zubir Said (1984), composing music for such films was most challenging because unlike films set in the modern era, he had no examples of Malay music to reference; thus, in his own words, he had ‘to imagine it’ or conjure a suitably Malay musical aesthetic based on his own creativity (Reel 13). In effect, Zubir Said invented Malay musical ‘tradition’ in his film music. Such creation of tradition however, was far from arbitrary as he did have his own personal preferences – as opposed to ‘references’ – as to what constituted ‘Malay’ music. Moreover, in the absence of a specific Malay-film-music tradition, there were nonetheless western art music conventions that Zubir Said drew upon for his original Malay film scores. He was not creating a folk music tradition but, rather, re-presenting the Malay tradition musically. However, Zubir Said’s compositions did inevitably draw from a template of Malay, regional and cosmopolitan musical styles and practices. He was originally trained in the practices of Malay bangsawan theatre; a genre already immensely diverse in cultural influences that was a hugely popular form of entertainment in the Malay Peninsula for a predominantly Malay-speaking audience (Tan, 1993). Rohana Zubir (2012) relates her father’s illustrious musical career in pre-World War II Singapore that started in 1928 (p. 43). He started his professional musical career at the bangsawan Happy Valley Opera company playing violin, where he also learned to read western staff notation, (prior to this he was only adept in Sumatran numerical notation), western music theory, taught himself how to play the piano and eventually would go on to arrange music for and lead the company’s orchestra (pp. 44-49). Following this, until the war, he became a talent scout and record producer of Malay-language music for the HMV record label based primarily in Jakarta (pp. 49-53). In addition to his bangsawan-musician background, Zubir Said also wrote music for films adapted from famous bangsawan plays including Jula Juli Bintang Tiga (The Tale of Three Magical Fairies), Yatim Mustapha (The Orphan Mustapha), and Gul Bakawali (Rohana Zubir 2012, p. 44; Hamzah Hussein, 2012, p. 69). However, a major difference between performing music for bangsawan and scoring music for Malay film was Zubir Said’s authorial agency as a composer in creating a ‘traditional’ Malay musical aesthetic. In considering Zubir Said’s vibrant cosmopolitan experience of music-making in Singapore during his bangsawan days, as well as his clearly defined yet complex Malay-nationalist stance on the arts, the Adil Johan 57 next section analyses the traditionalised elements of his music in the film, Dang Anom. Scoring Tradition in Dang Anom (1962) The film, Dang Anom, portrayed on the surface as a historical Malay epic is in fact a modern melodrama. Its female protagonist, and namesake of the film, is the primary subject of a narrative that questions feudalistic or pre-colonial Malay values. Gledhill (1986) observes that melodrama films in the 1960s, despite their pejorative and commercial associations offered critical cinematic possibilities for “apparently ideologically complicit films to be read ‘against the grain’ for their covert critique of the represented status quo” (p.6). She explains how melodramatic forms allow for ‘unthinkable’ cultural and political ideas to “find a negotiable space in which certain contradictions and repressed desires are rehearsed” (p. 45). The narrative structure and music of Dang Anom, while seemingly ‘traditional’ in style and context critique and re-imagine tradition in subversive and modern ways. Beyond the explicit critique of feudalism in the film’s narrative there is also an underlying anti-colonial sentiment that resonates with the ‘repressed desire’ for a fully realised ethnonational autonomy. Thus, I aim in the following musical-textual analysis to unravel the convergences and disjunctures of film narrative, post-colonial power relationships, expressions of modernity, emergent nationhood and agency in Zubir Said’s film music. Pre-colonial Setting, Post-colonial Narrative The narrative of Dang Anom is steeped in tragedy. It is framed as a Malay historical epic centered on the invasion of the Malay Temasek kingdom by the Javanese Majapahit empire. The film is, in fact, a modern melodrama that places idealistic agency in its female protagonist, Dang Anom (Fatimah Ahmad); critiquing the pre- colonial Malay feudalistic system as immoral and unjust. It is set in pre-colonial Temasek, the region known today as Singapore. Dang Anom, the main protagonist, is the daughter of Sang Rajuna Tapa (Ahmad Nesfu), a high-ranking minister in the court of the Malay Sultan of Temasek (M. Amin). She is tragically forced to become the concubine of the lustful Sultan when her lover, the warrior Malang (Noordin Ahmad), is sent to lead a war against the Javanese Majapahit kingdom. When Malang returns from his successful campaign he is distraught to learn of Anom’s unfortunate situation. Eventually, the two lovers are ‘framed’ for treason by Malang’s jealous enemy, Dato’ Bijasura (Mahmud June) and are sentenced to death. Desperate to save his daughter, Anom’s father reluctantly conspires with Majapahit spies to open the fortified gates to Temasek to facilitate an invasion of the Sultan’s palace. The movie ends tragically with the death of Malang, Anom and her parents. Bijasura kills Anom’s mother (Siti Tanjung Perak) who pleads to the Sultan for her daughter’s life. At the end of the film, while the Sultan escapes Temasek with his consort, Anom is brutally raped and murdered at the hands of Bijasura and her Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 58 father dies trying to save her. The film, then, is a Malay historical epic that paradoxically challenges the concept of feudal power. This is achieved through a narrative of tragedy and injustice experienced by the lead character that also reveals her ethical aspirations for self-determination and freedom. Central to the film’s narrative is Anom’s position as a woman subjugated by patriarchal forms of control. Anom’s body is contested between the Sultan and her lover, Malang, while the exchange of her ownership is mediated by her father. In this gendered power relationship the Sultan is symbolic of the antiquated practices of pre-colonial Malay society, while Malang is the archetype of a blindly loyal and powerless subject of feudal oppression. Intertextually and semantically, this character, whose name means ‘unfortunate’ in Malay represents an antithesis to the meaning of a more famous character from the famous Malay legend, Hang Tuah – ‘Tuah’, is derived from bertuah, meaning ‘fortunate’ 7. Anom’s quest for self- determination and freedom, hence, positions her as a mediator of postcolonial modernist ideals. This portrayal is in sharp contrast to the historical source of inspiration for the film, the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals). Brown’s (2009 [1952]) translation of the Sejarah Melayu contains the story of an unnamed daughter of the Singaporean (Temasek) Sultan’s treasurer, Sang Ranjuna Tapa, who was the ‘mistress’ to Sri Sultan Iskandar Shah (50). She was slanderously accused of ‘misconduct’ by other women in the Sultan’s court and was ‘publicly exposed’ in the local market (pp. 50- 51). In Winstedt’s (1938) version of the text, she was similarly accused of disloyalty to the Sultan and without investigation “impaled in the market square” (cited by Cheah 1993, p. 2).8 The main focus of this story in the text is the humiliation of Sang Ranjuna Tapa and his consequent treasonous role in assisting the Majapahit empire’s conquest of Temasek. Unlike the Dang Anom film, the female concubine is not even named and merely a minor character in the narrative. The story of Sang Ranjuna Tapa’s betrayal is linked to a generational curse due to the ruthless actions of the Sultan’s father. In the moralistic vein of the Sejarah Melayu, the Sultan in repeating an unjust act is then punished with the loss of his kingdom to Majapahit. Cheah reads the women in this story as “capable of great guile, manipulation and ruthlessness which could produce deadly results” and further observes in the Sejarah Melayu instances of courtly women assassinating sultans and acting as major forces of resistance to oppressive monarchs (p. 2). Hussein Haniff’s Dang Anom propels this pre-colonial proto-feminist role of women found in classical Malay narratives into a modern vision of women’s resistance to feudalistic regimes. What role then, does music play in Malay feudal history? Andaya (2011) discusses the extension of Malay monarchical power in using loud sounds, particularly the nobat drum and wind ensemble. 9 She argues that the use of sound-producing instruments in pre-modern Malay society sonically and symbolically reminded Malay villagers “of their subordination to the temporal power of the ruler” while reassuring them of their protection “by the supernatural powers such sounds evoked” (p. 32). Sounds in pre-modern Malay society “were part of an interactive acoustical space, conveying messages that helped to define a community’s cultural parameters and affirm the place of the ruler at its emotional core” (ibid). Andaya’s Adil Johan 59 observation resonates with Zubir Said’s score that attempted to portray a Malay tradition in Dang Anom’s film music. The traditionalised music and dance in the film was used to symbolise feudalistic control over the film’s protagonists. Considering Andaya’s concept of sounded authority in the commercial and cosmopolitan context of Malay film music production highlights a paradoxical, musical critique of the inherent acoustic-kingship-kinship association. In the following sections, my analyses demonstrate how traditional-sounding music is not only used to denote and impose monarchical power but is also applied disjunctively, as a concealed critique of sounded authority which, by extension, questions the structural inequities of a postcolonial condition. Before engaging with a music- narrative analysis of how tradition is challenged, I overview the musical arrangements, of melodic themes and instrumentation, in Zubir Said’s score that establish an aesthetic of Malay musical tradition. Traditionalised Melodies The music of Zubir Said interacts with the melodramatic narrative of Dang Anom in unique ways by drawing on Malay melodies and styles combined with ‘dark’ or sombre-sounding, non-traditional textures to underscore the tragic narrative and modern subtext of the film. The orchestration sounds rich and full despite only using eight studio musicians – but is coded culturally and affectively through varying use of instrumentation. The instrumental music for the opening credits (title theme) starts with a distinct resonating gong strike followed by a gamelan-sounding descending melody played on a vibraphone (Figure 1). This acts as an indexical code for Javanese music, relating to the involvement of the Majapahit empire in the narrative. This ‘Javanese’ melody reappears in measure 9 and is hinted at with an ascending vibraphone melody at measure 23 towards the end of the piece (measure 23, Figure 2). Additionally, the use of a descending chromatic passage (measures 15 to 17, Figure 3) uncommon in Malay traditional and folk music provides melodic contrast to the ‘sounded authority’ of the ‘Malay-sounding’ melody (Andaya, 2011) that recurs frequently throughout the title theme, background music and songs in the film. All these musical devices converge with and complement the film’s overarching allegory of self-determination in the face of unjust authoritarian rule. Figure 1. Gong hit and descending ‘gamelan’ melody (measures 1 to 2). Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 60 Figure 2. Ascending vibraphone (measure 23). Figure 3. Chromatic descent (measures 15 to 17). The instrumental music of the opening credits reiterates a ‘freedom motif’ as termed in Peters’ analysis of Zubir Said’s film music (2012, p. 87). I will call this melody and related variations the ‘Dang Anom leitmotif’ due to its frequent occurrence in the film and the centrality of the main character. Following the Javanese melody, the Dang Anom leitmotif (Figure 4) is announced by the violins (measures 2 to 7), rearticulated by a two-part saxophone section (measures 17 to 20, Figure 5), and finally, a solo electric guitar melody (measures 25 to 28, Figure 6). This motif is repeated in various orchestrations throughout the film, especially in the love duet between Dang Anom and Malang (‘Berpadu Budi [United Gratitude]’), Dang Anom’s lament and the final scene of the film where Dang Anom’s father discovers his dead daughter (Peters, 2012, pp. 87-88). For example, the Dang Anom motif is articulated by flute and saxophone in this excerpt from the instrumental introduction to ‘Berpadu Budi’ in Figure 7 (measures 1 to 5). Figure 4. Violin motif (measures 1 to 5). Adil Johan 61 Figure 5. Saxophone motif (measures 17-20). Figure 6. Guitar motif (measures 25-28). Figure 7. Instrumental introduction to the love duet, ‘Berpadu Budi’. The sequence of musical codes in the title theme sonically encapsulates the major narrative themes of the film. The musical themes are framed by the Javanese gamelan melody indicating the limited appearance but major role played by the Majapahit Empire in the story. The Dang Anom leitmotif played by the violin section refers to the cautiously optimistic idealism and love between the two main protagonists. In this, the violin signifies an ‘authentic’ Malay tradition as it has for centuries been integrated or adapted into Malay folk ensembles since the Portuguese colonial presence in the region.10 The tension between ‘tradition’ and ‘modernity’ Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 62 or, in the context of the story, between feudal restrictions and individual aspirations, can be heard in the use of saxophones and electric guitar to play the Dang Anom leitmotif. Moreover, the saxophones are harmonised in sixths in an expression of western (or modern) tonality. While saxophones and other western instruments were common in the Orkes Melayu (Malay Music Ensembles) used in bangsawan theatre (Weintraub, 2010, pp. 38-41; Tan, 1993, pp. 76-78) it is therefore striking to hear such instrumentation in a ‘traditional’ Malay film epic. Zubir Said’s musical agency can be heard in relation to the aspiring agency of the film’s female protagonist as an aesthetic disjuncture between modernity and tradition. When made a concubine, Dang Anom is resolute in her expression of unhappiness. Unlike the other concubines who eventually warm up to the lustful but charming Sultan, she expresses her displeasure openly to the point of her execution, rejecting the Sultan’s plea to ask for his forgiveness in exchange for her life. The musical references in conjunction with the actions of Dang Anom are allegorical to the struggle for independence from colonial rule in the Malay Peninsula. The film music of Zubir Said, therefore, expresses a nation-making aesthetic inspired by modern cosmopolitan ideas of emergent national autonomy. Further oppositions are observed in the composer’s use of musical ‘moods’. When composing for films, Zubir Said (1984) understood ‘Malay’ music to be rooted in vocal melody that was limited to two moods: ‘happy singing… and sad singing’ (Reel 13). This contrasting use of Malay musical ‘moods’ can be heard clearly in the two songs featuring Dang Anom in the film: initially, an aspirational love duet between Dang Anom and Malang; and later, a tragic lament sung by Dang Anom. Zubir Said’s writing process involved extensive experimentation on the piano to create instrumental (background) music that he considered aesthetically suitable to Malay film (ibid). Moreover, he worked with a restricted budget of $300011 per film and a meagre ‘orchestra’ of only eight musicians, which limited his goals to create lush and grand textures easily achieved with a larger orchestra (ibid). Because of this, he devised ingenious techniques to achieve his intended sounds by using more percussive instruments such as gongs and frame drums (ibid). In place of large or atmospheric orchestral textures the vibraphone is heard extensively in Dang Anom; providing a lush, dark, ‘dreamy’ and perhaps, ominous presence throughout the film’s music.12 Thus, while restricting his music within self-imposed cultural boundaries, Zubir Said nonetheless composed music with a modernist aesthetic; using approaches that in fact challenged a rigid conception of tradition in music. However, in line with a postcolonial conception of nationhood, a ‘Malay’ musical tradition, no matter how contested, had to be made visible even if it was not heard. A photograph of musicians recording at Cathay-Keris studio in the presence of Hussein Haniff (Figure 8) presents a traditionalised Southeast Asian spectacle: two angklung players, a gambus player, a flautist with wooden and metal flute, a kompang/rebana tar (cymballed-frame drum) player, a man standing by an Indonesian gong set13 and Zubir Said holding a kompang and what appears to be three wooden flutes, a crash cymbal on a stand beside him, a harmonium and clarinet in front of him (Peters, 2012, p.76; Rohana Zubir, 2012, p. 29). It appears Adil Johan 63 that this photo could have been taken as a ‘behind-the-scenes’ promotional shot in the recording studio, so additional instruments are placed for display such as more angklungs, a floor tom drum, a gendang and a rebana. What is noticeably absent from this photo are the modern instruments actually heard in Zubir Said’s film scores such as the vibraphone, piano, guitar and saxophones. The most modern ‘instrument’ to be seen is the large microphone in front of Hussein Haniff.14 I can only speculate whether this was a ‘traditional’ instrument recording session or a conscious effort to promote the Cathay-Keris brand as being distinctly ‘Malay’. Figure 8. Zubir Said (seated, front row, first from right) and Hussein Haniff (standing, far right) (in Peters, 2012, p. 76; Rohana Zubir, 2012, p. 26). In fact, Cathay-Keris distinguished its productions from their rival Shaw Brother’s Malay Film Productions (MFP) by focusing on the genre of the Malay epic. Unlike MFP, Cathay-Keris was the only Malay film production company that allowed its composers to write original background music, whereas MFP’s composers focused more on writing commercially viable songs. Thus, Cathay-Keris was known for its more ‘traditional’ aesthetic offerings in Malay film and music. The late Kassim Masdor (1999), a composer and musician who used to work for MFP as a continuity clerk suggests that the more aesthetically modern and commercially-inclined film songs from MFP had a greater mass appeal compared with Cathay-Keris’ film songs that were ‘more… traditional, which are harder to sing’15 (Reel 6). Kassim Masdor (1999) elaborates: Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 64 A lot of the film songs from Cathay-Keris were too excessively Malay. So, they were not accepted by society possibly because, sorry to say, they weren’t that exciting but despite the Shaw Brothers films not having any, what people call very typical Malay songs… (Shaw Brothers film songs) have a commercial touch. (Reel 7, my emphasis) This statement does not necessarily disparage the musical productions of Cathay- Keris but provides from the perspective of an experienced music composer from the era, an insight about the Malay film audience’s musical taste in the 1950s and 1960s.16 The ‘commercial touch’ of prominent Shaw Brothers MFP song writers such as Osman Ahmad, Yusof B., P. Ramlee and Kassim Masdor constituted a cosmopolitan popular music aesthetic that included non-Malay styles of music such as jazz, samba and later, rock & roll, albeit sung in the Malay language. The ‘commercial’ musical approach of the MFP Shaw Brothers’ studio culminated in the final transition out of Malay folk and traditional music in the rock & roll film A Go Go ‘67 (1967, Dir. Omar Rojik) which featured Malay pop yeh yeh bands – rock guitar groups with singers a la the Beatles and Rolling Stones. Ironically, Cathay- Keris was the first studio to produce a rock & roll-themed Malay film, Muda Mudi (Youths, Dir. M. Amin) starring Siput Sarawak and Roseyatimah, released in 1965. A Go Go ’67 was one of the last Malay films produced by the Studio in Singapore, marking the beginning of the end of a vibrant era of music in Malay films (Adil Johan, 2014). Challenging Tradition The traditionalising discourse that positions the music of Cathay-Keris films as ‘excessively Malay’ and ‘very typical Malay’ are ironic in retrospect, considering the modern approach and critique of tradition contained in those films. This modern approach is evident in the ample use of diegetic and non-diegetic disjunctures in these films that articulate a discourse of cultural and emotional conflict among the protagonists. The characters Malang and Anom are trapped within the boundaries of their culture and customs (adat), in which unquestioning loyalty to the Sultan is paramount. However, their cultural loyalties are significantly challenged when it devastatingly affects their personal relationship. Music is used to contrast the emotions of these characters at crucial points of conflict in the narrative. Furthermore, the use of traditional-sounding music disjunctive to the narrative amplifies the anti-authoritarian themes of the film’s story. These music-narrative disjunctures can be musical scenes throughout the film. For this article, I analyse one scene in which Hussein Haniff’s modern melodramatic narrative interacts with the multi-layered representations of tradition contained in Zubir Said’s film music, articulating poetically and musically the contestations of power tied to postcolonial Malay nation-making. In a scene set in the court of the Sultan, a group of female dancers are performing to celebrate Malang’s triumphant return to Temasek 17. The Sultan Adil Johan 65 summons his concubines to be present for the festivities and Anom enters the room to a slow and melancholic melody that is diegetically heard as the introduction to a new dance. Suddenly, just as Malang notices her, the music is punctuated by a loud percussive accent that becomes a fast and lively percussive joget rhythm (Tan & Matusky, 2004, p. 108). This sped-up tempo in the music is in stark contrast to Malang’s unsettling realisation that his lover is now a concubine of the Sultan. Infuriated, he leaves the court in haste amidst the festive dance performance. The interplay of diegetic music in contrast with the repressed emotions of Malang and Anom operate to highlight the overarching anti-feudal theme in the film. The traditional dance music heard above everything else represents the subsuming limitations of a feudal culture in which individual desires and actions (except the Sultan’s) need to be repressed. Additionally, the dance performances represent an embodied expression of loyalty to culture and tradition as well as a sexualised objectification of female subjects in service to the king’s lustful desires. At this crucial point of the film, Malang leaves the court abruptly, unable to stomach the reality of his predicament. This scene resonates with the notion of sounded authority mentioned earlier (Andaya, 2011). The portrayal of traditional Malay music and dance as a representation of the Sultan’s authority in a disjunctive relationship to the narrative amplifies the critique of Malay feudal power. While the Sultan’s authority and even his magnanimity is reflected in the festive occasion, it contrasts with the anger felt by Malang and the despair felt by Dang Anom when they see each other across the room. Upon Malang’s abrupt exit from the festivities, he immediately goes to confront Anom’s father. The exchange between Malang and Anom’s father, Rajuna Tapa, clearly indicates the radical critique of tradition or Malay customs that fuels the film’s narrative. Malang learns that Rajuna Tapa had no choice in giving up his daughter to the Sultan. This however, infuriates Malang even more. Upon Rajuna Tapa asking for him to be patient, Malang replies: Sir, everything in this world has its limits. The same goes with patience… If the Sultan is free to appease his lustful desires then I too as a free human being should be free to express the words from my heart that are true. Rajuna Tapa (RT): Your words are true but the citizens cannot be treasonous to the Sultan. Moreover, it is wrong on the side of our customs. Malang (M): Ah! Customs! Are not customs a manifestation of desire to spread cruelty? Meanwhile, the Sultan is free to abduct people’s children and wives to fulfil his lustful desires, but the citizens; the citizens are bound to ruthless customs. Where is the justice, Sir? RT: Malang, do not give in to the feelings of your young blood. It will destroy your body. M: Never, never. For the safety of Anom and the truth I am willing to sacrifice anything at all 18to demolish these ruthless customs. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 66 Here, Malang’s overtly anti-feudal opinions critique Malay customs or tradition that allow for a monarch’s unjust abuse of power. The exchange between Malang and Rajuna Tapa also reflect the tensions between the younger and older generations. Indeed, the Malay community in the 1960s was divided across a spectrum of beliefs: liberals, conservatives, monarchists, Islamists, socialists and Marxists (Harper, 2001; Kahn, 2006; Mohamad & Aljunied, 2011; Aljunied, 2015). Hence, the exchange above not only articulates the tensions between Malay nationalists and the colonial order but also the antipathies within a diverse Malay community in a period of decolonisation and nascent independence. Some sought a more conservative approach to independence that upheld the integrity of the Malay monarchy, while others wanted a more radical change: a dissolution of the monarchy altogether. The social critique derived from the film’s narrative and dialogue is even more complex, however, when considering the film’s music. What can be heard in the film’s music then, is a representation of tradition that contrasts with the radical, ‘anti-tradition’ message of the film. Traditionalising music is used to signify the ‘sounded authority’ of the Malay feudal order (Andaya, 2011) but a closer, intertextual reading of such music reveals a more nuanced relationship. The Dang Anom leitmotif articulates two opposing notions. On one hand, the leitmotif is a rigid structural imposition of formal western compositional practices; it assumes the baggage of colonial modes of structuring, simplifying and other-ing the culture of the colonised. On the other hand, the musical convergence of western conventions with local music is congruent with the postcolonial process of nation-making; Zubir Said and Hussein Haniff were actively creating their own nuanced discourse about Malay nationhood in Dang Anom. It was a discourse about the paradoxes and contestations of an emerging Malay nation that was potentially bound by conservative notions of tradition and a colonial mentality of dependence. The tragic narrative of Dang Anom, however, loudly implores its audience to challenge corrupt leaders who derive their power from tradition, customs or archaic belief systems. In this allegory for ethical nation-making, the musical tradition scored by Zubir Said represented his own desire for a modern Malay nation that could free itself from colonial dependency; adapting the local musical practices of the past to the aspirations of the present. Conclusion Listening to Zubir Said’s film music uncovers how a postcolonial nation is scored through the evocation of tradition. The constitution of ‘national traditions’ is strongly predicated upon the existence of a supposedly unchanging repository of culture. I argue that the film music composed by Zubir Said demonstrates the reverse in that he was instrumental in the process of creating an aesthetic of Malay musical tradition for the nascent postcolonial nation. Malay musical practices prior to colonial rule were already intensely pluralistic and cosmopolitan. Therefore, the process of creating a musical tradition for an emergent Malay nation was a selective Adil Johan 67 process facilitated by creative individuals in positions of nation-making. Zubir Said was a composer that was given the opportunity to compose a ‘modern’ musical ‘tradition’ for an emerging Malay nation, using ambiguous cultural boundaries of Malayness that were and remain contestatory and processual (Waterman, 1990; Barnard, 2004; Shamsul, 2004). Zubir Said had to creatively score a Malay musical tradition for the silver screen, drawing on, at his own discretion, selected musical genres, instrumentation and folk melodies to portray a sense of musical authenticity rooted in an ‘imagined’ organic past. While Malay films drew on Malay feudal history as a source of its vernacular cultural past, the traditional-sounding music and melodramatic narratives of such films contested archaic notions of tradition to articulate a subversive message of ethical modernity, freedom and self- determination. The disjunctive narrative juxtaposition of Malay folk music and dances like the joget, to harmonising a Malay melody in sixths on saxophones was evident in Zubir Said’s film score. These approaches to film music were expressed in tandem with the radical ideology of Malay nationalists active in the Malay literary, print, film and music community; subversively sounding a postcolonial critique of unequal power relations between despotic rulers and innocent subjects, British rule and Malay activism, colonial oppression and self-determination. Through their narrative works, Malay literary activists, film-makers and composers championed new postcolonial ideals by challenging antiquated notions of Malay feudalism. Paradoxically, as a composer of traditionalised Malay music, Zubir Said also occupies a position of authority in the retrospective and prospective definition of ‘Malayness’ (Shamsul, 2004). Thus, his music then forms an aesthetic template for a Malay ‘nation-of-intent’ that is mobilised in the ethno-national hegemony of Malaysia’s (not Singapore’s) National Cultural Policy (Nagata, 2011; Shamsul & Sity, 2006). As one of the first film composers for the postwar Malay film industry, Zubir Said was instrumental in initiating a musical aesthetic discourse of Malay nation-making that resonated throughout Malay films of the early 1960s. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the staff of the Malay Heritage Centre Singapore, Singapore National Museum, National Archives of Singapore and organisers of the Majulah! Film Music of Zubir Said Festival (2012) who were invaluable in providing insights and research materials for this study. Research conducted for this study was made possible by the King’s College London Continuation Scholarship (2012-2014) and a period of fieldwork from July to August 2013 hosted by the National University of Singapore, funded by the King’s College London Partnership Grant. An earlier version of this article was presented at the The 8th Asian Graduate Forum on Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore (22-26 July 2013), organised by the Asia Research Institute (ARI), National University of Singapore. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 68 Endnotes 1 The film Buloh Perindu (1953), Dir, B.S. Rajhans was also the first film produced by the newly set up Cathay-Keris Film Productions (Hamzah Hussin 2012, 63). 2 Slobin (2008a) terms this aesthetic of film music the ‘Steiner superculture’ – a reference to the classically trained composer, Max Steiner, whose methods to film scoring in the 1930s have become the ‘norm’ for all film music since. 3 It is worth mentioning the striking similarities of Zubir Said’s views with English composer and staunch music-nationalist, Ralph Vaughan Williams’ expressed at length in his book, National Music and Other Essays (1987). Williams’ essay entitled ‘National Music’ was published in 1934, so it is highly likely that Zubir Said could have been inspired by Williams’ ideas, although this cannot be confirmed in any existing sources on Zubir Said. 4 British authorities during their colonisation of the Malay Peninsula categorised the economic activities of colonised people by race: the Chinese were small business-owners and traders, the Indians were estate-workers and labourers (although some South Asian castes occupied professional positions and operated businesses), the Malays were mostly farmers and fishermen (see Alatas 1977 and Lim 1984). 5 While these directors were ‘imported’ from India and were Indian nationals, it is worthwhile to note that South Asian communities and culture existed in the Malay world centuries prior to European colonialism. The South Indian director of Malay films, L. Krishnan, would stay on and eventually become a Malaysian citizen and successful producer of Malay films past the demise of Singaporean Malay studio film industry (see Prem K. Pasha 2003). 6 ‘Historical’ Malay films were also termed bangsawan films in reference to the repertoire of narrative themes derived from bangsawan (translated, ‘nobility’) plays set in the feudalistic pre-colonial past of the Malay World. Such stories were derived of classic Malay texts such as Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals), Hikayat Hang Tuah (The Romance of Hang Tuah), Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa (The Romance of Merong Mahawangsa), etc. Interestingly, Malay film magazines such as Majalah Film (1960-1965) refer to such historically themed films as bangsawan films in contrast to masyarakat (social) films set in modern, urban contexts. 7 For a deeper analysis of Malay identity and masculinities represented in Hang Tuah narratives across literature and film see Khoo (2006). 8 Again, further parallels can be drawn to South Asian musical and filmic culture. The tragic history of subjugation of the North Indian female courtesan is elaborated Schofield’s article that ties in the history of the courtesan with their typecast tragic narrative trajectory in Hindi film representations (2012, p. 165, citing Booth [2007, p.7]). Also see Booth’s article on female courtesan protagonists in Hindi films (2007). 9Also see, Malay nobat: A history of encounters, accommodation and development by Raja Iskandar Raja Halid, a PhD. thesis submitted to King’s College London in 2015. 10 The combined use of the rebana and violin is one example of pre-modern cosmopolitan Malay instrumentation; Kartomi has suggested its connection to Moorish culture imported by Portuguese colonists to the Malay Archipelago (1988 cited in Tan, 1993, p, 77, supra note 6; also see Tan, 2005) 11 The currency stated is in Malaysian Ringgit ($) that was at the time valued at £0.14 for $1.00. Most Malay films would have an overall budget of $30,000. Hence, the budget for music was only one-tenth of a film’s entire budget. Adil Johan 69 12 The vibraphone is not an instrument common to Malay folk music but it was immensely popular in Malay films from the 1950s to 1960s. Zubir Said’s use of the vibraphone can be heard in most of his film scores, notably for films set in mythical or historical settings such as Bawang Puteh Bawang Merah (Garlic and Onions, 1959, Dir. Salleh Ghani) and Jula Juli Bintang Tujoh (The Magical Tale of the Seven Fairies, 1962, Dir. B.N. Rao). 13 The man is Wahid Satay, a popular actor at Cathay-Keris known for comedic acting and singing abilities. 14 For more on the role of the microphone in shaping the aesthetics of modern recorded music see Théberge (2001). 15 ‘… kita punya (lagu) more to modern. Cathay-Keris punya more to traditional yang payah dinyanyikan’ 16 It would be ideal to illuminate this view with responses from lay-persons who had viewed films from this era. However, this is currently beyond the scope of this study and warrants its own study that considers an audience-centred historical ethnography on the reception of Malay film music. 17 The dance here features Lela Sani who is mentioned in the title credits. 18 This is an apt intertextual reference by Hussein Haniff to P. Ramlee’s song “Berkorban Apa Saja (To Sacrifice Anything At All” in the film, Hang Tuah (1956, Dir. Phani Majumdar). References Adil Johan (2014). Disquieting degeneracy: Policing Malaysian and Singaporean popular music culture from the mid-1960s to early-1970s. In B. Barendregt (Ed.), Sonic modernities in the Malay world: A history of popular music, social distinction and novel lifestyles (1930s – 2000s) (pp. 136–161). Leiden: Brill. Alatas, S. H. (1977). The myth of the lazy native: Oxon: Frank Cass and Company Limited. Aljunied, S. M. K. (2015). Radicals: Resistance and protest in colonial Malaya. DeKalb, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. Andaya, B. W. (2011). Distant drums and thunderous cannon: Sounding authority in traditional Malay society. International Journal of Asia Pacific studies, 7(2), 19–35. Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism (Revised). London: Verso (Orig. pub. 1983). Anonymous. (2009). Malay annals. (C. C. Brown, Trans.) (28th ed.). Selangor: The Malaysian Branch for the Royal Asiatic Society (Orig. pub. 1952). Barnard, T. P. (Ed.). (2004). Contesting Malayness: Malay identity across boundaries. Singapore: Singapore University Press. Barnard, T. P., & Van der Putten, J. (2008). Malay cosmopolitan activism in post-war Singapore. In M. D. Barr & C. A. Trocki (Eds.), Paths not taken: Political pluralism in post-war Singapore (pp. 132–153). Singapore: NUS Press. Bakhle, J. (2005). Two men and music: Nationalism in the making of an Indian classical tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Booth, G. D. (2007). Making a woman from a Tawaif: Courtesans as heroes in Hindi cinema. New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies, (9), 1–26. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 70 Born, G., & Hesmondhalgh, D. (2000). Western music and its others: Difference, representation and appropriation and music. Berkeley & Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. Chatterjee, P. (1993). Nationalist thought and the colonial world: A derivative discourse. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Gledhill, C. (1986). “Stella Dallas” and feminist theory. Cinema Journal, 25(4), 44–48. Hamzah Hussin. (2012). Zubir Said: Man of music. In Norlia Embong & Ibrahim Tahir (Trans.), MAJULAH! The film music of Zubir Said (pp. 62–72). Singapore: National Museum of Singapore. Harper, T. (2001). The end of empire and the making of Malaya (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Orig. pub. 1999). Kahn, J. S. (2006). Other Malays: Nationalism and cosmopolitanism in the ,modern Malay world. Singapore: Singapore University Press. Kassim Masdor. (1999, May 13). Reel 1-8 [Cassette].Khoo, G. C. (2006). Reclaiming adat: Contemporary Malaysian film and literature. Vancouver & Singapore: UBC Press & NUS Press. Lim, T. G. (1984). British colonial administration and the “ethnic division of labour in Malaya.” Kajian Malaysia, 2(2), 28–66. Matusky, P., & Tan, S. B. (2004). The music of Malaysia: The classical, folk and syncretic traditions. Aldershot: Ashgate. Mohamad, M., & Aljunied, S. M. K. (Eds.). (2011). Melayu: Politics, poetics and paradoxes of Malayness. Singapore: NUS Press. Moro, P. (2004). Constructions of nation and the classicisation of music: Comparative perspectives from Southeast and South Asia. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 35(2), 187–211. Nagata, J. (2011). Boundaries of Malayness: “We have made Malaysia: Now it is time to (re)make the Malays but who interprets the history?” In Melayu: Politics, Poetics and Paradoxes of Malayness. Singapore: NUS Press. Peters, J. (2012). Zubir Said and his music for film. In MAJULAH! The film music of Zubir Said (pp. 74–90). Singapore: National Museum of Singapore. Prem K. Pasha. (2003). The Krishnan odyssey: A pictorial biography of Dato’ L. Krishnan. Kuala Lumpur: NASAREE. Rahim, L. Z. (2009). Singapore in the Malay World: Building and breaching bridges. Oxon: Routledge. Raja Iskandar Raja Khalid. (2015). Malay nobat: A history of encounters, accommodation and development. King’s College London, London. Rohana Zubir. (2012). Zubir Said, the composer of Majulah Singapura. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing. Sarkissian, M. (2000). D’Albuquerque’s children: Performing tradition in Malaysia’s Portuguese settlement. London: University of Chicago Press. Sarkissian, M. (2002). Playing Portuguese: Constructing identity in Malaysia’s Portuguese community. Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 11(2), 215–232. Schofield, K. B. (2010). Reviving the Golden Age again: “Classicization”, Hindustani music, and the Mughals. Ethnomusicology, 54(3), 484–517. Shamsul A.B. (1996). Nations-of-intent in Malaysia. In S. Tonesson & H. Antlov (Eds.), Asian Forms of the Nation (pp. 323–347). London and New York: Routledge Curzon. Adil Johan 71 Shamsul Amri Baharuddin. (2004). A history of an identity, an identity of a history: The idea and practice of “Malayness” in Malaysia. In T. P. Barnard (Ed.), Contesting Malayness: Malay Identity across boundaries. (pp.135 – 148). Singapore: Singapore University Press. Shamsul Amri Baharuddin & Sity Daud. (2006). Nation, ethnicity, and contending discourse in the Malaysian state. In R. Boyd & T.W. Ngo (Eds.) State making in Asia. (pp.131–140). London: Routledge Slobin, M. (2008a). The Steiner superculture. In M. Slobin (Ed.), Global soundtracks: Worlds of film music (pp. 3–35). Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. Slobin, M. (2008b). The Superculture beyond Steiner. In M. Slobin (Ed.), Global soundtracks: Worlds of film music (pp. 36–62). Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. Smith, A.D. (1995). The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Subramanian, L. (1999). The reinvention of tradition: Nationalism, carnatic music and the Madras Music Academy, 1900-1947. Indian Economic Social History Review, 36(2), 131–163. Subramanian, L. (2011). From the Tanjore court to the Madras Music Academy: A social history of music in South India (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tan, S. B. (1993). Bangsawan: A social and stylistic history of popular Malay opera. Singapore: Oxford University Press. Théberge, P. (2001). “Plugged in”: Technology and popular music. In S. Frith, W. Straw, & J. Street (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to pop and rock (pp. 1–25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Waterman, C. A. (1990). “Our tradition is a very modern tradition”: Popular music and the construction of a pan-Yoruba identity. Ethnomusicology, 34(3), 367–379. Weidman, A. J. (2006). Singing the classical, voicing the modern: The postcolonial politics of music in South India. London: Duke University Press. Weintraub, A. N. (2010). Dangdut stories: A social and musical history of Indonesia’s most popular music. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Williams, R. V. (1987). National music and other essays. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Winstedt, R. O. (1938). Sejarah Melayu. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, XVI (III), 1–226. Zubir Said. (1956, 1957). Bahasa Melayu dalam nyanyian (The Malay language in song). Presented at the Kongress Bahasa dan Persuratan Melayu III (The Third Congress on Malay Language and Literature), Singapore and Johor Bahru. Zubir Said. (1967). Menuju tahun 1967, Filem Malaysia, 1, 20–21, 45. Zubir Said. (1984, September 7). Reel 11-15. Zubir Said. (2012a). Music in the age of merdeka. In Norlia Embong & Ibrahim Tahir (Trans.), MAJULAH! The film music of Zubir Said (pp. 94–97). Singapore: National Museum of Singapore. Zubir Said. (2012b). The development of Malay music. In Norlia Embong & S. Ibrahim Tahir (Trans.), MAJULAH! The film music of Zubir Said (pp. 98–103). Singapore: National Museum of Singapore. Malaysian Music Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1 (50-72) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 72 Biography Adil Johan is a research fellow at the Institute of Ethnic Studies (KITA), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). His doctoral thesis in music research and ethnomusicology was awarded by King’s College London in 2015. He currently has a forthcoming book that will be published with National University of Singapore Press, which examines postcolonial nation-making, cultural intimacy and the cosmopolitan music of Malay-language films in 1950s to 1960s Singapore and Malaysia. His current research interests include the cultural politics and cultural consumption of popular music, social media and digital technology in film and music, the politics of ethnicity and histories of postcolonial nation-making. As a musician, he currently plays the saxophone in two projects; the folk rock collective, Azmyl Yunor & Orkes Padu, and Malaysian-rock-fusion band, Nadir.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 1 (2017)

autoethnography, postmodern music, Malaysian food, music composition, popular music

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/138

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/828

Sedap Cycle: A Multi-Movement ‘Compositional Tour’ of Malaysian Cuisine

Sedap Cycle is a composition inspired by the author’s interaction with Malaysian cuisine. The culture surrounding each meal, the food’s components and author’s background and experience with the food inspired the musical output. The music is drawn from music connected to a food’s culture and the interpretation of tastes as musical characteristics. The creation of the music used some quantitative methods to survey Malaysians about which local foods are well-known, but largely several categories of qualitative methods to create the music, such as practice-based, practice-led and autoethnographic research. The result is a six-movement composition based on six meals in a day (four main meals and two ‘teas’) with each major movement containing a title of well-known Malaysian food (‘Nasi Lemak’, ‘Nasi Campur’, ‘Char Kuey Teow’ and ‘Roti Canai’). This piece combines Western classical and avant garde styles with traditional and popular Malaysian, Chinese, Indian and American music. While a new musical work is the primary goal, other goals include the creation of a musical form inspired by Malaysia that composers could use and the ability to relate concepts of music and composition in the Western idiom to Malaysian composers, performers and educators.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/828/564

Wesley A. Johnson 73 Sedap Cycle: A Multi-Movement ‘Compositional Tour’ of Malaysian Cuisine Wesley A. Johnson Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia 35900 Tanjung Malim, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Sedap Cycle is a composition inspired by the author’s interaction with Malaysian cuisine. The culture surrounding each meal, the food’s components and author’s background and experience with the food inspired the musical output. The music is drawn from music connected to a food’s culture and the interpretation of tastes as musical characteristics. The creation of the music used some quantitative methods to survey Malaysians about which local foods are well-known, but largely several categories of qualitative methods to create the music, such as practice-based, practice-led and autoethnographic research. The result is a six-movement composition based on six meals in a day (four main meals and two ‘teas’) with each major movement containing a title of well-known Malaysian food (‘Nasi Lemak’, ‘Nasi Campur’, ‘Char Kuey Teow’ and ‘Roti Canai’). This piece combines Western classical and avant garde styles with traditional and popular Malaysian, Chinese, Indian and American music. While a new musical work is the primary goal, other goals include the creation of a musical form inspired by Malaysia that composers could use and the ability to relate concepts of music and composition in the Western idiom to Malaysian composers, performers and educators. Keywords: autoethnography, postmodern music, Malaysian food, music composition, popular music Background The composition of Sedap Cycle is completely inspired by my experience with food in Malaysia. When I first arrived in Malaysia, the most common question I was asked (following ‘Where are you from?’, ‘How old are you?’ and ‘Are you married?’) was ‘How do you find [like] Malaysian food?’ My main exposure to the food culture of Malaysia was the various seminars at Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI). Breakfast, usually nasi lemak, would commonly be served during a morning meeting or break. However, my first full immersion occurred when our Faculty of Music and Performing Arts conducted a series of workshops away at a resort. Each meeting would be followed by a break Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 74 for a meal or a ‘drink’ (which usually included food). In the course of a day, there were six times set aside for food and drink: breakfast (sarapan or makan pagi, ‘morning meal/food’), morning tea (minum pagi, ‘morning drink’), lunch (makan tengahari, ‘midday meal’), afternoon tea (minum petang, ‘afternoon drink’), dinner (makan malam, ‘night meal’) and supper (minum malam, ‘night drink’). This meal structure contrasts to the American meal structure with which I had grew up: breakfast, lunch and dinner/supper with an occasional snack that was never consistent. This difference inspired the idea for a song cycle based on the six meals, each movement inspiration of a Malaysian food or music of the cultures within Malaysia. The resulting composition is titled Sedap Cycle, as sedap means ‘delicious’ in Malay (and one of the first words I learned in Malaysia). Through a combination of personal experience and research, the cycle is constructed with a food associated with a meal and a generic title for the two ‘tea’ movements. In addition, because I am from the United States, my experience in Malaysian culture pales to Malaysians. I wrote the piece with the same approach as the food: as an outsider adjusting to a new culture, using my own background and interaction with food to approach the composition. Since I am not Malaysian, the compositional approach is similar to my personal life in Malaysian culture—a sort of ‘compositional tourism’ or ‘compositional expatriate’ approach. Both terms apply because even as a resident, there are still many places unexplored and a foreign resident can still easily fit into the role of tourist. Review of Musical Works International Compositions Composers writing works that are influenced from music outside their culture is a very old practice. A famous example is Mozart’s ‘Rondo Alla Turca’ (1784) from Piano Sonata No. 11. At the time, Austria was very close to the Ottoman Empire, and composers were influenced by the then ‘exotic’ nature of the music from across the border (Okan, n.d.). Debussy was influenced by the Javanese gamelan he heard at the Paris Exposition in 1889 and 1900 (Howat, 2014). One example of a more direct inspiration from Southeast Asia came from Colin McPhee, who transcribed and arranged Balinese gamelan textures for symphony orchestra in Tabuh-Tabuhan (1936) derived from his interest and time living in Bali (Keillor). Since the latter half of the 20th century, mixing ‘East and West’ in composition has been a common theme. Dvořák’s Symphony 9 (1893) was composed while directing the National Conservatory of Music of America, hearing Native-American and African- American music, deeming it vital for the future of American music (Snyder, 1993). John Cage’s Sonatas and Interludes (1968) inspired by gamelan and Indian classical music (‘How the piano came to be prepared’). Cage’s 4’33 and the use of silence was a combination of the influences of silence and stillness from the I-Ching and the local American culture of constant popular music playing in public places in the 1950s, as four and a half minutes was the length of ‘canned music’ at the time (Pritchett & Kuhn, 2001). Tan Dun’s Water Concerto (1998) for water and orchestra Wesley A. Johnson 75 inspired by his “early life, living with water, having fun with water, and playing ritualistic music with water…” as a ‘recomposed memory’ (Tan, 2007). An early example of music connected to the time of day is the ‘Liturgy of the Hours’ in the European (Catholic) church where music set to the texts for each time of day are repeated daily. Song cycles concerning time of day are found in Schumann’s Liederkries (1842) which contains movement titles such as ‘Mondnacht’ (‘Moonlit Night’), ‘Zweilicht’ (‘Twilight’) and ‘Frülingsnacht’ (‘Spring Night’). Benjamin Britten’s song cycle Evening, Morning, Night (1944) consists of three movements about the time of day based on three texts by Ronald Duncan. Postmodernism in music Sedap Cycle largely fits into the postmodernist idea of music composition. Modernism generally follows the philosophy that as music progresses and becomes more complex, the quality of output progresses. Postmodernism in music takes the approach that no music is superior to another, and thus all genres can mix without compromising the other’s integrity. Kramer (2002) noted certain compositional practices among postmodernism music, such as not respecting “boundaries between sonorities and procedures of the past and of the present” and challenging “barriers between ‘high’ and ‘low’ styles” (p. 16). Kramer also noted that postmodernist music can also include “quotations of or references to music of many traditions and cultures” (p. 17). An example of a postmodern song cycle is William Bolcom’s Songs of Innocence and Experience (1984), setting of William Blake’s poetry. In this song cycle, because of the wide variety of topics in the original text, Bolcom uses not only full orchestra, but popular instruments and infuses elements of classical tonal music and other styles such as folk, bluegrass and reggae. Malaysian Compositions Within Malaysia, there are many examples of Malaysian composers mixing influences. As much of Malaysian culture has influences from Malaysia, India, China, the Middle East, Europe and America, it could be argued that composed music inspired by Malaysia is already a mixture of influences, or syncretic music (Tan and Matusky, 2017), so the notable examples listed here are a small sampling that deliberately mix distinct styles. Various performance groups take a postmodern approach such as Hands Percussion Malaysia (Chan, 2012) and Rhythm in Bronze, which use gamelan as the basis for new music performance in Malaysia (‘Rhythm in Bronze: Our journey’, 2014). New song creation among the Orang Asli also follow the postmodern trend (Chan, 2016). Jazz arranger Alfonzo Soliano’s composition Asli Abadi uses Malay folk rhythms. Johari Salleh’s Simfonietta Cempakasari and Symphony ASEAN mix Western and Malaysian instruments (Lam, 2001). More recently, Kee-Yong Chong has elements of Malaysian gamelan in Moondrama (2004). Aubrey Suwito’s ‘Malacca Sun’ (2011) incorporates lagu asli flute with the smooth jazz genre. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 76 Ainolnaim Azizol’s Badang!!!! for string quartet and electronics is inspired by a Malay legend and television adaptation the composer saw while a child (‘Of superheroes, tempoyak and singing in the shower’). Tazul Tajuddin’s Opera Puteri Saadong (2015) mixes the contemporary atonal while also including a gamelan and makyung ensemble. Valerie Ross not only uses multicultural influences, but multicultural notation systems in her score to be multilingual across the musical cultures. Cycles is for piano, oboe and tabla or mridangam. Her work Bourne combines music, dance and film with recordings of horn, flute, violin, Balinese gamelan, piano and Indian flute and veena (Lam, 2001). M! The Opera (2006) by Saidah Rastam is a Western style opera that incorporates lagu asli singing. Saidah’s general body of work encompasses the rojak nature of Malaysian influences, writing also Chinese opera, theatre, dance, film and television. She is also a founding member of the gamelan group ‘Rhythm in Bronze’ which itself mixes genres using several varieties of gamelan and percussion (Toh, 2015). A Malaysian work similar in topic to Sedap Cycle is Ken Hor’s Let’s Go Mamak (The Cultural Common Ground) (2008), which is a larger-scale musical event by the group ‘Inner Voices’. Comprised of 13 pieces, the experience mixes influences from Malay, Indian and Chinese traditional music combined with some popular and experimental elements. Music and Food Several connections have been made between the creation and consumption of food and music, such as Ruhlman (2012) commenting on the similarities between eating a meal prepared by chef Thomas Keller and an orchestral performance: [A] meal at that level is a performance. [The chef’s cooking] was a performing art and it shared many qualities of an orchestral performance. There were themes and movements, a narrative arc, the pleasures experienced were sensory, non-verbal. And when it was done, it was gone. I had only the memory of it. I couldn’t relive it, as I could a book or a film or a painting or a sculpture. The art had vanished and I was left with an experience and a memory, and the pleasure of having experienced a virtuoso performance. A collection of quotes (Frühalf) found on RILM (Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale) lists many connections between composition and food. “Someone who is well-versed in technology may have a good chance to be a good cook. Based on this hypothesis the methods of cooking and composing electronic music are compared” (Frühalf, n.d.). In the same list is also the use of food itself as instruments: “Performers have had a direct connection to the food world: Nut shells have been used as whistles in Peru and coconut shells as ocarinas in Africa” (ibid.). There are also scientific studies concerning the behavioural connection of food and pitch or sounds (Eplett, 2013). Rossini himself was known as a food connoisseur (and has a dish, tournedos Rossini, possibly named for him) and visualised his love for food in musical terms: Wesley A. Johnson 77 I know of no more admirable occupation than eating, that is really eating. Appetite is for the stomach what love is for the heart. The stomach is the conductor, who rules the grand orchestra of our passions, and rouses it to action. The bassoon or the piccolo, grumbling its discontent or shrilling its longing, personify the empty stomach for me. The stomach, replete, on the other hand, is the triangle of enjoyment or the kettledrum of joy. As for love, I regard her as the prima donna par excellence, the goddess who sings cavatinas to the brain, intoxicates the ear, and delights the heart. Eating, loving, singing and digesting are, in truth, the four acts of the comic opera known as life, and they pass like the bubbles of a bottle of champagne. Whoever lets them break without having enjoyed them is a complete fool. (Huizenga, 2010) In the European classical tradition, J.S. Bach’s Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht, BWV 211 (1735), is also known as the Coffee Cantata in which the main character sings an ode to coffee in ‘Ei! Wie schmeckt der Kaffee suße’. Rossini’s ‘Sarò zeppo e contornato’ from La Cenerentola (1817) contains an aria in which the Don Magnifico imagines all the food he would have eaten has his daughter married the prince. Leonard Bernstein’s La bonne cuisine: four recipes (1960) is a song cycle in which the text is recipes. Frequently, popular music directly about food is for humorous effect. In the United States, ‘Weird Al’ Yankovic has many novelty songs about food. Some examples include: ‘Eat It’ (1984), ‘Fat’ (1988), ‘Waffle King’ (1993) and ‘Grapefruit Diet’ (1999), ‘Coconut’ (1971) by Harry Nilsson or ‘Junk Food Junkie’ (1976) by Larry Groce are more popular songs but generally considered humorous or off-beat. Methodology Generally, composing (in the Western classical idiom, specifically) uses a combination of mostly qualitative and some quantitative approaches. The composer’s individual style and effort for self-expression uses mostly established, existing sources (voices, instruments, techniques, concepts, theories) to create a new work of sound. In this particular composition, autoethnography, a type of qualitative research is heavily used. Autoethnography relies on the expertise in the personal background of the researcher (composer) as the source material. Composition Methodology of Sedap Cycle When composing Sedap Cycle, I took a varied approach, depending on the movement, intending to provide a variety for the different movements (Figure 1). The entire composition derived from the single idea of music based on Malaysian cuisine, and the rest of the process unfolded with a goal in mind, which is practice- based approach. I chose this over a more ‘sonic’ approach where I would imitate the sounds specifically associated with food, similar to eliciting the sound of trains in Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 78 Steve Reich’s Different Trains (1988) or the many bird call imitations found in pieces such as Messiaen’s Catalogue d’oiseaux (1964). Figure 1. Diagram of the composition process. The composition of each individual movement followed a practice-led approach, where the knowledge and experience of composing a piece related to a Wesley A. Johnson 79 food and a culture might lead the final musical composition away from the result I first envisioned and influence the composition process of other movements. The depth within each piece is achieved with singular ‘verse’ or a motive that is developed throughout. This allows for the near absolute freedom of composition while still maintaining the focus of initial idea of the meal structure. Quantitative Approach In Sedap Cycle, some quantitative research was conducted to gather statistical information of what foods Malaysians commonly eat and think are associated with certain times of day. This information helped determine which foods on which to base each movement and in what order they would be presented (Table 1). Because I am a lecturer at a university, the respondents are students aged 18-25 and are small sample size (40 respondents). This composition will most likely be played by people this age demographic, so while the survey is not fully representative, it has enough respondents to hint at a trend among a largely Malay population. The respondents were those whom with I interact; they would be both potential performers, audience and future educators. Table 1 Results of the question ‘What meal do you associate with these foods?’ Responders had the option to choose more than one food per meal. Bold highlighting indicates the most selected food per meal, outline indicates the most selected meal for each food and dark shading indicates the final selection for the composition. Food Breakfast Lunch Dinner Supper None Roti canai 80.56% 29 8.33% 3 16.67% 6 44.44% 16 2.78% 1 Char kuey teow 13.89% 5 27.78% 10 63.89% 23 25.00% 9 13.89% 5 Mee goreng 50.00% 18 33.33% 12 55.56% 20 22.22% 8 5.56% 2 Nasi lemak 94.74% 36 15.79% 6 15.79% 6 10.53% 4 2.63% 1 Tomyam 0.00% 0 44.44% 16 61.11% 22 11.11% 4 8.33% 3 Nasi goreng 27.78% 10 58.33% 21 72.22% 26 11.11% 4 2.78% 1 Nasi campur 5.41% 2 89.19% 33 32.43% 12 2.70% 1 5.41% 2 Before this question, the students were asked to write in common foods that were not listed in the survey. Certain responses, such as chicken rice (nasi ayam)2 or Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 80 chicken rendang, can be covered under nasi campur. Other foods such as fried noodles (mee goreng) and burgers were occasionally mentioned, but most written-in answers to questions, matched the foods I had selected from my experience. In selecting pieces for inclusion on the final composition, the survey served as a guide more than as a directive. Nasi lemak and nasi campur were easy choices for the subject of the breakfast and lunch movements respectively, but the other two were not as obvious. Roti canai was the most common choice for the subject of the late meal as it was second behind nasi lemak for breakfast. However, even though the most common food associated with dinner according to the survey was nasi goreng (fried rice), I chose char kuey teow as the subject for the dinner movement. Nasi lemak and nasi campur both are connected to the Malay ethnicity, and roti canai is connected to the Tamil ethnicity in Malaysia. The Chinese demographic could have been represented in the form of fried rice, but char kuey teow is not only a Chinese dish, but it was specifically invented in Malaysia. It was also second behind nasi goreng for dinner. Thus, the final order selected for the specific meals are: 1. Nasi Lemak 2. Morning Tea 3. Nasi Campur 4. Afternoon Tea 5. Char Kuey Teow 6. Roti Canai Nasi lemak is a rice dish typically served with sambal (spicy chili paste), peanuts, ikan bilis (anchovies), cucumbers and a boiled egg. It is largely considered the ‘national dish’ of Malaysia (Lee, 2014; Rules, 2011). Nasi campur (‘mixed rice’) is a buffet-style display of food found at numerous places throughout Malaysia (‘Nasi Campur (Malay Mixed Rice)’). Char kuey teow is a Chinese-Malaysian fried noodle dish mixed with meat and vegetables (Mok, 2014). Roti canai is a Malaysian Indian flatbread developed in served with dipping sauces (Yoshino, 2010). Autoethnography In Sedap Cycle, the inspiration of the composition itself arose from my personal experiences in Malaysia. Rather than assume the position of composing ‘Malaysian Music’, I chose to approach the composition of this piece the same way I approach the food: from my personal perspective. I am a U.S. citizen who lived in Japan as a child and now live and work in Malaysia. This combination of factors means I am accustomed to being an outsider in the surrounding culture. Food is frequently my main interaction with local culture. I will eat the same food as Malaysians, but I will experience it differently. Conceptually, when I eat Malaysian food, it is still relatively new and novel to me, so my experience will be fresh but inexperienced. I come from a perspective of eating mostly American food. Because of this, my approach to composing the music is similar to that of my Wesley A. Johnson 81 personal status in Malaysia: an expatriate. I am somewhat familiar with the culture, customs and languages, but I did not grow up with them and am not completely immersed in culture at all times, so I will be seen as closer to ‘tourist’ than ‘native’. This approach to composition could have the name ‘expatriate composition’ or ‘compositional tourism’. Individual Movement Methodology I frequently compose multi-movement works out of order: specifically, the middle movements first, then the final movement and lastly, the first movement. The purpose of this is so that I can shape the direction of the first movement and the conclusion based on ideas from the middle movements. However, in the case of Sedap Cycle, the order was as the ideas came to me. The idea for ‘Roti Canai’ came first, followed by ‘Char Kuey Teow’, then the two ‘tea’ movements, then ‘Nasi Lemak’ and lastly, ‘Nasi Campur’. This order (Tables 2 and 3) was more connected to the comfort and previous knowledge I had of the external source of the music and food (India, China, European classical) before becoming more familiar with Malay music (and food). Results Musical Elements of Individual Movements ‘Nasi Lemak’. The music of the ‘Nasi Lemak’ movement (Table 4) is inspired by joget and zapin (two folk dances of Malaysia) and my personal perception of the food. Joget is a compound meter dance adapted from Portuguese music when the Portuguese established settlements in Malacca (‘Joget’, n.d.). The melody of a joget is played by several instruments with various embellishments and an optional tonal harmonic accompaniment (guitar, accordion). Zapin is a slower dance in 4/4 and is originally from Arabia or Persia (‘Zapin’). From my observations of performances, the characteristics I noticed in joget (and used in the composition) were distinct percussion rhythms that outline a ‘3 against 2’ feel in a 6/8 meter, and a single high gong typically strikes on the downbeat of each bar. I noticed zapin music consists of a heavy use of ornamentation largely on strong beats or long notes and is quasi-improvisatory, somewhat reminiscent of Arabic music. The sharp ‘attacks’ in Part 1 (Figure 2) after the slow-moving opening is inspired by the first time I tried nasi lemak (Figure 3). I had used a lot of the sambal, which I did know was extremely spicy. This ‘hit’ of spice surprised me and caused a very intense feeling and uncomfortable reaction. I am rather sensitive to spicy food, and I had used as much (if not more) sambal as Malaysians who had been eating it their whole lives. My first impression of the food was not very good, and it took me several attempts (with less sambal and more cucumbers and peanuts) to slowly become acclimated to the taste, which is musically reflected in the gradual shift from the intense musical hits to the softer volume and slower tempo in Part 2. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 82 Table 2 Outline of the first three movements of Sedap Cycle Meal Breakfast (sarapan / makan pagi) Morning Tea (minum pagi) Lunch (makan tengahari) Food nasi lemak nasi campur Food description Coconut rice, sambal, cucumber, peanuts, anchovies and egg. Tea or coffee, food may include sandwich, curry puff, sausage, Malaysian sweets Mixed rice, typically served buffet style, typically consists of rice, meat and vegetables Musical inspiration Malay dances (joget, zapin) Slow, stately chamber sound (similar to symphonic second movement), gradually incorporating Lagu asli techniques Mixture of traditional, classic and modern popular influences along with Chinese and Indian Additional features (added by composer) Pandiatonicism, salsa music Theme-and-variation form Variety of choices inspired aleatoric elements, ‘Musical Dice’ Table 3 Outline of the final three movements of Sedap Cycle Meal Afternoon Tea (minum petang) Dinner (makan petang) Supper (makan / minum malam) Food char kuey teow roti canai Food description (same as morning tea) A spicy fried flat noodle dish created in Malaysia by Chinese. An Indian flatbread (can be mixed with other items) adapted to Malaysia Musical inspiration Minuet, chamber sound (similar to symphonic third movement), joget 3/4 6/8 ambiguity Hokkien folk song, general Chinese music elements, Malaysian Gamelan Indian Classical Music raga structure and improvisation, makyung, Malaysian Gamelan Additional features (added by composer) 5/8 fast ending with ambiguous tonality Blues and swing, polytonality, Latin American music Occasional ‘blue’ notes, atypical time signatures Wesley A. Johnson 83 Table 4 Outline of the sections of the ‘Nasi Lemak’ movement Section Introduction Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 (Part 1 reprise) Elements Slow, ambiguous, hints of following themes Sharp ‘spicy’ attacks with tone clusters with main melody slightly clearer over joget- inspired rhythms zapin theme, more traditional ‘melody and harmony’ section The more fun ‘spicy’ section heavily inspired by Caribbean rhythms, slowly getting faster and more out of control Sharp attacks, faster, more chaotic, more restless until the ‘relief’ of the end. Figure 2. The tone clusters of the ‘spicy’ attacks in part 1. Part 2 starts very straightforward, with a tune (Figure 4) in E-flat major. The three iterations of the melody inspired by the zapin style can be described as a simplified melody without ornaments, a more conventional zapin melody with ornaments and harmonies (Figure 5) and a minor variation with more ornaments and an almost Romantic-era style to provide further variety (not found in traditional zapin music). In something of a transition between the zapin and ending sections, the melody is placed a fourth time over a quasi-salsa musical rhythm. This is to reflect growing panic that I am running out of drink while there is still spicy food left. In my background, I think of music from the Caribbean or Latin America to reflect ‘spiciness’ or ‘heat’. In addition, the usage of syncopation and Western instruments like the accordion and bass guitar in the modern usage of zapin remind me of various Latin American and Caribbean genres. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 84 Figure 2. Left: a typical, basic nasi lemak dish. Photo by Craig (username Pizzaboy1) 2007, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported. Figure 3. The simple melody in part 2. Figure 4. The ornamented melody in part 2. As the ‘Latin/Caribbean’ iteration dissipates, the music returns to the joget- inspired rhythms, but only faster and off balance with shifting meters. The inspiration behind this is my experience toward the end of eating nasi lemak currently. I frequently run out of drink and the spiciness has been building up the entire time to the point where my tolerance is brought to its maximum. There is a sense of joy and exhaustion when I finish the dish. ‘Morning Tea’. The music in ‘Morning Tea’ (Figure 6) is intended to be in direct contrast to the largeness of the first movement. The melody is a tune I composed inspired by several British folk songs, hymns and the second movement of a symphony. The tune begins in homophony with a harmony reminiscent of Classical or Baroque era (Figure 7). The movement uses the idea of a European ‘theme and variations’ with the ‘variations’ slowly adopting the quasi-improvised ornaments and rhythmic patterns played by a rebana that are an important part of Malay lagu asli (‘original songs’) (Hood, 2016). Each variation is inspired by the idea of the outside food being adapted to a new location and tastes as time goes on Wesley A. Johnson 85 Figure 5. Example of a ‘tea’ meal (curry puff, steamed bun, tea). (Photo by Johnson, year). Figure 6. The opening melody of ‘Morning Tea’. The first variation is a more classical variation with slight embellishments of the melody with a classical texture inspired from Mozart and Haydn. The third variation is a minor variation maintaining the lagu asli ornamentations and displaying some of lagu asli’s Arabic origins. The fourth and final variation (Figure 8) is a transposition of the second variation with busier ornamentations percussion patterns. Figure 7. The final variation of the melody with Malay ‘lagu asli’ inspired ornaments. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 86 ‘Nasi Campur’. ‘Nasi Campur’ is inspired by the variety of food available at mixed rice restaurants. These include anything from chicken, fish, beef, lamb or other seafood and a variety of vegetables. These dishes are a mixture of the several cultures, with meat flavours ranging from curry to soy sauce to rendang. The music of ‘Nasi Campur’ is highly inspired by the food in that it includes many varieties and possibilities. Each time it is played, it has a slightly different sound. The unifying factor is the harmonic progression that is the same regardless of ‘dish’. The choice of ‘dishes’ in the melody has a range of traditional and popular music, just like a nasi campur place can have chicken rendang or deep- fried chicken. The melodies and countermelodies are inspired by rock kapak (literally, ‘axe rock’), a type of glam rock popular in the 1980s onward in Malaysia (Chapman, 2016, p. 239). This style is the music I heard frequently on buses or places where nasi campur is served. Some of the inspiration also comes from the music of P. Ramlee, which itself is a mixture of popular and traditional Western and Malaysian music. ‘Nasi Campur’ has an aleatoric nature. The piece can be as short as three minutes and nearly infinite in length but I suggest a few (2-3) dishes, which comes out at around six minutes. There is a fixed short introduction and ending that frames the work, but most of the movement is indeterminate. Each ‘food’ is the same length so that any combination may work musically. The specific food can be distributed via a menu to the audience, and the performers may choose ‘dishes’ to their liking or randomly select them. Each component of music represents a typical component of nasi campur. The rice, as foundation of nasi campur, is represented in the bass line. The melody represents the meat, the accompaniment represents the vegetables, the countermelody represents the drink and the tempo represents the sauces. The harmonic progression is fixed throughout so that any melody, countermelody and harmonic accompaniment will fit together. The choices made as to what ‘chicken’ (Figure 9) or ‘beef’ (Figure 10) sounds like were generally arbitrary, and were assigned different melodies to distinguish between them. Plain rice was given a simple bass line and other types of rice have more movement in the bass line (Figure 11). Figure 8. The beginning of the ‘chicken’ melody. Figure 9. The beginning of the ‘beef’ melody. Wesley A. Johnson 87 Figure 10. The ‘White Rice’ and ‘Coconut Rice’ bass lines. ‘Afternoon Tea’. The fourth movement, ‘Afternoon Tea’, is somewhat similar in concept to movement 2 in that they both begin like a European classical form that slowly integrates a style found in Malaysia. Where the second movement begins like a classical-era second movement of a symphony, the fourth movement is an inspirational mixture of a Baroque minuet and a third movement from a Classical-era symphony in triple meter (Figure 12). As with the second movement, the piece slowly adopts Malay joget drumming rhythms, which shifts the meter from 3/4 to 6/8 (Figure 13). The harmonic progression changes from continually shifting like Baroque music to a more popular folk accompaniment. Figure 11. Minuet melody with chord symbols from ‘Afternoon Tea’. Figure 12. Minuet melody superimposed over joget accents regrouped for 6/8 emphasis. The end of the movement concludes with a brisk ‘5/8 joget’ of the main theme (Figure 14). In contrast to the previous tea movement, which served as a transition from the Western form to the Malaysian form, the fourth movement contains a departure from both genres for the sake of compositional variety. Figure 13. Minuet melody in 5/8 with different harmony. ‘Char Kuey Teow’. In searching for musical inspirations from the Malaysian Hokkien culture that produced char kuey teow (‘Char Kway Teow’ 2014), I did not feel comfortable emulating Hokkien music without sounding generically Chinese, so ‘Char Kuey Teow’ derives its melodic material from a little- known (according to informal surveys of Malaysian Chinese of Hokkien descent) Hokkien jin’ge opera song, 寻祖 (‘cui zoh’, or ‘chuey zaw’) (Figure 15), which Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 88 means ‘searching one’s roots or ancestors’. This movement is largely a ‘fantasy’ on this theme. Figure 14. The melody of 寻祖 (‘searching roots/ancestors’), transcription by author. The opening of ‘Char Kuey Teow’ contains a slow polytonal statement of the melody (Figure 16) based on the music of the sheng. The middle section is a near reproduction of the melody but with a gamelan-inspired accompaniment (Figure 17). By continuing the melody in the second section and changing the accompaniment to a blues swing, the piece adds another layer through my perspective as an American (where blues forms one of the bases of most American popular music since the 1950s). An American writing music inspired by a Malaysian Chinese style is comes from the idea of an American eating a Chinese Malaysian dish. Figure 15. Melody with quartal harmony inspired by the sheng. Figure 16. Melody with gamelan-inspired accompaniment. Wesley A. Johnson 89 Figure 17. Samba rhythm inspired section with melody adjusted to fit chords. In the third section, the piece reflects another of my perceptions of the noodle dish. When I had first eaten it, it was not spicy. However, occasionally, it was prepared with chili flakes, and the spiciness surprised me (but was not as intense as nasi lemak). As in ‘Nasi Lemak’, I adapted the melody to a somewhat samba-like rhythmic accompaniment (Figure 18). When I would eat the spicy version of the food and the spiciness would start to build up. This is reflected in the louder, faster, more chaotic ending with the first few notes of the Hokkien folk song repeated until the end. ‘Roti Canai’. The form of ‘Roti Canai’ is borrowed from the structure of Hindustani and Carnatic Classical Music: a slow first section, a medium tempo second section with percussion accompaniment and a third is a fast, lively section. Throughout the entire movement is a two-note motif—the minor seventh to the perfect fifth—which is inspired by approximate interval of the two gongs’ pitches found in the Malaysian traditional music and dance mak yung. In the first section, the motif serves as a steady, repetitive marker to the freer sounding melody. In the second and third section, the motif serves as the starting point of the melody. The first section is two iterations of an ornamented melody loosely inspired by a Carnatic ragam (scale). There was not a specific scale in mind when composing, but there is a resemblance to the dhatuvardhani ragam (Figure 19). The texture of the tampura, the drone instrument in Carnatic music, is perpetuated throughout the first section. Figure 18. Scale of the dhatuvardhani using C as a tonic. Photo by VasuVR. Used with permission under creative commons license 3.0. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 90 The second section (Figure 20) introduces a medium tempo, with a syncopated rhythm across two 5/4 bars (similar to a 12/8 + 4/4), loosely inspired by tala (rhythm/meters in Hindustani and Carnatic music). Figure 19. The 5/4 rhythmic accompaniment in section 2. Figure 20. Melody in the third section with the 5+5+5+11 pattern. Figure 21. The ‘gamelan’ inspired adaptation of previous melody. Wesley A. Johnson 91 The third section is a very fast section also inspired by the odd-numbered talas possible in Hindustani and Carnatic music (while not directly using a specific pattern). The recurring rhythmic pattern is 26/8, or 5+5+5+11 (Figure 21 above), retaining some of the scalar elements from the first section, but eventually changing into the standard pentatonic scale found in Malaysian gamelan (among many other types of music). The third section ends with a coda in 4/4 inspired more directly by the Malaysian gamelan (Figure 22 above). Discussion From notes to performance When first composing, I wrote down the notes in categories of musical elements: melody, countermelody, harmony (high and low), bass line and percussion parts (Figure 23). The idea is that they need to be adaptable to a variety of ensembles and can be orchestrated and rearranged as such. The first live performance of Sedap Cycle was for piano four hands (Figure 24). Figure 22. Sample of sketch score of ‘Nasi Lemak’ from which all orchestrations and arrangements (present and future) are derived. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 92 Figure 23. The piano four-hands version (same passage as Figure 2) of ‘Nasi Lemak’. Naturally, each future orchestration or arrangement will provide different challenges. For example, as the piano duo version has no percussion, clusters are used in its place to create the rhythmic accompaniment in bars 26-28 of the above figure. With much less variety of timbre available in the piano than in an ensemble, the range was slowly shifted from extreme high to high from bars 18-25. In ‘Roti Canai’, the original version was written out (Figure 25), but in the piano duo version, there are instructions for extensive improvisation, which may also be used in future iterations of the piece (Figure 26). The performers may also choose to use a different scale to correspond with a raga’s time of day. Figure 24. Ensemble rendition of the first section of 'Roti Canai'. Wesley A. Johnson 93 Figure 25. Piano four-hands version of 'Roti Canai' opening section with instructions for improvisation. Going beyond the contemporary classical world, within each movement is a tune that follows various traditional practices. It is possible to extract each tune into a more conventional presentation with the potential for lyrics. The tunes from ‘Nasi Lemak’, ‘Morning Tea’, the multiple tunes from ‘Nasi Campur’, the original tune from ‘Char Kuey Teow’ and various fragments from ‘Roti Canai’ could be rearranged or ‘reverse engineered’ into popular style songs. Conclusion The ideal result of this composition is an idea: a postmodern form that is distinctively Malaysian in use. There is a great potential for this concept and form particularly for composers but also for performers and educators of Western classical music in Malaysia, who normally deal with centuries-old European works. Composers could create their own composition using the same structure and end up with a completely new composition. Much like people’s food preferences, there are near infinite combinations using this idea. Within Malaysia, a Malaysian Malay, Chinese or Indian would have a different perspective and would produce a piece more suited to his or her background. Outside of Malaysia, if a composer is searching for an inspiration that reflects his or her culture, something as simple and present as the meals of the day and the variety within a theme it creates can be an option. Food is something which every person needs and can connect to if linked to music. Performers in Malaysia could relate to food-inspired pieces more if they immediately understand the meaning behind the music personally. Educators can teach musical composition, concepts such as programmatic music or postmodernism and Malaysian genres using the food of the local culture that ties into the music. In Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 94 the end, if a musician is searching for an inspiration that reflects his or her culture, something as simple and present as the meals of the day and the variety within a theme it creates can be an option. Food is something which every person needs and can connect to if linked to music. Endnotes 1 This paper is expanded from the proceedings of the Music and Cultural Studies Conference in May 2016 (MUSICULT ’16) entitled ‘Sedap Cycle: Creating a Malaysian Multi- Movement Work Based on Local Cuisine’ (Johnson, 2016). 2 References to the food itself is not capitalised (char kuey teow), and references to the musical movements are capitalised and in quotation marks (‘Char Kuey Teow’). Acknowledgements The production of the music stemming from this research is funded by a University Research Grant (GPU) from Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. In general, there are so many in Malaysia I have met who contributed to the inspiration behind this project. While all colleagues at Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris would introduce me to various foods, in particular, Dr Clare Chan Suet Ching, Dr Christine Augustine, Dr Colleen Wong and Dr Mayco Axel Santaella were my first ‘portals’ into Malaysian cuisine. They ordered for me a roti canai and teh tarik for my first supper in Malaysia. The university’s various seminars and training where food was always provided also inspired the music. Various friendly people across Malaysia who I cannot name such as taxi drivers, passengers on the train and other encounters across Malaysia were vital in my informal research. The students at UPSI also played a role in not only filling out my surveys, but in turn teaching me about Malaysian food in our café. References Aubrey Suwito. (2011). One busy street [CD]. Cranky Music Sdn Bhd. Bolcom, W. (1984). Songs of innocence and of experience. New York, NY: Edward B. Marks Music. Bach, J. S. (1969). Cantatas 211 BWV 211. New York, NY: Kalmus. (Original work published 1735) Bernstein, L., & Dumont, E. (1960). La bonne cuisine: Four recipes. New York: G. Schirmer. Britten, B., & Duncan, R. (1988). Evening, morning, night: three songs from this way to the tomb: for medium voice and harp or piano. London.: Boosey & Hawkes. (Original work published 1944) Cage, J. (n.d.). How the piano came to be prepared. Retrieved, from http://johncage.org/prepared_piano_essay.html Cage, J. (1968). Sonatas and interludes. New York, NY: Henmar Press. Wesley A. Johnson 95 Chan, C.S.C. (2013). Beyond rhythm: Exploring infinite possibilities in music, movement and choreography—Hands Percussion Malaysia. Malaysian Music Journal,2 (2), 104-117. Chan, C.S.C. (2016). Song text composition in pinloin among the indigenous Jahai of peninsular Malaysia: A local postmodernist approach? Malaysian Music Journal,5 (2), 70-95. Chapman, I. (2016). Global glam and popular music. Abingdon: Taylor and Francis. Char Kway Teow | Tourism Malaysia. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.malaysia.travel/en/es/experiences/a-taste-of-malaysia/char-kway-teow Chong, K. Y. (2012, March 29). Kee Yong, Chong (E. Gendron, Ed.). Retrieved from http://www.chongkeeyong.com/aboutme.html Dvořák, A. (1997). Symphony no. 9 in E minor, op. 95: ("From the New World"). Mineola, NY: Dover. (Original work published 1893) Eplett, L. (2013, September 4). Pitch/Fork: The relationship between sound and taste. Retrieved from https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/food-matters/pitchfork-the- relationship-between-sound-and-taste/ Frühauf, T. (n.d.). A global musical feast: Food, music, and RILM. Retrieved from http://rilm.org/blogstuff/DWR%20preface.pdf Harry Nilsson. (1971). Nilsson schmilsson [Vinyl recording]. Richard Perry. Hood, M. M. (2016). Notating heritage musics: Preservation and practice in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. Malaysian Music Journal, 5 (1), 53-73. Howat, R. (2014). The art of French piano music: Debussy, Ravel, Faure, Chabrier. New Haven, NH?? : Yale University Press. Huizenga, T. (2010, November 25). Composers In The Kitchen: Gioachino Rossini's Haute Cuisine. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/sections/deceptivecadence/2010/11/24/131568241/composers- in-the-kitchen-gioachino-rossini-s-haute-cuisine Joget. (n.d.). DanceMalaysia.com. Retrieved from http://www.dancemalaysia.com/Dance/Traditional/ Folk_Dance/Joget/joget.htm Johnson. W.A. (2016). Sedap cycle: Creating a Malaysian multi-movement work based on local cuisine. Proceedings of the 3rd International Music and Cultural Studies Conference. Istanbul, Turkey: DAKAM. Keillor, E. (2010, July 20). Colin McPhee. Retrieved from http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/colin-mcphee/ Kramer, J. (2002). The nature and origins of musical postmodernism. In J. Lochhead & J. Under (Eds.). Postmodern Music/Postmodern Thought, (pp. 13-26). Location: Publisher. . Krich, J. (2009, July 31). Roti Canai. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124893513501192849 Lam, M. H. (2001). Malaysian music and composer Valerie Ross. International Alliance for Women in Music Journal. Retrieved from http://iawm.org/stef/articles_html/huey_valerie_ross.html Larry Groce. (1976). Junk Food Junkie [Vinyl recording]. Randolph Nauert. Lee, K. Y. (2014, August 31). Nasi lemak: The one dish that unites us all. Retrieved from http://www.themalaymailonline.com/eat-drink/article/nasi-lemak-the-one-dish-that- unites-us-all Matusky, P. (2017). Music of Malaysia: the classical, folk and syncretic traditions. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. McPhee, C. (1995). Tabuh-tabuhan: toccata for orchestra and two pianos. New York, NY: Assoc. Music Publ. (Original work published 1936) Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (73-97) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 96 Messiaen, O. (1964). Catalogue D'Oiseaux Pour Piano: I Livre, I, II, III. Paris: Alphonse Leduc. Mok, O. (2014, April 26). The famous Penang char koay teow. Retrieved from http://www.themalaymailonline.com/eat-drink/article/the-famous-penang-char- koay-teow Mozart, W. A. (1784). Piano Sonata No. 11 in A Major. Vienna: Ataria. Nasi Campur (Malay Mixed Rice). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.backpackingmalaysia.com/stories/nasi-campur-malay-mixed-rice Of superheroes, tempoyak and singing in the shower. (2012, October). Retrieved rom https://aclmalaysia.blogspot.my/2014/01/of-superheroes-tempoyak-and-singing- in.html Okan, S. (n.d.). Five examples of western composers influenced by a “Turkish theme”. Retrieved from http://www.turkishmusicportal.org/en/articles/five-examples-of- western-composers-influenced-by-a-turkish-theme Pritchett, J., & Kuhn, L. (2001, January). Cage, John (1912-1992), composer. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/49908 Reich, S. (1988). Different trains for string quartet and pre-recorded performance tape. London: Boosey & Hawkes. Rhythm in Bronze: Our journey. (2014). Retrieved from http://rhythminbronze.wixsite.com/rhythminbronze/our-journey--accomplishments Rossini, G. (2012). La cenerentola. London: Decca Music Group Limited. (Original work published 1817) Ruhman, M. (2012, March 2). The Music/Food Connection. Retrieved from http://ruhlman.com/2012/03/music-food-connection/ Rules, D. A. (2011, April 7). Nasi lemak, our 'national dish’. The Star Online. Retrieved from http://www.thestar.com.my/travel/malaysia/2011/04/07/nasi-lemak-our- national-dish/ Schumann, R., & Adorno, T. W. (1988). Liederkreis: 12 Gesänge von Joseph von Eichendorff für eine Singstimme mit Begleitung des Pianoforte. Op. 39. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel-Verl. (Original work published 1840) Snyder, J. E. (1993). Dvořák in America, 1892-1895. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press. Tan, D. (1998). Water Concerto. New York, NY: G. Schirmer, Inc. Tan, D. (2007, May). Water Concerto Synopsis [Interview by H. Elmquist]. Retrieved from http://tandun.com/composition/water-concerto-for-water-percussion-and- orchestra/ Tan, S. B. (2005). From Folk to National Popular Music: Recreating Ronggeng in Malaysia. Journal of Musicological Research,24(3-4), 287-307. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01411890500234054 Toh, T. (2015, November 28). Saidah Rastam won't let our music heritage die. Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.star2.com/people/2015/11/29/saidah-rastam-wont- let-our-music-heritage-die/ ‘Weird Al’ Yankovic. (1985). Dare to be stupid [CD]. Rick Derringer. ‘Weird Al’ Yankovic. (1988). Even Worse [CD]. Rick Derringer. ‘Weird Al’ Yankovic. (1993). Alapalooza [CD]. ‘Weird Al’ Yankovic. ‘Weird Al’ Yankovic. (1999). Running with scissors [CD]. ‘Weird Al’ Yankovic. Yoshino, K. (2010). Malaysian cuisine: A case of neglected culinary globalization. In J. Farer (Ed). Globalization, food and social identities in the Asia Pacific region. Tokyo: Sophia University Institute of Comparative Culture. Zapin. (n.d.). DanceMalaysia.com. Retrieved from http://www.dancemalaysia.com/Dance/Traditional/Folk_Dance/Zapin/zapin.htm Wesley A. Johnson 97 Biography Wesley Johnson is a senior lecturer and composer at University of Pendidikan Sultan Idris in Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia. He received his PhD in Music Composition at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa and his Masters of Music at the Conservatory of Music at the University of Missouri-Kansas City. He frequently writes music that blends and crosses boundaries: geographical and theoretical. His works blend classical and contemporary, experimental and conventional and traditional and popular styles. He maintains the online persona of ‘jimlapbap’ which displays his more unconventional arrangements on YouTube.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 1 (2017)

multicultural music, music education, music teachers, primary schools

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/138

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/829

Issues and Challenges in Teaching Multicultural Music amongst Primary Music Teachers in Malaysia

The purpose of this study is to identify the issues and challenges that music teachers face in teaching multicultural music in primary school classrooms in Malaysia. Using a qualitative methodology, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 music teachers from 12 primary schools. The data was analysed using a “themes-based” analysis of narrative. The findings indicate that these music teachers did not have adequate multicultural training during their college courses. The findings also demonstrate that the music teachers believe that multicultural music education is an essential part of music education. However, the implementation can prove to be difficult due to the fact that many music teachers do not possess appropriate multicultural music knowledge and resources in order to teach multicultural music. Music teachers also reported that the activities and approaches used in the classroom must involve the students actively, rather than passively receptive with a need to allow students to obtain first-hand experience playing traditional musical instruments. In particular, the data provides insights into a number of issues and challenges that music teachers face in implementing multicultural practices in Malaysian primary school music programmes. Hence, music teacher training programmes must take into account the diversity of Malaysian society in order to prepare music teachers to be receptive, tolerant and sensitive to the inclusion of multicultural music in their teaching.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/829/565

Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (98-110) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 98 Issues and Challenges in Teaching Multicultural Music amongst Primary Music Teachers in Malaysia Wong Kwan Yie and Chiu Ming Ying Department of Music, Cultural Centre, University of Malaya 50603 Kuala Lumpur e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Published online: 29 June 2017 Abstract The purpose of this study is to identify the issues and challenges that music teachers face in teaching multicultural music in primary school classrooms in Malaysia. Using a qualitative methodology, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 music teachers from 12 primary schools. The data was analysed using a “themes-based” analysis of narrative. The findings indicate that these music teachers did not have adequate multicultural training during their college courses. The findings also demonstrate that the music teachers believe that multicultural music education is an essential part of music education. However, the implementation can prove to be difficult due to the fact that many music teachers do not possess appropriate multicultural music knowledge and resources in order to teach multicultural music. Music teachers also reported that the activities and approaches used in the classroom must involve the students actively, rather than passively receptive with a need to allow students to obtain first-hand experience playing traditional musical instruments. In particular, the data provides insights into a number of issues and challenges that music teachers face in implementing multicultural practices in Malaysian primary school music programmes. Hence, music teacher training programmes must take into account the diversity of Malaysian society in order to prepare music teachers to be receptive, tolerant and sensitive to the inclusion of multicultural music in their teaching. Keywords: multicultural music, music education, music teachers, primary schools Introduction As a multiethnic and multicultural nation, Malaysia has shown its uniqueness and treasures among the countries in Southeast Asia. The three main ethnic groups in Malaysia—Malay, Chinese, and Indian—have been sharing languages, lifestyles and cultures with one another. Therefore, providing better harmony and understanding towards various cultures in educational curriculums has become one Wong Kwan Yie and Chiu Ming Ying 99 of the most essential missions for Malaysian teachers (Wong & Chiu, 2016). In this paper, the researchers were concerned with the issues, dilemmas and challenges that music teachers face while teaching multicultural music in the classroom. It is our position that music teachers should not hesitate to explore other musics and cultures. Music teachers should expand musical horizons, demonstrate the value and significance of music from other cultures and educate students about other cultures. In a country with cultural diversity, it is believed that the inclusion of music from other cultures in the school music curriculum can strengthen Malaysian national unity and further build national pride and tolerance. Context Historical Background of Modern Malaysia Malaysia is a nation in Southeast Asia divided into East Malaysia (part of Borneo Island) and Peninsular Malaysia (West Malaysia). The historical background of modern Malaysia contains two important incidents: colonisation and migration. Colonisation began with the Portuguese and the Dutch. The two countries ruled present-day Malaysia during the 17th and the 18th centuries respectively while the British took over gradually. In 1826, the British began the settlement of Melaka and extended its colony to include the island of Penang and present-day Singapore. Later on, the Japanese occupied what is present-day Malaysia in 1942. Years later in 1957, after the establishment of the Federation of Malaya, Malaysia announced its independence from Britain with the new country’s first Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman (Kennedy, 1962). During colonisation, the British-Malaysia period, people originating from China, India and Sri Lanka began to immigrate to Malaysia. Today, Malaysia’s population is approximately 28.3 million, with an ethnic composition of 50.1% Malay, 22.6% Chinese, 11.8% indigenous, 6.7% Indian and 0.7% others (minorities) (Central Intelligence Agency, 2016). The term bumiputera mainly refers to the majority Malay ethnic group and the indigenous people of Peninsular Malaysia, as well as native people in the state of Sarawak and Sabah such as the Kadazan-Dusun, Bajau, Iban and others (Minority Rights Group International, 2016). The uniqueness of multiple cultures in Malaysia has shaped a national education policy that promotes loyalty in order to create values and aspirations to shape national unity and identity. The History of Music Education in Malaysia As early as the 1800s, music courses were introduced at the Penang Free School later followed by English schools in Kuala Lumpur and in the states of Melaka and Ipoh. However, a music curriculum was not established (Mohd Hassan Abdullah, 2007). The reason for this is that the early purpose of education was to help local Malaysians attain better positions in either the public or private industries. Therefore, arts education was not emphasised in the schools. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (98-110) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 100 On the other hand, the influence of British colonisation in Malaysia has instilled the idea that English culture, in terms of education, law, politics and so forth, is the best. Colonisation gave rise to the idea that only Western/British music education should be considered the standard and most acceptable (Johami Abdullah, 1990). Johami Abdullah’s (1993) study found that the definition of music in the Asian sense is distinct especially in Malaysia as a multi-religious nation. Abdullah further states that, “music has never been a part of an Asian tradition. It has always been Western in concept and practice. Furthermore, music education was seldom considered a specialised sub-discipline of music study” (p. 2). Music activities such as choir and brass band prevailed in the classroom. Added to this, English language classes focused on learning English folksongs and choral singing, and reciting English poems (Yong, 2003). The British-oriented preference in music education gradually changed as the American approach became another option for music educators to receive overseas training (Ramona Mohd Tahir, 2004). Although Malaysia has had a long and prolific tradition of education, formal music education only began to develop in the 1980s. Initially, the educational emphasis on local and traditional music did not gain much attention. Only the concept of Western or Eurocentric classical music was valued (Johami Abdullah, 1990). Based on his own experience, Shankman (2005) suggests that students should experience their own heritages through the educational school system. Today, the Malaysian music education curriculum has made many changes. In accordance with the latest version of the curriculum, world music was introduced through the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) in Malaysian primary schools. Primary Music Education in Malaysia Music education is a compulsory subject in the primary schools in Malaysia and is emphasised from ages seven to twelve. The music education curriculum known as the ‘Integrated Primary School Curriculum’ (Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah, KBSR, 1983) was initially under the management of the Malaysian Ministry of Education in 1983 and was then implemented in all primary schools in 1988. The content of the curriculum followed the ideas of the British education system. Students learnt singing and the playing of instruments such as the recorder and percussion instruments. Some schools provided marching band or choir ensemble as part of the curriculum (Mohd Hassan Abdullah, 2007). In 2010, in order to make improvements to the existing KBSR and to prepare students to gain more applicable knowledge in music education, the new curriculum system ‘Standard Curriculum for World Music for Primary School’ (Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah, KSSR) was introduced (KSSR, 2010). The current content of the music curriculum in Malaysian primary schools contains four aspects: aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic perception, creative expression and musical experience (Mubin Md Nor, 2011). These aspects are based on three curricular modules: the Musical Experience Module, the Music Production Module and Music Appreciation Module. In general, students begin at the age of seven and spend six Wong Kwan Yie and Chiu Ming Ying 101 years finishing their music study (Official Website of Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2016). According to the official website of the Ministry of Education Malaysia (2016), the primary music education programme in Malaysia contains two levels; Level One that comprises Year 1-3, followed by Level Two that comprises Year 4-6. Music education is one of the compulsory subjects for both levels. For Level One students, singing is the main focus; for Level Two students, simple music notation is taught for the purpose of learning to play instruments. The Importance of Multicultural Music Education in Malaysian Context According to Banks (1993), multicultural education is a movement designed for different ethnic groups, genders and class levels of students. It enables students who come from an ethnically polarised nation to be more caring and knowledgeable. Malaysia is a multiethnic nation with a colonial history. Ethnic group relations are complex and need to be carefully dealt with especially since it involves different cultures, religions and languages (Shamsul Amri Baharuddin, 2008). Hence, to satisfy the social needs of Malaysia, especially in terms of cultural-ideological factors, the function of the educational system cannot be ignored (Saedah Siraj, Abu Bakar Nordin, & Norlidah Alias, 2013). Music education plays a part in developing an individual’s self-esteem and patriotism through student awareness of and participation in different musical cultures and genres in Malaysia (Ministry of Education, 2000). Volk (1998) suggests that a multicultural music education will enable students to function musically within the multiple music cultures of a society. Furthermore, children who are raised in a multiethnic region will be familiar with different cultures through multicultural music (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2010). Malaysia is a society with a diverse population and the researchers are aware that the country’s cultural diversity has contributed to increasing demand for a multicultural approach in education specifically in music education. In 1983, the Integrated Curriculum for Primary School (KBSR) clearly outlined that primary students are entitled to engage with a multicultural music element where students need to appreciate various types of Malaysian musics and cultures. In 2010, the new music curriculum ‘Standard Curriculum for World Music for Primary School’ developed a multicultural music element where students appreciate a variety of music through their exposure to music from various cultures. Chong (2012) states that music educators should look for ways to include various genres of ethnic music such as Asian music, African music and South American music. The purpose for this is to distance the students from the hegemony of Western classical music that has been mainly taught in schools. In the Malaysian context, multicultural music education is important in order to help students understand cultural diversity in their own country and encourage inter-ethnic understanding and intercultural communication (Tan, 2008). Chan (2012) further states that music of every culture embodies people’s interaction from different cultural backgrounds, worldviews and philosophies. In addition, multicultural music education helps students to be aware of multicultural diversity Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (98-110) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 102 and promotes better understanding, tolerance and acceptance of other kinds of people around them (Wong, Pan & Shahanum, 2016). Multicultural music education also develops interest and appreciation in the music and songs of Malaysian culture among students (Shah, 2006). Simultaneously, music can be an effective platform to open the doors to multiculturalism and move beyond a hierarchical and eurocentric perception of music (Bradley, 2006). Since the standards that KBSR require are inclusive of aesthetic appreciation of various types of Malaysian music and cultures, it is significant to ensure that Malaysian primary music teachers have a good approach to multicultural music education in order to teach students. Therefore, the researchers investigated Malaysian primary music teachers’ perceptions of multicultural music education that is provided by the teacher-training programme. By understanding the music teachers’ learning process during their training sessions, improvement of the training programme’s content could be made in order to fulfill the teachers’ needs. On the other hand, the researchers also investigated the challenges that music teachers faced while teaching multicultural music in class. For instance, equipment in the classroom such as musical instruments and the students’ backgrounds may affect the quality of teaching multicultural music. Moreover, the music teachers’ views of the suitability of the teaching approaches and activities adopted for multicultural music were a priority to investigate as well. In sum, the aim of this research was to identify the issues and challenges that Malaysian music teachers faced while teaching multicultural music at the primary school level. Given the cultural richness that is reflected in classrooms, the study of multicultural music education in Malaysia is receiving more attention from academicians and has long been an issue amongst schoolteachers at the primary and secondary levels. There is substantial research on the multicultural education that is more oriented towards culturally responsiveness, pedagogical approaches and theoretical analyses. However, the research on multicultural music education in particular is still lacking, paving the way for a need to conduct more comprehensive studies in this field. Hence, in order to understand the needs of teachers in the classroom, the researchers feel that a study that identifies music teachers’ issues and challenges in teaching multicultural music is appropriate. It is hoped that this study would benefit curriculum developers in deciding upon creating a balanced direction for music teachers’ education programmes in Malaysia with regard to multicultural music education. Methodology For the purpose of accumulating data, the researchers used semi-structured interviews in order to allow for in-depth conversations about the participants’ views. According to Smith (2005), semi-structured conversation is the most effective way of gaining understanding and perceptions of participants in a study. Interview participants were selected without regard to research interests or focus of their institutions. For this study, thirty music teachers were selected from Wong Kwan Yie and Chiu Ming Ying 103 12 primary schools in Malaysia based on their commitment to teaching and learning of multicultural music. Other recruitment criteria of teachers in this study were based on the interest of their personal and professional experiences and their abilities to express and reflect on the issues and challenges of teaching multicultural music. The participants in this study consisted of 21 females and 9 males. Overall, the participants reported an average of five years of full-time teaching experience in primary schools of Malaysia and all participants interviewed were Malaysian. Each participant completed a semi-structured interview that consisted of fifteen questions. The interview duration ranged from 20 to 30 minutes and the study was conducted over a six-month period. Twenty face-to-face interviews were conducted at the participants’ workplaces. Nine interviews were conducted by phone and one interview questionnaire was completed independently by a research participant and emailed to the researchers. Participation in the study was voluntary, granting the interviewees’ anonymity in order to maintain confidentiality. Analysis of Data Data collected from the interviews was qualitatively analysed using an approach of thematic analysis known as Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Generally, the purpose of IPA is for researchers to explore the meanings of the experiences expressed by participants (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014). In order to ensure that this study would yield dependable and credible outcomes, the participants’ interview responses were audio recorded with the consent of the participants and transcribed by the researchers. All data was coded, categorised and analysed to illustrate the two significant themes in this study concerning the issues and challenges of teaching multicultural music encountered by Malaysian primary music teachers. The second researcher established the validity of analysis by reviewing the themes for accuracy and authenticity of the data. Results The data was explored and reported in accordance to the following themes: Theme One: Issues of Teaching Multicultural Music for Malaysian Primary Music Teachers Most of the participants expressed that multicultural music education should not be an event that emerges at one particular point in the teacher-training programmes. Instead, it should be included from the start to the finish. Participants reported that they lack knowledge of and responsiveness to the ways that music is situated in culture. This idea also extends to the way in which music teachers present multicultural music education in music classes. Gay (2003) claimed that “teachers must be multicultural themselves before they can effectively and authentically teach students to be multicultural” (p. 4). Butler, Lind and McKoy (2007) express that a problem arises when students have little understanding of the context, function and Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (98-110) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 104 purpose of the musical examples if the teacher’s approaches to multicultural music education lack depth and integrity. Some teachers had the awareness that learning multicultural music is not their only duty. Teacher J2 stated that teachers must, “Also learn to deliver the music or instruct the music in a way that is accurate to the culture”. Some teachers believe that they are responsible for learning multicultural music in various aspects. I think that we should be exposed more to repertoires, methodologies, ways of teaching and learning in multicultural music during our study in the teachers college. I believe it will equip us to serve in a variety of music communities. (Teacher L1) Meanwhile, participants expressed various views such as the importance of preparing teachers in the teacher education courses to be culturally responsive in the music classroom by offering a range of music that is related to local languages and cultures. Teacher K mentioned that she had a better understanding by learning songs related to folk customs and festivals such as ‘Suasana Hari Raya’, ‘Gong-xi Gong- xi’ and ‘Deepavali Manaye Suhani’ during her teacher training session. Teacher A further addressed that studying the background of multicultural music helped spark her interest, so she was motivated to deliver her knowledge of the music to students. Page (1995) pointed out that music teachers should seek to tell the stories behind the music they are teaching and present it as authentically as possible, therefore showing respect to the culture that is being taught. Page also suggested that the music teacher should use resources outside of the textbooks and classroom materials and make sure students compare and contrast the new culture with music they are familiar with. To carry out this policy at a national level, multi-racial music should be featured in training courses and textbooks. Experiencing diverse music instead of only focusing on Western cultures should be the teachers’ concern. Teacher J1 said that, “we were mainly Western taught.” Teacher J1 explained that the teacher-training programme only provided courses such as Western music theory and learning to play Western classical instruments. Two teachers shared their views regarding a Western-oriented education. I wish that in the teacher training programmes, we could have experiences outside of the western musical ensemble experiences. Go outside of the classical choir or western musical ensemble experiences that we had in our music department. I think all of us should be engaged in at least one ensemble that is not western based. (Teacher F1) We need to understand that music of the Western classical tradition is not essentially considered as the topmost of the pyramid and everything else is considered as secondary. (Teacher L2) Klocko (1989) suggested that the many institutions that adopt a eurocentric worldview, need to be substituted with a more global worldview for higher learning. It includes music outside of the Western art tradition. Schippers (2005) suggested that there is a need to critically reflect on the accomplishment of initiatives aimed at Wong Kwan Yie and Chiu Ming Ying 105 providing culturally diverse music education. Moreover, Schippers acknowledges that Western classical music is “the only reference for music education”. Participants in this study have noticed that multicultural music was often a neglected area in music education curricula in teacher training colleges and universities. In addition, participants of the study believe that it is important for multicultural music education to extend beyond music and to also address culture. Some participants stated that it builds an awareness of self-identity and self-esteem by knowing where one comes from and what one can offer by sharing a diversity of music, language and culture that is not confined to local music. Multicultural music education will also help primary school students value a wide spectrum of cultures and celebrate the diversity of music. Teacher S found that students and including herself became more conscious about their own identities and cultures through multicultural music including sharing world music such as African drums, Native American pow wow music or aboriginal music from Malaysia in music classes. Edwards (1998) encourages music teachers to expose children to diverse music cultures and further suggests that the in-depth study of a limited number of musical cultures is the best path in understanding world music. Teacher H realised that children are intelligent and perceptive. The students were highly interested and gave positive responses when the teacher shared multicultural music in class. They gained self-esteem and adored their peers’ different identities and cultures. Fitzpatrick (2012) further urges that in order to foster greater respect, clearer understanding and better connections in the music classroom, music educators need to have a culturally relevant pedagogy and acknowledge the rich music heritage each student brings into the class. Insufficient training in multicultural music education in the teacher training programmes was an issue for some participants. Some teacher educators overlooked the importance of multicultural music education during training sessions. Moreover, some teachers were more comfortable utilising a eurocentric approach that focuses on Western art music. Teacher S reported that the lack of information has made the library or online resources the only way for her to approach multicultural music. Teacher R had very few opportunities to learn about multicultural music, and she suggested that other teacher educators were not aware of their responsibilities of sharing the diversity of cultures and arts. Teacher Z hoped that he could have had more chances to practise multicultural music with his peers prior to teaching in the primary school. Music teachers who had multicultural teaching experiences indicated that there are benefits of integrating multicultural music activities into the music curriculum in order to enhance student interest in learning multicultural music. There are many teaching approaches and activities that encourage students to engage in multicultural music learning activities, such as using traditional musical instruments, accompanying traditional or folk songs with games and activities, music-making and so on. Teacher Y said his students viewed folk songs integrated with dances as particularly exciting especially when the songs had lively melodies and rhythms. Shehan (1986) recommended that the use of simple folk songs to highlight a repetition of melodic and rhythmic patterns is a very good approach to introducing young children to foreign musical cultures. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (98-110) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 106 All participants of the study remarked that singing and listening activities are natural ways for students to approach multicultural music. Teacher L noticed that rhythm is the key to teaching multicultural music. Students were eager to learn while listening to pieces that have characteristic rhythms. Some teacher participants also came to recognise the students’ motivations in learning multicultural music and redesigned their teaching in response. “By obtaining first-hand experience of playing the traditional musical instruments, students had better understanding than studying it from a book,” said Teacher S. Music teachers have also brought up the idea of having a multicultural music showcase presented by the students. By letting students prepare for multicultural music performances or presentations, students reveal showmanship and attempt to learn and improve their knowledge in order to present good performances. Teacher C stated that her students were always expected to perform traditional music. They were happy and confident while performing in front of an audience. Teacher K’s students gained knowledge of multicultural music by the process of collecting information for class presentations. In addition, Teacher F2 believed that students could learn about cultural performance through practice if they are given opportunities to play multicultural music in different musical ensembles at school. Campbell (2004) advocated that for music teachers to teach the performance of a musical style in a culturally appropriate manner, music teachers must focus on the specifics of the music that culture bearers believe to be characteristic and crucial to the style of their music. Theme Two: Challenges of Teaching Multicultural Music for Malaysian Primary Music Teachers In general, the participants of the study appeared to recognise the challenges of the multicultural teaching context. The most prominent data code that occurred had to do with not having adequate time in the music education curriculum when attempting to include multicultural music in their instruction. Shalaway (2005) indicated that 27% of the school day is taken as being non-instructional in a primary school. Therefore, time management has become one major challenge for teachers. Some participants mentioned that they did not have enough time to teach multicultural music in class. However, the teachers did not have the same problem while teaching other musical elements. They could only briefly introduce multicultural music. Teacher P reiterated this by stating: “It is always hard to add multicultural music elements in class because there is so much to cover in the music textbook”. Moreover, management of the learning environment is also a challenge for the music teachers, especially when they were in need of traditional musical instruments and therefore keeping the students’ interest in learning multicultural music. Teacher J2 brought up the problem of the shortage of musical instruments. Students easily lose concentration when they do not have hands-on experience in playing the instruments. Quesada (2002) suggested that music teachers should play the music recordings of traditional instruments so that students can hear the specific timbre of the instruments when it is not possible to obtain traditional instruments. Wong Kwan Yie and Chiu Ming Ying 107 On the other hand, some participants in the study pointed out that whether students are interested in unfamiliar multicultural music activities or repertoires depend on the students’ backgrounds. Some of Teacher E’s students are highly interested in approaching multicultural music. She has found one thing in common among these students, “The residents around their neighbourhood are multiracial”. Teacher A also recalled that one of her students was not passionate about learning multicultural music because, “My parents told me to only celebrate festivals from our origin”. Coleman’s documentary has shown that neighbourhood quality or family background might affect a student’s knowledge attainment (Egalite, 2016). Related to the teachers’ preparation to teach multicultural music, some participants addressed that preparing multicultural music teaching materials is challenging. Teacher B had a difficult time when preparing for multicultural music teaching material because she did not make much effort to learn multicultural music during her teacher training session. As for Teacher J3, she was not comfortable preparing multicultural music material due to the lack of knowledge and interest. Teacher Y agreed that teachers need to deliver as much multicultural music content knowledge as possible to students; however, she indicated that the stresses and limited time on the subject have made it difficult for teachers to step out of their comfort zones and learn new things. O’Neill (2009) indicates that many music teachers avoid making music choices that make them uncomfortable, inadequate and less effective for teaching, including music from other cultures that they have no experience or musical expertise to draw on. It is believed that without fully learning and understanding of multiple cultures, music teachers are not capable of attracting student attention. Conclusion The findings from this research have implications for multicultural music education teaching in Malaysia. The difficulties experienced by music teachers for teaching multicultural music need to be addressed. Awareness of the issues revolving around assisting and enhancing the multicultural elements in teacher training programmes needs to be raised. In this study, music teachers felt that multicultural music education is essential to music teacher preparation programmes and should be incorporated into all aspects of music education curriculum through the use of culturally responsive teaching and culturally diverse curricular resources and activities. The findings of this study also indicated that most of the music teachers reported favourable attitudes toward the use of multicultural music in the classroom. However, the teachers reported inadequate preparation in the area of multicultural music pedagogy. Music teachers further expressed that they need more opportunities for continuing professional multicultural music training in order to empower them to integrate multicultural music education into their music classes. The results of this study also reveal that most of the music teachers found that singing, listening and practical hands-on music activities are the most effective approaches for all concerned. Music teachers expressed that these approaches are more successful than Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (98-110) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 108 reading to children in a direct way about being more multi-cultural. Therefore, it is the responsibility of music teacher educators to instil and provide rich multicultural music programmes within the music teacher education courses and primary schools in Malaysia. It is believed that in Malaysia, multicultural music education enables students to understand the uniqueness of cultures that furthers the appreciation of universal qualities that bind the cultures together (Wong, Pan & Shahanum, 2016). Hence, in order to provide a more complete assessment of the status of multicultural music education in the music teacher-training programmes in Malaysia, more research into multicultural music education curricular requirements of all music teacher-training programmes is needed. The research in the development of multicultural music education for primary school is significant and also meets the current requirements. Therefore, by improving and refining the music education curriculum, a culturally responsive teaching approach provides opportunities for students to be exposed to diverse cultures. Given the multicultural characteristics of Malaysia it is important that music teachers and students immerse themselves in multicultural music education to ensure that music education remains relevant in Malaysia’s diverse society. References Banks, J.A. (1993). Multicultural education: Development, dimensions, and challenges. The Phi Delta Kappan, 75(1), 22-28. Bradley, D. (2006). Music education, multiculturalism, and anti-racism – Can we talk? Action, Criticism & Theory for Music Education, 5(2). Retrieved July 24, 2008, from http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bradley5_2.pdf Butler, A., Lind. V., & McKoy, C. (2007). Equity and access in music education; Conceptualizing culture as barriers to and supports for music learning. Music Education Research, 9 (2) 241-253. Campbell, P. S. (2004). Teaching music globally: Experiencing music, expressing culture. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Central Intelligence Agency (2016). Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html Chan, C.S.C. (2012). P. Ramlee’s music: An expression of local identity in Malaya during the mid-twentieth century. Malaysian Music Journal, 1(1), 16-32. Chong, P. L. (2012). East Malaysian music in the classroom: Kenyah and Kadazandusun recreational songs and Jatung Utang (Kenyah xylophone). Malaysian Music Journal, 1(2), 20-43. Department of Statistics Malaysia, Official Portal. Last modified 2016. Retrieved from https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column/ctheme&menu_id=L0pheU43N WJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09&bul_id=MDMxdHZjWTk1SjFzTzNkRXYzcV Zjdz09. Edwards, K. (1998). Multicultural music instruction in the elementary school: What can be achieved? In Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 138, 62- 82. Egalite, Anna J. (2016). How family background influences student achievement. Education Next, 16(2). Retrieved from http://educationnext.org/how-family-background- influences-student-achievement/ Wong Kwan Yie and Chiu Ming Ying 109 Fitzpatrick, K. R. (2012). Cultural diversity and the formation of identity: Our role as music teachers. Music Educators Journal, 98(4), 53-59. Isenberg, J.P. & Jalongo, M.R. (2010). Creative thinking and arts based learning: Preschool through fourth grade (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Gay, G. (2003). The importance of multicultural education. Educational Leadership, 61(4), 30-35. Johami Abdullah (1990). Music education in Malaysia: An overview. The Quarterly Journal, 1(4), 44-53. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (1983). Buku panduan muzik KBSR untuk Tahap I dan tahap II. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (2010). Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR): Tahun Satu. Putrajaya: Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (2011). Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR): Tahun Dua. Putrajaya: Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum. Kennedy, Joseph (1962). A history of Malaya, A.D. 1400-1959. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Klocko, D. G. (1989). Multicultural music in the college curriculum. Music Educators Journal, 75(5), 38-41. Minority Rights Group International (2016). Retrieved from http://minorityrights.org/ Mohd Hassan Abdullah (2007). Music education in Malaysian public school: Implementation, issues and challenges. Journal Pendidikan Bitara UPSI, 1, 33-48. Mubin Md Nor (2011). Develop human capital through music education in Malaysia. Academic Research International, 1(2), 220-227. O’Neill, S. (2009). Revisioning musical understandings through a cultural diversity theory of difference. In E. Gould, J. Countryman, C. Morton & L.Stewart Rose (Eds.), 70-89. Exploring Social Justice (Vol. IV). Toronto: Canadian Music Educator’s Associaton. Page, N. (1995). Sing and shine on!: The teacher’s guide to multicultural song leading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishing. Pietkiewicz, I., & Smith, J. A. (2014). A practical guide to using interpretative phenomenological analysis in qualitative research psychology. Psychological Journal, 20, 7-14. “Primary education.” Official Website of Ministry of Education Malaysia. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.my/en/pelajaran-rendah Quesada, M. A. (2002). Teaching unfamiliar styles of music. In B. Reimer, (Ed.) World Musics and Music Education, 139-159. Reston, VA: National Association for Music Education. Ramona Mohd Tahir (2004). Proceedings from The 18th International Scientific and Practical Conference 2004: Music and music education in Malaysia: A state of affairs. Music Pedagogical Education between the 20th and 21st centuries. Moscow Khanty-Mansysck: Moscow State Pedagogical University, Russia, 2004. Saedah Siraj, Abu Bakar Nordin, & Norlidah Alias (2013). National integration in multicultural school setting in Malaysia. The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Science, 1(1), 20-29. Schippers, H. (2005). Taking distance and getting up close: The seven-continuum transmission model (SCTM). In P. S. Campbell, J. Drummond, P. Dunbar-Hall, K. Howard, H. Schippers, T. Wiggins. (Eds), 29-34. Cultural diversity in music education: directions and challenges for the 21st century. Brisbane, Australia: Australian Academic Press. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 6, Num. 1 (98-110) ISSN 2232-1020, eISSN 0128-2158 110 Shahanum Mohamad Shah (2006). Popular music in Malaysia: Education from the outside. International Journal of Music Education, 24(2), 135-142. Shalaway, Linda (2005). Learning to teach… not just for beginners: The essential guide for all teachers. New York, NY: Scholastic Inc. Shamsul Amri Baharuddin (2008). Modul hubungan etnik. Selangor, Malaysia: Pusat Penerbitan Universiti, Universiti Teknologi MARA Shankman, I. (2005). The importance of world music in music education. Retrieved October 21, 2016 from http://www.artistshousemusic.org/ Shehan, P. K. (1986). Towards tolerance and taste: Preferences for world musics. British Journal of Music Education, 3(2), 153-163. Smith, J. A. (2005). Semi structured interviewing & qualitative analysis. In J.A. Smith, Rom Harré, and Luk Van Langenhove (Eds), Rethinking methods in psychology, (9-26). London: Sage Publication. Tan, S.B. (2008). A Paradigm Shift in Teaching Music in Schools: Traditional Music and Multiculturalism in Malaysian Education: Approaches in Music Appreciation Classes. In Education for the arts. In L. Joubert (Ed), Education for the arts: The Asian experience: Twenty–Four Essays, 249-260. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. Volk, T. M. (1998). Music, education, and multiculturalism: Foundations and principles. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Wong, K.Y. & Chiu, M.Y. (2016). Music teachers' perceptions of teaching multicultural music in Malaysia. Paper presented at the 1st International and Interdisciplinary Conference on Arts Creation and Studies (IICACS) 2016 (24-25 August 2016). Surakarta: Institut Seni Indonesia. Wong, K. Y., Pan, K. C. & Shahanum Mohamad Shah (2016). General music teachers' attitudes and practices regarding multicultural music education in Malaysia. Music Education Research, 18(2), 208-223. Yong, L. J. B. (2003). The roles of the Malaysian government and private sectors in the development of music education (unpublished master dissertation). University of Florida, Florida USA. Biography Wong Kwan Yie received her Ph.D. in Music Education from the University of Malaya. Her PhD study was sponsored by the Skim Latihan Akademik IPTA (SLAI) offered by the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia. Her research interests include multicultural music education, choral music education and Malaysian music. Wong is now a senior lecturer in University of Malaya, Malaysia. Chiu Ming Ying is from Taiwan. She received her Bachelor of Arts degree and Master of Arts degree in Taiwan, and received the Doctor of Musical Arts degree from Louisiana State University, the United States. Chiu is currently serving as senior lecturer in University of Malaya, Malaysia.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 6 No. 1 (2017)

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/138

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1155

Editorial

The Malaysian Music Journal presents two articles on musicology, one on composition and three on music education in Volume 6, Number 1. The first article, written by Kyle Fyr, compares the signature works of three Western composers – Cage, Reich and Adams. The article examines the significance of age 40 with creative achievement by comparing the career arc of these three composers and examining the common threads that led to their landmark achievements. In the fourth article, Adil Johan analyses Zubir Said’s music accompaniment to a famous film, Dang Anom, produced during the turbulent 1950s in Singapore. Zubir’s music embodies the paradox of the need to highlight ‘traditional’ Malay music in order to fortify a Malay identity while embracing the then cosmopolitanism lifestyle of the Malays, largely influenced by the British.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1155/2856

MALAYSIAN MUSIC JOURNAL Volume 6 Number 1 June 2017 ISSN 2232-1020 e-ISSN 0128-2158 Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjong Malim, Perak 2017 ii iii MALAYSIAN MUSIC JOURNAL Volume 6 Number 1 June 2017 Editorial Clare Suet Ching Chan v Age 40, Year of the 'Signature Work': The Case of Cage, Reich and Adams Kyle Fyr 1 Developing a Graded Examination for the Malay Gamelan Shahanum Mohamad Shah, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon 14 The Ideal Characteristics of Higher Education Music Institutes in 21st century Thailand Saya Thuntawech, Somchai Trakarnrung 30 Scoring Tradition, Making Nation: Zubir Said's Traditionalised Film Music for Dang Anom Adil Johan 50 Sedap Cycle: A Multi-Movement 'Compositional Tour' of Malaysian Cuisine Wesley A. Johnson 73 Issues and Challenges in Teaching Multicultural Music amongst Primary Music Teachers in Malaysia Wong Kwan Yie, Chiu Ming Ying 98 iv v Editorial Cite this editorial (APA): Chan, C.S.C (2017). Editorial. Malaysian Music Journal, 6(1), v. The Malaysian Music Journal presents two articles on musicology, one on composition and three on music education in Volume 6, Number 1. The first article, written by Kyle Fyr, compares the signature works of three Western composers – Cage, Reich and Adams. The article examines the significance of age 40 with creative achievement by comparing the career arc of these three composers and examining the common threads that led to their landmark achievements. In the fourth article, Adil Johan analyses Zubir Said’s music accompaniment to a famous film, Dang Anom, produced during the turbulent 1950s in Singapore. Zubir’s music embodies the paradox of the need to highlight ‘traditional’ Malay music in order to fortify a Malay identity while embracing the then cosmopolitanism lifestyle of the Malays, largely influenced by the British. The second and sixth article each discusses an important issue in the development of music education in Malaysia. Shahanum Mohd Shah and Zaharul Lailiddin present the development of a graded examination syllabus for the Malay gamelan. The researchers investigated various techniques of teaching, learning and performing the gamelan, and they interviewed well-known teachers of the gamelan, on their perspective of repertoire for assessment. In the sixth article, Wong Kwan Yie and Chiu Ming Ying discuss the issues and challenges faced by primary school music teachers in Malaysia in the teaching of multicultural music. The researchers found that primary school teachers lack both theory and practical knowledge on the music of the various cultures of Malaysia. These teachers express the importance of teaching the rich musical heritage of Malaysia to the primary children, but stated that they required additional training in this area. Saya Thuntawech and Somchai Trakarnrung investigate the ideal characteristics of higher education music institutes in Thailand. Based on interviews with selected administrators from eleven musical institutes, the researchers present their findings, which include the need for improving the music curriculum, philosophy and vision and resources of these music institutes. Finally, Wesley A. Johnson, presents the compositional techniques and methodology he utilised to compose ‘Sedap Cycle’, a six-movement composition based on a typical vi six meal per day structure in Malaysia. The article discusses a practice-led approach to the creative composition, which involved questionnaires and surveys on the types of food favoured by Malaysians including among others, nasi lemak, roti canai, char kuey teow and teh tarik during these six meals. The music composed to accompany these meals were inspired by the composer’s exposure to the soundscape of a multicultural Malaysia. Clare Suet Ching Chan Chief Editor Malaysian Music Journal

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 2 (2016)

dissemination, empowerment, mentorship, indigenous, transmission

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/137

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/818

Alternative Directions in Art Education and Dissemination of Traditional Arts in a Globalised Society

The new century bears witness to new developments in the consciousness of peoples around the world, following the colonial experience and the advent of modern education and technological advances. In postmodern discourse in which traditional practices have come to the fore in asserting identity on behalf of individual societies, the transmission of cultural art forms has become an imperative concern among peoples, countries and nations. It is also within this context that the empowerment of traditional artists has been regarded as a necessary tool in the preservation of one’s cultural heritage. This paper discusses the multi-dimensional aspect of transmission and dissemination of traditional practices as part of a process of social evolution and the different participants in the process of learning and disseminating artistic forms of expression, as well as adopting indigenous knowledge in the functioning of contemporary society in Asia and other parts of the globe.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/818/554

Ramon Pagayon Santos 1 Alternative Directions in Art Education and Dissemination of Traditional Arts in a Globalised Society Ramon Pagayon Santos College of Music, University of the Philippines e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The new century bears witness to new developments in the consciousness of peoples around the world, following the colonial experience and the advent of modern education and technological advances. In postmodern discourse in which traditional practices have come to the fore in asserting identity on behalf of individual societies, the transmission of cultural art forms has become an imperative concern among peoples, countries and nations. It is also within this context that the empowerment of traditional artists has been regarded as a necessary tool in the preservation of one’s cultural heritage. This paper discusses the multi- dimensional aspect of transmission and dissemination of traditional practices as part of a process of social evolution and the different participants in the process of learning and disseminating artistic forms of expression, as well as adopting indigenous knowledge in the functioning of contemporary society in Asia and other parts of the globe. Keywords dissemination, empowerment, mentorship, indigenous, transmission INTRODUCTION The advent of a new century is witnessing the development of a new global consciousness among peoples and societies. The plethora of cultural and historical traditions among societies all over the world offer different global perspectives, in which individual nations and societies, through the uniqueness of their cultures, ways of life and expressive heritage can contribute towards shaping a liberal and liberating world humanism. In the last four centuries, the literate system of learning inherited from classical civilisations has been adopted as the principal medium in the transmission of human knowledge. Classrooms, books, lecture halls, libraries and now cyberspace technology, have created a monopoly in the dissemination of information, as well as in the scientific teaching and learning of various aspects of human life - the physical, metaphysical and forms of expressive action. At the same time, the aspect of promotion of traditional practices have also evolved in the contemporary consciousness as a means of balancing technology with humanism Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5 Num. 2 (1-16) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 2 and spirituality. Marking the post-modern era in scientific and artistic inquiry, the twenty- first century opens new challenges to the artistic life around the globe in the study, learning and the promotion and dissemination of the arts as universal forms of human expression. One of these challenges is a departure from traditional norms of formalised teaching, to one that explores the variety of learning systems that have been in practice for hundreds of years in the different cultural communities all over the world. Even as we look in contrast to art education in the context of a predominantly western system of teaching, formal schools for classical arts have been in existence outside the purview of pedagogy developed in the west. These schools range in compass from academies to master-led studios and institutes, dealing with specific artistic skills, to newly established programmes that deal with the arts with different approaches and methodologies. In Indonesia, the Institut Seni Indonesia (ISI) offers full-scale curricula in Indonesian performing arts (karawitan) such as gamelan music, choreographic arts, live theatre and puppetry. The Department of Fine Arts in Thailand has a similar programme, while in China and Japan, schools for the different musical and theatrical genres such as the Peking opera, nan guan, kabuki, kyogen and gagaku are taught according to traditional training methods. Secondly, we are now experiencing the departure from the exclusivity of the different traditional practices, to one of sharing the experience with the outside world, not only through teaching but also through actual engagement. The establishment of formal educational institutions in Southeast Asia, deriving mainly from the over-all literacy agenda of the colonial regimes, has been adopted as the principal instrument to develop professionally productive citizenries in the developing and modernising nation-states. With education as a potential tool in shaping a future paradigm for human existence, the tension between social and humanistic concerns on one hand and the goal of creating an efficient, industrialised society on the other, is now challenging the institutional agencies for teaching and learning in confronting the realities of social change (new notions of time and physical space, conduct, behaviour, taste and the valuation of things). Even this forum today is a manifestation of this concern where we reflect on modern education as a possible tool for regeneration of Asian cultural values. In a recent study, concepts of pedagogy and modern education were investigated in the context of cultural transmission in modern times, with special focus on human resources vis-a-vis technological resources, as well as the natural integration of societal need with knowledge (practical and extra-practical) vis-à-vis the primacy of form, content and competence. In this study, cultural transmission was highlighted as the overriding issue, while pedagogy and education were looked upon for their intrinsic essentiality based on cultural habitus. As both evidenced by the collected data as well as by common knowledge, the elements of modern education show that its goal, as practiced in western civilisation, is not merely aimed at the acquisition of knowledge but also to utilise that knowledge to fulfil a new paradigm for human existence – social success and material productivity. On the other hand, traditional pedagogy trains practitioners to fulfil needs in the non-material world of rites whether they are of spiritual or secular significance. Ramon Pagayon Santos 3 Although the role of these schools is equally significant in modern-day art education, this paper shall focus on the transmission, pedagogy and learning of oral traditions of non-literate societies, especially those found in village cultures under the context of adopting indigenous knowledge in the functioning of contemporary society. The issue of validating the role of indigenous knowledge in the field of present day pedagogy in a way mirrors the larger issue of empowering indigenous peoples and communities as direct participants in the development of new social and political structures. The issue departs from the concept of modernisation based on various models of development - from the colonial and neo-colonial paradigms of technology transfer, to the Marxist and neo-Marxist systems of resource distribution, which in their top-to-bottom procedural prescription, have both marginalised, if not totally ignored, the potential contributions of indigenous knowledge to the social equilibrium of present-day society (Sillitoe, 1998). The dynamics of globalisation draws its essence from the materiality of human production, creating new valuations of both the tangible and intangible modalities and mechanisms of expressive practices. The commercialisation of traditional arts has become an imperative in the modernising landscape all over Southeast Asia. As the prime emblem of cultural uniqueness and exoticism, traditional art forms have become a productive source in attracting western market to come and contribute to the economic growth of different nation-states. The foregoing discussion therefore intends to highlight the interconnections and parameters that need to be considered and perhaps put in place between the different participants and the different motivations in the process of learning and disseminating artistic forms of expression in Asia. Furthermore, it shall attempt to propound on the idea that the teaching, transmission, dissemination and promotion of the arts is part of a process of social evolution in which different cultural practices survive or evolve according to a community’s cultural canons, as well as decisions and responses to change. NEW PARADIGMS IN ART EDUCATION The concept of incorporating indigenous knowledge into the social mainstream, and vice versa, is not an easy proposition (Sillitoe, 1998). First, indigenous knowledge cannot be readily isolated from its social context without losing or vitiating its cultural significance, or in the case of an expressive practice, its aesthetic meaning. Indigenous knowledge is the product of interactions between society and its environment, concretised in a system of expressive practices that reflect modes of thinking and beliefs regarding relationships among members of a given society, as well as relationships between society and the physical and metaphysical worlds. This relationship is markedly holistic in the sense that if one of its components changes, the entire equilibrium is disturbed and a new paradigm needs to be ideated and put in place. Second, the interface of different and often times conflicting artistic values needs to be carefully studied, whether such interface is possible at all or to what Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5 Num. 2 (1-16) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 4 degree interfacing is possible between cultural poles, in terms of theoretical knowledge, technique and the communicative values of art itself as both language and non-language (Kramer, 1996). On one hand, this particular issue becomes clearer if one were to view art education as a cultural practice by itself, representing the social evolution of teaching and learning in Western society. On the other hand, indigenous artistic knowledge and its transmission are not only particularly concerned about skills, literacy and the preservation of form and techniques of execution, but also the continuity and sustenance of tradition, the efficacy of the rites of passage that they reinforce or enhance, and the reaffirmation of one’s cultural identity. Third, the deliberate interfacing of two or more socially mediated and socially determined practices must undergo a process of accommodation and assimilation through a time-space that could span generations of stakeholders. Furthermore, the success of any scheme or strategy for this purpose can only succeed depending on the willingness of the systems and the direct participants to accept change and even initiate innovations from within, determining for themselves culturally acceptable limits to such innovations. As the traditional artists have joined the ranks of the professional community, the art forms themselves have undergone drastic changes in their aesthetic and intrinsic functional value. In today’s musical discourses, the issues of political capital, power brokering and negotiation are topics often taken up in the academia and socio-cultural activist dialectics, all in reference to traditional musical productions vis-à-vis physical and material survival or the marginalisation of culture bearers. Fourth, an effective process of interfacing can only come with an equal sharing of decisions as well as authority and power. While the process itself may need the element of inter-mediation or facilitation, such function, can be assumed by the cultural stakeholders themselves, who by their own personal ideation and initiative, have developed and pursued their own vision of interfacing in the context of cultural pluralism in contemporary society or cultural integration and development in a nation state. Moreover, since indigenous artistic knowledge is so connected to social and cultural structures, these very structures must serve as the principal areas of negotiation and interfacing, before a meaningful and lasting actualisation can take effect. POINTS OF INTERSECTION IN ART EDUCATION AND DISSEMINATION OF TRADITIONAL CULTURE The extent by which indigenous peoples have gone beyond traditional ethnic boundaries has resulted in a variety of social conditions (obtaining in Southeast Asia as well as other parts in the world today) contributing significantly to the issue as well as the process of transmitting and promoting indigenous musical knowledge. Recent events, observations, studies, projects and experiments, have resulted in the unfolding of several models in the context of cultural interfacing as well as intra and inter-cultural music teaching. In the following models, the cultural interfacing comes in different degrees of participation from both the indigenous culture and the Ramon Pagayon Santos 5 institutional structures of mainstream society. Moreover, the indigenous culture practitioner provides the knowledge and the artistic elements in the transmission and dissemination process. On the other hand, the existing social institutions from the government and the civic sectors provide the initiative and infrastructure by which transmission and dissemination of indigenous artistic knowledge can be carried out as a contemporary cultural practice. Models of Artistic Interfacing a) The first model is called ‘school for living traditions’, a new learning programme that is in the process of being institutionalised by the Philippine government through the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA). As a component of the award for National Living Treasures (Gawad Manlilikhang Bayan - GAMABA), the concept of School for Living Traditions is intended to enable the Master Artist to transfer traditional artistic skills to the younger generation within one’s cultural community. As of today, five master musicians have been given the title of GAMABA: an epic chanter from Panay-Bukidnon, a Maguindanao kutyapiq (2- string lute) player, as well as master musicians from the Kalinga, Yakan and Palawan ethnic communities (National Commission, 2000). At the same time, the NCCA also supports outstanding village artists who can initiate their own schools for living traditions. One such school is the Cordillera Music Research Center of Mr. BenicioSokkong (Figure 1). Benicio was formerly engaged at the UP College of Music to teach Kalinga instruments such as the nose flute, the lip-valley flute, the gangsa (flat gongs) and several types of bamboo percussion. Benicio also developed his skill in the making of Kalinga musical instruments such as flutes, the Jew’s harp, zithers and a variety of bamboo idiophones. Considered as a leading exponent of Kalinga music and dance, Benicio Sokkong was awarded a grant to initiate a school for living traditions. Today, the school is situated in the mountain capital of Baguio City in Benguet province in Northern Luzon. The school has a ‘faculty’ of several individual artists from other related ethnic traditions in the Cordilleras - Bontoc, Ifugao, Kankana-ey, Ibaloi. The school is open to non-Kalinga or non-Cordillera native, and offers short term live-in, immersion programmes in Cordillera traditional life and musical arts. What is unique about this programme is that enrolees stay in village-like surroundings and are given ‘lessons’ in singing or instrumental playing in simulated village events or everyday occasion. Teaching sessions are not bound by time limitations. Watches and time pieces are not allowed. The sequence of activities is guided only by the everyday life cycle of a village resident, including trips to the field or participation in actual community festivity, including the butchering of sacrificial animals for rituals. The students are also taught the art of instrument making, including the indigenous knowledge of the natural environment from which materials for these instruments are derived. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5 Num. 2 (1-16) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 6 Figure 1 The Cordillera Music Research Center developed by Benicio Sokkong. A similar effort has been done in North Sumatra, although the programme officially lasted for only two years of implementation, it spurred the local communities to establish teaching programmes especially of the musical traditions that are endangered to disappear for lack of incentives and interest on the part of the young generation. I refer here to the Revitalization Program on the musics of North Sumatra, as spearheaded by the couple Rithuani Hutajulu and Irwansya Harahap. They were able to get a two-year grant from the Ford Foundation in order to set up a programme of instruction on five different musical traditions in North Sumatra: The Karo Batak, Simalungun, the Pakpak, Toba Batak and the Parmalin. They identified the instructors and selected interested young people to compose the core schools where instructions were given to the youth on a regular basis (Figure 2). Several factors were especially taken into consideration: the proximity of the pupils to their teachers, the place where the instructions were held, and the experience of the teachers. This was monitored by a team who reported regularly to Rita and Irwansya, and later the whole project was evaluated by a foreign expert. In local regions in Africa, centres have been formed to train performers and grouped them into ensembles. They are taught as performers who will perform their different music and dance numbers for audiences in their localities as well as other places in the country and even abroad, as representatives of their governments. Their artistic activities have been extracted from the usual social function and have been reconfigured for entertainment (Stone, 1998). In Ghana, the National Dance Company was established, where a team of master drummers as well as other musicians were asked to demonstrate, teach and perform for the members of the company, who consisted mostly of young men and women who have displayed their skills in dance (Nketia, 1998). These centres can also facilitate the creative activities of its members like innovating musical instruments or creating new choreographic formations and movements, together with their inherent meanings and social significance. Ramon Pagayon Santos 7 Figure 2 Pakpak children learning from the master. It is also in these centres where the idiosyncrasies of performance can be taught even out of their original context. One example is the concept of the ‘musical word’ of the drums from Sub-Saharan Africa, which embody a ‘cultural essence’ and speaks with different messages that is linked to a social system or class, to a particular being, to a ritual, or to a specific extra-musical act (Kululuka, 2013). In these three examples, the interfacing is achieved between the traditional way of learning the structural mechanisms of practice through participation in actual village activities and the ‘artificiated’ training and educating of community members of the same racial or ethnic backgrounds. However, this modernised procedure still stems from the knowledge of master artists who had learned the traditions in the natural or indigenous way of knowledge transfer. b) A second model is a recent experiment that is closely related to the schools for living traditions, except that the initiative and concept come from outside the cultural boundaries of the indigenous community. In the Summer of 1999, the NCCA supported a project that brought some twenty student composers, music educators and researchers together with some music faculty of the University of the Philippines College of Music, to Davao City, to learn pre-selected musical traditions from two ethnic communities - the Bagobo Diangan and the Kalagan tribes. From the Bagobo Diangan group, two cousins were contracted to teach in the programme:both with a title of Chief – Datu Malandoy Munoy (Figure 3) and Datu Maximo Gabao, who is also one of the deputy mayors of the city. Today, Munoy and Gabao have evolved their own repertoires that include folktunes and even modern pop songs. They have taught their siblings some of the playing techniques and the dances that are integral into the performance practice, and have virtually organised them into a troupe that could instantly perform for visitors, academic researchers, and tourism establishments. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5 Num. 2 (1-16) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 8 Figure 3 Malandoy Munoy teaching students at the Eagle’s Park in Davao City. On the other hand, the teacher from the Kalagan tribe is also a deputy mayor by the name of Rogelio Sumawang. The three principal mentors have organised their own family troupes, who perform for local festivals and tourism events, as well as participate in national cultural events that are held in Manila and other places outside Davao City. The family members serve as resource artists in demonstrating specific skills in instrumental and dance performances. In this particular model, the musical interfacing were successfully realised through the common and shared experiences by the various participants - the cultural ‘outsiders’ who conceived and implemented the project based on years of scientific studies of traditional music cultures as well as training in music education; and the cultural ‘insiders’ who have adopted some conventions of music making outside traditional norms. These include a ‘modernised’ repertoire of current tunes and folksongs, audience-oriented performances, a concept of theatre, costuming and choreography. c) A third model is one that was begun by Endo Suanda (Figure 4) of Bandung, wherein he introduced new teaching materials based on modern technology in the teaching of the arts to high school students. Targeting the apathy of the youth towards traditional cultural practices, he launched the LPSN (Lembaga Pendidikan Seni Nusantara) with the vision of not only revitalising knowledge and appreciation for the arts, but also the pride on one’s cultural heritage, among the young generation. He concretised this vision by producing books, monographs on cultural objects including musical instruments, masks, textiles, etc., as well as audio visual materials such as DVDs (Figure 5), to facilitate familiarity with the art objects, their use as well as significance. He mobilised a staff to give workshops to teachers, encouraging them to conduct their own researches which he published in a magazine entitled Agung. This massive effort was intended to give the students a wider view of culture in that the materials consisted not only Asian artistic objects but also artefacts from around the world. Ramon Pagayon Santos 9 Figure 4 Endo Suanda, founder of Lembaga Pendidikan Seni Nusantara (LPSN). Figure 5 DVDs produced by Lembaga Pendidikan Seni Nusantara (LPSN). Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5 Num. 2 (1-16) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 10 This approach to the learning of traditional practices is intended to make the modern students aware of the myriads of praxis of different ethnic communities in the four corners of the globe. The materials have been the product of researches and are disseminated using modern technological devices. The thrust of this initiative is not to imitate the traditional cultures but to invent new ways of replicating them, using new and accessible materials, and eventually appreciate the diverse ways of expressing culture. d) The fourth model is a form of mentorship in orally transmitted music that is being carried out in the context of a modern system of art education. The principal example is a programme of teaching music from representative musical cultures in the Philippine done at the University of the Philippines College of Music. Begun some fifty years ago, the Conservatory hired and appointed village artists as Special Lecturers to teach Kalinga music from the North and Maguindanao. music from the South. Because the music was extremely new to both conservatory faculty and students, the artists were given a free hand in designing their own teaching strategy and methodology, in determining the course content and repertoire, as well as in devising a system of learning evaluation at the end of the course. The conditions obtaining during the initial implementation may constitute what one may consider as a ‘shot in the dark’. The village artists were never trained in western music and did not have the ability to read and write music notation; 1) They were tasked to teach conservatory students with a purely western music background; 2) The music that they were to teach were totally unfamiliar with their students; 3) None of the students belonged to any of the artists’ ethnic culture and vice versa. 4) The village artists did not have college degrees (at the time of their hiring) 5) This was the first time that indigenous musical knowledge was introduced as an area of serious study in a formal music institution of higher learning. After some years of implementation, the concept of a graduated course sequencing as well as the idea of a formalised teaching methodology was slowly developed by the artists themselves. One of the main issues that modern classroom education in the field of traditional arts has created is the diminished impact of orality in the learning process. For this reason, a working compromise seems to have been reached by using the written and notated pages and whiteboards to introduce new materials, towards the ultimate commitment of these materials to memory. Aga Mayo Butocan (Figure 6) invented a notation system that would facilitate the learning of a non- literate musical system by literate note-reading musicians (Figure 7). Facilitating this process is the course of practical classroom work, no matter how limited in time allotment, which consists of repetitive playing and the eventual teaching of the art of improvisation. Ramon Pagayon Santos 11 Figure 6 Aga Mayo Butocan teaching kulintang to students. Figure 7 Kulintang notation as created by Aga Mayo Butocan. Another main characteristic of traditional pedagogy being incorporated in modern art education is the element of communal learning. In a semi-ideal, if not ideal condition, team teaching has already been institutionalised especially in Indonesia, where the main karawitan instrument, the gamelan, requires different Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5 Num. 2 (1-16) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 12 levels of expertise on the members of the ensemble. The students also rotate playing the different instruments so that by the time the course is finished, the student shall have mastered all the instruments in the ensemble. While composition is a fairly recent development in traditional arts education in the last 40 years, its methodology of learning wisely veers away from its individualised mooring in western practice. Instead, it derives elements and modalities characteristic of oral transmission and communal interaction between elders and disciples, most art institutes implement in Indonesia today. The process of putting up the final production on the part of the graduating students continues to apply techniques of community interface, as putting together all the performing forces of dancers, actor, musicians, etc., not to mention the individual leaders – composer, choreographer, stage director, stage designer, into the final production. The final recital of a graduating student is performed not in the school but in the village, where the final evaluators are the masters themselves. The concept of mentorship as a regular feature of a modern school of music gradually gaining ground in Asia, especially in countries where orally transmitted music are being practiced. In Yunnan, China, the Arts Department of the Nationalities Institute in Kunning, is opening a music programme that revolves in part around the participation of village artists in the general curriculum. The Royal University of Fine Arts in Cambodia has also put in place a mentorship programme with an initial teaching and facilitating force of some 140 artists of various musical expertise. Similar undertakings can be observed in other Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia. In the latter, as well as in nation states from other Asian and African regions, formal academies offering programmes in traditional arts have long included the teaching of non-literate traditions in their formal curricular offerings. It should be noted that in these countries, the process of interfacing may not need to overcome as wide an alienation gap as in the case of the highly westernised urban and lowland Filipinos, since these countries have managed to preserve their fundamental languages, as well as cultural and musical traditions, not withstanding their related histories of falling under the political yoke of foreign colonial powers. Whatever ‘development’ has taken place in their expressive cultures in response to modern global trends, has been tempered by a strong and time-tested indigenous heritage. e) The fifth model of interfacing between indigenous and traditional artists and the contemporary communities and stakeholders is the idea of festivals, in which participation is not only confined to traditional artists and students, but also entire cities and towns. Many of these festivals have become commercially motivated events, luring tourists to partake of the celebration and in the process contribute to the economic well-being of the host community. While festivals have become the venue to promote traditional arts and culture, change in the integral essences of the traditional practices is inevitable, although one can say that the festivals themselves have become part of the extended traditional practices which are no longer the exclusive property of ethnic communities but by entire populations of cities, towns and countries. In the Philippines, the Kaamulan Festival held annually in Davao Ramon Pagayon Santos 13 brings together some 10 ethnic communities in the locality to show their different traditional arts, including textiles, food and performing arts. They parade along the main avenues in what is called ‘street dancing’ and then at a designated merging area, they present numbers which are newly choreographed in a display of colourful and spectacular pageantry. In Africa, festivals are organised to assert their cultural emblems in music and dance to a larger number of people. In Tanzania, a festival among the Wagogo people of the town of Chamwino has been organised annually by the Department of Creative Arts of the University of Dar Es Salam, now led by Dr.Kedmon Mapana. After a three-day conference on African musical cultures at the University, the villages prepare their music and dance numbers that will be shown in the festival. While the participants belong to one ethnolinguistic group, their varied presentations, some newly composed and choreographed, are pitted against each other. In Solo, the annual International Dance Day has been celebrated in massive exhibition of the traditional and contemporary dances of the Javanese community. In 2007, some 1000 dancers have been assembled from the different schools to participate in exhibiting a traditional dance (Figure 8). Today, the number of dancers have increased to around 6,000. In these festivals, the traditional practices have been used and expanded into becoming mass experiential events. With the coming of mass culture, the materials for such events have been culled from customs and folklore, both ancient and modern, with the participation of various peoples from different cultures and ethnicities. In fact, these communal interactions have become traditions in themselves in the life of a modern society. Figure 8 1000 dancers from Solo, Indonesia. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5 Num. 2 (1-16) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 14 CONCLUSION The above models of interfacing in the process of incorporating and integrating indigenous musical knowledge into the structural framework of modern art education and arts promotion, show various possibilities of expanding the idea of art pedagogy and dissemination in the context of sustaining cultural diversity in a global social environment. They also show that the process can only materialise and bear fruit if authority, judgement and power are equally shared by the purveyors of indigenous knowledge as well as the initiators of the process of dissemination and propagation of the different artistic expressions. Looking at the larger issue of transmission, one may argue a theory of difference between interventional acculturation and evolutionary enculturation regarding the cultural history of Southeast Asian peoples in the last 500 years. Interventional acculturation brings about changes especially in traditional cultures through influences from the outside, whether it may be economic, political or religious. On the other hand, evolutionary enculturation refers to changes that the traditional culture bearers themselves incorporate in their practices from a process of selecting the emendations on their traditions, whether they may be structural or internally substantive. A closer study of their manifestations in the dynamics of modern education would reveal an open-ended view not only the highly complex transformative nature of cultural transmission, but also in the multi-dimensionality of the entire phenomenon. In the societal dynamics in today’s traditional communities, individuals and institutions interact with extra-territorial influences and respond to the impact of change within the materiality, spirituality, aestheticity of human expressive practices. The variability of this interaction may be defined by the way individuals and institutions seek to, and resolve the tension obtaining from the confrontation between tradition and change in a globalised society. REFERENCES Blaukopf, K. (1992). Musical life in a changing society. Transl. David Marinelli. Portland, Oregon:Amadeus Press. Kramer, L. (1996). Classical music and postmodern knowledge. Berkeley-Los Angeles London: University of California Press. Kululuka, A. A. (2013). From sub-saharan Africa to Americas, the drum as a “cultural being” for a “musical word”. In Aharonian, C. (Ed), La Música Entre África y América (pp.131-146). Montevideo: Centro Nacional de Documentación Musical LauroAyestarán. Lundquist, B. &Szego, C.S., Eds. (1998). Music of the world’s cultures: A source book for music educators. Perth: Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education/International Society for Music Education. National Commission for Culture and the Arts. (2000). GawadsaManlilikha ng Bayan 2000. Souvenir Program. Manila:NCCA. Nketia, J. H. K. (1998). The scholarly study of African music: A historical review. In Stone, R. (Ed), Africa: The Garland encyclopedia of world music. New York, NY and London: Garland Publishing, Inc. Peralta, J. (2000). Glimpses: Peoples of the Philippines. Manila: The National Ramon Pagayon Santos 15 Commissionfor Culture and the Arts. Philippine Congress. (1994). GawadManlilikha ng Bayan: Republic Act No. 7355. {An Act providing for the recognition of National Living Treasures, otherwise known as the Manlilikha ng Bayan, and the promotion and development of traditional folk arts, providing funds thereof, and for other purposes}, Manila: Office of the President Republic of the Philippines. ProeungChhieng., Sam, S. & Cook C. (1996). Mentorship-apprenticeship program at the Royal University of Fine Arts. Unpublished document. Santos, R. P. (1994). Authenticity and change in intercultural music teaching. Musical connections: Tradition and change. edited by Heath Lees. Auckland: ISME/Uniprint. Santos, R. P. (1997). Beyond the song. In Katsumura, J. and Tokumaru, Y. (Eds), Report of World Musics Forum; Hamamatsu 1996 (pp. 96-106). Tokyo: Foundation for the Promotion of Music Education and Culture. Santos, R. P. (1997). Universalism and particulars in folk music: Views on the significance of Kodaly on system and practice, method and pedagogy. Bulletin of The International Kodaly Society. Santos, R. P. (1998). Summer Institute in field research on Philippine folk and indigenous Music. Unpublished document submitted to the National Commission for Culture and the Arts. Santos, R. P. (1998). Traditional expressive cultures in modern society: An issue of survival in change. The Korean Journal of Dance Studies. Volume 2. World Dance Alliance Korea Chapter. Santos, R. P. (1999). Maguindanao highland music: Tradition and change. Notes of a CD album. Pasay City: Music Competition for Young Artists Foundation (NAMCYA). Sillitoe, P. (1998). The development of indigenous knowledge. Current Anthropology.39(2), 223-252. Stone, R. (1998). African music in a constellation of arts. Africa: The Garland encyclopedia of world music. New York and London: Garland Publishing, Inc. Street, B. & Besnier, N. (1997). Aspects of literacy. Companion encyclopedia of anthropology. Ed. Tom Ingold. London and New York: Routledge. Takizawa, T, ed. (1992). Perspective of music education in Japan and ASEAN. Towards a new scope of music education as cultural education. Tokyo: Research Committee for Asian Music Education. BIOGRAPHY Ramon Pagayon Santos (b. 1941) initially trained in Composition and Conducting at the University of the Philippines, and earned his Master of Music (with distinction) and Ph.D. degrees at Indiana University and State University of New York at Buffalo, respectively. He was a full fellow at the Ferienkursefűr Neue Musik in Darmstadt and a Visiting Scholar in Ethnomusicology at the University of Illinois. As composer, his works, which have been performed in Europe, the Americas and Asia, are conceived along concepts and aesthetic frameworks of Philippine and Southeast Asian artistic traditions. In the field of Musicology, he has undertaken researches not only in Philippine and Asian contemporary music, but also studied Javanese gamelan music and dance and nan guan, and engaged in continuing field studies of Philippine traditional music such as the musical repertoires of the Ibaloi, the Bagobo, Manobo, Mansaka, Bontoc, Yakan, and Boholano, as well as musics from South Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5 Num. 2 (1-16) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 16 China, Indonesia and Thailand. He is currently serving as University Professor Emeritus of the UP and President of the Musicological Society of the Philippines. He was proclaimed National Artist in Music in June 2014.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 2 (2016)

dynamic form, interpretation, musical plot, performer as narrator, Piano Sonata D959, Schubert

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/137

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/819

Performer as Narrator: The Second Movement of Franz Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major D959

This paper investigates how a performer might engage with the construction of narrative experiences in and through the performance of the Second Movement of Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major, D959. The investigation is based on the understanding of the role of the performer as narrator in the performance of early nineteenth-century piano music in general and Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major, D959, in particular. In addition to considering aspects of the musical context in Schubert’s own time, this article will shed light on a ‘paradigm shift’ between what Lawrence Zbikowski termed ‘static form’ and ‘dynamic form’. The traditional large-scale form, such as sonata-form, represents the ‘static form’ which consists of balanced structure built from regular sub-units with clear harmonic connections between each other. The ‘dynamic form’ was conceived as ‘form as process’ where the emphasis was given to a performer in defining the musical structure throughout a piece. This creative role of a performer in giving shape to music suggests the idea of narration and the Second Movement of Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major, D959, presents an interesting example for musical narration in early Romantic music. There appears to be no consensus as to a ‘stylistically correct’ rendition of Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major, D959, and it possesses some unique musical features, which invite performers and researchers to conduct an investigation of the sonata.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/819/555

Tham Horng Kent 17 Performer as Narrator: The Second Movement of Franz Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major D959 Tham Horng Kent Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia. e-mail: [email protected] Abstract This paper investigates how a performer might engage with the construction of narrative experiences in and through the performance of the Second Movement of Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major, D959. The investigation is based on the understanding of the role of the performer as narrator in the performance of early nineteenth-century piano music in general and Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major, D959, in particular. In addition to considering aspects of the musical context in Schubert’s own time, this article will shed light on a ‘paradigm shift’ between what Lawrence Zbikowski termed ‘static form’ and ‘dynamic form’. The traditional large-scale form, such as sonata-form, represents the ‘static form’ which consists of balanced structure built from regular sub-units with clear harmonic connections between each other. The ‘dynamic form’ was conceived as ‘form as process’ where the emphasis was given to a performer in defining the musical structure throughout a piece. This creative role of a performer in giving shape to music suggests the idea of narration and the Second Movement of Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major, D959, presents an interesting example for musical narration in early Romantic music. There appears to be no consensus as to a ‘stylistically correct’ rendition of Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major, D959, and it possesses some unique musical features, which invite performers and researchers to conduct an investigation of the sonata. Keywords dynamic form, interpretation, musical plot, performer as narrator, Piano Sonata D959, Schubert INTRODUCTION In the construction of performance guidelines applicable to Franz Schubert’s music, “source data relating directly to Schubert performance in the composer’s lifetime is relatively scarce; much has thus been made of wider contemporary treatises” (Pace, 2012, pp 646-648). Montgomery (1997) also explained that other possible reasons such as fewer public appearances by Schubert himself and the invention of new approaches to performance by Liszt as well as his contemporaries (p.104) contributed to the further ignorance of Schubert’s instrumental music in both the Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (17-35) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 18 early nineteenth-century performance manuals (p. 270) and in Viennese concert life. Their emphasis on musical virtuosity successfully attracted huge attention from the public in Vienna (Hanson, 1985, p.188). Consequently, Schubert’s works, in particular his piano sonatas, were frequently treated somewhat indifferently (compared, for example, with Beethoven’s piano sonatas). This is suggested by William Kinderman in his article on Schubert’s piano music: Several factors contributed to their neglect: the fact that much of this music remained unpublished during Schubert’s lifetime; the dominance, in these works, of musical expression over technical virtuosity; and the overpowering influence of Beethoven, whose works set standards that are not directly applicable to Schubert. (Kinderman, 1997, p.155) Particularly in some earlier literature, Schubert’s piano sonatas have been criticised for using forms and structures that were constructed in an unusual way (for example, see Kinderman, 1997, p.155). Despite the fact that “the efficiency and success of Beethoven’s forms provided an inescapable critical model for more than a century to come” (Rosen, 2003, p.15), it is clear that taking Beethoven’s works as models for Schubert’s works can lead to a misconception of the uniqueness of Schubert’s music (Brendel, 2007, pp.45-46). The innovative approach of Schubert in the construction of musical structure was discussed by Robert Schumann (1810- 1856) in his article on Schubert’s Symphony No. 9: Let me state at the outset: he who doesn’t know this symphony knows little of Schubert. In view of what the world has already received from him this may seem hardly credible praise. It is so often said, and to the considerable annoyance of composers, that “after Beethoven one should forgo symphonic ambitions”, and it is true that most of those who have disregarded this advice have produced only lifeless mirrorings of Beethovenesque idioms, not to mention those sorry, dull symphonists who have managed a tolerable suggestion of the powdered wigs of Haydn and Mozart but not their heads. One may make an exception for single important orchestral works, but they have been more interesting for the light they have had on the development of their composers than for any influence they have had on the public or on the evolution of the symphony … I had suspected and hoped – and probably many others, too – that Schubert, who had shown such a sure sense of structure, such invention and such versatility in so many other forms, would also tackle the symphony from the flank and find the spot from which he could get at both it and the public. (Pleasants, 1964, p.164) Schumann’s article was considered as one of the earliest attempts in recognising the uniqueness of Schubert’s instrumental works (Gibbs, 1997, p.247). While Beethoven concentrated more on the unity of the whole work, for example, by utilising a tiny motif in his Fifth Symphony, Schubert was more concerned with presenting ideas as spacious continuous lines. As one of the leading interpreters of Schubert’s piano works, Alfred Brendel has written that “in his larger forms, Schubert is a wanderer. He likes to move at the edge of the precipice, and does so with the assurance of a sleep-walker. To wander is the Romantic condition” Tham Horng Kent 19 (Brendel, 2007, pp.164-165). Sonata D959 is a very good example of that ‘wanderer condition’, and ultimately highlights Schubert’s unconventional approach in composing the sonata by constructing the musical themes which seem to move beyond the verge of a conventional sonata form. Such innovative procedures – mainly derived from Schubert’s achievement in song – would ultimately be of great importance for the next generation of composers. In recent years, there has been a re-appraisal of Schubert’s instrumental works such as piano sonatas because of a new understanding of how Schubert’s forms hold these works together (Hatten, 2004, p.121). Some of this new understanding does not directly grow out of a traditional classical conception, but rather tries to elucidate how musical narration can be used to highlight Schubert’s innovative procedures in expanding the sonata form as well as loosening the harmonic and structural elements of traditional form. The central concern of this article is to show how a performer might engage with the construction of narrative experiences in and through the performance of the Second Movement of Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major, D959. MUSICAL NARRATIVE CONCEPT – A GUIDE TO INTERPRETATION The reason of choosing the Second Movement of D959 is the various problems in which a performer need to solve: the complexity of musical material presented in the middle section of the Second Movement such as the variety in the expressive markings, articulations, rhythmic contrasts as well as harmonic progressions. The problem solving is implied by thematic relations, tensions and developments that supply some of the necessary ingredients for the construction of a plan, that is, of a performance strategy by which situations and events are linked together to form a plot (Hatten, 2004, p. 226). Based on those ingredients, ambiguity in structure, in expression, and thus in performance interpretations, provide circumstances by which a performer experiences critical practice and creative performance so as to evoke musical narratives through performative approaches (Rink, 1994; 1999, 2015; Rothstein, 1995; Hatten, 2004). John Rink stated: Whereas the prevailing model for musical performance in the eighteenth century was oratory, in the nineteenth it was drama: indeed, a particular nineteenth-century performance rhetoric can be defined not according to the Classical tradition adapted, say, by Mattheson, but with regard to explicitly dramatic properties exploiting familiar rhetorical devices – structure, gestures, figures, inflections, emphases, pauses – to new and different ends. (Rink, 2001, p.220) Rink observed the shift of the role of performer from an orator during the eighteenth century to a narrator during the nineteenth century. In the eighteenth century, the main linguistic counterpart of music had been rhetoric. The focus of rhetoric is on the form of oration and on the devices which the orator could utilise to affect the listener. However, during the early nineteenth century, the idea of telling a story and narration became a crucial linguistic counterpart for music. The emphasis was given to the temporal quality of music and how the performer can make the Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (17-35) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 20 music cohere in time. The idea of the application of narration in music has attracted much attention in musicology during the past few years (Cone, 1975; McClary, 2007; Almén, 2008; Agawu, 2009;Seaton, 2009). Some of the findings suggest that there are parallels between the construction of a piece of music and a work of literature, for example, a novel. Seaton stated: For this reason, it is necessary to define narrativity in positive terms. To say that a piece of music is a narrative means that it has two essential features: plot and voice. In other words, a musical work possesses the quality of narrativity in the same way that a work of literature does so. (Seaton, 2009, p.274) Although there is still a difference in terms of the application of the narrativity for music and literature respectively (Seaton, 2009, p.274), the idea of a musical plot which is referred to this article is “musically constituted: a time- dependent unfolding of successive musical events, palpably linked to produce a coherent ‘statement’ embodied in sound alone, which is of course the principal expressive medium available to the instrumentalist” (Rink, 2001, p.218). That is to say, a musical plot was understood not only as a temporal sequence in which one event follows the other, but also as a causal sequence where the former event makes the latter happen. In other words, a musical plot should consist of a temporal trajectory which was usually started from stability through rising conflict or problems to final resolution. Hepokoski and Darcy observed that the genre of the sonata can be viewed as a metaphor of human action and it invites an interpretation as a musically narrative genre (Hepokoski& Darcy, 2006, pp.251-252). A similar observation was made by Seaton that sonata-form was recognised as a good example of a musical plot where the structural organisation resembles the different conditions of a plot: On the other hand, the paradigmatic instance of plot – or drama – for music (and, one might argue, for all art) is the so-called sonata form. In principle, a sonata first movement has a clear beginning and end, establishing its material and its position of stability (the tonic key) at the outset and ultimately returning to stability at the close. (Seaton, 2009, p.275) In the exposition, the establishment of its material in the beginning such as the principal theme in the home key gives a sense of stability. Gradually, the forward motion of the theme towards a different key creates a tension that demands resolution. However, the modulatory character in the development section suspends the tonal identity and thus increases the tension or problem. Eventually, the recapitulation functioned as a section where the previous conflicts of the principal theme resolve back into its home key and re-establish its harmonic stability. The idea of a musical plot was not only confined to sonata-form, but also applicable to other structural designs which present comparable features of a plot, in particular the element of causal connection where one event makes the latter happen. Considered as one of the most dramatic musical experiences composed by Schubert, the Second Movement of Sonata D959 offers the possibility to be a plot. Constructed in a ternary form, it has the same kind of criteria as in a sonata-form: Tham Horng Kent 21 there is a departure from stability towards increasing conflict in the middle section, before the music is guided back to its stability. Compared with the traditional sonata-form which was prevalent during the classical period, Schubert’s perception of the sonata-form, including his last three piano sonatas, is evolutional, and he seems to try to transform the sonata-form into a “means to attaining an expressive purpose” (Irving, 2002, p.199). This is an inventive form which Lawrence Zbikowski termed as a ‘dynamic form’ which he distinguishes from the traditional sonata-form as a ‘static form’: As the study of form developed and was continued through the nineteenth century, theorists worked with two basic – and seemingly opposed – models of musical form, one static, the other dynamic. Musical form, viewed from a static perspective, is reminiscent of architecture (a parallel all the more ironic, given Friedrich von Schelling’s characterization of architecture as ‘frozen music’) and typically consists of either a framing structure clad with musical material or relatively abstract containers filled with musical events. Musical form from a dynamic viewpoint is processive and a bit unpredictable: the musical work emerges over the course of time, and musical materials are both the substance of and raison d’être for this emergence. (Zbikowski, 2002, p.288) Zbikowski points out the difference between the traditional sonata-form (Figure 1) and the inventive form (Figure 2) where the traditional sonata-form consists of balanced structures built from regular sub-units with clear connections between each other. The inventive form was conceived as a process where the unexpected relationships in the musical materials provides a variety of interpretative possibilities. The emphasis was given to a performer in defining the overall structure throughout the piece: Figure 1 Static form (figure developed by author). Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (17-35) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 22 Figure 2 Dynamic form (figure developed by author). It seems that a similar perception of the difference between ‘static form’ and ‘dynamic form’ was observed by Janet Schmalfeldt: … toward the end of the eighteenth century and into the next, new compositional approaches to certain, by then well-established conventions of musical forms seemed intent upon shifting our focus away from the perception of forms as the product of successive, functionally discrete sections within a whole. Instead, these new approaches encouraged the idea that the formal process itself becomes ‘the form’. Listeners of this kind of music are being asked to participate within that process, by listening backward as well as in the moment – by remembering what they have heard, while retrospectively reinterpreting formal functions in the light of an awareness of the interplay between conventions and transformations. As perhaps the most active of all listeners, performers themselves are being urged to play a far more authoritative role in articulating such form-defining moments as beginnings, middles, and endings, while projecting the overall shapes that these might define. (Schmalfeldt, 2011, p.116) As Schmalfeldt highlights the role of performer as a co-creator in performing early nineteenth-century instrumental works, especially “in articulating such form-defining moments as beginnings, middles, and endings”, this implies variable structural readings in the early nineteenth-century instrumental works and it could be argued that Schubert’s last three piano sonatas, including the Piano Sonata in A Major, D959, have such potential to be interpreted in many unique ways, and to evolve continuously. Possibly constructed in a ‘dynamic form’, Schubert’s D959 gives room to a performer in interpreting the musical materials such as the large- scale harmonic constructions, the interplay and transformation of themes, the variety in the phrasing and the expressive musical markings such as articulation and rhythmic contrasts, as well as the understanding of meter and pulsation. Taking this a step further, the variety of possibilities in interpreting the musical materials of Schubert’s D959 extends into a variety of performance approaches, that is, the performer’s interpretative considerations while formulating performances, as the subsequent discussion will help to elucidate. Tham Horng Kent 23 It should be noted that the performance approach shown in this article was influenced by John Rink’s idea of “structural potentialities within musical materials and then realising them as they see fit within the broader musical narrative of their performance” (Rink, 2015, p.129), which entails possibly four principles: 1. Musical materials do not in themselves constitute structure(s): they afford the inference of structural relationships. 2. Inference of this kind will be individually and uniquely carried out whenever it is attempted, even if shared criteria result in commonalities between discrete structural representations. 3. Musical structure should therefore be seen as constructed, not immanent; as pluralistic, not singular. 4. Furthermore, because of music’s time-dependency, musical structure should be understood first and foremost as a process, not as ‘architecture’ – especially in relation to performance. (Rink, 2015, p.129) In turn, the discussion that follows took the above mentioned principles into consideration as part of an attempt to articulate and to document what was happening in the music and how a performer reacted to it. The first section focused on how a performer might construct a musical plot in the Second Movement of Schubert’s D959, which includes what connections to imply or emphasise at what point and why. The second section moved a step forward on how the connections between the musical events evoked narrative interpretations in relation to the musical plot. Musical plot and dramatic properties in the second movement The Second Movement of Schubert’s D959 could be regarded as one of the examples that resembles comparable narrative schemas. The structural organisation in the Second Movement involves different temporal phases in the musical narration. These include the contour of stability, tension, conflict, resolution and dénouement. An overview of the design of musical plot in the whole second movement is illustrated in Table 1. In the beginning, the phrase structure was constructed in a simple and regular way, with stable harmonic progression which moves around the tonic and subdominant as well as the dominant of F-sharp minor in the first eighteen bars. Frequent stepwise motions in the melody and a gently alternating, repetitive accompaniment figure contribute to the generally static quality of this passage (Figure 3). Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (17-35) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 24 Table 1 Musical Plot in Schubert’s Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement F#m: i V6iV6 i6 viio i6 viio6 iV F#m: I V6iV6 iv i V i V i Figure 3 Schubert, Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement, bars 1-18. In bars 19-26, the melodic line appears in a similar way to its first statement in the first eight bars, but slightly decorated. A surprising effect is achieved here where a whole tone down on the bass line from F-sharp to E momentarily shifts the tonality from minor to its relative major key. In bars 25-32, the music is guided back into the home key of F-sharp minor (Figure 4). Section Bar(s) Musical Material Harmony Plot Condition Dynamic Markings A 1-32 Principal Theme (PT) i Stable, with clear phrase structure and cadential point p-pp-fp-pp 33-68 Repeated with an octave pp-fp-pp- dim. B 69-84 Improvisational Modulator y Unstable, immediately increasing tension to climax 85-122 mf-cresc.-ff 123-146 v fffz-p-pp 147-158 Transitional passage V Preparing to go back to the previous lyrical section pp A 159- 188 PT i Resolution pp-f- decresc.- ppp 189- end Dénouement Tham Horng Kent 25 Figure 4 Schubert, Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement, bars 19-32. A sense of stability is maintained from bar 32 onwards, using similar materials from the beginning, but an octave higher in the right hand part. In summary, the general spirit in this section seems to be lyrical and the music seems to be secure in terms of phrasing and harmonic stability. However, the improvisatory gesture in bars 69-72, with silence in the left-hand part, seems to serve as a clue that the music starts to move away from the home key (Figure 5). Figure 5 Schubert, Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement, bars 69-72. The tension of the music is gradually built up, in particular the appearance of the first dramatic point in bars 73-75 where the sudden shift of G-sharp into G- natural in the left-hand part expands the harmonic journey throughout the middle section. The expectation of resolving the diminished chord in bars 73-74 into the home key of F-sharp minor is suspended and such tension provides alternative ways of exploring more distant keys in the tonal landscape, especially the abrupt shift from G-sharp to G-natural that prepares the dominant harmony at the end of bar 84 leading to a decisive arrival of the remote key of C minor on the first beat of bar 85 (Figure 6). Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (17-35) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 26 F#m: viio (?) (F natural = E sharp) Cm: V7 Cm: viio7/ii viio7/V Cm: Vb9 V7 Cm: i Figure 6 Schubert, Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement, bars 73-89. Character and action here are striking and unusual, and the theme from bar 85 is bold and decisive. Yet its assertiveness, by which it nails down each harmony in a quick gesture, allows it to take off suddenly for a new region. For instance, the gesture of the trill on G in bar 89 as well as on B in bar 98 provides another dramatic point where both trills create the unstable quality, and leads the music into chromatic transition from bar 90 to D-flat minor in bar 91 as well as bar 99 leading to F minor in bar 100 (Figure 7). The adventurous harmonic progression from bar 85 onwards contributes to the increase in the tension of the musical plot and the half-step shift from F minor (bars 100-102) into F-sharp minor (bar 103) prepares for the dramatic high point of the whole movement, which lasts from bar 107 until bar 122 in C-sharp minor (Figure 8). During this dramatic high point, the continuously running notes, the addition of syncopation and the registral shifts maintain the level of intensity in the musical plot. Tham Horng Kent 27 Figure 7 Schubert, Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement, bars 85-100. The design of the musical plot to this point is particularly unexpected; it has harmonic twists and does not suggest any specific resolution of the conflicts from the beginning of the middle section, in particular with the abrupt shift of the harmony in bars 73-75. Consequently, a listener may wonder how the plot can arrive at a well-defined resolution after such intense climax. To guide the situation back into stability, Schubert intelligently provides a recitative-like passage (bars 123-146) to serve as a bridge between the different sections. In other words, this recitative- like passage has an essential function in a listener’s experience of the musical plot. At the moment when some attempts to resolve the tensions of the plot seemingly must arrive, this passage seems to be a response to the frustrated expectation of a resolution. It represents a completely different level of discourse from the action that a listener has been following to this point, and it interrupts the action at exactly the point when the listener’s expectation of a solution peaks. As it turns out, this recitative passage simply prolongs the resolution, at least on the level at which a listener would anticipate one. The resolution, as it turns out, is starting from bar 147 where there is an attempt to stay firmly in the dominant in order to lead back to the previous stable section. In bar 159, the music of the entire opening section returns, with a string- quartet-like texture where there is a dialogue between the upper lines in the right hand part. Before the ending of the movement’s plot, the coda section in bar 189 presents a last dramatic point where the music seems to keep wandering through several sudden shifts in the pitch (for example, the A-G natural-F-sharp-E in bars 189-192, Figure 9). In enhancing such an expressive effect, the approach of the sudden shift in pitch appears frequently from bar 192, where the bass line descends from C-sharp to C-natural and subsequently to B in bar 193, which leads the music to a Neapolitan chord. Instead of the expected resolution to the second inversion tonic chord from its previous Neapolitan chord in bar 194, Schubert uses the first inversion, and the same unusual voice-leading also occurs in bar 195, where the bass line descends by Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (17-35) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 28 semitone shifts from G-sharp to G-natural and eventually to F-sharp in bar 196 (Figure 10). Figure 8 Schubert, Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement, bars 107-122. Tham Horng Kent 29 Figure 9 Schubert, Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement, bars 189-193. Figure 10 Schubert, Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement, bars 194-196. Performance considerations In the first section (bars 1-68), “the minor mode and harmonic stasis, together with prominent melodic sighing motives, create a mood of sorrow” (Hirsch, 2016, p.152). A performer might choose a steady tempo and the dynamics move within the range of piano, so that the crescendo and diminuendo remain modest. Even the fortepiano that Schubert indicates to mark the stretched phrasing in the main theme (bar 13, 23, 27, 45 and 59) might be taken subtly. Montgomery suggested “the best one can do [for the dynamic marking fortepiano] is to play the second beat of the left hand softly, as well as the first beat of the next measure in the right hand” (Montgomery, 2003, p.144). The section in bars 69-72, which serves as a link into the middle section, might suggest the atmosphere of a fantasy world for the action (Wollenberg, 2011, p.177). So a performer might choose to emphasise the rhythmic flexibility and allow more space of time. For instance, the articulation marks within bars 69-72 suggest the phrasing, which is irregular in this short passage. The first group has a continuous slur from the E-sharp in bar 69 till the high C-sharp in bar 71, the second group has the dots under a shorter slur (B-A-G-sharp-F-sharp) in bar 71, and the third group in bar 72 has both articulation markings as the first and second. Despite the whole piece being constructed in a time signature of 3/8, it seems that the difference of phrase slurs in bars 69-72 implies certain amount of space between them. In addition, the silence of the left-hand part of this particular passage suggests the improvisational character of the right hand and thus conveys a stronger sense of the expressiveness of the musical gestures. Thus, a performer could choose to slow Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (17-35) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 30 down for the first two notes in bar 69 and gradually get faster towards the highest D in bar 71 before slowing down again at the end of this passage. However, some performers might conceive that the first two notes in bar 69 should not be slowed down. This is due to the first announcement of the new idea, and thus a stricter pulse is more suitable in order to keep the smoothness of musical flow. Almost immediately, however, the plot would need to take off in the direction of increasing tension. In the central section of the second movement, the tonal scheme is constructed in an unclear direction and Schubert moves away from the home key with unusual chord progressions (Example 4): Schubert moves from the home key which is F-sharp minor into the foreign key of C minor, which is considered as the beginning of the dramatic section. The continuity of the chord progression is disjointed in bar 75, where the diminished chord was supposed to resolve to the first inversion chord of F-sharp minor, but the natural sign given to the G-sharp results in a sudden shift into the remote key of C minor. The foreign relationship between the home key (F-sharp minor) and the remote key (C minor) as well as the disjointed chord progression in bar 75 makes the character of this passage mercurial. In order to enhance such a dramatic quality, Schubert also uses the gesture of the ascending and descending lines as a way of musical expression and constructs a balanced order of the gesture in this particular passage (Table 2): Table 2 The order of Ascending and Descending Lines in bars 69-84. To express this musical gesture clearly in this section, the rising line (bars 69-70 and bars 73-74) implies an increase in the volume and subsequently a decrease in the volume for the descending line (bars 71-72 and bars 75-76). The sudden shift from G-sharp into G-natural in the bass line in bars 73-75 might be stressed. However, from bar 77 onwards, a performer could choose to continue the gradual rising of the volume from bar 77 so that a stronger sense of arrival of the C minor section in bar 85 could be achieved effectively. The tension and character from the C minor section (bar 85) suggests a strong sense of boldness and increases the tension in the musical plot (Hirsch, 2016, p.156-157). The trills on the G and B in bar 89 and 98 could be made to sound ominous. During the dramatic high point from bar 105 (Figure 11), the agitated character of the C-sharp minor key, together with its frantic rhythm and harmonic progression, deserves emphasis. Bar(s) 69-70 71-72 73-74 75-76 77-78 79-80 81-82 83-84 Line Tham Horng Kent 31 Figure 11 Schubert, Sonata in A Major, D959, Second Movement, bars 105-123. This section (bars 105-122) could be divided into several independent groups based on the musical ideas presented, and these unrelated musical ideas pose another great challenge for pianists to interpret: how to convey a sense of continuity through all these different groups of musical idea in a performance. In Example 10, Schubert seems to be trying to distinguish each group by using different articulation Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (17-35) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 32 marks: bars 105-106 and bars 114-115 contain the accent ( ), bars 107-108 and 113 have fz, bars 109-112 has staccato ( ) in the right-hand part, and both staccato and staccatissimo ( ) are indicated in bars 116-122. However, a different subdivision of each musical idea could be deduced from the harmonic construction: bars 105-106 remains within the F-sharp minor region, but the six-four chord in C-sharp minor unites bars 107-110. Despite the same figuration as the previous bars (109-110 with the staccatissimo), the addition of G-natural in the right-hand part of bar 111 starts a new harmonic unit and the stepwise chromatic ascent in the bass line in bar 112 forms another harmonic unit. The E minor scalar passage in the right hand gives a single harmonic unit and the chromatic lines in the bass line in bars 114-115 form another harmonic unit. Eventually, the long pedal tone on C-sharp in the left hand from bar 116 onwards, which culminates in the climax of bar 122, with the full chords of C-sharp minor in both hands, forms the last harmonic unit. Both subdivisions of the different musical ideas presented in this section suggest there is continuity between bars 107-108 and bars 109-110: the combination of bars 107-108 and 109-110 forms a single group due to the tonal coherence where a similar chord (six-four chord in C-sharp minor) was adopted in bars 107-110. To achieve more continuity between these different musical ideas, Schubert utilises the similar gesture of ascending and descending lines which was initially announced from the beginning of the middle section where the ascending line for the bars 69-70 was counterbalanced by the descending line of the following bars, 71-72 (Table 3): Table 3 The order of Ascending and Descending Lines in bars 105-122. Bar(s) 105-106 107-108 109-110 111-112 113 Line Right hand Left hand Bar(s) 114 115 116-122 Line The appearance of the recitative passage in bars 123-146 suggests a different performative approach. The awkwardness arising from the rests, the irregular phrases, and the fragmentary gestural melody in the right hand implies a sense of uncertainty. Rhythmic flexibility, dynamic declamation, and clear articulation between legato right-hand part and arpeggiated, strongly detached left- hand chordal accompaniment in bars 131-140 could be part of the attempts in enhancing the feeling of uncertainty. In bars 140-141, the change of the harmony to Tham Horng Kent 33 its parallel major key (C-sharp minor to C-sharp major) with piano might provide a clue for a performer to apply a noticeable flexibility in the pulse. The return of the main theme from bar 159 onwards might suggest that a pianist remains in the same character as the previous stable section, with attention to the duet between the upper lines in the right-hand part. Finally, in the Coda section, the musical expression provided by the sudden shift in pitch in bars 189-196 might suggest to a performer to adopt more space of time to fully express this musical gesture. CONCLUSION In summary, the discussion of musical plot and dramatic properties in the Second Movement of Schubert’s D959 includes the following interpretative considerations. Firstly, the thematic materials which include how to establish a dynamic grasp of musical structure by governing which musical events need spotlighting, to locate the significant point where it initiates the subsequent event, and to investigate how the musical tensions or problems which appear in the beginning is resolved or unresolved. Secondly, the harmonic progression which a performer needs to understand what do they imply in the characterisation of music. Thirdly, the dynamic marking which a performer needs to know what their precise purpose is given their place within the work. It has been established that not only did the genre of sonata constantly evolve during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, but its tendency to play with structural ambiguity, and sometimes to be associated with poetic and literary forms, encouraged a special kind of partnership with a performer. Hence, new light has been shed on the ‘paradigm shift’ in early nineteenth-century performance which leads into new understandings of musical presentation where Lawrence Zbikowski categorised two distinctive musical forms: ‘static form’ and ‘dynamic form’. Compared with the traditional sonata-form which was prevalent during the classical period, Schubert’s perception of the sonata-form, including his last three piano sonatas, is innovative and seems to try to transform the sonata-form into a “means to attaining an expressive purpose” (Irving, 2002, p.199). A similar perception of the difference between ‘static form’ and ‘dynamic form’ was observed by Janet Schmalfeldt and such a conception suggests the role of the performer as a co-creator in performing early nineteenth-century instrumental works. Schubert’s last three piano sonatas, including the Piano Sonata in A Major, D959, have such potential to be interpreted in many unique ways, and to evolve continuously. Constructed in a ‘dynamic form’, the Second Movement of Schubert’s D959 gives room to a performer in interpreting the musical materials such as the large-scale harmonic constructions, the interplay and transformation of themes, the variety in the phrasing and the expressive musical markings such as articulation and rhythmic contrasts, as well as the understanding of meter and pulsation. By adopting John Rink’s idea of “structural potentialities within musical materials and then realising them as they see fit within the broader musical narrative of their performance” (Rink, 2015, p.129), this article moves into the second area Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (17-35) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 34 which discusses the documentation of what was happening in the music and how a performer might react to it. The difficulty with a narrative approach to musical works such as Schubert’s piano sonatas, which might have enough narrative import, is not to prove whether a specific story fits the musical narrative or not, but rather to explain how a musical narrative is better achieved and communicated. Certainly, performers do not seek scientific explanations while formulating understandings of musical works or while perceptually engaging with performance processes relating to the experiencing of music. The first section focuses on how a performer might construct a musical plot in each movement of Schubert’s D959, which include what connections to imply or emphasise at what point and why. The second section moves a step forward on how the connections between the musical events evoke narrative interpretations in relation to the musical plot. The interpretative considerations shown above led to the conclusion that the Second Movement of Schubert’s D959 potentially had multiple identities in relation to its conceptualisation and performance interpretation, and that these identities did not necessarily need to be resolved into just one for an effective performance to take place. All these decisions operated in combination to act upon performance-relevant matters, which in turn allowed a narrative experience to come forward. Such matters included the shape and timing of a musical event within a phrase, a phrase within a section and a section within the movement, and the momentum with which the musical tension is constructed towards an ultimate point of direction. This is all part of the process of creating an interpretative ownership of the work that develops from the potential of Schubert’s instrumental music to be personalised through a variety of possibilities. REFERENCES Agawu, K. (2009). Music as discourse: Semiotic adventures in romantic music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brendel, A. (2007). Alfred Brendel on music: His collected essays. London: JR Books. Byrne Bodley, L. & Horton, J. (Eds) (2016). Schubert’s late music: History, theory, style. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cone, E. T. (1974). The composer’s voice. California: University of California Press. Gibbs, C. H. (Ed) (1997). The Cambridge companion to Schubert. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hanson, A. M. (1985). Musical life in Biedermeier Vienna. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hatten, R. S. (2004). Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes: Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Irving, J. (2002). The invention of tradition. In Samson, J. (Ed), The Cambridge history of nineteenth-century music (pp. 178-212).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kinderman, W. (1997). Schubert’s piano music: Probing the human condition. In Gibbs, C. H. (Ed), The Cambridge companion to Schubert (pp. 155-173).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lawson, C. &Stowell, R. Eds. (2012). The Cambridge history of musical performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Litschauer, W. (Ed) (1996). Franz Schubert: Neueausgabesämtlicherwerke, Tham Horng Kent 35 werkefürklavierzuzweihänden band 3 klaviersonaten. Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag. McClary, S. (2007). Narrative agendas in “absolute” music: Identity and difference in Brahms’s Third Symphony. In McClary, S., Reading music: Selected essays (pp. 65- 83).Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Montgomery, D. (2003). Franz Schubert’s music in performance: Compositional ideals, notational intent, historical realities, pedagogical foundations. New York, NY: Pendragon Press. Montgomery, D. (1997). Modern Schubert interpretation in the light of the pedagogical sources of his day. Early Music, 25, 100-118. Pace, I. (2012). Instrumental performance in the nineteenth century. In Lawson, C. and Stowell, R. (Eds), The Cambridge history of musical performance (pp. 643-695). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pleasants, H. Trans. & Ed. (1965). Schumann on music: A selection from the writings. New York, NY: Dover Publications. Rink, J. (2015). The (f)utility of performance analysis. In Doğantan-Dack, M. (Ed), Artistic practice as research in music: Theory, criticism, practice (pp. 127-148). Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Rink, J. (2001). Translating musical meaning: The nineteenth-century performer as narrator. In Cook, N. and Everist, M. (Eds), Rethinking music (pp. 217-239). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rosen, C. (2003). Schubert and the example of Mozart. In Newbould, B. (Ed), Schubert the progressive: History, performance practice, analysis (pp. 1-20).Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Schmalfeldt, J. (2011). In the process of becoming: Analytical and philosophical perspectives on form in early nineteenth-century music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seaton, D. (2009). Narrativity and the performance of Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata. In Bergé, P. (Ed), Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata: Perspectives of analysis and performance (pp.273-292).Leuven: Peeters. Zbikowski, L. M. (2002). Conceptualizing music: Cognitive structure, theory and analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. BIOGRAPHY Horng Kent, Tham was one of the recipients of Asia Yamaha Music Scholarship in 2007 and graduated in 2011 from the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland in Glasgow with a distinction in the Master of Music (Performance). In 2012, he was awarded both a full scholarship by the Malaysian Higher Education Ministry and a teaching assistantship at the Royal Irish Academy of Music in Dublin, where he completed a Doctor in Music Performance degree, under Dr Denise Neary, Prof. Peter Tuite and Prof. Hugh Tinney. In 2015, he was chosen as an Erasmus Doctoral Student at the Sibelius Academy, Helsinki, Finland, in the classes of Prof. Margit Rahkonen and Prof. Lauri Suurpää. Most recently, he was selected to present a paper at the Ninth Annual Postgraduate Conference of the Society for Musicology in the Trinity College Dublin as well as the Doctors in Performance festival conference at the Royal Irish Academy of Music, Ireland.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 2 (2016)

barriers in doctoral socialisation, doctoral education, doctoral socialisation, doctoral music student, Thai PhD music

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/137

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/820

Barriers to Thai Doctoral Music Students’Socialisation

A doctoral music degree is a new degree in Thailand. Although the first PhD programme in music was established in 2005, there are only four universities that provide doctoral programmes in music in 2016. However, there are a couple of universities that plan to launch doctoral music programmes in the near future. If the number of doctoral programmes in music and the number of graduates has started to grow, it is important to consider the barriers to doctoral music student socialisation because they relate to the completion of the degree. This paper aims to investigate barriers that Thai doctoral music students encounter in doctoral socialisation. This leads to the main question: What are the barriers that Thai doctoral music students encounter in doctoral socialisation? The key instrument used for this research was in-depth interviews with 12 doctoral students and graduates during four different stages of doctoral education across four Thai universities that have launched PhD programmes in music. The results indicated that barriers to Thai doctoral music student socialisation emerge from three segments: 1) student-related barriers (backgrounds, predispositions, investment, personal communities, self-concept and psychological issues); 2) barriers of integrating into the doctoral programme (learning, peer climate, relationships with faculty and friends and dissertation phases); and 3) institutional barriers (admissions, academic programme curriculums and requirements).

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/820/556

Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (36-53) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 36 Barriers to Thai Doctoral Music Students’Socialisation Skowrung Saibunmi1, Somchai Trakarnrung2 1College of Music, 2Faculty of Graduate Studies Mahidol University,73170 Thailand e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Abstract A doctoral music degree is a new degree in Thailand. Although the first PhD programme in music was established in 2005, there are only four universities that provide doctoral programmes in music in 2016. However, there are a couple of universities that plan to launch doctoral music programmes in the near future. If the number of doctoral programmes in music and the number of graduates has started to grow, it is important to consider the barriers to doctoral music student socialisation because they relate to the completion of the degree. This paper aims to investigate barriers that Thai doctoral music students encounter in doctoral socialisation. This leads to the main question: What are the barriers that Thai doctoral music students encounter in doctoral socialisation? The key instrument used for this research was in-depth interviews with 12 doctoral students and graduates during four different stages of doctoral education across four Thai universities that have launched PhD programmes in music. The results indicated that barriers to Thai doctoral music student socialisation emerge from three segments: 1) student-related barriers (backgrounds, predispositions, investment, personal communities, self-concept and psychological issues); 2) barriers of integrating into the doctoral programme (learning, peer climate, relationships with faculty and friends and dissertation phases); and 3) institutional barriers (admissions, academic programme curriculums and requirements). Keywords barriers in doctoral socialisation, doctoral education, doctoral socialisation, doctoral music student, Thai PhD music INTRODUCTION The doctorate has held much prestige and has been claimed as the highest university degree across the world for centuries. The term ‘doctor’ was originally derived from the Latin word docere, which means to show or to teach, and the word doctorem, meaning teacher (Slevin & Hanucharurnkul, 2005). The purpose of pursuing doctoral education has changed overtime. Nowadays, attaining a doctoral degree not only offers a license to teach within a university setting, but also prepares leaders who will work to improve works in many areas and train students to do research and become independent scholars (Bargar & Duncan, 1982; Council of Graduate Schools, 1990; Callejo-Perez, Fain, & Slater, 2011). As doctoral students move Skowrung Saibunmi & Somchai Trakarnrung 37 through different phases of their education, they are also involved in socialisation where they encounter different barriers that affect their learning while in the programme. Music is still a new area in Thailand’s higher education system. Ethnomusicology was launched in 1989 by the Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development with Mahidol University as the first master’s degree n the field of music in Thailand. The first doctoral degree was not established until 2005 by College of Music, Mahidol University, offering courses in musicology and music education. The first PhD in music was awarded five years later in the discipline of music education. Since then, doctoral programmes in music have now begun to expand. After the first doctoral degree in music was launched, Mahasarakam University established another doctoral degree in music in 2008. In 2013, two new PhD degrees in music were launched at Bangkokthonburi University and Khon Kaen University. Since the establishment of doctoral degree in music in 2005, there have been 191 doctoral students enrolled in PhD music programmes and 81 PhDs that have been awarded across four universities in Thailand. As both the number of doctoral programmes in music and the number of graduates start to grow, there is a need to realise the barriers to doctoral music student socialisation in a Thai cultural context. It is important to investigate the barriers for Thai doctoral music students because they relate to the completion of the degree. If students encounter barriers and can overcome them, the rate of PhD completion will be high. Additionally, there is a lot of research focused on doctoral student socialisation in many disciplines in other countries, but there is no Thailand- focused research regarding barriers to doctoral student socialisation in any field. This study investigates the barriers that Thai doctoral music students confront. An investigation of the barriers to Thai doctoral music student socialisation provides qualified information necessary for doctoral students who are currently in doctoral programmes as well as those who are planning to apply for doctoral programmes in music in Thailand. In addition, the study also provides an advantage to any institution that wants to adjust its programmes to help students overcome any barriers while completing the degree. LITERATURE REVIEW Doctoral Student Socialisation Many educators use socialisation as their principle lens to view the complexity of doctoral student life and understand its unique experiences. It is also claimed as the most important ingredient for doctoral students’ success (Mendoza & Gardner, 2010). Socialisation is defined as the processes through which individuals develop the values, norms, skills, attitudes, beliefs, roles and knowledge necessary for becoming members of a given society, group, or organisation (Mendoza & Gardner, 2010; Weidman, Twale, & Stein, 2001). Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (36-53) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 38 The framework of doctoral education. The candidates of any doctoral programme pass through three phases: admission, integration and candidacy (Gardner, 2008). Admission is also referred to as Entry and Adjustment. It takes place in the first year of studying where the students make a transition to a more independent culture of graduate education and adjust themselves to something new. Doctoral students are adults; the average age of doctoral students is 34 years old (Choy, Geis, & Malizio, 2002). When they are in an academic community, “they face disjunctions between their sense of self as an adult, their placement as a novice in an expert scholar community, and their development of this new identity as scholar and knowledge creator” (Kasworm & Bowles, 2010, p. 225). In Gardner’s research (2008), many doctoral students expressed that the most difficult part of studying in the doctoral programme occurred during this phase where they were faced with various transitions; they needed to shift the expectations to be more independent, they needed to encounter new environments, and the socialisation that they faced in graduate school was different from their experiences. Integration is the stage for developing competence. In this phase, doctoral students form new relationships with their peers, which is the most important part of the socialisation process in graduate education (Gardner, 2008). In addition, doctoral students also develop relationships with their faculty, advisors and committees. The last phase, Candidacy, includes the period after the students have passed examinations or candidacy status. It is the research phase that students contribute to knowledge and become skilled researchers through the dissertation process (Sims & Cassidy, 2016), preparing for the job search or post-doctoral appointments and concluding with graduation. Core elements of socialisation. To identify and commit to a professional role, Stein (1992) and Thornton and Nardi (1975) suggest three elements: knowledge acquisition, investment and involvement. Knowledge acquisition. Knowledge in doctoral education is developed through learning communities (Spaulding & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012). Knowledge also deepens and becomes more complex during socialisation. Doctoral students estimate their abilities in order to join a professional culture, as they get to know the culture (Weidman et al., 2001). Investment. Doctoral students invest and sacrifice not only time but also money, energy, alternative career choices, self-esteem, social status, etc. (Spaulding & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012; Weidman et al., 2001). In the study conducted by McAlpine, Jazvac-Martek and Hopwood (2009), more than half of the participants mentioned time issues in their difficulties. Time issues are broken down as a general reference to a lack of time, time management, choosing priorities, work taking a long time or slowly progressing, having a paid job or non-PhD commitments, a number of tasks or activities as part of the doctorate education and time lost due to the influence of other people. Doctoral work itself can be a dilemma; it helps students to improve as well as challenges students in terms of the time needed in order to do their work. Moreover, the time issues mentioned by doctoral students Skowrung Saibunmi & Somchai Trakarnrung 39 are not only related to their doctoral work but also involve other commitments beyond the academic context. According to the Higher Education Funding Council for England or HEFCE (Green & Powell, 2005), 71% of full-time doctoral students had completed the degree, while only 34% of part-time doctoral students had completed the degree while38% were no longer active, and 4% had left with a MPhil degree. In addition, approximately 80% of full-time students had completed after five years. Regarding part-time students, 30% had completed by seven years, 30% were no longer active and 40% were still active. Involvement. Involvement is the level of participation of students in the doctoral programme. The level of intensity deepens as students move further through stages of their programme. As doctoral students move through their programme, they actively extract clues that they encounter to their behaviour and “evaluate themselves in the context of peers, faculty mentors, programme expectations and personal goals” (Weidman et al., 2001, p.31). Psychological Aspects On the way to a PhD, psychological issues present emotional effects that are a significant part of the socialisation processes in graduate education (Gardner, 2008; Phillips & Pugh, 2005). Isolation. As doctoral students move on to their candidacy phase, many encounter isolation (Perry, 2007; Gardner, 2008). This feeling occurs due to a lack of interaction with their advisors, peers and other people whom they used to interact with after finishing coursework and examinations. In addition, failing to exchange ideas with peers or advisors can lead to a loss of interest in the topic that can bring work to a standstill. Doubt. As doctoral students go through different stages of the PhD programme, the feeling that always accompanies them is doubt in their own abilities. They question whether they are clever or able to finish the degree. As students progress they go through periods of higher to lower levels of doubt, but they are never completely free from it (Phillips & Pugh, 2005). Relationships with Faculty, Advisors and Peers Doctoral students socialise with faculty members and peers the most during their studies in the programme, which has a significant effect. Regarding faculty members, doctoral students tend to acquire more knowledge and become more effective when they find a faculty member with whom they can discuss their research interests (Felder & Stevenson, 2014). Furthermore, Millett and Nettles (2010) noted learning in doctoral communities not only occurs in structured classes through seminars or discussions, but also emerges from attending meetings, discussions over coffee, attending department parties, etc. In this way doctoral Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (36-53) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 40 students are socialised into their profession. In the words of Noonan, Ballinger and Black (2007), While coursework can provide critical content and skills for leadership roles in special education, coursework alone may not be sufficient to motivate and retain doctoral students, provide them with the necessary experiences associated with future job responsibilities, or socialise them to their new leadership positions. (p.251) Peers are also important in students’ studying lives. It cannot be denied that students are more likely to interact with peers rather than faculty members. When students are with their peers, they feel safe to give and receive feedback on everything (Bonilla, Pickron, & Tatum, 1994). They feel comfortable to reveal their feelings and it is a good time to receive guidance regarding programme requirements, as well as to receive “encouragement and empathy for personal hardship, which was described as valuable for survival in this new environment” (Li & Collins, 2014, p.43). The doctoral advisor can be defined as assigned faculty members who help doctoral students through the programmes and to meet the requirements (Hawley, 2003). The advisor is one of the most important persons with whom doctoral students will develop relationships (Baird, 1995). Choosing an advisor and interacting with faculty members is an important part of the socialisation process in doctoral education because it can result in either retention or attrition of the degree programme; the right choice of advisor can lead to retention, satisfaction in the programme, and successful career, while the wrong choice is vice versa (Lovitts, 2001;Spaulding & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012). METHODOLOGY The central question addressed in this study is: What are barriers that Thai doctoral music students encounter in doctoral socialisation? The findings presented in this paper come from in-depth interviews. The participants were drawn using random sampling from Thai graduates who had received doctoral degrees in music and doctoral students who were pursuing a PhD in music at a Thai university during the 2015 academic year. In this study, there were 12 interview participants in total with four participants in four different stages of doctoral education amongst four universities that have launched PhD programmes in music were selected. The four different stages include: 1) the first year of studying; 2) finishing coursework; 3) completing the qualification exam and a dissertation; and 4) finishing the degree. The number of participants in this study may be attributed to the fact that there are two universities that have no PhD graduates, one university has no PhD students in the second year and one university has no PhD students in the research stage. The interviews took place in the interviewees’ schools, homes and other locations of their choice. The Thai language was used for convenience in communication Skowrung Saibunmi & Somchai Trakarnrung 41 between the researcher and the participants. The interviews were recorded and the important points during the interview were noted. To gather information regarding barriers to doctoral socialisation, literature review was conducted related to doctoral education and doctoral socialisation. Since there are no music journals, other publications and research studies in Thailand that focus on doctoral socialisation most of the literature was drawn from the United States. From the study of related literature, research questions were designed for Thai graduates and doctoral music students to determine barriers to doctoral music socialisation. The pilot study was employed to determine whether the prepared interview questions were effective and suitable for participant selection. The interview questions included 70 items that were categorised into six categories: background of the participants, admission phase, integration phase, candidacy phase, completion of the degree and additional questions. After the data was collected, the recording was transcribed. Subsequently, each participant was sent the transcription to check for accuracy. After the data had been verified and approved, the pertinent parts of the interviews were translated into English. Then, the data was analysed by reading through, marking and dividing the data into parts by hand. The next process was content analysis. During this process, specific themes each interviewee had in common were marked. After that, the raw data was encoded into categories that had similarities with the contents of the document. To better understand the findings, the transcriptions and literature were reread. FINDINGS The 12 doctoral students and graduates in the music discipline discussed their experiences across three themes: (a) student-related barriers; (b) barriers to integration into the doctoral programme; and (c) institutional barriers. Student-Related Barriers Studying and moving through different stages of doctoral education relies on students themselves. The students are affected by and are involved with everything around them. Background and predispositions. The different areas of previous education affect and become a barrier in current doctoral education. Participants who finished their previous degree in music performance are not familiar with reading many books, writing papers and doing research because the nature of music performance is to perform or to play an instrument. In addition to educational backgrounds, predispositions such as pre-existing careers were barriers that obstructed students’ learning. A participant mentioned, “I am responsible for teaching music theory and music education at my university. I didn’t play any Thai musical instruments, so studying some subjects, like World Music, for example, is difficult for me”. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (36-53) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 42 Investment (time, money and energy).Many participants had problems investing their time and energy into their doctoral studies because of the amount of time required to travel to the university. Most of the participants claimed, “Travelling makes me exhausted”. Many participants also noted that they spent a lot of time travelling to study every weekend and it was a waste of time. In addition to travelling, balancing and managing time are critical barriers to studying in a doctoral programme because most of the participants in this study are full-time instructors who are funded by their universities; they need to work and study at the same time. Many participants remarked that they have difficulty managing their time to study, do homework, reading, etc. Furthermore, working while studying for the PhD causes students to become exhausted. Studying in a PhD programme is costly so that money is another serious barrier. One participant mentioned, “The cost of studying is quite high. If I hadn’t been funded by my university, I wouldn’t have studied here”. Some doctoral students are responsible for their own tuition fees, so money is a big problem for them. On the other hand, many doctoral music students in Thailand are sponsored by their universities. However, money is still a barrier because the subsidy only covers tuition fees but not other expenses such as textbooks, photocopying, travel expenses, accommodations, academic trips and so on. Personal communities. The communities that surround doctoral students are important in terms of supporting or distracting students, for example, family members’ health and the responsibility of taking care of family members. One participant noted, “I had a hard time during my studying; my mother’s health was an obstacle for me. I chose this as my first priority and dropped my course for a while”. Another student added, “Learning in my doctoral programme is quite tough because I need to take care of my two babies as well. At the time of my first year in the course, my second child was just born”. Self-concept. Many participants insisted that studying in a doctoral programme requires self-reliance. A lack of self-determination or a lack of self- motivation can block doctoral students from moving through the stages of their studying. Some participants mentioned, “Because of my regular routine in teaching, sometimes I feel too lazy and depressed to do any homework”. Another self-concept that can be a barrier is self-doubt or the lack of self-efficacy. Nearly all participants claimed that during the first year of their PhD programme they encountered self- doubt—wondering what they were doing, not sure whether they were on the right path or whether they could accomplish the degree. Many participants mentioned, “When I was first in the programme, I was not confident and I wondered whether I was in the right place. I thought,‘ What am I doing?’ or ‘Could I do it?’ It was tough for me”. Psychological issues. Some participants revealed that they were worried about many things while studying in the programme. Their concerns included contacting advisors and research participants and uncertainty about future events among other issues. Moreover, isolation is another issue that can be found in Skowrung Saibunmi & Somchai Trakarnrung 43 students’ socialisation. One participant stated, “After the QE exam, I was suddenly free, empty and aimless. I tried to follow my friends”. This feeling occurs because doctoral students spend a lot of time away from friends and environments they used to engage with. Barriers to Integrating into the Doctoral Programme Students’ integration into the university programme is the core of doctoral education. Students learn a lot in this environment. However, students face many obstructions in their integration as well. Mastering English. Many participants claimed that the English language is a problem for musicians because the nature of musicians is to perform an instrument. One of the most difficult obstacles for Thai doctoral music students is the English proficiency test. Many participants noted, “I’m really worried about the English proficiency test; it’s the biggest barrier. If I don’t pass the test, I need to study an extra English course which I don’t want to”. Furthermore, music resources are mostly in English adding to students’ problems. Many participants claimed, “My instructor assigned students to translate a lot of papers, it’s tough for me” and “my only trouble is that I needed to read a lot of English textbooks because I was not familiar with it”. Peer Climate. This was mentioned by every participant as the most important aspect of the PhD programme. Peers in a doctoral programme “help each other with homework, learning, discussing, advising, exchanging ideas and reminding each other of important events” and “is the factor that makes me decide whether I’ll stay in the programme”. On the other hand, differences among students can cause problems. Some participants mentioned, “Some friends come from different cultures which cause difficulty in connecting and interacting” and “there are some peers who are a lot younger than me as well as some who are older than me. I’m in the middle, so I need to adjust myself a lot in order to interact with both groups”. Relationships with friends are another significant aspect of doctoral students’ lives. Many participants interact with friends both inside and outside the classroom. Nonetheless, some participants have problems interacting with friends. Because each student comes from a different place, distance is a barrier that obstructs doctoral students in socialising with each other. One participant noted, “We haven’t met each other often after classes because we come from different places and live far away from each other. When finishing the class, we separate from each other”. Many participants advised the solution for this, saying, “Since I haven’t met my friends quite often after classes, I communicated with others via social network applications such as LINE or Facebook. We can talk and consult there”. Relationships with Faculty. All the participants in this study mentioned that they had good relationships with faculty. The faculty is important in terms of Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (36-53) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 44 helping students with their learning, motivating them to think, giving them some advice, guiding them to different stages, etc. Conversely, there are a few participants who had problems interacting with faculty. “I think language is a problem because some faculty members are foreigners. I need to communicate with them by using a language that I’m not familiar with”. Dissertation phase. The biggest barrier in doing a dissertation is finding an appropriate topic. Sometimes students already have an area that they are interested in but cannot narrow it down to one aspect. Many participants mentioned, “The problem is that even after reviewing the literature, I couldn't find a specific topic. Instead, I'd get about a hundred topics” and “the topic that I finally chose was not on my list at the first stage. I changed it many times”. Another critical problem during the dissertation phase is changing advisors and committees, which leads to disorder. As one participant noted, “I had a problem with the committees of my dissertation; they were changed many times. As a result, they did not concentrate on my work”. A feeling that occurs during the dissertation phase is discouragement, which many students claimed as a barrier. As one participant revealed, “I feel discouraged, sometimes I really have no idea at all”. In addition, the aspect about which many participants were worried about was how to convey the musical character to the reader because music is creative work that is difficult to explain in words. Some participants noted, “I’m worried in concluding the result. Since my topic is about local music, it’s difficult to explain in academic words” and “I have everything in mind but I don’t know how to explain and make other people understand my work”. Institutional Barriers Many barriers of doctoral student socialisation also emerge from the institution where students enrol. Admission. This is the first step of entering the doctoral programme. Some participants do not have the appropriate information about the programme and its requirements for admission. They commented, “I was not sure about what I needed to prepare because I didn’t have much information about the admission process here. I wondered whether what I’d prepared would be useful or if it was what the institution wanted”. Academic programme and curriculum. Elective subjects are also obstacles for doctoral students. Although the subjects are electives, nearly all the PhD programmes in music in Thailand do not allow students to select elective subjects for themselves. Instead, the elective subjects are set for students. The management of elective subjects has both advantages and disadvantages. Some participants had no problem with the assigned elective courses and felt that it was convenient for them to study whatever was recommended. In contrast, some students indicated that these compulsory elective courses were problematic; they needed to choose the subjects that fit their needs. Skowrung Saibunmi & Somchai Trakarnrung 45 Publication Requirements. One of the challenging requirements for Thai doctoral music students is dissertation publishing. The Thai PhD music programmes require doctoral students to submit a paper to an international journal before graduation. Many participants were concerned about this, mentioning, “I’m worried about the publishing because the requirement here is quite high and many PhD candidates here still struggle with publishing” and “I’m worried about publishing because I have no idea to which journals I will submit. As I know, some journals are full for many years”. From the findings, all barriers were concluded and presented in the following framework (Figure 1). Figure 1Barriers in Thai doctoral music student socialisation conceptual framework. All barriers were categorised into three segments: student-related barriers, integrating barriers and institutional barriers. The two circles on the left and right represent independent barriers arising from students and institutions. Many barriers first emerge from these two components because both students and institutions have their own problems. The middle component displays the barriers after doctoral students enter and integrate themselves into a doctoral programme. These barriers not only occur because of the students’ integration but are also due to the independent barriers from students and institutions. The broken lines in Figure 1are used to represent the effect that each barrier has on each other. DISCUSSION Socialisation is claimed as the lens through which to view the complexity of doctoral student life and as the most important ingredient for doctoral students’ success (Mendoza & Gardner, 2010).From the data collected, there are many interesting issues for discussion. The results of the study of barriers to Thai doctoral Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (36-53) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 46 music student socialisation were discussed through three themes: (a) student-related barriers, (b) barriers to integration into the doctoral programme; and (c) institutional barriers. Student-Related Barriers Doctoral students come into a programme with a variety of backgrounds and predispositions. These backgrounds and predispositions shape their experiences in the programme and form their identity. Most of the barriers occur during the admission stage of socialisation which conforms to Gardner’s opinion (2008) that the most difficult part of studying in the doctoral programme occurs in this phase where students face various transitions. Since the PhD music programme is a research-oriented degree that focuses mainly on advanced scholarship and research, it involves scholarly activities, such as dealing with paperwork, reading textbooks (especially in English), conducting research and so on. Although all participants chose to study in each of their PhD programmes, many of them graduated from or oversee teaching in a performance discipline. What results is that they may not be familiar with scholarly activities. Therefore, students studying in a scholarly discipline face obstructions. Many participants mentioned that they had problems with doing research, writing papers and performing other required activities. Another critical barrier for Thai doctoral music student socialisation in this study is the investment of time, energy and money. As Spaulding & Rockinson- Szapkiw (2012) and Weidman et al. (2001) noted, doctoral students invest and sacrifice not only time but also money, energy, alternative career choices, self- esteem, social status, etc. Most of the participants were university instructors who all needed to work and study at the same time. This is critical because working does not allow students to fully invest their time and energy in studying; they need to balance studies with their work routines. Because of work commitments, they always have problems managing and balancing their time. They cannot do their homework effectively, they encounter an overload of homework, they cannot make an appointment with their advisor smoothly or they cannot spend time with their friends after class among other challenges. Even doctoral students who have planned and scheduled everything efficiently can become exhausted and frustrated at some points. These time issues conform to McAlpine, et al. (2009) who noted that these issues were mentioned by more than half of the participants in their study as serious difficulties. They included lack of time, time management problems, choosing priorities, work taking a long time or slow progress, paid job or non-PhD commitments, many tasks or activities within the doctorate and time lost due to other people. A unique set of problems arises because doctoral students are in their adulthood and are responsible for taking care of their families and children. This conforms to the study of Choy, Geis and Malizio (2002), who mentioned that the average age of doctoral students is 34 years old who are thus in their adulthood (as cited in Kasworm & Bowles, 2010). As mentioned above, attending a PhD Skowrung Saibunmi & Somchai Trakarnrung 47 programme requires a huge investment of time, energy and money, all of which must be divided between the PhD work and the family responsibilities. Another obstacle for Thai doctoral music students to overcome is psychological problems. Many doctoral music students in this study went through the feeling of worry that occurred because they experienced circumstances from their senior friends, and then underestimated themselves. Isolation is another concern for many doctoral students, conforming to Perry (2007) and Gardner (2008) who noted that when doctoral students move to the candidacy phase, the feeling that many students experience is isolation. The sense of isolation often happens in the transition to the dissertation phase after coursework is finished. As Phillips and Pugh (2005) stated, this feeling occurs due to lack of interaction with advisors, peers and other people they used to interact with. Barriers of Integrating into the Doctoral Programme During studying in the doctoral programme, the English language was claimed by almost all of the interviewees as their barrier. English as a subject was mentioned as difficult, unrelated to the discipline and overlapped with other English courses. These issues emerged because of a difference in students’ background and the fact that the programme did not categorise students by their proficiency levels. Moreover, some subjects were taught by foreign instructors and sometimes there were foreign classmates. English is an international language used globally; however, it cannot be denied that English is still a barrier for Thai students at almost every level, even at the doctoral level as many participants commented in their interviews. Participants in this study emphasised the importance of peers, that conforms to Bonilla et al. (1994), Gardner (2008) and Li and Collins (2014) who stated that doctoral students form new relationships with their peers during the integration phase and they feel safe to give and receive feedback as well as encouragement and support. All interviewees expressed that peer climate in the programme was important in helping and supporting each other along the path to degree completion. Many participants from the interviews revealed that meeting outside the classroom was more relaxed and resulted in more fruitful discussions. This conforms to Millett and Nettles (2010) and Noonan et al. (2007) who stated that learning in doctoral communities does not occur only in structured but also informal activities and these activities can motivate and retain doctoral students by providing them with the necessary experiences associated with future job responsibilities, or socialise them to their new leadership positions. However, some interviewees confronted a barrier regarding this issue, as they had no time to meet their friends after or outside classes. It was because they studied in a special or a part-time programme and most students came from different places. After classes, they needed to return to where they lived or leave right away to prepare for work. At the last phase of socialisation, the candidacy phase, the dissertation was claimed as a core element of doctoral education, as Sims and Cassidy (2016) stated, that students contribute to knowledge and become skilled researchers through the dissertation process. The biggest challenge that the participants encountered was Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (36-53) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 48 selecting an appropriate and specific topic. Most of the study participants had an area in which they were interested, but they could not narrow their interests into a specific one. At the doctoral level, finding an appropriate topic takes some time because students need to consider in many aspects including whether or not the topic will be worthy enough for a PhD dissertation. Doctoral advisors are the important individuals who help doctoral students through the programmes and meet the requirements as well as motivate students to be more effective (Baird, 1995; Felder & Stevenson, 2014; Hawley, 2003). However, some participants added that they encountered difficulties during their dissertation phase because of the change of advisors and committees. This led to disorder in students’ working processes, conforming to the statement of Lovitts (2001) and Spaulding & Rockinson-Szapkiw (2012) that choosing an advisor is important because it can result in either retention or attrition in the degree programme. This issue is critical because students need to adjust what they have done with former advisors and committees to suit the new ones. It is also time- consuming and delays students from finishing their processes. This occurs due to an insufficient number of advisors and music specialists. Institutional Barriers Apart from the barriers that emerged from the students themselves, the institutions also had their own problems that affected students in the programme. Some participants noted that they had little information about the programme in which they planned to participate. Most of the participants from the interviews mentioned that they asked their friends who had already entered the programme and the instructors in that institution about the processes and requirements of the doctoral programme. Regarding the curriculum, some participants mentioned that the elective courses were set for them, which they felt was a convenience. Some students had no problem to study whatever was provided, whereas others mentioned that they wanted to select their own elective courses in order to suit their needs. Some institutions have already packaged the elective courses for doctoral students for the convenience of management. Nevertheless, at the doctoral level elective courses should be selected by students based on their specialised goals and needs. The top two barriers are English language and publication requirements. All universities in Thailand require graduate students to submit English proficiency test scores during the admission process. However, some universities allow students to enter the graduate programme and submit their English score later. Consequently, many doctoral students suffer from this requirement; they cannot pass the English test, which leads to an inability to take a final defence and finish the degree. This causes student anxiety and can lead to other problems. Furthermore, doctoral candidates are required to publish part of their dissertation in an international journal. This issue was stated as a barrier for many doctoral students. Due to the fact that the number of international music journals is not enough for all of the music papers awaiting publication, including journals in Thailand, the list of journals for Skowrung Saibunmi & Somchai Trakarnrung 49 publishing is changing all the time creating confusion and stopping students from effectively planning for the submission of their publications. IMPLICATIONS Implications for Students Students should be well-prepared by exploring the programme they want to study and then realise whether it suits their needs. For those who graduated in the music performance field, preparing themselves in a scholarly discipline and other doctoral requirements and tools is necessary. In addition, money is mentioned as one of the considerable barriers for Thai doctoral music students. Students who are responsible for their own tuition fees should explore the cost of studying in the doctoral programme, estimate financial flexibility and prepare themselves for all possible education and research costs. For those who are funded, since only tuition fees are subsidised, some amount of money should be allocated to cover unsupported expenses. Since conflicts with family members can be an obstacle to studying, before entering into the doctoral programme, students should talk to their family members about the purpose of studying and try to make them understand what they are going to encounter during the doctoral programme. When family members fully understand, they can help to support the student in ways that can lessen stress and smoothen the process of studying. Studying at the doctoral level requires a lot from students. The findings of this study indicate that many Thai doctoral music students suffer from a lack of self- efficacy, self-motivation, self-determination and isolation. Therefore, doctoral students should remain with high self-efficacy and self-determination throughout the programme. Being self-determined can help students move forward during the programme effectively and sustainably even though they experience so many obstacles. Moreover, they should continuously get in touch with friends and advisors in order to lower isolation. Implications for Funder One of the critical barriers for Thai doctoral music student socialisation in this study is the investment of time, energy and money. Most of the participants in this study were university instructors who all needed to work and study in the PhD programme at the same time. This situation may lead to other issues in students’ socialisation as well as make students take a longer time to complete the degree. There is a study from the Higher Education Funding Council for England or HEFCE (Green & Powell, 2005) that found that the completion rate of full-time doctoral students is higher than that of part-time students. The best solution for this is that the institutions that sponsor these doctoral students must have a clear policy and should allow students to study full-time so that they can increase their potential efficiently. When students can fully invest their time and energy as well as focus only on their learning, the outcomes are always brilliant. After graduation, successful students Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (36-53) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 50 can return to their institutions and fully invest and focus on their work and thus be more beneficial to the institutions. Lack of sufficient money was claimed as a barrier for those who were funded by their institutions because only the tuition fees were subsidised. To overcome this barrier, the subsidy provider should support all expenses related to doctoral studies in order to enable students to fully concentrate on their doctoral work. In addition, the institutions that offer funding should consider revising the funding process to better help doctoral students. Money issues may be resolved by asking students to send each semester’s invoice, enabling sponsors to complete the payment without interrupting the students’ flow of money for their studies. Implications for Institution Management. The PhD music programmes launched in Thailand are either full-time or part-time. Considering all of the participants’ responses in this study, the PhD music programme should be a full-time programme in order for students to fully invest and involve themselves in doctoral studies. Regarding advisors, who are significant to the success or failure of doctoral candidates, affecting either retention or attrition, the programmes should recruit students by considering whether they can capably assign advisors to PhD candidates. This can help reduce the barrier of an insufficient number of advisors and changing of advisors. In addition, if there is no advisor available for students, the institutions should limit the number of new students. Recruiting too many doctoral students and the granting too many PhDs may lead to the dilution of quality. If the institution is not ready in terms of assigning an efficient number of faculty or advisors, that doctoral programme should not be launched. Admission. At the present, for some institutions that require students to submit English proficiency test scores, the score can be submitted later. However, we suggest that allowing students to submit the score later causes problems not only for students but also institutions. The institutions need to invest money, facilities and faculty in launching English courses for these students. Submitting English proficiency test scores should be a strict requirement so that candidates who have not submitted their scores will not be considered to enter into the programme even if they have passed the other requirements. Since doctoral students enter the programme with a variety of backgrounds and predispositions, the institutions should provide new doctoral students who have different backgrounds with the foundational courses that relate to the PhD programme they select. At this moment, there is only one institution that provides foundation courses. However, those courses are scheduled in the first semester of the first year, which means that some doctoral students need to study many more subjects apart from their normal coursework. So, the foundation courses must be arranged and finished prior to the starting of the new semester to lower the students’ barriers in investing and managing time and money. Skowrung Saibunmi & Somchai Trakarnrung 51 Curriculum.Most of the Thai institutions that have launched a PhD music programme do not allow their students to select their own elective courses. It can be understood that setting all elective subjects for students is convenient for management in terms of cost, facilities and staff conservation. However, a wide range of music elective courses should be provided to students so that they can choose the ones that suit their needs and can be adapted and applied to their working careers in the future. Requirements for Graduation. Dissertation publishing was ranked highly as one of the barriers experienced by doctoral music students. Due to the low number of international music journals in Thailand, I recommend that all universities launching a music programme at any level should collaborate to establish international music journals to support the growing number of music publications in Thailand. CONCLUSION Studying in a doctoral programme is a long journey. A doctoral student experiences many joys and challenges on his or her way to degree completion. Good experiences motivate and encourage a student to move forward to different stages, while barriers and difficulties create an opposite effect as obstacles to moving ahead and can sometimes lead to leaving the programme. Obstacles that Thai PhD music students face include mastering the English language, conveying musical messages to audiences and not being familiar with academic papers. These problems arise due to the nature of musicians. The musician is artistic by nature and music is claimed as a language; musicians communicate through music. Consequently, they are not adept at using written and spoken language (especially using English for Thai musicians); they have problems with English and reading and writing academic papers. In addition, music sometimes cannot be described in words, so many doctoral music students encountered difficulties in writing about musical results in academic language. Furthermore, since music covers a wide range of areas, the number of people specialising in music in Thailand is still insufficient, which leads to the problems in doctoral music students choosing an advisor. In order to help doctoral students move through the programme effectively, many stakeholders must take part in the doctoral music education process as stated in the Implications section of this article. The adjustment and improvement of current Thai doctoral music programmes as well as the consideration of launching new PhD music programmes are necessary to help the programmes grow effectively and sustainably and to produce efficient Thai music scholars. REFERENCES Baird, L. L. (1995). Helping graduate students: A graduate adviser's view. In A. S. Pruitt- Logan & P.D. Isaac (Eds.), Student services for the changing graduate student Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (36-53) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 52 population: New directions for student services (Vol. 72)(pp. 25-32). California: Jossey-Bass. Bargar, R. R., & Duncan, J. K. (1982). Cultivating creative endeavour in Doctoral Research. The Journal of Higher Education, 53(1), 1-31. Bonilla, J., Pickron, C., & Tatum, T. (1994). Peer mentoring among graduate students of colour: Expanding the mentoring relationship. New directions for teaching and learning, 1994 (57), 101-113. Callejo-Perez, D. M., Fain, S. M., & Slater, J. (2011). Introduction: The doctorate and culture capital. In D. M. Callejo-Perez, S. M. Fain, & J. Slater (Eds.), Higher education and human capital: Rethinking the doctorate in America(pp. vii-xvi). Rotterdam: Sense Publisher. Choy, S., Geis, S., &Malizio, A. (2002). Student financing of graduate and first-professional education, 1999-2000: Profiles of students in selected degree programs and their use of assistantships. Retrieved May 28, 2016 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002166.pdf Council of Graduate Schools. (1990). The doctor of philosophy degree: A policy statement. Washington D.C.: CGS Publications. Felder, P. P., Stevenson, H. C., & Gasman, M. (2014). Understanding race in doctoral student socialization. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 9, 21-42. Gardner, S. K. (2008). “What's too much and what's too little?”: The process of becoming an independent researcher in doctoral education. The Journal of Higher Education, 79(3), 326-350. Green, H.,& Powell, S. (2005). Doctoral study in contemporary higher education. London: Open University Press. Hawley, P. (2003). Being bright is not enough: The unwritten rules of doctoral study. Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publishers. Kasworm, C.,& Bowles, T. (2010). Doctoral students as adult learners. In S. K. Gardner & P. Mendoza (Eds.), On becoming a scholar: Socialisation and development in doctoral education (pp. 223-241). Virginia: Stylus publishing. Li, W.,& Collins, C. S. (2014). Chinese doctoral student socialization in the United States: A qualitative study. FIRE - Forum for international research in education, 1(2), 32- 57. Lovitts, B. E. (2001). Leaving the ivory tower: The causes and consequences of departure from doctoral study. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. McAlpine, L., Jazvac-Martek, M.,& Hopwood, N. (2009). Doctoral student experience in education: Activities and difficulties influencing identity development. International journal for researcher development, 1(1), 97-109. Mendoza, P.,& Gardner, S.K. (2010). The PhD in the United States. In S. K. Gardner & P. Mendoza (Eds.), On becoming a scholar: Socialisation and development in doctoral education (pp. 11-26). Virginia: Stylus publishing. Millett, C. M.,& Nettles, M. T. (2010). The PhD degree and the marriage license. In S. K. Gardner & P. Mendoza (Eds.), On becoming a scholar: Socialisation and development in doctoral education (pp. 157-177). Virginia: Stylus publishing. Noonan, M. J., Ballinger, R.,& Black, R. (2007). Peer and faculty mentoring in doctoral education: Definitions, experiences and expectations. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 19(3), 251-262. Perry, S. (2007). Disciplines and doctorates. New York: Springer. Phillips, E.M.,& Pugh, D.S. (2005). How to get a PhD: A handbook for students and their supervisors. New York, NY: Open University Press. Skowrung Saibunmi & Somchai Trakarnrung 53 Sims, W. L.,& Cassidy, J. W. (2016). The role of dissertation in music education doctoral programs. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 25(3), 65-67. Slevin, O., & Hanucharurnkul, S. (2005). The substance of doctoral education. In S. Ketefian & H. P. McKenna (Eds.), Doctoral education in nursing: International perspectives (pp.1-26). New York, NY: Routledge. Spaulding, L. S.,& Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J. (2012). Hearing their voices: Factors doctoral candidates attribute to their persistence. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 7, 199-219. Stein, E. L. (1992). Socialization at a protestant seminary. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Thornton, R., & Nardi, P. M. (1975). The dynamics of role acquisition. American Journal of Sociology, 80(4), 870-885. Weidman, J. C., Twale, D. J., & Stein, E. L. (2001). Socialisation of graduate and professional students in higher education: A perilous passage? California: Jossey- Bass. BIOGRAPHY Skowrung Saibunmi is a PhD candidate in music education from College of Music, Mahidol University, Thailand. She holds degree in the Master of Arts (Music) and Bachelor of Music. She is currently a piano instructor in a private music school where she has been teaching for 10 years. She has previously taught music subjects, namely keyboard skills and aural skills at the undergraduate level. Her research interests include higher education, doctoral education, social psychology and sociology. Somchai Trakarnrung is a native of Thailand and currently Deputy Dean for International Language Development at Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University, Thailand. He graduated with ARCT (Hons) diploma in piano performance from Royal Conservatory of Music of Toronto, and holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from Ramkhamhaeng University. He has received a Master of Arts in Language and Communication from the National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), a Master of Music Studies (Performance/Teaching) from the University of Melbourne, a Master of Music in Music Education from the University of Toronto and a Master of Business Administration from SASIN Graduate Business School of Chulalongkorn University. He also completed his doctoral degree in Music Education from University of Toronto. His areas of interests include topics in music in higher education, music in early childhood, music therapy and music business. Dr. Somchai Trakarnrung has been a lecturer in music education at College of Music, Mahidol University.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 2 (2016)

knowledge, instructional strategies, music teaching readiness, preschool, professional development

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/137

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/821

Music Teaching Readiness among Non-Specialised Music Teachers in Government Preschools

Music education plays a very important role in children’s lives. Music can be used to assist children in learning other subjects such as language, mathematics, science and physical movements. Although teachers may be aware of the benefits and significance of music for children, they are not necessarily able to conduct lessons effectively. Many studies have revealed that preschool and primary school teachers lack skills in teaching music. This study sought to investigate three main components of music teaching readiness—content knowledge, professional development and instructional strategies among non-specialised music teachers in government preschools in the state of Perak. A questionnaire was used to collect data in this cross-sectional survey. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The results of this study indicated the music teaching readiness of the non-specialised music preschool teachers (N=48) in Perak is average in terms of content knowledge (M=3.35 on a 5-point scale); and instructional strategies (M=3.33) used in the music classroom. The professional development component indicated only 25% of the total number of teachers participated in courses, workshops, seminars, observations and other teacher development programmes. To maintain and develop effective teaching, teachers who lack confidence in teaching should take the opportunity to participate in professional development programmes fostered by Government policy, to discover new learning tools and strategies, assessment methods, find new resources and expand their network towards aiming for the best music-learning environment for children.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/821/557

Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (54-69) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 54 Music Teaching Readiness among Non-Specialised Music Teachers in Government Preschools Christine Augustine1, Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong2 1, 2Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Abstract Music education plays a very important role in children’s lives. Music can be used to assist children in learning other subjects such as language, mathematics, science and physical movements. Although teachers may be aware of the benefits and significance of music for children, they are not necessarily able to conduct lessons effectively. Many studies have revealed that preschool and primary school teachers lack skills in teaching music. This study sought to investigate three main components of music teaching readiness—content knowledge, professional development and instructional strategies among non-specialised music teachers in government preschools in the state of Perak. A questionnaire was used to collect data in this cross-sectional survey. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The results of this study indicated the music teaching readiness of the non-specialised music preschool teachers (N=48) in Perak is average in terms of content knowledge (M=3.35 on a 5-point scale); and instructional strategies (M=3.33) used in the music classroom. The professional development component indicated only 25% of the total number of teachers participated in courses, workshops, seminars, observations and other teacher development programmes. To maintain and develop effective teaching, teachers who lack confidence in teaching should take the opportunity to participate in professional development programmes fostered by Government policy, to discover new learning tools and strategies, assessment methods, find new resources and expand their network towards aiming for the best music- learning environment for children. Keywords content knowledge, instructional strategies, music teaching readiness, preschool, professional development INTRODUCTION Teachers with sufficient knowledge and skills create a positive learning environment and leave significant impact on children in music classes. Effective teachers demonstrate a variety of teaching styles and strategies to make the learning process more meaningful. According to Masnan (2014), although preschool teachers in Malaysia are likely to have a good academic background, they may still lack in their pedagogical skills in real-school environments. As qualified preschool Christine Augustine & Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong 55 teachers, they should be able to apply their knowledge and skills, which are the important assets in the process of teaching and learning. In addition, they are also required to master skills that are appropriate to the students’ level of cognitive development. Many studies have revealed that teachers in preschool and primary school feel that they are not competent enough to teach music (Scott, 1999; Chan & Kwan, 2010; Ehrlin& Wallerstedt, 2014; Ming, Liu, Lin & Tang, 2003). Scott (1999) mentioned that although many teachers are aware of the importance of music to children, but they are unable to conduct music lessons effectively. The two main learning core elements in the Malaysian National Preschool Curriculum that emphasises music as creativity development, which comprises music education activities, are: 1) singing early experience to play percussion, music production through the materials or objects, improvisation and music appreciation; and 2) physical development and healthcare which comprise physical activities including playing music. Unfortunately, most of the teachers did not receive any music education or training prior to their admission into the teacher training programme (Chan & Kwan, 2010). There were also problems of a lack of teaching resources. Their research showed that only 7% out of 96 qualified teacher trainers received significant formal education in instrumental skills, while 22% others described that the courses were limited to only music with creative movement. In preschools, music can be used as a tool to develop language, mathematics comprehension, improve motor skills and bring in different cultural elements while providing an enjoyable experience for children (Ehrlin, 2014) as well as develop speech and language skills (Knight, Bowmer & Welch, 2016). Therefore, teachers need to have sufficient skills and confidence to teach music, but unfortunately, this area is not given emphasis in the curriculum. Koutsoupidou (2010) explained that the current curricula of preschools encourage a creative approach, but teachers are not always prepared to provide creative, student-centred teaching approaches in music classrooms. One way to assist teachers in solving this problem is to implement professional development programmes, such as online courses and seminars that would be opportunities for non-specialised music teachers to enhance their capabilities to improve their teaching and learning skills and strategies. Campbell (2008) mentioned that both training and experience play an important part of a music teacher’s life. A music education degree and/or a teacher certification programme, enrolling in pedagogical methods courses, seminars on professional issues, field experiences in schools and supervising students, as well as real-world experience are likely to educate them to have the foundations for being excellent teachers of music. It is not the same for non-specialised music teachers because integrating music into teaching may be difficult when teachers have limited knowledge of the subject. Kraay (2013) stated that if non-specialised music teachers do not have a high level of self-efficacy in teaching music, they eventually avoid or minimize the lesson content. As a result, the students will not receive appropriate music education. In her study, Kraay discovered that there were two main issues that emerged in the data analysis. First, low self-efficacy arises from lack of knowledge and skills, resources and practice. Secondly, the music preparation courses offered in institutions do not provide adequate preparation for the non-specialised music Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (54-69) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 56 teacher to teach with confidence. Previous literature suggests that classroom teacher’s confidence in incorporating musical concepts is linked to content knowledge. Having practical teaching experience in music helps non-specialised music teachers develop their confidence and passion in teaching music (Kim & Choy, 2008; Stunell, 2010). Professional development activities are required to develop the quality of teaching and learning in music classrooms (Standerfer, 2007). Teachers learn to apply new knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes in all situations to be implemented into their routines. Collaboration with teachers of other disciplines can generate new ways on how to strategize the lessons. Koutsoupidou (2010) in her research on undergraduate general kindergarten teachers indicated that the teachers wanted to learn about methods of music education, such as Dalcroze, Kodaly and Orff music methods; design a lesson; and acquire practical experiences rather than teaching children to sing or play instruments. They also desire to gain confidence in teaching music. The author believes that they need further support, an environment conducive for teaching and educational support from specialists providing teachers with professional development opportunities. Deficiencies in the Evidence Referring to the music education in Malaysian preschools, Chan and Kwan (2010) and Augustine (2013) affirm two major issues: (a) low awareness of music and music education by society; and (b) music teachers’ lack of readiness and teaching skills. Chan and Kwan (2010) discovered that the questions pertaining to the confidence level of the music teachers’ teaching skills showed only 30% of the total number .In such instances, the teachers are not likely to be skilled or capable enough to perform their duties as music teachers (Chan & Kwan, 2010, p.20). In another study, Holden and Button (2006) mentioned that only 6% of non- specialised music teachers were found to be confident in teaching music, with 52% less confident and 39% non-confident, while the remaining three percent did not respond. Even though 58% of the non-specialist teachers had some level of confidence to teach music, unfortunately music as a subject area was ranked last compared to other subjects in terms of confidence level. The basis for this problem appears mainly because their initial training did not equip them to teach music effectively. The purpose of the current study is to identify the level of music teaching readiness among non-specialised music teachers who are expected to teach music in preschools in the state of Perak. Specifically, this study investigates the teachers’ music teaching readiness that is designated into three main components: content knowledge, instructional strategies and professional development. In addition, it was carried out to investigate the teachers’ needs, which could help them to improve their pedagogical knowledge in the teaching of music education. This study was carried out to answer the following research questions: 1. What is the non-specialised music preschool teachers’ content knowledge in teaching music in government preschools in Perak? Christine Augustine & Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong 57 2. What is the level of their personal and professional development in teaching music in the preschool? 3. What are the instructional strategies and activities used in the music classroom? LITERATURE REVIEW Music is important in children’s developing years. Numerous studies have proven the advantages of integrating music with other subjects, such as literacy (Ng & Yeo, 2012) and mathematics (Geist, Geist, &Kuznik, 2012), to mention a few. According to Abril and Gault (2007), the perceptions of music education are shaped by people’s values that influence music teaching and learning. Other than that, the instructional time for teaching music and other arts has been reduced, that also influenced their teaching time because of financial and legislative factors. Music as a subject has also been going through challenges in maintaining its status as an ‘essential’ subject in many countries including Malaysia. The normal practice or activities in the preschool includes singing in large groups followed by movement activities, instrument playing, listening and few creative actions (Scott, 1999; Chan & Kwan, 2010). Less time is given to preschool children to explore and create their own music. In addition, music as a subject is often substituted by other subjects. The current study is based on the constructive theory where each concept is presented using various instructional strategies that gives the learner an opportunity to make their own connections. Webster (2011) explains that constructivism is not a curriculum, but is based on what we know and need to know. He stressed that certain approaches to music listening, improvisation and performance involves the construction of knowledge. Erhlin and Wallerstedt (2014) pointed out that teaching and learning in preschool are seen to be dependent not only on the syllabus, the objectives and methods used, but also on the experiences made by teachers and children in practice. This theory promotes social and communication skills as children learn to have discussions with others. Rinaldo and Denig (2009) indicated that teachers should not continue being the sole source of musical knowledge. They must also participate as learners so that they will be able to engage themselves with the students to promote active learning in and through music. Holden and Button (2006) stressed that the number of music teachers are limited, but if non-specialised music teachers are assisted through training, access to resources and given professional support, it should make a difference in their teaching process. The teachers’ confidence levels will increase if they are exposed to appropriate pedagogical skills, content and knowledge. Scott (1999) also stressed that music educators ought to make an effort to develop or train preschool teachers by introducing different approaches and creative strategies in order to elevate music education so that it is taught in a fun and effective way. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (54-69) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 58 Content Knowledge Teachers’ content knowledge is crucial in the teaching and learning process. Music teachers must possess a comprehensive understanding of the skills and knowledge in what they teach. The skills and knowledge are crucial for teachers to provide essential training in forms of theory as well as practical aspects, such as musical knowledge and performance skills using music instruments (Millican, 2008). Holden and Button (2006) and Byo (1999) in their studies found that non- specialised music teachers agreed that greater knowledge content has the potential to develop the teachers’ confidence in teaching music by working with specialists of the area. They also assert that teachers are confident in their pedagogical skills, but weak in subject matter, content and knowledge. Darling-Hammond (2006) in Millican’s study mentioned that students’ knowledge, general teaching skills and awareness of efficient learning are vital to an educator’s success. The knowledge a music teacher should have includes a range of skills, passion and understanding their role in the students’ lives. The knowledge of performance skills strengthens the ability of becoming a successful music teacher. Thus, it is important for teachers with lesser experience to improve/enhance their knowledge through observations and familiarise/engage themselves with real experience in schools. Professional Development Professional development has helped teachers and educators to enhance their abilities to improve the quality of their knowledge, skills and competence. According to Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi and Gallagher (2007), policy makers, school and district leaders are apprehensive about the quality of the professional development outcomes. The authors assert that many studies have shown the positive impact of professional development on teachers’ knowledge and practice. Conway, Hibbard, Albert and Hourigan (2005) reported that teachers benefited from attending music conferences because they had the opportunity to observe ensemble performances, and attend workshops to enhance their knowledge and skills. However, they felt that they are often not supported by the local district. Moore and Griffin (2007) stated that it is essential for music educators to develop new skills and strategies in their respective fields in order to sustain effective and long-term success. This can also accommodate those teachers with little experience to keep up with the latest trends in the field of music education especially in technology, new tools, innovative teaching strategies and deeper knowledge in child development and psychology. According to Conway et al. (2005), the main areas frequently chosen by respondents for their professional development are technology, assessment, music literature, standards, creativity and writing. Other leading categories suggested by the respondents are community relations/support/advocacy; advanced vocal and instrumental pedagogy; writing curriculum; specific methodologies; brain research; scheduling; composition; instrument repair; and student/teacher supervision. Haack and Smith (in Conway et al., 2005) mentioned that it is important to make Christine Augustine & Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong 59 professional development training part of teachers’ career goals, and this includes collaboration with other institutions. Through this, music teachers can improve their music education and also cope with the latest development in the music education world. Moore and Griffin (2007) indicated that most of the teachers who attended the training shared their experiences and accomplishments with other teachers. This training also assists them to lead presentations at meetings, organise festivals and become leaders, conductors as well as composers, arrangers and performers in the professional field of music. Instructional Strategies All content and methodological knowledge is of no use if a teacher or educator is unsuccessful in organising the instruction in order to provide effective learning experiences. Townsend (2011) stated that the learning process continues with essential planning of the components, implementation of lessons and the assessment of learning. Instructions can be planned in many ways but the planning approach is crucial. Teachers vary in their teaching styles and in choosing their own materials and strategies that they use. These variances are influenced by their own musical experience and training, preferences for repertoire and techniques and the context they teach (Campbell, 2008). Children learn music in schools through strategies or methods that teachers acquire in their training. Activities such as singing, playing, moving, listening and improvising are customary and accomplish the goals of music literacy, aural skills, vocal and instrument playing. Many musical methods with American applications such as Dalcroze eurhythmics, the Kodaly sequence, the Orff-Schulwerk (the Orff method) and Edwin Gordon’s Music Learning Theory, have been introduced to teachers. Some teachers even combine or include localized approaches based on their preferences. Campbell stresses that these methods require observations, demonstrations and do-it-yourself experiences in order to understand them thoroughly. According to Miyamoto (2007), various instructional methods can be to: (1) facilitate attention, perseverance, music achievement and parent and teacher support (Suzuki); (2) improve correct use of descriptors in Kodály method (loud/soft, fast/slow); (3) facilitate higher levels of interest and attitude, and enjoyment of rhythmic activities and part singing, such as in the Orff method; (4) provide adequate pacing and variety of instructional activities, recognition of individuals, involvement of parents and inclusion of dramatic play (Yamaha); (5) provide successful instruction and assessment (computer); and (6) cue a learned song and teach a song (movement followed by melody produced on ‘loo’) (p. 35). Townsend (2011) indicated that the fundamental aspect in gathering information about students is through communication skills. By communicating with students, teachers can identify their backgrounds, social and education levels. This way, it will help the teacher to meet the needs of diverse student populations and strategise their teaching effectively. He added that the teachers’ instructional effectiveness will improve as they improve through reflection, reading, research, involvement in professional organizations and discussions with their peers. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (54-69) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 60 METHODOLOGY Participants This study was conducted in 28 government preschools in seven districts of the northern, central and southern regions of Perak, Malaysia. Before conducting this study, the researchers obtained consent from the pertinent authorities of the Education Ministry. The respondents were non-specialised music teachers who teach music in government preschools. These teachers are of mixed genders; both males and females from the three main races—Malay, Chinese, Indian and a minority group, the Orang Asli. Each respondent has different a social background and teaching experience. Schools were chosen randomly based on locations and the availability of the teachers. Research Instrument This survey was conducted to investigate the non-specialised music teachers’ readiness in teaching music in government preschools. A pilot study was carried out with teachers from three other states of Malaysia. After the pilot study, the researchers examined the data and reviewed the comments posted by each teacher who participated in the pilot study. A questionnaire was used in this survey to collect the data. The participants chose answers to questions and provided basic personal and demographic information. Additionally, the researchers designed the questionnaire using closed—(Likert scale) and open-ended questions to measure perceived confidence levels. The pilot test was conducted on a sample of n=35 preschool teachers. The results from the pilot test were used to amend the items of the questionnaire. The reliability of each component in the questionnaire indicated the Cronbach coefficient alphas () ranging from .76 to .94 with an average of .85. The content knowledge component had a relatively high internal consistency (.81); Part A on professional development indicated an acceptable consistency (0.76), followed by a relatively high consistency in Part B (.93); and Part A of instructional strategies and activities (.83) and Part B (.94). Overall, the pilot data indicated that the questionnaire had good reliability and could be used without major revision. The content validity was established with a panel of three reviewers. All three had different backgrounds and levels of experience and expertise. The panel, which consisted of a music educator, early childhood educator and language educator, reviewed the measures, revised, critiqued and offered suggestions for improvement. Based on the comments, some items were revised and rephrased for accurate wording or removed to suit each component of the study. Data Collection The researchers obtained approval from the Higher Education authorities and the head teacher of each school. The researchers then approached each preschool teacher. In the data reporting, Section A, demographic details of the preschool Christine Augustine & Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong 61 teachers are described using percentages following the number of teachers (frequency). Section B with the three main components of the study is described using the mean and standard deviation. Finally, in Section C, participants provide their own responses to three open-ended questions. RESULTS The questionnaire is divided into three sections: Section A consists of demographic data; Section B shows the results of the non-specialised music teachers’ teaching readiness in response to specific questions. This section revealed the results of the non-specialised music teachers’ content knowledge, personal and professional development in teaching music and the instructional strategies they used in their music classrooms. Finally, Section C consists of open-ended questions that required teachers to give their recommendations to improve the quality of music subjects in preschools. Section A: Demographic details of the participants The participants originated from seven different districts of northern, central and southern Perak. There were 48 preschool teachers (n=48) who took part in this study—46 females and two males. The teachers were from a diversity of races— Malay (n=40), Chinese (n=2), Indian (n=4) and Orang Asli (n=2). Academic qualifications of the participants ranged from Master’s Degree to Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) qualification. The teachers graduated from 11 institutions in the east and west of Malaysia while 12 other teachers did not provide any response to this section. The number of years of teaching experience ranged from one to 15 years. Section B: Research Questions Research Question 1.These questions describe the non-specialised music preschool teachers’ content knowledge of music teaching in their classrooms (see Table 1). The mean scores of the question range from 1.96 to 4.38, using a five- point scale. The overall mean from all the items in this section is 3.35, which is between 3-somewhat agree and 4-agree. The highest score is beyond the mean score of 4.0 (marked *). The items indicate that the non-specialised music teachers either agree or strongly agree that music is a useful teaching strategy to help preschool students retain their knowledge and the understanding of content subjects(4.38); believe that music education is important for their students (4.29); preschool curriculum has sufficient music content for current students learning (4.21); consider music as an important subject in the preschool curriculum (4.15); and access music resources from the Internet (4.04). Unfortunately, two items demonstrated a low score below the average mean of 2.5, where the teachers did not receive the appropriate training to teach music (2.38) and were not able to read music notation efficiently (1.96). Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (54-69) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 62 Table 1 Content knowledge of teaching music Note: 1= Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Somewhat Agree; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly Agree Statements Mean Std. Deviation I have sufficient skills to teach music 2.56 .920 I am able to implement the teaching of music 2.83 .808 I have received the appropriate training to teach music 2.38 1.044 I am able to read music notation efficiently 1.96 .849 I am comfortable teaching musical instruments in a classroom 2.96 1.071 I am able to plan appropriate music activities for my class 3.25 1.139 I consider music as an important subject in preschool curriculum 4.15* .743 I find music a challenging subject to teach 3.50 1.052 I feel comfortable whenever I sing to my students 3.79 1.031 I am able to explain and demonstrate the concept of music 3.10 1.096 I can access music resources from reference books 3.63 1.044 I can access music resources from the Internet 4.04* .898 I am able to play chords to accompany my students 2.56 1.109 Music is a useful teaching strategy to help preschool students retain memory content subjects 4.38* .815 I believe that music education is important for my students 4.29* .771 In my opinion, the preschool curriculum has sufficient music content for current students learning 4.21* .713 Overall mean 3.35 -- Christine Augustine & Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong 63 The results indicate that out of 16 sub-questions, 14 items showed a mean value greater than 2.5 which indicate that the non-specialised music teachers agree that they are aware of the importance of music and have an average level of content knowledge to teach music in preschool. According to Townsend (2011), good music teachers will commit to the effort of developing their content knowledge to form a solid foundation in the field, and assist students in their learning. The content they possess and well-planned lesson plans will thrive by the way music subjects are presented and how they react and communicate with students daily. Research Question 2. This question investigates the non-specialised music preschool teachers’ participation in professional development programmes in music, as well as the impact of these programmes on the teachers. The results indicate that teachers who participated in professional development programmes, such as courses, seminars, conference, workshops, music qualification programmes, observation or training, is less than 50% in all items. Impact, which influences their development in music understanding/knowledge, is also very low. Overall, this outcome demonstrates the inactive level of participation by non-specialised music teachers in the state of Perak (see Table 2). Barrett (2006) explained that educational change requires holistic, fluid and integrated approaches to teacher learning that support their work in school settings and communities. Innovative forms of professional development will help music teachers meet changing roles and responsibilities, but traditional venues must also be changed to support their goals and needs (p.19). According to Hazri, Nordin, Reena and Abdul (2008), the 21st century has brought greater demand for Malaysia to produce quality teachers. However, some of the challenges include: 1) teachers need many hours of training to acquire a high level of competency using technology in teaching; 2) allocated time for professional development is limited because teachers are burdened with duties and tasks besides teaching; and 3) programmes need to be implemented both in the Malay and English languages so that teachers will be able to access relevant material and journals to keep in line with the imminent changes in education. Koutsoupidou’s (2010) also mentioned that many steps have been taken for teachers to attend professional development programmes, to enhance their teaching abilities. However, the majority of preschool teachers find it difficult to participate because programmes are only conducted at certain locations. Table 2 Professional development of teachers Professional Development Frequency (F) Percent (%) Impact F Percent (%) Course/Workshop No 35 72.9 Yes 13 27.1 Small 1 2.1 Moderate 6 12.5 Big 6 12.5 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (54-69) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 64 Research Question 3. This question analyses the non-specialised music preschool teachers’ teaching strategies conducted in their music classes. Part A of this question stated eleven types of tools utilised by teachers. Table 3 Tools used in music classroom Tools Mean Std Dev. Video 3.44 1.253 Computer 3.63 1.196 Whiteboard 4.04 4.307 Compact Disk (CD) 3.52 1.130 Orff Instruments (tambourine, small drum, castanets, triangle) 2.79 1.110 Music instruments (keyboard/guitar) 1.81 .982 Puppet 2.75 1.139 Recycled tools (bottles, wood, paper) 2.69 1.095 Conference/seminar No 43 89.6 Yes 5 10.4 Small 2 4.2 Moderate 1 2.1 Big 2 4.2 Music Qualification Programme No 36 75.0 Yes 12 25.0 Small 0 0 Moderate 5 10.4 Big 7 14.6 Observations No 34 70.8 Yes 14 29.2 Small 1 2.1 Moderate 6 12.5 Big 7 14.6 Participation in Teacher’s Circle No 28 58.3 Yes 20 41.7 Small 2 4.2 Moderate 5 10.4 Big 11 22.9 Appointed as mentor/trainer No 39 81.3 Yes 9 18.8 Small 1 2.1 Moderate 3 6.3 Big 5 10.4 Christine Augustine & Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong 65 Magnets 2.10 1.153 Smartboard 1.92 1.088 Light Emitting Diode (LED screen) 1.02 .144 Note: 1 = Never; 2 = Rarely; 3 = Occasionally; 4 = Frequently; 5 = Very frequently In Table 3, the mean scores of the questions range from 1.02 to 4.04 using a five-point scale. The outcome demonstrates that the top four tools used in the music classroom includes whiteboard, computer, CDs and video, whereas the use of smartboard, music instruments such as keyboard/ guitar and LED screen are either rare or never used. According to Chan and Kwan (2010), preschool teachers frequently used audio-visual equipment such as CDs, cassettes, video, television and non-pitched percussions in their music classes. It is contrary to the preschool curriculum that encourages the utilization of materials from the environment to produce melody that was found to be moderately effective. Koutsoupidou (2010) stated that the shortage of teaching equipment is a common problem for teachers in preschools, yet music instruments such as percussions are necessities for simple musical activities. Part B indicates whether the teachers were able to use various strategies in their music teaching. The mean score of this question ranges from 1.65 to 4.23 using a five-point scale. The overall mean from all the items in this section is 3.33 which is between 3-somewhat agree and 4-agree which indicates that teachers are fairly capable to teach music with various strategies in the classroom. Table 4 indicates that the non-specialised music teachers agree that music is an effective strategy to help children develop psychomotor and basic social skills; teachers are able to communicate well with their students and they use nursery rhymes to teach music. They also find that the students enjoy learning music. Greata (2006) mentioned that the most beneficial songs for helping children learn how to use their singing voices are generally short, simple, narrow in pitch range, repetitive and sung in the range of the young child’s voice. Folk songs and nursery rhymes have stood the test of time and there is a good chance the child will be able to sing them at home with family members (Greata, 2006, p.127). The lower mean indicates that teachers are not familiar with music pedagogical approach such as Orff and Kodaly methods, and practice varieties of teaching strategies in music education. Teachers are also not able to play and accompany songs with instruments such as keyboard or guitar. Townsend (2011) suggested that teachers should provide students with the necessary tools to succeed. If one approach or tool does not work, use another. Eventually, even if the use of multiple tools resulted in only modest gains, students will at least understand and appreciate the fact that the teacher is spending time with them in a sincere effort to help them succeed (Townsend, 2011, p. 76). Townsend (2011) also stressed that planning is important because it serves as a written record of the teachers’ day-to-day teaching and provides a clear map of the journey the teacher and the students will take. (p. 62). Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (54-69) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 66 Table 4 Instructional strategies used in music classroom Note: 1= Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Somewhat Agree; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly Agree Section C: Open-ended questions. Suggestions to improve the quality of music teachers in preschool were provided by open-ended questions. The responses revealed that 60.4% of the 48 teachers suggested that they need exposure in music teaching by attending courses, workshop or seminars, followed by exposure to Statements Mean Std. Dev I am able to use varieties of teaching strategies in music education 2.27 .869 I am able to accommodate diverse learning styles and abilities 2.54 .944 I am able to play and accompany songs with keyboard 1.90 .751 I am able to play and accompany songs with guitar 1.65 .699 I am familiar with Orff / Kodaly pedagogical approach 2.08 .986 I use folk songs to teach music 3.10 1.134 I use children's songs (nursery rhymes) to teach music 4.17* .907 I find my students' involvement is satisfactory in playing the musical instrument 3.81 1.085 I encourage group activities in the music class 3.81 .842 I am able to motivate students to get involved with music 3.54 .967 Other than utilizing written lesson plan, I make modifications and adaptations in response to different learning climates 2.94 .976 I use music to teach other subjects (e.g. English/Malay language) 3.88 .937 I am able to communicate well with the students 4.10* .857 I encourage students to take part in creative activities 4.13* .789 Students enjoy learning music 4.23* .778 Music is an effective strategy to help preschool students develop psychomotor skills 4.23* .778 Music is an effective strategy to help preschool students develop basic social skills 4.19* .825 Overall mean (3.33) -- Christine Augustine & Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong 67 music instruments and how to read notation. Seven teachers stated that they needed to be exposed to music instruments, such as keyboard or guitar, while another three stated that theory music or notation reading is necessary in teaching music. Additionally, one teacher stated the importance of knowing nursery rhymes and children’s songs, and another stated that teachers should have access to music resources. Seven teachers did not respond to this question. CONCLUSION According to the overall results, there were three different outcomes following the research questions of the study. The outcome of the first research question demonstrated that non-specialised music preschool teachers are somewhat ambivalent that they have sufficient content knowledge in teaching music in preschool. The second research question demonstrated that only a quarter of the total number of participants had attended any form of professional development activity and that were likely to have no or little impact on them. The third research question demonstrated an average effect where non-specialised music preschool teachers somewhat agree that they vary their teaching styles, activities and strategies in their music classes. In order to maintain effective teaching, teachers who lack confidence in teaching should take the opportunity to participate in professional development programmes supported by Government policy initiatives that value such support. Teachers could discover new learning tools and strategies, assessment methods, find new resources and enlarge their network towards aiming for the best music learning environment for the children. In terms of music teaching readiness, it is the responsibility of the non-specialised music preschool teachers to take the challenge and promote music teaching and learning, and for Government agencies and senior school managers to promote such engagement as an official staff development policy. REFERENCES Abril, C. R., & Gault, B. M. (2007). Perspectives on the music program: Opening doors to the school community. Music Educators Journal, 93(5), 32-37. Augustine, C. (2013). How the use of music and movement impacts the learning of reading skills by preschoolers. Malaysian Music Journal, 4(2), 55-66. Barrett, J. (2006). Recasting professional development for music teachers in an era of reform. Arts Education Policy Review, 107(6), 19-28. doi: 10.3200/ AEPR.107.6.19-28 Byo, S. J. (1999). Classroom teachers’ and music specialists’ perceived ability to implement the national standards for music education. Journal of Research in Music Education, 47(2), 111-123. Campbell, P. S. (2008). Musician and teacher: An orientation to music education. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (54-69) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 68 Chan, C. J., & Kwan, S. S. (2010). Implementation of music in government preschools in Malaysia: Music activities, teachers’ perceptions and teachers’ self-efficacy. Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities, 18(2), 209-225. Conway, C., Hibbard, S. Albert, D.,& Hourigan, R. (2005). Professional development for artsteachers. Arts Education Policy Review, 107(1), 3-10. Ehrlin, A. & Wallerstedt, C. (2014). Preschool teachers’ skills in teaching music: two steps forward one step back. Early Child Development and Care, 184(12), 1800-1811. Geist, K., Geist, E.,&Kuznik, K. (2012). The patterns of music: Young children learning mathematics through beat, rhythm, and melody. YC Young Children, 67(1), 74-79. Greata, J. D. (2006). An introduction to musicin early childhood education. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson DelmarLearning. Hazri Jamil, NordinAbd. Razak, Reena Raju & Abdul Rashid Mohamed. (2011). Teacher professional development in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges. In Africa-Asia university dialogue for edducational development report of the International Experience Sharing Seminar (2), Actual status and issues of teacher professional development(pp.85-102). center for the International Cooperation in Education, Series 4.Hiroshima University. Retrieved from http://aadcice.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/e/publications/sosho4_2-08.pdf Holden, H.,& Button, S. (2006). The teaching of music in the primary school by the non- specialised music specialist. The British Journal of Music Education, 23(1), 23-38. Kim, J.,& Choy, D. (2008). Learning to toot your own horn: Preservice teachers integrating music into a childhood classroom. Journal of Research in Childhood Education22(4), 405-423, doi:10.1080/02568540809594636 Knight, J., Bowmer, A.,& Welch, G. F. (2016). Music for change 2015-18 Collaborating with speech and language therapists: A multi-perspective report. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309033022_'Music_for_Change'_2015- 18_Collaborating_with_Speech_and_Language_Therapists_a_multi- perspective_report Koutsoupidou, T. (2010). Initial music training of generalist kindergarten teachers in Greece: What do they ask for and what do they receive? Arts Education Policy Review, 111, 63–70.doi: 10.1080/10632910903455892 Kraay, J. (2013). Examining the construction of music teacher identity in generalist classroom teachers: An ethnographic case study. Canadian Music Educator, 55(1), 32-36. Masnan, A. H. (2014). Amalan pedagogi guru prasekolah permulaan. [The pedagogical practice among beginning preschool teachers]. (Doctoral Thesis). Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia. Millican, J. S. (2008). A new framework for music education knowledge and skill. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 18(1), 67-78. doi: 10.1177/1057083708323146 Ming, C. S., Liu, R., Lin, C. P.,& Tang, T. M. (2003). Satu tinjauan: Kepentingan muzik sebagai mata pelajaran wajib dalam kurikulum pendidikan guru. [An overview: The importance of music as a compulsory subject in teacher education curriculum]. Institut Pendidikan Guru, Kampus Batu Lintang [teacher education Institute of Malaysia, Batu Lintang Campus]. Retrieved from http://www.ipgkbl.edu.my/portal/penyelidikan/jurnalpapers/jurnal2003/2003_chai.p df Miyamoto, K. (2007). Musical characteristics of preschool-age students: A review of literature. Applications of Research in Music Education, 26(1), 26-40. Moore, J. & Griffin, M. (2007). Professional development for music educators. Music Education Research International, 1(1), 48-54. Christine Augustine & Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong 69 Ng, P. F.,& Yeo, K. J. (2012). Preschool teachers’ beliefs and practices on early literacy instruction. Research University Grant [Q.J130000.7131.02H57]. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE), Malaysia. Penuel, W., Fishman, B., Yamaguchi, R.,& Gallagher, L. (2007). What makes professional development effective? Strategies that foster curriculum implementation. American Educational Research Journal, 44(4), 921 –958. Rinaldo, V.,&Denig, S. (2009). A constructivist approach to learning music: What role, if any, does active engagement play in the learning process? Journal of the Practical Application of Constructivist Theory in Education, 1-20. Retrieved fromhttp://www.jpacte.org/uploads/9/0/0/6/9006355/2009-1-rinaldo_denig.pdf Scott-Kassner, C. (1999). Developing teachers for early childhood programs. Music Educators Journal, 86(1), 19-25. Siew NyetMoi @ Sopiah Abdullah. (2011). Learning to play natural percussion instruments: An environmental expression for preschool trainee teachers. Educational Research, 1(9), 1481-1487 (ISSN: 2141-5161). Standerfer, S. L. (2007). Preparation for the national board for Professional Teaching Standards certification as music teacher professional development. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 17(1), 33-41. Stunell, G. (2010). Not musical? Identity perceptions of generalist primary school teachers in relation to classroom music teaching in England. Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education, 9(2), 79-107. Townsend, A. (2011). Introduction to effective music teaching: Artistry and attitude. Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Webster, P. R. (2011). Construction of music learning. MENC handbook of research on music learning, 1, 35-83. BIOGRAPHY Christine Augustine has a Doctor of Education (EdD), Masters in Performing Arts (Music Education), Bachelor’s Degree of Education (Music), LTCL and ATCL (piano). Christine Augustine is currently a senior lecturer at the Music and Music Education Department, Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia. She is a music educator who previously taught music in a private music school for five years. She has been on the academic staff at Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris for more than 10 years. Christine’s research interests include music education, Instructional Leadership, music in preschool and music and literacy. She was formerly a church musician and also a violinist/violist in the Malacca Youth Orchestra. She also performed in the Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia Orchestra concerts at Istana Budaya and the Putra World Trade Centre, Kuala Lumpur. Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong is a music educator in the Department of Music and Music Education at Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak. She holds a double music degree from the National Arts Academy and the University of Malaya (with distinction), and received her M.A in Performing Arts from the University of Malaya. Colleen completed her EdD specialising in Instructional Leadership under Nova Southeastern University, Florida. In addition to teaching, she is a regular gamelan player with Rhythm in Bronze (RIB) and has conducted workshops using Malay gamelan with both adults and children. Her passion towards educating school children in music has led her to undertaking significant research in this field.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 2 (2016)

composition, indigenous, local postmodernism, pastiche, song text

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/137

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/822

Song Text Composition in Pinloin among the Indigenous Jahai of Peninsular Malaysia: A Local Postmodernist Approach?

The Jahai are one among 18 indigenous Orang Asli groups in Peninsular Malaysia. They perform the traditional pinloin, a song and dance genre, during the pano ceremony (séances) and tree and fertility rituals. The song text and music of pinloin is taught to the Jahai halaq (shaman) by their chenoi (spirit guide) through dreams. Pinloin song text manifests the flora and fauna of the rainforest of Malaysia as depicted by the chenoi. Today (2016), the function of pinloin as a ritual enactment has shifted to a form of entertainment or cultural experience for tourists, visitors and visiting dignitaries. This change has resulted in a disruption in the transmission of the traditional pinloin song text. In this article, I argue that there is an increase in the use of the pastiche approach such as random sharing of fragments of song text, sporadic unfolding of narratives and little connection between the title and song text in pinloin song text compositions due to the influence of the ‘tourist gaze’. I support this argument by comparing Jahai song text form and composition technique in the early 20th century, late 20th century and early 21st century.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/822/558

Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 70 Song Text Composition in Pinloin among the Indigenous Jahai of Peninsular Malaysia: A Local Postmodernist Approach? Clare, Suet Ching, Chan Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The Jahai are one among 18 indigenous Orang Asli groups in Peninsular Malaysia. They perform the traditional pinloin, a song and dance genre, during the pano ceremony (séances) and tree and fertility rituals. The song text and music of pinloin is taught to the Jahai halaq (shaman) by their chenoi (spirit guide) through dreams. Pinloin song text manifests the flora and fauna of the rainforest of Malaysia as depicted by the chenoi. Today (2016), the function of pinloin as a ritual enactment has shifted to a form of entertainment or cultural experience for tourists, visitors and visiting dignitaries. This change has resulted in a disruption in the transmission of the traditional pinloin song text. In this article, I argue that there is an increase in the use of the pastiche approach such as random sharing of fragments of song text, sporadic unfolding of narratives and little connection between the title and song text in pinloin song text compositions due to the influence of the ‘tourist gaze’. I support this argument by comparing Jahai song text form and composition technique in the early 20th century, late 20th century and early 21st century. Keywords composition, indigenous, local postmodernism, pastiche, song text BACKGROUND The Orang Asli are the first inhabitants and considered the original people of Peninsular Malaysia. They make up about 0.6% (178,197) of the national population of 28.3 million people as of 2010 (Department of Statistics, 2011). There are three main Orang Asli groups—the Negrito (Semang), the Senoi and the Aboriginal Malays. These groups are further subdivided into 18 Orang Asli subgroups in Peninsular Malaysia (Nicholas, 2000, p.1) (Figure 1). The Negrito are believed to be descendants of the Hoabinhians who lived between 8,000 BC and 1,000 BC during the Middle Stone Age (Skeat & Blagden, 1906; Evans, 1968; Schebesta, 1973; Carey, 1976; Ratos, 1986; Dentan, 1997; Nicholas, 2000; Endicott, 2014). The Jahai is a subgroup of the Negrito and were originally hunter-gatherers who resided in the Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 71 Belum-Temenggor Forest Complex (BTFC), in north eastern Perak and north western Kelantan (Figure 1). Their ancestors were nomadic foragers who shifted from one place to another when food supply became scarce. Table 1 The Negrito subgroups and estimated population (2010) [Source: The Department of Orang Asli Development (JAKOA), 2010] Subgroup Location Population Negrito Kensiu Northeast Kedah 237 Kintak Kedah-Perak border 197 Jahai Northeast Perak and West Kelantan 2,387 Lanoh North Central Perak 382 Mendriq Southeast Kelantan 362 Batek Northeast Pahang and South Kelantan 1,447 Total 5,009 Figure 1 Location of the Jahai among the other 18 Orang Asli ethnic groups in Peninsular Malaysia (Source: Nicholas, 2012)1 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 72 Figure 2 Location of Jahai villages before settlement (Banding) and after relocation in Rancangan Pengumpulan Semula (RPS) Air Banun (Source: Wonder Malaysia (2007-2016)2 According to the Orang Asli Population Breakdown in 2010, the Jahai make up the largest population of North Aslian speakers, which accounts for up to 2,387 people out of 5,009 (The Department of Orang Asli Development (JAKOA), 2010, See Table 1). The Jahai groups in peninsular Malaysia are scattered across northeast Perak and western Kelantan. There has been little documentation on Jahai as a specific group; therefore, I also draw from literature reviews of the Jahai as a category of the Negritos. In this article, I discuss the Jahai group whose original RPS Air Banun Banding: Original home before resettlement Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 73 homeland was where the Temenggor Dam and Banding Island are now located (Figure 2). In the late 1970s, the Malaysian government launched the Temenggor Dam project in Gerik in order to increase the generation of hydroelectricity in the country. The project was also aimed at obstructing the route of communists from Thailand, forcing them to seek more difficult routes (Ong, 2010, p. 82). The Temenggor Dam project stretched across the traditional rainforest territories of the Jahai. The Jahai were advised to relocate to the Rancangan Pengumpulan Semula (RPS) Air Banun, a new permanent settlement specially planned for them (Figure 2). Many Orang Asli regroupment schemes are managed by the Department of Orang Asli Affairs (JHEOA) (now known as JAKOA) 3 and were founded on objectives to eradicate poverty, modernise and protect the Orang Asli from subversive and anti-national movements (JHEOA 1992, Attachment A in Nicholas 2000, p. 113). The government’s conception of ‘modernisation’ is benchmarked against mainstream society’s lifestyle, which includes basic services and facilities such as formal education, health, housing, water, electricity and social services. The government promised to provide the Jahai with basic amenities and monetary compensation for the loss of their traditional homeland. The resettlement scheme resulted in abrupt changes in their livelihood and lifestyle such as the shift from being nomadic hunter-gatherers living on a subsistence economy to permanent settlers earning wage income from manual labour. Their intricate knowledge of the rainforest ecology and skills in hunting and gathering are less useful in the modern world. These changes have also influenced the musical aesthetics, interest and performances not only of the Jahai, but many of the other Orang Asli groups in peninsular Malaysia (Chan, 2010, 2012). PINLOIN IN THE 20TH CENTURY Pinloin (Schebesta, 1973) or peningloin (Evans, 1968) is a song and dance genre that is performed during séances and tree fertility rituals. During the performance of pinloin, the halaq (shaman) seeks the assistance of forest-oriented spirit guides, known as chinoi (Evans, 1968), chenoi (Schebesta, 1973; Oesch, 1977), or cenoi (Miller & William, 2008) to diagnose a patient’s illness during séances. Roseman (as cited in Miller & Williams, 2008) states that the shaman sucks “malevolent spiritual substances out of a sick person’s body, or returns lost soul components to the patient during rituals of healing” (p. 321). These healing ceremonies also play therapeutic functions for the indigenous communities who participate in the trance dancing. The chenoi are “the little beings of the heavens and of flowers” (Evans, 1968, p.190) or “small, colourful rays of light, personified as male and female that connect the human realm with the spiritual world” (Schebesta, 1973; Oesch, 1977). There are many chinoi of different kinds and of the same kind. They look like children and are about two and a half feet high. There are the hornbill chinoi and Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 74 vulture chinoi. A chinoi takes up its abode in the body of a bird, and when it wishes, comes out again. (Evans, 1968, p.190) According to Roseman (as cited in Miller & William, 2008), the Jahai shaman’s soul leaves the body and his soul journeys to the spiritual world to contact the upper earthly powers during séances. He returns fifteen minutes later with transcendental knowledge acquired from this journey. While in a trance, the shaman is a conduit for the chenoi, the force of his religious activities stems from them. Without the chenoi, his dialogue with the spiritual realm during the evening and the ritual would not be possible, as they aid in his ceremonial transformation, he can answer questions, heal and foretell future events. (Roseman as cited in Miller & William, 2008, p. 321) Pinloin is also performed to invoke the fertility of fruit trees. The Jahai not only have seasonal fruit species as their typical spirit-guides but also through mediumship are reputedly skilled in curing the sicknesses of such trees. If a valuable tree (such as the durian or rambutan tree) fails to give fruit, the shamans will climb up the branches of the tree and perform a ritual known as tenhool ‘blowing upon it’. It is hoped that the chenoi (spirit guide) will aid the tree to bear abundant fruit (Benjamin, 2014, p. 181). PINLOIN IN THE 21ST CENTURY Pinloin is usually sung by a solo singer and a chorus of five to six people (usually women), who stamp a pair of cantong (bamboo stamping tubes) onto a long piece of wood while singing. I encountered such performing groups in three Jahai villages during my fieldwork (Figure 3, 4 and 5). The soloist and chorus perform in a ‘call and response’ manner in which the soloist sings a verse that is repeated by the chorus. The chorus repeats the soloist’s phrase by beginning to sing slightly before the ending of the soloist’s phrase, therefore overlapping the end phrases in heterophony. According to Andak bin Lembut (2015), Nyanyian pinloin ialah untuk perayaan. Pada ketika itu, dalam bulan lapan, ada perayaan. Dia (halaq) cari buah, macam rambutan, pada malam tu, dia masuk hutan untuk ambil bunga dengan canglung, kalau nak sewang pengsan dia nak bagi, berek (masak) bagi buah-buahan jadi subur. Pinloin is performed during festivals and ceremonies. In the month of August, there is a festival. The halaq search for fruit such as rambutans. During the night, the halaq enters the forest to find the flowers and canglung (a whisk made from leaves). We don’t mind dancing to sewang until we collapse; as long as it will help the fruit ripen (Andak Lembut, personal communication, 7 July 2015). Today (2016), pinloin is not often performed in the Jahai villages anymore. It is sometimes performed as entertainment for visitors, tourists and important guests when there is a demand for it. Azizan bin Selewei (personal communication, 13 February 2016) states that their group is sometimes invited to perform for Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 75 visitors in the Belum Rainforest Resort or Banding Lake side Inn, two hotels close to their village in RPS Air Banun. I posit three factors that affect the Jahai community’s interest in pinloin. First, the Jahai are less dependent on the rainforest for a livelihood, consequently there is also less dependency on a host of forest- oriented spirit guides for protection and healing. Resettlement schemes that established health clinics in Jahai villages utilise Western medicine for treatment of illnesses. The second factor affecting interest in pinloin is the conversion of many Jahai to Islam that is in part due to the strong influence of the religion in Malaysia. Third, the mass media soundscapes such as the radio and television in the village towns and communities nearby have gradually influenced the Jahai community’s musical preferences. Due to the irregularity and scarcity of performances, the Jahai soloists and chorus tend to forget the song texts and rhythmic patterns of the cantong. When there is a request to perform pinloin, the Jahai singers have to utilise several compositional techniques to ‘conjure up’ a pinloin performance. FIELDWORK IN KAMPUNG SUNGAI RABA, TEMENGGOR, PERAK During my fieldwork research period on the music of the Jahai communities in Kampung Sungai Raba, Temenggor from April 2015 to April 2016,4 I found it challenging to acquire information on pinloin as a healing ritual because the majority of the villagers had already converted to Islam that prohibits any form of animistic practices. Second, Ahung bin Kimbis, the last halaq who was known to sing pinloin in the village had already passed away. Third, the function of pinloin as a healing and tree fertility ritual is less in demand today. However, even in these circumstances, some elderly Jahai still remember how to perform pinloin. One significant phenomenon that aroused my interest during my fieldwork research in this village was the song text composition of the Jahai soloist. I noticed that the Jahai soloist constantly repeated similar lines of the same song text interchangeably among several other songs, regardless of the title and meaning of the song. The song about an owl had similar extracts of song text from the song about a fruit or a bird. Taking an interest in the manner in which song text emerged during pinloin performances, I questioned whether the previous Jahai soloists composed song text in similar ways. Three important research questions that came to mind were: 1) How does the Jahai soloist remember, improvise or compose song text?; 2) What compositional techniques do Jahai soloists utilise to compose the song text of pinloin?; and 3) Has the form and compositional technique of pinloin evolved? The first question is addressed through an analysis of form in the song text, while the second is answered through an examination of techniques of composition such as muscle memory, memory recall and conscious composition. The third question is answered by selecting and comparing three periods based on availability of literature: the early 20th century (Period 1), late 20th century (Period 2) and early 21st century (Period 3). Period 1 and 2 are based on literature review, whereas the early 21st century comparison was based on my ethnographic fieldwork in 2015- Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 76 2016. Through an analysis of song text composition in these three periods, I argue that there is an increase in the use of a pastiche approach including random sharing of fragments of song texts, sporadic unfolding of narratives and little connection between the title and song text to singing pinloin due to the influence of the ‘tourist gaze’. Figure 3 Jahai pinloin ensemble in Kampung Sungai Tiang, Royal Belum State Reserve Park. (Photo by Clare Chan, 2014) Figure 4 Pinloin performance led by Enjok bin Kimbis of Kampung Sungai Raba, Rancangan Pengumpulan Semula (RPS) Air Banun, Temenggor, Perak.Temenggor. From left: Ambus binti Pilloi, Gambir binti Kade, Tijah binti Melengsing, Tiah binti Enjok, Ahan binti Senan and Tenembang binti Lamur. (Photo by Clare Chan, 2015) Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 77 Figure 5 Jahai pinloin ensemble of Kampung Sungai Banun led by Azizan bin Selewei. (Photo by Clare Chan, 2016) THE ‘TOURIST GAZE’ The ‘tourist gaze’ refers to the expectations that tourists bring to local cultural practices and performing arts when they participate in cultural, ethnic or heritage tourism (Urry, 2002). The locals are influenced to ‘reflect the gaze’ by performing what the tourists desire to watch. Cohen (1979) describes five types of tourists – the ‘experimental’, ‘experiential’, ‘existential’, ‘recreational’ and ‘diversionary’ tourists (p. 183-189). In this study, I refer to the ‘recreational’ tourists, those who seek in ‘the Other’ mainly “restoration and recuperation, and hence tend to approach the cultural products encountered on their trip with a playful attitude to accept a cultural product as authentic, for the sake for the experience, even though ‘deep down’ they are not convinced of its authenticity” (Cohen, 1985, p. 295). These tourists are semioticians (Culler, 198l; MacCannell, 1989) interested in the ‘signs’ and ‘markers’ indicative of an idealised way of life. I suggest that some tourists are mainly interested in savouring a taste of the soundscape of ‘authenticity’ and a temporary immersion into a utopian society imagined to exist among the indigenous communities of the past. To reinforce this statement, I utilise Marx’s theory that modern society experiences a sense of ‘alienation’ today because they are detached from the fruits of their labour. This estrangement is felt among a society of stratified social classes whose mode of production is based on specialisation (Marx, 1967). In this type of society, the people have less connection to the product of their labour. This alienation has resulted in modern society behaving in particular ways: Modern man has been condemned to look elsewhere, everywhere, for his authenticity, to see if he can catch a glimpse of it reflected in the simplicity, poverty, chastity, or purity of others. (MacCannell, 1976, pp. 40-41) In order to fill this void, modern societies seek to reconnect with their inner self by seeking out those who still experience their ‘fruits of labour’ directly such as Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 78 indigenous communities who experience direct satisfaction from eating the meat they hunted, slaughtered and cooked by themselves. Based on Marx’s theory of ‘alienation’ and MacCannell’s theory of tourist behaviour, I posit a direct connection between the Jahai pinloin performances with what recreational tourists hope to see among indigenous peoples (Figure 6). In general, many recreational tourists in the early 21st century are interested in having a brief experience and a memory of local culture captured in photos and short video clips during their tours. These tourists venturing into foreign countries seek the notion of exoticism through difference and uniqueness. They are pleased to listen to songs sung in a foreign language even if they do not understand the language. A synopsis of the background of the song is adequate. In this study, I provide an additional description to Cohen’s recreational tourists, referring to them as ‘snapshot’ tourists. ‘Snapshot’ tourists are recreational tourists who are satisfied with experiencing a ‘glaze’ or ‘glimpse’ of ‘exotic’ culture captured as photos disseminated on mass mediated spaces. Some of these tourists enjoy publicising photos of their travels and adventures for mass consumption, while others are happy saving them as private collections. Considering the snapshot tourist, the Jahai places emphasis on presenting ‘authenticity’ through sound, music, language, dance and costume. The composition of song text that has deep meaning, rhetorics or a systematic flow of ideas is not of significant importance. I posit that the Jahai ‘reflect the gaze’ of the snapshot tourists by reconstructing pinloin to their gaze (Figure 6). Figure 6 The counteractive influence of the ‘tourist gaze’ on pinloin song text composition ORANG ASLI SONG TEXT CONCEPTS OF COMPOSITION The Orang Asli believe that song text is not composed but received through dreams from spirit guides, known as the cenoi. The cenoi teaches the halaq (shaman) a song when they meet in a dream. Roseman (1991) posits that: The Temiar (another Orang Asli subgroup) dreamer does not request or demand either the relationship or the song. The initial relationship of person with dream- spirit is ideally one of receptivity. The spirit guide ‘gives’ a song; the dreamer ‘get’ or ‘receives’ it. (p. 57) Pinloin song text composition What recreational ‘snapshot’ tourists want to see Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 79 Bah Kang Bah Mat (2014), a Semai (another Orang Asli subgroup) from the Senoi ethnic group, states that his repertoire of songs includes those inherited from his father and those taught to him in a dream by his own spirit guide. Bah Kang who receives songs through dreams from his spirit guide states: “kita ikut je, bukan kita buat-buat, bukan kita sengaja, dia punya cerita” (“we just follow, we didn’t make it up, it’s not our effort, it is its story”) (Bah Kang Bah Mat, personal communication, 2014). In general, the Orang Asli halaq do not see themselves as composers but as receivers of songs from the spirits of the supernatural world. The process in which the spirit guide teaches their song to the halaq in a dream is described as: She (spirit guide) repeated and repeated, every week. One week, one time. So she gave me that tune. After she gave that tune, I was able to sing it bit by bit. (Ading Kerah in Roseman, 1991, p.65) On the contrary, Roseman (1991) states that while the halaq learns and memorises the exact song, there is also room for extemporaneous improvisation. Roseman based this on Ading Kerah’s statement, “when I perform during ceremonies, I can sing new verses as they come, about the flowers, about all kinds of things” (p.65). From the literature review, I posit that the halaq use three techniques to render songs during ceremonies: muscle memory, memory recall and conscious composition. They are memorising, improvising and composing simultaneously as they sing pinloin. TECHNIQUES OF COMPOSITION: MEMORISING, IMPROVISING AND COMPOSING In order to understand the techniques utilised by the Jahai to compose song text, I explored theories of memory among humans. Muscle memory refers to a procedural task that strengthens through repetition. Due to the repetition of a task, long-term memory evokes performance without conscious effort (Krakauer, 2006). Muscle memory can be coined as a subconscious type of memorisation. Memory recall refers to the brain’s re-assessment of past events encoded and stored in the brain. During memory recall, the brain replays a pattern of neural activity that was triggered by the original event and echoes its perception of the real event itself. Memory recall is not the same as the original experience as it is combined with an awareness of the present. Therefore, new information is synthesised with old memories resulting in an act of creative imagination (Mastin, 2010). Memory recall may be referred to as improvisation among different cultural groups. Sporadic demands for pinloin performances necessitate memory recall as the Jahai singers are trying to remember the song text and music while performing. During tourist invitations to perform, singers retrieve memories of traditional pinloin through memory recall. In attempting to remember the original pinloin, a ‘new’ version of pinloin emerges. While an element of creativity is involved, Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 80 memory recall is also not conscious composition. Nettl (as cited in Merriam, 1964) refers to conscious composition as the conscious effort to create new music as opposed to reiterating remembered text (p.167). The difference between memory recall and conscious composition is that the former produces unplanned spontaneous improvisation while the latter requires conscious effort to create a new song text. I posit that the Jahai utilises any of these three types of techniques interchangeably during pinloin performances. SONG TEXT COMPOSITION IN PINLOIN OF THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY This section analyses the form and compositional technique in Jahai song text composition. Form is analysed by examining repetitive or new lines of song text. a formula such as formal phrases and lines of text are important for musicians to remember song text or stories (Sweeney, 1994). The general content, meaning and arrangement of the song text will help us depict the compositional techniques utilised to compose song text. Period 1 is based on the analysis of the literature review of the selected Jahai pinloin. Pinloin Sejon Batu In the early 20th century, the Jahai performed the pano song, a pinloin sung during the pano ceremony to connect the chenoi (spirit guide) with the halaq (shaman). The pano hut was made using long leaves from the bertam palm. The halaq decorated himself with wreaths of flowers around the brow. The women decorated themselves with scented grasses, headbands of rattan fibre (akar pinerok), wreaths of flowers around their forehead and foliage on their girdle. The halaq wiggle into the hut and await the arrival of the chenoi. The women and children squat in a semi-circle around the pano hut and sing the ‘Pinloin Sejon Batu’ or the chenoi song in repetition (Schebesta, 1973, p. 224). When the halaq began to sing in a voice unlike his, it is a sign that the chenoi has entered his body. Form and technique. ‘Pinloin Sejon Batu’ consists of a motif (A) that is alternated with new lines of text (B, C, D, etc.). It can be visualised in the following scheme as: BA CA DA CA D1A EA FA. This form can be compared to a rondo form in Western art music but I refrain from using this term for traditional music. This pinloin also exemplifies the unfolding of a story or event in an ordered and systematic flow. Untold in this song text is the ‘call and response’ style of singing between the Jahai soloist and chorus. The chorus repeats each line of text sung by the soloist. An analysis of another pinloin known as ‘Kow Hnu Kow’ (‘Enter the Hut’) in Period 1, which was performed during the pano ceremony to invite the tiger spirit into the hut (Schebesta, 1973, pp. 223-228), shows that it portrays similar characteristics to ‘Sejon Batu’ (Chan & Lim, 2016). This form reinforces Evans (1968) description of Negrito music as, “not marked by any regular refrain, though the love of repeated words and sound shows itself in one way or other in every line” (p. 122). Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 81 Since there was no documented evidence on techniques utilised by the halaq to remember or compose the song text in pinloin, there can only be assumptions made based on a literature review on song text renderings by the Orang Asli halaq. Roseman (1991) argues that, “the theory of dream-song composition promotes creative additions to the general repertoire through individual revelation and composition” (p. 66). While the Orang Asli credits song composition to the spirit guides, there is also an element of innovation in the composition of song text. Therefore, in Period 1, I propound that the halaq integrates all three components of muscle memory, memory recall and conscious composition in the performance of pinloin. Pinloin 1 ‘Pinloin Sejon Batu’ (Source: Schebesta, 1973, p. 225) Form Jahai English BA A o wa, sejon batu A o wa! We glide down from the rock CA Letud penyogn, sejon batu To the strains of the flute, we glide down from the rock DA Keda (ha) Pele, sejon batu We maidens of Pele, we glide down from the rock CA Letud penyogn, sejon batu To the strains of the flute, we glide down from the rock D1A Keda (ha) Chenoi, sejon batu We, the chenoi maidens, we glide down from the rock EA Penyusor batu, sejon batu Glide down the rocky wall, glide down from the rock FA Pankan gimal, sejon batu We swing the mats to and fro, we glide down from the rock GA Pankan lonyau, sejon batu We hurl the lighting, we glide down from the rock Kantal gima, sejon batu Seize the mats, we glide down from the rock Guide: A= Refrain (sejon batu) B-G= New lines of text Form: BA CA DA CA D1A EA FA GA Style: Call and response Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 82 SONG TEXT COMPOSITION IN PINLOIN OF THE LATE 20TH CENTURY Through informal dialogues during fieldwork in 2015, I was informed that someone from Radio Television Malaysia (RTM) had recorded Jahai music during the late 1990s. I found the music recordings mentioned in RTM but there was no proper documentation of the names of singers and titles of songs. From the list of recordings, I chose to examine pinloin ‘Wongkawau’ (‘Song of the Black and Red Broadbill Bird’) because the Jahai are still familiar with this pinloin today (2016). This choice assists us in understanding the continuity and change in pinloin throughout Periods 2 and 3. The late Ahung bin Kimbis sang the recording of pinloin ‘Wongkawau’. His younger brother, Enjok bin Kimbis and his family helped me transcribe the song text and interpret its meaning during my fieldwork. However, they were not able to interpret or understand all the lines of text. The family said that the older generation of singers liked to use poetic or decorative words that did not mean anything in particular. These lines are marked as ‘unsure’ in the translation section in Pinloin 2. ‘Pinloin Wongkawau’ (‘Song of the Black and Red Broadbill Bird’) This song revolves around the playful gliding and flight of the wongkawau bird in the air near areas of the lake (Ambus Pilloi, personal communication, 6 July 2015). The Malay name for this bird is burung rakit or takau hitam merah (Figure 7). The scientific name for this bird is cymbirhynchus macrorhynchus and is known as the black-and-red broadbill bird in English. The black-and-red broadbill is commonly seen in the rural riverine habitats throughout peninsular Malaysia. The habitats of this bird are the forests, the forest edge, plantations and mangrove fringes. It frequents the middle and lower stories, usually near watercourses and likes to perch in dense foliage and on low branches overlooking water (Davidson et.al, 1989, p. 60; Robson, C. 2008, pp. 158-159; Jeyarajasingam, 2012, p. 259). Form and technique. ‘Pinloin Wongkawau’ (‘Song of the Black and Red Broadbill Bird’) is comprised of short and simple text repeated throughout the song. This song shows an alternation between new or repeated song texts (B-U) interspersed between a text refrain (A). The form of the song is —BA CA DA EA FA and so forth. Additionally, these new lines of text (B-Y) are repeated randomly in consequent lines of text, for example, BA CA DA EA FA BA GA FA BA CA and so on. The form of the song text in ‘Pinloin Wongkawau’ exemplifies similarities to the form observed in Period 1. The singing style is a ‘call and response’ between the soloist and chorus. The lines of text are short, referencing the flora and fauna of the rainforest environment and demonstrate a play on words in the Jahai language.5 There is also a spontaneous and random repetition of the lines of text marked with asterisks, and a less systematic unfolding of events in the song text as compared to Period 1. Similar to Period 1, literature on technique utilised to compose song text is scarce. Pinloin ‘Wongkawau’ shows a combination of repeated motifs (A) and new lines of text sporadically repeated in an unpredictable manner. Based on form and Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 83 content analysis of the song text, I suggest that the singer uses muscle memory, memory recall and conscious composition approaches in singing this pinloin. Pinloin 2 ‘Pinloin Wongkawau’ (‘Song of the black-and-red broadbill bird’) sung by the late Ahung bin Kimbis from Kampung Sungai Raba in the late 20th century. Form Song text in Jahai Song text in English BA* Leh de yek, wong ka wau It is me, wongkawau CA* Leh gaun, wong ka wau Just now, wongkawau DA Leh de bok, wong ka wau You and I, wongkawau EA Leh de renting, wongkawau Branches, wongkawau FA Leh hujuk, wongkawau I agree, wongkawau BA* Leh de yek, wongkawau It is me, wongkawau GA* La oi la, wongkawau Oh dear, wongkawau FA Leh hujuk, wongkawau I agree, wongkawau BA Leh de yek, wongkawau It is me, wongkawau CA Leh gaun, wongkawau Just now, wongkawau GA* Leh achin? wongkawau How then? Wongkawau BA Leh de yek, wongkawau It is me, wongkawau CA* Leh. gaun, wongkawau Just now, wongkawau HA Leh. re bort, wongkawau Perched wongkawau IA Leh galak, wongkawau Honey, wongkawau BA Leh renting, wongkawau Branches, wongkawau LA* Leh de yek, wongkawau It is me, wongkawau MA Leh renting, wongkawau Unsure NA Leh renjem, wongkawau The tip of the branch, wongkawau OA Leh hapoi, wongkawau The attap, wongkawau PA Leh tadok, wongkawau The bayas tree, wongkawau QA Leh jenjam, wongkawau Unsure RA Leh jenedik, wongkawau Unsure BA* Leh de yek, wongkawau It is me, wongkawau SA Leh seblek, wongkawau Unsure UA Leh tajur, wongkawau A snake appears BA* Leh de yek, wongkawau It is me, wongkawau WA Leh ye er, wongkawau Is that so? Wongkawau XA Leh cebrob, wongkawau Brittle dried leaves, wongkawau Guide: A= Refrain B—Y= New lines of text Form: BA CA DA EA FA GA HA …. XA * Common repeated text Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 84 Figure 7 The black-and-red broadbill (scientific name: cymbirhynchus macrorhynchus). (Photo by Brooke, 2011)6 SONG TEXT FORM OF THE EARLY 21ST CENTURY Data and information in Period 3 were collected through ethnographic research in Kampung Sungai Raba, Temenggor, Perak. I must emphasise that the conclusions made in Period 3 were based on a case study of a single Jahai pinloin ensemble led by Enjok bin Kimbis from 2015 to 2016. Therefore, it cannot be generalised that all Orang Asli singers compose song text in this manner. During my first visit to the Jahai villages, the Jahai musicians and dancers from Kampung Sungai Raba performed a few pinloin. When I requested a performance of pinloin, the villagers chose Enjok bin Kimbis to sing even though he had little experience. Enjok was chosen because he is the eldest in the village and his brother, the late Ahung bin Kimbis, was the former halaq and singer of pinloin. Enjok bin Kimbis retired from service with the Senoi Praaq7 with whom he was working since 1954 when Enjok was 15 years old. He visited his village periodically and only returned after he retired. The women’s chorus was comprised of Ambus binti Pilloi, Gambir binti Kade, Tijah binti Melengsing, Tiah binti Enjok, Tenembang binti Lamur and Ahan binti Senan. These women are between 50 to 60 years old (Figure 5). They remember singing pinloin but have also not been singing it for some time. Enjok bin Kimbis tried to recall the song text as he was performing pinloin. The women tried to remember the changes of tempo and rhythm on the cantong. Enjok Kimbis informed us that there were about five original Jahai pinloin including: 1) ‘Cel Yop Selantis’ (‘Song of the owl’); 2) ‘Berk Tadok Yek’ (‘Mother, wait for us’); 3) ‘Salom Pangwei’ (‘Song of the Salom fruit floats away’); 4) ‘Lagu Jelmol’ (‘Song of the Mountains’); and 5) ‘Lagu Wongkawau’ (‘Song of Black and Red Broadbill Bird’). I will use the pinloin ‘Cel Yop Selantis’ and ‘Salom Pangwei’ to illustrate my argument in this article. Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 85 Pinloin ‘Cel Yop Selantis’ (‘Song of the Owl’) Pinloin ‘Cel Yop Selantis’ depicts the still and quiet night (Pinloin 3, Figure 8). The sound of the crackling of a dry branch or twig causes the owl on the tree to peer over to identify the intruder in the forest (Enjok bin Kimbis, personal communication, 6 July 2015). Pinloin 3 ‘Pinloin Cel Yop Selantis’ (‘Song of the Owl’) (Source: Enjok bin Kimbis, personal communication, 12 August 2015) Jahai English BA Leh de yek,* cel yop selantis It is me, the owl peers over from the distant crackling sound CA Leh de hek? Cel yop selantis Who are we? The owl peers over from the distant crackling sound DA Anang cebak, cel yop selantis In the hills, the owl peers over from at the distant crackling sound EA Gaun*, cel yop selantis Just a moment ago, the owl peers over from the distant crackling sound FA La oi la*, cel yop selantis Oh dear! The owl peers over from the distant crackling sound GA Tak kejing, cel yop selantis Not a sound is heard, the owl peers over from the distant crackling sound HA Achin* yek yop dek, cel yop selantis What can I do? The owl peers over from the distant crackling sound Guide: A= Refrain B- H= New lines of text Form: BA CA DA EA FA GA HA Form and technique. The version of ‘Cel Yop Selantis’ sung by Enjok bin Kimbis is comprised of a refrain (A) and new song text (B-H) interspersed between the refrain. The form of the song is BA CA DA EA FA GA HA and shows continuity with songs documented by Schebesta (1973) in Period 1—pinloin ‘Sejon Batu’ and pinloin ‘Kow Hnu Kow’. After Enjok completes singing the section (B- H), he continues to repeat the song text through a random selection of lines of text. It is also observed that the lines leh de yek (it is me), la oi la (oh dear), le gaun (just now), and le achin (what can I do) utilised in pinloin ‘Cel yop selantis’ are extracts of verses from ‘Pinloin Wongkawau’ in Period 2. Since pinloin ceremonies may last for lengthy periods, Enjok bin Kimbis repeats these same lines in pinloin ‘Cel Yop Selantis’ in a random order. The singing style as observed in the music score is a ‘call and response’ between the soloist and chorus (Figure 8). The song text in ‘Cel Yop Selantis’ also shows little relationship to the title of the song. There is also no systematic unfolding story or event. From the analysis of song text, there is little conscious composition in pinloin ‘Cel Yop Selantis’. New Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 86 song text was not observed in the pinloin. Much of the song texts were imitation and repeats extracted from previous pinloins. Figure 8 ‘Pinloin Cel Yop Selantis’ (‘Song of the Owl’) (Source: Enjok bin Kimbis, personal communication, 12 August 2015) Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 87 Pinloin ‘Salom Pangwei’ (‘The Salom Fruit Floats Away’) Pinloin ‘Salom Pangwei’ tells of a fruit known as buah machang in the local Malay language or by the scientific name, Mangifera foetida (Figure 9)(Khairuddin Hj. Kamaruddin, 2001, p.143). This seasonal forest fruit looks like mango, white on the inside and green on the outside. The petals of the flowers are white. When the fruit drops from its branches, the dashing waters of the stream carry it away (Ahan binti Senan, personal communication, 12 February 2016). The ‘Salom Pangwei’ pinloin sung by Enjok bin Kimbis is comprised of a refrain (A) and new verses (B-H) interspersed between the refrain. Pinloin ‘Salom Pangwei’ uses the same lines of text as pinloin ‘Cel Yop Selantis’. These same verses, marked with asterisks leh de yek*, achin ni adek**, and hek gaun*** seem to be repeated over and over again in a random and spontaneous style (Pinloin 4, Figure 10). Pinloin 4 Pinloin ‘Salom Pangwei’ (‘The salom fruit floats away) (Source: Enjok bin Kimbis, personal communication, 12 August 2015) Form Jahai English BA Wait de wait salom pangwei Yes, salom pangwei CA* Leh de yek salom pangwei It is me, salom pangwei DA** Achin ni adek salom pangwei What to do? salom pangwei CA* Leh de yek salom pangwei It is me, salom pangwei EA*** Hek gaun de salom Just now, salom pangwei CA* Leh de yek salom pangwei It’s me, salom pangwei DA** Achin ni adek ke salom pangwei What to do? salom pangwei FA Oi berk de yek, salom pangwei Wait for me, salom pangwei EA*** Hek gaun ke salom pangwei Just now, salom pangwei CA* Leh de yek ke salom pangwei It is me, salom pangwei DA** Achin ni adek ke salom pangwei What to do? salom pangwei CA* Leh de yek ke salom pangwei It is me, salom pangwei Guide: A= Refrain B-F= New lines of text Form: BA, CA, DA, CA, EA, DA, FA, EA, CA, DA CA Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 88 Figure 9 The salom fruit (scientific name: Mangifera foetida) or buah bachang/ machang (local Malay name)(Source: Fruitworld online magazine)8 Form and technique. A similar ‘call and response’ style of singing is employed by Enjok bin Kimbis in the pinloin ‘Salom Pangwei’. A new melodic line is alternated with a refrain (A). The song text to the refrain is ‘Salom Pangwei’. New and old melodic lines are randomly repeated after it has been introduced the first time. The form for the ‘Salom Pangwei’ song is BA, CA, DA, EA, CA, DA, FA, EA, CA, DA, CA. A is a repeated motif while B, C, D, E and F are new melodic lines interspersed between A. Similar to the previous songs, Enjok’s rendition of the pinloin ‘Salom Pangwei’ reveals that the meaning of song text is not connected with the title. The singing style as observed in the music score is a ‘call and response’ between the soloist and chorus (Figure 10). The two pinloin examined in Period 3 has continuity with the pinloin of Period 1 and 2. However, there is a significant presentation of spontaneous and random repeats of the same lines of text in both ‘Cel Yop Selantis’ and ‘Salom Pangwei’. Utilising the ABACAD form as a mould and integrating the ‘muscle memory’ and ‘memory recall’ approaches, the Jahai singer composes the song text for ‘Cel Yop Selantis’ and ‘Salom Pangwei’. In attempting to recall the song text, the Jahai singer has pieced together fragments of verses he remembered from previous pinloin, a suggested pastiche approach to song text composition. There is also little connection of the lines of text with the song title and less observation of conscious composition presented. Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 89 Figure 10 Pinloin ‘Salom Pangwei’ (‘Song of the Salom Fruit Floating Away’) (transcribed by Clare Chan, 1 November, 2015) Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 90 CONCLUSION In this section, I summarise the changing song text characteristics of pinloin in Period 1 to 3 (See Table 2) and relate them to the form and compositional technique utilised by the Jahai to compose song text. Table 2 Comparison of the song text form and content of pinloin from Period 1 to 3. Timeline Form Style of singing Organisation of song text Relationship of content with title Early 20th century Period 1 Motif (A) alternated with new lines of text (B, C, D, etc.) Call and response More systematic unfolding of story or events Connected A story or narrative related to title Late 20th century Period 2 Motif (A) alternated with new lines of text (B, C, D, etc.) Call and response More sporadic and spontaneous Less connected Short descriptions of unrelated phenomenon Early 21st century Period 3 Motif (A) alternated with new lines of text (B, C, D, etc.) Call and response Random and spontaneous Least connected Fragments of unrelated text, discontinuity in flow of ideas Form In Period 1, 2 and 3, there is maintenance of a repeated motif (A) alternated with new lines of song text (B, C, D, etc.). The Jahai singer utilises this form as a formula to remember the song text of pinloin. In addition to this formula there is a ‘call and response’ style of singing inherent in all three periods. This formula for composing reinforces Nketia’s (1982) statement on traditional song composition that states it is “usages of the past that provide the moulds for creating and developing channels of communication and musical codes that can be understood by the receptors of music and not just by those who generate them” (p. 83). Compositional Techniques Organisation of song text. In Period 1, there is significant description and systematic unfolding of a story or an event related to the title of the song. In Period 2, the lines of text are more spontaneous and describe a sporadic description of the flora and fauna in the rainforest. In Period 3, selected fragments of lines of text from pinloin in Period 2 are repeated in an unarranged, random and spontaneous order. In Period 3, the Jahai singer did not venture into conscious composition but utilised the Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 91 ‘muscle memory’ and ‘memory recall’ approach, integrating fragments of remembered song text from pinloin in Period 2 in a repeated and random order. The arrangement of song text in Period 3 bears some similarities to the characteristics of postmodern music in modern society that includes: avoiding totalising forms (entire pieces or prescribed formal mould); fragmentation and discontinuity; pluralism and eclecticism; and presents multiple meanings and temporalities (Kramer, 2002, pp. 16-17). Harvey (1990) reinforces these characteristics through his statement that postmodernism in modern society is the “total acceptance of ephemerality, fragmentation, discontinuity and the chaotic” (p. 44), and a disruption to the “notion of meta-narratives and meta language through which all things can be connected or represented” (p.45). While characteristics of postmodernism framed in the context of modern society appear to emerge in the pinloin song text composition, the reasons behind similar characteristics vary in the traditional local societies of Malaysia. In Kampung Sungai Raba, the demand for tourist shows is irregular and scarce. When there is a need for a show, the musicians struggle to remember and recall the song text of traditional pinloin. Typically, there is almost no rehearsal conducted prior to performances that last less than ten minutes. The combination of the expectations from the ‘tourist gaze’ discussed before with the phenomenon of no rehearsal, results in a performance in which the Jahai singer is improvising by recalling random fragments of song text and continually repeating lines of text in an unsystematic manner. This phenomenon of composition may not be totally new to the Jahai. Evans (1968) described that Orang Asli compositions consisted of “not marked by any regular refrain, though the love of repeated words and sound shows itself in one way or other in every line” (p.122). Skeat and Blagden (1906) mentioned that, The thoughts expressed are of the extreme simplicity, and almost every line is complete in itself. The lines rarely have any special sequence, and most of them can be recited in any order, without injury to the poem, and it can be heard in the phonograph that the singers are alive to this and freely alter the order of the lines. (pp. 128-130) The relationship of the content with title. Periods 1 to 3 show a gradual disconnection and lesser relation between the title and content of pinloin. In Period 3, there is almost no relationship between the title and song text. A gradual detachment of meaning between song text and title is observed from Period 1 to Period 3. In Period 3, the tune to the pinloin is attached to the song title but the song text is subject to change. This is due to the fact that tunes are easier to recall than song text. The method to remember the tune is through recalling the title. Benjamin (2014) described a similar phenomenon among the Temiars (another group of Orang Asli): Although attractive, is quite simple in structure and repetitive, and their tunes and rhythms hold little interest for Temiars. Their aesthetic judgments are aimed at the Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 92 quality of the singing rather than the song’s musical content. The singing is meant as the vehicle of the lyrics, which received almost all attention. (p. 199) In conclusion, this article demonstrates the ways in which musical traditions less performed, are rejuvenated by demand from external forces. This study looks at how the Jahai revive remnants of remembered tunes and song text into ‘new’ compositions by capitalising on form and compositional techniques to remember, improvise or compose song text. This phenomenon highlights continuity in the natural skills of the Orang Asli to improvise and react spontaneously toward solving problems. Although spirit guides transmitted song texts in Period 1, Jahai soloists’ compose pinloin song texts today inspired and motivated by tourist needs. This manner of song text composition ‘reflects the gaze’ of snapshot tourists interested in capturing a moment of ‘authenticity’ through photo, ‘exotic’ sounds, dance and costumes. This article shows that although there is change in Jahai song text composition, it is still founded upon the characteristics of regular refrain, repeated words and lines without special sequences. This foundation is reinforced with ‘newer’ modes of composition related to the notion of pastiche and postmodern characteristics of modern society such as combining fragments of song text from various pinloin and sporadic organisation of these fragments to compose pinloin. Discontinuity of ideas and avoidance of totalising forms emerge as approaches to song text composition. Could this be a local postmodernist approach to song text composition? ENDNOTES 1 Nicholas, C. (20 August 2012). Data and Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.coac.org.my/main.php?section=about&article_id=4 2 Wonder Malaysia (2007-2016). Belum Temenggor Forest Complex Map. Retrieved from http://www.wonderfulmalaysia.com/royal-belum-state-park-malaysia.htm 3 JHEOA is an acronym for Jabatan Hal-Ehwal Orang Asli or Department of Orang Asli Affairs. It is now known as Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli (JAKOA) or Department of Orang Asli Development. 4 This research was sponsored by the Geran Penyelidikan Universiti (GPU), Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris conducted from April 2015 to April 2016. 5 The singers found it hard to translate the meaning of phrases such as leh de yek (It is me), la oi la (oh dear), le gaun (just now), and le achin (what can I do). The translations were the best I could make from their explanations. 6 Brooke, C. (10 March 2011). Beautiful black and red broadbills. Retrieved from https://featuredcreature.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/10/117392690.TG9r6H3X._H4B8678 a2.jpg 7 Senoi Praaq is a special armed tasked force made up of highly skilled Orang Asli to curb the influence of the communist over remote Orang Asli living in the deep jungles founded by R.O.D Noone in 1956 (Jumper, 2001). 8 Fruitworld online magazine. Bachang (Mangifera foetida). Retrieved from http://www.fruitipedia.com/Bachang_mangifera_foetida.htm Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 93 REFERENCES Benjamin. G. (2014). Temiar religion, 1964-2012: Enchantment, disenchantment and re- enchantment in Malaysia’s uplands. Singapore: National University of Singapore (NUS) Press. Best, E. (1924). The Māori (Memoirs of the Polynesian society, volume 5). Wellington: The Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Brooke, C. (10 March 2011). Beautiful black and red broadbills. Retrieved from https://featuredcreature.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/10/117392690.TG9r6H3X._ H4B8678a2.jpg. Burenhult, N. (2005). A grammar of Jahai. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Carey, I. (1976). Orang Asli: The aboriginal tribes of Peninsular Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Chan, C.S.C. (2012). Heterogeneity in the musical acquisition of the Orang Asli children from the Mah Meri and Semai groups. Malaysian Music Journal 2(1), pp.7-21. Chan, C.S.C. (2015). Standardizing and exoticizing the Main Jo’oh for the tourist gaze. Asian Music Journal 46 (2), pp. 89-126. Chan, C.S.C, & Lim, S. L. (2016). Jahai music and dance in Malaysia: Sustaining heritage and identity. Unpublished research (Univerity Research Grant). Tanjong Malim: Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. Cohen, E. (1979). A phenomenology of tourist experiences. Sociology 13, 179-201. Cohen, E. (1985). Tourism as play. Religion 15, 291-304. Culler, J. (1981). Semiotics in tourism. American Journal of Semiotics 1, 127-40. Davidson, G.W.H, Phillipps, K. & Kamis, A. (1989). Pengenalan burung-burung di Malaysia. Selangor: Federal Publications Sdn. Bhd. Dentan, R. K. (1997). Malaysia and the “original people”: A case study of the impact of development on indigenous peoples. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Endicott, K. (Ed.). (2014). Malaysia's original people: Past, present and future of the Orang Asli. Singapore: National University of Singapore (NUS) Press. Evans, I. H. N. (1968). The Negritos of Malaya. London: Frank Cass and Company Limited. (Original work published 1937). Harvey, D. (1990). The condition of postmodernity: An enquiry into the origins of cultural change. Oxford [England]: Blackwell. Herskovits, M. J., & Herskovits, F. S. (1947). Trinidad village. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. Jeyarajasingam, A. (2012). A field guide to the birds of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jumper, R.D.L.(2001). Death waits in the "dark": The Senoi Praaq, Malaysia's killer elite. Westport. Conn,: Greenwood Pub. Group. Khairuddin Hj. Kamaruddin (2001). Tumbuhan tempatan Malaysia: Kaitannya dengan nama tempat. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Krakauer, J. W., & Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends in Neurosciences 29, 58–64. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2005.10.003. Kramer, J. (2002). The nature and origins of musical postmodernism. In Lochhead, J. & Auner, J. (Eds), Postmodern music/ Postmodern thought (pp.13-26). New York, NY and London: Routledge. MacCannell, D. (1989). The tourist, 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. Marx, K. (1967). Economic and philosophic manuscripts of 1844. Moscow: Progress Publishers. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (70-95) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2458 94 Mastin, L. (2010). Memory recall. Retrieved from http://www.human- memory.net/processes_recall.html Merriam, A. P., & d’ Azevedo, L. H. C. (1957). Washo Peyote song. American Anthropologist 59, 615-614. Merriam, A. P. (1964). The anthropology of music. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press. Oesch, H., & Musikwissenschaftliches Institut (Basel). (1977). An Anthology of South-East Asian Music: 5. Music of the Negrito of Malacca. - Ca. 1977. Kassel: Bärenreiter- Musicaphon. Robson, C. (2008). A field guide to the birds of Southeast Asia. London, Cape Town, Sydney, Auckland: New Holland Publishers. Roseman, M. (1998) (partly based on manuscript by Hans Oesch). The indigenous peoples (Orang Asli) of the Malay Peninsula. In Miller, T. E. & Williams, S. (Eds.), Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 4: Southeast Asia. New York, NY: Garland Publication. Miller, T. E., & Willams, S. (Eds.). (2008) The Garland handbook of Southeast Asian music. New York, NY & London: Routledge. Nettl, B. (1954). Notes on musical composition in primitive culture. Anthropological Quarterly 27, 81-90. Nettl, B. (1956). Music in primitive culture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Nettl, B. (2005). The study of ethnomusicology: Thirty-one issues and concepts. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Nicholas, C. (2000). The Orang Asli and the contest for resources: Indigenous politics, development, and identity in Peninsular Malaysia. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. Nketia, J. H. K. (1982). Developing contemporary idioms out of traditional music. Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, T. 24, Supplementum: Report of the Musicological Congress of the International Music Council, pp. 81-97. Ong, W. (2010). Securing the population from insurgency and subversion in the second Emergency (1968-1981). PhD Dissertation. University of Exeter. Ratos, A. (1986). The Orang Asli of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur: Maxwell School. (Original work published 1957). Roseman, M. (1991). Healing sounds from the Malaysian rainforest: Temiar music and medicine. Berkeley: University of California Press. Schebesta, P. (1973). Among the forest dwarfs of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1928). Skeat, W. W., & Blagden, C.O. (1906). Pagan races of the Malay Peninsula (Vol. 2). London: Macmillan. Sweeney, A. (1994). Malay word music: A celebration of oral creativity. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pendidikan, Malaysia. The Department of Statistic Malaysia. (2010). Population distribution and basic demographic characteristic report 2010. Retrieved from https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=117&bul_id =MDMxdHZjWTk1SjFzTzNkRXYzcVZjdz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVS ZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 The Department of Orang Asli Development (JAKOA). (2010). Aboriginal population breakdown by ethnic and sub-ethnic groups of peninsular Malaysia. Unpublished report. Urry, J. (2002). The tourist gaze. London: Sage Publications. Clare, Suet Ching, Chan 95 BIOGRAPHY Clare Chan Suet Ching, PhD, completed her Master of Arts (Ethnomusicology) in 2002 and Bachelor of Arts (Music) 1998, at the Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang and her PhD in Music concentrating on Ethnomusicology from the University of Hawai`i at Mānoa in 2010. She was awarded a Fulbright Scholarship (2005-2007), the Asia–Pacific Graduate Fellowship in Ethnomusicology from the University of Hawai`i at Manoa (2005-2007), the East-West Center Graduate Degree Fellowship (2008-2010) and the Sumi Makey Scholars Award for Arts and Humanities in 2008 for her PhD studies. Her research interest includes issues of identity, nationalism, tourism, globalisation and modernisation in Chinese and Orang Asli (indigenous people) music in Malaysia. Clare is currently the Deputy Dean of Research and Graduate Studies since 2011 in the Faculty of Music and Performing Arts at the Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 2 (2016)

andragogy, communities of practice, piano pedagogy, teacher training

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/137

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/823

Exploring the Teaching Skills and Needs of Studio Piano Teachers with Mature Aged Students in Halifax, Nova Scotia

Connecting piano teachers who work in isolated situations with recent research and training is difficult, especially when accreditation, registration with professional bodies, training or ongoing professional development is not mandatory. In previous Australian and international studies, many piano teachers have reported that they do not feel comfortable teaching adults who have reported difficulty finding suitable teachers. Historically, piano performance qualifications have excluded pedagogical training particularly for adults. Current trends defer pedagogical studies to the postgraduate level whilst piano teachers have requested it at earlier stages of their training. To solve these issues within the piano teaching industry, this study set out to examine the teaching skills and needs of both piano teachers and their adult students in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Qualitative data was collected using face-to-face meetings, email, questionnaires, student journals, teacher reflections, videos and skype interviews. The study produced a set of guidelines for teaching adults that addressed the research criteria. Existing teaching skills emerged in five subthemes: Performance Related Skills, Personal Skills, Teaching Approaches, Student Learning Styles, and Teaching Strategies. The teacher’s needs included andragogic training at earlier levels of study, guidelines for adult students, business practices, expanded professional development opportunities and a repertoire for adult students. Students confirmed the need for flexibility, understanding teachers, less performance and technical skills, facilitative or dictatorial roles relating to skill levels, practice schedules and demonstration of repertoire and practice skills. The study concluded that inclusion of andragogic studies better prepares teachers for increasing numbers of adult learners.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/823/559

Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 96 Exploring the Teaching Skills and Needs of Studio Piano Teachers with Mature Aged Students in Halifax, Nova Scotia Jan McMillan Independent researcher, Australia e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Connecting piano teachers who work in isolated situations with recent research and training is difficult, especially when accreditation, registration with professional bodies, training or ongoing professional development is not mandatory. In previous Australian and international studies, many piano teachers have reported that they do not feel comfortable teaching adults who have reported difficulty finding suitable teachers. Historically, piano performance qualifications have excluded pedagogical training particularly for adults. Current trends defer pedagogical studies to the postgraduate level whilst piano teachers have requested it at earlier stages of their training. To solve these issues within the piano teaching industry, this study set out to examine the teaching skills and needs of both piano teachers and their adult students in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Qualitative data was collected using face-to-face meetings, email, questionnaires, student journals, teacher reflections, videos and skype interviews. The study produced a set of guidelines for teaching adults that addressed the research criteria. Existing teaching skills emerged in five subthemes: Performance Related Skills, Personal Skills, Teaching Approaches, Student Learning Styles, and Teaching Strategies. The teacher’s needs included andragogic training at earlier levels of study, guidelines for adult students, business practices, expanded professional development opportunities and a repertoire for adult students. Students confirmed the need for flexibility, understanding teachers, less performance and technical skills, facilitative or dictatorial roles relating to skill levels, practice schedules and demonstration of repertoire and practice skills. The study concluded that inclusion of andragogic studies better prepares teachers for increasing numbers of adult learners. Keywords andragogy, communities of practice, piano pedagogy, teacher training BACKGROUND Investigations into a viable national accreditation system for Australian studio piano teachers by Gwatkin (2008) unearthed several subthemes, such as qualifications and training. Neither a minimum nor mandatory qualification was linked to the piano teaching profession, with no requirement for registration or ongoing professional development. For comparative purposes, this study included an in-depth review of Jan McMillan 97 music training on a global level in the United States (US), United Kingdom (UK), Europe, Canada and Scandinavia that found similar accreditation structures and qualifications. When compared with accreditation contexts for other Australian industries such as Law, Medicine, Finance and Insurance, Accounting and Engineering, Gwatkin (2008) found rigorous qualifications, registration and professional development benchmarks at minimum degree level. Likewise, classroom music teachers were subject to the same professional standards and there exists a growing requirement for school instrument teachers to have some formal qualifications, particularly in education. More specific to this study, a review of the Canadian situation revealed occupations are regulated or non-regulated. Studio piano teaching is a non-regulated industry having no minimum or mandatory qualifications, registration or ongoing professional development akin to the rest of the instrument teaching profession. Canadian universities and qualifications are regulated on a provincial basis but a university accreditation scheme exists to encourage portability and equality between the provinces and territories. There is a Music Teachers Association (MTA) in each province that belongs to the national body, the Canadian Federation of Music Teachers Associations (CFMTA), which is not federally accredited but does provide certification and professional development. There are also two public examination boards, The Royal Conservatory of Music (RCM) and Conservatory Canada that are both federally accredited through the Ministry of Education. Potential Canadian piano teachers receive training at both accredited and non-accredited organisations. Accredited institutions operate within higher education (universities), vocational education and training (community colleges), public examination boards, RCM and Conservatory Canada. Non-accredited organisations include state-based Music Teacher Associations (MTAs) and private businesses who offer in-house professional development and/or unaccredited courses for teachers. Initial investigations found little evidence of pedagogy or adult teaching. An outline of the studio piano teaching accreditation and training context in Canada is presented in Figure 1. Twenty-two university programmes were found in Nova Scotia giving opportunity for students and teachers alike to study locally. However, only two programs specified music education or instrument teaching (Acadia University) whilst others focused on music theatre, music therapy, theory-history, theory- composition, music technology, music business (option), arts administration and jazz studies. In Nova Scotia, career colleges such as the Centre for Arts and Technology offer four certificate or diploma programmes in music production that focus on the digital music industry, audio engineering, electronic music production, studio production and the electronic music artist. Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 98 Figure 1 Initial conceptual framework: Piano Teaching Context in Canada (McMillan, 2016). Both the RCM and Conservatory Canada offer graded levels of exams for students and teacher training opportunities through diploma examinations in performance or pedagogy without specifying learner age groups. The initial framework for adult piano learning in Canada is summarised in Figure 2. Figure 2 Adult Piano Learning Context in Canada (McMillan, 2016). Although there exists a wide range of accredited national qualifications for piano studies in Canada and other international contexts, they were found to be predominately performance based on historical and technique literature. Such Jan McMillan 99 antiquated training is contrary to the developmental, educational, psychological and strategic teaching skills, creating dilemmas for professional identity and portfolio careers. Recent evidence collected has found the inclusion of pedagogic studies for all instrumentalists at two universities in Nova Scotia that is an improvement, but needs to be implemented on a national scale. Without age relevance and content, it can be assumed that most courses still focus on teaching young beginners and repertoire as outlined above. Gwatkin (2008) offered a new definition of pedagogy as: The combined principles and practices (physiological, psychological, educational, developmental, business and performance practices) of teaching (the piano), later revised to specify inclusion of any age group that is embedded in a triangular approach (Figure 3). Figure 3 Proposed approach for training piano teachers (Gwatkin, 2008). Andragogy in Education In 1833, German educator Alexander Kapp coined the term ‘andragogy’ to differentiate it from pedagogy. Knowles (1984) reintroduced the term andragogy after developing the five assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners: Self-concept, adult learner experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and motivation to learn. Knowles (1984) speculated that, “as individuals mature, their need and capacity to be self-directing, to utilize [sic] their experience in learning, to identify their own readiness to learn, and to organize their learning around life problems, increases” (p. 53). He maintained that as learning tasks increase in difficulty the appropriate theory and teaching method should be selected. Despite this, ‘pedagogy’ is commonly used to describe instrumental teaching units and conference brochures without making any distinction for age groups. Empirical research by Gwatkin (2008) from Australian and international teachers unearthed that piano teachers desired pedagogical training from the outset furthering support for certificate level training common in the US. Indeed, many piano teachers stated that they did not feel comfortable teaching adults yet with a growing wealthy and maturing population many adults are returning to or Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 100 commencing piano lessons but are having difficulty finding suitably experienced or trained teachers. Tait and Haack (1984) found that, Teaching involves the diagnosis of student needs and the selection of strategies, styles, and materials to meet those needs… [it] requires a repertoire of non-verbal strategies including modelling and demonstration abilities, and verbal strategies including professional, behavioural, and experiential vocabularies… Personal and organizational management skills are an essential adjunct to efficient and effective teaching. (p. 69) Cole and Chan (1994) favour the Teaching Principles Model which offers a set of identifiable principles that act as a guideline for effective teaching in a wide variety of instructional areas and settings: communication, planning and preparation, explanation and demonstration, questioning, assigning work tasks, feedback and correctives, assessment and evaluation, class management, motivation and reinforcement, promotion of independent learning (p. 12). In summary, adults need to be treated and taught in a variety of ways that differ from children, favour and autonomy being given to some for their learning where appropriate, driving teachers to develop different roles and skills as their students mature cognitively and practically. The following section examines how this research has provided answers for the instrument teaching community focusing on piano teaching where appropriate. Andragogy in Instrumental Tuition Historically, performance, repertoire and technique were the primary focus in both teaching and learning in instrument teaching. Adult learning is a more recent addition to pedagogical thinking. Orlofsky and Smith (1997) reported the positive characteristics of adult students as being willing and eager to learn, having the ability to stay on task, being goal oriented, analytical, psychologically mature and physically coordinated, but without mature motor capabilities and being intellectually mature. They further report sociologist Marciano’s (1990) findings that teachers were “generally unwilling to teach late in the evening… that would accommodate adult’s leisure time… and do not want to constantly rearrange schedules… Adult freedoms present teachers with the need to negotiate, rather than dictate, what will occur in the lesson” (p. 25). At the time in the 1990s, only a small percentage of the literature addressed the subject of adult keyboard learners. Lessons therefore focused primarily on group lessons over short periods of time, with methods and course materials taken from popular commercial material. Without access to formal pedagogy training, teachers were “urged to take the time to research and understand the characteristics and needs of adult keyboards students, choose appropriate methods material and pedagogical approaches, and develop the talents of this special age-group” (Orlofsky & Smith, 1997, p. 26). Jan McMillan 101 Graessle (2000) outlined teacher benefits of increased income and opportunity to develop rewarding relationships and friendships. For adults the benefits include “fulfilling what is often a life-long dream… studying music may help relieve stress and, for retired adults, can fulfil intellectual, physical, and social needs no longer found in the workplace” (p.1). Duke (2000) explains, There are many factors that influence how effective people’s instructional efforts will be, including the time they allocate to teaching, verbal and non- verbal behaviours, the type of music activities they engage their students in, and measures they take to specifically improve their teaching. (p. 185) Like educational factors mentioned previously, communication, content, student-teacher relationships, organisation and personal qualities are key factors. Bruckner (2008) offers a multi-sensory guide to practice, performance and pedagogy in learning styles. She outlines the use of visual, aural and kinaesthetic cues from the learner to assist teachers in designing appropriate teaching approaches. Arranging the studio with different sensory learning areas helps student learning but also requires greater effort on the part of the teacher to be creative in designing appropriate activities and space. Linking to creative activities espoused by authors Orff, Kodaly, Gordon and Dalcroze would be of great assistance. McMillan (2011) found that the teaching role was often that of a friend, confidant and advisor, entailing greater listening skills but was emotionally exhausting. Timetabling was a positive change as day and evening teaching replaced late afternoon lessons, leaving room for school students. Opportunities for communities of practice were arranged in the form of adult performance soirees, discussions, duets and trio rehearsals and family events necessitating extra effort in planning and executing. However, students seemed to study longer than other teachers reported. Several students reported they had great difficulty finding teachers with suitable experience or without a prior agenda. McMillan (2011) also found teaching Australian and Malaysian adults provided opportunities to transition from didactic teaching to facilitation. Employing a range of teaching strategies, such as experiential, lifelong, self- paced/directed and e-learning, to student’s individual and developmental needs, led to positive experiences, development of confidence, increased performance skills, less frustration, contribution of repertoire, immediate reinforcement, support and clarification. Teacher outcomes included a slower paced approach to develop physical skills, a variety of teaching roles, personal skills such as patience, listening and empathy, greater explanation and greater rate of progress, repertoire and information exchange. Roulston and Jutras (2015) describe a variety of teaching and learning strategies undertaken in private individual lessons. In some cases, participants preferred a flexible and informal style that changed with each lesson. They valued the opportunity to contribute their ideas on what lessons should entail… other participants were very specific… [being very self-sufficient] Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 102 Greg described a preference for self-directed learning… coaching and supervision from somebody who was much more knowledgeable than I am and can catch my bad habits. (p. 331) Perkins, Aufegger and Williamon (2015) investigated the learning of conservatoire students as they taught older adults. Motivated by a desire to broaden and develop existing teaching skills, student teachers realised that adults have potential for learning… a lifetime of experiences that can and do inform the ways in which they learn music… a strong motivation for progress and achievement, determination… manifested in a commitment to practise and learning, as well as a resolve to overcome barriers to progression. (p. 85) Teachers reflected that learning was not focused on technical or reading mastery for these adults and subsequently were driven to redesign their teaching ‘bag of tricks’ (Perkins et al., 2015, p. 86) and develop new skills to become ‘knowledgably skilful’ in the process (Lave, 1991, p.65). In summary, piano teachers are not required to fulfil any minimum qualifications, registration or professional development compared to other professional industries. Despite this, a wide range of accredited qualifications are available but historically have focused on performance skills rather than teaching skills as embodied in educational and music education research. Although this situation is gradually improving, it is still difficult to reach teachers who are isolated and under qualified. With a growing but select body of literature regarding educational, pedagogical and andragogic practices in piano teaching, this study set out to investigate current teaching practices and needs of piano teachers with adult students, how they coped to fulfil their students needs and goals, and if this was related to the amount of training they had received. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS The main ideas of the study were directed at: 1) analysis of existing teaching skills in providing adequate preparation for adult teaching; 2) the needs and perceptions of Canadian studio piano teachers for adult students; and 3) the needs and expectations of their adult students. This study was set in Halifax, Nova Scotia following an initial meeting with the Nova Scotia Registered Music Teachers Research Group at the International Society of Music Education Conference (2010) who was looking for opportunities to be involved in current piano pedagogic research. Subsequent email and Skype discussions between the researcher in Malaysia and a local contact in Halifax outlined the project and who was also a coordinator for the study. An onsite visit was facilitated to meet potential teachers and discuss study parameters, selection of students, confidentiality and study relevance. The local contact appointed as the coordinator engaged willing teachers and coordinated communication with the researcher. Teachers selected students from their private practices and recommended them to the join the study via the coordinator. Jan McMillan 103 Participants Four teachers (CT1-CT4) participated in the research conducted over a 10-week period of individual piano lessons between September and December 2011. All of the teachers were female, between 60-70 years of age and were working as full time piano teachers in home studios. CT3 was qualified in performance of several instruments. Student participants were comprised of four males and six females (CS1-10) with ages ranging from 22 to 66 with the largest number in the 55-60-year age bracket (Table 1). The coordinator forwarded contact details to the teacher and student participants with an initial letter and consent form thereby confirming the study parameters. Once the consent form was received the first materials were then forwarded. Methodology In line with qualitative research, multiple methods of data collection were employed. The study used qualitative interpretive questionnaires, journals, reflections, videos and interviews to obtain data from four teachers (CT1-4) and their student participants (CS1-10). Firstly, data was gathered from teachers by an initial questionnaire which gleaned information on the musical history, training particularly for adult teaching, perceptions of teaching skills required (personal and professional), repertoire, strategies and approaches used. Questions (N=12) were generally multi-choice with additional space left for further information or comments. Secondly, each teacher kept a reflective journal on each student over the duration of the lessons guided by an example posed by the author as to lesson content (a summary or copy of notes from the student notebook if applicable), student progress, teaching style, adjustments made, repertoire chosen, personal feelings, student feedback and any anecdotes/quotes or paraphrases that were relevant. Finally, each teacher was asked to record two videos of each student approximately half way through the project and again at the completion to demonstrate and provide physical evidence of their teaching and progress. At the end of the project the teacher participants completed a final interview of six questions through Skype on the benefits or challenges of the study, future teaching plans and future requirements specific to adult students. Student data included three multiple-choice questionnaires (Initial, Mid-Project and Final) to demonstrate the process and any progress over the given period. The Initial Questionnaire (N=12) included their backgrounds, goals and achievements thereof, expectations of teachers’ skills (personal and professional), teaching strategies and approaches and any awareness of their learning style (visual, auditory and kinaesthetic). Subsequent questionnaires (N=13) were designed on the same questions but amended to include current data particularly on their progress or lack thereof and additional comments in the final question. From the initial questionnaire, profiles of each student’s background and their incentives to study were gathered and are outlined in Table 1. Students also completed a journal of weekly improvement to record their feelings about goals to improve before and after Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 104 their practice time in each column. An example was provided. To dispel any anxiety the instructions also stated “If you do not practice then you don’t have to write anything. It does not matter if you miss the whole week. Just write that too as it also useful” (McMillan, 2016, Appendix 13). Table 1 Profiles of Canadian Student participants Teacher Student Age bracket Gender Work Status Grade completed Incentive CT1 CS3 55-60 M Retired Licentiate Trinity College London (diploma) Personal interest, regain proficiency. Revisiting piano after 38 years. CT2 CS1 30-35 F Full Time Grade 4 For work. CS4 55-60 M Full Time Grade 9 Advancement. Love of piano music. CS5 55-60 F Part Time Grade 9, Intermediate Pedagogy Role model for daughters. CS9 20-25 M Part Time shifts Unknown Grade 10 & Grade 5 Harmony. Aiming for college. CS10 approx. 45-50 F Part Time Grade10 [Grade 10 & Grade 4 History. Teach in future. CT3 CS2 accordion 55-60 M Full Time No answer Community, friends and family. CT4 CS6 35-40 F Full Time Home duties Grade 3 Regain skills, after 6-7 yrs. CS7 20 F Part Time student Grade 7 Grade 8 finally. Possibly teach. CS 8 45-50 F Full Time Nil Personal interest, time, play well, 25 yr break. Jan McMillan 105 Analysis Email and Skype maintained communications as required. All data was emailed to the local coordinator who sent it to the teachers and their students. Replies were posted or emailed directly from teachers or students to the researcher, upon which all participants and teachers were coded for confidentiality. Data between teachers and students was examined separately until the analysis stage where it was used to find corresponding answers or anomalies. Teacher and student journals were particularly useful for verification and clarification of dates and reasons for absenteeism and personal stories. Each set of data was transcribed into tables that were then combined into one document (e.g. all first questionnaires for teachers) by question. It was then easy to compare both the teachers’ and students’ answers for related questions. Parallels and anomalies were identified which informed the research questions. Firstly, examining existing teaching skills required for mature aged piano teachers led to the development of five emergent themes: a) performance related skills; b) personal skills; c) a knowledge of teaching approaches (a broad methodology learned from training or their own piano history); d) knowledge of the student’s learning style (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic); and finally e) teaching strategies (specific ways to assist learning and motivation during learning, within the lesson and beyond). Secondly, the needs and perceptions of Canadian studio piano teachers in relation to adult students included andragogic training within undergraduate and postgraduate studies, guidelines for adult students, business practices, professional development and repertoire for adult students. Finally, the needs and perceptions of adult students required flexibility, understanding and personable teachers, and less performance and technical skills, facilitation and dictatorial roles relating to different skill levels, practice schedules and demonstration of repertoire and practice skills. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Teacher Outcomes All teachers were qualified in performance and/or pedagogy with accredited qualifications but only CT1 and CT2 had specific adult pedagogical training and experience, at undergraduate and postgraduate levels respectively. CT1 and CT3 had focused on performance criteria. For these three teachers, their initial training would have been in the late 1970s or early 1980s when the adult teaching was just beginning. Although Knowles (1984) proposed progressive teaching strategies and Orlofsky and Smith (1997) later described the positive benefits, teachers were still reluctant (Marciano, 1990) and the pedagogy received would have been sparse and for group situations. It is not surprising that teachers sought other sources for pedagogy and repertoire such as from tutor books, trial and error experiences, observation, mentoring and unspecified professional development. CT4 was relatively new to teaching and teaching adults in general and was trained only through RCM examinations that she reported included some adult Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 106 pedagogy although this was not clearly specified in the courses when reviewed. CT4 stated, I think that if money wasn’t an issue that I would not teach adults. I know a number of teachers that don’t. I find that the teaching techniques that work with children are not successful with adults. In fact, I’ve had little success with adult students. I had one lady start lessons who thought that because she could type that she could play the piano without practicing. She lasted three weeks. Both CT3 and CT4 who had little training in teaching adults struggled with their adult students in different ways. CT4 wrote of her “complete disappointment with her students’ practice and performance” and was often used as a counsellor by a long-term student, echoing the emotional exhaustion found by McMillan (2011). CT3 preferred beginners, as they have ‘no agenda’ and often didn’t charge fees to students due to the disadvantaged area that she worked in. They particularly required assistance in business and personal parameters which to date have not been common elements in pedagogy courses yet, as suggested by Gwatkin (2008). Perkins et. al (2015) suggested that exposing student-teachers to adults helped gain valuable experience before career commencement that would diffuse negativity and frustration. Results indicated that the RCM course or performance qualifications alone were insufficient for the teaching of adult learners. CT4 was innovative, making her own questionnaire for future students based on the initial student questionnaire that could also be used for ongoing revision. Opportunities are ripe for MTAs, collegial sharing and e-learning. On a personal level, patience and understanding were foremost, as demonstrated in teacher reflections, videos and student journals. All teachers quickly established good communication, rapport and trust with their students by encouragement, humour and questioning techniques (Duke, 1990). CT1, CT2 and CT4 seemed to enjoy teaching adults finding them ‘inspiring’, ‘challenging’ and ‘fun’, in-line with the positive characteristic outlined by Orlofsky and Smith (1997) and McMillan (2011). Being active experienced adults facilitated them to engage students for social, emotional and psychological benefits (Creech, Varvarigoum, Hallam, McQueen & Gaunt, 2013). CT4 stated, “I had one very intelligent man who came to me with a written list of goals that he wanted to accomplish. He struggled a bit, but achieved what he set out to do. That was interesting experience for me. I learned from him”. Teachers’ journals demonstrated sound knowledge of performance and musical skills whilst teaching skills and motivational strategies were not always successful. Reflections of student journals and videos indicated the ability to diagnose student needs, select materials and verbal questioning (Tait & Haack, 1984). However, videos and student journals exposed a deficit of non-verbal skills, modelling and demonstration, and contradicted teachers’ answers on their Initial Questionnaires wherein they espoused this as the most important teaching skill. Even though all teachers performed consistently in a variety of settings and provided performance opportunities for their students on a regular basis, videos rarely presented anything more than a performance which was not requested. Only Jan McMillan 107 CT2, the most qualified in pedagogy and postgraduate studies, provided an insight into her teaching style which primarily used questioning techniques. CS2, a student of CT3 reported, “I enjoy playing with my teacher”. Obviously, her performance major had positively impacted the ways her students were taught and ultimately performed (confidently). The video camera was regarded as a good teaching and review tool to use, and helped students overcome some fears about performing whilst in a safe environment. Some teachers clearly were disappointed in their students’ progress or lack of commitment and whilst being empathetic to students’ lifestyle found the over commitment frustrating both in a professional sense and for the students’ progress. CS6 and CS8 discontinued studies at the end of the study. CT4 stated, “I learned about my limitations teaching adults… I will only accept adults if I feel that I can live with their goals and time commitment instead of being frustrated week after week then they don’t meet my expectations”. CS6 was identified as being an aural learner but was being taught primarily by visual methods. CT4 stated, “I think they realized that they just didn’t have the time to commit to learning piano at this stage of their lives”. Clearly, early identification as advocated by Bruckner (2008) may have helped here together with motivational and reinforcement strategies. Issues were raised regarding the balance between progress and fun, and practice versus commitment echo findings of student teachers in Perkins et al. (2015). CT4’s adoption of the initial questionnaire as an interview tool would certainly help identify student goals at the outset thereby assisting the teachers to adopt the most appropriate strategy as outlined by McMillan (2011) and Roulston and Jutras (2015). Looking to the future teachers sought to compare and exchange information with others for support, explore new materials and approaches and keep learning about adult teaching. They were keen to continue teaching adults as they find them inspiring and highly motivated but need boundaries and clear-cut goals. All teachers were happy to receive further assistance and requested guidelines for teaching adults. They enjoyed the study immensely and found it was worthwhile and interesting; highlighted the ability to reflect on lessons and subsequently their own teaching, communication, expectations, experience or lack thereof and the impact of physical injuries. More specifically teachers felt the study highlighted a love of adult piano students, a need for clearer communication between themselves and the student, careful listening to themselves and the student, defining and reviewing expectations for both teacher and student, a lack of experience and training in adult pedagogy, precise and diligent notes, designing and implementing an initial questionnaire for all future students. They also appreciated that adults can learn different instruments and are different to children requiring different strategies and teaching strategies and personal skills; they have physical injuries, overloaded lifestyles. Consequently, requirements for future experience and training in adult pedagogy were requested and included professional development opportunities, discussion and exchange of issues and experiences with other teachers, business practices such as payment and lesson contracts, dealing with adult agendas and, dealing with their own agendas and commitments. Specific guidelines were requested for: a) insight into what Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 108 works well with adult students; b) how to teach them differently than children; c) teaching materials, strategies and approaches required for adult learners; and finally, d) repertoire required for adult learners. Student Outcomes Of the 10 students, only one was a beginner with the remaining students learning at intermediate and advanced levels but with large gaps in learning requiring skills revision (refer to Table 1). The students were very focused on what they wanted to learn, when they wanted to learn and had a long-term view including performance and study for exams, reflecting findings by Orlofsky and Smith (1977) and Perkins et. al (2015). They brought a wide selection of music repertoire related to their backgrounds and work experiences: classical, popular, war hymns, songs for the aged and Irish Jigs. Several had played other instruments and one was an accordionist. Goals included memorising pieces, retrieving and improving skills and working towards exams or special events that required different teaching profiles as students improved (Shokheida, 2016). Goals were mainly achieved or improved upon within the period. Memorisation was one of the student goals yet was recorded as a process undertaken after the piece was learned rather than through efficient and mindful practice techniques during the learning process (Kohut, 1985) or learning style (Bruckner, 2008). Only CS9 performed his piece from memory. The overriding factor in choosing a teacher was personality and flexibility of approach rather than good performance or technical skills contrary to their training. It also required teachers to determine their teaching style (McMillan, 2011; Roulston & Jutras, 2015) Students quickly established good rapport with their teachers and used them both personally and professionally for counselling and problem solving although boundaries were sometimes crossed. All students were extremely happy with their teachers for their personal skills and wanted to continue with them. Students reported physical issues including arthritis and back problems but these did not appear to be impacting practice or progress on a major level. Videos demonstrated some students needed to adjust their posture, alignment and seating that would improve their playing outcomes and possibly be impacting their physical issues. Only CT8 who had very small hands and tendonitis in her left hand sought medical assistance that resulted in her examination being delayed. CT4 accommodated her injury by shortening lessons and finding more suitable repertoire as the student wanted to continue. She also provided technical work that seemed to contradict alternative medical advice recommending rest followed by a paced return. Without exception, all students had very busy lifestyles and were often quite overloaded that negatively impacted their practice, motivation and teachers. The amount of repertoire given varied from two pieces to over five at times which became even more unachievable and frustrating in addition to their family and work commitments. CT4 often changed pieces with her students not allowing them to attain a specified level that clearly impacted their performance. CS3 surged ahead learning new and difficult pieces to the detriment of developing and consolidating Jan McMillan 109 technical, speed and practice routines that clearly needed modelling (Tait & Haack, 1984). Despite this, students were happy to continue with their teachers having developed trusting and working relationships. A desire for group work was expressed and would provide motivation and assistance in communities of practice. Data received revealed that teachers provided the most experiences in technical, performance opportunities and personal style that attested to students’ needs. Students’ answers revealed that seven were visual learners, two were aural learners and one was kinaesthetic. Teachers were in general, unaware of the students’ learning styles but a general flexibility of style ensured the teachers covered most learning abilities. Contradictory evidence was found between the students’ perceptions of their teachers addressing their learning style and/or the music. However, all agreed that both were addressed in some form. The results indicate an impact on learning improvement during the lessons and at home. In most cases, only slight alterations were necessary to associate the teaching style with the learner style. However, for CS6 who was clearly an auditory learner, a major problem arose as she struggled with the same visual approach offered to CT4’s other students. For CT2, a broad-spectrum approach seemed to work well for all learning styles yet lacked demonstration and role modelling. Adopting Bruckner’s (2008) approach could easily be individualised for higher results. Overall, students reported that the main strategies of the lessons were discursive and written instructions, particularly regarding fingering which proves a more dictatorial rather than a facilitative approach and outlined problems of self- directed learning (Roulston & Jutras, 2015; McMillan, 2011). Students reported that teachers generally relied on this style rather than using demonstration or modelling strategies for repertoire, technique or practice even though teachers had previously claimed they had. This particularly led to confusion over practice, frustration in how to practice and what to practice. Students seemed to be given verbal instructions on what to do but not given instructions on the process nor provided visual/aural/kinaesthetic examples to follow to achieve the desired results. Without any evidence of demonstration or clearer explanation by the teachers, students figured out their own remedies including alternating speeds, going too fast too soon, not practicing at all, putting family priorities first, avoiding lessons, avoiding technical work, starting new pieces without informing the teacher and waiting for the teacher to work out fingering. Despite CS1’s advocacy of slow practice to build accuracy and speed, CS3 seemed to understand by stating, “I am not sure how to achieve consistency. My teacher says slow practice and I am sure that is true but I am doing that and had expected to see more results”. The following week he stated “I tried the Beethoven at full speed which is a bit beyond me but I think I will be able to do it if my technique can get some consistency at slower speeds”; yet the student “Practised at alternately slow and fast speeds the several tricky parts” and records that “I wish I knew why I play so much better some days and so much worse others. No obvious rhyme or reason”. Obviously, he was impatient and not sticking to his teacher’s advice long enough. Modelling and practice strategies by Kohut (1985) may have helped more so than discussion alone. At times, some teachers were also criticised for focusing on the details rather than the larger picture. Overall, Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 110 as examinations or video performances arose, practice increased and thus provided motivation for students to improve and could be used in the future. Despite some students receiving practice schedules from their teachers, these adults required more didactic instruction at the outset to become more independent, specifically for practice techniques and fingering. Teachers therefore needed to know when to change from didactic to facilitative roles (McMillan, 2011; Shokheida, 2016). Motivation, reluctance and lack of confidence were some of the reasons outlined by CS6 who wrote, “Another missed lesson… and another week of no practicing. Different things going on at work/home…” Added to this, the student expressed, “I still struggle with my technique as it is not my favourite thing to do”. Having an array of creative approaches, such as Kodaly, Orff, Suzuki and Dalcroze approaches, could be useful motivation to increase learning alongside strategies described by Bruckner (2008) and Kohut (1985), and consequently could engage students creatively in learning, provide time management, discovering the most important aspects to practice and leads to effective memorization. Consequently, students felt they had made little improvement over the period due to practice being more difficult than they expected, a lack of effective practice strategies being demonstrated and lifestyle overload. The latter included family problems, accidents and injuries, jobs, travel and preparations for Halloween, Thanksgiving and Christmas. Students relayed their progress over five areas: Technique, fingering, preparation, sight reading, performance and coordination. The most improvements were for fingering (which teachers provided) and performance, which is directly related to correct fingering and a teacher’s qualifications. The least improvements were found in coordination and technique followed closely by preparation and sight-reading and fingering equally. Skills could be transferred between genres for the most part therefore expanding the students’ knowledge and playing ability although CT4 found that CS6 “could not voice chords”. Teaching Materials for Adults Repertoire selected mainly by these adults was used for a variety of events and occasions encapsulating different musical genres and styles of playing. A snapshot of repertoire that teachers and students chose during this short period included: examination repertoire and technical work, classical repertoire, popular and folk pieces for special events, family occasions (weddings and duets), seasonal pieces (Christmas, Halloween, Thanksgiving) and work related pieces (hymns, songs and war-time songs). Providing a variety of repertoire is motivating although sometimes too many pieces were covered at the same time causing overwhelming feelings for the students and frustration for the teachers. Most teachers did not use tutor books; considering the students’ goals, the tutor books were not necessary. Only CS6 mentioned her teacher CT4 may have used a tutor book. However, they were useful for reference, additional repertoire and alternative arrangements. Students’ hobbies, work, family background and personality provided a wealth of information and clues as to their interests. The Internet provided a plethora of repertoire but was not reported as being used. It became apparent that teachers needed to recognise when Jan McMillan 111 students should move forward in their learning or consolidate their current stage. There were many opportunities to provide a variety of simpler repertoire or parts thereof to teach the same skill and in turn avoid boredom. This and review of previous repertoire in different arrangements were not employed. When pieces were not ready for video recording, students chose alternative easier pieces or arrangements to feel comfortable but without consulting the teacher. These included ensemble works (duets and accompanying) and older repertoire. With the analysis complete, the study was then able to provide some guidelines for the benefit of the teachers and their students. GUIDELINES FOR TEACHING ADULTS During exit interviews and final questions, teachers requested a set of guidelines for teaching adults, as they felt overwhelmed, inexperienced and frustrated. Following teacher and student outcomes, these suggestions are recommended to address the three research questions. Existing Teaching Skills Results indicated five emergent themes: a) performance related skills; b) personal skills; c) knowledge of teaching approaches; d) knowledge of the student’s learning style; and finally e) teaching strategies. Performance related skills. The study outlined contrary opinions from teachers and students regarding performance and technical knowledge for adult students. Whilst teachers regarded these highly for demonstration purposes and diagnosis of problems, students were more interested in personality and teaching approaches, therefore possibly negating the need for postgraduate study in these areas and replacing it with greater andragogic skills, specifically if teaching was to be the main income. Echoing Marciano (1990), the teacher needs to explore adult learning theories and take responsibility for their own learning. Opportunities can be created and found within their community and online. It behoves them to demand additional learning if not provided by their local MTA and other providers. Using reflective practices (journals, videos, audio recordings, discussion and notes) proved an effective strategy in this study and other studies (see McMillan, 2011, 2016 and Perkins et al., 2015). Establishing the research group has been a positive step towards collegial connection and direct information acquisition. Personal skills. Positive attributes of adult students are well documented by Orlofsky (1997), Graessle (2000) and McMillan (2011). Knowles (1984) and Duke (2000) explained that the differences in teaching adult students as opposed to children demands care in communication and personal approach. The study outlined the successes and difficulties that arose for teachers, that ought to be improved by using more flexible facilitator roles, transforming from a dictatorial to a facilitative role as the student’s skills mature, maintaining dictatorial roles for lesser developed Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 112 skills, acquiring a wider variety of teaching approaches, skills, strategies and understanding the student’s learning style. Teachers were personable and communicative, using patience, empathy, encouragement, humour and listening, but needing greater investigative skills and authority to provide solutions for a student’s practice difficulties or lack thereof. However, CT1 and CT4 sometimes evaded voicing their opinion rather than discouraging or upsetting the student. Teachers needed to be wary of personal agendas (CT3 and CT4) and find an approach that fits the individual rather than using one approach for all (CT4). Using a contract to set personal and professional boundaries was recommended to ensure both parties’ (the student and the teacher) needs are met. Knowledge of teaching approaches. The need for a review of teaching approaches was found in student journals and teacher reflections. These included adopting an interview format for prospective students particularly for clarity on goals, practice schedules and review. Discussion of goals, lifestyle and practice ability should be ongoing as discrepancies are noticed. Questioning techniques and discussion worked well but ought to be balanced with demonstration of techniques, practice and repertoire as suggested by Tait and Haack (1984) and Duke (2000). Teachers must be aware of what they say and do, as the teachers in this study were sometimes different. Investigating a wider variety of approaches from educational, pedagogic, psychological and creative philosophies is warranted for a student- centred approach and for teacher development. Knowledge of the student’s learning style. Pursuant to using an array of approaches to music education and piano pedagogy, teachers generally did not consider, or were in fact unaware of Bruckner’s (2008) research. Therefore, the student’s learning style in relation to teaching strategies was sometimes not compatible. These guidelines reinforce the need to continually upgrade skills and include recommendations to discover the student’s learning style, discover their own learning/teaching style and preferences, examine if the teaching approaches utilised match the student’s learning style and adapt teaching approaches as necessary to the student. Teaching strategies. Teaching strategies for motivation and confidence were important factors for facilitating self-directed learning which students were clearly uneasy with. Recommended inclusions were: ensemble work, audio/visual equipment (posture, performance and practice), technology for research and recording (computer, iPad and phones), engaging students to work out their own fingering, demonstrating fingering patterns and other practice techniques and assigning a lesser number of pieces to those with high anxiety or busy lifestyles in order to favour improvement rather than achievement. Practice sections particularly needed monitoring during lessons involving smaller sections and slower speeds to ensure competence, mastery and confidence building. Clear precise instructions were required alongside a visit to the student’s home to review posture, seating arrangements and a practice session if necessary. Demonstration of practice techniques was required both in isolation and within context. Demonstration of Jan McMillan 113 repertoire was also required alongside discursive strategies. Discussion ought to include reference to both details and the bigger scenario so students understand the end value of current strategies. Needs and Perceptions of Canadian studio piano teachers All teachers expressed an interest in andragogic training despite their high qualifications, confirming the need for this training at the undergraduate and RCM teacher certificate levels. These guidelines were produced at the teachers’ request providing immediate assistance where professional development and collegiate opportunities may take longer. Teachers indicated support was necessary for business practices (contracts, fees and boundaries), teaching approaches and strategies, how to teach adults differently than children and repertoire for adult students. Needs and Perceptions of Adult Students Students indicated a desire for flexibility, understanding and personable teachers rather than the current trend for high level performance and technical skills. As adults, they required incorporation of facilitative, self- paced learning and autonomy to select repertoire and performances. As students, they needed recognition as an individual (learning style and approach), direction for skill learning, demonstration of repertoire and practice skills, practice techniques, practice schedules, personal counselling and motivation. RECOMMENDATIONS In answer to the main research question, results from all collected data identified an unregulated profession (Figure 1) without mandatory or minimum criteria in any identified theme, thereby teachers are free to operate without established criteria. Firstly, the results indicated that the present Canadian infrastructure could support a nationally regulated profession (Figure 4) that provides accredited qualifications, minimum qualifications, mandatory registration and professional development, portability, certification, recognition of prior learning, links with the respective associations, the community, the national education system and professional business practices. The ensuing literature review provided concrete evidence of a hierarchical accreditation structure that led to further exploration of existing Canadian qualifications for piano teachers. Secondly, studio piano teachers were identified as an autonomous industry that operated outside the given accreditation system but did utilise qualifications at varying levels. However, studio teachers have difficulty in teaching adults without proper pedagogical training, with accredited qualifications that were generally found to be performance-based, lacking in pedagogy and more specifically, lacking in andragogy. This contradiction then formed the basis for practical investigations, Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 114 which investigated the minor research questions as to the needs, expectations and attitudes of piano teachers and their adult students that clearly needed addressing. Outcomes of the study provided evidence that piano teachers need to be updated in order to cater to adult learning, with educational philosophy, psychology, learning styles and business skills supporting a triangular approach (Figure 3). As the number of adult learners increases, the inclusion of andragogy, practical exposure and learning strategies becomes increasingly important. Especially imperative are professional development opportunities for those teachers with only performance training who have clearly struggled in this study. Educators are recommended to train musicians in several skills as outlined in the literature review and emergent themes of this study which were extrapolated from current practising professionals. It also outlined the difference between personal and professional teaching skills required for adult teaching, the differences in student and teacher expectations particularly in performance training, the need for less performance training and more pedagogy at an earlier stage for lifelong portfolio careers (see Gwatkin, 2008; Bennett, 2008; Perkins et. al, 2015), and finally, the need for improvement in professional development opportunities with the MTAs and public examination systems. As teachers in the 21st century, lifelong pedagogic learning ought to include international contacts established through the Internet, Skype, conferences, MTAs collaborative projects with teachers and online learning. Social media forums provide excellent advice but do not replace quality training. Figure 4 Proposed piano teacher training context and accreditation in Canada Accreditation context Jan McMillan 115 The summary of all findings led to the development of set of guidelines for teaching adults and a final conceptual framework (Figure 4), whereby care has been taken to retain the perceived needs of teachers and adult students. It combines the suggestions of all findings in relation to accreditation, registration, qualifications, training and professional development on a national scale in Canada. The guidelines provide the greatest range of options for both studio piano teachers and the current industry without introducing a large proportion of new criteria. CONCLUDING COMMENT The benefits of teaching adults greatly expand and extend piano teachers’ professional careers. In answer to the main questions of the study, these teachers provided for their students to the best of their abilities but acknowledged a deficit in andragogy that was sorely needed in teacher training. Results demonstrated that at any given level, adult students were not completely competent or independent as teachers may incorrectly assume and therefore required teachers to adopt a flexible humanistic approach, concurrent with varied strategies to nurture students towards personal and pianistic goals, promoting self-directed learning as they mature musically. Both teachers and students found the study to be a positive experience with effective communication as the most successful factor. The study proved the capabilities and viability of academic research to directly impact local teachers, their students and to inform future teacher training policies. Funding and Acknowledgements This research received no specific funding from any agency in the public, commercial, or not-for profit sectors. The author acknowledges the efforts of the Nova Scotia registered Music Teachers’ Association Research group and their students for their assistance and participation in the study. REFERENCES Bennett, D. (2008). Understanding the classical music profession: The past, the present and strategies for the future. Hampshire, England: Ashgate. Bruckner, S. (2008). The whole musician (4th ed.). Santa Cruz, CA: Effey Street Press. Cole, P.G., & Chan, L. (1994). Teaching principles and practice. (2nd ed.).Sydney: Prentice- Hall. Creech, A., Varvarigoum, M., Hallam, S., McQueen, H. & Gaunt, H. (2013). Active music making: A route to enhanced subjective well-being amongst older people. Perspectives in Public Health, 133(1), 36-43. Directory of Canadian universities. (2016). Retrieved from www.universitystudy.ca/search- programs/?k+music Duke, R. A. (2000). Measures of instructional effectiveness in music research. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 143, 1-48. Graessle, R. K. (2000). Teaching adults: The rewards and the challenges. Retrieved from Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 2 (96-116) ISSN 2232-1020/eISSN 0128-2158 116 www.music.sc.edu/ca/keyboard/PPF/3.a/3.1.PPFpp/html Gwatkin, J. (2008). Investigating the viability of a National Accreditation System for Australian piano teachers (Doctoral dissertation). University of Western Australia. Knowles, M. S. (1984).The adult learner: A neglected species (3rd ed.). Texas: Gulf. Kohut, D. (1985). Musical performance learning theory and pedagogy. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Lave, J. (1991). Situating learning in communities of practice. In L. Resnick, J. Levine & S. Teasley (Eds.), Perspectives on socially shared cognition (pp. 63-82). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Marciano, T. D. (1990). A sociologist investigates the adult piano student. American Music Teacher, 39(6), 24-27. McMillan, J. (2011). Developing teaching and learning skills for mature age learners: Case studies from Australia and Malaysia. Proceedings of the10th Australasian Piano Pedagogy Conference, Leading Notes to Effective Teaching: Resolving the past - Exploring the future, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia.Retrieved fromhttp://www.appca.com.au/2011proceedings.php McMillan, J. (2016). Perspectives on teaching and learning for mature age pianists in Canada: A collaborative project for lifespan pedagogy. Paper presented at the 32nd World Conference International Society for Music Education, Glasgow, UK. Orlofsky, D. D., & Smith, R. (1997). Strategies for adult keyboard learners. Music Educators Journal, 83(4), 22-26. Perkins, R., Aufegger, L., & Williamon, A. (2015). Learning through teaching: Exploring what conservatoire students learn from teaching beginner older adults. International Journal of Music Education, 33(1), 80-90. Roulston, K. & Jutras, P. (2015). Adult perspectives of learning musical instruments. International Journal of Music Education, 33(3), 325-335. Shokheida, I. (2016). The importance of lifelong learning in our society. International Scientific and Practical Conference, 3(1), 8-9. Tait, M., & Haack, P. (1984).Principles and processes of music education: New perspectives. New York: Teachers College Press. BIOGRAPHY Jan McMillan, PhD, was until recently (2012) a senior lecturer in piano pedagogy and performance at the Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia. Her doctoral thesis entitled Investigating the viability of a National Accreditation system for Australian Piano Teachers investigated accreditation, registration, training, and professional development. She is fully accredited in Suzuki and Orff Schulwerk philosophies and holds a Cert IV in Training and Assessment for the Vocational Education Sector. Her work to date has focused on creative methods of teaching and learning including improvisation, aural and sight reading to all age groups and abilities. Post doctoral research has focused on working with young adults and the mature aged in Malaysia, Canada and Australia. She remains an advocate of increasing the professional identity of studio teachers. She is currently based in Perth, Western Australia.

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 2 (2016)

-

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/137

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1154

Editorial

In the Volume 5, Issue 2 of the Malaysian Music Journal, we feature six articles on topics such as cultural arts education, piano performance and literature, teaching skills, needs and readiness among music teachers, challenges faced by music doctoral students and indigenous song text composition. The first article is written by Ramon P. Santos, that explores the multidimensional modes in the transmission of cultural art forms through the empowerment of indigenous performers from the Philippines, Indonesia and Africa. He posits that the survival of cultural art forms depends on the strategies and responses of the community’s cultural canons. In the second article, Performer as Narrator: The Second Movement of Franz Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major D959, Tham Horng Kent enlightens us on Zbikowski’s concepts of ‘static form’ and ‘dynamic form’ through this sonata. He argues that Schubert has allowed flexibility in the interpretation and performance of this piece by adopting John Rink’s idea of multiple potentialities in music performance.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1154/2855

MALAYSIAN MUSIC JOURNAL Volume 5 Number 2 December 2016 ISSN 2232-1020 e-ISSN 0128-2158 Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjong Malim, Perak 2016 ii iii MALAYSIAN MUSIC JOURNAL Volume 5 Number 2 December 2016 Editorial Clare Suet Ching Chan v Alternative Directions in Art Education and Dissemination of Traditional Arts of a Globalised Society Ramon Pagayon Santos 1 Performer as Narrator: The Second Movement of Franz Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major D959 Tham Horng Kent 17 Barriers to Thai Doctoral Music Students’ Socialisation Skowrung Saibunmiand Somchai Trakarnrung 36 Music Teaching Readiness among Non-Specialised Music Teachers in Government Preschools Christine Augustine and Wong Huey Yi@ Colleen Wong 54 Song Text Composition in Pinloin among the Indigenous Jahai of Peninsular Malaysia: A Local Postmodernist Approach? Clare Suet Ching Chan Exploring the Teaching Skills and Needs of Studio Piano Teachers with Mature Aged Students in Halifax, Nova Scotia Jan McMillan 70 96 iv v Editorial In the Volume 5, Issue 2 of the Malaysian Music Journal, we feature six articles on topics such as cultural arts education, piano performance and literature, teaching skills, needs and readiness among music teachers, challenges faced by music doctoral students and indigenous song text composition. The first article is written by Ramon P. Santos, that explores the multidimensional modes in the transmission of cultural art forms through the empowerment of indigenous performers from the Philippines, Indonesia and Africa. He posits that the survival of cultural art forms depends on the strategies and responses of the community’s cultural canons. In the second article, Performer as Narrator: The Second Movement of Franz Schubert’s Piano Sonata in A Major D959, Tham Horng Kent enlightens us on Zbikowski’s concepts of ‘static form’ and ‘dynamic form’ through this sonata. He argues that Schubert has allowed flexibility in the interpretation and performance of this piece by adopting John Rink’s idea of multiple potentialities in music performance. In the third article, Skowrung Saibunmi and Somchai Trakarnrung investigate the challenges encountered in the socialisation processes of doctoral students in music programmes in Thailand. Their article, Barriers to Thai Doctoral Music Students’ Socialisation looks into the students’ backgrounds, social and institutional issues that impact integration into doctoral programmes. This study aids the refinement and revision of newly developing doctoral music programs in Thailand. In their article titled, Music Teaching Readiness among Non-Specialised Music Teachers in Government Pre-schools in Perak, Christine Augustine and Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong provide informative data on the preparedness of teachers in conducting music classes. The study focuses on content, professional development and instructional strategies. It provides the national education system with important feedback on benchmarking the effectiveness of the visions and missions of the education system in Malaysia. The fifth article, Song Text Composition in Pinloin among the Indigenous Jahai of Peninsular Malaysia: A Local Postmodernist Approach explores continuity and change in the approaches utilised to compose the song text of pinloin, a song and dance genre among the Jahai, one of the 18 subgroups of Orang Asli or indigenous people in peninsular Malaysia. In this article, a comparative analysis of pinloin was conducted from the early 20th century, late 20th century and early 21st century, arguing vi for a dialectical approach in song text composition, in which the composer interactively responds to the ‘tourist gaze’ in constructing pinloin song text. The author ends with a question that triggers the need for an exploration into local postmodernism. In the final article of this issue, Jan McMillan examines a relatively new area in music discourse in her article Exploring the Teaching Skills and Needs of Studio Piano Teachers with Mature Aged Students in Halifax, Nova Scotia. McMillan discusses the teaching skills and needs of piano teachers and their adult students. The study produced a set of guidelines including andragonic training, professional development opportunities and repertoire selections to assist future piano teachers. Clare Suet Ching Chan Chief Editor

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 1 (2016)

Baluan, indigenous song, Paluai language, Papua New Guinea, Polpolot

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/136

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/812

The Evolution of Polpolot: Innovation and Continuity in a Baluan Song Form

Recent developments in the polpolot song style from Baluan Island (Manus Province, Papua New Guinea) constitute examples of simultaneous innovation and continuity, in both performance format and language usage. Polpolot is one of three traditional two-part vocal forms from Baluan, whose usage has been in gradual decline over the late 20th century, as younger generations have eschewed them for newer, introduced song forms. Whereas the original language of polpolot is an archaic form of the indigenous language, Ngolan Paluai, a body of polpolot that concerns PNG’s transition to political independence in 1975 uses Tok Pisin, the official language of the new nation. This fact draws interesting correlative lines between the evolutions in song form and language. At the Balopa Festival in 2006, a local clan chief, Mela Popeu, presented a 12-member polpolot choir. While an innovation, the choir constitutes a clear developmental line from the original polpolot and represents continuity in a way that the introduced song forms do not. Moreover, the language of the choir’s repertoire was principally contemporary (as opposed to archaic) Ngolan Paluai, with one song in English. These song texts were concerned with welcoming visitors to Baluan for the Festival. This choice of languages is simultaneously looking inward and outward; the use of contemporary indigenous language is inclusive of the younger generations of Baluan and the use of English looks outward, past broader PNG, to a potentially international audience.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/812/548

Tony Lewis 1 The Evolution of Polpolot: Innovation and Continuity in a Baluan Song Form Tony Lewis Independent researcher, Australia e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Recent developments in the polpolot song style from Baluan Island (Manus Province, Papua New Guinea) constitute examples of simultaneous innovation and continuity, in both performance format and language usage. Polpolot is one of three traditional two-part vocal forms from Baluan, whose usage has been in gradual decline over the late 20th century, as younger generations have eschewed them for newer, introduced song forms. Whereas the original language of polpolot is an archaic form of the indigenous language, Ngolan Paluai, a body of polpolot that concerns PNG’s transition to political independence in 1975 uses Tok Pisin, the official language of the new nation. This fact draws interesting correlative lines between the evolutions in song form and language. At the Balopa Festival in 2006, a local clan chief, Mela Popeu, presented a 12-member polpolot choir. While an innovation, the choir constitutes a clear developmental line from the original polpolot and represents continuity in a way that the introduced song forms do not. Moreover, the language of the choir’s repertoire was principally contemporary (as opposed to archaic) Ngolan Paluai, with one song in English. These song texts were concerned with welcoming visitors to Baluan for the Festival. This choice of languages is simultaneously looking inward and outward; the use of contemporary indigenous language is inclusive of the younger generations of Baluan and the use of English looks outward, past broader PNG, to a potentially international audience. Keywords Baluan, indigenous song, Paluai language, Papua New Guinea, Polpolot INTRODUCTION Baluan Island in the Manus Province of Papua New Guinea — known as Paluai to its indigenes — is renowned in the region for the rhythmically complex music of its garamut (log idiophone) ensembles (see Lewis 2012, 2014, forthcoming 2017). Baluan is also the home of three particular indigenous song genres: kolorai, woei and polpolot. Usage of these three indigenous forms has been in decline through the later part of the 20th century, going into the early 21st, as the younger generations turn to introduced song forms — principally stringben (stringband) music and to a lesser degree, hymnody (and sometimes hymnody expressed through the medium of stringben). Recent innovations in Baluan, however, give hope for the survival of polpolot as a relevant contemporary genre. This paper traces developments in these Baluan song forms — focusing particularly on polpolot — through recent decades, and up to recent 2 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 developments. Through examination of four different polpolot songs, composed over a 40-year period (from 1966 to 2006) we see changes in both structure and presentation formats. More significantly, we see how the languages in which the songs are sung are changing to reflect the changing times and contexts of the songs, as well as concurrent aspirations of the Baluan community. BALUAN ISLAND AND ITS SONG FORMS The island of Baluan lies about 65 kilometres south of the Manus provincial capital Lorengau and is accessible only by boat. To its immediate north-northeast are the islands of Lou and Pam and together, these three islands make up the Local Level Government area of Balopa. These islands can be seen in Map 1 (Baluan is a little below the centre of this map, and Lou and Pam are to the north-northeast of Baluan). The name Balopa is composed of the first two letters of the name of each island — Baluan, Lou, Pam. Map 1 Map of Manus Province, showing Baluan, Lou and Pam Islands that make up the Local Level Government area of Balopa (Source: Otto, 1991, p. 12. Map reproduced by permission of the author) Baluan is a volcanic island protruding from the sea; the majority of the population lives in seven villages, six of which are along the north coast and one on the south coast. Much of the activity addressed in this paper, both historical and contemporary, has taken place in the village of Lipan, which is the largest village in Baluan and the second from the eastern end of the north coast line of villages (see Map 2). Lipan village is also where I stay whenever I visit Baluan. The population of Baluan is difficult to estimate and historical reports differ significantly. Messner (1981, p. 433) states it as 300 while Otto (1992a, p. 264) estimates it at around 1,000 people. Schokkin (2014, p.10n) concludes that “it is hard to Tony Lewis 3 estimate the number of inhabitants of Baluan Island, since sources are out-dated and the population appears to have grown rapidly in the last decade”. A reasonable estimate for 2016 can be made by comparing the Papua New Guinea national census figures for 2000 and 2011 (National Statistical Office, 2002, pp. 7-8; 2012, p. 30), and projecting consistent and uniform growth. That would put the current population of Baluan at around 1,800. Map 2 Map of Baluan Island. Lipan village can be seen on the north coast (Source: Otto, 1991, p.46. Map reproduced by permission of the author) Currently, there are four languages spoken on Baluan. Ngolan Paluai (literally ‘the language of Baluan’) is the primary indigenous language or tok ples of Baluan, and is spoken as the first language by a large majority of the population. Titan is the secondary indigenous language, introduced in 1946, when a group of Titan speakers were given a small area of land on Baluan (Schwartz, 1958, p. 69; 1962, p.262). Both Ngolan Paluai and Titan are of the Austronesian language family; Schokkin (2014, p. 1) confirms that all languages of the Manus Province “belong to the Oceanic subgroup of the Austronesian language family”. Tok Pisin (Melanesian Pidgin English, or Neo- Melanesian) is the lingua franca of all Papua New Guinea and some people (mainly the younger generations and some of the more widely-travelled of the older generations) have skills in English as well. 4 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 Significantly, Ngolan Paluai has been through its own evolution during the 20th century, and the language that is commonly spoken today differs from the language that is used in the majority of historical polpolot songs. The use in songs of a language that differs from the language of everyday usage is a widespread phenomenon in Papua New Guinea. Niles (2015, p. xl) summarises the breadth of occurrence in this way: In almost every source that discusses Papua New Guinea song texts, mention is made of the use of poetic language, either in reference to individual words or longer parts of the text. These might be words from specialised or less familiar vocabulary; an archaic version of the present language; another dialect or language (perhaps, thereby, suggesting origin, trade, purchase, or prestige); the language of spirits or ghosts; or newly created words as the result of word taboos. Sometimes such poetic usage can be readily understood, but more often it appears to challenge and entice listeners. In the case of Baluan, the language of the older polpolots appears to be an archaic version of the present language.1 Whether this older language was once the commonly spoken language of Baluan, or whether it existed only in song texts, is not something I have been able to establish. The three indigenous song forms are more or less identical in structure, but differ mainly in distinctions in gender of the performers. Kolorai, woei and polpolot are all two-part genres, being sung either by two men (kolorai), two women (woei), or one man and one woman (polpolot). A typical musical structure, from which there is rarely any variation, consists of a short introductory passage by a single voice, which is then echoed by the second voice following closely behind, before the two voices fall into rhythmic unison. Messner (1998, p. 603) identifies the indigenous terms for these parts respectively as yaret (call out) and isiol (join). The aural effect of this introductory statement is immediately reminiscent of the dulugu ganalan, or ‘lift-up-over-sounding’ that Feld (1988, p. 76) describes in his studies amongst the Kaluli people of the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea. (See also Feld’s sound recordings of the Kaluli—Bosavi: Rainforest Music from Papua New Guinea (2001) — and the Smithsonian Folkways web page on the CD set.) This vocal introduction begins (in terms of Western scale structure) approximately a fourth above the closing note. The closing note is what I will refer to herein as the ‘home note’, being the note that is sustained by the lower vocal parts that follows. The introduction is generally sung on vocable syllables that have no textual meaning, such as ‘oi’, ‘or’, ‘oo’ or ‘ee’. I provide a notated example below (Example 1) of a typical yaret sung by Alup Songo Molmole (whom I discuss further below), although I caution the reader against reading too much into this notation. The placement of notes on a five-line treble-clef stave can invite immediate associations to western standards in pitch, temperament and metre, but the singers of Baluan recognise no such standards. Therefore, this notation and all others that follow herein, are approximations only, in order to give the reader a broad sense of what is happening musically. I begin this yaret on the note E because that is the closest note in the Western scale to Molmole’s starting note. Tony Lewis 5 Example 1 A typical yaret sung by Alup Songo Molmole (transcribed by Tony Lewis) Following this introduction, a song usually consists of three stanzas, each sung syllabically and each repeated. The third stanza always begins with sustained vocable ‘e-wo’, which interrupts the otherwise loosely strophic form of the songs. I qualify the term ‘strophic’ in this context because stanzas can vary in metric length according to the text that accompanies them. The sung text, above all, is the determinant of the metric lengths of phrases and stanzas. The strongest musical characteristic of these genres is the constant pitch movement between unison and seconds (somewhere between the minor and major seconds of the Western temperament) and consequently, the oscillation between consonance and dissonance to the Western-trained listener (see Example 2). One voice holds a constant pitch on the home note while the other voice moves up a second from it and returns back to it. Each stanza opens at the second interval and closes in pitch unison on the home note. Example 2 The typical movement between unison and seconds, notated from a polpolot sung by Alup Songo Molmole and Ngat Kalou Solok (transcribed by Tony Lewis) The ‘e-wo’ that opens each third stanza also begins in seconds (‘e’) and moves to unison (‘wo’). Occasional passing passages could be interpreted as heterophonic, but the inconsistency of these leads me to understand them as spontaneous and perhaps unintentional variations, rather than a defining musical characteristic. The total range of the polpolot sung in this style, including the introduction, is a perfect fourth (from B to E in Example 1). Little of substance has been documented on these genres to date, a notable exception being Messner’s 1981 article, and the same author’s entry in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 9 (1998). Messner (1981) identifies a number of early sources, predominantly in German, that mention these song genres, but concludes that these studies “have generally been superficial and faulty and no serious attempt has been made to study this music thoroughly in connection with its sociocultural context” (1981, p. 434). Messner (1981, pp. 435-436) presents the three genres in a hierarchical order (the same order in which I have presented them above): 1. kolorai: epic male ritual songs given high value; 2. weii: a. epic female ritual songs given high value; b. songs for various functions; c. lamentations and mourning songs sung in unison; d. work songs sung by males; 6 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 3. polpolot: songs for entertainment without any traditional value. (Today, these songs replace and substitute for all other ritual songs and are sung by men, women and mixed groups.) I make two notes here on Messner’s report. First, I note Messner uses a different spelling of ‘weii’; I cannot account for this difference. I can only state that I use the spelling ‘woei’ that was given to me by my informants in Baluan. Schokkin (2014) spells it ‘weyi’ (p. 12). As is often the case in unfamiliar languages, the pronunciation of the spoken word does not always accord with established Eurocentric norm and consequently it can sometimes be difficult to find the appropriate letters of the Roman alphabet to represent the spoken sounds. The pronunciation I know is somewhere ‘woei’ and ‘weii’; I cannot know the pronunciations that Messner and Schokkin have responded to. Second, Messner gives four classes of weii here. The woei that I have recorded in Baluan fall into Messner’s category 2a (with some qualifications, as addressed below) and accordingly, that is the sense that I employ herein. I do not discount Messner’s other categories and I have heard anecdotal evidence of his category 2d, but I have not (at least I am not aware that I have) encountered them directly in Baluan. Messner (1981) further gives considerable insight into the deteriorating condition of these genres — and the changing usage of language within them — in 1981, citing his informants: Polpolots are purely for entertainment and have no other functional purpose. They can be performed anywhere by anyone and at any time, and are purely for enjoyment and love. Nowadays, as the ritual and functional songs are being forgotten and since the traditional concept of our pre-Christian societal structure is no longer intact, polpolots have become the most important song type, replacing the sacred and ‘awesome’ ritual songs. Everything is getting mixed up. These songs, as well as the words of the songs, stem from our forefathers. The words are in the Baluan language. Young people cannot understand the meaning of the old words anymore even though they were born on Baluan. Even some of the traditional polpolot songs are so old that they can only be sung by the elders who still understand the old language. The new polpolots are sung in today's language and no longer have any value (p. 439). Since 1958, the term polpolot has also accumulated further meaning as a form of social ceremony whose intention is to regenerate aspects of tradition —kastam in Tok Pisin — that had been lost in the immediate post-war period (Otto, 1991, pp. 224-231). POST-WORLD WAR II DEVELOPMENTS IN BALUAN For reasons that become apparent below, consideration of polpolot must also take into account the post-World War II Paliau Movement and the figure central to that, Paliau Tony Lewis 7 Maloat (c.1910-1991). Reformer, politician and semi-religious figure, Paliau casts a huge shadow on Baluan’s post-war history. Originally from Lipan village in Baluan, Paliau became revered as a visionary throughout the entire Manus region and entered the first parliament of independent Papua New Guinea in 1975 representing Manus. (For detailed accounts of the nature of Paliau’s reforms and his power base, see Otto, 1992b, and Schwartz, 1962.) It was also Paliau who, in 1946, gave a small parcel of land on Baluan to the Titan-speaking people. The Titan had hitherto been the seafarers of the region, owning no land, but living in boats or in over-water settlements on island borders. Titan speakers (also known as the ‘Manus’ or ‘Manus tru’) are accordingly spread quite widely throughout the Manus region (Lewis, 2012, p. 8; Niles, 1980, p. 15; Ohnemus, 1998, pp. 5-9) as they can go wherever the sea goes. A Titan population had been living on the edge of Mouk Island, a small island off the north-east coast of Baluan; in 1946, Paliau granted them a parcel of land on Baluan, which is now called Mouk village. Mouk village is now the easternmost village in the north coast line of villages, neighbouring Lipan village immediately to the east of the latter (see Map 2). Paliau Maloat features directly and prominently in the polpolot song texts that I discuss below. A central character to this study is Mela Popeu, chief of the Kooroole clan on Baluan and a powerful and influential elder of the island community. Mela had been close to Ngi Sanewai and Lapanin Solok, two of the most highly regarded historical singers of polpolot (both of whom have since passed away). While not known prominently as a singer in Baluan, Mela has told me he used to “sing casually” with Ngi Sanewai (also known as Sanewai Kileap) and Lapanin Solok. He has also composed several polpolot songs (two of which I investigate below) and instigated the 12-member polpolot choir in 2006, whose performance is central to this study. My personal relationship to Mela is multi-layered. Mela adopted me into his clan while I was conducting my initial doctoral research on Baluan — a move that gave me a certain status in the island, which considerably facilitated important aspects of my research there by legitimising my relationships with people (Dalsgaard, 2009, pp. 27-28; Lewis, 2015, p. 56). I therefore have responsibilities to Mela as my clan chief. I count him also as a valued friend and informant. In recent years he has helped me considerably with confirming the texts of the songs examined herein, with translating them into English and with revealing and clarifying certain significant circumstances around the history of some of these songs. At the time of writing, Mela Popeu is no longer living in Baluan, but in Lae (Morobe Province), having been drawn there by a lecturing position at the Papua New Guinea University of Technology in that city. I have been able to have email contact with Mela from the time he moved to Lae in 2014 and I was fortunate to be able to spend face-to-face time with him there in January 2016 to review the material in this article and gain his perspective on the songs and their respective histories. The polpolot songs that I have recorded and the four that I discuss herein, are from different periods of Baluan’s history (including contemporary). I have recorded them from two different groups of performers on two different days, three years apart. On November 6th, 2003, I recorded the husband-and-wife duo of Ngat Kalou Solok and Alup Songo Molmole, and on December 20th, 2006, I recorded Mela Popeu’s 12- member polpolot choir. All recordings were made in Lipan village on Baluan. In each body of recordings, the singers sang a range of songs, of which, for the purposes of this 8 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 paper, I focus on two from each occasion. A central factor in my choice of songs for discussion is the language in which each is sung — here we have four languages in four songs — and accordingly, the circumstantial reasons behind each respective choice of language. In my representations of the songs texts below, I have shown the text in one, two or three lines, identified (as necessary) as Lines A, B and C. The lines represent different languages, different interpretations of language and/or translations into English, according to the nature of the sung text and further issues around it. The non-textual vocables are indicated in curly brackets in each instance. NGAT KALOU SOLOK AND ALUP SONGO MOLMOLE When I first arrived in Baluan in 2003, there remained around six elders on the island who still knew the older song styles (one of whom was Ngi Sanewai whom I have mentioned above). Two elders, Ngat Kalou Solok — the chief of Perelik village — and his wife Alup Songo Molmole (see Figure 1) were keen to sing some of these songs for my audio recorder and we were soon able to arrange a day to do this. In our recording, Ngat and Alup sang for me some kolorai, some woei and some polpolot songs. Ngat gave introductions to each piece (in Tok Pisin), explaining the different genres and the gender distinctions that define them. He explained that he and Alup were singing all three types, even though this was not strictly correct according to custom; but in times when singers were few, it was the only way they could preserve the songs. I noted that some of the songs were in a language that I did not recognise. Enquiry confirmed that this language was the archaic form of Paluai. The first song text that I address below is one such song in the archaic form of Ngolan Paluai and I have been fortunate to get a translation of this text, and to learn some further detail about it, from Mela Popeu. Mela informed me that this song was composed in 1966 by a man named Ngi Kondai. The song is about Paliau Maloat and the text is written from Paliau’s perspective. According to Mela, the text is reputed to be words actually spoken by Paliau and documented by Ngi Kondai. Mela titles it ‘Ngunanen Lalon Manus’, meaning ‘Five Candidates in Manus’. The song is therefore from the period between the end of World War II and Papua New Guinea’s political independence in 1975 (closer to the latter), a time when Paliau’s power and prominence were at their peak. The pretext of this song is that Paliau is running for political office against five other candidates, to be the representative for Manus in the national parliament (prior to independence). Tony Lewis 9 Figure 1 Alup Songo Molmole (left) and Ngat Kalou Solok (right) (Photos by Tony Lewis, 2003) Mela has confirmed that the language is the archaic form of Ngolan Paluai, and has further informed me that in this rendition of the song, Ngat and Alup are in fact not singing the words correctly; he wrote (in English) on my notes about this song: “Lyrics slightly distorted by the couple in view of their age and memory recall system. The theme is still there.” Mela claims to know the song, as composed by Ngi Kondai, and has accordingly been an invaluable source on its history. Mela has provided me with the original text that he says Kondai composed and the “slightly distorted” version that is actually sung here. In addition, Mela has given me a full English translation of this text. In the representation of text that follows, line A represents the purported original song text as composed by Ngi Kondai, line B represents the text sung by Ngat and Alup, and line C represents Mela’s English translation of the text. With the benefit of viewing lines A and B in parallel, we can see that the differences between them are confined to the first stanza, with line B adding a few words that are not in line A. Ngunanen Lalon Manus (Five Candidates in Manus) Composed by Ngi Kondai (1966) Genre: polpolot Language: Ngolan Paluai (archaic form) Singers: Ngat Kalou Solok and Alup Songo Molmole Recorded by Tony Lewis in Lipan village on November 6th, 2003 Translation to English by Mela Popeu Stanza 1: A: {Or} Ngunan en lalon Manus osa yerit tini ong pwen B: {Or} Ngunan en lalon Manus Ngunan pari ai or ranul, oyo yerit tini ong pwen C: {Or} Five candidates in Manus cannot surpass me 10 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 A: {Or} Osa yerit tini ong pwen osa yerit tini ong pwen, Minit en panuan tare, minit paro pung no minong. B: {Or} Osa yerit tini ong pwen osa yerit tini ong pwen, Minit en panuan tare, minit paro pung no minong. C: {Or} You will not surpass me, you will not surpass me. The policy of our place, this policy is still in my hands. Stanza 2: A: Ngala lenghet piring kape kot a ee lep pang a irut, numai wolek ong lai ee ieng pakei or la ee. B: Ngala lenghet piring kape kot a ee lep pang a irut, numai wolek ong lai ee ieng pakei or la ee. C: I became a road to make clouds turn to rain. Old men appointed me to it and all gave me their blessings. Stanza 3: A: {Ewo} Kinom wolek ila moyoi, iset lalon asembeli. Lawen gaben a eeranul kereng pelek isil koyou lanen sopol. B: {Ewo} Kinon wolek ila moyoi, iset lalon asembeli. Lawen gaben a eeranul kereng pelek isil koyou lanen naon C: {Ewo} My sign became a snake, in the assembly. All cabinet members were afraid with their hearts beating heavily. Ngat Kalou Solok and Alup Songo Molmole also sang for me a number of songs in Tok Pisin, one of which I detail here. This song is titled ‘Papua Niugini’ (the name of the country in Tok Pisin), although I have been unable to establish the composer. The subject matter of the text is the independence of Papua New Guinea as a nation, which dates it at around 1975. Stanza 3 makes reference to ‘Paliau na Somare’ (‘Paliau and Somare’). ‘Paliau’ is a further reference to Paliau Maloat whom I have addressed above and who in 1975, entered the first national parliament of the newly independent nation as the Member for Manus. ‘Somare’ is a reference to Michael Somare, who was the first Prime Minister of independent Papua New Guinea, from 1975 to 1980, and was again Prime Minister for two later periods, 1982–1985 and 2002–2011. In the representation of text that follows, line A represents the song text in Tok Pisin and line B represents the English translation of it. I have translated from Tok Pisin to English and I am grateful to Denis Crowdy and Lungol Popeu for providing some clarity regarding the Tok Pisin text and for amending minor errors in my translation. Papua Niugini (Papua New Guinea) Composer unknown (c.1975) Genre: polpolot Language: Tok Pisin Singers: Ngat Kalou Solok and Alup Songo Molmole Recorded by Tony Lewis in Lipan village on November 6th, 2003 Tony Lewis 11 Translation to English by Tony Lewis, with assistance from Denis Crowdy and Lungol Popeu Stanza 1: A. {Or} Papua Niugini, {Ee} yumi Papua Niugini, B. {Or} Papua New Guinea, {Ee} we are Papua New Guinea, A. Yumi Papua Niugini, yumi go ahet wok i go B. We are Papua New Guinea, we work to progress Stanza 2: A. Kantri bilong Papua Niugini, nupela yang kantri, B. The country of Papua New Guinea, new young country, A. Lukaut gut long em B. Take good care of it Stanza 3: A. {Ewo} Paliau na Somare, lukaut gut Papua Niugini. B. {Ewo} Paliau and Somare, take good care of Papua New Guinea. A. No ken sipoilim kantri, kantri bilong pipol B. You must not ruin this country, this country of the people. That the language of the first song, ‘Ngunanen Lalon Manus’, is in the archaic form of Ngolan Paluai is not exceptional or surprising; the text concerns a Baluan leader who is coming to political prominence at both provincial and national levels. Moreover, the song was composed at a time when all polpolots were composed in that language. A song of this period did not need a reason to be composed in that language; rather, a song needed a reason not to be composed in that language. The second song, ‘Papua Niugini’, has such a reason. This text clearly concerns Papua New Guinean nationhood, as opposed to issues exclusive to Baluan or Manus. Figures central to the independence movement are mentioned in this song —specifically Paliau and Somare. The use of Tok Pisin, the official language of the new nation, for the text of this song reflects concern with national rather than local issues, as befits the period. MELA POPEU’S POLPOLOT CHOIR My visit to Baluan in December 2006 coincided with the inaugural Balopa Cultural Festival, named after the Local Level Government area of Balopa that includes Baluan, and held in Lipan village. Many performing groups — garamut groups, dancing groups, stringben groups, church groups — and audience members came from different parts of Baluan, broader Manus and from Port Moresby, to attend this event. Apart from myself, the international community was represented by a cohort of eight anthropologists from Denmark, led by Professor Ton Otto. At this festival, Mela Popeu unveiled a 12- member polpolot choir (see Figure 2). The songs presented by this choir constitute a clear developmental line from the original polpolot form, being sung syllabically, and preserving the broad and loosely strophic structure of three stanzas, each repeated, the third beginning with the 12 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 characteristic vocable ‘e-wo’. There is some variation; the yaret is more melodically developed, beginning (roughly) a minor third above the home note and rising to a fourth, before descending to the home note. The yaret then adds a second, melodically reduced phrase (see Example 3). Conveniently for my transcriptions, and for purposes of comparison, the yaret in my recorded performances also begins close to the note E. Figure 2 Mela Popeu’s twelve-member polpolot choir (Mela Popeu is the second person from the right, standing up)(Photo by Tony Lewis, 2006) Example 3 A yaret sung by Mela Popeu’s polpolot choir (transcribed by Tony Lewis) In this case there is no ‘second voice’ as such, but a chorus of 11 ‘second’ voices constituting the isiol; this part does not follow the first part into the introductory passage, but joins on the second line, thus creating more of a ‘call-and-response’ relationship with the yaret. There is further melodic development in the ensuing ensemble stanzas, with upper part sometimes beginning a minor third above the home note (the same starting point as the opening solo voice). With the multitude of voices now taking part, and with the approximate nature of the pitching, the sound is rich with beat frequencies and their ensuing harmonic complexities. It appears — though is difficult to determine absolutely —that the lower part, rather than holding a fixed pitch, is dropping a major second as the upper part rises a minor second, creating an interval of a minor third (as distinct from the second of the earlier style of polpolot — see Example 4). Tony Lewis 13 Example 4 Typical movement between the two parts in the songs of Mela Popeu’s polpolot choir (transcribed by Tony Lewis) The result is that the choir’s performances cover a total range of a major sixth in Western scale terms (from A to F# in Example 3), expanded from the perfect fourth of the earlier recordings. Nevertheless, the choir’s songs are recognisably polpolot, and represent a continuation of the indigenous practice in a way that the introduced song forms do not. At the same time, the choir represents an innovation, in particular in the way the enlarged group becomes more socially inclusive than the two-person version. This is pure supposition on my part, but it appears that the choir is following an example set by the introduced song forms — stringben and hymnody — in the sense that both involve larger groups of singers and/or musicians, and are consequently more socially inclusive than the original indigenous genres. The most interesting development in the choir’s repertoire, however, is in their choice of languages. The songs are principally in contemporary Ngolan Paluai, apart from one song in English and one in the archaic form of Paluai — in fact the latter is a rendition of Ngunanen Lalon Manus, the same song I have documented above as sung by Ngat Kalou Solok and Alup Songo Molmole. There are no songs at all in Tok Pisin. Having been initiated for the purpose of performing at the Balopa Cultural Festival, it appears clear that the choir’s repertoire is also geared to this event; accordingly, the English text, and some of the Paluai texts, are concerned with welcoming visitors to Baluan for the Festival. The choir’s songs (with the exception of ‘Ngunanen Lalon Manus’) were composed by Mela Popeu, so I have been fortunate to gain the composer’s perspective on them, and on the nature of the choir. Whereas I initially thought the choir format to be Mela’s creation, having nowhere encountered any prior mention of it, neither in the literature nor in Baluan, Mela informed me in an email (October 6th, 2014) that in fact, Lapanin Solok had initiated the choir format in the 1970s for a choir festival in Manus, where it won a ‘special prize’. In the same email, Mela told me that he learnt to compose polpolot “by singing casually with … Ngi Sanewai and Lapanin Solok,” and revealed that he had not known that there had been an earlier form of the Paluai language, until he encountered the texts of the polpolot he was learning to sing. “When I grew up and started speaking our language”, wrote Mela, “I did not know that it was a contemporary one. It was from the polpolot wordings that made me [realise] that there exist[ed] [an earlier] Paluai language.” Regarding his use of contemporary Paluai language in the choir compositions, Mela explained this to me (email, October 6th, 2014): “Why we departed from Paluai language, is what I do not really understand. So since we were not [taught] the original language, I will be foolish to [compose] polpolot on language I am not used to. In fact a good meaningful polpolot of original language [that] is not understood by listeners of this generation, [loses] its value.” 14 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 I present below the text of Mela’s composition ‘Polo en Balopa Festival’ (Flag of Balopa Festival), which he composed in 2006 and premiered at this Balopa Festival. The song is directly and unambiguously concerned with the Festival, as is quite evident from the title alone. Stanza 3 makes reference to ‘Soanin a President’ (‘Soanin and President’). ‘Soanin’ refers Soanin Kilangit, the Baluan elder who conceived and produced the festival, and ‘President’ refers to the President of the festival committee, who happened to be Mela Popeu himself. The stanza also mentions the Governor (kavena); this refers to Governor Jacob Jumagot, who at that time was Governor of the Manus Province, and who was in attendance at the festival’s opening ceremony. The text also uses the concept of ‘Urop’ (‘Europe’) to represent more broadly the developed world. In the representation of text that follows, line A represents the song text in contemporary Ngolan Paluai, and line B represents the English translation as written by Mela Popeu. Polo en Balopa Festival (Flag of Balopa Festival) Composed by Mela Popeu (2006) Genre: polpolot Language: Ngolan Paluai (contemporary) Singers: Mela Popeu’s polpolot choir Recorded by Tony Lewis in Lipan village on December 20th, 2006 Translation to English by Mela Popeu Stanza 1: A. {Ee} Polo en Balopa Festival, polouen ien wopop B. {Ee} Flag of Balopa Festival, its flag is flying. A. Ian yuwai lapenen sopol apai, lapanen sopol pungum B. It is calling the chiefs of the west, the chiefs of the east. Stanza 2: A. Are kame kaporokek; karowek aronan Paluai B. You come and strengthen it; and show the ‘way of Baluan’ A. Kilai rowekan not monok, ai salen yiwan kokon kisi panu B. To show the children of behind [of the future], as a means to attract money home. Stanza 3: A. {Ewo} Soanin a president, au kaning kavena kiyam salen la pien B. {Ewo} Soanin and President, you see the Governor, to consider it well A. Kipuksalen tap Balopa kale ning Urop B. To open the way for Balopa to visit Europe (Outside world). The fourth polpolot that I address here is Mela Popeu’s composition in English, which his choir also premiered at the Balopa Festival in 2006. This song, titled ‘Festival Welcome’, is also directly concerned with that festival, being a welcome message to all visitors to Baluan. The words ‘rocky land’ and ‘so rocky, so stoney [sic]’ in the first stanza reflect the Baluan Islanders’ perception of their homeland, being a volcanic Tony Lewis 15 island with plentiful basalt protuberances that dot the coast line and find their way under every footstep. The third stanza makes direct reference to Governor Jumagot of the Manus Province, which ties the song specifically to the opening ceremony of the festival, at which the Governor was present, and to whom this song was sung. Mela’s choir rehearsed for the festival performance in an open sheltered area in his home in Lipan village (this area can be seen in Figure 2 above). The song texts they were rehearsing were written in chalk on a chalkboard wall of the house. Figure 3 shows the English text of Festival Welcome, as written on this chalkboard, with other song texts to the left and below. As this song text is in English, there is no need for translation, nor for different lines in the representation below. Festival Welcome Composed by Mela Popeu (2006) Genre: polpolot Language: English Singers: Mela Popeu’s polpolot choir Recorded by Tony Lewis in Lipan village on December 20th, 2006 Stanza 1: {Ee} From north to south, east to west Welcome to you one and all to Balopa Cultural Festival Special welcome to newcomers to rocky land of Baluan So rocky, so stoney, but still it is our loveland Stanza 2: This festival is here today and gone tomorrow So please enjoy and participate while you can Right in your eyes you will see Balopians come to life, depicting cultural tradition Right in your eyes you will see Balopians come to life, depicting colourful tradition Stanza 3: {Ewo} Governor Jumagot, may you have a nice day. Balopa has the will but doesn’t know the way. Can you find us the way? {Ewo} Governor Jumagot, may you have a nice day. Balopa has the will but doesn’t know the way. Can you show us the way? A structural feature of this song that I have not observed in other polpolot in any language is that in two particular instances a line is repeated but with a single word changed in order to give a slightly different meaning. In stanza 2, we hear the words ‘depicting cultural tradition’ and in the repeat of that line, it changes to ‘depicting colourful tradition’. In stanza 3, the words ‘can you find us the way?’ are changed in the repeat to ‘can you show us the way?’ While not elsewhere apparent in the Baluan song genres that I have encountered, Niles (2015, p. xliv) points out that this practice of parallelism “is a very common poetic feature found in all regions of Papua New 16 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 Guinea.” Niles (pp. xliv-xlv) then documents a number of such instances from around Papua New Guinea, and the academic sources that address them. I asked Mela by email why he chose to compose this song in English and he replied by email (October 6th, 2014): “I used [E]nglish wordings instead of pidgin, in the welcome song basically for those non Baluan to hear and also I wanted the women singers of the group, all of village levels, to have fun with [E]nglish words.” This choice of languages in Mela Popeu’s compositions appears to be simultaneously looking inward and outward. The use of contemporary Ngolan Paluai looks inward to what is unique about Baluan, and at the same time using a language that is understood by most Baluan Islanders today; the use of English leapfrogs Tok Pisin, as it were, and looks outward, past broader Papua New Guinea, to a potentially international audience. Figure 3 The English text of Mela Popeu’s polpolot Festival Welcome, written on a chalkboard at Mela’s home in Lipan village (photo by Tony Lewis, 2006) CONCLUSION — OUR LIBRARIES ARE CLOSING DOWN Through these four polpolot songs, composed over a 40-year period (1966 to 2006), we have seen developments in formal structure, presentation format and language usage. In formal structure, the range of the songs has expanded a little from a perfect fourth to a major sixth, and there is greater melodic development, particularly in the yaret section. The lower of the two vocal parts has developed a tendency to move between two pitches, rather than remain on a fixed pitch. It is possible, or even probable, however, that such changes reflect the personal preferences of the singers involved in each case, rather than constituting enduring modifications to the character of polpolot. On the other hand, that Tony Lewis 17 which is performed is what is generally passed on to emerging generations, rather than that which is not performed. The presentation format has opened up considerably with the concept of the choir. First conceived by Lapanin Solok in the 1970s, Mela Popeu has revived this concept in 2006 for a specific festival context. While Mela’s choir incorporated 12 members, the concept of a choir can necessarily remain open to as many people as wish to take part. While there remain only two distinct vocal parts, the change fundamentally means that there are now multiple voices to each part, as opposed to the single voice in the original duet model. While the multiple voices certainly create a bigger and richer sound, this development has more significance socially than musically, as it is more socially inclusive, reflecting the inclusive nature of the introduced song forms of stringben and hymnody. Perhaps the most significant development over this 40-year period has been in the use of language. We have seen four different languages used, each for a specific context and purpose. The original archaic form of Ngolan Paluai was in 1966, the established language of polpolot. The nationalist sentiments associated with independence in 1975 saw a shift to Tok Pisin as the language of polpolot, reflecting pride and aspirations in nationhood through use of the new official language. The Balopa Festival of 2006 saw contemporary Ngolan Paluai used as a language that was meaningful to the current population of Baluan, and the use of English to reflect a wish to welcome, and communicate with, the broader world beyond Manus and Papua New Guinea — with ‘Urop’. These innovations have occurred in a time of globalisation that has brought rapid changes to Papua New Guinea, as to many other parts of the developing world. Music within Baluan has seen considerable growth in introduced song forms, principally stringben and hymnody, that have threatened the indigenous genres with extinction. The innovations in polpolot have seen the genre evolve to embrace the changes, to adapt to changing times through developments in language usage and performance format, both of which have the effect of being more inclusive of the current Baluan population; the use of contemporary Ngolan Paluai allows listeners to engage meaningfully with the song texts and the choir format allows many more people to actively participate in performance. These changes do not happen without loss, however, and that which seems destined for extinction — if not already effectively extinct — is the archaic form of the Paluai language. Although on the one hand Mela Popeu is leading the changes, on the other, he is acutely aware of what is being lost and is genuinely saddened by it. Not having ever learnt or spoken the original Paluai language, however, there is little he can realistically now do to preserve it. What he can do — and is doing — is preserve the genre of polpolot. On more than one occasion, Mela has used a literary metaphor to express his feelings of loss. In an email (October 8th, 2014) he told me how much he had learnt about polpolot from Lapanin Solok “before he closed the book”. When I sat with Mela and spoke to him in person in Lae (January 4th, 2016), he expressed deep concern at the loss of the original Paluai language. Mela and I were discussing the passing of Ngi Sanewai, one of the revered singers of polpolot in original language. Mela looked me in the eye and said, with palpable remorse, “our libraries are closing down”. 18 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 ENDNOTES 1 Messner (1981, p.433) makes mention of the language of Baluan as ‘Ngola(m)banu okamo’. Not having encountered this name myself in Baluan, I wondered if this was perhaps a reference to the archaic form of Paluai. Having consulted further with the Paluai speaking community in Port Moresby, however, I am informed that the term actually means “another language”. REFERENCES Bosavi. Rainforest music from Papua New Guinea. (2001). Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies (Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, SFW CD 40487). 3 CD anthology. Bosavi: Rainforest music from Papua New Guinea. (n.d.) Smithsonian Folkways. http://www.folkways.si.edu/bosavi-rainforest-music-from-papua-new- guinea/world/album/smithsonian Dalsgaard, S. (2009). Claiming culture: New definitions and ownership of cultural practices in Manus Province, Papua New Guinea. The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, 10 (1), 20–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14442210802706889 Feld, S. (1988). Aesthetics as iconicity of style, or ‘Lift-up-over-Sounding’: Getting into the Kaluli Groove. Yearbook for Traditional Music, 20, 74–113. Lewis, A. D. (2012). Becoming a garamut player in Baluan Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea. (Doctoral dissertation). Sydney: Sydney Conservatorium of Music, University of Sydney. Lewis, T. (2014). Garamut (7). In The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments, ed. Laurence Libin. (Vol. 2, p. 394.) Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lewis, T. (2015). Taporak’s travels. Paths of transmission of a piece of music from a remote island repertoire. Journal of World Popular Music, 2(1), 42–63. doi:10.1558/jwpm.v2i1.27170 Lewis, T. (Forthcoming 2017). Becoming a garamut player in Baluan, Papua New Guinea: Musical analysis as a pathway to learning. SOAS Musicology Series. London: Routledge. Mead, M. (1934). Kinship in the Admiralty Islands. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 34 (2), 502 – 505. New York, NY: American Museum of Natural History. Messner, G. F. (1981). The two-part vocal style on Baluan Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea. Ethnomusicology, 25 (3), 433–446. Messner, G. F. (1998). Baluan. In The Garland Encyclopaedia of World Music: Australia and the Pacific Islands (Vol. 9, pp. 602–607). New York, NY: Garland. National Statistical Office. (2002). Papua New Guinea 2000 Census: Census Unit Register: Manus Province. Port Moresby: National Statistical Office. National Statistical Office. (2012). Preliminary figures. Papua New Guinea 2011 Census: Census unit register: Manus Province. Port Moresby: National Statistical Office. Niles, D. (1980). The traditional and contemporary music of the Admiralty Islands. (M.A. dissertation). Los Angeles: University of California. Niles, D. (2015). “Introduction: Foi Songs and the Performance, Publication, and Poetry of Papua New Guinea Sung Traditions.” Weiner, J. F., and D. Niles. Songs of the empty place: The memorial poetry of the Foi of the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea, pp.xv-xlix. Canberra: Australian National University Press. Ohnemus, S. (1998). An ethnology of the Admiralty Islanders. Bathurst: Crawford House Publishing. Tony Lewis 19 Otto, T. (1991). The politics of tradition in Baluan. Social change and the construction of the past in a Manus society. Nijmegen: Centre for Pacific Studies, University of Nijmegen. Otto, T. (1992a). The ways of kastam: Tradition as category and practice in a Manus village. Oceania 62, 264–83. Otto, T. (1992b). The Paliau movement in Manus and the objectification of tradition. History and Anthropology, 5(3-4), 427–454. Schokkin, G. H. (2014). A Grammar of Paluai: The language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea. (Doctoral dissertation). Cairns: James Cook University. Schwartz, T. (1958). The Paliau movement in the Admiralty Islands—1946 to 1954. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Pennsylvania. Schwartz, T. (1962). The Paliau movement in the Admiralty Islands, 1946-1954. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 49 (2), 211–421. BIOGRAPHY Tony Lewis is a Sydney-based musician, composer and academic. He creates and delivers lecture material on a broad range of musical topics for a number of Australian tertiary institutions. He completed his doctorate at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music, University of Sydney, through a musicological study of the garamut (log idiophone) music of Baluan Island. Apart from Baluan and Papua New Guinea, his research interests are broad, including African, Indian, Indonesian and Australian indigenous music. Tony has an abiding interest in music forms that exhibit considerable rhythmic complexity and in the analytical and cognitive challenges that they throw up. As a result, cognitive processes in musical learning, and the role of theory, notation and analysis in developing and shaping these cognitive processes, are high on his research agenda. E-mail: [email protected]

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 1 (2016)

music test, Item Response Theory (IRT), validation

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/136

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/813

The Validation of a Basic Knowledge Test of Music for the Cultural Arts Guidance Program (PBSB) in Malaysia Using the 2 Parameter Logistic (2PL) Model Item Response Theory

This study is drawn from a larger study on the effectiveness of the Cultural Arts Guidance Program (PBSB) in Malaysian schools. It is a joint programme between the Department of National Culture & Arts (JKKN) and the Ministry of Education Malaysia. The PBSB effectiveness study was conducted in 2013 to help JKKN improve the programme implementation and set forth the future direction of PBSB. The three most popular areas of cultural arts, namely dance, music and theatre were studied. Several assessment instruments were developed based on the objectives of PBSB and the modules used in the programme. This study focuses only on the development and re-validation of the basic knowledge test of music used in the PBSB effectiveness study. The present article discusses the background of PBSB, some important findings from the PBSB effectiveness study and the psychometric characteristics of the items in the test from the perspective of the Item Response Theory (IRT). The test of multiple-choice items was administered to 437 PBSB students in primary and secondary schools that were selected through stratified random sampling technique. Data from the study were re-analysed using IRT to further establish the reliability and validity of the test. Overall, the test was found to possess sound psychometric characteristics as reflected by the model fit, the item-person map, reliability and validity of ability estimates and the difficulty, discrimination and guessing parameters. The test can be used to complement the existing assessment systems in PBSB, but different tests should be developed for each module.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/813/549

20 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 The Validation of a Basic Knowledge Test of Music for the Cultural Arts Guidance Program (PBSB) in Malaysia Using the 2 Parameter Logistic (2PL) Model Item Response Theory Siti Eshah Mokshein¹, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon² and Brian Doig³ ¹Faculty of Education and Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris ²Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris ³Deakin University, Australia e-mail: [email protected]¹, [email protected]², [email protected]³ Abstract This study is drawn from a larger study on the effectiveness of the Cultural Arts Guidance Program (PBSB) in Malaysian schools. It is a joint programme between the Department of National Culture & Arts (JKKN) and the Ministry of Education Malaysia. The PBSB effectiveness study was conducted in 2013 to help JKKN improve the programme implementation and set forth the future direction of PBSB. The three most popular areas of cultural arts, namely dance, music and theatre were studied. Several assessment instruments were developed based on the objectives of PBSB and the modules used in the programme. This study focuses only on the development and re-validation of the basic knowledge test of music used in the PBSB effectiveness study. The present article discusses the background of PBSB, some important findings from the PBSB effectiveness study and the psychometric characteristics of the items in the test from the perspective of the Item Response Theory (IRT). The test of multiple- choice items was administered to 437 PBSB students in primary and secondary schools that were selected through stratified random sampling technique. Data from the study were re-analysed using IRT to further establish the reliability and validity of the test. Overall, the test was found to possess sound psychometric characteristics as reflected by the model fit, the item-person map, reliability and validity of ability estimates and the difficulty, discrimination and guessing parameters. The test can be used to complement the existing assessment systems in PBSB, but different tests should be developed for each module. Keywords music test, Item Response Theory (IRT), validation INTRODUCTION The Cultural Arts Guidance Program or PBSB is one of the core activities of the National Department of Art and Culture (JKKN), Malaysia. The PBSB was first introduced to several schools in 1996 as Kumpulan Tunas Budaya (KTB), focusing on dance. Following a Cabinet decision in March 2000 that the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism should assist the Ministry of Education (MOE) to promote the Culture & Art Clubs in schools, KTB underwent a rebranding exercise and expanded to more Siti Eshah Mokshein, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Brian Doig 21 schools. Major expansion involving more branches of art and culture, programme goals, and wider target population (primary and secondary schools) took place after a Cabinet decision in September 2006. The main objective of PBSB is to produce a society whose members can appreciate and practise cultural arts as part of their life. Cultural Arts Guidance Program (PBSB) The PBSB is a joint programme between JKKN and the Ministry of Education (coordinated by State Education Departments). The JKKN provides certified trainers, PBSB modules and pay trainers’ salaries. Schools provide students and teacher coordinator/advisors, prepare the schedule for PBSB training (4 hours per week) as well as provide space for activities. In 2013, 733 primary and secondary schools participated in PBSB in different areas. From the list of about 400 schools given by JKKN, it was determined that the most popular branches of cultural arts were dance (227), music (94) and theatre (224). Other branches of cultural arts such as traditional games, martial arts, visual arts and language art were popular only in very few schools. However, no comprehensive study was ever conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation of PBSB until 2013. Thus, a study on the effectiveness of the programme was carried out in 2013 to help the government, particularly JKKN, to further improve programme implementation and set forth the future direction of PBSB. PBSB Effectiveness Study The 2013 PBSB effectiveness study was aimed at determining how effective the implementation of PBSB in schools has been as well as to examine to what extent the students involved in PBSB demonstrated achievement in aspects of a) interest in art and culture b) level of basic knowledge and skills in cultural arts c) choice of future career and d) practice of good values. The overall aim of the 2013 study was to show if there was any significant difference between primary and secondary school students in the aspects of interest in art and culture, level of basic knowledge and skills in art and culture, choice of future career and practice of good values. The study population was all primary and secondary school students who participated in PBSB. The focus of study was on the three most popular cultural arts branches – dance, music and theatre (Siti Eshah Mokshein et al., 2015). The 2013 study used both quantitative and qualitative methods involving survey questionnaire (plus the basic knowledge test); observation of PBSB activities; and interviews with teacher advisors, PBSB trainers, parents and school administrators. For the survey, voluntary sampling technique was used. The PBSB teacher advisor or PBSB coach from each participating school was contacted by telephone and an online link of questionnaire using survey monkey was sent to them. The coach or teacher advisor then gave the link to his/her students in the PBSB group. He or she also helped the researchers to connect with three to five parents whose children participated in PBSB. Due to the low completion rate of the online survey after the first month, copies of survey questionnaires were mailed by post to the remaining schools. For the observation and interview, stratified random sampling technique was used. Thirty (30) schools were randomly chosen to represent all six zones in Malaysia – northern zone, eastern zone, central zone, southern zone, Sabah, and Sarawak. 22 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 Results of the PBSB effectiveness study showed that most schools that participated in PBSB were schools that traditionally have already been active in the specific areas of cultural arts such as music or dance. A few schools joined PBSB because of the interest of the school heads. Schools applied to JKKN through the State Education Department and JKKN then provided certified trainers to participating schools. Membership was opened to all students but limited to about twenty (20) students per group. Some schools, with high demands from their students, set academic excellence as a condition for membership. The PBSB teacher advisors were normally appointed by schools based on the former’s interest or talent. Four (4) hours a week were allocated either on Wednesday or Saturday for PBSB activities. Some schools were found to conduct their PBSB activities twice a week with two hours each session. The monitoring of PBSB implementation is mostly done by the schools (principal, senior assistants, or teacher advisor) and sometimes the JKKN. Students reported that they participated in PBSB mainly because they enjoyed PBSB activities (87.3%); some liked the interaction within the group (80.2%) while others because of their great interest in cultural arts (78.0%). It is interesting to note that similar responses came from both primary and secondary school students. Primary school students reported that the main motivators for their participation were their teachers (40%), parents (27%) and themselves (21%). The secondary school students reported the same, but the ranking and percentages differed slightly with teachers (30%) being the highest, followed by self (27%) and parents (20%). These percentages were obtained by dividing the number of respondents who checked on that particular item with the total number of respondents. On the question about choice of future career, about two-thirds of the students chose to have a career related to cultural arts (69.3%); to pursue their education in the field of cultural arts after school (61.9%); and to become an ordinary person who can appreciate cultural arts (62.9%), which was the main aim of the PBSB. In terms of basic knowledge in cultural arts, students appeared to possess reasonable basic knowledge in the three areas of cultural arts studied. Secondary school students performed significantly better in the basic knowledge tests of music, dance and theatre. The mean differences between the two groups were about three points for dance and theatre and 16 points for music. This suggests that primary and secondary school students possess a different level of basic knowledge test in cultural arts, especially in music. Results of a one-way analysis of variance are presented in Table 1. The effects of student participation on the development of their soft skills and personality are found to be most striking. Students reported that participation in PBSB has helped them gain basic knowledge and skills in cultural arts (89.1%); improved self- confidence (89.2%); improved self-discipline (83.5%); increased focus (80.2%); better communication skills (85.7%) and problem solving (80.4%). The PBSB also has taught them about teamwork (88.1%); sense of group belonging (84.9%) leadership (79%) and time management (77.7%). Overall, PBSB was well implemented in the participating primary and secondary schools. The PBSB objectives have been achieved based on its benefits to students, basic knowledge and skills gained and the invitations received by the groups to perform in numerous functions. Some students who have participated in PBSB pursue their studies in cultural arts at the tertiary level in the public higher education institutions such as Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Universiti Sains Malaysia Siti Eshah Mokshein, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Brian Doig 23 (USM) and the National Academy of Arts, Culture and Heritage (ASWARA). School administrators, teachers, parents and students agreed that participation in PBSB brings positive effects on students, especially in the development of personality, social skills, and inculcation of basic knowledge in cultural arts. Variation between schools exists in terms of their level of commitment to implement the programme successfully, which depends a lot on the initiatives of individual schools and the additional resources that they have. Table 1 Student Performance in Basic Knowledge Tests of Dance, Music and Theatre Field N Mean Score Std. Deviation Mean square F Sig. Theatre Primary school 155 56.56 13.89 1142.24 4.70 .031 Secondary school 286 59.93 16.44 243.15 Total 441 58.75 15.66 Music Primary school 192 43.23 20.64 25370.71 36.47 .000 Secondary school 216 59.03 30.58 695.62 Total 408 51.59 27.50 Dance Primary school 549 54.46 16.19 1267.63 5.02 .025 Secondary school 229 57.26 15.15 252.62 Total 778 55.29 15.93 Research Questions Even though the 2013 PBSB effectiveness study showed very encouraging results, the development and validation of the basic knowledge tests in dance, music, and theatre for PBSB was not given special emphasis due to the short time frame for completion of the study. Even though the test development followed the necessary procedures, data gathered was analysed in the light of classical test theory and detailed item analyses using more sophisticated tools were not performed on the data. Thus, this present study focuses on the development and revalidation of the basic knowledge test in music used in the PBSB study. This is important to ensure that the basic knowledge test administered was of high quality and psychometrically sound so that the results could be accepted with confidence. This study mainly involved the re-analysis of data gathered to further establish validity and reliability of the instrument using Item Response Theory (IRT). Specifically, the present study attempted to address the following questions: (i) Which IRT model fits the Basic Knowledge Test in Music for PBSB data best? (ii) How well is the Basic Knowledge Test in Music for PBSB in terms of item fit? 24 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 (iii) How is the distribution of students’ ability (θ) compared with the distribution of item difficulty (item-person map)? (iv) How good is the basic music knowledge test for PBSB in terms of item parameter estimates? TEST DEVELOPMENT The Basic Knowledge Test of Music for PBSB was developed based on PBSB modules, particularly Level 1 and 2. There were four music modules especially developed by JKKN to be used by trainers in the implementation of PBSB. Each module contains different materials, with Level 1 being the introductory level and Level 4 the more advanced level. Two major components of the modules are theory (which includes history and appreciation) and technical skills. The Level 4 Module, however, focuses only on the development of technical skills among the participants. Music Modules The theory component of Level 1 Music Module consists of two parts, namely the basic music theory and appreciation of music. The main objective of this component is to enable students to write musical notes clearly and differentiate note values accurately. It will also help students to understand the use of musical notes and musical terms and read simple rhythms. Course content covers writing staff, key signatures, rest signature, treble and bass clef, shape and note values, writing scales, formation of triad and simple musical terms. The musical appreciation component exposes students to classification of musical instruments, shapes, structures and concepts and ideas in songs. The history of the music of Malaysia is also being introduced. The main purpose is for students to understand and appreciate the aesthetic values of the traditional music of Malaysia and be able to differentiate traditional and modern music. Students will also be introduced to the function and roles of music in the context of dance, play, ensemble, vocal and instrumental music. Several types of songs introduced are traditional, ethnic, folk, and contemporary songs. The technical skills introduced in the Level 1 Music Module include playing ‘paluan kompang’, basic ‘paluan gendang muzik silat Kedah’, ‘paluan marwas, paluan rebana Melayu’, ‘cak lempong’ and basic ‘gamelan’. In the Level 2 Music Module, the basic technical skills learned in Level 1 Module are further developed. The Level 2 Music Module emphasises western music techniques as well as traditional musical rudiments. The objective is to enable students to write and differentiate note values accurately and understand the concept of intervals. Students will also be able to read simple rhythms fluently, write scales using correct musical notations and understand the use of dynamics, key signatures and musical terms. Course content covers bass clef, name and keys, form and compound notes, time signature 6/8, key signature of 1 to 3 flats and 1 to 3 sharps, major and minor scales, number notation, history and mnemonics of Malay drumming, timbre, musical intervals and triplet. Siti Eshah Mokshein, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Brian Doig 25 The Basic Knowledge Test of Music for PBSB is however, confined to only the basic music theory and not other aspects of the module due to time constraints of the study and differences in emphasis of implementation by different trainers. A two-day workshop on test development was conducted in the first week of April 2013 involving four groups of test developers focusing on different aspect of PBSB effectiveness study – music, dance, theatre, and survey questionnaire to gauge participants’ interest and choice of future career among others. Workshop participants were exposed to the study objectives and the PBSB modules. Three experts from the Music and Performing Arts Faculty, UPSI were invited to develop the music test. A table of content was prepared based on the modules to establish content validity and draft of items were then written to make the test. The draft of the test was brought back to the faculty to be further vetted and reviewed. Two weeks later, the draft of Basic Knowledge Test in Music for PBSB was presented to the research team and it was accepted with some recommendation. In May 2013, the research team then tried out the music test with 20 PBSB participants from a primary school in Batang Padang District, Perak to find out the suitability of language and terms used. The test was further refined based on the issues encountered by participants while attempting the questions and also the views of the trainer. The test was then finalised and used in the effectiveness study in July 2013. The internal consistency of the test as measured by Cronbach alpha was 0.884. However, further item analysis was not performed on data as the major focus of the PBSB effectiveness study was to determine the overall effects from various perspectives and the results were needed urgently. Therefore, this present study focuses on the item analysis and revalidation of the test using dichotomous Item Response Theory (IRT). Two files, namely data matrix file and data control file, were created from the dataset in SPSS format before 1PL, 2 PL and 3PL analyses were performed on the data using Xcalibre 4.2. Why Item Response Theory (IRT)? Even though the Classical Test Theory (CTT) is widely used by most educators at all levels, several issues regarding CTT may affect the precision of the measurement and subsequent analysis. Firstly, the number of correct responses or raw scores determines ability. In reality, a test represents only a sample of items measuring specific objectives. If different samples of items are administered, students will likely to obtain different scores each time. Secondly, test difficulty is dependent on the test takers. If a test is administered to different groups of people, different difficulty values will be obtained. The same test administered to high ability students for instance, will yield lower difficulty level compared with the test administered to low ability students. Thirdly, students obtaining similar scores are assumed to possess similar ability level, regardless of the difficulty of the items that they had answered correctly. Item difficulty is not taken into account in determining the ability of the person. Thus, in CCT, the difficulty of the test is dependent on the person’s ability and the ability of the person is dependent on the test difficulty. The Item Response Theory (IRT) addresses the issues highlighted above successfully. Unlike the Classical Test Theory, in which the test scores of the same examinees may vary from test to test depending on the test difficulty, item parameter calibration is sample-free while examinee proficiency estimation is item-independent in 26 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 IRT (Chong, 2013). The IRT expresses the relationship between an individual’s response to an item and the underlying latent trait, also called construct or ability or proficiency. It is a probabilistic model whereby the probability of a person getting a correct answer for a particular item is a function of his or her ability and item parameters (difficulty, discrimination, guessing etc.). The IRT is widely used in scoring tests and surveys and also in computer adaptive testing (CAT). The IRT scoring takes into account the item difficulty and discrimination. Items that are more discriminating, or more reliable, are weighted more heavily, making IRT scores more reliable than number-correct scores. If different examinees take different tests, the IRT scores adjust for the differences in difficulty (DeMars, 2010). Additionally, IRT can be used in test or scale development. The IRT analysis supplies indices of item difficulty and discrimination. Knowing the item difficulty is useful when building tests to match the trait levels of a target population. For example, the items on a fourth grade science test should not be so easy that the average fourth-grader answers nearly all the items correctly, nor should they be so difficult that the average student answers nearly all of them incorrectly. Similarly, an instrument intended to measure the wellbeing of a college population should not consist of items endorsed only by those with clinical depression. Another item index, discrimination, is useful for selecting items that differentiate well between examinees with low and high levels of the proficiency or attitude measured by the test items. Together, difficulty and discrimination can be used to calculate the standard error of measurement or reliability of the scores (ibid.). The units of the ability scale, called logits, typically range from -4 to 4. They represent the natural logarithm of the odds for success on the test items. For example, if a person succeeds on 80 per cent and fails on 20 per cent of the test items, the odds ratio for the success on the test is 4/1 = 4. Thus, the ability score of this person is the natural logarithm of 4 (or ln 4), which is 1.39 (Dimitrov & Shelestak, 2003). Hambleton, Swaminathan and Rogers (1991) stated that there are three IRT models commonly used for dichotomous items, namely the one-parameter logistic model (1PL model), the two-parameter logistic model (2 PL model) and the three parameter logistic model (3PL model), so named because of the number of item parameter each model incorporates. As the number of parameters in the model increases (for example, from 1 to 2 to 3), the model becomes more flexible and thus, can provide a more realistic reflection of how the expected response to each item is related to the underlying ability. The c parameter (or guessing parameter) is the probability of a candidate with very low ability to get a correct response on the item. DeMars (2010) argued that even someone who does not have knowledge about the subject has a chance to get a correct response in multiple choice items. Meyer & Shin-Zu (2013) stated that 3PL is the most common model for dichotomous items. The mathematical models for 1PL, 2PL and 3PL are shown in equations (1) – (3). 1PL: Pi (θ) = ci + (1- ci) [ 1 + e –Da (θ-bi)] -1 ................................................................ 2PL: Pi (θ) = ci + (1- ci) [ 1 + e –Da (θ-bi)] -1 ................................................................. 3PL: Pi (θ) = ci + (1- ci) [ 1 + e –Da (θ-bi)] -1 ------------------------------------------------- where; (1) (2) (3) Siti Eshah Mokshein, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Brian Doig 27 Pi (θ) = the probability that a candidate with ability theta (θ) will answer item i correctly, bi = difficulty parameter for item i; ai = discrimination parameter for item i (in 1PL a = constant), ci = guessing parameter for item i (in 1PL and 2PL models = constant) n = number of items in the test D = scale factor (D=1.72) Two important assumptions in IRT are unidimensionality and local independence. Unidimensionality means that only one single latent factor is measured (ability/ proficiency), whereas local independence means that individual response on an item does not depend on his/ her response on other items. Local independence will be obtained if unidimensionality is met (Lord, 1980; Lord & Novick, 1968 in Hambleton et al., 1991). Thus, exploratory factor analysis using SPSS was performed on the music data in this present study to test whether the use of IRT analysis was appropriate for the data. Unidimensionality assumption also means that for a set of items in a test, each person has only one theta value. Three factors were extracted in the exploratory factor analysis on the data with factor 1 contributing to 32.9% to the total variance explained. This is sufficient as according to Reckase (1979), more than 20% variance explained is needed for accurate estimation (Reckase, 1979). The number of component extracted and variance explained are shown in Table 2. Table 2 Components extracted and total variance explained for the Basic Knowledge Test of Music for PBSB (BKToM-PBSB) Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % 1 4.606 32.901 32.901 4.606 32.901 32.901 2 1.609 11.492 44.393 1.609 11.492 44.393 3 1.150 8.216 52.609 1.150 8.216 52.609 4 .947 6.764 59.373 5 .922 6.586 65.959 6 .780 5.571 71.530 7 .603 4.306 80.706 8 .571 4.077 84.783 9 .509 3.635 88.418 10 .476 3.402 91.819 11 .458 3.274 95.094 12 .379 2.710 97.804 13 .307 2.196 100.000 28 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 Analysis of scree plot shows a big jump, indicating that possibly there is only one dominant factor present in the test (de Ayala & Hertzog, 1991). Thus, the unidimensionality and local independence are assumed and IRT analyses can be performed on the music data. The scree plot obtained for the music data is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 Scree plot of EFA for the Basic Knowledge Test of Music for PBSB RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Which Item Response Theory Model? All the three parameter logistic models (1PL, 2PL and 3 PL) have the potential to be used for the multiple choice test of Basic Knowledge in Music for PBSB. Which model is most appropriate for the data, however, depends on several considerations such as overall fit, comparison of -2*log likelihood (Thissen, 1991), graphical representation of fit (Hambleton & Swaminathan, 1985) and distribution of chi-square statistics, z- residual and other parameters (such as difficulty parameter, b and discrimination parameter, a). The Xcalibre outputs from the three models as shown by the overall fit, parameters and theta estimates, -2*log likelihood (-2LL), and graphical representation of fit suggest that the two-parameter model (2PL) is the best model for the music data. The 2PL model yielded the lowest -2LL and chi-square values. It also produced the most stable distribution of theta estimates. In terms of item misfit, both 2PL and 3PL models produced one item misfit (Item 3), whereas the 1PL model yielded six item misfit (Items 1-3; and 9, 10, 13). Further analysis showed that these are easiest (Items 1- 3) and hardest items (9, 10, 13). Details of the output are presented in Table 3. Siti Eshah Mokshein, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Brian Doig 29 Table 3 Comparison of output for 1PL, 2PL and 3PL models a) Overall Model Fit Model Item Chi-square df p -2LL 1PL 14 1033.208 196 0.00 6165 2PL 14 567.386 182 0.00 5557 3PL 14 581.209 168 0.00 5994 b) Mean and SE for Theta and Item parameters Model Parameter Mean SD Min Max 1PL Theta 0.072 1.094 -2.120 2.126 b 0.00 1.00 -1.675 1.849 2PL 3PL Theta 0.00 1.00 -7.000 7.000 b -0.021 0.455 -0.793 0.844 a Theta b a c 1.016 0.024 0.552 2.068 0.240 0.417 1.026 0.635 0.691 0.024 0.512 -1.400 -0.275 1.000 0.208 1.846 1.830 1.577 3.238 0.292 c) Item Misfit Model No of Items Item Flag 1PL 6 1, 2, 3, 9,10,13 F (Easiest and hardest items) 2PL 1 3 F 3PL 1 3 F The 2PL and 3PL model output also showed similarities in the pattern of item parameters. Even though the values differ, the order of item difficulty and item discrimination holds the same for both models. Thus, the Item Characteristic Curves (ICC’s) of the most discriminating item and the hardest item of 2PL and 3PL models were explored to demonstrate the graphical representation of goodness-of-fit between the two models. The ICCs for the items are shown in Figures 2 and 3. The ICC’s of the two items (Items 2 and 9) showed that the 2PL model fit the music data better compared with the 3PL model. Similarly, examination of test information function (TIF) of both models also showed that more information is yielded from the 2PL model (Figure 4). Accordingly, the cumulative standard error of measurement (CSEM), an inverted function of the TIF, which estimates the amount of error in theta estimation for each level of theta was smaller for 2PL model. Thus, 2PL model fits the Basic Knowledge Test of Music for PBSB (BKToM-PBSB) the best. 30 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 2PL Model 3PL Model Figure 2 ICCs of the most discriminating item 2PL Model 3PL Model Figure 3 ICCs of the hardest item Figure 4 Test information function (TIF) of the BKToM-PBSB Theta and Item Parameter Estimates Analysis of 2PL model showed that the theta estimates of the 437 PBSB students range from -7 to +7.0 with the mean 0.00 and standard deviation equals 1.0 (Table 4). Theta estimates for all calibrated items are represented in Figure 5. 2PL 3PL Siti Eshah Mokshein, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Brian Doig 31 Table 4 Summary statistics for the theta estimates Test Examinees Mean SD Skew Min Q1 Median Q3 Max Full Test 437 0.000 1.000 0.587 -7.000 -0.721 -0.196 0.750 7.000 Figure 5 Theta estimates for all calibrated items The mean for the difficulty parameter of the items, b, was -0.021, slightly lower than the mean ability. The mean discrimination parameter for the items, a, was 1.016 (Table 5). Table 5 Summary statistics for all calibrated items Parameter Items Mean SD Min Max a 14 1.016 0.417 0.512 1.846 b 14 -0.021 0.465 -0.793 0.844 Item ID P R a b Flag(s) 1 0.691 0.413 0.801 -0.793 2 0.606 0.613 1.635 -0.365 3 0.595 0.632 1.846 -0.330 F 4 0.506 0.432 0.840 -0.056 5 0.556 0.637 1.582 -0.224 6 0.554 0.511 1.055 -0.220 7 0.616 0.517 1.142 -0.419 8 0.446 0.587 1.194 0.121 9 0.307 0.366 0.678 0.844 10 0.373 0.255 0.512 0.654 11 0.414 0.493 0.859 0.287 12 0.458 0.464 0.789 0.133 13 0.398 0.280 0.541 0.494 14 0.596 0.407 0.758 -0.414 32 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 Item-person map The item-person map shows the distribution of item difficulty and persons’ ability on the same scale. The map shows that the test difficulty matches the ability of most of the students. However, the test cannot provide any information about the very low ability students (theta below -0.8) and the very high ability students (theta above 1.6) in music (Figure 6). Figure 6 Item-person map The test also shows differential item functioning (DIF) as demonstrated in the subgroup statistics (Table 6). The mean theta for secondary school students was much higher (0.261) compared with the mean theta of primary school students (-0.275). Detailed examination of the items did not suggest any element of bias in the questions. Thus, the different group means could be due to the differences in the level of basic music knowledge possessed by the two groups of students. Table 6 Subgroup statistics for the full test Subgroup Examinees Mean Theta SD Theta primary 201 -0.275 0.686 secondary 212 0.261 1.169 DISCUSSION Results of the analyses showed that all the items in the Basic Knowledge Test of Music for PBSB possess good psychometric characteristics except for Item 3 which has a ‘F’ flag, indicating that this item did not fit the model. Further examination of the item- person maps, however, did not show much difference whether or not Item 3 is included (Figure 7). Siti Eshah Mokshein, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Brian Doig 33 Full test of 14 Items Test with Item 3 deleted Figure 7 Comparison of item-person maps Comparison of item parameters with and without Item 3 included also did not show much difference (Table 7). In addition, Item 3 showed to have acceptable values of difficulty (b) and discrimination (a) parameters. Furthermore, the difficulty and discrimination parameters of the items also did not differ much whether or not Item 3 was included. This indicates that the exclusion of Item 3 did not improve the precision of the parameter estimates. In addition to the above, the Item Characteristic Curves (ICC) of Item 3 was compared with the ICCs of several other items such as Item 2, Item 6 and Item 7. The ICC of Item 3 is quite similar to that of Item 3 (Figure 8). Table 7 Comparison of item parameters with and without Item 3 included 2PL 14 Items 2PL 13 Items Item ID P R a b P R A b 1 0.691 0.413 0.801 -0.793 0.691 0.413 0.837 -0.765 2 0.606 0.613 1.635 -0.365 0.606 0.576 1.414 -0.362 3 0.595 0.632 1.846 -0.330 4 0.506 0.432 0.840 -0.056 0.506 0.412 0.778 -0.045 5 0.556 0.637 1.582 -0.224 0.556 0.623 1.617 -0.214 6 0.554 0.511 1.055 -0.220 0.554 0.492 1.025 -0.212 7 0.616 0.517 1.142 -0.419 0.616 0.499 1.127 -0.410 8 0.446 0.587 1.194 0.121 0.446 0.578 1.196 0.130 9 0.307 0.366 0.678 0.844 0.307 0.372 0.699 0.837 10 0.373 0.255 0.512 0.654 0.373 0.259 0.517 0.659 11 0.414 0.493 0.859 0.287 0.414 0.503 0.895 0.287 12 0.458 0.464 0.789 0.133 0.458 0.472 0.823 0.137 13 0.398 0.280 0.541 0.494 0.398 0.277 0.546 0.500 14 0.596 0.407 0.758 -0.414 0.596 0.408 0.792 -0.396 34 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 Figure 8 Comparison of Item 3’s ICC with ICCs of other items Since the parameter estimates of Item 3 were found to be sound, the ICC of the item looked similar to ICC of other items that fit the model and the exclusion of the item did not improve the precision of TIF and parameter estimates of other items. As the test contained limited number of items, the researchers decided to include Item 3 in the test. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The Basic Knowledge Test of Music for PBSB (BKToM-PBSB) was found to possess good psychometric characteristics as reflected by the model fit, the item-person map, reliability and validity of ability estimates, and the difficulty and discrimination parameters. The item-person map showed major overlap between the item difficulty and the students’ ability, indicating that for most students, the test difficulty matched their ability. However, the test was too difficult for very low ability students and too easy for the advanced level group in terms of basic music knowledge. This was anticipated as students who participated in the study were expected to possess different levels of music knowledge depending on the level of modules that they have completed. The means ability for the two sub-groups (primary and secondary school students) were noticeably different, with that of primary school students being lower than the secondary school students. Since no elements of bias could be detected in the items, this suggests that most students in primary school were at lower-level module while their counterparts in secondary schools were mostly at more advanced level during the time of the test. It is Siti Eshah Mokshein, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon & Brian Doig 35 recommended that different tests be developed for different levels of modules that the students undertake if BKToM-PBSB is to be used to complement the existing PBSB assessment systems. Currently, some forms of assessments are conducted by the individual trainers at the end of each level but the uniformity of the assessment is not known and the results are not readily accessible, causing nationwide evaluation very difficult. REFERENCES Chong, H. Y. (2013). A simple guide to the Item Response Theory (IRT) and Rasch modeling. Retrieved from http://www.creative-wisdom.com/computer/sas/IRT.pdf, downloaded on 2 March 2015. de Ayala, R. J., & Hertzog, M. A. (1991). The assessment of dimensionality for use in item response theory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26, 765-792. DeMars, C. (2010). Item Response Theory: Understanding statistic measurement. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. Dimitrov, D. M., & Shelestak, D. (2003). Psychometric analysis of performance on categories of client needs and nursing process With the NLN Diagnostic. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 11 (3), 207-223. Hambleton, R. K., Swaminathan, H., & Rogers, H. J. (1991). Fundamentals of Item Response Theory. USA: Sage Publications, Inc. Hambleton, R. K., & Swaminathan, H. (1985). Item Response Theory: Principles and applications. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff. Lord, F. M. (1980). Application of Item Response Theory to practical testing problem. Hillsdale, New Jersey: L Erlbaum Associates. Lord, F. M., & Novick, M. R. (1968). Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. Meyer, P. J., & Shi-Zhu. (2013). Fair and equitable measurement of student Learning in MOOCs: An introduction to Item Response Theory, scale linking, and score equating. Research & Practice in Assessment, 8, 26-39. Reckase, M. D. (1979). Unifactor latent trait models applied to multi-factor tests: Results and implications. Journal of Educational Statistics, 4, 207-230. Siti Eshah Mokshein et. al. (2015). Penilaian keberkesanan program bimbingan seni budaya (PBSB) di sekolah-sekolah Malaysia [Evaluation of the effectiveness of the cultural arts program (PBSB) in Malaysian schools]. Malaysia: UPSI Publisher. Thissen, D. (1991). MULTILOG user’s guide: Multiple, Categorical item analysis and test scoring using item response theory. Chicago: Scientific Software. BIOGRAPHY Siti Eshah Mokshein is an associate professor (Educational Measurement & Evaluation) in the Faculty of Education, Sultan Idris Education University since 2008. Prior to joining the university, she spent many years of her career in the Ministry of Education Malaysia serving the Federal School Inspectorate and the Educational Policy Planning and Research Division. She obtained her PhD in Education from the University of Iowa, USA. Email: [email protected] 36 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon is an associate professor of Music Education at the Sultan Idris Education University (UPSI), Tanjong Malim, Malaysia, where he teaches in music education and marching band techniques. Zaharul currently serves as the Dean of the Faculty of Music and Performing Arts at the university. He received his undergraduate degree in music education at Southern Illinois University, and his master’s degree from University of Houston, Texas. Zaharul is the founding member of the Malaysia Band Association and the Malaysian Association for Music Education. Email: [email protected] Brian Doig is a senior lecturer in the Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University, Australia. He is an experienced survey developer and analyst. He has been involved in international assessment studies, such as TIMSS and PISA. His research interest include the use of the Rausch model for the analysis of ordinal data form surveys and interviews. Email: [email protected]

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 1 (2016)

Carnatic, Music Education, mridangam, konnakkol, solkattu, tala

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/136

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/814

South Indian Konnakkol in Western Musicianship Teaching

Konnakkol (or South Indian vocal percussion) is an important part of the classical music curriculum in South India. In that tradition, every music student (instrumentalists and vocalists alike) must be familiar with its concepts and theory. The unique aspect of this pedagogical tool is that it is also a performance medium on its own. Classical concerts in India have featured a konnakkol soloist performing a vocal percussion solo in the same way that a jazz concert may feature a drum solo. As a student of mridangam (the predominant percussion instrument in South Indian or Carnatic music), I have discovered that the rhythmic ideas of konnakkol are very relevant for a global music curriculum and have used these ideas in my teaching of Western musicianship at the Yong Siew Toh Conservatory (National University of Singapore). Although there have been books published specifically about konnakkol as a South Indian art, there has not been much written about how this art could be applied in the teaching of Western music. In this article, I will introduce the basic syllables of konnakkol to those without prior exposure to this art form and describe how konnakkol can be used in teaching Western musicianship. I will also explain how I have taught it as a memory aid for musical score study and as an improvisational device. The exercises I have used in my classroom teaching are based on traditional Carnatic practiceI inherited from my teachers; while the use of konnakkol in score study is part of my ongoing research and experimentation. Konnakkol is appealing in its beauty and allows students to express their musical rhythms in performance tempo (even when it is very fast). This relates directly to how music is felt internally by a performer and is precisely why it is of great use in Western music education.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/814/550

Tony Teck Kay Makarome 37 South Indian Konnakkol in Western Musicianship Teaching Tony Teck Kay Makarome Yong Siew Toh Conservatory of Music, National University of Singapore e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Konnakkol (or South Indian vocal percussion) is an important part of the classical music curriculum in South India. In that tradition, every music student (instrumentalists and vocalists alike) must be familiar with its concepts and theory. The unique aspect of this pedagogical tool is that it is also a performance medium on its own. Classical concerts in India have featured a konnakkol soloist performing a vocal percussion solo in the same way that a jazz concert may feature a drum solo. As a student of mridangam (the predominant percussion instrument in South Indian or Carnatic music), I have discovered that the rhythmic ideas of konnakkol are very relevant for a global music curriculum and have used these ideas in my teaching of Western musicianship at the Yong Siew Toh Conservatory (National University of Singapore). Although there have been books published specifically about konnakkol as a South Indian art, there has not been much written about how this art could be applied in the teaching of Western music. In this article, I will introduce the basic syllables of konnakkol to those without prior exposure to this art form and describe how konnakkol can be used in teaching Western musicianship. I will also explain how I have taught it as a memory aid for musical score study and as an improvisational device. The exercises I have used in my classroom teaching are based on traditional Carnatic practiceI inherited from my teachers; while the use of konnakkol in score study is part of my ongoing research and experimentation. Konnakkol is appealing in its beauty and allows students to express their musical rhythms in performance tempo (even when it is very fast). This relates directly to how music is felt internally by a performer and is precisely why it is of great use in Western music education. Keywords Carnatic, Music Education, mridangam, konnakkol, solkattu, tala INSPIRED BY CARNATIC PERCUSSION Growing up in Asia, the classical rhythmic language of Carnatic music from South India always attracted me and I started to take lessons on the mridangam about six years ago from Mr. T.R. Sundaresan of the Singapore Indian Fine Arts Society. My current teacher is Mr. ChettitharaveetilHaridasSreekanth (the resident mridangam tutor at the Singapore Indian Fine Arts Society). Being trained as an orchestra conductor and jazz musician, I had originally expected to merely learn a new way to count rhythmic subdivisions as well as pick up an interesting percussion instrument. I had no idea that I would encounter a new way of thinking about Western music and the teaching of musicianship. 38 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (37-52) ISSN 2232-1020 The rhythmic concepts in Carnatic music have been described in English by musicologist Pichu Sambamoorthy in the 1950s (Sambamoorthy, 1954) but this text is difficult to obtain outside of Asia. Meanwhile, legendary stalwarts like Trichy Sankaran and T.V. Gopalakrishnan have written books in English about the art of playing mridangam for a Western audience (Sankaran, 1994; Gopalakrishnan, 2007). Umayalpuram K. Sivaraman also recorded a seven DVD set on the subject (in English). Although Konnakkol and Solkattu (rhythmic words) appear in these documents as tools used in the teaching of mridangam, only a few sources (Nelson, 2008)(Sankaran, 2009) and (Abstract Logix, 2007) are available in English that are dedicated to the art of konnakkol as a main subject. However, these documents focus on teaching konnakkol as it is used in Carnatic music. Thus, the rhythmic motifs shown are eventually combined into compositional forms such as koraippu, mora, and korvai (Sankaran, 1994). Please note that the anglicised spellings to refer to Carnatic musical terms come from Trichy Sankaran (Sankaran 1994, 2009) and may differ with other authors. The preference is personal and is due to my admiration for the maestro. Initially, it appeared that Hoffman (1996) had already employed this approach in teaching Western music when he created a method of rhythmic pedagogy called the Takadimi System in the United States. Although he acknowledged that the syllables he used resembled North Indian tabla syllables, he saw his system as an improvement of the old French Time-Names system from the 19th century rather than a method borrowed from Indian music. He described his method as ‘beat-oriented’. In simple time (when beats are subdivided into two or four), the syllable, Ta, is used for the beginning (or attack) of the beat and, Di, is used for the middle of the beat. Hence, Takadimi represented four subdivisions of a beat where Ta is the first unit, Ka is the second, Di the third (or middle), and Mi the fourth unit. In compound time, Ta is again used for the attack of the beat while Ki and Da are the subdivisions (Ta-Ki-Da making up the three subdivisions in compound time). This system also included specific syllables when dealing with quintuplets and septuplets. Like similar ‘beat-oriented’ systems used in Western music pedagogy, the Takadimi System used specific syllables for specific positions of subdivisions in relation to the beat. So the Ta syllable will always represent the attack (or beginning) of the beat. Despite similarities between the syllables used by Hoffman and those found in Carnatic music, the Takadimi System could be considereda more sophisticated version of other similar ‘beat-oriented’ systems used in Western music teaching rather than a system similar to konnakkol. In my opinion, konnakkol is a more flexible system. It is more than a system of syllables used to represent subdivisions of beats (although this is an important component). It includes beat displacement and other musical (or rhythmic) manipulations that shift the accents to off beats. The freedom to keep the same syllabic grouping even when the motif starts on the offbeat can allow for a better understanding of musical situations where similar or exact motifs do not start on the same part of the beat. This freedom makes connections between different points in the music clearer and mirrors what happens in improvisation. In this system, we are also allowed to use varying combinations to represent the same rhythmic grouping. For example, 8 subdivisions may be represented as 4 + 4 or 5 + 3 or 2 + 6, etc. This encourages more musical variety and breathes life into what is normally a theoretical/mathematical situation. These features have prompted me to find ways of incorporating such a fluid system into my musicianship classes. Lockett (2008), a renowned percussionist, has Tony Teck Kay Makarome 39 introduced konnakkol methods into drumset playing. Several prominent jazz drummers (such as Steve Smith) have also demonstrated konnakol in their performances and teaching. However, I have managed to find ways to use the system in score study as well as the more natural usage in beat subdivision, groupings and polyrhythm. Konnakkol is an ancient system with a deep theoretical tradition. My desire was to borrow or tweak ideas and concepts from this system in order to facilitate the development of musicianship skills in my students. METHODOLOGY This paper is a product of the musicianship module I taught at Yong Siew Toh Conservatory. I was fortunate to have had great teachers who mentored me through modelling (Sang, 1987). My mridangam teachers studied their art through a Gurukula tradition (Pisharody, 1987). At a young age, students were sent to live with their teachers for the sole purpose of studying the art of playing mridangam. The teaching was done through oral tradition (which could be another form of “mentoring through modeling”). My teaching methodology may be described as task and performance modelling. The first class meeting with the students is spent on explaining the tasks students would need to complete during each half of the semester. The tasks consist of rhythm drills, singing drills, score reading exercises and sight-reading. After that, the class turns into a tutorial-style setting where I demonstrate and practise the required tasks with them. At times, the atmosphere would resemble an ensemble rehearsal where the conductor (teacher) teaches the students on the proper music performance (the tasks). The conclusions I reach in this article are based on student online feedback about the class (and materials), and my assessments of each student at the beginning and end of the module. Overall, the response and feedback from my students have been very positive. RHYTHMIC CONCEPTS FROM SOUTH INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC Konnakkol and Solkattu Konnakkol and solkattu are terms used to describe the rhythmic syllables employed in South Indian classical music (also called Carnatic music) to vocalise rhythmic patterns in songs or improvisations. The idea is to use syllables or words to represent percussive sounds in a similar way that Do-Re-Mi syllables are used to represent melodic notes in Western music. The syllables used in rhythmic vocalisation come from their traditional association with different sounds produced on the mridangam (shown in Figure 1). 40 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (37-52) ISSN 2232-1020 Figure 1 The mridangam The different sounds produced on the mridangam (the main percussion instrument of Carnatic music) are represented by syllables. These sounds are produced either by a finger or part of the hand striking a specific part of the drum. The sounds may also be created by a combination of left and right hand striking the drum simultaneously. For example, the sound produced by the full left hand striking the left drum head would be called Tha; while three right hand fingers striking the centre of the right drum head (where the dark circle is) would be called Di. The four syllables Ta, Ka, Di and Mi each correspond to a specific set of drum fingerings but may also be used to represent four subdivisions of a single beat or pulse. The syllables may becombined into one word: Takadimi. We can then use this word to represent four semiquavers. In common time (4/4), four such sets of semiquavers would be vocalised as: Takadimi, Takadimi, Takadimi, Takadimi. Over the course of my studies, I have learned that Takadina or Tarikita or Kitataka or other such rhythmic words may also be used to represent such a grouping of four. The choice of which rhythmic word to use depends on the related fingerings on the mridangam but is also governed by musical requirements of a specific piece of music (giving the performer a variety of syllabic colours). This is especially true when it comes to vocal music or music of other instruments such as veena or Carnatic flute. Other examples of commonly used rhythmic words are Takita (three syllables: Ta-ki-ta) for a grouping of three and Tadikitadoom (five syllables: Ta-di-ki-ta-doom) for a grouping of five. Although this method of employing rhythmic syllables is used to teach rhythm, konnakkol is unique in that it is also used as a performance medium in and of itself. Therefore it is common to see konnakkol artists performing vocal percussion solos in a classical concert. I can relate to this idea as a jazz musician because it is similar to what jazz singers do when they sing scat (and mimic musical instruments). Solkattu and the rhythmic subdivisions they represent This is a good time to differentiate between the terms solkattu and konnakkol. Solkattu refers to the words that represent rhythmic sounds while konnakkol refers to the performance practice of using solkattu to create combinations of phrases and larger structures. Using jazz scat singing as an analogy, Solkattu would represent a short melodic motif (for example a word like ‘Shoobydoo’) while konnakkol would represent the act of using that short motif in musical compositions or improvisations (for example Tony Teck Kay Makarome 41 singing ‘Shooby-dooby-doo-dah-doo’ and so on). Even so, the two terms (konnakkol and solkattu) are often confused and used interchangeably by teachers and practitioners, although it is more common to see konnakkol used to refer to solkattu (rather than the other way around). The following is a list of solkattu words and the number groupings they represent (Sankaran, 2009): Ta = 1 Taka = 2 Takita = 3 Takadimi = 4 Taka-Takita = 5 (2 + 3) Taka-Takadimi = 6 (2 + 4) Takita-Takadimi = 7 (3 + 4) Takadimi-Takajonu = 8 (4 + 4) Takadimi-Taka-Takita = 9 (4 + 5) This is the most basic version of these Solkattu groupings that is taught to Carnatic music students. As you can see, after the rhythm words for 1, 2, 3, and 4, namely Ta, Taka, Takita and Takadimi, the following numbers may be created from combinations of these four basic Solkattu words. 5 is a combination of 2 and 3, and recited as Taka-Takita; 6 is a combination of 2 and 4, and recited as Taka-Takadimi; and 7 is a combination of 3 and 4, and recited as Takita-Takadimi. It is helpful to note that 8 is Takadimi-Takajonu. A new word for 4 (Takajonu) is added to the regular Takadimi so that the whole combination is heard as 8. If we merely recited Takadimi twice, it is easy to lose track of the grouping of 8 when we need to repeat the grouping many times. For example, if we recited TakadimiTakadimiTakadimiTakadimiTakadimiTakadimi over and over, it will end up sounding like groupings of 4; whereas when we recite many sets of Takadimi-Takajonu, we will be able to hear them as units of 8. Try saying this really fast to yourself and you will see the logic of using Takadimi-Takajonu. In practice, it is rare to teach these number groupings as a separate theoretical concept as Carnatic music students often learn these solkattu number groupings as part of their instrumental (or vocal) curriculum. Western music students, however, may find this way of presenting the groupings (as a list) helpful since they often think of rhythm as being grouped by beat or pulse. Phrase structures and groupings South Indian classical music has a rather comprehensive theory relating tothe time cycle. Its term for the time cycle is Tala and is akin to theWestern concept of time signatures. For example one of its 175 SaptaTalas is a 4 beat time cycle called ChaturasraJathiEkaTala. This means that a song set in this tala, has a 4 beat cycle that keeps repeating (in the same way that Western music has a 4/4 time signature). In a Carnatic music performance, you will often see the time cycle (or Tala) indicated through a series of finger counts and claps. Where a Carnatic musician differs from a 42 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (37-52) ISSN 2232-1020 Western musician is in the way he or she relates to the time cycle and its corresponding beats. The following musical fragment will help to illustrate the difference. Figure 2 A rhythmic fragment As a Western musician (relating to the beats of each bar), I tend to count the syncopated rhythm above as: One, Two And, Three, Four | One, Two, Three, Four (where the italicised words correspond to where I would play the notes). A Carnatic musician would interpret the rhythm as groupings of numbers. In this example, he or she would think in terms of quaver subdivisions and group the rhythm as 3 + 3 + 4 + 2 + 4 (quavers). Then he or she would vocalise the rhythmic phrase as: TakitaTakitaTakadimi Taka Takadimi (and play the notes at each "Ta" syllable). Using the Carnatic musician's approach, a performer would think less of each bar line and interpret the music in phrases. As a Western musician, I may think of a certain musical phrase as consisting of four bars of 4/4 time while a Carnatic musician would think of the same four bars as 32 subdivisions of quavers that may be combined in different ways. In a way, this is akin to the Western concept of additive rhythm and allows a performer to feel music in a linear manner rather than measure-by-measure. TEACHING MUSICIANSHIP WITH KONNAKKOL The main goal of musicianship is to teach our students to hear and feel music internally. These apply to melodies, harmonic structures, and rhythmic variations. Often, a solid sense of rhythm involves the ability to feel subdivisions of beats over a steady pulse. For this reason, all the drills are to be performed from memory because this allows the student to feel how the syllables relate to the main pulse without the distraction of having to read notation. Also, I have found that students are able to apply these skills to musical situations more easily if the drills are committed to memory. All the drills I use in class have come from my mridangam teachers in some form or other (especially Mr. T. R. Sundaresan and Mr. R. Karthikeyan). Feeling the rhythm inside you As mentioned above, the feeling of rhythmic subdivisions is an important habit for musicians to acquire. The following are two drills (from many) I have used in class to help students to achieve this internal feeling of subdivisions: First, a metronome is set at crochet equals 60. The student then recites the Solkattu groupings of 1 through 9, repeating each 4 times. In other words they will recite: Ta TaTaTa, Taka TakaTakaTaka, etc. This allows the student to feel how each beat or pulse is subdivided. Western music may have equivalents for groupings of 3 or 4 but not usually for 5, 7, or 9. Although this concept is from Carnatic music, a mridangam teacher would not ask his student to merely recite subdivisions for their Tony Teck Kay Makarome 43 own sakesince these groupings are used to create longer phrases for performing on the drum. In Western music, training a student to feel precise subdivisions internally is an important feature of rhythmic training. Over the years, many students have given positive feedback about being able to learn how to sense quintuplets and septuplets using this method. An additional tweak I added was to require the students to perform the same exercise in quavers. In other words, the metronome would be set at quaver equals 90 and each grouping is performed over two clicks (with the student clapping along with the metronome). Ta would receive two metronome clicks per syllable, Taka would receive one click for each syllable, and so on. Even though the tempo is slightly slower at the crochet level, the real challenge comes when the student needs to clap twice against the odd number groupings. The effect being 3 against 2, 5 against 2, or 7 against 2. Some simple polyrhythms. This drill is unique for its application in Western music study because a Carnatic musician would not employ 5 or 7 against 2 in this manner. This information comes from my current mridangam teacher. The second drill is performed in triplet subdivision. In other words, each measure in common time contains 4 sets of quaver triplets (as shown in Figure 3). Figure 3 Triplets in common time The metronome marking is a crochet equals 55 and the student has to recite continuously a grouping of 8 subdivisions (Takadimi-Takajonu) for two measures in three different speeds (each time doubling the speed of the syllables). At the first speed, each crochet has three syllables associated with it (as shown in Figure 4): Figure 4 Three syllables per crochet Here, the grouping of Takadimi-Takajonu is recited 3 times over the 2 measures. Next, the student recites the grouping twice as fast and each crochet will now have six syllables associated with it, as follows (only 1 measure is shown in Figure 5 due to spacing considerations): 44 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (37-52) ISSN 2232-1020 Figure 5 Six syllables per crochet Here, the grouping of Takadimi-Takajonu is recited 6 times over the 2 measures. Next, the student recites the grouping twice as fast again and each crochet will now have 12 syllables associated with it, as follows (again only 1 measure is shown in Figure 6): Figure 6 Twelve syllables per crochet Here, the grouping of Takadimi-Takajonu is recited 12 times over the 2 measures. The purpose of this exercise is to reinforce a student's internal feeling of the crochet pulse and the triplet subdivision. The changing rate of syllabic vocalisation ensures an overall security of tempo through diligent practice. This exercise is one that Mr. Sundaresan taught me and is based on the concept of trikalam (Sankaran, 2009) where a short phrase of syllables are repeated twice as fast, then four times as fast. Groupings and syncopation As mentioned above, rhythmic motifs such as in Figure 7 may be reinterpreted as groupings of quavers. Figure 7 Syncopated rhythmic fragment In this case, it is 3 + 3 + 4 + 2 + 4. With solkattu syllables, this is recited as TakitaTakitaTakadimi Taka Takadimi. When reciting while clapping the crochet beats along with a metronome, even young children are able to understand the idea that syncopations involve accents that do not conform to the crochet beats. In my classroom teaching, I have developed several drills that use solkattu groupings to teach the student to feel syncopations. One set of these drills involves reciting the solkattu at varying rates of sustain. The example below shows where the word Takita is recited with each syllable 3 semiquavers long, then 2 semiquavers, then 1 semiquaver; while Takadimi is recited with each syllable 2 semiquavers long, then 1 semiquaver, then half a semiquaver (as shown in Figure 8): Tony Teck Kay Makarome 45 Figure 8 Exercise with varying lengths of syllables Note the complex looking syncopations that have been created because we recited the solkattu words at various rates. Since there are 6 distinct parts to this drill (i.e. a slow speed Takita, a medium speed Takita, a fast speed Takita, a slow speed Takadimi, a medium speed Takadimi, and a fast speed Takadimi), it is possible to permutate 216 different drills from the original drill. This gives us quite an exhaustive set of drills designed to introduce many different syncopation situations. This method allows the student to perform some interesting and difficult rhythmic combinations in a simple way. Meanwhile, later analysis and visual connections with the written notation will strengthen the student's ability to sight-read similar patterns in the future. Groupings and polyrhythms Another wonderful use of solkattu groupings is in the teaching of polyrhythms. I will now explain how to teach a student to feel the polyrhythm of 3 against 4 as a model for teaching other polyrhythmic combinations. First, we find the lowest common multiple of 3 and 4. In this case, it is the number 12. In other words, 12 is 3 times 4; or 12 is 4 times 3. In this instance, I will start with the 12 subdivisions of four sets of triplets as shown in Figure 9 and recite them as TakitaTakitaTakitaTakita. This gives us 4 groupings of 3s (as shown by the accents on the "Ta" part of each Takita): Figure 9 Four groupings per measure Next, we will keep the triplet subdivisions and regroup them into 3 sets of 4 by fitting the word Takadimi three times over the subdivisions (as shown in Figure 10). When we recite this as TakadimiTakadimiTakadimi, it gives us 3 groupings of 4s (as indicated by the accents on the "Ta" part of each Takadimi): Figure 10 Three groupings per measure 46 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (37-52) ISSN 2232-1020 In order to create the feeling of 3 against 4 it is necessary to get the student to perform the two groupings simultaneously. First, I will ask the student to recite TakitaTakitaTakitaTakita while tapping his foot on the ‘Ta’ of each Takita. This sets up the initial 4 beats to the measure and the sense of 12 subdivisions. Next, while the foot is tapping, I will ask the student to regroup the subdivisions into 4s and recite TakadimiTakadimiTakadimi. Finally, the student will be asked to clap on the ‘Ta’ of each Takadimi while the foot is still tapping 4 beats to the measure. This will allow the student to feel 3 (the clapping) against 4 (the foot tapping). Again, a Carnatic musician would not practise such a drill because this is a slightly simplified version of a concept he or she would use in group improvisation (as I have learnt from my current guru, Mr. ChettitharaveetilHaridasSreekanth). Is there an equivalent in the teaching of Western musical instruments? A key feature of Carnatic rhythmic groupings is that they are easier to articulate at faster tempos due to the use of words that are easier to speak at a fast pace. Another feature is that the beginning of each grouping is clearly articulated (in most cases this is done with the syllable ‘Ta’). In Western musical instrumental teaching, I have seen a parallel in the teaching of brass and woodwind instruments (Arban, 1982). Often, students are taught to start phrases by saying the words Tu or Tee, and double tonguing passages would involve articulation of words such as Tu-ku or Tee-kee while triple tonguing passages would involve articulation of words such as Tu-tu-ku or Tee-tee-kee. I have found that my students tend to accept the Solkattu syllables better after I point out the similarities to Western brass or woodwind teaching. In fact, I have even allowed brass students to substitute theirregular articulation of word ‘Tu-tu-ku’ for the Carnatic "Ta- ki-ta" in our exercises, and their word ‘Tu-ku’ for the Carnatic ‘Ta-ka’, and so on. In this way, the students are actually enhancing their own instrumental practice by vocalising the rhythmic drills from our class. SCORE STUDY WITH KONNAKKOL Konnakkol is also a useful tool in the study and memorisation of musical scores or structures. In Indian music, due to the fact that words (solkattu) are used to represent rhythms, Carnatic musicians are able to memorise music of rather lengthy duration. The effect would be similar to someone memorising lengthy pieces of poetry or prose. I am old enough to recall that, as a high school student, I was required to memorise important monologues from the plays of William Shakespeare and so the process of remembering a series of rhythmic syllables would not seem too far outside the realm of possibility. This process is also aided by the fact that musical compositions often have a poetry-like structure where sections may be repeated or speech-patterns may emerge. It is in this area where I believe I have contributed some new ideas with regards to how konnakkol can be used. Traditionally, a konnakkol artist performing a lengthy improvisation would organise his syllables into some artistic or poetic construction (aesthetically controlled by what a listener might perceive to be a mathematical order). This is the artistry of this music. What I started to do a few years ago was to use Tony Teck Kay Makarome 47 konnakkol syllables to represent grouping of notes with the specific idea of using the syllables as a memory aid. I found this method to be quite intuitive and made it much easier to memorise longer sections of music. This proved to be an invaluable aid to me as a conductor. An interesting outcome was that some previously hidden (to me) features of the pieces revealed themselves through my Konnakkol verbalisations of certain passages. These structural features or formations were not obvious through regular harmonic and rhythmic analysis that employed methods from Western music theory. Let me take you through the learning of one such konnakkol piece so you may get a better understanding of the process. The following musical passage will be written out as if it were a poem to be recited. Each underlined group represents an equal length of time. Here we will give the underlined group the time value of a minim (but this will also depend on how the music is to be notated later). In the course of learning this passage, you will also begin to notice some patterns inits compositional structure: Takadimi Ta Takadimi Takadimi Takadimi Ta Takadimi Takadimi Takadimi Takadimi Takadimi Takadimi Ta It is best to clap a steady pulse while reciting the passage above so that you may experience it like a poem. Please try this experiment and repeat the stanza several times. I hope you will feel (intuitively) the logic in the construction and also begin to memorise the whole passage. In fact, the whole stanza begins to feel like a song to me and you may find it easier to remember the passage using the syllables. We are also aided by the fact that the composer employed repeating rhythmic elements that I will describe below. What do we notice about the construction of the stanza? The main feature that caught my attention is the fact that the composer liked to highlight the number 3 by repeating motivic material in sets of 3. The phrase ‘Takadimi Ta’ is developed by repeating the word ‘Takadimi’ three times before the second ‘Ta’ appears. Next the composer presented 3 sets of two ‘Takadimi’s’ before the third ‘Ta’ appears. Here is another presentation of the same stanza where I have used the shortform of ‘TKDM’ to represent ‘Takadimi’ but without the underlining. Perhaps this presentation of the same stanza would make my point clearer in a visual way: TKDM Ta TKDM, TKDM, TKDM, Ta TKDM-TKDM TKDM-TKDM TKDM-TKDM, Ta. I hope you are able to see the pattern of 3s in the stanza. This is an important detail because the composer of the music represented by our konnakkol reinterpretation was well-known for his link to the number 3. He liked the number 3 because it was a symbolic number used by the Freemasons (an organization of which he was a member). 48 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (37-52) ISSN 2232-1020 This mystery composer is none other than Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and we have just memorised the opening phrase of his Marriage of Figaro Overture (see Figure 11). I have added the solkattu words to the notation of the main melody played by the strings so that you are able to see the underlying rhythmic structure of this phrase and how this is represented by the stanza of words above. Figure 11 An excerpt from Mozart It is interesting how Mozart's phrase does not consist of predictable four measure segments. In fact, his phrase germinates from a simple rhythmic cell: Takadimi, Ta. That rhythmic cell develops in a logical way over the course of 6 measures until it resolves in measure 7. First as 1 measure of Takadimi, Ta; then 2 measures of Takadimi, Takadimi, Takadimi, Ta; then 3 measures of Takadimi- Takadimi, Takadimi-Takadimi, Takadimi-Takadimi, before resolving rhythmically to the downbeat of measure 7. The numerical logic of the passage (i.e. 1 then 2 then 3) is at once pleasing to our ears and yet slightly mysterious in its hidden pattern. However, it does appear a little more obvious when recited as a konnakkol passage. This is the true value of analysing the structure of musical compositions using this rhythmic method. We are able to remember the structure logically and also uncover the underlying patterns. I have employed this method of solkattu syllables in my classes thatdeal with score study (e.g. conducting or orchestral literature). My students have used solkattu syllables to analyse musical compositions by Stravinsky, Richard Strauss, Bartok, Holst, and Brahms. They have also generated konnakkol passages (similar to the stanza I created for Mozart's overture above) that have greatly aided the understanding and performance of the music they were studying. For me, a good sign that myWestern music students have adopted this method is the many times I have observed them in rehearsal communicating musical ideas about how to perform certain passages using konnakkol. It has become their rhythmic language of choice. IMPROVISATION WITH KONNAKKOL In a traditional mridangam, curriculum, drum solos in different time cycles are first vocalised and then played on the instrument. Some of these pieces are 15 to 20 minutes long and may take weeks to learn. I am old enough to remember a time before YouTube Tony Teck Kay Makarome 49 when I had to learn jazz solos from recordings or live concerts, so the Carnatic way of teaching through oral tradition was not uncomfortable for me. As part of my education, I learned new methods of developing motifs. One example is how the South Indian musician augmented motifs by adding fragments to the front of the motif rather than back end. There are also traditional ways to approach cadential sections of a drum solo as well as ways to add coda sections that other musicians (trained in the tradition) would be able to follow in real time. A lot of this could be thought to mirror some practices in a jazz musician's education. As a jazz bassist, I had to learn how to respond to reharmonisations a pianist may use in a standard song or how to accompany a coda ending or vamp that a singer may feel inspired to create on the spot. The rhythmic concepts for improvisation in Carnatic music may be seen as based in arithmetic and number play. If we were in a time cycle of 3 crochets, we would have 12 subdivisions of semiquavers. Here a Carnatic musician may think of the 12 subdivisions as 4 + 4 + 4 (three groupings of four) and vocalise the rhythm as Takadimi, Takadimi, Takadimi. In subsequent variations, he or she may regroup the subdivisions as 3 + 4 + 5 (i.e. Takita, Takadimi, Tadikitadoom) or 5 + 4 + 3 (i.e. Tadikitadoom, Takadimi, Takita). This creates variety but gives a sense of cohesiveness because the number combinations are related presentations of three numbers that add up to twelve. In Carnatic music, spaces or rests could be inserted into phrases to create more interesting rhythmic effects. In a time cycle equivalent to the Western odd-time signature 7/8, three measures would give us 21 subdivisions of quavers. A Carnatic musician may choose to group the 21 subdivisions as 5 + 3 + 5 + 3 + 5 and vocalise this as: Tadikitadoom, Tham, Tadikitadoom, Tham, Tadikitadoom. The "Tham" in the phrase having the value of three quavers. This will allow the musician to create various interesting number combinations. The original 5 + Tham + 5 + Tham + 5 could be modified as 4 + Tham + 5 + Tham + 6, or 3 + Tham + 5 + Tham + 7. The default subdivision of each beat (or pulse) in Carnatic music is often four. This is equivalent to the Western music practice of dividing a crochet into 4 quavers. It is quite common for a Carnatic musician to switch to a different subdivision of the beat during improvisation and create a special section of the piece that subdivides the beat into five, six, seven or nine. One interesting way to use this device is to reinterpret the same musical phrase with a different subdivision of the pulse. In the time signature of five-four time there would be 20 subdivisions of quavers per measure (with each crochet subdivided into four.) Here, three measures would give us 60 subdivisions. A musical phrase composed of 60 subdivisions could be grouped as 6 + 6 + 6 + 3 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 3 + 6 + 6 + 6, and the rhythmic vocalisation could be: TaTadikinadoon, TaTadikinadoon, TaTadikinadoon, Tham; TaTadikinadoon, TaTadikinadoon, TaTadikinadoon, Tham; TaTadikinadoon, TaTadikinadoon, TaTadikinadoon. This simple example utilises ‘TaTadikinadoon’ for six subdivisions and ‘Tham’ for three subdivisions. If we switch to a subdivision of six per beat in each measure of five-four time, we would have 30 subdivisions since each beat is now a semiquaver sextuplet. The same phrase would be completed in two measures (of sextuplets) instead 50 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (37-52) ISSN 2232-1020 of the original three measures (of semiquavers.) The beauty of this sort of improvisation lies in the connection between the changing subdivisions of the beat. Improvisation is the creative offspring of musicianship training. The improvisational concepts and ideas from konnakkol practice may be taught to students through a series of games that explore spontaneous creativity. I have found that the konnakkol-based improvisations enhanced the compositional sensibilities in my students while solidifying their musicianship skills. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION In the area of rhythm and structure, konnakkol is a great, untapped resource for Western music students. The advantage of using konnakkol and solkattu in musicianship teaching includes the ease of articulating rhythms at the actual performance tempo. Try to say ‘One-E-And-A, Two-E-And-A’ at a fast tempo (let us say crochet equals 120) then try it with the solkattu equivalent of ‘Takadimi, Takajonu’ and you will instantly understand the advantage of the more natural articulations offered by the Carnatic method. Another useful feature of konnakkol is the simple fact that rhythms are expressed as words. This makes it very easy to translate rhythmic patterns into internal rhythmic feeling for the student (or performer). Related to using words to express rhythms is the idea that we can combine the words into phrases or larger stanzas (just like in poetry) that facilitate music learning and memorising. This is an invaluable aid to students and performers alike. In fact, all my musicianship students had to memorise a specific 2-minute passage from Stravinsky's Rite of Spring using konnakkol syllables (as part of their classroom work). Furthermore, the improvisational concepts borrowed from traditional konnakkol practice also aid in the development of creative impulses in a music student. The facility with which ideas can flow in improvisations can lead to compositions or just strengthen the musicianship skills of the learner. The ability to vocalise the rhythmic phrases of music you will play on your instrument is a great aid in developing that elusive element often called "feel" or "groove". The security of rhythmic vocalisation also ensures a more solid performance with fewer errors (as well enhance the ability to recover from mistakes made during the performance). So far, the chief disadvantage I have encountered is acceptance of the method by peers. I am pleased to report that once you explain yourself clearly, most teachers would understand and appreciate the simplicity and versatility of the konnakkol approach. In the past, when I have shared my ideas about the use of konnakkol in the teaching of Western music (with other teachers), the question often arises about how to gain acceptance with colleagues in the music department. It is often useful to point to similarities the konnakkol system already shares with Western music teaching practices. A simple example would be what I had mentioned had earlier about brass players employing their own set of syllables for articulation. Many brass teachers would teach the syllables ‘Tu-ku’ or ‘Tu-tu-ku’ to their students to help with their tonguing. It would not be a stretch to see the similarity between those syllables and the Indian solkattu of ‘Ta-ka’ and ‘Ta-ki-ta’. An interesting observation is that most of my brass students found an improvement in their articulation after studying konnakkol. I have learnt this from some verbal feedback from former students. Konnakkol has a certain degree of flexibility in that some variation in the pronunciation of the words is acceptable as part Tony Teck Kay Makarome 51 of the tradition. For example, ‘Takadimi’ may be pronounced as ‘Dagadimi’ (especially at high speeds) without losing its value as a word that indicates a subdivision of 4. It is common for teachers who came from different schools of mridangam to use slightly different syllables to express similar rhythmic combinations. It is this flexibility that facilitates acceptance by students from a different culture. In Western music study and performance, there is also a need for a way to express larger number groupings. Typically, although there are syllables for grouping of 3 or 4 (like One-E-And-A), Western music students are not taught rhythmic syllables for groupings of 5, 6, 7 and so on. This is where konnakkol can enrich the Western music curriculum. The modern music my Western music students performs often contains odd number groupings such as quintuplets, septuplets and larger ones. The simple way konnakkol expresses quite complex subdivisions of the beat have helped my students to develop a sense of accuracy when they encounter such music. I am aware of this improving sense of rhythmic accuracy when I compare their musical skills from the beginning and end of the module I taught. As mentioned before, a method called ‘Takadimi’ or ‘The Takadimi System’ has found an audience in some school curriculums in America (Hoffman, 1996). However, I feel that they have only employed the subdivisional aspects of the syllables and have not explored the compositional and organisational potential of konnakkol. For example, a simple but effective practice in konnakkol is to count the time cycle with hand movements. The Western music equivalent would be to sight-sing while conducting the beats of the measure. The hand counts free the Carnatic musician from having to indicate the beginning of beats with a Ta and allowssyncopated rhythms to be accented with a Ta on the offbeat. This more correctly mirrors how music behaves. In conclusion, I have only covered a small amount of theoretical material and classroom exercises. The online student feedback I have received over the years have indicated that my Western music students responded well to my use of konnakkol to help them in their music study. My continuous assessment of their progress through the module also reflects positive benefits of this Carnatic method. I hope that this article will open your mind to the potential for more experimenting and research. I have even used the konnakkol approach to teach musicianship workshops for the National Arts Council (Singapore) and Perkamus (Malaysia). There is much more to discover in terms of how we can use these tools borrowed from Carnatic musical tradition to teach Western music. The result may be that we will have a common musical language in the future to explore the music of various cultures and even break new ground towards creating new musical horizons. REFERENCES Abstract Logix. (2007). The gateway to rhythm. [DVD]. Cary, North Carolina: John McLaughlin and S. Ganesh Vinayakram. Arban, J., Gordon, C., Goldman, E. F., Smith, SOLKATU.M.(1982). Arban's complete conservatory method for trumpet (Cornet). New York: Carl Fischer. Gopalakrishnan, T.V. (2007). Mrdangam: The king of percussions. Thiruvanmiyur, Chennai: Vision Musica. Hoffman, R., Pelto, SOLKATU., White, J. SOLKATU. (1996). Takadimi: A beat-oriented system of rhythm pedagogy. Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy 10, 7–30. 52 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (37-52) ISSN 2232-1020 Lockett, P. (2008). Indian rhythms for drumset. New York, NY: Hudson Music. Mozart, SOLKATU. A. (1979).Le nozze di Figaro. New York, NY: Dover Publications. Nelson, David P. (2008). Solkattumanual: An introduction to the rhythmic language of South Indian Music. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. Pisharody, N.E.P. (1987). Mridanga nada manjari. Mylapore, Chennai: GuruvayurDorai. Sang, R. C. (1987). A study of the relationship between instrumental teachers’ modelling skills and pupil performance behaviors. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 91, 155-59. Sambamoorthy, P. (1954). South Indian music (Book IV). Madras: The Indian Music Publishing House. Sankaran, T. (2009). The art of konnakkol (solkattu). Toronto: Lalith Publishers. Sankaran, T. (1994). The rhythmic principles and practice of South Indian drumming. Toronto: Lalith Publishers. SwathiSanskriti Series. (2008). Mridanga Chintamanih: Level 1 to Level 4. [DVD set]. Alwarpet, Chennai: Umayalpuram K. Sivaraman. BIOGRAPHY Conductor, composer and bassist, Tony Makarome is Associate Professor at Yong Siew Toh Conservatory. He has DMA (Orchestral Conducting) from USC. His teachers include George Monseur, AttilioPoto, Robert Spano, MiroslavVitous, Herb Pomeroy, T.R. Sundaresa and ChettiharaveetilHaridasSreekanth (Singapore Indian Fine Art Society). He was conductor of NUS Wind Symphony. His Scifi Lounge (2006) premiered in Bangkok and Name with No Street in Shanghai. Other works include East Wind (solo percussion) and his opera, Faybulous at Pawley’s Island Music Festival. His arrangements of the ‘Seven Steps to Heaven’ and ‘Asiana’ were performed by Singapore Chinese Orchestra and China Broadcasting Folk Orchestra (Beijing). As bassist, he performed with Louis Bellson, Tony Bennett and Quartet West. He has been amridangist in Chennai. He is a leading pedagogue of solfége and jazz. In summers, he is an award-winning teacher at Walden School (USA). Current projects include Esplanade’s Jazz Program and course for Perkamus. Email address: [email protected]

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 1 (2016)

heritage, memory, music notation, preservation

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/136

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/815

Notating Heritage Musics: Preservation and Practice in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia

Historically, notation in Southeast Asia has been used for musical documentation and preservation rather than functioning as a medium for realising music during performance. As a consequence, today both heritage and hybrid forms of script such as Balinese ding dong notation and Javanese kepatihan cipher notation play only a minor role in the musical expression of this region’s predominantly aural-based forms. When musical notation is used, it may be found written on a variety of traditional and modern medium including palm leaves and plain paper to computer programs with specialised fonts or even cell phone text messages. In this article, I observe notation in three distinct traditions existing along a continuum from preservation to innovation. Despite technological advancements and the availability of Western staff notation, diverse forms of indigenous musical notation primarily serve to sustain traditions and aide the memory of musicians for teaching and learning.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/815/551

Made Mantle Hood 53 Notating Heritage Musics: Preservation and Practice in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia Made Mantle Hood Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Historically, notation in Southeast Asia has been used for musical documentation and preservation rather than functioning as a medium for realising music during performance. As a consequence, today both heritage and hybrid forms of script such as Balinese ding dong notation and Javanese kepatihan cipher notation play only a minor role in the musical expression of this region’s predominantly aural-based forms. When musical notation is used, it may be found written on a variety of traditional and modern medium including palm leaves and plain paper to computer programs with specialised fonts or even cell phone text messages. In this article, I observe notation in three distinct traditions existing along a continuum from preservation to innovation. Despite technological advancements and the availability of Western staff notation, diverse forms of indigenous musical notation primarily serve to sustain traditions and aide the memory of musicians for teaching and learning. Keywords heritage, memory, music notation, preservation BACKGROUND In addition to a diversity of regional forms of notation, Southeast Asian music practitioners also have similar systems of notation based on numbers. Numerical values assigned to musical pitches first appeared in Europe in a system called cipher notation that would eventually influence Southeast Asia. As with East Asian traditions such as Chinese music, practitioners of Thai mahori and khruang sai ensembles have adapted this type of cipher system based on numerical representations and a tablature format (Miller, 1992, p. 205-08). Central Javanese gamelan musicians in Indonesia also teach their conservatory-trained pupils using a cipher system called kepatihan (Becker, 1980, p.17). Many church choirs throughout much of Indonesia sing hymns in polyphonic counterpoint with soprano, alto, tenor and bass parts written out for Sunday Mass in beautiful harmony using only numbers typed on a page. In Malaysia, innovative notation systems help sustain and develop the teaching of lagu melayu asli’s idiomatic improvisatory embellishment style (Arshad, 2015, p.4). In all of these examples, notation reminds musicians of their music’s principal melodies and fundamental rhythms. In this article I will argue that, save for a few exceptions such as the church 54 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 choirs above, notation in Southeast Asia is seldom used in the context of performance. It is accurate to describe traditional notation systems existing along a continuum from preservation, where principal melodies and musical forms are documented and revisited to aide memory in the learning process, to innovation, where musicians design new written symbols and appropriate existing ones to transmit melodic detail from teacher to student. Here, aural tradition brings music notation to life and aural tradition dominates the heritage ensembles and musical landscape in Southeast Asia. THAI CLASSICAL MUSIC NOTATIONS Three principal notation systems are used in Thailand today: Western staff notation, Thai solfege and tablature notation. Each system has expanded musicians’ ability to record and document more detailed rhythmic and melodic representations of instrumental, chamber, orchestral as well as vocal music traditions. Yet, none of these have become indispensable for Thai musicians in performance. This theme of oral tradition being relatively free from a dependency on written notation for performance is repeated throughout mainland and insular Southeast Asia. Western staff notation arrived more than 200 years ago when two French visitors to the Siam royal kingdom notated short excerpts of court melodies in Western staff notation. Today, Western staff notation is principally used for piphat ensembles. The hard mallet ensemble called piphat mai khaeng has one or two circular gongchimes, xylophones and a quadruple reed instrument called pi. The soft-mallet ensemble (piphat mai nuam) has the above instruments but includes a bowed lute (so u) and a flute (khlui phiang). Also based on the hard-mallet ensemble is the piphat mon with “horseshoe- shaped Mon gong circles and a pi mon quadruple reed wind instrument with flared bell” (Miller, 1992, p. 202). In each of these ensembles, western staff notation is used but does not precisely correspond to Thai tuning systems. Because of the nature of Thai tuning systems, western staff notation remains inadequate for accurately representing actual pitches for this system that has “seven more or less equidistant pitches (171.4 cents each) within the octave” (Miller, 1992, p. 200). Each of the seven principal tones builds a pentatonic mode or tonal centre upon itself that Thai musicians call thang. Thus there are seven possible thang in Thai music. One of the more common modes is thang nai built up from the staff note G with the pentatonic series G A B D E. When thang are notated in Western staff notation, accidentals are used to indicate the intervallic structure. All thang appear to have the same intervallic structure: maj 2nd, maj 2nd, min 3rd, and a maj 2nd in the modes B♭ C D F G; F G A C D; E♭ F G B♭ C. The only exception is a mode called thang klang but there are no known compositions in this mode. Notated pieces that modulate to different thang maintain the same, or similar, intervallic structure and are differentiated as much through tessitura as they are instrumentation, dramatic context, or other extra-musical phenomenon. When Thai compositions modulate from one tonal centre to the other, a score with unconventional accidental combinations may resemble chromaticism compositions as the one found in Figure 1. The ‘skeletal’ melody or essential melody called tham nong Saradtha is similar to the part played by the large gong circle called khong wong Made Mantle Hood 55 yai. However, it is the only instrument that plays this melody in the ensemble (Sumrongthong and Sorrell, 2000, p. 70). Fifteen compositions for several ensembles including piphat such as ‘Khamen Sai Yok’ have been published in two editions called Thai Classical Music Book I (1961, 1971) and a further 28 compositions have been published in the Silapakon Fine Arts Magazine (Miller, 1992, p. 201). Figure 1 Thai staff notation of ‘Khaek mon pang khun phrom’, sam chan with accidentals indicating various tonal centres or thang (Source: Miller, 1992, p. 212). Each thang has its own extra-musical associations to repertoire, instrumental accompaniment and ‘national accent’. Thai music constructs itself around major and minor rhythmic accents in a given melody with the ching-chap, a small pair of bronze cymbals, producing open (ching) and closed (chap) strokes, the former less emphasised than the later. Notations identify regional and trans-national rhythmic styles where: A great number of Thai compositions of the sepha variety (tuneful, entertainment pieces) are composed in various national “accents” (samniang). The most usual are Thai, Lao, Khmer (Khamen in Thai pronunciation), Khaek (meaning Muslim and implying India or Malaysia), and Mon. Less common are Phamah (Burmese), Chin (Chinese), Yuan (Vietnamese), Yipun (Japanese), and Farang (Western). Each ‘accent’ is customarily notated in a particular key in staff notation, e.g., Khmer in F, Lao in C, Mon in B♭, Thai in F, etc. But where these written symbols are realised on the instrument depends on the ensemble (Miller, 2000, p. 202). Western staff notation orients the usual end-accented Thai rhythmic pulse, as is the case with Javanese gamelan discussed below, at the beginning of a measure instead of its end. This can be problematic for uninitiated practitioners; however, Western staff notation does succeed in documenting in detail Thai piphat orchestral performance. While Western staff notation adequately represents the piphat, Thai script adds the 56 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 nuances of writing, prose and speech to indicate the vowel sounds of the solfege system. In this way, Western staff notation helps bridge the gaps along the continuum of notation usages where students may utilise multiple resources in the learning process. More Thai musicians make use of solfege than any other notation system in Thailand. This standard notation void of detailed embellishments provides only principal melodic pitches and a basic rhythmic framework from which a number of individual instruments may derive their parts and improvise. The syllable initials used in Thai are based on the Western system: do, re, mi, fa, so (or son), la, ti. Figure 2 Solfege syllables and notation for khlui flute demonstrating the adaptation of the Western ‘do, re, mi’ system to Thai script. (Source: Chonpairot in Miller, 1992, p. 214) In Figure 2 of the khlui flute notation, solfege lines are read from left to right and from top to bottom. Vertical lines subdivide notes into quadratic measures. The rhythmic subdivisions in this system of notation for Thai music, which are almost exclusively duple, have four semi-quavers or sixteenth notes per bar. The beat is felt at the end of bars and groups of four receive accents based on the ching chap rhythmic pattern. However, the ching and chap may have different positions depending on the designated chan rhythm (for example, sorng chang, sam chan, etc.). The syllables and Made Mantle Hood 57 initials of the solfege system in Figure 2 appear in the first box with cipher tones 1 through 7 below. In the khlui flute notation, hyphens extend the value of a note where the smallest subdivision in the solfege system is a sixteenth note. If only two syllables appear in a measure, these constitute two eighth notes. If there is only one, it is a quarter note. Octaves are not notated save for a few notations that make use of dots above or below a syllable indicating higher or lower pitch respectively. Musicians realise solfege notation in performance based on the idiomatic conventions of their instruments. As with other oral traditions, Thai music in practice goes beyond what is notated by interpreting the score and include stylistic ornaments, shifts of rhythm, slides, tone bends and other aspects of a predominantly rote system of transmission. In the solfege notation system, musicians only read a generic representation. Much more musical detail is revealed in Thai tablature. Tablature notation is perhaps Thailand’s most precise and detailed written system used by instrumentalists who require accurate reproductions of their teacher’s hand positions, finger placements, bowing techniques, and melismatic passages. Instrumental teachers keep personal collections of tablature notation for teaching both group lessons and private tuition that provides a document for students to faithfully reproduce their particular style. Some of these notations appear in cipher format such as those of Associate Professor Panya Roongruang, the current dean of the Faculty of Music at Bangkokthonburi University, but these are exceptional (Morton, 1975, p.viii in Miller, 1992, p.205). The majority of cipher notations appear as tablature where numbers indicate a particular fret, string, or hand position for fiddle players (so sam sai), or various finger hole combinations for flutists (khlui). Figure 3 Tablature notation of ‘Lao tam nern sai’ with ciphers for the so duang two-stringed bowed fiddle (Source: Banchongsilpa in Miller, 1992, p. 211). The Thai tablature in Figure 3 designates the numerical value of ‘0’ for a bowed fiddle’s open strings. The open strings of the so duang, a higher register two-stringed bowed fiddle that leads ensembles, are tuned to G and D. Numbers above the horizontal line correspond to D. Finger positions then follow from 0 up four more tones with the numbers 0 1 2 3 4 corresponding to d e f g and a. The same numbers and finger positions follow from the lower pitched G string. Ties indicate slurs between notes as in, for example, a slide from 4 to 3. 58 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 From the modern Thai musical notations of Western staff and tablature, we turn now to more ancient forms of musical documentation in Indonesia where, as with mainland Southeast Asia, Sanskrit and indigenous script notations have had a long history and a lasting influence on present-day practices. Considering the continuum of notated examples from preservation to innovation under purvey here, it is evident that these belong in the realm of preservation. THE POWER OF WRITTEN TEXTS Deeply imbedded in written documents and musical notation, is the ancient belief in Southeast Asia generally and Indonesia in particular, that written documents are often considered venerated objects of mystical power and spirituality. Script characters may serve as emblems of religiosity and become departure points for philosophical discourse among readers and interpreters. Singing written texts and making textual interpretations is still maintained in 21st century Southeast Asia in many areas of the region. From texts about science, medicine, architecture, magic spells and also music, reverence for written resources still permeates many parts of the Indonesian archipelago as evidence of what Balinese call aksara, or the power of written texts. In Bali, some of the earliest historical writings in both Sanskrit and Old Balinese script appear from the 9th century on stone and copper tablets. These texts provide a glimpse into the early literary activity in this part of Southeast Asia. Throughout its history, writing helped legitimise the power of royal rulers who used the imported Indo-European form of Sanskrit to legitimise their place as descendants from the pantheon of Hindu deities. Royalty and religious figureheads used the local Austronesian form of writing to control and administer those beneath them, the local Balinese government, taxation and public infrastructure (Wallis, 1980, p. 6). Gamelan music and written symbols have long been linked to cosmology. Notation therefore, is the “ultimate link between cosmological and earthly spheres of existence [and] is emblematic of Balinese reverence for literature and the written word as tools for accessing sacred power” (Tenzer, 2000, p. 34). Because royal courts were the centres of political and spiritual power, court orchestras and their music were automatically considered extensions of this power. It is important to note here that musical treatises and notations still carry these connotations of sacredness and reverence. However, this does not explain how musical notation established its extra- musical associations to religious symbolism and spiritual power. Nor does it give a clear indication of how preservation, rather than innovation, in this type of musical notation has been emphasised in the tradition. In order to answer this question, it is necessary to examine an 18th century Balinese musical treatise called Prakempa as an example of the interconnectedness between literary writings and the mystical and religious symbolism of musical notation. As will be discussed below, this text explains the conception of Balinese tuning systems such as pelog and salendro and gives insight into one of the oldest notation examples on the island: notasi gambang. Made Mantle Hood 59 Figure 4 Pangider Bhuwana mandala-like cardinal directions that ascribe musical tones to the pantheon of Hindu-Baliense gods and their representative colours (Source: Bandem, 1980, p.14 and Tenzer, 2000, p.36). The Prakempa, one of Bali’s earliest writings on musical aesthetics, philosophy, technique and ethics, is a treatise that likely dates from the late 18th or early 19th century (Bandem, 1986, p.7). The manuscript makes cosmological associations between musical tones, the pantheon of Hindu deities, the cardinal directions of the universe and a pallet of colours and their spiritual associations. In the passages of the text, the Prakempa insists that students of gamelan music pay proper respect to music instructors and their teachings. Its stanzas guide practitioners towards cultivating awareness that bronze is a medium for not only providing music for rituals, but also to sound out the tones of the gods. This symbiotic relationship has permeated written texts and notations of gamelan music for generations. The 18th century manuscript also describes specifics about the structure of musical form, provides characters and symbols for notating scale tones, and detailed descriptions of musical ensembles. According to the Prakempa (Stanza 5 in Bandem, 1986, p.1), all of these elements are linked to the origins of the Balinese universe itself. Three written letters called wisah, taleng and cecek stand for the universe’s embodiment in the Hindu Trinity: Brahma, Wisnu and Shiva. This means sound, and therefore, music itself is notated according to symbols that represent the divine origin of the universe. 60 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 Ten musical tones map out along the directions of the universe along with the creation of heavenly and earthly bodies: the sun, moon and stars, light, rain, wind, rocks, trees, plants, animals and all living/breathing creatures belonging to the ‘Five Dimensions’ or ‘Panca Maha Buta’. The three symbols of the Hindu Trinity also emit an array of colours beaming to all the cardinal directions. For example, shining in the West is the colour yellow, the symbol of the God Mahadewa, the musical tone called deng and its written letter, Tang. In the South, the God Brahma resides with the colour red, the musical tone ding and the letter Bang. All together, the universe contains 10 tones, gods, directions, colours and their appropriate written script characters as outlined in the following compilation of text, descriptions and illustrations from the Prakempa: The 10 tones were grouped into two groups of five tones each. The first group called patut pelog (Panca Tirtha) corresponds to the principal Hindu deities Wisnu, Brahma, Iswara, Mahadewa and Siwa.1 These major gods also correspond to the principal cardinal directions of the universe, North, South, East, West and upper Centre and their notation symbols are the most commonly employed in musical practice today. The second group of tones called patut slendro (Panca Geni) corresponds to the secondary or subsidiary deities Sambu, Mahesora, Sangkara, Indra, Buddha and their directions Northeast, Southeast, Southwest, Northwest and lower Centre. Together, pelog and slendro make up the ‘universe of sounds’. This universe reverberates through various pentatonic and heptatonic scale derivatives found in ensembles such as the large ritual bronze gamelan gong gede orchestra, the seven-tone palace orchestra called ‘semar pagulingan’ or the seven-tone bamboo xylophone gamelan gambang. The latter is one of Bali’s oldest indigenous ritual ensembles that pre-dates the arrival of the Hindu-Javanese empire in the 14th century. It also uses one of the oldest indigenous notation systems: notasi gambang. Notasi gambang is one of two types of Balinese script notation (the other is notasi ding dong which will be discussed later). Notasi gambang is one of only a few non-standardised regional notation systems that uses different script characters for different octaves. By comparison, the more modern and standardised notasi ding dong and some cipher notation systems in Thailand or Java maintain the same script character but use a dot above or below it to indicate higher or lower pitches. Notasi gambang script characters are not identical but vary slightly depending on the specific region or even the particular tendencies of a writer. The version presented here is from the village of Tebola, Sidemen in the Eastern part of the island. Lower and uppercase letters below Balinese script characters stand for the vowel sounds of each pitch. Each script character has its own name. In Figure 5, I O A E U a o are called cecek, wa, guru, taleng, kapal, bisah, and windu respectively. Made Mantle Hood 61 Figure 5 One of Bali’s oldest notations called gambang that utilises different script characters for its seven-tone, multi-octave bamboo xylophone instruments called gambang A gambang ensemble consists of a pair of seven-keyed, single-octave bronze metallophones called gangsa and four 14-keyed bamboo xylophones called gambang. Gambang keys span two octaves arranged in an unconventional configuration. The unusual arrangement allows a player to perform octaves with a double-headed mallet held in each hand. There are three types of gambang in an ensemble, each with its own pitch arrangement. I have chosen the gambang penyelat that has the lower octave dong (O) as its first key labelled with number 1 in Figure 6. ‘O’ appears again as xylophone key 4. The octave of dong appears again on keys 9 and 13 using a different script character that corresponds to a lower case ‘o’. This indicates tessitura is a determinant of script character selection. Figure 6 Unconventional configuration of gambang bamboo keys with different script characters for its multiple octaves (Source: Tantra, 1992, p.32). Gambang compositions were traditionally notated on palm leaf manuscripts where writers carefully etched notches in the shape of script characters on the surface of dried palm leaves and then smeared them with black soot. The soot lodges into the carved notches and any excess is wiped clean, revealing script characters. The transcription of one of these lontar compositions in the figure below is called ‘Puh 62 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 Rangga’, one of the assistants of Prince Panji, the legendary hero of the Malat stories that developed in the 14th century. This particular piece uses all seven available tones. Figure 7 A fragment of a full gambang composition illustrating the use of all seven script characters in notasi gambang. Compositions using five or six pitches are more common, but for our purposes I have chosen this piece so that the reader may see all script characters written in the context of a composition. The notation illustrates three of the four sections of this piece including its melodic introduction (kawitan) and the first two main melodies (pengawak I and part of pengawak II). Principal pitches are grouped here into four-beat units.2 We turn now to notasi ding dong, a much more commonly used script-based notation employed in the study of both instrumental and vocal music. Like notasi gambang above, script characters stand for specific pitches and intervals. However, notasi ding dong is much more generic in its application. It is used by conservatory trained musicians, professional composers and amateur performers in both traditional and modern contexts. In this way, notasi ding dong has multiple applications and exists on a broad expanse of the notation continuum between preservation and innovation. NOTASI DING DONG AND MODERN CONTEXTS Script-based notations in Balinese music still use vowels to represent predominantly pentatonic musical compositions. The vowels i, o, e, u and a constitute the solfeggio system with the following intervallic pattern: Made Mantle Hood 63 Figure 8 Notation names and script characters, approximate notes in Western notation, and cipher notes for notasi ding dong. Pitches 4 and 7 are part of the seven-tone pelog scale and because most Balinese music is pentatonic, these pitches are omitted creating a gap.3 The larger intervallic gaps between A and C# as well as E and G# are represented in Figure 8 with a larger space between notes and numbers. Conservatory trained vocal students studying classical Balinese ‘tembang macapatI’, a poetic verse form usually sung by a soloist during dance dramas, can just as easily notate a poem’s principal vocal pitches using the numbers of kepatihan cipher notation. However, students more often choose to scribble their teacher’s version of a song on bits of paper or in pocket-sized notebooks using the five symbols of Balinese notasi ding dong. Students new to the study of tembang notate their teacher’s principal melody by assigning symbols to text as in the following ‘tembang macapat’ poem: Figure 9 Example of Balinese notasi ding dong script notation from the tembang macapat or ‘reading in fours’ poetic form. (Source: Bandem, 2009, p.53) A line of text may have written above or below it, several melodic indicators reminding the singer of specific vocal techniques. A fast undulation of the vocal chords to produce a ‘shaky’ vibrato embellishment called geregel may be notated with a wavy line. A more specific decorative melismatic vocal passage called wilet is written out with exact note values precisely as a teacher has demonstrated. When more detailed 64 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 melodic and rhythmic representation is required, an adaptation of cipher notation is used such as the following fragment from poetic verse form Kakidungan Wirama Indrawangsa: Figure 10 Detailed Balinese notation of Wirama Indrawangsa: Kakidungan fragment using lines and slurs to indicate performance aspects of rhythm and vocal style. (Source: Bandem, 2009, p.30). The text fragment of Wirama Indrawangsa alludes to the moment the hero of Mahabharata, Arjuna, asks permission to leave from the peak of Gunung Indrakila where he has received the weapon called pasupati from the god Sang Hyang Siwa. The notation tells its reader a grace note-like melodic figuration is appropriate when singing the ‘i’ in mam-wit. The tie between ‘na’ and ‘ren’ denotes a slurred rise and fall between pitches 1 and 2 or ding and dong. Lines and double lines above script characters indicate a higher level of specificity in melodic embellishment. These subdivisions may be equated to the eighth and 16th note. However, rhythmic execution is a subjective element of an individual’s own performance artistry. Actual rhythmic values, therefore, are according to an individual singer’s interpretation of rhythm. In addition to lines above script characters, single dots indicate a vocalist should extend the sung melodic line to the note preceding the dot. Balinese script notation endures in modern contexts. Today, classical Balinese song has been turned into chants called kidung and macapat and often integrated into the daily yoga practices of hundreds of Balinese hotel staff working at the many hotels and spa centres that offer holistic health treatments to an increasingly health conscious tourist market. Each practice begins with the recitation of a chant. Transmission of chants still involves writing and notating text and melodies in Balinese script notation. Yoga classes initially established to cater for international tourists have expanded to include local staff to strengthen team building among employees. The Indian-based practice of movement and breath seems to be accepted by most young staff who take a keen interest in the meditative aspects of yoga. Other modern contexts for script-based notation in Bali are daily television and radio broadcasts and the tens of annual festivals and competitions of song chant called pesantian.4 In pesantian, once again students use notation as a means to study the principal melodies outlined in a given piece. Notation is sometimes used in performance, however, pesantian melodies are usually committed to memory well before a festival competition. Groups often perform in daily television broadcasts on local television channels such as TVRI and Bali TV. As discussed above, Balinese gambang and ding dong notations have been copied and recopied in palm-leaf manuscripts to pass down repertoire from generation to generation. However, in the neighbouring island of Java, notating repertoire for preservation emerged only in the last century. Made Mantle Hood 65 CENTRAL JAVANESE GAMELAN NOTATION Javanese notation seems to be only a relatively recent technology despite written manuscripts that date back to the 8th century and generations of pre-Islamic Indian literary influence. Sanskrit-based script entrenched itself in Java and in much of Southeast Asia into the 10th century. After the 10th century, Sanskrit writing continued to be influential in royal courts and religious centres and Indian culture influenced the region’s religious beliefs, ritual architecture, civil structure and musical theories and treatises. Loan words such as rasa for ‘feeling’ and nada for ‘tone’ still maintain diachronic associations between historical and contemporary aesthetic and musical expression. These notation styles enjoy a continuity of presence and have multiple applications from preserving melodies for memory recall to the scribbling of innovative composers creating new music. In the late 19th century, Central Javanese courts in Yogyakarta and Surakarta became increasingly exposed to Dutch and other European cultural influences including concepts of preserving music through written notation (Becker, 1980). During this time, discussions among intellectuals and visiting scholars at the Central Javanese courts likely included the works of prominent French, Italian or German composers whose music could be played long after their passing and became permanent fixtures in the annals of the Western classical canon. However, permanently fixing a piece of Javanese music in written notation may have been problematic for some Javanese musicians. Until this time, it was not an inherent cultural concern for Javanese to write down their gamelan pieces, essentially fixing it in form and function, as it is performed in a given place and time. The permanence of notation may have made an impression upon the Javanese that notation would not allow their musical tradition to evolve. After all, aural transmission trumps notation and continues to drive the tradition as Javanese musicians have little need in their music for “freezing the inherent transience of musical performance” (Brinner, 1995, p.147). However, court musicians decided not to risk losing compositions inherited from generations passed and instead sought out an appropriate system of notation to document their repertoire. Between 1886 and 1912, Javanese scholars and palace musicians experimented with methods for notating gamelan (Becker, 1980). Initially, there was much debate over which of the numerous melodic lines of the Javanese orchestra was representative of the entire ensemble. In the Javanese gamelan orchestra, there are more than 25 musicians playing four major groups of instruments: horizontally and vertically suspended knobbed gongs; single and multi-octave metallophones; percussion including drums and idiophones; miscellaneous flutes, xylophones and string instruments. In addition to choosing and notating a single representative melodic line, palace musicians were faced with the challenge of notating gamelan music’s formal structure so that they could differentiate the organisation of melodies according to form. In Javanese gamelan music, form is determined by metric patterns realised on large and medium sized knobbed gongs. One cluster of gongs suspends from cord tied to a large wooden frame. These gongs punctuate cyclic periods of time called gongan to realise colotomic structure and work in tandem with a set of smaller horizontally suspended knobbed gongs called kenong. As the search for a representative melodic line continued, palace musicians considered notating the melodic leader’s instrument, two rows of kettlegongs called 66 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 bonang and the multi-octave metallophones called gender. Gender instruments perform largely improvised elaborations of instrumental and vocal compositions. Even the two- stringed spiked fiddle called rebab was considered essential to notate because the most senior and experienced musicians are entrusted with this instrument to lead the orchestra. The dilemma continued until Javanese scholars and musicians decided the saron family of metallophones would best represent the Kraton repertoire (Perlman, 1991). These metallophones perform a realisation of Central Javanese gamelan’s principal pitches, later termed balungan meaning literally ‘skeletal’ melody. Similar to the tham nong Saradtha from Thailand above, the balungan was chosen because all other melodic parts in the orchestra have an inherent melodic relationship to it, even though its melodic line may change over time as musicians inherit pieces. Balungan is more or less fixed but can also be considered a melody shared among musicians who have reached a consensus on its contour and direction. With the dilemma resolved, scholars and musicians turned their attention to finding an appropriate notation system (Becker, 1980). One of the earliest attempts at notating the Kraton repertoire came in 1888 when Kyai Demang Gunasantika adapted Western staff notation for the purposes of gamelan. Gunasantika’s system of notation uses five horizontal staff lines but spaces them in groups of three and two to reflect the large and small intervallic structure of pelog, a heptatonic scale from which pentatonic scales are derived. In Figure 11 of Gending Emeng pelog pathet nem in titilaras rante or ‘chain notation’, dots or note heads tied together on each of the five lines create a “chain of notes” on the staff. Staff lines correspond to the pentatonic scale called pelog pathet nem. In this scale, only five keys of the seven-keyed metallophone are required. As with the Balinese ding dong system, these pitches correspond to keys 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6. Dots in the space in between the third and fourth lines are used for pitch 4 that is played twice in this example. Dots in the space above the top line is pitch 7, also appearing twice. Titilaras rante was also used to notate vocal melodies (titilaras rante pesindhen). Chain notation fell into disfavour as other notation innovations were also being developed around this time. Figure 11 Titlaras rante or “chain notation”. (Source: Soetandija in Becker, 1980, p.15) In 1890, titilaras andha tablature notation was developed at the palace of the Sultan in Yogyakarta (Becker, 1980 p.14). The tablature resembles European lute notation with intersecting vertical and horizontal lines that read from top to bottom, left Made Mantle Hood 67 to right. Termed ‘checkered script’ notation by Dutch ethnomusicologist Jaap Kunst, the seven vertical lines of Figure 12 represent the heptatonic pelog scale. The example is Gending Hardjuna Mangsah in the musical mode pathet barang with the pitches ro, lu, mo, nem and pitu that correspond to the Javanese terms for 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 respectively. Javanese script characters for drum patterns may be seen hanging on the left edge of the tablature. Hanging from the tablature’s right edge are the large gong ageng and other punctuating smaller gongs that determine form. Evenly spaced horizontal lines representing units of time intersect these vertical lines to form a tablature grid. Groups of four horizontal lines indicate the quadratic rhythmic organisation of the melody. A solid note head on any of the vertical lines indicates melody as the reader follows the tablature from top to bottom and left to right. The absence of a dot indicates the previous pitch carries over into the next beat. Figure 12 Titilaras andha tablature notation developed at the palace of the Sultan in Yogyakarta. Around 1890, a resident and nobleman named Raden Mas Tumenggung Wreksadiningrat of the Surakarta royal residence devised a system that has become the most widely used gamelan notation in use today (Becker, 1980, pp.16-17). Modelled after a solfege system of cipher notation developed in France a few years earlier, Wreksadiningrat assigned numbers to the Javanese saron single-octave metallophones. As with chain and tablature notation discussed above, the principal balungan melody was notated. Kepatihan notation uses numbers instead of dots on a staff of tablature to indicate pitch. This is interesting because Javanese practitioners still use traditional Javanese terms derived from anthropomorphic references for the names of notes. In the slendro tuning system, pitch 1 is called barang meaning ‘thing’, pitch 2 is gulu meaning ‘neck’ and pitch 3 is dhadha or ‘chest’ while 5 and 6 are simply the Javanese terms lima and nem meaning five and six respectively (Sutton & Vetter, 2006, p. 245 fn). Borrowing from European models of solfege, Wreksadiningrat assigned numbers to the single octave metallophone for each of the two tuning systems in the Javanese gamelan. 68 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 For the heptatonic pelog system, keys were numbered one through seven from lowest to highest. For the pentatonic slendro, system keys were numbered 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 where slendro is a five-tone scale extraction of pelog. Reading from left to right in Figure 13, numbers are grouped into four-beat units called gatra. Two gatra called kenongan equal one strike from the punctuating kenong kettlegong. There are four kenongan resulting in a 32-beat melody.5 In Javanese gamelan, rhythmic emphasis is felt at the end, not the beginning, of a melodic phrase or rhythmic statement. Reading the first gatra, beats 2 and 4 receive more rhythmic emphasis than beats 1 and 3. Figure 13 Kepatihan cipher notation developed in the late 19th century becoming one of the most widely used systems for notating Central Javanese gamelan music. Rhythm leans forward anticipating the conclusion, rather than the beginning of a line or entire melodic statement. Rhythmic weighting is strongest at the end of a notated line and at the end of a piece marked with a large vertically suspended knobbed gong ageng. In the notation of ‘Pangkur’ in Fig. 3, a circle around pitch 6 demarcates its finalis. The introduction or buka of ‘Pangkur’ is played by a soloist on the bonang double row of kettlegongs. The bonang notation at the buka includes dots and numbers. Dots indicate a subdivision of the beat, numbers indicate which of the 14 kettlegongs are played in the phrase, 3. 2 . 3. 2 leading up to gong tone 6. Dots below pitches 5, 6 and 7 in the ‘buka’ guide the bonang player towards the instrument’s lower octave kettlegongs. In addition to the circle around pitch 6 denoting the large gong ageng, a semi-circle above a number indicates a smaller punctuating gong. An upward facing semi-circle found at a lines’ midpoint marks the kempul, one of several smaller tuned hanging gongs in the Javanese orchestra. A downward facing semi-circle at the end of a line marks the beat where the kenong, a row of large kettlegongs horizontally suspended on a rack, accentuates the melody. From its beginnings in the late 19th century, kepatihan has evolved and is now readily available today as a computer font compatible in most word formatting software programs. This type of innovation shows how traditional and hybrid notations can serve as a platform for innovation. In several versions, it was copy written by Matthew Made Mantle Hood 69 Arciniega in 1994 as KepatihanPro. The font is clear and legible allowing users to notate detailed aspects of musical form, melodies in multiple octaves, drum notation, colotomic structure and other performance aspects of Javanese gamelan. Numerous traditional compositions are notated in kepatihan notation and are readily available on websites devoted to classical repertoire such as Barry Drummond’s Gending Jawi/ Javanese Gamelan Notation.6 The library cross references hundreds of compositions of Central Javanese gamelan pieces and search criteria can be set so that users can find notations based on the musical form, mode, alphabetical name, or balungan fragment of a composition. DOCUMENTING DETAIL IN LAGU MELAYU ASLI Although less comprehensive than its Central Javanese counterpart, Malaysian instrumental and vocal art forms such as lagu melayu asli are being notated down in precise detail. The roots of lagu melayu asli, according to the Hikayat Hang Tuah and Tuhfat al-Nafis, likely reach back as early as the 17th century (Matusky & Tan, 2012, p.359). Traditionally, lagu Melayu Asli served as accompaniment for social dances called ronggeng and the singing of poetic verse called pantun, both of which were popular during social gatherings including weddings and theatre performances. In the 1930s, the popular theatre form called bangsawan helped proliferate syncretic forms expanding its instrumentation to include western flutes, trumpets, trombones bass, piano, guitar, tambourine and maracas. Today, its highly embellished instrumental style centres on violin and accordion melismatic passages accompanied by rebana drum and hanging gong. Lagu melayu asli's repertoire draws on related instrumental and dance styles such as inang and joget and includes pieces such as ‘Bunga Tanjung,’ ‘Tudung Periok,’ ‘Mas Merah’ and ‘Seri Mersing’ (ibid., p. 360). Tasteful melodic embellishments and improvised stylistic ornamentations help weave together the musical tapestry that lies at the heart of lagu Melayu asli. However, until recently, notating these intricate ornaments has largely been ignored (Arshad, 2015). Until recently, precise transcriptions were not required in order to teach violin or accordion parts to young students. Traditionally, disseminating from teacher to student were “bunga-bunga” or melodic elaborations and ornaments of a principal melody that were absorbed aurally in the transmission process. This auditory submersion method, however, was contingent upon continual reinforcement through other elements in a student's soundscape including vocalisation, speech and singing, among others. Today, learning melodic ornamentations such as patah lagu (“melodic phrasing”), bunga (“flowering”), lenggok (“meandering”) increasingly requires students to read notation examples to help bridge the generational gap between traditional and contemporary lagu Melayu Asli styles (Arshad, 2015, p. 5). The following are examples of notated and performed grace note and trill ornamentations in lagu Melayu Asli style. The first example in Figure 14 is an acciacatura excerpt taken from a popular piece called lagu ‘Damak’. 70 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 Figure 14 Acciacatura example from the song Damak (Source: Arshad 2015, p. 43). The acciaccatura is applied with the purpose of “facilitating the notation of decorative notes or bunga lagu” (Arshad, 2015, p. 42). The term in this context has similar applications where demisemiquavers function as gracenotes that anticipate principal pitches. Their value is approximately half that of its principal note (ibid., p. 43). Figure 15 is an example of notated and performed versions of an upper mordent from an excerpt of the song ‘Gunung Banang’. The short squiggle line (not unlike the Balinese gregel suggested in Figure 10 above) that appears above F in the notated version is adequate for informing the performer that an upper mordent should be realised on this principal pitch. Figure 15 ‘Upper mordent’ example from the song ‘Gunung Banang’. (Source: Arshad 2015, p. 43). In the adjacent bar of the performed version, the trill-like execution of the upper mordent involves F's upper neighbour G. The speed at which the player executes the uppermordent, “sesuai dengan tempo lagu yang dimainkan” or loosely translated as “depends on the tempo of the piece” (Arshad, 2015, p. 43). CONCLUSION In this article, I have observed notation in three distinct traditions that exist along a preservation to innovation continuum. Despite technological advancements and exposure to Western staff notation, a myriad of indigenous musical notations principally serve to sustain traditions and aid the memory of musicians for teaching and learning. Kepatihan cipher notation, Thai tablature and Balinese ding dong, among other examples discussed above, leave the details of vocal embellishments, dynamics, tempo and instrumental improvisation to the performer’s interpretation of their respective Southeast Asian traditions. That said, notating as accurately as possible the details of lagu melayu asli’s stylistic practice in western staff notation demonstrates the necessity for some new initiates to learn the musical heritage markers of the tradition's Made Mantle Hood 71 improvisatory style including trills, mordents and acciaccatura, among others. Along the continuum of notating principal pitches and detailed embellishments lies the important role of notation to help bridge understandings. These understandings about putting notation to practice are often illusive auditory details the ear of a young initiate may, or may not fully grasp. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, hybrid forms of notation emerged between European and indigenous script notations in Thailand and Java to both expedite the study of specific instruments as well as document and preserve threatened palace repertoires. In Bali, written texts tell us that musical notation often carries with it cultural connections to religion and philosophy. For centuries, Balinese notations have been copied and recopied to preserve repertoire performed in ritual contexts. As a result, notations themselves symbolise the pantheon of Hindu gods who preside over ceremonies. Script notation continues to maintain a meaningful degree of relevance in modern-day Southeast Asia where the need for written music still requires this traditional writing system. Even though other, more modern notation systems such as Western staff and cipher notations are available to many musicians in public schools, social organisations and professional arenas, script notation still maintains a strong presence and represents local forms of musical identity for musicians. As more ubiquitous forms of staff and cipher notation become more prevalent in the region, local forms of script notation form an ‘icon of difference’ for Southeast Asian musicians to distinguish themselves from one another. Notation continues to adapt and change to modern contexts in Southeast Asia where television and radio broadcasts feature ‘textual performance’. Cipher and script- based notation are found throughout much of the region and are entwined in traditional and contemporary musical practice. With an increase in awareness of cultural identity and regional autonomy, it seems likely then that music notation in the region will continue to help preserve and document Southeast Asian oral traditions in the future. ENDNOTES 1 The two tuning systems pelog and slendro are more commonly used among Central Javanese music practitioners rather than in Bali where the terms saih gong and saih gender respectively are more commonly employed. It is generally accepted that the terms pelog and slendro made their way from Java to Bali in the mid 20th century with the establishment of government-run music conservatories and public educational institutions. The Prakempa manuscript evidences the use of these two tuning system terms among the Balinese literary community almost two centuries earlier. 2 Gambang compositions often have an odd number of principal pitches. The second section of this piece, pengawak I, has 35 gangsa pitches and the entire composition has 189. For a discussion of these and other performance aspects of gambang see Tantra and Bagiartha, 1996; Tenzer, 2000, p.236-45; and especially Schaareman, 1980, p.465-82. 3 For a related visual interpretation of these gaps in staff notation form, see Figure 11 titilaras rante notation. 4 Creese, H (2009) “Singing the Text: On-Air Textual Interpretation in Bali” In Jan van der Putten and Mary Kilcline Cody (Eds), Lost times and untold tales from the Malay World (218). National University of Singapore Press. 72 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (53-73) ISSN 2232-1020 5 Sutton and Vetter (2006, p. 237-272) make a detailed analysis of ‘Pangkur’ in the mode slendro pathet sanga in terms of its various rhythmic levels or irama and the general flexibility of form in Javanese gamelan. 6 Gendhing Jawa: Javanese gamelan notation. Retrieved from http://www.gamelanbvg.com/gendhing/index.php REFERENCES Arshad, S. F. (2015). Manual asas permainan lagu Melayu asli secara instrumental (Masters thesis). Akademi Seni Budaya dan Warisan Kebangsaan, Kuala Lumpur. Bandem, I. M. (1986). Prakempa: Sebuah lontar gamelan Bali. Denpasar: Akademi Seni Tari Indonesia. _______. (2009). Wimba tembang macapat Bali. Denpasar: BP STIKOM Bali Press. Becker, J. (1980). Traditional music in modern Java: Gamelan in a changing society. Honolulu, HI: University Press of Hawaii. Becker, J. & Feinstein A. H. (Eds.). (1988). Karawitan: Source readings in Javanese gamelan and vocal music (Vols. 1-3). Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. Brinner, B. (1995). Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical Competence and interaction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Creese, H (2009). “Singing the text: On-air textual interpretation in Bali” In Jan van der Putten and Mary Kilcline Cody (Eds), Lost Times and Untold Tales from the Malay World (218). National University of Singapore Press. Hood, M. M. (2014). Sustainability strategies among Balinese heritage ensembles. Malaysian Music Journal 3 (2), 1-13. Matusky, P. & Tan, S. B. (2012). Muzik Malaysia: Tradisi klasik, rakyat dan sinkretik. Kuala Lumpur, SGR: Universiti Malaya Press. Miller, T. E. (1992). The theory and practice of Thai musical notations. Ethnomusicology 36 (2), 197-221. Miller, T. E., & Sam-ang, S. (1995). The classical musics of Cambodia and Thailand: A study of distinctions. Ethnomusicology 39 (2), 229-243. Morton, D. (1976). The traditional music of Thailand. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. Myers-Moro, P. (1990). Musical notation in Thailand. Journal of the Siam Society, 78 (1), 101- 08. Perlman, M. (1991). Asal usul notasi gendhing Jawi di Surakarta, suatu rumusan sejarah nut rante. Jurnal Masyarakat Musikologi Indonesia, 2 (2), 36-68. Sumrongthong, B. & Sorrell, N. (2000). Melodic paradoxes in the music of the Thai pi-phat and Javanese gamelan. Yearbook for Traditional Music, 32, 67-80. Sutton, A. R. & Vetter, R. R. (2006). Flexing the frame in Javanese gamelan music: Playfulness in a performance of ladrang pangkur. In M. Tenzer (Ed.), Analytical studies in world music (pp. 237-72). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Tantra, N. (1992). Bentuk saih tetekep dan patutan dalam gamelan tujuh nada di Bali. Denpasar: Laporan Penelitan STSI Denpasar. Tantra, N. & Bagiartha, W. (1996). Gending-gending gambang bertemakan cerita Panji. Denpasar: Laporan Penelitan STSI Denpasar. Tenzer, M. (2000). Gamelan gong kebyar: The art of twentieth-century Balinese music. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago. Made Mantle Hood 73 BIOGRAPHY Made Mantle Hood is currently Associate Professor of ethnomusicology at Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been lecturer and research fellow in ethnomusicology and Indonesian Studies at Monash University and Melbourne University. While studying at Universität zu Köln, he was the recipient of both a one-year Fulbright and two-year DAAD scholarships and awarded a research assistantship at the Berlin Phonogram Archive. In 2010, his book entitled Triguna: a Hindu-Balinese Philosophy for Gamelan Gong gede Music was published by Lit Verlag Press in Muenster. He researches musical diversity and the negotiation of tradition and is the Secretary of ICTM PASEA. Email: [email protected]

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 1 (2016)

Ghazal Melayu Johor, GhaMuhyi, Al-Muhyi, inspirasi penciptaan muzik, komposisi muzik

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/136

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/816

Inspirasi Penciptaan Komposisi Muzik GhaMuhyi: Sebuah Karya Muzik Baharu Bersumber dari Muzik Tradisional Ghazal Melayu Johor

Pencetus munculnya inspirasi komposisi GhaMuhyi dapat dikatakan sebagai permasalahan utama artikel, iaitu kelompangan komposisi muzik Ghazal Melayu Johor (GMJ) kini dianalogikan seperti sebuah pohon yang ditutupi oleh semak belukar. Kedua, tema-tema ketuhanan sering dianggap hanya sesuai untuk disalurkan terhadap kesenian Islam popular sahaja seperti nasyid, qasidah, solawat dan lain-lain. Ketiga, kekuatan muzik dalam menyampaikan pesanan bersifat numerik jarang sekali menggunakan Al-Qur’an sebagai sumber muzikal dalam teknik komposisinya. Keempat, pandangan dikotomi tentang muzik absolut dan muzik program sering menjadi permasalahan dalam kreativiti penciptaan muzik padahal dikotomi tersebut tidaklah bertujuan membezakan kualiti muzik yang dihasilkan. Kelima, muzik GMJ sebagai muzik hiburan dahulunya telah gagal mendapat tempat sebagai muzik popular di era masakini walaupun usaha-usaha telah dibuat oleh pihak-pihak tertentu dalam industri muzik Malaysia. Oleh itu, objektif komposisi karya ini adalah yang pertama, menghidupkan kembali “pohon” GMJ supaya dapat menghasilkan “buah-buah” idea muzikal yang baharu dan juga memangkas “semak belukar” lagu-lagu langgam GMJ supaya tidak tertutup lagi. Kedua, mengekspresikan Al-Muhyi sebagai tema keTuhanan yang berpotensi untuk diserapkan ke dalam kesenian tradisional Melayu seperti GMJ tanpa perlu merubah bentuknya menjadi kearab-araban. Ketiga, menyampaikan pesanan muzikal yang bersifat numerik melalui hubungan nada-nada dengan huruf-huruf hijaiyah yang terdapat di dalam Al-Qur’an. Keempat, menciptakan muzik GMJ baharu yang mengandung nilai absolut dan program secara bersamaan. Kelima, menonjolkan keunikan muzik GMJ melalui pendekatan estetika popular tanpa menyederhanakan elemen tradisionalnya. Kaedah penciptaan yang dilakukan adalah secara tidak teratur (zig-zag) dan dibahagikan kepada kaedah mewujudkan muzik dan kaedah mewujudkan persembahan muzik

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/816/552

74 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (74-91) ISSN 2232-1020 Inspirasi Penciptaan Komposisi Muzik GhaMuhyi: Sebuah Karya Muzik Baharu Bersumber dari Muzik Tradisional Ghazal Melayu Johor Inspiration to the Composition of GhaMuhyi Music: A New Musical Work based on Traditional Malay Ghazal of Johor Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris e-mel: [email protected] Abstrak Pencetus munculnya inspirasi komposisi GhaMuhyi dapat dikatakan sebagai permasalahan utama artikel, iaitu kelompangan komposisi muzik Ghazal Melayu Johor (GMJ) kini dianalogikan seperti sebuah pohon yang ditutupi oleh semak belukar. Kedua, tema-tema ketuhanan sering dianggap hanya sesuai untuk disalurkan terhadap kesenian Islam popular sahaja seperti nasyid, qasidah, solawat dan lain-lain. Ketiga, kekuatan muzik dalam menyampaikan pesanan bersifat numerik jarang sekali menggunakan Al-Qur’an sebagai sumber muzikal dalam teknik komposisinya. Keempat, pandangan dikotomi tentang muzik absolut dan muzik program sering menjadi permasalahan dalam kreativiti penciptaan muzik padahal dikotomi tersebut tidaklah bertujuan membezakan kualiti muzik yang dihasilkan. Kelima, muzik GMJ sebagai muzik hiburan dahulunya telah gagal mendapat tempat sebagai muzik popular di era masakini walaupun usaha-usaha telah dibuat oleh pihak-pihak tertentu dalam industri muzik Malaysia. Oleh itu, objektif komposisi karya ini adalah yang pertama, menghidupkan kembali “pohon” GMJ supaya dapat menghasilkan “buah-buah” idea muzikal yang baharu dan juga memangkas “semak belukar” lagu-lagu langgam GMJ supaya tidak tertutup lagi. Kedua, mengekspresikan Al-Muhyi sebagai tema keTuhanan yang berpotensi untuk diserapkan ke dalam kesenian tradisional Melayu seperti GMJ tanpa perlu merubah bentuknya menjadi kearab-araban. Ketiga, menyampaikan pesanan muzikal yang bersifat numerik melalui hubungan nada-nada dengan huruf-huruf hijaiyah yang terdapat di dalam Al-Qur’an. Keempat, menciptakan muzik GMJ baharu yang mengandung nilai absolut dan program secara bersamaan. Kelima, menonjolkan keunikan muzik GMJ melalui pendekatan estetika popular tanpa menyederhanakan elemen tradisionalnya. Kaedah penciptaan yang dilakukan adalah secara tidak teratur (zig-zag) dan dibahagikan kepada kaedah mewujudkan muzik dan kaedah mewujudkan persembahan muzik Kata kunci Ghazal Melayu Johor, GhaMuhyi, Al-Muhyi, inspirasi penciptaan muzik, komposisi muzik Abstract The inspiration behind the composition of GhaMuhyi is connected to Malay Ghazal Johor (MGJ) music, which is also linked to some of the problems that will be discussed in length in this Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 75 research paper. The first problem is the vacuum left by the composition of MGJ music, conceptualised as a tree covered by shrubs. Second, the divinity theme often considered as an approriate theme only in popular Islamic arts such as nasyid, qasidah, solawat and others. Third, the strength or ability of music to deliver messages in the numeric form rarely uses the Al- Qur’an as a musical source in its technical composition. Fourth, the dichotomy between absolute music and programme music is always a problem in the creativity of composition where the dichotomy does not differentiate musical qualities. Fifth, MGJ known as entertainment music formerly, was unsuccessful in getting a place in popular music despite efforts by some artists in the Malaysian music industry. Thus, the main purpose of this composition via this paper is first to revive the “branches” of GMJ to bear new “fruits” of musical ideas and to cut down the “bushes or shrubs” of langgam songs so that it does not close again. Its second purpose is to express Al-Muhyi as a potential religious theme that is to be absorbed into Malay traditional arts such as GMJ without the need to change its character to be more Arabic in style. The third aim is to convey numeric musical messages by relating the tones with hijaiyah characters found in the Al-Qur’an. Fourth is to have new composition of GMJ music, which has equal absolute and programme music values. Last but not least, is to showcase GMJ’s uniqueness from the perspective of popular aesthetic approaches without compromising its traditional elements. The methods used in this composition process are disordered (zig zag) and not implemented consecutively; it is divided into the methods of music creation and music performance creation. Keywords Malay Ghazal Johor, GhaMuhyi, Al-Muhyi, inspiration of music creation, music composition PENGENALAN Karya muzik ini diberi tajuk GhaMuhyi. GhaMuhyi adalah gabungan kata dan ‘gha’ dan ‘muhyi’. ‘Gha’ adalah singkatan dari kata ‘ghazal’ yang secara harfiah bermaksud ‘puisi cinta’, sedangkan ‘Muhyi’ adalah salah satu daripada asmaulhusna (99 nama-nama Allah) ke-60 yang bermaksud ‘Maha Menghidupkan’. Istilah ‘Gha’ yang digunakan dalam tajuk karya ini adalah sebagai mewakili idea yang bertolak dari muzik Ghazal Melayu Johor (GMJ). Istilah ‘Muhyi’ pula berkaitan dengan gagasan isi karya ini yang mengungkap tentang kesadaran untuk “menghidupkan sesuatu.” Jadi, GhaMuhyi sebagai sebuah tajuk memiliki hubungan konotatif antara idea muzik GMJ dengan gagasan isi karya muzik yang diciptakan. Gabungan kedua istilah tersebut juga berhubung dengan reinterpretasi muzikaliti GMJ yang akan dihidupkan lagi. GhaMuhyi terdiri daripada sembilan buah komposisi-komposisi kecil yang bertajuk ‘41:39’, ‘Char Ya Muhyi’, ‘Telunjuk Silir Sirat’, ‘Seri Langit’, ‘Ghanyi’, ‘Toda’, ‘Bunga’, ‘Matahari’, dan ‘Merindu-Melayu-Kesenangan’. Setiap komposisi mempunyai pendekatan dan orientasi muzikal yang berbeza. Komposisi ‘41:39’ menggunakan pendekatan muzik filem terhadap alat-alat dan idiom-idiom muzik GMJ. Komposisi ‘Char Ya Muhyi’ pula mengangkat idiom GMJ sekunder char menjadi primer dan berdiri sebagai satu bentuk komposisi tersendiri. Komposisi ‘Telunjuk Silir Sirat’ dan ‘Seri Langit’ adalah komposisi ghazal dengan penerapan meter ganjil. Selain itu, komposisi ‘Ghanyi’ menggunakan pendekatan vokalisasi terhadap alat-alat muzik GMJ dan dipersembahkan secara sketsa. Komposisi ‘Toda’ juga dipersembahkan secara sketsa dengan menampilkan keunikan tabla GMJ. Orientasi muzik instrumental pula diterapkan dalam komposisi ‘Bunga’. Kemudian, komposisi ‘Matahari’ menggabungkan 76 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (74-91) ISSN 2232-1020 muzik dan tari dan terakhir, komposisi ‘Merindu-Melayu-Kesenangan’ menampilkan gabungan bentuk Ghazal tradisional dan Ghazal GhaMuhyi. Karya ini adalah manifestasi pengalaman peribadi dalam aspek muzik, spiritual, dan kultur, berkat hidup ditengah-tengah budaya muzik GMJ. Aspek-aspek berkaitan penguasaan teknik, artistik dan nilai-nilai GMJ telah dijiwai sejak kecil. Itu bermaksud pengalaman muzik yang diperolehi dari GMJ menjadi roh sekali gus potensi bermakna bagi komposisi sebuah bentuk muzik baharu. Pengalaman itu adalah sarana untuk memperoleh pemahaman yang mendalam tentang ‘ruh’ GMJ yang pada peluang ini digunakan untuk menciptakan kebaharuan pada muzik GhaMuhyi. Pengalaman dan pemahaman terhadap bentuk muzik berserta elemen-elemen tradisinya yang khas dapat membantu penulis untuk mengetahui hakikat muzik GMJ bagi membuka ruang-ruang estetika baharu. Pada hakikatnya, kebudayaan Melayu adalah kebudayaan yang memiliki ciri khas tersendiri yang mempunyai kaitan dengan sistem bahasa, sistem adat, sistem keagamaan, dan sistem ekspresi muzikal. Dalam karya ini, kebudayaan Melayu tidak dilihat sebagai identiti keturunan melainkan identiti kebudayaan yang bersifat cair. Ini kerana, pada dasarnya, tidak pernah ada orang Malaysia yang benar-benar berketurunan Melayu secara genetik. Definisi orang Melayu mengikut Perlembagaan Malaysia ialah mereka yang beragama Islam, berbahasa Melayu dan mengamalkan adat istiadat Melayu (Anwar Din, 2007, hal. 13). Jelas di dalam perlembagaan tersebut tidak disebutkan tentang keturunan melainkan ciri-ciri utama yang mewakili orang Melayu. Usaha untuk mengungkap identiti Melayu berdasarkan fenomena genetik sudah biasa dilakukan oleh para ilmuan dan budayawan di Malaysia. Tetapi, usaha tersebut tidak pernah menghasilkan temuan yang signifikan. Hal ini menegaskan bahawa penelusuran identiti kebudayaan Melayu berdasarkan fenomena genetik sangat bertentangan dengan hakikat kebudayaan Melayu itu sendiri. Ini kerana, sifat khas kebudayaan Melayu adalah mampu menyerap kebudayaan lain untuk diolah dengan cara sendiri hingga menjadi kebudayaan yang baharu. Fakta kebudayaan Melayu yang cair dapat dilihat dari adat istiadat, kesenian, dan kepercayaan yang tumbuh dan berkembang di Malaysia. Oleh kerana itu, kebudayaan Melayu adalah produk percampuran daripada adat istiadat, kesenian, dan kepercayaan oleh pelbagai masyarakat yang bertemu dalam satu wadah ekspresi kemanusiaan. Sifat kebudayaan Melayu yang cair itu, pada dasarnya melekat pada diri penulis yang mengalir darah Jawa, Aceh, dan India. Jadi, Melayu adalah bangsa dan kebudayaan hibrid yang merupakan perpaduan antara benih-benih kebudayaan lokal dengan kebudayaan luar demi tumbuhnya satu kebudayaan. Oleh itu, karya muzik GhaMuhyi adalah manifestasi perpaduan benih-benih kebudayaan Melayu. Secara keseluruhan, inspirasi komposisi muzik ini pada dasarnya adalah paradigma komposisi yang tumbuh dan berkembang dalam gagasan penciptanya. Berkaitan dengan paradigma penciptaan seni, Bambang Sunarto (2013, hal. 71) menyatakan bahawa: Penciptaan seni selalu berpijak pada adeg-adeg atau prinsip yang diidealkan oleh penciptanya sendiri. Wujud adeg-adeg adalah idealisme penciptaan seni untuk menyatakan ekspresi seni yang dikreasikan. Berdasarkan adeg-adeg yang diyakininya, setiap pencipta seni mengatasi pelbagai alternatif pilihan artistik dalam proses penciptaan yang dilakukannya sendiri. Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 77 KELOMPANGAN GHAZAL MELAYU JOHOR (GMJ) Kenyataan memperlihatkan bahawa GMJ telah mengalami kelompangan. Maksudnya, GMJ dirasakan tidak berkembang kerana repertoir, teknik persembahan, gaya muzik, dan idiom-idiom yang dimiliki tidak pernah berubah secara signifikan dari bentuk yang sedia ada. Satu-satunya orang yang melakukan perubahan yang signifikan adalah Pak Lomak atau Musa Bin Yusuf. Beliau adalah seorang tokoh utama GMJ yang dianggap sebagai ‘Bapak Ghazal Melayu Johor’. Rajah 1 Pak Lomak sebagai Bapak Ghazal Melayu Johor (Sumber: Shahrir Kamil, 2015)1 Pak Lomak telah membuat perubahan terhadap beberapa alat muzik, seperti sitar ditukar dengan gambus, dan sharangi diganti dengan gitar (Lailan Machfrida, 1998, hal. 26). Pernah suatu masa muzik ini juga disebut ‘gamat’ yang dalam Bahasa Melayu bererti bising atau riuh-rendah (Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Malaysia, 2015). Pada waktu itu banyak sekali alat-alat muzik yang cuba digabungkan bersamanya seperti ukulele, mandolin, banjo (kecapi Jepun), dan gendang dol (dhol). Seiring berjalannya waktu, banyak alat-alat muzik tersebut yang tidak lagi dimainkan kerana tidak sesuai dengan cita rasa seniman GMJ pada masa tersebut. Kemudian, alat-alat muzik luar seperti biola (violin), tamborin, dan marakas juga ditambahkan ke dalam ensembel GMJ. Setelah itu, alat-alat muzik ini tidak pernah lagi berubah hingga dianggap sebagai alat-alat muzik utama dalam GMJ sampai sekarang. Di dalam muzik GMJ juga terdapat idiom muzik yang khas diantaranya seperti char, toda, bunga, timbang, parsi, tokel, gong, dan tar. Setiap istilah pula mempunyai makna yang berbeza-beza secara muzikal. GMJ pernah digabungkan bersama orkestra dalam ‘Konsert Ghazal Johor’ di Stadium Tertutup Johor Bahru oleh Yayasan Warisan Johor pada tahun 2000. Penggabungan dengan orkestra juga pernah dilakukan pada ‘Simfoni Ghazal Johor’ di Istana Budaya, Kuala Lumpur pada tahun 2012. Seri Melati Ghazal, Seri Pelangi Ghazal, dan Irama Nuansa Ghazal adalah kumpulan muzik GMJ yang pernah menggabungkan alat muzik lain seperti seruling, rebana, marwas, bass elektrik, gitar 78 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (74-91) ISSN 2232-1020 elektrik, conga, djembe, dan dram elektronik. Selain itu, kumpulan ‘Daya Tebrau Ghazal’ dari Johor Bahru untuk pertama kalinya berkolaborasi dengan kumpulan muzik rock di TV3 Kuala Lumpur pada tahun 2003. Rajah 2 Beberapa alat muzik yang telah ditukar dalam GMJ. (Sumber: Rikhi Ram, 2016)2 Rajah 3 Beberapa alat muzik yang pernah dicampurkan dalam GMJ dan kemudian tidak digunakan lagi. (Sumber: Rikhi Ram, 2016)3 Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 79 Rajah 4 Alat-alat muzik utama dalam GMJ. (Sumber: Rikhi Ram, 2016)4 Rajah 6 Persembahan ‘Simfoni Ghazal Johor’ pada tahun 2012 di Istana Budaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (Sumber: Istana Budaya, 2015)5 GMJ juga pernah dicantumkan ke dalam album-album para penyanyi terkenal industri muzik tanah air. Noraniza Idris, penyanyi yang mendapat jolokan ratu Irama Malaysia pernah melakukan nyanyian semula dengan gubahan terhadap lagu-lagu6 lama GMJ. Lagu-lagu tersebut diantaranya adalah ‘Mustika Hati’, ‘Dendang Anak’, ‘Kuala Mersing’ dan ‘Puteri Ledang’. Cukup banyak lagu-lagu yang dinyanyikan semula oleh Noraniza Idris. Lagu-lagu itu dimuatkan dalam beberapa album, di antaranya ialah album ‘Ala Dondang’ (1997), ‘Masyhur’ (1998), ‘Iktiraf’ (2000), ‘Aura' (2002), dan ‘Sawo’ Matang’ (2004). 80 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (74-91) ISSN 2232-1020 Yayasan Warisan Johor7 telah mengeluarkan album ‘Putera’ (2011) yang memuat lagu-lagu ciptaan baharu GMJ pada tahun 2011. Penggarapan lagu-lagu tersebut dalam album ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan alat-alat muzik band, orkestra, dan paduan suara yang digabungkan bersama. Sayangnya lagu-lagu tersebut tidak ada satu pun yang popular. Walaupun semua idiom-idiom GMJ telah disederhanakan kerumitannya dan digabungkan dengan alat muzik Barat, inovasi tersebut tidak mampu menarik minat masyarakat terhadap GMJ. Ini menunjukkan bahawa, teknik idiomatic minimalise (mempersedikit idiom) atau combining medium (menggabungkan medium) bukanlah satu-satunya cara efektif dan efisien untuk mengembangkan muzik tradisi ke dalam industri muzik popular. Berdasarkan pernyataan tersebut, tidak dinafikan bahawa memang sudah banyak dilakukan pengembangan GMJ sejak awal kemunculannya hingga kini. Tetapi, usaha tersebut tidak secara signifikan mengubah bentuk asal muziknya. Inovasi-inovasi yang dilakukan oleh agensi-agensi seni kerajaan dan NGO ternyata terhad kepada aspek instrumentasi saja. Inovasi yang pernah dilakukan belum menyentuh hakikat muzik GMJ.8 Secara fakta, boleh dikatakan bahawa inovasi-inovasi itu tidak satu pun mampu melepaskan GMJ dari kecenderungan bentuk konvensional, contohnya penggunaan pada bentuk lagu dua bahagian (binary form) sebagai salah satu karakter tradisi muzik GMJ. Puisi atau pantun yang dinyanyikan pada GMJ juga tidak pernah lepas dari pantun jenis empat kerat. Seperti yang dijelaskan sebelumnya, pantun empat kerat dikenali sebagai pantun biasa yang terdiri dari empat baris dengan sajak A-B-A-B. Dua baris pertama berisi ‘pembayang’ dan dua berikutnya berisi ‘maksud’. Di Malaysia, selain pantun ini terdapat pantun jenis lain, iaitu pantun kilat, pantun berkait, dan talibun. Pantun kilat diketahui sebagai ‘karmina’ yang terdiri atas dua baris dengan sajak A-A. Pantun berkait dikenali juga pantun berantai di mana ada kaitan antara bait satu dengan dua, dan seterusnya (Ratna, 2013, hal. 329). ‘Talibun’ ialah sejenis pantun yang terdiri dari enam, lapan, dan sepuluh baris. Pantun jenis ini belum pernah diaplikasikan dalam muzik GMJ. Realiti menunjukkan bahawa lagu-lagu langgam yang sering ditampilkan dalam persembahan GMJ lebih diminati masyarakat, sehingga lagu-lagu GMJ yang asli (berirama Ghazal) tidak mendapat sentuhan baharu. Para seniman GMJ lebih banyak memanfaatkan lagu-lagu langgam untuk menarik minat pendengar. Pengertian istilah langgam yang dimaksudkan di sini tidak sama seperti istilah langgam pada lagu-lagu Keroncong. Pengertian langgam dalam budaya muzik GMJ adalah semua bentuk lagu dan genre muzik selain lagu-lagu yang berirama Ghazal. Jadi, kata langgam itu menunjuk pada lagu-lagu irama Melayu yang lain seperti asli, zapin, joget, inang, dangdut, dan muzik pop Melayu lainnya. GMJ dapat diibaratkan sebagai sebuah pohon yang tumbuh di tengah semak belukar. Langgam boleh diibaratkan seperti semak belukar dan lalang yang mengelilingi pohon GMJ. Para penggiat GMJ justeru lebih suka mengolah irama dan lagu langgam berbanding irama dan lagu ghazal itu sendiri. Mungkin mereka beranggapan bahawa dengan menghidupkan langgam ia akan dapat membuatkan muzik GMJ menjadi semakin hidup. Malangnya, kehidupan GMJ semakin tertutup oleh semak langgam yang tumbuh di sekitar pohon GMJ. Fenomena ini terjadi mungkin kerana pemahaman bahawa GMJ sebagai muzik tradisi yang tetap harus dipelihara dan dikekalkan. Pemahaman ini menyebabkan Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 81 kesenian GMJ akhirnya tidak mendapat sentuhan pengembangan. Akibat dari pemahaman bahawa tradisi adalah sesuatu yang statik atau tidak bergerak, menyebabkan muzik tradisi GMJ juga diperlakukan sebagai realiti kebudayaan yang statik dan tidak bergerak. Hal tersebut tentu tidaklah benar kerana tradisi pada dasarnya bersifat progresif, reaksioner dan merupakan kesinambungan gaya dan penampilan (Lorens, 2005, hal. 1116). Hakikatnya, tradisi yang membeku akan merugikan pertumbuhan peribadi dan kemanusiaan; oleh kerana itu ia harus diberontak, dicairkan dan diberi perkembangan baharu (Rendra, 1983, hal. 3). NILAI KETUHANAN AL-MUHYI Ghazal Melayu Johor (GMJ) adalah suatu genre muzik yang memiliki idiom-idiom yang mewadahi nilai-nilai cinta yang dapat dihubungkan dengan nilai ketuhanan Al-Muhyi . Cinta adalah hakikat dan kekuatan dari GMJ, sedangkan Al-Muhyi adalah salah satu sifat Allah S.W.T, ‘Yang Maha Menghidupkan’, yang sangat penting untuk disebarkan dan diteladani di masa sekarang ini. Al-Muhyi adalah nilai ketuhanan yang berasal dari salah satu nama-nama Allah S.W.T (asmaulhusna) yang bererti Maha Menghidupkan. Al-Muhyi berada diurutan ke-60 daripada 99 nama-nama Allah S.W.T. Al-Muhyi dapat diertikan sebagai memberikan daya hidup kepada setiap sesuatu yang berhak hidup. Dalam Al-Qur’an, kata Al-Muhyi hanya ditemukan dalam dua ayat yang terdapat dalam surat Ar-Rum ayat ke 50 dan surat Fushilat ayat ke 39. Meskipun demikian, ayat-ayat yang memuatkan tentang kekuasaan Allah sebagai penganugerah kehidupan dapat dijumpai pada ayat yang lain. Di Malaysia, nilai-nilai ketuhanan lebih sinonim untuk disalurkan kearah gaya muzik yang dianggap Islami atau kearab-araban misalnya, nasyid, qasidah, solawat, dan lain-lain. Hal tersebut membuatkan ketuhanan sering dianggap sebagai sebuah genre muzik tersendiri yang berbeza dengan genre-genre muzik. Pemikiran sebegini amatlah bertentangan dengan nilai ketuhanan itu sendiri khususnya yang dianjurkan oleh Al- Qur’an dalam surah Al-An’am yang bermaksud, “Katakanlah: Sesungguhnya sembahyangku, ibadatku, hidupku dan matiku hanyalah untuk Allah Tuhan semesta alam” (Q.S. 6: 162). Sebagai seorang penganut agama Islam sejak lahir, hal tersebut telah mempengaruhi kesadaran spiritualitas dalam membuka ruang-ruang estetika baharu, terutama estetika yang bernilai ketuhanan. Sesungguhnya, kesedaran tersebut telah dituangkan menjadi bahagian dari idea penciptaan muzik sebagai pesan yang berisi nilai-nilai. Konsep ketuhanan yang telah dituangkan dalam muzik GhaMuhyi memiliki dimensi yang luas. Konsep ketuhanan bukan semata-mata manifestasi dikotomi antara konsep religius yang berlawanan dengan konsep sekular atau konsep sakral yang berlawanan dengan konsep profan. Konsep ketuhanan dalam karya ini difahami sebagai satu kesatuan yang utuh, maksudnya, semua kejadian dan fenomena dalam kehidupan adalah manifestasi ketuhanan. Jika Al-Muhyi dilihat dari segi nilai kehidupan memperlihatkan bahawa realiti kehidupan sekarang dipenuhi oleh manusia-manusia yang kehilangan daya hidupnya akibat daripada tekanan-tekanan hidup yang dihadapi. Manusia mudah sekali menyerahkan segala-galanya pada nasib dan membiarkan hidupnya terombang-ambing tanpa tujuan, masa depan, cita-cita, dan kehendak. Manusia yang tidak lagi memiliki 82 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (74-91) ISSN 2232-1020 harapan sama sahaja seperti “mayat hidup”. Nyawanya masih ada akan tetapi jiwanya sudah mati dan raganya membeku. Realiti kehidupan tersebut juga terjadi pada kesenian, banyak sekali karya-karya seni yang sudah hilang daya hidupnya di tengah masyarakat sekarang ini. Keadaan tersebut sangat menonjol pada kesenian tradisional. Akibat dari derasnya arus kesenian moden Barat, kesenian tradisional semakin hilang daya hidupnya. Para seniman tradisi semakin terpinggir dalam era industri muzik yang serba popular dan mewah. Nilai Al-Muhyi diharapkan dapat menjadi sumber semangat yang penting untuk disebarkan kepada masyarakat sekarang baik dari perspektif kemanusiaan atau kebudayaan. Al-Muhyi yang merupakan nilai ketuhanan diharapkan mampu menyerap masuk ke dalam kesedaran manusia secara holistik. Seterusnya, nilai cinta yang ada di GMJ sangat berpotensi untuk menyebarkan semangat Al-Muhyi dengan perasaan cinta dalam sisi kehidupan masyarakat. PESANAN NUMERIK Karya ini juga diinspirasikan oleh keyakinan bahawa muzik adalah simbol yang dapat menyampaikan pesanan-pesanan yang bersifat numerik. Keyakinan ini berdasarkan kepada pemahaman bahawa suasana muzik yang digabungkan bersama pesanan numerik dapat menghasilkan hakikat muzik yang lebih menyentuh emosi dan fikiran. Al-Kindi dan Al-Shafa’ menjelaskan bahawa: Muzik terkait dengan kenyataan-kenyataan aritmetik dan samawi. Muzik, kerana itu memiliki hubungan erat dengan sesuatu yang nyata dan objektif. Muzik terkait dengan wujud yang benar-benar berada di luar, dan ia dapat dinilai dari segi akurasi atau tidaknya. (Al-Kindi dan Al-Shafa’, 2005, hal. 173-174) Pernyataan Al-Kindi dan Al-Shafa’ di atas jelas menunjukkan kekuatan muzik dalam menyampaikan makna tertentu yang dapat dinilai dari segi ketepatan atau tidaknya. Pada sisi lain, setiap ayat dalam Al-Qur’an mempunyai kod-kod tersendiri berdasarkan huruf dan nombor. Menurut Iskandar AG Soemabrata (2007) huruf dan angka suatu pasangan yang tidak dapat dipisahkan, jelas keberadaannya di dalam Al- Qur’an. Menjadikan huruf dan angka sebagai alat bantu dalam rangka pendekatan untuk mencuba memahami pesanan Al-Qur’an, seharusnya menjadi suatu kenyataan yang tidak dapat disampingkan dengan begitu saja (Iskandar AG Soemabrata, 2007, hal. 133). Maka pesan numerik yang terdapat di dalam Al-Qur’an adalah pengikat atau tanda bagi siapa pun yang mendengarkan muzik tersebut untuk dapat mengaitkan elemen-elemen muzik yang dicipta dengan Al-Qur’an. Sesungguhnya realiti numerik tidak hanya sekadar alat bantu tetapi juga mengandungi makna. Terutama apabila dikaitkan dengan Al-Qur’an, maka nombor bukan sekadar petunjuk ayat, surat atau entiti-entiti yang lain, melainkan mengungkap persoalan hakikat yang terkandung di dalam Al-Qur’an. Realiti numerik di dalam karya GhaMuhyi juga memiliki makna petunjuk hakikat ketuhanan yang hendak disampaikan melalui muzik. Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 83 DIKOTOMI MUZIK ABSOLUT DAN MUZIK PROGRAM Inspirasi seterusnya berdasarkan oleh keyakinan bahawa dikotomi antara muzik absolut9 dengan muzik program10 bukanlah dikotomi yang membezakan kualiti muzik. Kedua kategori muzik bukan merupakan pertentangan antara satu dengan yang lain. Ertinya, muzik absolut tidak lebih baik dari muzik program, dan begitu juga sebaliknya. Demikian juga dalam penciptaan karya ini, kerana di dalam prosesnya memiliki banyak kemungkinan dalam menggarap nilai, baik nilai yang bersifat ekstrinsik11 maupun yang bersifat instrinsik.12 Karya ini berusaha mengolah untuk mengungkap hal- hal yang bersifat ekstrinsik, sehingga secara tidak langsung aspek-aspek instrinsik juga diolah. Jadi, ketika aspek ekstrinsik diungkapkan dengan teknik maupun idiom baharu, maka hal yang bersifat instrinsik pun akan mengalami kebaharuan. Sebaliknya, ketika penciptaan karya ini difokuskan untuk mengolah aspek instrinsik, maka tanpa disedari hal-hal yang bersifat ekstrinsik juga tersalur di dalam eksistensi karya. Proses perjalanan penciptaan ini sering mengalami pertindihan orientasi antara orientasi instrinsik dengan orientasi ekstrinsik, antara hal-hal muzikal atau bukan muzikal. Pada prinsipnya, pertindihan itu bukan persoalan penting di dalam proses penciptaan kerana pertindihan adalah persenyawaan untuk menghasilkan hakikat muzik dan nilai-nilai GhaMuhyi. Schoenberg, Webern, Berg, Janacek, dan Beethoven hingga hari ini dikenal sebagai komposer-komposer yang mencurahkan perhatian penciptaannya pada muzik absolut. Namun, sesungguhnya mereka adalah komposer-komposer yang juga menaruh perhatian pada eksistensi muzik program (muzik fungsional), seperti yang dinyatakan Prier (2009) berikut ini: Meskipun pada abad ke-20 muzik program dipandang sebagai muzik sekunder, komposer terkenal seperti Schoenberg, Webern, Berg, Janacek, tetap menulis muzik instrumental yang secara diam-diam memuatkan suatu program (hal. 170). Begitu juga dengan pandangan Jack (1977) yang menyatakan bahawa: Even though Beethoven said that he did not write program music, several of his notable works have, at the least, programmatic connotations. The most obvious of these is his Symphony No. 6 (Pastorale). In it are movements that denote such pastoral scene as peasants’ merrymaking and a storm (hal. 67). Ini menunjukkan bahawa muzik absolut dan muzik program adalah muzik yang memiliki eksistensi dan karakter berbeza. Namun, berkemungkinan dalam satu karya muzik memiliki kandungan absolut dan program seperti halnya pada Symphony No.6 karya Beethoven. Aspek-aspek bukan-muzikal tidak dianggap sebagai sarana untuk mengabdi kepada kepentingan-kepentingan pragmatis dalam karya muzik. Namun, aspek-aspek itu diperlukan sebagai pendorong untuk melakukan eksperimen terhadap medium dan idiom bagi melahirkan kebaharuan. Boleh jadi aspek-aspek bukan-muzikal adalah entiti artistik yang bersifat rohani, sedangkan aspek-aspek muzikal adalah entiti artistik yang bersifat jasmani. Bagi Sumardjo (2000, hal. 99), hal ini diyakini kerana rohani selalu muncul sebelum jasmani, sedangkan jasmani saja tidak mungkin melahirkan yang rohani. 84 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (74-91) ISSN 2232-1020 REPRESENTASI KEUNIKAN IDIOM MUZIK GMJ MELALUI PENDEKATAN MUZIK POPULAR Muzik popular atau pop merupakan wacana kesenian masa kini yang mampu mewakili keunikan muzik tradisi Melayu. GMJ sebagai salah satu muzik tradisi masyarakat Melayu di Malaysia berpotensi untuk kembali diminati. Untuk itu, diperlukan sebuah kaedah penciptaan yang dapat diaplikasikan dengan kebiasaan-kebiasaan13 muzik popular tanpa mengurangi keunikan muzik tradisi. Pertama, perlu dijelaskan kedudukan GMJ sebagai muzik tradisi di Malaysia. Estetika Melayu, seperti yang sudah diungkapkan pada bahagian awal bersifat cair di mana ia mampu menyerap kebudayaan lain untuk diolah dengan cara sendiri hingga menjadi kebudayaan yang baharu, ertinya pengaruh muzik Barat memang sudah terdapat dalam GMJ sejak awal. Pengaruh tersebut dapat dilihat pada alat muzik yang dimainkan bukan pada teknik permainannya. Jadi tidak dapat dikatakan itu sebagai proses pembaratan14 melainkan sebuah percampuran instrumentasi yang membentuk elemen-elemen muzik baharu yang mewakili masyarakat Melayu pada masa itu dan disebut sebagai tradisi hingga kini. Hakikat muzik tradisi di Malaysia mungkin berbeza dengan tempat lain disebabkan latar belakang budaya Melayu itu sendiri yang merupakan budaya campuran. Keaslian muzik tradisi Melayu tidak bersifat khusus melainkan percampuran dari banyak unsur budaya yang mempengaruhinya. Maka, GMJ dikatakan sebagai ‘muzik tradisi’ adalah dengan menggunakan makna tersebut. Begitu banyak penafsiran terhadap istilah muzik popular atau muzik pop. Ada tafsiran yang bersifat ilmiah dan ada juga tafsiran yang menentang muzik popular apalagi untuk menafsirkannya secara ilmiah. …kata pop dalam teori seni dianggap sebagai sebuah terminus technicus yang mempunyai konotasi tidak cantik. Pop sepanjang perjalanan kritik seni, ditempatkan sebagai hasil seni yang tidak mulia, yang kolder, kitsch, dan sebangsanya. Padahal penamaan popular pada awalnya dipakai untuk menggolongkan jenis-jenis lagu yang hidup bersama rakyat, iaitu lagu-lagu dalam setiap bangsa yang tak henti-hentinya didiskusikan dalam ladang etnomuzikologi. (Remy Sylado, 1977, hal. 29) Pada umumnya, para intelektual bersepakat bahawa muzik popular adalah muzik yang menggunakan media-massa (audio-visual) dalam penyebaran luas ke masyarakat. Dari segi pengistilahan, kami usulkan bahawa istilah muzik popular diertikan untuk segala jenis muzik yang sedang berkembang sejajar dengan perkembangan media audio- visual, maksudnya muzik entertainment (hiburan) di Amerika dari awal abad ini sampai sekarang. Kemudian ‘pop’ bisa diertikan sebagai muzik popular di Amerika dan Inggeris pada tahun 1960-an dan selanjutnya. (Mack, 1995, hal. 20) Tidak dinafikan bahawa ada pendapat yang menyatakan bahawa muzik popular adalah lawannya muzik rakyat tradisional, muzik serius atau muzik akademis. Berikut adalah salah satu pendapat tersebut. Lebih nyata bila pop/muzik pop disamakan dengan muzik hiburan yang mudah didengarkan, untuk konsumsi sesaat saja, diciptakan oleh orang tertentu dengan tujuan komersial, berlawanan dengan muzik serius dan akademis. (Prier, 2009, hal. 166) Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 85 Tidak hairan jika pandangan tersebut masih ada hingga kini. Pada kenyataannya, karya-karya industri muzik popular yang serba sederhana dan ringan terus tersebar luas melalui media-massa dan disenangi rakyat. Sebaliknya, karya-karya muzik idealis dan kontemporer sulit untuk difahami masyarakat. Sementara itu, karya-karya muzik tradisi seperti tinggal di dalam muzium, dan hanya dipamerkan jika ada pengunjung yang datang. Inilah situasi yang terjadi di Malaysia. Semakin pesat pembangunan industri muzik, maka semakin besar pula jurang di antara tiga genre muzik tersebut. Untuk mengurangi jurang tersebut perlu diciptakan metode yang dapat menjadikan muzik GMJ kembali popular di industri muzik tanpa mengurangkan keunikannya. Apabila muzik GMJ masuk ke dalam dunia industri muzik popular, diharapkan akan mendorong perkembangan gaya muzik tersebut menjadi lebih luas. Apa lagi fungsi muzik GMJ sebagai muzik hiburan sejak zaman dulu15 sudah menunjukkan kesesuaiannya dengan permintaan (demand) industri muzik popular. Pendekatan seperti ini sebetulnya sudah pernah dilakukan orang sebelum ini, hingga lahir gubahan baharu hasil percampuran antara muzik tradisional dengan muzik popular di Malaysia, seperti ‘pop tradisional’, ‘pop etnik’, ‘irama Malaysia’ atau ‘etnik kreatif’ yang muncul di era 1990-an. Pelopor gaya ini adalah Datuk Suhaimi Mohd Zain atau Pak Ngah. Penyanyi yang paling menonjol dengan gaya tersebut ialah Siti Nurhaliza dan Noraniza Idris. Pak Ngah lebih cenderung memilih istilah ‘pop tradisional’ untuk karya-karyanya dibandingkan dengan istilah ‘pop etnik’, ‘etnik kreatif’ atau ‘irama Malaysia’. Menurutnya, istilah-istilah tersebut diperkenalkan oleh media TV3 (salah satu stesen televisyen yang terkenal di Malaysia) yang mengelompokkan jenis muzik popular ketika itu (Suhaimi Mohd Zain, temu bual, Ogos 16, 2015) Sejak kemunculan gaya-gaya tersebut hingga kini, lagu-lagu irama GMJ ternyata tidak berjaya menarik minat rakyat Malaysia dan kalah bersaing dengan lagu-lagu berirama zapin, samrah dan inang. Mungkin disebabkan anak-anak muda Malaysia lebih tertarik terhadap muzik popular dari Barat atau yang ‘kebarat-baratan’16 yang semakin meningkat dewasa ini. Secara perbandingan, terdapat kesesuaian antara bentuk tradisi GMJ dengan bentuk muzik popular di Malaysia. Pertama, durasi karya-karya muzik popular biasanya diantara lima hingga tujuh minit; durasi muzik GMJ diantara empat hingga lima minit. Kedua, instrumentasi muzik popular adalah formasi band yang terdiri dari tiga hingga delapan orang pemain yang menggunakan alat-alat muzik Barat seperti dram, gitar, bass elektrik, keyboard, dan vokalis. Instrumentasi muzik GMJ terdiri dari tujuh alat muzik dan satu atau dua orang vokalis. Ketiga, segmentasi muzikal muzik popular biasanya terdiri dari dua atau tiga bahagian utama (binary form dan ternary form); segmentasi muzik GMJ juga terdiri dari dua bahagian utama. Keempat, penampilan muzik popular biasanya dalam bentuk lagu (nyanyian yang disertai muzik) bukan instrumental (muzik tanpa nyanyian); sajian muzik GMJ juga dalam bentuk lagu bukan instrumental. Bentuk seperti ini biasanya lebih menonjolkan tekstur homophony, iaitu melodi lebih dominan daripada alat-alat muzik lain yang bersifat accompany (pengiring). Kelima, muzik popular dibuat untuk hiburan, oleh kerana itu disebut sebagai muzik hiburan; muzik GMJ juga merupakan sarana hiburan untuk masyarakat misalnya untuk pesta-pesta perkawinan atau acara-acara hiburan lainnya. Fakta di atas menunjukkan adanya keserasian bentuk dan nilai di antara muzik tradisi GMJ dengan muzik popular. Persoalannya adalah, hingga kini usaha-usaha yang 86 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (74-91) ISSN 2232-1020 sudah pernah dilakukan oleh para seniman ternyata belum dapat mengangkat muzik GMJ menjadi popular. Mungkin disebabkan para seniman GMJ belum berani keluar dari irama langgam GMJ. Sesungguhnya muzik popular di Malaysia tidak mempunyai bentuk-bentuk khusus yang bersifat tetap, melainkan hanya kebiasaan-kebiasaan yang dikembangkan secara bertahap dan tidak terlalu drastik.17 Oleh kerana itu, muzik GMJ mungkin dapat kembali diminati oleh masyarakat apabila digubah sebagaimana kebiasaan-kebiasaan bentuk dalam muzik popular, tetapi tanpa mengurangi keunikan dari elemen-elemen tradisi yang sudah ada. Menurut beberapa intelektual kontemporer, hal itu merupakan arah baharu di dalam budaya popular, seperti yang dinyatakan di bawah ini. Arah ketiga tersebut juga melihat budaya popular sebagai lokasi perjuangan. Akan tetapi, meskipun arah ini menerima kekuasaan kekuatan-kekuatan dominan, namun kemudian berfokus pada strategi-strategi popular untuk tujuan menangani, menghindari ataupun melawan kekuatan tersebut. (Fiske, 1995, hal. 24) KAEDAH PENCIPTAAN (RINGKASAN) Di dalam mewujudkan muzik ini, penciptaan dilakukan dengan menggunakan 12 kaedah, iaitu: (1) merubah pola ritma tradisi, (2) menciptakan melodi berdasarkan frasa baru dalam meter ganjil, (3) memunculkan harmoni (kord) berdasarkan pergerakan melodi, (4) mengembangkan segmentasi muzikal tradisi untuk menghasilkan segmentasi muzikal yang baharu, (5) membuat analogi istilah Al-Muhyi untuk menciptakan motif- motif melodi yang baharu, (6) menciptakan lirik berdasarkan pantun dan puisi Melayu, (7) menggabungkan alat-alat muzik ghazal tradisi dengan drum, toys, dan bass elektrik, (8) menghasilkan kesan bunyi ‘lama’ terhadap alat-alat GMJ, (9) menghasilkan kesan bunyi ‘baru’ terhadap alat-alat GMJ, (10) menghasilkan bunyi konkret dari alat muzik GMJ, (11) menggubah semula beberapa lagu tradisi dengan teknik komposisi baru, dan (12) menentukan judul setiap komposisi. Sementara itu, di dalam mewujudkan persembahan muzik karya ini, ia dilakukan dengan menggunakan 10 cara, iaitu: (1) menentukan urutan komposisi, (2) menghasilkan komposisi demo, (3) memilih pemuzik dan penyanyi, (4) menentukan jumlah pemain, (5) membentuk formasi GMJ baru, (6) membuat rekaan ruang panggung/ floor plan, (7) membentuk kumpulan produksi dan kumpulan kreatif, (8) menggunakan slide projektor sebagai alat bantu sewaktu pementasan, (9) menggabungkan muzik dan tari dalam komposisi ‘Matahari’, dan (10) membuat rekaan tata cahaya. Kaedah-kaedah tersebut bukan bermaksud untuk menunjukkan urutan dalam proses penciptaan yang dilakukan secara kaku. Sebab, hakikat proses penciptaan adalah melakukan dan menghasilkan perubahan, sehingga perubahan urutan proses kreatif sering terjadi. Dalam penciptaan pada umumnya, kaedah yang sudah dirumuskan, dibuat, diolah, dan diaplikasikan sering kali harus dirapikan semula, untuk dimurnikan dan diteruskan lagi. Oleh karena itu, penggunaan dalam penciptaan muzik sering dilakukan seperti gerakan zigzag. Melalui kaedah-kaedah penciptaan yang dilakukan, karya GhaMuhyi berusaha mencapai objektif utamanya iaitu memberikan daya hidup kepada seni muzik GMJ yang Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 87 sudah mengalami kelompangan dari sudut kreativiti. Karya GhaMuhyi juga turut menyertakan aktivis-aktivis veteran GMJ di dalam persembahannya sebagai salah satu cara untuk memperlihatkan perkembangan komposisi yang dibuat sekali gus mengangkat potensi muzik tradisi di pentas masa kini. Berikut adalah beberapa gambar semasa persembahan GhaMuhyi berlangsung yang telah diadakan di Auditorium Muzium Negara, Kuala Lumpur pada 18 Disember 2015 (Rajah 7, 8, 9). Rajah 7 Salah satu komposisi dalam persembahan karya GhaMuhyi yang bertajuk ‘Telunjuk Silir Sirat’ (Sumber: Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim, 2015, hal. 282) Rajah 8 Salah satu komposisi dalam karya GhaMuhyi bertajuk ‘Toda’ yang menonjolkan tabla GMJ (Sumber: Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim, 2015, hal. 283) 88 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (74-91) ISSN 2232-1020 Rajah 9 Gabungan antara pemuzik veteran dan baharu GMJ dalam gubahan medley bertajuk ‘Merindu-Melayu-Kesenangan’. (Sumber: Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim, 2015, hal. 285) KESIMPULAN Inspirasi penciptaan karya GhaMuhyi adalah cerminan dari potensi kesenian tradisi yang mampu dikembangkan dengan kepelbagaian bentuk berdasarkan keyakinan- keyakinan tertentu yang dimiliki oleh komposer. Justeru, keyakinan-keyakinan yang dimiliki oleh seseorang komposer berbeza antara satu sama lain. Muzik GMJ sebagai salah satu dari sekian banyaknya muzik tradisi di Malaysia menjadi inspirasi yang tidak pernah ‘kering’ untuk digali dan dikembangkan tidak hanya sebagai identiti seni dan budaya, melainkan juga sebagai khazanah keilmuan yang tidak pernah habis untuk dimartabatkan. Inspirasi penciptaan komposisi muzik GhaMuhyi memperlihatkan bahwa keyakinan-keyakinan yang dimiliki oleh komposer yang juga merupakan penulis artikel ini sangat berkait dengan latar belakang peribadinya, pengalaman, pengetahuan, dan keinginannya. Perkara tersebut sangat wajar dalam sesebuah karya seni dimana idea penciptaan sering didorong oleh hal-hal yang bersifat intuitif, individual, spiritual mahupun empirikal. Peribadi komposer sebagai seorang Muslim, Melayu dan warganegara Malaysia, lalu, pengalaman dalam kesenian GMJ sejak kecil dan muzik Barat/ muzik popular sejak remaja, kemudian, pengetahuan yang mendalam tentang ilmu-ilmu komposisi dan keinginan yang besar untuk memperjuangkan kearifan lokal GMJ untuk “duduk sama rendah dan berdiri sama tinggi” dengan muzik lain di dunia, merupakan kesedaran yang menghasilkan paradigma dalam penciptaan komposisi muzik GhaMuhyi. Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 89 NOTA AKHIR 1 http://shahrirkamil.blogspot.my 2 Rikhi Ram musical manufacturing manufacturing company (2016). Diperolehi daripada http://www.rikhiram.com 3 Rikhi Ram musical manufacturing manufacturing company. (2016). Diperolehi daripada http://www.rikhiram.com 4 Rikhi Ram musical manufacturing manufacturing company.(2016). Diperolehi daripada http://www.rikhiram.com 5 Istana Budaya (2015). Diperolehi daripada http://www.istanabudaya.gov.my/laman- utama/foto/#!mg_ld=12091 6 Dalam budaya muzik GMJ, istilah ‘lagu’ selalu digunakan oleh para penggiat untuk mewakili setiap komposisi muzik dalam GMJ. Istilah ‘muzik’ pula lebih cenderung digunakan untuk mewakili muzik GMJ secara keseluruhan. Hal ini mungkin disebabkan istilah ‘lagu’ lebih tepat untuk memaknai bentuk muzik GMJ. Menurut pandangan penulis, ‘lagu’ adalah muzik tapi ‘muzik’ belum tentu dapat dikatakan sebagai lagu. Ini karena elemen paling utama dalam lagu adalah lirik yang disampaikan oleh penyanyi. Sedangkan tanpa lirik, sesebuah komposisi itu boleh sahaja dikatakan sebagai muzik. 7 Sebuah badan kesenian dan kebudayaan Kerajaan Negeri Johor yang bertanggungjawab terhadap usaha-usaha pelestarian dan perkembangan seni dan budaya di Negeri Johor. 8 Elemen asas dalam muzik secara amnya dan GMJ secara khususnya terutamanya pada idiom- idiom tradisi yang ada di dalamnya. 9 Muzik murni yang tidak mengandungi aspek bukan-muzikal. Muzik yang bermaksud untuk memberi nikmat indah, tanpa menimbulkan suasana tertentu atau kaitan yang lain (Djelantik, 1999, hal. 69). 10 Istilah untuk muzik instrumental di mana komposer selain daripada not, juga mencantumkan keterangan tambahan (dalam tajuk, sub-tajuk atau komentar khusus) tentang isi bukan-muzikal komposisi tersebut. Isi bukan-muzikal di sini difahami dengan makna yang luas: sebagai imitasi gejala akustik, sebagai pengertian dari suatu lukisan, sebagai ungkapan dari pengalaman subjektif atau bahkan idea sastra atau filsafat (Prier, 2009, hal. 169-170). 11 Mempunyai kandungan moral, kognisi, agama, ajaran, filosofi dan sebagainya (Sumardjo, 2000, hal. 170). Ada juga yang mengatakannya sebagai isi, kandungan atau makna dari suatu karya seni. 12 Struktur seni yang dibentuk oleh medium atau material seninya (Sumardjo, 2000, hal. 169). 13 Penulis menggunakan istilah “kebiasaan“ dengan catatan bahawa hal tersebut bersifat relatif, tidak tetap dan boleh berubah-ubah. Berbeza dengan kata ‘karakter’ atau ‘ciri-ciri’ yang mempunyai konotasi atau pemaknaan yang tetap dan tidak berubah. 14 Proses membarat-baratkan suatu karya seni dengan cara mencampurkan bentuk, gaya atau teknik permainan muzik Barat di dalamnya. Dalam erti yang lain, cara untuk menyatakan keunggulan, untuk menyadarkan mereka yang tidak mampu "membarat“ bahawa mereka itu “kekurangan”, “ketinggalan” dan “keterbelakang” (Sudjoko, 1977, hal. 6). 15 Muzik GMJ adalah muzik hiburan yang sangat dekat dengan masyarakat Johor pada waktu dahulu. Pertunjukan GMJ biasanya dibuat pada waktu malam hingga ke pagi. 16 Sama seperti maksud ‘pembaratan’ yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya atau lebih spesifik adalah muzik pop yang meniru gaya muzik pop Barat tetapi liriknya menggunakan Bahasa Malaysia. 17 Penting untuk penulis mengetahui tahapan atau bench mark terkini yang pernah dilakukan orang lain terhadap muzik GMJ di dalam industri muzik Malaysia, supaya dapat menginspirasi bagaimana bentuk tahapan berikutnya. Ini karena suatu tahapan dengan ‘lompatan’ yang jauh mungkin membuat cita-cita untuk mempopularkan GMJ menjadi sia-sia. Begitu juga sekiranya tahapan yang dilakukan tidak menampakkan perbezaan dengan yang sudah ada. 90 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (74-91) ISSN 2232-1020 RUJUKAN Al-Kindi & Ikhwan Al-Shafa’. (2005). Estetika Islam – Menafsir seni dan keindahan. (Terj. Abu Bakar Irfan). Bandung: Mizan. Anwar Din. (2007). Asas kebudayaan & kesenian Melayu. Selangor: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Bambang Sunarto, (2013). Pengetahuan dan penalaran dalam studi penciptaan seni. Prosiding Seminar Nasional, Pascasarjana Institut Seni Indonesia Surakarta (hal. 17). Surakarta: ISI Press. Bambang Sunarto. (2007). Epistemologi penciptaan seni dalam Guntur (Ed.), Metodologi penciptaan seni: Dari Paradigma hingga metode (hal.13-38). Surakarta: ISI Press. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Malaysia. (2015). Kamus bahasa Melayu online. Diperolehi dari http://prpm.dbp.gov.my Djelantik, A. A. M. (1999). Estetika sebuah pengantar. Yogyakarta: Masyarakat Seni Pertunjukan Indonesia. Fiske, J. (1995). Memahami budaya populer. (Asmah Bey Mahyuddin, terjemahan). Yogyakarta: Jalasutra. Iskandar AG Soemabrata. (2007). Pesan-pesan numerik Al-Quran. Jakarta: Republika. Jack, S. & James Eversole. (1977). The art of sound: An introduction to music. (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Jakob Sumardjo. (2000). Filsafat seni. Bandung: ITB. Kamarulzaman Bin Mohamed Karim. (2015). GhaMuhyi (Disertasi Ijazah Kedoktoran yang tidak diterbitkan). Institusi Seni Indonesia Surakarta, Surakarta. Lailan Machfrida. (1998). Kajian muzik ghazal Melayu. Johor Bahru: Yayasan Warisan Johor. Lorens, B. (2005). Kamus filsafat. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Mack, D. (1995). Apresiasi musik populer. Yogyakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Nusatama. Prier, K.E. SJ. (2009). Kamus musik. Yogyakarta: Pusat Muzik Liturgi. Remy Sylado. (1977). Muzik Pop Indonesia: Suatu kekebalan sang mengapa dalam PRISMA, Kebudayaan Pop: Komersialisasi Gaya Hidup 6, 23-32. Rendra, W. S. (1983). Mempertimbangkan tradisi. Jakarta: PT Gramedia. Shahrir Kamil. (2015). Haji Musa bin Yusof (Pak Lomak): Pendeta Ghazal Melayu Johor. Diperolehi dari http://shahrirkamil.blogspot.my Sudjoko. (Jun 1977). Kebudayaan Massa. PRISMA, Kebudayaan Pop: Komersialisasi Gaya Hidup, 6, 3-12. BIOGRAFI Kamarulzaman Bin Mohamed Karim atau lebih dikenali dengan nama Man Tabla, merupakan seorang pensyarah di Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI). Sebelum mendapat pendidikan muzik secara formal, sejak kecil beliau sudah terlibat dengan muzik tradisi Ghazal Melayu Johor bersama kumpulan Seri Melati Ghazal di bawah pimpinan ayahnya sendiri yang sudah tertubuh sejak tahun 1960-an. Muzik Ghazal juga telah menginspirasi beliau secara falsafah untuk melanjutkan pengajian khusus dalam bidang komposisi muzik. Pada tahun 2002, beliau telah mendapat Diploma Muzik dari Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor. Di universiti yang sama, beliau berjaya menamatkan pengajian dalam program Ijazah Sarjana Muda Komposisi Muzik (Serious Composition) dengan Kepujian pada tahun 2007. Dari tahun 2008 hingga 2010, beliau melanjutkan pengajian masternya di Indonesia dan mendapat Master dalam Penciptaan Muzik (Muzik Nusantara) / Master in Art Creation dari Institut Seni Indonesia (ISI) Yogyakarta dengan karya bertajuk ‘Ratib Rewind’. Kemudian, pada tahun 2016 beliau berjaya Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 91 menamatkan pengajian Doktor dalam bidang yang sama di Institut Seni Indonesia (ISI) Surakarta dengan karya bertajuk GhaMuhyi. Selain itu, beliau juga merupakan Presiden Persatuan Ghazal Johor Malaysia (GHAJMAS) sejak 2015 hingga sekarang. Email: [email protected]

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 1 (2016)

audio analysis, contextual sound, field recording, microphones, sape, sound preservation

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/136

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/817

Reviewing the Recording Quality of a Local String Instrument (Sape) from the Perspective of Sound Preservation

Although technologies have rapidly advanced in the modern world, musicians and music scholars rarely understand new technologies and hence cannot comprehend the impact of recording technologies on their careers. Recordings of ethnic instruments that are available in the marketplace today show various types of timbre determined by different sampling rates, choice of microphone placements and acoustic environment. In many cases, the timbre produced in recordings of one ethnic instrument called sape is highly diversified. Music recordings available for ethnic instruments such as the sape of the Orang Ulu, Kenyah and other ethnic groups were manipulated either through the sound of the instrument itself or through the original recording that was extracted from various recording mediums, or recorded in a “mock-up” context created by producers. The effects of all these manipulations have misled listeners into thinking that what they are hearing are the original sounds of instruments such as sape. This situation is similar to a live performance. Many audience members are unaware that the final acoustic outcome for the audience is not only the sound produced by the instrument but also through the main speaker monitors of a performance venue. Local folk music instruments such as sape are traditionally played in a rural and/or communal setting with its unique sound environment. This contextual sound environment however tends to be ignored in the sound reinforcement of live performances as well as in audio recordings. All of the above affects the quality of audio recordings. The intention of this article is to compare, analyse and review the quality of audio recordings of sape from various perspectives, including wave analysis and audio signal audibility. This article suggests for a more advanced sound preservation approach through a constructed scheme for recordings.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/817/553

92 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 Reviewing the Recording Quality of a Local String Instrument (Sape) from the Perspective of Sound Preservation Ahmad Faudzi Musib Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Although technologies have rapidly advanced in the modern world, musicians and music scholars rarely understand new technologies and hence cannot comprehend the impact of recording technologies on their careers. Recordings of ethnic instruments that are available in the marketplace today show various types of timbre determined by different sampling rates, choice of microphone placements and acoustic environment. In many cases, the timbre produced in recordings of one ethnic instrument called sape is highly diversified. Music recordings available for ethnic instruments such as the sape of the Orang Ulu, Kenyah and other ethnic groups were manipulated either through the sound of the instrument itself or through the original recording that was extracted from various recording mediums, or recorded in a “mock-up” context created by producers. The effects of all these manipulations have misled listeners into thinking that what they are hearing are the original sounds of instruments such as sape. This situation is similar to a live performance. Many audience members are unaware that the final acoustic outcome for the audience is not only the sound produced by the instrument but also through the main speaker monitors of a performance venue. Local folk music instruments such as sape are traditionally played in a rural and/or communal setting with its unique sound environment. This contextual sound environment however tends to be ignored in the sound reinforcement of live performances as well as in audio recordings. All of the above affects the quality of audio recordings. The intention of this article is to compare, analyse and review the quality of audio recordings of sape from various perspectives, including wave analysis and audio signal audibility. This article suggests for a more advanced sound preservation approach through a constructed scheme for recordings. Keywords audio analysis, contextual sound, field recording, microphones, sape, sound preservation INTRODUCTION Local folk music instruments such as sape are traditionally played in a rural and/or communal setting with its unique sound environment. This contextual sound environment however tends to be ignored in the sound reinforcement of live performances as well as in audio recordings. Even “plug and play” is not a solution in bringing contextual sounds from the village into recordings of a compact disc or to live performance settings. Although the demands of live performances change the contextual Ahmad Faudzi Musib 93 sound of sape, issues still arise as to the best ways sounds can be produced during live performances. Concerns about the sound of sape also arise in the production of an album for traditional musical instruments. Isolation, as well as making individualised recorded tracks within a multitrack recording seems to be a common procedure in conventional studio recording practices. In every recording studio, the live room or performance space is well set up in terms of providing desired room acoustics. The live room is normally equipped with an isolation booth, sound proofing to diffuse low frequency rumble, acoustic panelling to absorb any potential presence of ‘standing waves’, which in turn alters the timbre of selected string instruments such as the sape. Timbre can be best described as tone color. Hopkin and Scoville (1996) stated that, “tone color is a blend of frequencies present” (p.2). Schouten (1968) notes that, “in reality timbre is impacted by more than the mere composition of overtone series; it involves the spectrum and envelope of the frequency as well as its amplitude (pp.35-44). Chan and Musib (2010) however stated that timbre preferences are very much a cultural issue. This is shown through constant modifications of musical instruments in order to fit timbral preferences, discussed in organology history. As such, audio production is even more critical when recording producers create their own ‘context’ based on a conceptual idea through multitrack recording techniques. In the search for methods to use for audio field recordings of ethnic instruments such as sape, along other ethnic instruments that are played with sape, the longhouse setting and its surrounding within innovative recordings of multiple highlights and angles conceptualized as ‘contextual sounds’ are yet to be discovered (Jähnichen, 2011; Musib, 2012). OBJECTIVES This article reviews the quality of music recordings of a local string instrument called sape. First, I will identify the characteristics of timbre produced by recordings of local string instruments. Secondly, I will review the quality of selected audio recordings of the sape acquired from museum archives, recording studios and field recordings. Selected commercial products compact discs (CD), digital video discs (DVD), video compact disc (VCD) and cassette tapes available at cultural centers as souvenirs for tourists will also be reviewed. Third, I will discuss the appropriateness of recordings produced from the perspective of sound preservation. I will begin with a brief description of the sape. THE SAPE The sape (sampeh, sampet) (Figure 1) is a stringed instrument of the Orang Ulu groups including the Kenyah, Kayan, Penan, Iban and Kelabit among others, who are indigenous to Sarawak, Malaysia. In the classification of musical instruments by Hornbostel and Sachs (1961), the sape is a simple board zither without a resonator. The sape is classified under the chordophone family. The musical instrument is carved out of a single wooden trunk by the maker. Sape comes in various shapes with differently 94 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 crafted headstocks and in various dimensions. A sape is attached with three or four strings. The frets are moveable with bees wax used as an adhesive. This allows sape performers to reset the frets according to the music pieces, as the tuning varies from one piece to another. The sape is usually played by men to accompany dance performances (Galvin 1962, p. 501; Gorlinski 1988, p. 101; Gorlinski 1992, p. 8), during a wedding ceremony (Gorlinski 1988, p.81) and during shamanic healing rituals (Prattis 1963, p.72; Whittier 1978, p.106). Figure 1 Matthew Ngau Jau with his sape at a longhouse in Bau, Sarawak (photo by Ahmad Faudzi Musib, 2013) IDENTIFYING TIMBRE CHARACTERISTICS OF LOCAL STRING INSTRUMENT RECORDINGS In order to identify the ideal sound characteristics of the sape for audio preservation, one must first understand the sape from the perspective of the performer (the player of the sape musical instrument), the archivist (preservationist), and the sound engineer (recordings). Most of the recordings collected and evaluated in this research were a mixture of the common acoustic type of sape and the electric versions produced in various of contexts such as the communal longhouse and recording studios. Other materials that will be reviewed are sound recording products that were extracted from various recording mediums. The view of the performer, archivist, sound engineer, as well as the assessment and interpretation of related literatures toward what is expected in an audio recording of the sape that is of good quality, are taken into consideration in the construction of an evaluation scheme in order to review the recording quality of Ahmad Faudzi Musib 95 local string instruments (sape) from the perspective of sound preservation. The content of the scheme will be constructed based on three main principles: 1) what is ‘preferred’, based on the judgment of the recorded materials; 2) the ‘importance’ or ‘significance’ of the substance, as well as; 3) the ‘experience’ or ‘understanding’ of the three parties mentioned earlier towards sound preservation of the local string instrument. An abbreviation of these three terms—P.I.E. (Preferred, Importance, Experience) will be used throughout the paper. Each discipline will have a set of P.I.E. to deal with in weighing the quality of sound recording. Opinions, issues and views from each of the respective participants, performer, archivist and sound engineer, will be considered and discussed. As a Performer The Orang Ulu native player of traditional sape music demonstrates that the elements of P.I.E. are conveyed through what one understands best from what was taught by one’s mentor. This was mentioned through informal discussions with informant Matthew Ngau Jau during studio recording breaks. The importance of what is perceived as “quality” is influenced by the mission of the performer to safeguard heritage through documentation of repertoire in the form of audio recordings. As an Archivist For an archivist, field notes are not adequate in safeguarding heritage. Though sound recording is an auxiliary to safeguarding heritage, recording is an important form of evidence that supports and justifies fieldwork documentation. The availability of the lightweight, portable digital stereo recorder was a great technological advance for archivists who previously had to carry the bulky Nagra1 during their field work. With the transformation of audio files into digital formats of high resolution, recording became much easier. The transformation from analogue to digital format was one of the major evolutions in safeguarding heritage. However, at times the archivist overlooked many technical aspects in sound recording. Therefore, the quality of recordings became inconsistent. Despite other tasks performed by an archivist such as documentation and preservation, the importance of signal aqcuisitions was often overlooked. Often times, signal aqcuisition in conventional field recordings, is aimed only at the sound source, regarding other sounds as less important. The main focus of P.I.E. elements is on the importance of the sound source in this discipline. Treating sound as knowledge is not limited only to the instrument and musician, but the soundscape itself, and therefore should also be part of an archivist’s field of view. The following (Figure 2) is an excerpt of an interview with Kevin Bradley from the National Library of Australia as well as the Head of the Technical Committee of the International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archive (IASA) commenting about ethnographic recording. The interview took place on 10 October 2012 at the 43rd IASA Confrence held in India International Centre, New Delhi, India. 96 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 Me: What about those additional stuffs, putting into traditional instruments like sape, going into the studio record with reverb, flanging and all those processing – what do you have to say about that? Kevin: (Laugh) it depends on the purpose of your recording. If the recording purpose is to do an authentic recording then you failed (little laugh). But if your purpose is to make a record of that thing (authentic instrument) then it is a good thing. For instance, is about what you appraise. If you are doing an ethnographic recording, you wouldn’t do any of those things (processing, adding effects). Just try to get a clean, accurate and best quality recording you could manage. Figure 2 Excerpt of an interview with Kevin Bradley (ARCPA No:1590) The side sound that includes spatial information and other surrounding sounds captured are not only meant for today’s research in sound studies but also for future use. However, there might be certain technologies or instruments in the future that could analyse these components of sound that we have not yet discovered. A very good example is the capability of spectogram analysis, conducted in 1951 by Kay Electric Co2 under the trademark of Sonagraph. The ‘narrow band’ and the ‘wide band’ analysis produced by the sonagraph were inconsistent in the aspect of amplitude versus time domain. It was not until 1995, when the Sonagraph was replaced by the Spectogram in the digital era that the Spectogram proved much more precise, finer and faster adjustable function in realtime. The importance of substance from the perspective of sound preservation is not only meant for ethnomusicology, but for other social scientists sharing sound knowledge. As David Nathan archivist noted, on the importance of audio documentation, “audio provides an unbroken path between the information provider and the final user”. As a Sound Engineer The quality of recording would best be described as an experience in ‘sculpting’ the output. At times, the experiences go hand in hand with habit. In treating a raw sound whether in a studio or during live performances, a sound engineer will use his or her ability to ‘makeover’ what is missing based on the reference of experience. In this field, the P.I.E elements only focus on preference and experience as the means of producing ‘quality sound’. The following (Figure 3) is an excerpt taken from an interview with Toby Seay that took place on 7 October 2012, at the 43rd IASA Confrence held at the India International Centre, New Delhi, India. Ahmad Faudzi Musib 97 Me: Can I say that music in context can be best viewed through localization or highlights of certain component in the element of the music in context as a whole in the rural environment? Toby: Localizations, I remember once I did a live jazz band project. I had it all at closed miking, and a few meters I had a stereo microphone in place picking up the whole band. Again during the mix-down session, I am able to reconstruct (sculpt) certain instrument to be loud or soft, as well as using different microphone to make it not so loud (through positioning, pick-up patterns, as well as its sensitivity which condenser or dynamic). Again this is based on judgments, which is not the truth. Figure 3 Excerpt of an interview with Toby Seay (ARCPA No: 2018) Most professional sound engineers will begin the recording process by choosing the preferred type of microphones based on criteria such as frequency response, polar pattern, uncoloured, and microphone placement techniques. Treating every raw sound signal, occurs in the frequency spectrum of the instrument without any equalizations or enhancement. In many aspects of sound recording, sound engineers will often express their concerns on how to maintain the actual sounds of the instrument. Other sound engineers who have less experience will treat sound differently based on their set of P.I.E. (Preferred, Importance, Experience). They might treat the buzzing sound produced by rattling wooden frets (due to dried beeswax) of the sape as a disturbance rather than preserving it, hence they will use an equalizer to ‘cut or attenuate’ the unwanted buzzing sound. Overlooked by habit, the actual sound of the native sape is now altered. The goal of sound reproduction in a manner of ‘clean, enhanced and beautified’ sound through commonly used and abused approaches, changes the quality of the natural sounding sape. My view What is the quality of recordings with regard to the native sape of the Orang Ulu? When recording is conducted in order to preserve the actual timbre, what is produced? The focus on quality in recording for preservation, will have to be based on what is produced by the actual source. This leads to the study of what is the actual sound source of sape and how it is sounded in its natural environment. Prior to the understanding of the actual sound source, we have to investigate and trace what happens in the mastering, mixing, recording where certain sound elements might have been lost, distorted, isolated or even enhanced. Based on these aspects just mentioned, samples will be utilised with each sample tested according to the structure scheme and its various references in related areas. 98 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 CONSTRUCTING A SCHEME Sound preservation is not limited only to the recorded materials. The quality should also be well preserved upon playback. Figure 4 is a simple illustration in understanding the process of maintaining sound preservation through quality recording, storage and the playback system. Figure 4 The sound quality is well preserved provided that the recording, storage and playback is of the same format. (Illustration by Ahmad Faudzi Musib 2013) Table 1 Four main elements required in evaluating the quality of recording (source) (Source: Nathan, 2010) No. Descriptions Definitions 1 Signal  Content  Fidelity  Spatial and contextual information  Comfortable to listen to 2 Noise  From environment  near: people, animals, activities  far: traffic, generators, planes  machines: refrigerators, fans, computers  not hearable: mobile phones, electrical interference  acoustic: reflections/resonance  Generated by event (unwanted)  shuffling papers, clothes  table banging  backchannel from interviewer  equipment handling, especially microphones and cables  Generated by equipment  wrong input levels  circuitry noise (cheap or incompatible)  compression loss or distortion  ALC3/AGC4 effects (pumping)  video camera motors 3 Listenability  Comfort  Consistency 4 Fit for Purpose  Commercial/ Archive/ Documentary/ Teaching Material Recording: 96 kHz sample rate 32-bit resolution Storage: 96 kHz sample rate 32-bit resolution Playback: 96 kHz 32-bit resolution Quality: 96 kHz 32-bit resolution Ahmad Faudzi Musib 99 In constructing a scheme which will be used to review the recording quality of local string instruments from the perspective of sound preservation, related studies were considered. David Nathan, director and archivist for the Endangered Languages Archive (ELAR), listed the requirements of quality recordings that are acceptable and that are not limited to oral materials. In Table 1, four main elements described as the requirements in evaluating the quality of recording (source) was categorised by David Nathan (2010). Another important aspect to be considered in reviewing audio recording quality is the playback device. In Figure 5, A.J. van den Hul, founder of a Dutch company that specialises in quality signal transmission in audio stereo systems, listed the eight elements that are to be considered as a method to maintain the recording quality of a playback system. Each device will undergo a structured test by A.J. van den Hul (n.d.). This test is conducted to make sure that the playback system reproduces all recorded material at the best quality. 1 Details 2 Dynamics 3 Lack of Distortion 4 Balance in Timbre 5 Depth 6 Spatial Impression: Width and Height 7 High Definition 8 High Resolution Figure 5 Important variables to be tested on audio stereo system focuses on the quality signal transmission [Source: van den Hul, A.J. (n.d.).] For example, the CD audio is limited to 44.1 kHz sample rate at 16-bit resolution. If a field recordist records a piece of music during his field work at a sample rate of 48 kHz in 24-bit resolution, in order to hear the recording back in the same quality, the playback system should support this format. In this research, an amplitude statistic test was conducted on a similar sound source through two different recording devices. In the test, a similar sound source was encoded at 96 kHz sample rate with 32- bit resolution and the other encoded at 44.1 kHz sample rate with 16 -bit resolution. The result showed that playing the same material on a lower reproduction machine alters the sound quality. One of the components was variation in output of the specimen’s amplitude statistic, particularly the peak amplitude (Table 2). Another important factor to consider in using the reproduction system (playback machine) before evaluating quality recording, is that if the recorded materials is to be played back on a personal computer, one should be aware whether or not the soundcard is capable of supporting a 96 kHz sample rate with 32-bit resolution data. 100 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 Table 2 The table shows the amplitude statistic comparison at peak amplitude measurement of actual signal sample at 32-bit and playback on 16-bit system (Source: Ahmad Faudzi Musib, 2013) Description 32-bit 96 kHz Playback Machine 16-bit 44.1 kHz Playback Machine 1 Stereo dimension Front Left Front Right Front Left Front Right 2 Peak Amplitude -0.91 dB -1.20 dB -1.73 dB -1.73 dB 3 Maximum Sample Value 29497.42 28550.86 26840 26840 4 Minimum Sample Value -28854.43 -28042.20 -26840 -26840 5 Possibly Clipped Samples 0 0 0 0 6 Total RMS Amplitude -13.08 dB -13.27 dB -13.08 dB -13.27 dB 7 Maximum RMS Amplitude -8.80 dB -9.17 dB -8.80 dB -9.17 dB 8 Minimum RMS Amplitude -90.69 dB -89.53 dB -90.69 dB -89.53 dB 9 Average RMS Amplitude -14.37 dB -14.47 dB -14.37 dB -14.48 dB 10 DC Offset 0.00 % 0.00 % 0.00 % 0.00 % 11 Measured Bit Depth 32 32 16 16 12 Dynamic Range 81.89 dB 80.36 dB 81.89 dB 80.36 dB 13 Dynamic Range Used 81.40 dB 79.85 dB 81.40 dB 79.85 dB 14 Perceived Loudness -12.70 dB -12.55 dB -12.70 dB -12.55 dB 15 Perceived Eq Loudness -7.81 dB -7.91 dB -7.77 dB -7.90 dB Based on an archiving recording scheme as well as the technical aspects of the audio reproduction system scheme, the content of elements was found to be similar and in demand particularly in preserving the ‘quality’ of the sound. In addition to sound preservation that begins with recording and playback systems, the materials used are important. The role of materials is of equal importance to the recording device and the playback system. Anthony Seeger is a professor of ethnomusicology at the University of California at Los Angeles. As a trained archivist as well as research associate of the Smithsonian Institute he conveys concerns regarding audio preservation and the future of recordings. As a former director of the Smithsonian Folkways Recordings he is concerned that the collection of recorded history in the time period of one hundred years is at risk. This is due to the fact that the materials used to record music, such as tape and disc, are very fragile. The rapid growth of recording formats over the past ten years has made archive materials obsolete. Materials recorded in the twentieth century might not be able to be played back in the twenty-first century due to new systems and the format incompatibility of playback and recording devices. Therefore sound quality from the perspective of preservation can be structured based on three main elements: the recording settings, playback systems and materials that can be played back in the same quality as the recordings made. Although archivists and technical device experts differ in their roles and functions, both aim for ‘quality’ sound preservation. The table shown in Figure 6 is the research scheme structured as a result of merging core ideas of two respected disciplines in sound preservation. Prior to this structured scheme, five specimens were taken from five different outfits. Investigations on various aspects of audio and wave analysis in justifying the recording quality of local string instrument Ahmad Faudzi Musib 101 from the perspective of sound preservation were carried out. As such, the cases will be discussed below. Title: Material Recording date Recorded by Group: Source Reviewed date Reviewed by Signal consistency Context Fit For Purpose Test category Degradatio n Acceptable Alteration Studio Field Ethnology Commercial Content Physical Yes No Yes No Yes No Notes: Figure 6 Research scheme structure based on merging the core ideas of two respected disciplines of archivist and technical expert in sound preservation. (Source: Ahmad Faudzi Musib 2013). Though the definitions of the said description (variables) comply with certain meanings, there were no instrument designs, suggestions or methods to test these variables. Taking the example of the first variable, signal consistency, considerations were made with regards to degradation and acceptable/alteration. These refer to variations in the quality of the evaluated materials. Another aspect was considered by looking at the context, whether in the studio or a field recording. Spatial, from the perspective of recording, refers to what will be the acceptable depth, distance or spots from the sound source, microphone polar pattern, positions such as NOS5, ORFT6 and the BLUMLIEN7; all being references and techniques that were never revealed in the product jacket of the recorded materials. The following are several outfits and organizations that have been identified as the main distributors of these recordings today. As indicated, all products shown in Table 3 are materials that were considered to undergo evaluation based on the formulated scheme, prior to sound preservation. Table 3 List of products taken as specimens from various outfits and organisations No Product Outfits and Organisation 1 Commercial Malls CD Stores / Cultural Centers 2 National Museum Archives 3 Recording Studio University Putra Malaysia 4 Live Performance Concert recorded live 5 Amateur Using a portable recorder 102 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 EVALUATION PROCESS USING THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT The process of reviewing the recording quality of local string instruments from the perspective of sound preservation was based on the research scheme (Table 6) designed earlier. Figure 7 represents a walk-through of how each recording will undergo the evaluation. Prior to the evaluation, seven important cases will be discussed. Figure 7 In reviewing the recording quality of local string instruments (sape) from the perspective of sound preservation, all five samples of recording materials will undergo the process of evaluation using the design research instrument. (prepared by Ahmad Faudzi Musib 2013) The “Notes” column will be for the detail information regarding the type of test conducted, the result of the test and suggestions. Test and evaluation - Distorted or over modulating signal - “Pulse-train” effects - False stereo separation - False depth (usage of reverb unit) - Overuse of dynamic signal processors (“breathing” effect) - Doctored (cut, paste, multi-track) - Frequency analysis - Phase analysis - Dynamic range analysis - Advance frequency range analysis Recording review complete Test will be conducted only - If audio degradation or alteration occurs in the materials evaluated -If the signal consistency indicates acceptable precede the evaluation (context & fit for purpose) Selecting the suitable area in which this recording is fit for: Fit for purpose - Ethnology - Commercial Based on audibility of evaluated material selection is made: Signal consistency - Degradation - Acceptable - Alteration Environment of the evaluated material is selected: Context - Studio - Field Data regarding evaluated material were collected are as follows: Title / Material /Recording date /Recorded by Group /Source/Review date /Reviewed by Ahmad Faudzi Musib 103 Example 1: Distorted or Demodulation Signal Sape Product: Commercial Productions (Music Store) The first specimen was selected randomly from the shelf of a music store. The selected recording is ‘Sape Lansan’, track number 5 from the Secret Sound: Traditional Music of the Sarawak Ethnic Group (CD2006-114). Since there was a degradation of audio signal specifically to a ‘distort sounding signal’, a test was carried out to determine the actual cause of distorted sound as suggested in the research instrument shown in Figure 7. The entire musical piece was uploaded to a computer for analysis and the region was identified. The region was selected on the waveform that reaches its maximum amplitude. Audibly, the signal is heard as a distorted sounding signal. The test result of Item 3 of Table 4 clearly shows that the signal is interpreted as -3.53dB on the left and - 3.54dB on the right channel. The measurement of left and right channels of the recording measuring at a number of samples that could exceed 0 dB relative to full scale, did not show any value of possible ‘clip’ or ‘distorted signal’ as shown in Item 4 in Table 4. Based on the test result of the analysis, the occurrence of ‘distorted sounding signal’ was due to poor signal extraction from the original carrier, hence reducing the quality of the recording of the local string instrument from the perspective of sound preservation. Figure 8 Distorted or demodulation signal sample taken from Track 5 entitled ‘Sape Lansan’ from the Secret Sound: Traditional Music of Sarawak Ethnic Group, CD2006-114. (analysis by Ahmad Faudzi Musib 2012) Distort sounding region 104 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 Table 4 Waveform statistic measured the output value of ‘0’ for clip or distort signal, but the actual fact is that the sound of the sape is distorted. (analysis prepared by Ahmad Faudzi Musib 2013) No. Measurement Left Right 1 Minimum Sample value of the lowest amplitude -21813 -20567 2 Maximum Sample value of the highest amplitude 21812 21812 3 Peak Amplitude with the highest amplitude in decibel form. -3.53 dB -3.54 dB 4 Possibly Clipped based on 0 dBFS (decibel relative to full scale). 0 0 5 DC Offset measure in percentage. Positive values are above the center line (zero volts), and negative values are below it. -.158 .17 6 Minimum RMS Power 996.99 dB 996.99 dB 7 Maximum RMS Power -inf dB -inf dB 8 Average RMS Power- reflects perceived loudness. -3.01 dB -3.01 dB 9 Total RMS Power- the total power of the entire selection -8.31 dB -9.4dB 10 Actual Bit Depth 16-bits 16-bits Example 2: A Signal Processed Sape with a Heavy Synthesized Music as a Backline Product: Commercial Productions (Music Store) Specimen two was taken from Jerry Kamit’s solo albums, Akai Nyamai, Sape: Volume 1 and Trance Sape and Sape Easy Listening: Volume 1. Based on the research instrument design in reviewing the quality recording of sape as a local string instrument from a sound preservation perspective, this recording indicated some form of sound enhancement as a whole. Audible enhancement was made to the sape particularly the ‘spatial depth’. A test was carried out, as suggested in the research instrument shown earlier in Figure 7, to determine the actual cause of ‘spatial depth’8. The entire musical piece was transferred to the computer for audio analysis. Since the music composition and musical arrangement are prone to trance music, it was impossible to extract a single note struck as the solo sape was heavily drowned out in synthesized music utilized as backline accompaniment. Visible changes in amplitude as well as long decay time suggested that the sape underwent some kind of effect processor. Audibly, the signal is heard as a ‘reverb sounding’ sape signal shown in Figure 9a. To prove the hypothesis a simulation was conducted on an acoustic sape. A single note struck followed by a damping of the thumb on the vibrating string is used as a sample. Since reverb effect can be easily understood as an effect on a single sound, what one hears from a sape player in a large hall or a small room is the ‘reflection time’9. Within a large hall, the reflection time is longer than in a small room. Large spaces such as a hall or auditorium would give a longer decay time. The damping of the string was done on purpose. As the damping took place, the remaining sound or the ‘residue’10 was used to measure how long it took for the amplitude to fade out (Figure 9b). Ahmad Faudzi Musib 105 Figure 9a Enhancement of the acoustic sape sound with reverb found in ‘Leleng’ from Jerry Kamit’s Sape Easy Listening Vol.1. Both amplitudes of Waveform A and Waveform B represent a longer decay time hence indicating a usage of effect processors – suggesting the sape was played in a large auditorium (analysis by Ahmad Faudzi Musib. Location 00.00.06.04 and Waveform B begins at 00.00.06.28) Figure 9b Simulation of a single note on sape with no reverb shows zero decay time. The second waveform (with reverb simulation) shows a longer decay time. (Source: Ahmad Faudzi Musib. ARCPA No:2042–2045 location 00.00.01.26) The waveform statistic shows differences in all measurement values between Waveform A (without reverb) and Waveform B (with reverb) shown in Table 5. Waveform A Waveform B Waveform B: Longer decay time Waveform A: Zero decay time 106 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 Table 5 The waveform statistic shows differences in all measurement values between Waveform A (left) without reverb and Waveform B (right) with reverb (analysis by Ahmad Faudzi Musib. ARCPA No:2042-5 Location 00.00.01.26). Without “reverb” effects (Waveform Statistic) With “reverb” effects (Waveform Statistic) Left Right Left Right Min. Sample Value -20427 -26723 Min. Sample Value -16138 -15870 Max. Sample Value 29082 32767 Max. Sample Value 22410 22033 Peak Amplitude -1.04 dB 0 dB Peak Amplitude -3.30 dB -3.45 dB Possibly Clipped 0 8 Possibly Clipped 0 0 DC Offset .008 .007 DC Offset .001 .001 Min. RMS Power -30.49 dB -26.47 dB Min. RMS Power -51.95 dB -53.66 dB Max. RMS Power -10.07 dB -8.35 dB Max. RMS Power -12.04 dB -12.18 dB Average RMS Power -15.44 dB -15.03 dB Average RMS Power -29.20 dB -29.57 dB Total RMS Power -15.38 dB -14.66 dB Total RMS Power -24.32 dB -24.75 dB Actual Bit Depth 16 Bits 16 Bits Actual Bit Depth 16 Bits 16 Bits Due to the alteration of sape sound using the processor effects, the chances of it being an ethnographic recording of sape are nil. Although the recording is not suitable for ethnographic display from the perspective of sound preservation, Jerry Kamit has nevertheless successfully demonstrated creative musical ideas in composition and arrangement. Example 3: Isolated Signals and Purposely Creating Stereo Separation of the Left and Right Sound Sources Product: Commercial Productions (Cultural Centre) The third sample was ‘Dat Diat’, taken from Sarawak Sape Music: From Kayan Ethnic Group. Tabun Budah and Usak Utong of Ume Kahei performed the recording in Long Makero, Belaga, with the recording produced by The Sarawak Craft Council. It was audibly obvious that the music was recorded and engineered using stereo separation. To visualize the separation of the left and right channels, the music was analysed using the research instrument design earlier mentioned. As shown in Figure 10, the amplitudes representing the left and right channels are not similar. This indicates two different musical patterns suggesting perhaps a melody and counter melody. The techniques demonstrated here utilise two-dimensional sounding instruments. The music begins with one sape from the left followed by the other sape that appeared from the right based on the amplitude patterns. It was an interesting approach in sound recording, but is not suitable for ethnographic recording particularly from the perspective of sound preservation. In sound preservation no alteration should be made to the sound source. This includes the sound of the instrument as well as localisation. In creating a stereo sound environment the re-positioning of two separate sources altered the sound of the sape, hence defeating the purpose of searching and reviewing sape as a local string instrument sounding of the native Orang Ulu from the perspective of sound preservation. Ahmad Faudzi Musib 107 Figure 10 Isolated signals and purposely created stereo separation of the left and right sound sources. This sample is Track 2 entitled ‘Dat Diat’, taken from Sarawak Sape Music: From Kayan Ethnic Group, SCC-2006-1. (Source: Ahmad Faudzi Musib 2012) Example 4: Field Recording Product: Ethnology Department, Sarawak Museum In evaluating the recording quality of recorded materials obtained from the Ethnology Department, Sarawak Museum, what was audibly heard is an open air context (Figure 11), and the environment suggests that the sape was recorded in the late evening probably around midnight. A test was conducted using spectrogram analysis of the amplitude trend. What is visible are amplitude consistencies in faded darker image, with lesser color intensity representing the sound of a rooster captured with the sape playing. Based on the research scheme used earlier, the signal consistency shows that the sape (athrophony11) along with a rooster (biophony12) were in the same environment. The result of the review material clarified that there was no alteration or degradation occurring in this recording. The side sound and the sape as sources were kept balanced with no recreation or false depth nor localization of sound (that can be doctored using a multi-track recorder). The quality, authenticity and the originality of the recording can be recommended as an ethnology recording suitable for sound preservation as local string instrument sounding, sape of the native Orang Ulu. The inclusion of side sounds may open up the opportunity for other fields of research. The scope of required information is much larger not limited only to musicology but to other social sciences such anthropology among other fields. Left Channel Right Channel Two different amplitude patterns on each channel 108 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 Figure 11 Analysis of the spectrogram shows the visible amplitude consistency of the sape along with a rooster, suggesting that both the sape and the rooster were in the same environment. (Source: Gorlinksi, 1993) Example 5: Studio Recording Product: Universiti Putra Malaysia (Archives) Various aspects of sound were captured through multi-sourcing sound produced by the instrument through ubiquitous recording. The focus is the instrument; hence only the source is captured limiting the original context within the rural environs of the long house in Sarawak where the sape is played along with other instruments. Most of the time, the studio recording environment is the best environment to record audio signal without any interruption of the so-called ‘noise’. This could be the approach for conventional recordings. Although the technological equipment in a recording studio is state of the art, one should remember that the content of the recoding is not only limited to the clarity of the sound but other acoustic properties such as sape in its context. In a recording studio, sounds were isolated, captured and treated before the recording took place (Figure 12). Constant notes of the sape Faded darker image with lesser intensity was the sound of the rooster. Ahmad Faudzi Musib 109 Figure 12 On the left is an acoustic sape. A small capsule condenser microphone is placed at the back of the instrument to capture the sound produced from the back of the sape. On the right is electric sape (on the floor) with a pick-up installed in the body cavity. (ARCPA 2044-9 and 2044-12) With an electric sape, noise gate devices were used to ‘stop’ the continuous electrical buzzing sound appearing in the recording. This is normally due to faulty wiring of the pickup that is attached to the sape. Figure 13 Usage of D.I., an abbreviation for direct injection box, only picking up the vibration of the string through the magnetic pickup installed on the sape. (photo by Ahmad Faudzi Musib) There were times when electric grounding was not done properly during the installation of the sape so that the faulty wiring of the magnetic pick-up introduced an electrical buzzing noise. The sound engineer had no choice but to apply equalization to remove the unwanted frequencies that alter the sound of the sape. In a worst-case scenario, engineers had to use a ‘gate device’ (Figure 14) to stop the buzzing sound from continuously leaking into the recording. 110 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 Figure 14 Usage of gate device to stop continuous, unwanted sound from leaking through the recorded track. (photo by Ahmad Faudzi Musib 2012) The detachment happens as the native sape which is normally played in the long house of the Orang Ulu is now performed in a concert hall along with sound reinforcement systems for a large audience. Similar circumstances occur in a recording studio. The sound of the native sape was isolated and recorded in a sound proof booth. Other visible transformations such as adding frets, adopting more strings and using a built-in pick-up embedded onto the cavity of the instrument changes sound quality and the repertoire of the traditional sape. The evolution from playing in long house to concert hall, concert hall to studios and from acoustic to electric, has increased the sound experience for the performer in evaluating quality sound. CURRENT ISSUES OF SAPE PLAYING: AN OBSERVATION In the early usages of sape, rattan strings were used as the source before the bicycle brake wires became available in the island of Borneo (Chan & Musib, 2010). Later bicycle brake wires were replaced by the metal strings of an acoustic guitar due to a particular gauge or size that became available and have remained as the tonal characteristic of metal guitar strings until the present day. In the aspect of string settings, makers have substituted the wooden tuning pegs to guitar machine heads. Based on an interview with informant Matthew Ngau Jau (2010), using the guitar machine heads allows for precision tuning and provides a convenient way for string replacement. Indeed machine heads and guitar strings complimented each other in creating a desired sound. Obviously the introduced materials open up sound potentials for sape players. The nickel composition contained in the metal strings along with a magnetic pickup installed in the body cavity of the sape, translate the vibration of the strings into sound at the amplifier as the string is plucked. The result is a clearer high overtone produced through the fluctuation of the string in the magnetic field of the pickup. This phenomenon can be explained through the pickup placement. Placing the pickup close to the bridge13 (Figure 18) produces a brighter string sound. A test conducted on a Gibson Les Paul Standard guitar showed that the reason for different readings of two different outputs of the pickup, was due to the positioning of the pickup on the body of an electric guitar cavity. The higher output pickup placed at the bridge led to a less pronounced vibration produced by the strings at the bridge. By positioning the high Ahmad Faudzi Musib 111 output pickup on the less pronounced vibrations of strings at the bridge with another pickup with less output due to placement at the neck position creating greater vibration of the strings compensates for the output hence keeping a balance of overall sounding of the guitar. As for the sape the humbucking14 and the single coil15 were the two common pickups installed in the traditional sape that introduced an unbalance and less pronounced output. The body construction and mechanism of an electric guitar are not similar to a sape. What must be noted is that one of the significant features creating drawbacks is that the sape is actually a zither and not a lute. Modifications have been made to the sape making it more like an electric guitar, resulting in an altered timbre. Figure 15 Sape with wooden tuning pegs, guitar machine heads to substitute the wooden pegs. The transformation makes for easier string replacement and precision of tuning. (photo by Ahmad Faudzi Musib 2012) Figure 16 Sape with single coil pickup installed (photo by Chan Cheong Jan, 2010). 112 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 Figure 17 Matthew Ngau Jau, sape with single coil wiring installation (top); location of the pickup inside the sape cavity (bottom). (Source: Ahmad Faudzi Musib, 2010) Figure 18 On the left is shown the Gibson Burst Bucker model made specifically for the neck and bridge position (ARCPA No 2031-15) while the photo on the right is a type of humbucking pickup installed inside the sape cavity acting as a bridge pickup, hence producing an unpronounced sound. (photo by Ahmad Faudzi Musib, 2012) Ahmad Faudzi Musib 113 Figure 19 Shown on the multi meter is the Gibson Burst Bucker Pro (lead or bridge pickup) with an output signal at 8.31ohm on the top, and on the bottom the Gibson Burst Bucker Pro (rhythm or neck pickup) with an output signal at 7.85 ohm (ARCPA No. 2031–2050 & 2031– 2076) (photo by Ahmad Faudzi Musib, 2012). The rapid growth of audio enhancement tools such as amplification and the use of pick-ups have become difficult to resist. The adaptation of electronics into native sape instruments is considered sound enhancement for some players. The traditional native sape that used to be a soft-sounding instrument now stands side by side on the stage with other electronic instruments with the aid of amplification – so that sape players are not aware that their instruments are slowly becoming detached from their natural environment. CONCLUSION In this paper, we moved from a single view of ideal sape sound towards acknowledgement of different contexts in which sound is produced. The sound of sape, would have a different set of perceived ideal sounds according to the position of the user whether as player, sound engineer, sound archivist and others involved with recording. With this plurality of ideals of sound for one instrument, we can produce an evaluation that is meaningful for all based on the ‘actual sound’ produced acoustically by the instrument. However, this ‘actual sound’ is problematic whereby a philosophical question remains unanswered. The outcome of review of the five examples remain open-ended, but not without some insights. The Example 5 recording carried out in the studio by the researchers with specific awareness of the inherent acoustic qualities of sape, is an example that closely reflects the actual sound of the instrument. At the same time, what is also indicated is that any recorded sound profile is made through creative solutions in the selection of microphone and placements made to maximise the capturing of signals of the particular instrument that in and of itself is a unique instrument. The field recording in Example 4 is what we as listeners hear when sape is played in a natural and social environment. Field recordings seldom cross paths with artistically produced recordings. However, increasingly advanced audio settings continue to present questions related to contextual sounds as perhaps an important part 114 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 of the identity of the instrument. Example 2 presents some of the most available, commercial as well as artistic productions of sape recordings. It is our view that the artistic recordings using sape today has room for improvements in order to fulfil a more refined demand for sape sound profiles. Putting together Examples 1, 2 and 3, it is easy to observe that what is available in today’s sape recordings may not give an apt impression of the sonic capability of the acoustic instrument. This is an indication that recording preservation has not done enough, either for sape or other ethnic instruments. At the same time, what is lacking are recordings that could reflect the actual sound, or the raw sound of the instrument that is ‘as heard’ by players and listeners in ordinary life settings. Projecting forward, we envision that artistic preservation of sape must be not only produced as a variant of electric guitar sound, but as a unique contribution to modern compositions capturing delicate sound profiles of the sape instrument. ENDNOTES 1 Nagra: An open-reel tape recorder invented by Stefan Kudelski. Nagra was used since 1950 as audio recorders that were used by the radio journalist. The device first product launch in 1951 as Nagra 1 to present Nagra PICO in 2012, digital handy recorder that use by field recordists. 2 In 1951, Elmo Edward Crump of the Kay Electric Co. produced the first commercially available machine for audio spectrographic analysis, which they marketed under the trademark “Sona-Graph.” The graphs produced by a Sona-Graph came to be called “Sonagrams.” For decades, all spectrograms were Sonagrams. (Source: http://earbirding.com/blog/archives/1229) 3 ALC: Automatic Loudness Control: is a function that built-into a stereo audio digital recorder which enables the source input signal undergoes a processing known as audio compression. With ALC set to “on” mode, the audio compressors will attenuate any loud signal from over modulating of signal or distorted. Unfortunately, most ALC process is done automatic. 4 AGC: Automatic Gain Control: is a built in device that serves as “hands on the knob” function, keeping the correct as well as ideal signal level. 5 NOS: An abbreviation for Nederlandse Omroep Stichting. NOS is a stereo microphone techniques founded by Holland Radio that uses two microphones of a same model position with an axle angle of α = ±45° = 90° degrees space, and place at distance of 30cm between the two microphones mentioned. 6 ORFT: Initiated by Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française or the Radio of France. The ORTF is a stereo microphone techniques is set the angle between the microphone axes at 110° with the distance between two similar pickup angle of microphones at a = 17 cm and this will give a captured angle of 96° space. 7 Blumlien Pair was introduced by Alan Blumlein for the creation of stereo recordings based on stereo microphone techniques. The pair consists of two microphones of the same made at a pickup angle of bi-directional (Figure 8) pickup pattern, with both positioned and forming 90° angle. 8 Spatial depth: Sound perception based on three dimensional perspective through ear as a receptive sensors 9 Reflection time: Referred to as time taken for sound reflected against a hard surface causes a persistence of sound in an acoustic environment after the actual sound triggered. 10 Residue: Referred to persistence of sound in an acoustic environment after the actual sound triggered. The persistence or after triggered effect sound usually are simulation to simulate of Ahmad Faudzi Musib 115 reflected sound against a hard surface causes a continuance of sound in an acoustic environment after the actual sound triggered. 11 Anthrophony: Referred to sound produce by the human such as talking, singing, movement, usage of machine and other mean of manmade sound. 12 Biophony: Referred to sound produce by the large, small animals, insects and other of its kind. 13 Pickup placement: There are two main pickup designs for an electric guitar, the neck and the bridge pick-up, with each comes with different resistance reading, hence outputting different sound of the bridge or the neck. 14 Humbucking is made of Alnico (mixture of aluminium, nickel, cobalt) magnets. Each humbucking comprises of two single-coil pickup, with each magnets wounded together in one unit. This pick-up can be seen installed in most of Gibson Les Paul model of an electric guitar. 15 Single coil is made of Alnico (mixture of aluminium, nickel, cobalt) magnets. Each single coil comprise of wounded magnet as a single unit. This pick-up can be seen installed in most of Fender Stratocaster model of an electric guitar. REFERENCES Bradley, K. (10 October 2012). Interviewed at the 43rd Annual Conference of International Association of Sound and Audio Visual Archives, India International Centre, New Delhi, India, ARCPA:1590. Bradley, K. (2008). Physical problems, sonic implications: A discussion of the ethics of preservation treatments and audio recordings. Musica/Tecnologia, 2, 35–47. Bradley, K. (Ed.). (2009). Guidelines on the production and preservation of digital audio objects. Auckland Park: International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA). Chan C. J. & Musib, A. F. (2010). Timbre change of sape and the use of sound reinforcement device. Paper presented in the International Music Conference of University Malaya, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. 19–20 October 2010. Galvin, A. D. (1962). Five sorts of Sarawak and Kalimantan Kenyah song. Sarawak Museum Journal, 6 (19-20), 501–510. Gorlinski, V. K. (1988). Some insights into the art of sapé’ playing. Sarawak Museum Journal, 39 (60), 77–104. Gorlinski, V.K. (1989). The sampéq of the Kenyah of East Kalimantan, Indonesia: A case study of the recreational music tradition (Unpublished M.A. thesis). University of Hawai'i, Honolulu, United States. Gorlinski, V. K. (1992, July 16–17). Why women do not play sampé’: Some comments on gender relations and the plucked lute of the Kenyah and Kayan. Paper presented at the Workshop on Music Research in Southeast Asia, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. Gorlinski, V. K. (1995). Songs of honor, words of respect: Social contours of Kenyah Lepo’ Tau versification, Sarawak, Malaysia (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, United States. Hopkin, B. & Scoville, J. (1996). Musical instrument design: Practical information for instrument making. Tucson, Arizona: See Sharp Press. Jähnichen, G. (2011). Turning audiovisual archives into scientific assets. Journal of Knowledge Management Practice, 12 (3), 139–146. 116 Malaysian Music Journal Vol. 5, Num. 1 (92-117) ISSN 2232-1020 Jähnichen, G. & Musib, A. F. (2013). Social scientists as users: Searching for recorded sound in its environment – Cases from Borneo. IASA Journal, 40, 44–54. Musib, A. F. (2010). Electronic music practice through sound synthesis — case study: Varèse's Poème Électronique. In G. Jähnichen & J. Chieng (Eds.), Preserving creativity in music practice: UPM book series on music research 3 (pp. 71–88). Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. Musib, A. F. (2011). Sound print as an identification tool. In G. Jähnichen & J. Chieng (Eds.), Music and memory: UPM book series on music research 4 (pp. 157–170). Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. Musib, A. F. (2012). Back to reality complex: Preservation methods of sound production and its environment in the digital era. In Loo F. C., Loo F. Y & Md. Nasir Hashim (Eds.), Essays on world music and its preservation: University of Malaya Book Series on Research in Musicology 5 (pp. 42–56). Stuttgart: Lambert Academic Publishing. Musib, A. F. (2013). Noise most wanted. In G. Jähnichen & C. Meddegoda (Eds.), (music ˄ dance) ∈ environment: UPM book series on music research 5 (pp. 217–230). Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. Nathan, D. (2010). Sound and unsound practices in documentary linguistics: Towards an epistemology for audio. In P. K. Austin (Ed.), Lectures in language documentation and description, volume 7 (pp. 264–284). London: School of Oriental and African Studies. Nathan, D. (2006). Thick interfaces: Mobilising language documentation. In J. Gippert, N. Himmelmann & U. Mosel (Eds.), Essentials of language documentation (pp. 363–379), Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Prattis, I. (1963). The Kayan-Kenyah “Bungan cult”. Sarawak Museum Journal, 11 (21–22), 64– 87. Schouten, J. F. (1968). The perception of timbre. In Y. Kohasi (Ed.), Reports of the 6th International Congress on Acoustics, GP-6-2, 6 vols. (pp.35–44, 90). Tokyo: Maruzen; Amsterdam: Elsevier. van den Hul, A.J. (n.d.). Company Profile. Retrieved from http://www.vandenhul.com/company-profile?page=p&id=1 von Hornbostel, E. M. & Sachs, C. (1961). Classification of musical instruments: Translated from the original German by Anthony Baines and Klaus P. Wachsmann. Galpin Society Journal, 14, 3–29. Whittier, H. L. (1978). Concepts of adat and cosmology among the Kenyah Dayak of Borneo: Coping with the changing socio-cultural milieu. Sarawak Museum Journal, 26 (47), 106. AUDIOGRAPHY “Kayan Traditional Music: The Primitive Sound”. Traditional Music of Sarawak Ethnic Group, 2007. Ten Video Production. CD2007-120. “Iban Traditional Music: The Olden Sound”. Traditional Music of Sarawak Ethnic Group, 2007. Ten Video Production. CD2007-119. “Akai Nyamai: Sape”. Vol. 1. Zanzibar Media. “Kenyah: Cultural, Dance and Song”. The Cultural Series, 2008. Ten Video Production. CD2008-134. “Sape”. Vol. 5. LUH. CD98029. “Sape”. Vol. 7. LUH. CD98031. “Sarawak Sape Music”. Kayan Ethnic Group. Sarawak Craft Council. SCC 2006-1. Ahmad Faudzi Musib 117 “Music of Sarawak: Sawaku”. Pan Records, Netherlands. PAN2067CD. “Traditional Music of Sarawak Ethnic Group: The Secret Sound”. Ten Video (P), Lambir Discovery (C). 2006a: Miri, Sarawak. CD2006-114. “Traditional Music of Sarawak Ethnic Group: The Hidden Sound”. Ten Video (P), Lambir Discovery (C). 2006b: Miri, Sarawak. CD2006-115. “Salo Jalong”. Singing: Lusat Bilung; Chorus: Pe Jalong Njau (L. Moh); Pe Ngau Tugang (Liyu). Recording by V. K.Gorlinski. Liyu Mato, 12 March 1993. [Ethnology Department, Sarawak Museum, 16-17 March 2011] “Sampe Bali”. Sape: Piab Njau Tanyit. Recording probably by V. K.Gorlinski. Long Moh, Ulu Baram. 20 Oct 1992. [Song title: “Selulun Lumang”; “Lisun”; “Nyah Lunyat”; “Lenjau Tugau”; “Cin Linyu Tapung”; “Jalong Ula”; “La Tata”; “Ucak Aling”; etc] [Ethnology Department, Sarawak Museum, 16-17 March 2011] “Sampe: Det Diet”. Sape: Lian Bilung. Recording by V. K.Gorlinski. Liyu Mato, 13 March 1993. [Ethnology Department, Sarawak Museum, 16-17 March 2011] “Sampe: Tang Tako”. Sape: Lian Bilung. Recording by V. K.Gorlinski. Liyu Mato, 13 March 1993. [Ethnology Department, Sarawak Museum, 16-17 March 2011] Sape: Rh Apan. SM 1-3. (Real tape three volumes). Sape: Kesiang Nyipak. Recording by Monica Lewinsky. Rumah Apan, Belaga. April 1993. [Ethnology Department, Sarawak Museum,16-17 March 2011] BIOGRAPHY Ahmad Faudzi Musib is senior lecturer at the Universiti Putra Malaysia, Music Department since 2009. Born in 1966, he studied Music Synthesis at Berklee College of Music, Boston Massachusetts, U.S.A. in 1990 with Prof. Dr Richard Boulanger, completed his Master of Music (Electronic /Computer Music Emphasis) with Prof. Dr Donald Wilson at University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, U.S.A. in 1993, and in 2015 he completed his PhD in Music with a thesis under the supervision of Prof. Dr Gisa Jähnichen at the Universiti Putra Malaysia. He was teaching in different functions at the Ocean Institute of Audio Technology, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Universiti Telekom (Unitel). In 2015, Muṣīb was commissioned as Industry experts by the Department of Skill Development, Ministry of Human Resources in the field of Information and Communication Technology. He has written chapters in books published in University Putra Malaysia book series on music research, and University of Malaya book series on research in musicology since 2011 until present. Musib has also worked as sound synthesis, guitarist, as well as an audio engineer in several local album productions. Email: [email protected]

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 5 No. 1 (2016)

.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/136

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1153

Editorial

In the Volume 5, Issue I of the Malaysian Music Journal, we present six articles from the areas of interdisciplinary research, ethnomusicology, music education, composition and electronic music. The articles in this volume broaden our view of song text composition, music modules produced by the ministry, musical notation systems, adaptation of world music pedagogy, inspirations to compositions and the quality of digital recordings. These articles also address the continuous negotiation among musicians and composers between musical sustainability and innovation. In his article, The Evolution of the Polpolot: Innovation and Continuity in a Baluan Song Form, Lewis discusses the usage of language in the song text of polpolot, a twopart vocal form from Baluan Island in the Manus province of Papua New Guinea. He posits that polpolot is increasingly being sung in Tok Pisin, the official language of the new nation and the English language, rather than the indigenous language in which it was originally sung, Ngolan Paluai.Lewis refers to this choice of language as ‘looking inward and outward’ in which the use of contemporary indigenous language is more inclusive of the younger generation of Baluan, while the use of English as more engaging of an international audience. This article demonstrates a degree of sustainability that evolves in a manner, which does not compromise the interests of the current generation.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/1153/2854

i MALAYSIAN MUSIC JOURNAL Volume 5 Number 1 June 2016 ISSN 2232-1020 Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjong Malim, Perak 2016 ii iii MALAYSIAN MUSIC JOURNAL Volume 5 Number 1 June 2016 Editorial Clare Chan Suet Ching v The Evolution of Polpolot: Innovation and Continuity in a Baluan Song Form Tony Lewis 1 The Validation of a Basic Knowledge Test of Music for the Cultural Arts Guidance Program (PBSB) in Malaysia Using the 2 Parameter Logistic (2PL) Model Item Response Theory Siti Eshah Mokshein, Zaharul Lailiddin Saidon and Brian Doig 20 South Indian Konnakkol in Western Musicianship Teaching Tony Teck Kay Makarome 37 Notating Heritage Musics: Preservation and Practice in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia Made Mantle Hood 53 Inspirasi Penciptaan Komposisi Muzik GhaMuhyi: Sebuah Karya Muzik Baharu Bersumber dari Muzik Tradisional Ghazal Melayu Johor Kamarulzaman Mohamed Karim 74 Reviewing Recording Quality of a Local String Instrument (Sape) from the Perspective of Sound Preservation Ahmad Fauzi Musib 92 iv v Editorial In the Volume 5, Issue I of the Malaysian Music Journal, we present six articles from the areas of interdisciplinary research, ethnomusicology, music education, composition and electronic music. The articles in this volume broaden our view of song text composition, music modules produced by the ministry, musical notation systems, adaptation of world music pedagogy, inspirations to compositions and the quality of digital recordings. These articles also address the continuous negotiation among musicians and composers between musical sustainability and innovation. In his article, The Evolution of the Polpolot: Innovation and Continuity in a Baluan Song Form, Lewis discusses the usage of language in the song text of polpolot, a two- part vocal form from Baluan Island in the Manus province of Papua New Guinea. He posits that polpolot is increasingly being sung in Tok Pisin, the official language of the new nation and the English language, rather than the indigenous language in which it was originally sung, Ngolan Paluai. Lewis refers to this choice of language as ‘looking inward and outward’ in which the use of contemporary indigenous language is more inclusive of the younger generation of Baluan, while the use of English as more engaging of an international audience. This article demonstrates a degree of sustainability that evolves in a manner, which does not compromise the interests of the current generation. Siti Eshah, Zaharul Lailiddin and Doig validate the effectiveness the Cultural Arts Guidance Program (PBSB) implemented on the Malaysian schools by the Department of National Culture and the Ministry of Education of Malaysia in their article,The Validation of a Basic Knowledge Test of Music for the Cultural Arts Guidance Program (PBSB) in Malaysia Using the 2 Parameter Logistic (2PL) Model Item Response Theory. This article demonstrates the strengths and weaknesses in the cultural programmes implemented by the ministry. These assessments provide guide on areas that need to be strengthened and improved. In this article titled South Indian Konnakol Makarome in Western Teaching, Makarome posits that the rhythmic ideas of the konnakol, or South Indian vocal percussion are useful for the teaching of Western Musicianship. The vocalisation of rhythmic patterns and improvisation structure aid in the learning of rhythmic patterns and improvisation patterns respectively. This adaptation demonstrates an innovative approach to teaching and learning and broadens our understanding of the musical systems of the world. vi Made Hood, in his article, Notating heritage musics: Preservation and practice in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia examines the function of heritage and hybrid notation namely Balinese ding dong notation and Javenese kepatihan cipher notation today. He argues that even with the western staff notation, many indigenous musical notations provide important information for the interpretation of the music. These notations also serve as memory aids for teaching and learning traditional music. Hood’s article shows the complexity of documenting music into visual formats and how communities are continuously searching for ways to sustain musical heritages. Kamarulzaman enlightens us on the inspiration and motivation to his composition, GhaMuhyi, in his article titled Inspirasi Penciptaan Komposisi Muzik GhaMuhyi: Sebuah Karya Muzik Baharu Bersumber dari Muzik Tradisional Ghazal Melayu Johor.Underlying Kamarulzaman’s composition is the desire for the new without compromising the traditional. He includes divinity themes, numeric forms and dilutes the division between absolute and programme music in GhaMuhyi. Kamarulzaman tries to promote malay ghazal music to the category of popular entertainment, demonstrating how the popular aesthetic approach may be utilised in music compositions without compromising its traditional elements. This article presents an approach to the sustainability of traditional music that is contemporary and popular. Ahmad Faudzi evaluates selected music recordings on the sape, a traditional plucked lute zither from the Sabah and Sarawak. In his article, Reviewing the Recording Quality of a Local String Instrument (sape) from the Perspective of Sound Preservation, Ahmad Faudzi posits that the quality of the sape recordings today is determined by different sampling rates, choice of microphone placements, and acoustic environment. He argues that these sape recordings in Malaysia do not reflect the actual or “raw” of the sape. Ahmad Faudzi proposes for the artistic preservation of sape as a unique sound source. He emphasises the need for the “preservation” of unique sound sources in music recordings. Clare Chan Suet Ching Chief Editor

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 4 No. 2 (2015)

composition, genre synthesis, creative practice, Persian dastgah, classical guitar

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/109

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/806

Shur For Solo Guitar: A Case Study of Genre Synthesis in Composing

The use of borrowed musical elements in composition is a well-established historical practice. Although this has often been within a particular genre or historical period, many composers such as Debussy, Bartok, Schnittke and Sculthorpe have sought exotic material from other genres or traditions as part of their compositional modus operandi. One way to gain insights into how such cross genre synthesis is achieved is to examine a composition that is the result of a specific poly-genre practice. Shur for Solo Guitar is an experiment in genre synthesis where musical content, processes and concepts from Persian dastgah music, Flamenco, Blues, Western concert music practices and classical guitar techniques are all synthesised into a coherent piece of music. This paper scrutinises the work to identify the concepts and strategies used to achieve genre synthesis, and discusses theirfunction within the composition.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/806/542

Michael D. Knopf 1 Shur For Solo Guitar: A Case Study of Genre Synthesis in Composing Michael D. Knopf e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The use of borrowed musical elements in composition is a well-established historical practice. Although this has often been within a particular genre or historical period, many composers such as Debussy, Bartok, Schnittke and Sculthorpe have sought exotic material from other genres or traditions as part of their compositional modus operandi. One way to gain insights into how such cross genre synthesis is achieved is to examine a composition that is the result of a specific poly-genre practice. Shur for Solo Guitar is an experiment in genre synthesis where musical content, processes and concepts from Persian dastgah music, Flamenco, Blues, Western concert music practices and classical guitar techniques are all synthesised into a coherent piece of music. This paper scrutinises the work to identify the concepts and strategies used to achieve genre synthesis, and discusses their function within the composition. Keywords composition, genre synthesis, creative practice, Persian dastgah, classical guitar This paper adopts a practice-led research approach to show how a newly composed work for solo guitar achieves genre synthesis. In addition to identifying the concept and techniques used in the composition, the methodology and the analysis reveal the processes undertaken as part of a composer’s personal practice, thereby providing another dimension to understanding how genre synthesis takes place in the work under scrutiny. There are two areas in this compositional study from where genre content is accessed. The first of these is the use of genre elements from research into musical resources exotic to one’s own learning experiences, in this case, my development of understandings of Persian music structure and melodic treatment and the subsequent impact these had on a new composition. The second resource area is the use of the composer’s musical genre experiences that form part of his or her inner-world of aesthetics and musical knowledge. Brouwer (1970, p.9) describes this as “an extremely complex array of theoretical worlds of academics, of formative learning, of informations – all this amalgamated in the conscious mind to give way to the imagination”. This statement portrays the composer as a confluence of cultural and musical influences, a “locus of hybridity” (Leavy, 2009, p.205), a crucial consideration in genre synthesis. These two sources for material in composing with genres allow both familiar and exotic musical material to co-exist and influence new Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 2 compositional strategies. For the purposes of this paper, the internal genre sources are discussed in reflection on matters of musical provenance. As every composer/researcher has their own individual cultural and musical background, the comments here, as to use of familiar material and the act of composing, are meant as a single model offering concepts and reflections that could be adopted by other researchers in a reflexive practice-led investigation. What is concretely transferable here are the technical and conceptual workings of the practice. In Shur for Solo Guitar (Knopf, 2009), my personalised musical skills and experiences with Classical and Flamenco guitar practices, Jazz and Blues performance conventions and Western art music strategies have provided substantial material from which to draw. My earliest music making was in Blues and Rock music where the basis of my guitar knowledge was formed in deep association with Blues guitar idioms and conventions. These influence the composition under review here through, for instance, the inclusion of a Blues melodic ‘riff’ in the second half of the composition at bar 60. My formal studies in Classical and Jazz guitar and composition influence the creative outcome throughout the work, but one instance is where my familiarity with techniques such as the tremolo and guitar arpeggio practices, assist my adaptation of Persian music characteristics into the composition as exemplified at bar 39. The inclusion of Jazz chords that sit well on the guitar is another instance. Also, my long-term interest in Flamenco music allowed the authentic use of a Soleares rhythmic pattern and idiomatic guitar techniques such as the use of ayudado (the melodic playing of adjacent strings with the thumb in rest- stroke), as presented at bars four through five. Lastly, before undertaking this particular composition, I had been listening to Classical Persian music for some years and had a relationship with a professional Persian instrumentalist with whom I had undertaken a cross-genre performance project. This may have influenced the intuitive approach to the treatment of some material in the work. At the start of the project, it was decided to combine these influences with classical Persian music features. Familiarity with formal procedures in Persian dastgah music, however, was deemed inadequate, so a search was undertaken of the literature for examples of Persian genre elements that would influence the new work. Two primary sources were used: ‘Persian Classical Music’ by E. Zonis (1963); and ‘The Dastgah Concept In Persian Music’ by H. Farhat (1990). The intention was not to write a Persian piece but to explore some possibilities inherent in the styles and genres that were chosen for the project. What was adopted from Persian classical music for this particular composition was the scalar modality and aspects of the form of Shur, described by Zonis (1963, p.67), as the ‘most popular’ dastgah. This included concepts of structure from solo performance approaches in the dastgah system. The initial task was to become familiar with such in terms of the musical content and structure of Shur so that these could then be compared to the genres that were already a part of personal experience. The complete score is available with this paper and the performance can be viewed on YouTube at https://youtu.be/qSW4xMWMtPU so that the work can be experienced in its entirety. Michael D. Knopf 3 GENRE SYNTHESIS METHODOLOGY IN SHUR FOR SOLO GUITAR The work under scrutiny here combines genre elements from several Western musical genres with a primary musical modal form from Iran, also know as Persia. Blues, Classical guitar and Flamenco techniques and conventions and researched Persian musical material are incorporated into a single composition. A methodology was undertaken drawing on practice-led thinking that proceeded through experimentation with genre materials in improvisation as well as through research into formal aspects of one of the genres to review various parameters that could influence the composition. Several strategies were undertaken in experimenting with the musical materials and ideas garnered for the task: Firstly, an accounting was made of what was seen as similarities and differences between the Persian dastgah of Shur, and the Blues and Flamenco to create a list of compositional techniques and conventions used in my studio practice in addressing synthesis issues with the different genres engaged. The resultant terminology is used throughout and will be reviewed in the conclusion. Secondly, drawing on practice-led reflection and reflexive thinking, the melodic possibilities of the Shur scale or mode were experimented with through improvisations in a style of guitar playing that I had been developing over some years based on vocal chants from Persian, Arabic, and Flamenco vocal practices. Each of these musics rely heavily on vocal chant and song for their musical expressions as does Persian traditional classical music. I anticipated that the composition being planned would reflect this in its own expression through similar melodic treatment. The Blues scale and its varied melodic and harmonic conventions were also improvised with alongside the Shur modality, and with an altered guitar tuning (C, G, Bb, g, c, eb') to provide a drone effect in the lower strings with the tonic and fifth of the key, similar to that utilised by traditional Persian instruments the tar and setar. Thirdly, by researching Persian dastgah practice, I identified elements of Persian musical structure that could direct the sequence of musical events in the new composition. This included my adoption and adaptation of the dastgah concept of gusheh (singular, and plural gusheh-ha). Farhat (1990, p.19), defines the gusheh as a “set of pieces, traditionally grouped together” that make up a performance of that particular dastgah. Gushehs are discreet melodies that are traditionally presented in a scheme of rising pitch areas based along the mode, each with its own characteristic tonic and stressed notes. Shur for Solo Guitar uses generalised concepts of gusheh performance, but with composed melodies substituted for traditional melody-types. The project began with a comparison of fundamental musical material from the chosen genres to be combined in this work. In reviewing each genre’s pitch scale, similarities were noted between Shur, the Flamenco Phrygian scale and the Blues scale. Though traditional Persian musicians have no real perception of a scale in their music (Farhat, 1990, p.16), there are a set of tones used in each dastgah that, to a Western musician, are the basis of a scale. The Shur notes were then adopted and adapted to Western usage as a scale. The relationship of the notes within the Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 4 Phrygian and Blues scales are close, whilst the notes used in Shur are almost identical with the Phrygian mode, the only difference being a quarter-tone flat on the second degree. This can be seen in the top two staves of Figure 1. Thus the intervallic characters of Shur and Flamenco are similar. Additionally, Shur’s major 2nd flattened a quarter-tone was regarded as an analogue to the Blues’ blue notes, such as the flattened third and fifth degrees. Figure 1 Comparison of scales used in Shur, Flamenco and Blues This is regarded as an instance of ‘genre trait commonality’. These three scales possess enough in common to point to a relationship between the disparate genre practices. Such commonalities do not need to be exact. Enough resemblance was seen across the three scales to allow creative relationships to be forged in melodic experimentation. A stated previously, the initial methodology was to improvise with the above scales. The use of conventions from each of the targeted genres was also used. From these improvisations, several musical phrases were notated to be included in the composition alongside familiar techniques and various harmonic resonances as will be seen in the analysis. One example is a Flamenco guitar right hand technique known as ayudado. This technique is executed with the thumb playing two adjacent strings consecutively, followed by the index finger on a higher string as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 The Flamenco guitar technique of ayudado as used in bar 4: The letter (p) signifies the thumb doing a downstroke firstly on the third string then the second string, followed by the index finger (i) plucking the first string. Michael D. Knopf 5 Along with the improvisations with varied genre conventions and material, research into Persian classical musical form was undertaken using existing descriptions by Zonis (1963) and Farhat (1990) as the basis for the development of the form of the new composition. As mentioned above, each dastgah uses various note groups in designated ranges named gusheh as areas of specific melodic development within the form. The performance of a particular dastgah is realised through the execution of these melodic areas in quasi improvisation, each having its own particular pitch scope and traditional melody types. Each gusheh region also has its own name, tonic (the ist or finalis) and stressed note (shahed), and occasionally a moteghayyer, a “regularly fluctuating tone” (Farhat, 1990, p.24), which may have two versions, for example, a G natural and a G quarter-tone flat. There are many gusheh types for each dastgah, and there is much variation in the literature as to what exactly the primary dastgah are, and which gusheh belongs where. Even the role of these “varies with performance and performer” (Nettl, 1986, p.17). Though each gusheh is expanded by elaboration, there is no set order to these in performance per se, save for those exemplified by various masters. Upon completing the gusheh in performance, a new gusheh is begun at a higher level on the primary dastgah’s scale. It was decided to adopt and adapt this structural approach along with a model of the Shur dastgah from Zonis’ study (1963, p.45), defining the new work’s gusheh pitch regions in line with her explanation of this classic dastgah procedure. The genre element borrowed from Persian dastgah is this formal aspect of the music. The gusheh pitch regions were used for the placement of original melodic material without reference to traditional gusheh melodies. However, in the development of the score, these pitch regions form smaller sections designated with a gusheh title according to traditional practice. This structural scheme provided a trajectory for the unfolding of the work with each section presenting different elements to be included. For example, the area designated as Salmak at bar 34 features Blues chords of the fifth. The synthesis that is achieved at each of these points thus includes a formal approach from Persian music combined with varying melodic treatments from other genres. Each section rises along the points in the Shur scale. When the octave is attained with the gusheh of Hosseini where the opening musical material returns at the octave, the music then begins a melodic descent to the primary tonic of Shur. This model served as the structural plan for the work, with the addition of the appearance in the final section of new, but related, musical material. Diagram 1 below shows the structural scheme for Shur for Solo Guitar adopted from Zonis. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 6 Diagram 1 Diagram after Zonis (1963, p.45) of four ‘important gushehs in the dastgah of Shur’ used as a model for Shur for Solo Guitar. Original melodies were substituted for traditional gusheh-ha melodies. The choices of gusheh ranges in the compositional procedure for Shur for Solo Guitar are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 The gusheh ranges used in Shur for Solo Guitar (ist, the tonic or finalis is shown as a semibreve; shahed, the stressed note is shown as minim. Other notes are shown as crotchets). The performance of a Persian solo dastgah through its various gusheh would normally be well developed and varyingly long in duration. Shur for Solo Guitar compresses these concepts into a much shorter work for purposes of presenting Michael D. Knopf 7 gusheh-styled elements with other material as an experiment in compositional genre synthesis. As Shur for Solo Guitar develops through its gusheh, genre signals and stylistic traits from Flamenco, Blues and Classical guitar conventions are used to diversify the content through such devices as juxtaposition, layering and merging genre signifiers as will be seen in the analysis below. ANALYSIS OF SHUR FOR SOLO GUITAR The following analysis follows the development of the composition from start to end, listing the occurences of genre-based inclusions and discussing matters of provenance and the techniques used. In the opening sounds of the piece, Shur’s characteristic quarter-tone flattened second is heard. As the classical guitar is not equipped with half-frets to accommodate quarter-tones, an approximation of these notes is achieved by bending the altered note up from the semitone below before it is sounded. It is often necessary to accept a less-than-true interval due to the difficulty in bending the note whilst playing adjacent strings. The opening bars of Shur for Solo Guitar begin with harmonics and open strings combined with the fingered D quarter-tone flat played in the cluster chord. Shur’s first gusheh traditionally embraces the tonic (ist) its neighbour tones, the minor third and the perfect fourth. The first sound is of the Bb seen in Figure 4 below, one of the stressed notes in Shur leading to the tonic. Figure 4 Opening chord of Shur for Solo Guitar. This quarter-tone flat D is a genre trait or element and is used to establish the characteristic sound of the dastgah of Shur in this new work. Figure 5 below shows the initial melodic presentation in Shur for Solo Guitar of Shur’s primary gusheh note group, with its traditionally restricted melodic area as described previously. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 8 Figure 5 Bar 2 of Shur for Solo Guitar using the traditional first three notes of the mode to emphasise the Shur sound and Persian style of the instrumental solos. As is characteristic of much monody, the harmonic accompaniment in this piece is often confined to a pedal note of the tonic and/or fifth. The re-tuned 6th and 2nd strings on the guitar, C and G respectively, allow the tonic to be sounded easily, as shown in Figure 5. The title of this opening section uses two terms from Persian practice. Daramad, loosely akin to the Western prelude, is the section in the composition where the dastgah sound identity is clearly established (Farhat, 1990, p.22), using its conventional constraints. Avaz is a lyrical song-like treatment without meter chosen to follow the basic melodic presentation of the initial Shur gusheh in a chant-like melody. These Persian formal concepts act as structural orientation in the composition through which interpretation of the formal content is expressed, as mentioned previously, with original material instead of traditional melody types. Also, the sectional treatment is compressed, as in traditional performances each section takes at least several minutes to develop. Within the constraints of this composition the use of Persian structural concepts were thus abbreviated. In accordance with Persian solo performance practice, the piece begins simply, elaborating melodic material in an incremental way, using ornamental approaches, as seen in Figure 6. Figure 6 Bars 4 and 5 of Shur for Solo Guitar showing the varied use of the Shur gusheh note group of c, d quarter tone flat, and e flat Michael D. Knopf 9 Ornamentation is a fundamental aspect of Persian melody as it is with other vocal-chant based forms. One of the novel characteristics of Persian avaz is the vocal imitation of the warbling nightingale called chah-chah (literally bird chirping, a reference to the ‘bulbul’ style of imitating the nightingale). I imitate this warbling technique with the guitar playing groups of three notes, one note repeated, followed by the lower neighbour tone, as seen in Figure 7 below. Figure 7 The technique of warbling (chah-chah or bulbul) in Persian song as approximated on the guitar in Shur for Solo Guitar at bar 10. Following this allusion to a Persian vocal technique, a genre signifier in its own right, another Persian signifier, the rhythm known as chahar mizrab, is introduced. This is a section of traditional performance used for virtuosic playing and often characterised by an ostinato pattern, a pedal tone, and a wide melodic compass (Zonis, 1963, p.131). This forms the basis for a new sub-section of the work, performed here with the rhythm of two quavers followed by two crotchets characteristic of chahar mizrab. This version was played to me by a traditional kamancheh (spiked lap violin) player. The rhythm was used as a starting point for the section that also presents a juxtaposed group of melodies using a Flamenco Soleares rhythm and phrasing. Soleares is a common form in Flamenco music and had been performed by the present author, so it was a natural choice to coincide with the triple metre of chahar mizrab. In this case, the layering of the two genre signals provided an integrated genre sound that was hard to categorise. Such instances may be termed merging genre signals. This occurs when two distinct genre elements fuse in such a way as to blur any specific genre message, contributing to genre ambiguity. Figure 8 below shows the Flamenco phrase preceded by and ending with the rhythm of chahar mizrab. Figure 9 shows the traditional rhythmic structure of the Soleares phrase for comparison. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 10 Figure 8 Bars 12-15 of Shur for Solo Guitar showing the coinciding of Shur characteristics (the dastgah’s scale and the triple meter of chahar mizrab) with Flamenco Soleares phrasing resulting in an example of merging genre signifiers. F Figure 9 A typical Flamenco Soleares falseta on guitar for comparison with the phrase shown in Example 7. The 12-beat pattern (3, 3, 3, 3) has accents sounded through taps (T) on the guitar with the right hand ring finger on the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 10th and 12th beats of the phrase. Would anyone notice two genres of music being presented here? A listener familiar with Flamenco might hear only Soleares where a Persian musician might hear an array of arpeggiated notes in a rhythm of chahar mizrab. Whatever the reception, merging genre signifiers provide an effective way for traits from one genre to influence another and can be used to combine genre elements for purposes of enrichment of the musical content or to intentionally create a genre ambiguity. From the opening of the piece with its use of traditional melodic material, the genre identity of Shur for Solo Guitar could be described as Persian classical music, albeit performed on a Western instrument. The combination of traditional music on a non-traditional instrument is another tool to achieve synthesis in combining genres in a composition. In the next section, starting at bar 28, two distinct genre signals are presented that develop the synthesis of the work further. This is illustrated in Figure 10, showing the combination of the new gusheh area of Shahnaz (with its new tonal area on f, the fourth degree of Shur, along with its motegayyer or changed note, here, the G quarter-tone flat), with the sounding of an American Blues convention. Parallel fifths in the lower voice approach the new tonic in this section from its 5th and 7th degrees below, a common occurrence in the Blues. The work now possesses qualities that are not only Persian, but also Afro-American, giving the hearer two sources of recognisable genre meaning whilst relieving the former monody’s static harmony. Michael D. Knopf 11 Figure 10 The composer’s gusheh of Shahnaz as an ornamented chant centering on ‘f’. Each chant is preceded and punctuated by parallel 5th chords from American Blues. This is an instance of the juxtaposition of genre traits, with the Blues genre signal bridging the end of the chahar mizrab/Soleares section at bars 28 and 29, into the next section, Shahnaz, at bar 30. The Blues fifths punctuate the Persian inspired chant-like phrases. Following this, a new key area is established once again for the gusheh area of Salmak at bar 34, again, a chant-like melody. The tonal centre is G, the fifth degree of the mode of Shur. This section begins a thickening of texture and motion shown in Figure 11 at bar 35, that provides momentum and direction towards the highest pitch level area in the succeeding section. Figure 11. The new tonal centre of G in the gusheh of Salmak is punctuated by the Blues genre signal of parallel 5ths on the Blues scale. The process of intensifying the music through texture, genre signal contrasts and rhythmic density includes other sounds here not foreseen at the commencement of the composition. In the process of composing, a familiarity with the various instruments of classical Persian music reminded the present author of the sound of the santur, Iran’s hammered dulcimer. Using two felt hammers, the santur player sustains single notes with multiple strikes (tremolando) on the same pitch. I decided to include a passage where the guitar approximated the santur’s sound by using notes that are struck twice, imitating the effect achieved by using two hammers, one in each hand. The guitarist strikes the open second string tuned to C with two consecutive fingers (the middle and index) in a pattern where the melody is placed on the first string. This is further accompanied by the fifth on the third string, as illustrated in Figure 12. The use of this technique is an instance of approximation or imitation. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 12 Figure 12 Shur for Solo Guitar, bar 39 showing the approximation of the sound of the santur by double-striking the C open string. In composing this section of santur-like sounds, it was noticed that the passage technically resembled music from the prelude to J.S. Bach’s third cello suite from the classical guitar repertoire. Being familiar with this particular piece allowed for the similarity to be noticed and acted upon. This led to the use of an imitation of one of the passages from the Bach piece as a stylistic experimentation following on from the santur treatment. A comparison of the Bach suite and the section following the santur imitation is shown in Figures 13 and 14 below. Figure 13 Excerpt from Bach’s prelude from the Cello Suite no. 3 transcribed for guitar by Duarte (1965) that served as a model for a passage in Shur for Solo Guitar. Michael D. Knopf 13 Figure 14. Sequence imitating Bach’s solo suite phrasing in Shur for Solo Guitar, showing bars 43-44. The use of the genre trait imitation of Bach’s writing style may not provide a genre signal for the audience, as its content may not be substantial enough to reveal its origin. But the imitation was seen to develop as a logical extension of the previous material. This is an instance of stylistic synthesis blending an exotic style with a guitar technique used in period performance. This was a choice obviously dependent on the individual practitioner’s experience and knowledge, contributing directly to genre synthesis in this section. What occurs in the music following the close of the above busy section is a clear re-statement as shown in Figure 15, of the opening Shur material but now in the gusheh of Hosseini at the octave. This is a common procedure in instrumental playing in Persian classical music. Figure 15 The gusheh of Hosseini at bar 53 in Shur for Solo Guitar using melodic treatment and material similar to that in the exposition, but at the octave. The embellishment of the melody is achieved with the use of chromaticism and the bending of the note at the end of the phrase. Bending notes in this manner on the guitar are indicative of the influence of Blues guitar practice. The presence of this tiny genre element can then be said to anticipate the Jazz and Blues material that follows in the section marked Forud in Blue. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 14 This is a crucial formal part of the composition, where the original melody is partially restated before the final brief sections of the work. Following Hosseini in traditional Shur performance is a cadential passage or group of passages known as forud. I use this section to emphasise the presence of Persian and Blues genre signifiers to substitute for the traditional material. Figure 16 below shows the start of this section with the Shur melodic notes followed by parallel Jazz seventh chords and subsequent blues melodic conventions at bar 58 known as ‘riffs’. The latter represent a stylistic interruption, juxtaposed with and immediately following the restatement of the opening Shur melody at bar 54. Figure 16 The section Forud in Blue showing the juxtaposed Persian chant melody in the upper stave and the use of the Blues conventions of parallel dominant chords and blues scale melodic riffs in the lower stave. These genre signifiers are intended as substitutes for traditional material in the long cadential area known as Forud. The use of the Blues genre signals to enact the forud is an incidence of genre trait substitution. In this instance, the traditional gusheh material is substituted with genre traits from Blues music, allowing a radical reinterpretation or replacement of the original genre’s characteristics. The sectional concept of traditional music provides a context within which genre material can be placed so to enhance the genre synthesis and character of the piece. The prevalence of the Blues conventions in this section provides and instance of a secondary genre focus. The final section from bar 64 is inspired by Dashti, a mode of Shur’s third degree often used as a basis for song. Despite having Eb and G as stressed notes and being a song form distinct from, yet complimentary to Shur, this mode cadences on the finalis or tonic C. The scalar over-lap of Shur and Dashti in shown in Figure 17. Michael D. Knopf 15 Figure 17 The pitch group used in the dastgah of Dashti after Farhat (1990, p.39) showing the melodic range of the mode and its parent mode Shur The use of this material in the composition is an attempt to approximate the sound of Dashti. The music is again treated vocally like a chant, accompanied by parallel fifth chords as seen in Figure 18. This section is a simple A-B-A form with the Dashti chant from bar 64, followed by a tremolo section from bar 68 shown in Figure 19 a style trait from classical guitar practice. Figure 18 The composer’s melody of Dashti with its emphasis on the 3rd (G) (from Shur for Solo Guitar). Figure 19 A passage from bars 68-71 in the tremolo section between Dashti song segments in Shur for Solo Guitar. Tremolo on melodic notes is common on both the Persian santur and the plucked instruments such as tar, setar, and barbat (the Persian oud), though executed differently. It is also a common technique in classical guitar repertoire. The above then, might be considered a very mild occurrence of merging genre signifiers based on commonality of practice between the two genres. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 16 The tremolo gives way to the reiteration of the Dashti theme from bar 88. The last bar sees a Jazz Db7b5 chord (on the lowered 2nd degree) accompanying the melodic trill that slows and resolves to the Shur finalis of C. This chord and its resolution to C is a common cadence in Jazz practice and thus makes a final reference to the Jazz and Blues influence in this work. Figure 20 A Db7b5 chord resolving to the tonic C in the final cadence of Shur for Solo Guitar. CONCLUSION Shur for Solo Guitar was composed using an adopted structural model from Persian performance practice as an outline of musical events, each of which had its own genre content or focus adapted to the form. The work provides an example of a poly- genre approach where diverse musical material is synthesised into a coherent musical piece. The work achieves a coalescence of genre and style through the manipulation of diverse musical content and the adoption and adaptation of performance and compositional traits and processes from Persian classical music and the Western musical conventions of classical guitar, Flamenco, and American Blues and Jazz. Various concepts and techniques have been identified in the development of the new work. These have included: the use of recognised genre trait commonalities; the adoption of a musical system’s processes of music development (e.g. the procedure of consecutive rising gusheh areas); the juxtapositioning and layering of style and genre traits; the approximation of a musical system’s stylisms such as the use of quarter-tones, and the imitation, on the guitar, of that system’s vocal and instrumental techniques; the use of a Western instrument playing in an exotic genre form; and the use of genre ambiguity through merging genre signals. With these, and through the particular inner resources and associations of the composer, a new work was constructed as a single model of how genre and style elements can be synthesised in composing. Below is a brief outline, in alphabetical order, of the concepts and strategies used to synthesise the various genre elements in the composition reviewed above as terminology inherent in the compositional practice reviewed above. Michael D. Knopf 17 Adaptation – The process of altering a musical genre or style element (trait, idea, or process) to suit the composer’s technical restraints in the composition, or to fit a particular framework foreign to the element’s original context. In this work, the use of Shur’s scale as a Western equivalent, the manipulation of guitar techniques to imitate the sound of the santur and the altered use of the concept of melodic regions characterised in Persian gusheh. Allusion – An inexact excerpt or approximation of a well-known work, style or genre characteristic which references the borrowed entity. Approximation – The use of imitation by the composer to approximate a musical trait from another work, composer or culture. This means that the composer imitates the sound or technique perhaps without any inside knowledge of the musical system or discipline or even the actual mechanisms behind the entity being approximated, or with such knowledge but approximating the musical trait due to contextual constraints, such as instrumentation. Genre Ambiguity – The situation in music when, as a result of the use of either a combination of genre specific material or none, the music does not convey a clear genre context. See Example 8 showing the use of Persian and Flamenco genre signals. Genre Element – A trait or technique identified as belong to a particular genre or genres. Depending on its usage in a new work, such may impart genre meaning and thus become a genre signifier. For example, the use of the quarter tone flat D from the Persian mode of Shur. Genre Focus – A set or subset of genre sounds, imitations, allusions or representations of genre used in a piece or section of a piece of music. For example, bars 58 through 62 present a Blues genre focus due to the prevalence of the guitar Blues riffs. Genre Signal or Signifier – A trait or element of a particular genre or genres that is intended to convey a calculated genre meaning in a new composition. For example, the use of a Soleares rhythm and guitar techniques to signify the presence of Flamenco in Figure 8. Genre Synthesis – The fusion of elements from different genres in a composition. Genre/Style Trait Imitation – The imitation of a trait of a genre or style. See Figure 14. Genre Trait Substitution – The substitution of a genre trait for one that is foreign to that specific genre. In Figure 16, the falling melodic characteristic of the forud section in Shur is achieved using Blues melodies. Imitation – The composer’s approach to the use of perceived characteristics of a musical work or style or genre. Imitation may contribute to approximation and allusion. For example, the use of a multi-struck string on the guitar to imitate the vocal technique of chah-chah. See Figure 7. Juxtaposition – A time-constrained technique used to combine genre or style elements or genre/style signifiers. Juxtaposition is the horizontal positioning of such elements in the score so that they sound in sequence, i.e. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (1-19) ISSN 2232-1020 18 following one another. In Figure 10, Persian melody is juxtaposed with Blues chords. Layering – Layering represents the vertical positioning of such elements in the score so that they sound simultaneously. In Figure 16, chords of the scalar note group underlay the Persian styled Shur melody. Stylistic Interruption – The insertion of contrasting style techniques to interrupt the flow of the established style. This is used as a section marker, a punctuation of sorts, or as a bridge to another section. The use of parallel jazz chords in the middle of bar 58 is one example. Research into genre synthesis in composition and performance offers an immediacy of opportunity in exploring and defining compositional techniques, concepts and other strategies in the creation of new music using genre as targeted content for inclusion. Further reflective compositional studies by other creative practice researchers will provide new transferable techniques and new models of how other composers’ approach creative work using inherent genre associations and understandings. One of the resources for this sub-field of composition is the development of a taxonomy 1 of the practice that is an ongoing pursuit of the present author as exemplified in part above. It is hoped that other composer-researchers will add to and develop this taxonomy through projects aiming to discover what goes on in the clash of genres within individual composers’ experimentation with genre. Such studies may offer new concepts about music making where new hybridities emerge by combining strategic elements, the use of traditional and new processes and the revealing of personalised attitudes towards the use of genre material. This, in turn, may furnish the literature with novel systems of music making that rely on the fusion of disparate, and sometimes non-complementary sets of rules that are bridged in some manner, all of which potentially lead to fundamentally new sounds. ENDNOTES 1 An initial taxonomy for concepts and techniques used in genre and style synthesis is the subject of another paper yet to be published. REFERENCES Brouwer, L. (1970). ‘La musica, lo cubano y la innovacion’. Havana: Editorial Letras Cubanas. Duarte, J. W. (ed.). (1965), Bach, J.S. Cello suite no. 3. London: Schott & Co. Ltd. Farhat, H. (1990). The Dastgah concept in Persian music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Michael D. Knopf 19 Leavy, P. (2009). Method meets art: Art based research practice. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Nettl, B. (1972). Daramad of Chahargah: A study in the performance practice of Persian music. Detroit, MI: Information Coordinators. Zonis, E. (1963). Persian classical music: An introduction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. BIOGRAPHY Dr. Michael Knopf is an American/Australian composer and concert guitarist. He has performance and compositional expertise in Contemporary Art music and Jazz and has used his various music projects to experiment with different genres and styles. This includes his development of a new sub-field of classical guitar playing inspired by vocal chants from European, Persian, Arab and Indian influences along with Flamenco and Classical guitar conventions. Michael was founder and music director for three cross-genre ensembles including Zafron Road, an ensemble of Jazz piano trio, a cellist and two traditional Persian musicians with Michael on guitars. Michael performs on a variety of guitars. His compositions range from solo cello and guitar pieces to large choral works, Jazz ensemble pieces, and works for chamber ensembles and orchestra. His works have been performed in Australia, USA, Canada, Europe, China and Japan. Email: [email protected]

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 4 No. 2 (2015)

minimalism, gamelan, electroacoustic, compositional influences

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/109

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/807

Minimalism Meets Gamelan: An Analysis of Diana Blom and Emma Stacker’s Gong Agong (2006)

Contemporary composers draw influence from every style and period in music history. The current pluralistic approach to composition sometimes poses challenges when analysing new music. Often, difficulties arise because the analyst is unsure of which analytical tool to use. Rather than choose a specific tool to analyse a current composition, this paper suggests that the analyst first discover what styles of music influenced the composers while writing the piece and then analyse the piece by making connections to the influences. This paper examines a recent 21st century electroacoustic composition, Diana Blom and Emma Stacker’s Gong Agong (2006), looking at how the composers incorporate elements of minimalism and gamelan in the piece. Gong Agong was one of three finalists in the Musica Nova International Electroacoustic Music Competition 2006 (Category B: Compositions for acoustic instrument/voice/ensemble and electroacoustic media). This paper also examines how minimalist elements interact with certain characteristics of gamelan to create an original piece. By first recognising the styles that influenced a piece of music, analysing a twentieth (or twenty-first) century piece becomes much less daunting.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/807/543

20 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 Minimalism Meets Gamelan: An Analysis of Diana Blom and Emma Stacker’s Gong Agong (2006) Kristi Hardman University of British Columbia, Canada e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Contemporary composers draw influence from every style and period in music history. The current pluralistic approach to composition sometimes poses challenges when analysing new music. Often, difficulties arise because the analyst is unsure of which analytical tool to use. Rather than choose a specific tool to analyse a current composition, this paper suggests that the analyst first discover what styles of music influenced the composers while writing the piece and then analyse the piece by making connections to the influences. This paper examines a recent 21st century electroacoustic composition, Diana Blom and Emma Stacker’s Gong Agong (2006), looking at how the composers incorporate elements of minimalism and gamelan in the piece. Gong Agong was one of three finalists in the Musica Nova International Electroacoustic Music Competition 2006 (Category B: Compositions for acoustic instrument/voice/ensemble and electroacoustic media). This paper also examines how minimalist elements interact with certain characteristics of gamelan to create an original piece. By first recognising the styles that influenced a piece of music, analysing a twentieth (or twenty-first) century piece becomes much less daunting. Keywords minimalism, gamelan, electroacoustic, compositional influences Many composers of the twenty-first century have taken a pluralistic approach to composition, adopting any techniques that suit their work. Australian composers Diana Blom and Emma Stacker join a long list of modern composers who incorporate elements of minimalism and gamelan with their 2006 piece entitled Gong Agong, a piece for piano and CD soundbed (an accompanimental CD track comprising acoustic sounds that have been altered and rearranged in the recording/editing process).1 (While the piece is a collaborative effort between the two composers, Diana Blom composed the piano score after Emma Stacker composed the CD soundbed; therefore, throughout this paper I will refer to Blom’s contributions when discussing the piano score and Stacker’s contributions when discussing the soundbed). Even before the term minimalism was coined, composers were influenced by gamelan music, as shown by Colin McPhee’s Tabuh-Tabuhan for two pianos and orchestra (1936) and Pierre Boulez’s Le marteau sans maître 21 Kristi Hardman (1953-1957). Composers increasingly found inspiration in gamelan music throughout era of minimalism. Steve Reich’s Music for Mallet Instruments, Voices, and Organ (1973) and Lou Harrison’s Serenade for voices, harp, and gamelan, La Koro Sutro (1972) are just two minimalist pieces that take inspiration from gamelan. While Gong Agong would not be considered a minimalist piece, it incorporates elements of both minimalism and gamelan music. Blom obviously has an interest in minimal music as she has written articles and her doctoral dissertation on minimalism in Australia and its uses in education. The composers use minimalism as a technique in Gong Agong, but it cannot be classified as a minimalist piece. That is, while the piece does not contain all of the features of a minimalist piece, it features aspects of minimalism.2 Not only was Blom influenced by minimalism when composing Gong Agong, she was also highly influenced by her time in Hong Kong and Malaysia. According to Blom (1999), Australian composers were incorporating minimal ideals into their compositions long before the first appearances of American minimalism because many were influenced by musics from Asia, in particular gamelan, which shares similar characteristics with minimal music, including repetition, interlocking layers, an unchanging pulse, small pitch- class sets, and tonal centres. Many of the instruments heard on Stacker’s soundbed come from Hong Kong and Malaysia. In the preface, Blom and Stacker (2009) explain that Gong Agong is the largest gong in Malaysian Terengganu Joget Gamelan (although it is usually spelled “gong ageng”) and it plays a structural role in gamelan music. The gong ageng marks the end of one formal section of the composition and the beginning of another in many types of gamelan music. The instrument is the inspiration for the title of the work, but it also apparently serves the same purpose in this piece as it does in gamelan music, marking off large sections of the piece, according to Blom and Stacker (2009). I find it difficult to ascertain how it marks the beginnings and ends of formal sections in Gong Agong. My formal analysis of Gong Agong, as we will see below, goes against this idea, using motives in the piano and the changing relationship between the piano and CD soundbed as markers of section beginnings. Nevertheless, Gong Agong features many elements of minimal music and gamelan music, seamlessly blended together to create a unified piece that is best described as postminimalist, a term used frequently by Kyle Gann (2013) and others to describe music with minimal characteristics, but also go beyond the narrow definition of minimalism. A detailed analysis of Gong Agong reveals the ways in which Blom and Stacker incorporate minimalism and gamelan characteristics, such as interdependent lines, small pitch-class sets, even subdivisions of the beat, and interlocking rhythms, in this work. The discussion begins with minute details of the piece and branches out to more broad aspects, concluding with a detailed explanation of the formal structure. MINIMAL MOTIVES WITH A HINT OF GAMELAN Gong Agong does not contain easily distinguishable phrases, but the piano is made up of many short cells separated visually by double barlines on the score. Although 22 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 there are many piano cells in Gong Agong, it in fact uses only a small number of motives, each characterised by their unique features. As in minimalist pieces, these motives rarely return verbatim, but are instead varied and developed throughout the piece. Unlike minimalism, there is no systematic process driving the changes to the motives. Figure 1 shows passages containing numerous variants of Motive A, which is defined by its sustained, familiar triads and sevenths. The first Motive A in bars 2-4, seen in Figure 1a, features an E major triad with an appoggiatura C that resolves to B. The left hand plays only an E-B fifth, while the right hand fills in the third of the chord. The next iteration of Motive A in bars 7-9 adds more rhythmic interest but keeps the same basic pitches. For other Motive A variants, each hand typically features recognisable triads or sevenths, but the hands are treated independently. For example, Motive A in bar 11 features an E major harmony on the first beat, then on the second and third beats, the left hand plays a Db major triad while the right hand remains on an E major triad. Interestingly, these chords share pitch class 8, but they also sound very dissonant because the Db is 10 semitones below the B and F is 11 semitones lower than the E. Motive A in bars 11 and 14 seem to imitate the sound of the “gong agong struck” heard in the CD soundbed. In fact, bar 14 blends seamlessly with the preceding “gong agong struck” landmark. Blom creates complex sonorities in Motive A by having the hands play two different simple harmonies. Motive A in bar 49 and 51 (Figure 1b) feature simple sonorities, but instead of playing them as sustained harmonies, they are heard as tremolos. Bar 50 features the most complicated sonority: the left hand plays an F dominant seventh while the right hand plays an E major triad with an F#-C# dyad. Figure 1c features A motives from later in the piece, bars 86-88, 89-90, and 92-93. Bars 86-88 have a quicker harmonic rhythm than previous A motives while retaining the use of easily recognisable tertian harmonies. Motive A in bars 89-90 has the sustained sonority at the end of the cell, but uses the pitch-class content and the semiquaver rhythms from Motive D (discussed later). Figures 1a to 1c: Motives and B and variants of each Figure 1a Original statements of Motive A and B, bars 1-11 23 Kristi Hardman Figure 1b Variants of Motives A and B, bars 48-51 Figure 1c Later variants of Motives A, bars 85-93 Motive B, which is first heard in bar 5 (Figure 1a above), features a dyad with pitch classes {3, 4} played simultaneously and stated in quick succession in two different octaves. The motive imitates the “high swept gong” heard in the CD soundbed, and often precedes or follows it at the beginning of the piece. The rhythm of Motive B frequently changes throughout the work, as can be seen with the iterations found in bars 6 and 10 of Figure 1a and bar 48 of Figure 1b. Motive B also uses pitch classes {4, 5} frequently and {e, 0} once, but it always features a dyad stated in at least two octaves. In bar 16, we get the first instance of Motive C, a dyad using pitch classes {9, e}, as shown in Figure 2a. Blom expands this motive in bars 24-25 (Figure 2b). It begins with the A-B dyad, but quickly morphs into triplet semiquavers with pitches classes {3, 1, e} played by the right hand and {1, 7, 9} played by the left hand. Combined, these pitches form a whole tone collection on C#, although the 24 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 collection is missing pc-5. These triplet semiquavers mimic the “Japanese rattling bells” heard in the soundbed. Figure 2a-2b Motive C Figure 2a Original statement of Motive C, bar 16 Figure 2b Expanded variant of Motive C, bars 24-25 25 Kristi Hardman The piece begins with the piano imitating the soundbed with Motives A, B and C, but in bar 28, the piano stops imitating the soundbed and introduces an interlocking melodic section. Figure 3a features the first statement of Motive D. The right hand contains pitch classes {1, 4, 6, 8, e} while the left hand plays pitch classes {0, 3, 5, 9}. (Some of the A motives share the pitch classes of Motive D. As we will see below, this plays a role in the formal structure of the piece.) Three pitch classes from the 12-tone aggregate are missing in Motive D: pc-2, pc-8, and pc-t. Of these three pitches, only G has been heard previously (in bars 24-26). The next iteration of this motive, in bars 38-46, features the same pitches in the same order as the first statement but certain pitches are in a different octave. This creates more similar motion between the hands in the second iteration. Figure 3a-b: Motive D and its variants Figure 3a Original statement of Motive D, bars 27-36 Figure 3b First variant of Motive D, bars 52-56 26 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 Figure 3c Second variant of Motive D, bars 57-71 The interlocking feature, pitch-class content and independence of the hands characterise Motive D. Despite the fact that the material in bars 52-57 is very different from the original D motive, it shares the unique characteristics of Motive D. Figures 3a and 3b allow for comparison of the first Motive D and the one in bars 52-57. Like the original statement, the left hand begins on the beat and the right hand fills in the gaps. This time, however, the composite rhythm is semiquavers, rather than quavers. This material also for the most part shares the pitch-class content of the original D motive: the right hand retains pitches {1, 4, 8} while the left hand uses pitches {0, 3, 5, 9}. In bar 56, new pitches are introduced in each hand: D# is heard in the right hand (it was previously heard in the left hand as Eb in the original D motive) and F# appears in the left hand (it was previously heard in the right hand in the original D motive). The material in bars 58-68 shown in Figure 3c also relates to Motive D, though it is develped so much that one could argue that it is a motive unto itself. Bars 58-68 abandon the two independent, interlocking parts for a composite semiquaver pattern played by the right hand. This piano cell also introduces a drone in each hand and a slower moving arpeggio pattern in off-beat crotchets in the left hand. The steady semiquaver and quaver patterns in the right hand and the pitch-class sets used for each hand connect this piano cell to Motive D, although it is admittedly a highly developed version of the motive. Gong Agong uses these four basic ideas throughout the piece with variation— some, so much so, that they become barely recognisable as we saw with the transformations to Motive D. There are a few piano cells that do not really fit any of the motives; I will refer to these cells as Motive X. Figure 4 shows the first appearance of Motive X in bar 82, which is characterised by the repeated Eb. I do not classify this as a full-fledge motive because it appears at such a late point in the 27 Kristi Hardman piece and it seems to act as filler material rather than a stand-alone motive. Motive X in bars 82 and 83 (Figure 4) are an extension of the D motive from bars 76-81. Figure 4: Motive X, bars 82 and 83 Gong Agong, like most pieces that employ characteristics of minimalism, is based on a small number of basic ideas that are slowly developed over the course of the piece. Unlike many minimalist pieces, there is no clear process involved in the transformation of the motives, and one cannot predict the order in which the motives appear. Having discussed how minimalism influenced the motives, we will now turn to the gamelan influences apparent in each of the motives. Blom imitates the kotekan—the high speed ornamental figuration played by instruments in the upper register in gamelan music—in Motive D, but even Motives B and C are distantly related to the kotekan (Tenzer, 2011). According to Michael Tenzer (2011), “kotekan is usually expressed in English as ‘interlocking parts,’ because although it sounds as one melody it is actually composed of two interdependent musical lines that are incomplete when played alone and dependent exclusively on each other for obtaining the desired result” (p.54). Blom adapts this idea for Motive D. The hands of the piano are independent, but the two lines are interdependent and, combined, produce an interlocking melody. (Interlocking rhythms are also common in minimalism.) The left hand plays pitch classes {0, 3, 5, 9} on-the-beat while the right hand fills in the gaps with pitch classes {1, 4, 6, 8, e}. The first two instances of Motive D divide the beat in two, but later variants of Motive D divide the beat into four, the typical subdivision of the beat created by the kotekan in gamelan music. The drone in the later variants of Motive D may have also been influenced by gamelan. In gamelan, one instrument may play a drone while another instrument plays the melody (Tenzer, 2011, p.51). Each hand in bars 58-68 play both a drone 28 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 and an arpeggiated melody figure, but the basic idea may have been influenced by gamelan. According to Henry Spiller (2008), “each of the two parts of kotekan is limited to one or two pitches” (p.99). This allows for greater accuracy at fast tempos. Although the first couple of iterations of the D motive feature many pitches in each hand, the shorter variants of the motive, such as in bars 52-57, feature a limited number of pitches—usually two or three—in each hand of the piano. It makes sense that Motive D has features similar to gamelan music, since according to Blom and Stacker (2009), the interlocking motive references a Malay Terengganu gamelan piece ‘lagu’ Perang in the piano. This can most easily be seen in bars 62-68 in Figure 3c. Blom’s transcription of ‘lagu’ Perang, which can be found in her dissertation from 2001, features two melodic patterns: {^3, ^5, ^6, ^5} and {^2, ^3, ^5, ^3} (app. 5, p.34). Assuming that E is the tonal centre in bars 62- 68, the {^3, ^5, ^6, ^5} and {^2, ^3, ^5, ^3} melodic patterns from ‘lagu’ Perang appear frequently in this passage. Motives B and C also seem to have been influenced by gamelan, in that there are two lines in which each line plays a limited number of pitches. Although Motive B does not have two distinct lines, one of its identifying features is its use of two pitch classes {3, 4}, {4, 5} or {e, 0}. Later variants of Motive C feature both two distinct lines and a limited number of pitches for each line. The right hand plays {3, 1, e}, while the left hand plays {1, 7, 9}. The lines do not interlock, but perhaps the introduction of this variant of Motive C in bars 24-25, which is more melodic than the previous piano cells, is meant to prepare for the longer, interlocking melody that begins in bar 28 (Motive D). Blom draws on both minimalism as a technique and gamelan influences in her piano motives. This is not surprising, since minimalism and gamelan share certain features, such as limited pitch content and repetition with variation. TONALITY À LA MINIMALISM Often minimal music establishes a tonal centre (Blom, 1999). Gong Agong establishes E as a tonal centre at the beginning of the piece but Blom soon starts emphasising F, and we are left wondering which pitch is the tonal centre. As Figure 5a shows, the piece begins with a “high struck E” in the soundbed that is followed by a sustained E major triad in the piano. The pitches used in the B motives at the beginning of the piece, D# and F, are symmetric around E. The first A-type motive that does not feature an E major triad happens in bars 17-18. This A motive instead focuses on F and foreshadows the tension established between F and E as tonal centres later in the piece. Figure 5b features a passage from Gong Agong where the left hand is clearly focused on an F dominant seventh harmony, and E is no longer definitively a tonal centre. Near the end of the piece E returns as a focal pitch with a brief reprise of material from the beginning of the piece, but it ultimately ends with a sonority built primarily of thirds stacked above F, as seen in Figure 5c. 29 Kristi Hardman Figures 5a to 5c: Tonal centres Figure 5a Tonal centre of E Figure 5b Shifting focus to F Figure 5c Ambiguous tonal centre, focus on both E and F 30 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 MINIMALISM AND THE 12-TONE AGGREGATE Gong Agong contains the complete 12-tone aggregate, a feature that is not common in minimalism, but the way in which the pitches are used in the piece suggests that minimalism is being employed as a compositional technique. Only nine pitches are consistently employed throughout the piece; G only appears in bar 26, and Bb and D only appear in bar 86. Each piano cell contains a limited number of pitch classes. As stated above, Motive B only contains two pitches at a time, either {3, 4}, {4, 5}, or {e, 0}. Motive C begins with the dyad {9, e} and in the two later statements of the motive, it adds three more pitches {1, 3, 7}. Motive A is perhaps the most varied in terms of pitch content; it can range anywhere from four pitches (bars 2-4) to eleven pitches (bars 86- 88). Motive D also uses a large number of pitch classes, typically nine, but they are used in a very minimalist manner. While there are some variants, the left hand is typically constrained to pitch classes {0, 3, 5, 9} while the right hand is limited to {1, 4, 6, 8, e}. In the shortened version of Motive D, such as in bars 52-57 (Figure 3b above), each bar contains 4 or 5 pitch classes, is repeated at least once, and retains at least two pitches from the bar directly preceding it, making the changes in pitch content very gradual. The middle of the piece features primarily Motive D and its variants; therefore, the pitch-class content—and subsequently, the harmonic structure—of the middle of the piece is rather static, a feature common in minimalism. Thus, Blom’s interest in minimalism seems to have played a role in the controlled manner in which pitches are used in Gong Agong. METRIC AMBIGUITY Blom never changes the meter in the piano score to Gong Agong, but nonetheless, she does play with our sense of the beat with numerous tempo changes. The first piano cell indicates a tempo of a quarter equals 50 beats per minute (bpm), which is followed by a sudden tempo change to a crotchet equals 130 bpm—more than double the original tempo—in the second piano cell. Stacker’s free flowing CD soundbed impairs our ability to entrain a pulse at the beginning of the piece. Finally, beginning in bar 28, the frequent and sudden tempo changes cease, the piano introduces a rhythmic interlocking melody where onsets happen every quaver, and the listener is able to entrain a pulse. At this point (bar 28ff), we may be able to entrain a pulse, but we are still not able to establish a meter. The accents on certain pitches in each of the hands and the disjunct melody toy with our senses, making it impossible to guess that the meter is indeed 3/4. As Figure 3a shows, the first accent in the right hand happens on the last quaver in bar 28 and every 10 quavers thereafter, whereas the first accent in the left hand happens on the first quaver in bar 30 and every eight quavers thereafter. This creates a polyrhythm in bars 28-36 and 38-46 similar to Elliot Carter’s polyrhythms in his later works. The difference between the polyrhythm that Blom establishes in Gong Agong and that which are features of Carter’s later works is that 31 Kristi Hardman Blom’s polyrhythm only lasts for a short period of time, whereas Carter’s polyrhythms tend to last for the majority of a piece. Gamelan is typically very rhythmic with a steady beat but varying tempo. Although it is difficult to entrain a pulse at the beginning of the piece, Gong Agong becomes highly rhythmic and steady from bar 28 until the end. As discussed above, Motive D is the motive most influenced by gamelan music. It is no coincidence that we begin to entrain a pulse with the first statement of Motive D introduced in bar 28 since the interlocking rhythms create a steady stream of quavers, which are further subdivided into semiquavers in the later iterations of the motive. A CONTINUAL TEXTURE Another characteristic of minimalist pieces found in Gong Agong is textural consistency. The piano rarely rests and for most of the piece there is a constant texture of piano sounds and electroacoustic sounds from the CD soundbed. The only change in texture occurs after the climax in bar 52, when the dynamic level of the soundbed suddenly drops and the piano takes on a more central role. The soundbed continues with a “soft, low rumble” that is faintly heard beneath the piano until approximately bar 76 when the dynamic level of the soundbed starts to increase and returns the texture to its original state. The retention of similar articulation throughout the piece contributes to its continuity. Blom indicates that the piano part should be played with pedal throughout much of the piece. This helps the piano blend with the electroacoustic sounds on Stacker’s CD soundbed. One might expect the texture of Gong Agong to be generally very sparse based on the fact that there are only two voices heard at once, the CD soundbed and the piano, but the texture can get quite dense because of the heavy use of pedal in the piano. For much of the piece, there are only two piano pitches heard at a time. If these passages were played staccato and without the pedal, this would result in a very sparse texture, but because Blom has indicated to use pedal, the notes—played only a few at time—accumulate and ring long past their initial attack. This creates a dense texture that imitates the envelope of the instruments used for Stacker’s CD soundbed. Of course, the densest passages occur when multiple pitches are played at once, such as in bars 50, 86-88 and 95-101. GAMELAN-STYLE DYNAMICS Not only do Blom and Stacker keep their piece interesting by shifting the focus from one voice to the other, they also change dynamics frequently. According to Michael Tenzer (2011), dynamic changes in Balinese gamelan tend to be extreme. Blom is highly influenced by Malay gamelan, as she indicates in the preface to Gong Agong (Blom & Stacker, 2009). Of course, Malay gamelan is different than Balinese gamelan, but it is interesting that the dynamics in Gong Agong are extreme just like in Balinese gamelan. The dynamics of the piece range from pianissimo to triple forte. At the beginning of the piece, the dynamic level changes nearly every piano 32 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 cell. Additionally, the dynamics often exploit the extremes of the range, jumping from piano to forte and back with each new cell. CONTINUOUS WITH A CHANCE OF LARGE-SCALE FORMAL DIVISIONS The above discussions of the small-scale aspects of Gong Agong will inform the following discussion of its formal structure. The form of Gong Agong corresponds to the form of minimalist pieces. Minimalist pieces generally have a continuous form, with no clear formal divisions. Large formal divisions are also rather difficult to discern in Gong Agong. After the first hearing, the piece seems to be continuous, with no large-scale formal divisions, cadences, or a clear reprise of material from the beginning of the piece. Although the piece is divided into small cells, indicated in the piano score with double barlines, the listener cannot anticipate the next event because there is no clear order of repeated material and one piano cell leads into the other without pause. (In this way, the form of Gong Agong is unlike minimalist pieces since minimalist pieces usually involve a process that unfolds allowing the listener to anticipate the next event.) As stated above, Gong Agong is not a minimalist piece; it simply uses minimalism as a technique. In Gong Agong, there is no process that unfolds but the blending of the piano cells and the CD soundbed provides a continuous formal structure akin to minimalist pieces. The CD soundbed continuously adds new sounds until the very end of the piece. Not only do minimalist pieces have a continuous form, they are also generally non- developmental and feel as though they have no goal. Likewise, Gong Agong does not seem to have a goal, at least one that the listener can predict. There is a climax around bars 47-51, but that is rather early in this 105-bar piece. The climax is the loudest part of the CD soundbed and the piano, after which the dynamic of the CD drops significantly, and the piano becomes the most prominent voice. Even though this is the climax of the piece, the material before bars 47-51 does not foreshadow that it is building to its apex; we recognise that bars. 47-51 are the climax only retrospectively when we realise that it was the loudest part of the piece. In these ways, Gong Agong takes its formal structure from minimalism. But, upon further examination of the piece, there are some indications that the formal structure could be described as ABA’. The piece begins with extremely short piano cells that are never more than a few bars long, but in bar 28, the piano introduces Motive D, a nine-bar interlocking piano melody that is much longer and more melodic than anything heard previously. The material from bars 92-101 returns to material that was heard in the first 26 bars of the piece. Bars 92-93 correspond nearly exactly to bar 14, bar 94 is directly related to bars 24-25, and bars 95-101 are an expanded version of bars 7-9, 11, and 14. The drastically new material introduced in bar 28 and the reprise of material from the beginning of the piece in bar 92 seems to suggest an ABA’ division of the piece. Figures 1a and 1c show the possible beginnings of the A sections, while Figure 3a shows the beginning of the B section. The boundaries of these divisions are not clear, however, until more elements are considered. 33 Kristi Hardman The changing relationship between the piano and the soundbed helps us identify the divisions of the ABA’ structure of Gong Agong more precisely. As mentioned above, in the beginning, the piano imitates the CD soundbed, but in bar 28, the piano ceases simply imitating the electroacoustic sounds and strikes out on its own with a full-fledged melody. The piano returns to imitating the CD soundbed in bar 86; in bar 85, tubular bells playing pitches {0, 5, t} are imitated in the highest pitches of the piano in the following bar (Figure 1c). The return of the imitative relationship between the piano and the CD soundbed suggests a reprise of the beginning of the piece, even though a more exact reprise of piano cells from bars 1- 26 does not happen until bar 92. The material in bars 85-88 is a highly varied form of Motive A, so it is not easy to hear these bars as a reprise of material from the beginning of the piece. The notation of CD landmarks on the piano score also indicates that the form of the piece may be ABA’. The A section features many landmarks, probably because the piano is meant to imitate the CD in this section. On the other hand, the piano has more independence from the CD track in the B section, so few landmarks are notated in the score. This is not to say that the CD is not heard in the B section, but that the pianist does not need to sync her performance as closely with the CD as she does in the A sections. In the reprise of the A section, there is again many more CD landmarks notated on the piano score. The introduction of drastically new material, reprise of old material, and the changes in the relationship between the instruments are still not enough, however, to definitively establish the boundaries of the large-scale formal sections. Table 1 illustrates two possible formal divisions of the piece, one with transitions and another without transitions. The material in bars 28-51 seem to be transitional, linking the A section to the B section. After the nine-bar interlocking melody is introduced in bar 28, we still hear material from the beginning of the piece—though, sometimes highly varied—until bar 52, at which point variants of the interlocking melody dominate until bar 84. Likewise, bars 84-91 seem to be a transitional section, linking the reprise of the A section with the B section. The defining characteristic that confirms our placement of the boundaries is the rare full-bar rests in the piano. The piano rests in bars 1, 12, 27, 85 and 105 (the final bar). The rest in bar 12 is too close to the start of the piece to signal the beginning of a new section and the material after bar 12 is similar to the beginning of the piece, suggesting a continuation of the A section. Interestingly, the other two full bars of rest that happen in the middle of the piece, bars 27 and 85, correspond nearly exactly to the divisions mentioned above. Perhaps, in lieu of a proper cadence, these bars of rest in the piano mark divisions in the formal structure. The material heard in the soundbed during these piano rests seems more connected to the material that follows, so the bars of full-bar rest in the piano are included in the following section on Table 1. Based on the changes of melodic material in the piano, the relationship between the voices, and the infrequent full-bar rests in the piano, we can establish that the A section occurs from bars 1-26, the B section follows from bars. 27-84, and the reprise of A is from bars 85-105. 34 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 Table 1 Formal structure of Gong Agong CONCLUSION Gong Agong (2006) is certainly not a minimalist piece; it is not defined by a process that unfolds throughout the course of the work. Blom and Stacker’s Gong Agong is, on the other hand, a postminimalist piece since the composers go beyond the narrow definition of minimalism, drawing inspiration from both minimalism and gamelan The above discussion centred around ways in which Gong Agong incorporates characteristics from minimalism and gamelan. The minimalist features include a few short motives, simple harmonies, small pitch-class sets, a continual texture, and a continuous formal structure. The piano cells typically last only a few bars, and never exceed 11 bars. Additionally, Blom primarily uses only four motives, which are subjected to numerous variations. The harmonies comprise mostly familiar triads and sevenths, and the harmonic structure is relatively static throughout much of the piece. Although Gong Agong uses all 12 pitch classes, each motive uses only a few pitch classes in a very structured way. The piece features a continuous, sparse texture and hints at a continuous formal structure, even though the piece can be divided into an ABA’ structure. According to Blom (2001), minimalist composers have always looked to non-Western musics for inspiration. This is certainly true as gamelan is a known influence of Steve Reich and Philip Glass. Continuing with the tradition, Blom and Stacker combine minimalism with gamelan in Gong Agong. In addition to receiving its name from a gamelan instrument, Gong Agong features interdependent lines, small pitch-class sets, even subdivisions of the beat, 35 Kristi Hardman interlocking rhythms, and an extreme dynamic range. Of course, the composers were most likely influenced by a great number of other sources in their construction of Gong Agong, but characteristics of minimalism and gamelan are certainly the most apparent. With so many different styles of music from which to draw inspiration, current music tends to be very pluralistic in its design. This can make it rather difficult for theorists looking to analyse a current piece of music, and especially students, as they may not immediately know how to approach the piece. By learning about the influences of the composer(s), those influences may make beginning an analysis much less challenging as it narrows the number of analytical tools need to analyse the piece. By first recognising that minimalism and gamelan were inspirations for Blom and Stacker during the writing of Gong Agong I was able to narrow the scope of my analysis, but still cover many of the topics which one might expect from a thorough analysis of a piece: motives, tonality, metre, texture, dynamic range, and form. Rather than choose an analytic technique from the many possible options to assist in analysing Gong Agong, the styles of music that inspired the piece provided a way to begin the analysis without being overwhelmed by the multitude of available analytic methods. ENDNOTES 1 Emma Stacker now goes by Emma Malfroy. For the purposes of this article, I will use her maiden name as it is the one indicated on the score of Gong Agong. 2 For a detailed discussion of the definitions of minimalism see Timothy A. Johnson’s “Minimalism: Aesthetic, Style, or Technique?” (1994). According to Johnson, minimalism as an aesthetic refers to the earliest minimal pieces from the late 1950s and early 1960s that suspended time, feature no goal-directed motion, and developed through a slowly unfolding process or focused on the repetition of a short basic idea. Minimalism as a style refers to the use of a number of minimalist elements, such as a continuous form, interlocking rhythmic patterns, steady pulses, bright tone colour, simple harmonies, diatonic collections, no extended melodic lines, and slow harmonic rhythm. Minimalism as a technique on the other hand refers to pieces in which only a few characteristics of minimalism are adopted. REFERENCES Bernard, J. W. (2003). Minimalism, postminimalism, and the resurgence of tonality in recent American music. American music, 21(1), 112-133. Blom, D. (1999). ‘Minimalism isn’t dead…it just smells funny’: phases in the Australian experience of minimal music. Minimalism – architecture, art, performance, a conference presented by Artspace and the University of Technology Faculty of Design Architecture and Building, July 3, 1999. Accessed March 30, 2015. http://hindson.com.au/Writings/dblom-essay.html. Blom, D. (2001). Minimal music: Roles and approaches of teachers engaging students with a contemporary art music through composing activities, Vol.1 & 2 (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Sydney Digital Theses. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/802. 36 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (20-36) ISSN 2232-1020 Blom, D. (2003). Engaging students with a contemporary music – minimalism – through composing activities: Teachers’ approaches, strategies and roles. International Journal of Music Education, 40 (1), 81-99. Blom, D., & Bischoff A. (2008). Creating ‘a very fulfilled and wonderful piece’: Asia- Pacific musics as an impetus for upper primary class composition. In M. Atherton & B. Crossman (Eds.), Music of the spirit: Asian-Pacific musical identity (pp. 145-158). Sydney: Australian Music Centre. Blom, D., & Stacker E. (2009). Gong agong. Wollongong, Australia: Wirripang. Gann, K. (2013). A technically definable stream of postminimalism, its characteristics and its meaning. In K. Potter, K. Gann & P. A. Siôn (Eds.), The Ashgate research companion to minimalist and postminimalist music (pp.39-60). Farnham: Ashgate. Johnson, T. A. (1994). Minimalism: Aesthetic, style, or technique?. The Musical Quarterly, 78(4), 742-773. Nattiez, J. J. (1990). Music and discourse: Toward a semiology of music. Translated by C. Abbate. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Pickvance, R. (2005). A gamelan manual: A player’s guide to the central Javanese gamelan. London: Jaman Mas Books. Sazdov, R. (2008). Unfenced. Australia: Australasian Computer Music Association. CD. Spiller, H. (2008). Focus: Gamelan music of Indonesia. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge. Tenzer, M. (2011). Balinese gamelan music. Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing. BIOGRAPHY Kristi Hardman is a music teacher and theorist. Currently, she is a graduate student at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. She received her previous degrees from the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada. Her primary area of research is rhythm and meter in world music and North American popular music. Specifically, she is interested in music-text relationships and issues of transcription. Her thesis is entitled “Hearing Metres from Different Angles: Interactive Vocal Metre and Hypermeter in Selected Songs and Their Covers.” Email: [email protected]

Malaysian Journal of Music Vol. 4 No. 2 (2015)

Noise, music philosophy, auto-ethnographic, music performance, music and society

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/issue/view/109

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/808

Noise Making: The Rise of the Noisician in Malaysia

This paper considers the existence, culture and politics of an emergent Malaysian ‘Noise Scene’ through an exploration of the history of Noise in the twentieth century both in Malaysia and beyond, the views of several local practitioners, the author’s own experience of the noise scene, and a survey of Noise supporters to expand our understanding in ways that reflect the Malaysian Noise Scene. Prepared by a practicing ‘Noisician’, an autoethnographic or 'insider-outsider' stance is used in searching for answers to the research questions. The focus of this paper is on the perspectives, practice, politics and relationship to Malaysian culture of the local performers and their supporters. In preparing this research, the author made several assumptions about the current Noise Scene, but found that these were challenged by the results, with the outcomes shedding new knowledge for the author himself.

https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/808/544

Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 37 Noise Making: The Rise of the Noisician in Malaysia Muhamad Hafifi bin Mokhtar Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris e-mail: [email protected] Abstract This paper considers the existence, culture and politics of an emergent Malaysian ‘Noise Scene’ through an exploration of the history of Noise in the twentieth century both in Malaysia and beyond, the views of several local practitioners, the author’s own experience of the noise scene, and a survey of Noise supporters to expand our understanding in ways that reflect the Malaysian Noise Scene. Prepared by a practicing ‘Noisician’, an autoethnographic or 'insider-outsider' stance is used in searching for answers to the research questions. The focus of this paper is on the perspectives, practice, politics and relationship to Malaysian culture of the local performers and their supporters. In preparing this research, the author made several assumptions about the current Noise Scene, but found that these were challenged by the results, with the outcomes shedding new knowledge for the author himself. Keywords Noise, music philosophy, auto-ethnographic, music performance, music and society INTRODUCTION The intent of this paper is to highlight the existence, culture and politics of the ‘Noise Scene’ by exploring the history of noise in the twentieth century in both Malaysia and the world, the views of several local practitioners, the author’s own experience of the Noise scene, and a survey of Noise supporters to expand our understanding in ways that reflect the Malaysian Noise Scene. In Malaysia, Noise performers (noisicians) are currently all amateur performers - that is they do not perform daily or derive their living from performance. Noisicians use a wide variety of individual techniques in their performances and this paper describes some of the techniques of the performers. Also, a comparison to the Noise scene in countries such as Japan is drawn. In undertaking this research, the author seeks to: (i) investigate the Malaysian Noise Scene; (ii) observe the artists involved in the Malaysian Noise Scene; (iii) evaluate the culture of the Malaysian Noise Scene; and (iv) evaluate the politics of the Malaysian Noise Scene. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 38 ISSN 2232-1020 METHODOLOGY In this paper, several stances were used to observe Noise – as performer, audience member and researcher. These stances, ‘outsider’ and ‘insider’ researcher, offer a range of answers and understandings for the research. The research, therefore, moves between an auto-ethnographic mode and other stances indicated within the text by the use of the third and first person respectively. Dwyer and Buckle (2009), explained the ‘insider’ and the ‘outsider’: Sometimes I wrote myself into my research, and other times I did not ... I sometimes shared experiences, opinions, and perspectives with my participants, and at other times I did not ... As a qualitative researcher I do not think being an insider makes me a better or worse researcher; it just makes me a different type of researcher ... issue of the researcher as an outsider or an insider to the group studied is an important one ... because they find themselves studying a group to which they are not a member ... my membership status in relation to the participants did not seem to affect the interviews negatively, it raised an important point that must be considered in all research endeavours with participants ... [in] group based on shared experience, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, race, and so on (p.56, 57). The advantage provided by multiple perspectives in this research is that triangulating the stances with other research instruments would strengthen the analysis of the data and draw meaningful conclusions. As Jensen (2011) points out: The status of the social researcher as ‘outsider’ and ‘insider’ is neither static nor one dimensional ... As a social researcher you may initially be an outsider to a particular group, but as you spend more time with them, you become more of an insider (p.150). To fulfil the research objectives, multiple research instruments have been incorporated, such as interviews, survey, observation/experience and the author’s Noise art practice. INTERVIEWS AND SURVEY Structured interviews allow a focus on a selected group of Malaysian Noise performers. This process was preferred because structured-interviews offer the ability to cover a lot of ground regarding the performers’ practices. These questions survey the performer’s background, their views on their art, their performing methods, their reasons for using Noise as a medium, and their political, social or cultural views. The practice of arts and research has similar superficial elements at a process level. Art and Arts practices are intricate processes with their own intrinsic validation, often including the specific outcome of some type of artefact. Research has different prerogatives and validations, as Strand (1998), cited in Schippers and Flenady (2010), in Caduff, Siegenthaler and Walchli (2010) observes: Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 39 ... Two concepts are common to the definitions of research [...] firstly; they all describe research as an “original investigation”. Secondly, it must explicitly aim to increase humanity’s “stock of knowledge”. [The] research process which must be conducted in conjunction with others such as summary, analysis and reflection (p. 80-82). An arts practice, without significant and triangulated reflection, cannot be validly constructed as research. In conducting the research component of this project, the author has ensured there is exterior reflection as defined by Schippers and Flenady. In this section, the data that had been collected from the survey, interviews and the author’s own observations and personal experience are discussed. The survey is in two parts. Part A (five questions) considers the respondent’s demography. Part B (15 questions) explores their view of the Noise scene in Malaysia. The survey questions were sent to a total of 30 respondents. Twenty responses were received, and results are analysed and interpreted in the Noise Scene in Malaysia below. OBSERVATION/EXPERIENCE Observations pertaining to the experiences of Noisicians and audiences are based on the author’s personal experience of Noise performances and the culture of the Noise Scene where the author has been present, and through informal conversations at these performances. This experience has helped develop an understanding of the philosophy and attitude of the performers and listeners. LITERATURE REVIEW This section discusses the background to the concepts, techniques and history which have led to the existence of this musical genre, and will contextualise Noise as a musical art form. In doing so it asks: what is noise?; seeks an explanation of noise in music; noise performance techniques are placed in a wider musical context; and finally the author explores the international Noise Music Scene.The philosophical meanings of Noise including some definitions and perspectives on its aesthetic are part of this review. The role of noise in music and music in noise considers musical aspects of noise, and its usage in twentieth century music. Aspects of making and performing noise, including tools and techniques are discussed, alongside differing views of Noise. Finally, the author considers noise performance within and beyond Malaysia, specifically considering the ‘Japan – noise’ phenomena. Music, as described by Merriam (1964), is defined by its temporal quality, and may be categorised into 10 types of functions. Among these are to provide a medium for emotional expression and evoke aesthetic gratification. Noise music emotionally affects both listener and performers placing Noise performance as a musical genre. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 40 ISSN 2232-1020 WHAT IS NOISE? Sound is a type of wave that changes according to the air pressure occurring within the frequency range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, which is the usual human perceptible range. In addition to frequency, there are other characteristics to sound that permit the detection of dynamic and timbre qualities of sound. Noise is a type of sound, being generated when frequencies which are not compatible with each other are grouped, resulting in a sound that is unfocussed in pitch (Berg & Stork, 2005). Noise emerges from four types of production: vibration of surfaces, aerodynamic, or hydrodynamic sources, and the acceleration of objects. A vibrating surface sets the air around it in motion, thereby becoming the means of generating the noise (Anderson & Bratos-Anderson, 1993). Noise is, therefore, shown to be a type of sound containing musical elements such as pitch, dynamic and timbre. It is further defined by frequencies colliding with each other, creating strong dissonance. The author has identified sources of noise as created by surface vibrations, by disturbance in air-flow, by the disturbance in the flow of liquid and the movements of an object. This is a scientific description of noise. However, noise is sometimes seen as something else, or from different perspectives. PHILOSOPHICAL MEANING OF NOISE As stated in the previous section, Noise can be described scientifically and with a variety of meanings. Understanding its philosophical and aesthetic qualities help place Noise in an expressive paradigm. Noise can be accepted and re-imagined as time. Hegarty (2012) writes: “As noise is not autonomous, but occurs through being perceived, defined, legislated for and against ... it has led to the philosophical insight about its working ... not just ‘there’ in space, it is also ‘there’ in time (p.15)”. Hegarty (2012) also observes that “Noise does not disrupt clock time; it brings clock time out as in its full reality” (Hegarty, 2012, p.15). Hegarty expands this argument noting that the bond between noise and time is duration. Philosophically, this is because duration also depends on listeners’ reactions to certain situations that dictate this perception of how fast or slow time passes. This perception is determined not only by the sound, but in the material quality of the sound (Hegarty, 2012). Massumi observes ‘Noise’ may also be associated with art and language … One of it is understanding noise as an ‘anti-signal’. Signals are structured and come with clarity ... noise ... is understood to be as disorganised and unstructured as possible ... philosophically, noise may carry the opposite of the meaning of signals that we usually understand ... a disturbance and interference that originates outside the signals but intercepts and disturbs them ... [A] language or signals: a cipher and a way of sending encoded versions of signals (Massumi, 2012, p.40). Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 41 Noise is also recognised as being able to induce feelings and emotions a listener. This gives ‘noise’ an artistic, expressive potential initially articulated by Luigi Russolo in 1913, a potential prominently exploited in some modern, Western art, often associated with the portrayal of fear. Noise as a fear-inducing medium is observed by Lockwood (2012): ‘We may conceive of noise in terms of epidemiology and affective contagion. A viral fear effect activated by sound waves bypasses cognitive functions, prompting visceral and chemical reactions’ (p.74). Noise can also be associated with an innovative paradigm. Malaspina (2012) states, “the analogy between noise, as a musical strategy, and the phenomenal of noise in other discipline, appears to trigger the idea of a paradigm of innovation” (p.58). In this context, noise is also expected to become the base of the idea of artistic innovation. According to Anderson and Bratos (1993), change can be found in ‘noise’ (change of paradigm) therefore it is continually dynamic – with dissonant interactions and outcomes from the clash of timbre and pitch. Noise is also continually evolutionary, particularly in its interactions between cultures, and the methodical discipline of physical science. But, important within this paper is the notion of noise as a paradigm being paired with the influence of innovative principles (Malaspina, 2012). NOISE IN MUSIC / MUSIC IN NOISE – A BRIEF HISTORY The Art of Noises, Luigi Russolo (1913) is a manifesto which argues that the evolution of music should include aspects reflecting the industrial environment dominating contemporary Western Europe. To achieve this, Russolo insisted that the noisy environments of machines and industries be included within music using sound qualities that reflect the industrial age. Later in the twentieth century, progressive composers, particularly John Cage, adopted Russolo’s principles. Cage, employed electroacoustic and acousmatic music using synthesisers and radios to imitate the sound of the environmental noises, while Russolo created devices and was more interested by industrial sounds of the machineries. Cage incorporated twentieth century industrial inventions that were available to him, such as radios as tone generators in his works such as Imaginary Landscape for 12 Radios (1951). In the early 1950s, the advent of the tape recorder made it possible for composers to use noise as Russolo envisioned. The Musique concrete composers produced noise by recording ordinary sounds then transforming them using techniques including splitting, accelerating, overturning and looping the recorded sounds. Today, performers including Throbbing Gristle, fuse rock with industrial sounds by manipulating the sound of machines such as power tools in the album Abandoned Factory (1991). Japanese artist Toshiya Tsunoda recorded the noise of hollow and lifeless materials by the vibrations that pass through piezoelectric material on its surface. Such approaches were predicted by Russolo who argued that the world has no silence due to industrial and technological advances, now made real by Tsunoda in his works (Christensen, 2009). Today, composers are free to compose with any elements that they want including previously unaccepted and unwelcome sounds into music, creating new Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 42 ISSN 2232-1020 aesthetic values. Such Noise appears in a composition as a result of electronically generated environmental sounds such as thunder, hisses and blips. Noise is also produced by, but not limited to, various techniques of vocal manipulation, described by Kamien (2011) as where composers: use a … variety of sounds … including many that were once considered undesirable noise. … [They achieve] what Edgard Varese called “the liberation of sound”... the right to make music with any and all sounds (Kamien, 2011, p.545). Historically, Noise music is divided into the eras 1910s to 1960s, when Noise was recognised and used aesthetically. Toward the end of this first era, from the 1950s to the 1960s, Noise was solidified through the emergence of electroacoustic music. The late 1960s to 1970s brought a new era in Noise music with the use of conventional instruments, such as guitar, and emergent instruments such as electronic oscillators being used to create Noise. Between the late 1970s to early 1980s, Noise music became a movement which reflected the musical expression and revolt against the musical norms of society. This era was also when the industrial music initiated by Throbbing Gristle emerged (Tham, 2013, p.257). In describing the aesthetic development of Noise, performers from different disciplines of noise have been identified. Such people are among the earliest pioneers in this art and belong to a scene which groups them with similar artists and audiences who share their views and interests. NOISE AS ART IN JAPAN AND MALAYSIA Any discussion of Noise Music should describe the artists involved in the movement or ‘scene’, and characteristics of their supporters or fans. This is important since a ‘scene’ involves the symbiotic elements between the artists and their audiences. Prominent performers in Japan include Merzbow, Hijokaidan, Incapacitants and Masonna. As early as the 1970s, recordings of Noise were found in the works of Masayuki Takayanagi particularly the piece entitled Les Rallizes Desnudes (1975). Noise music in Japan evolved as a genre during the 1990s with the rise of performers who approached noise performance with different disciplines and techniques. This made the noise scene in Japan appear to involve any music which included sound from any origin. Importantly for this study, artists such as Keiji Haino and Chie Mukai have also used traditional Japanese music as a noise source (Hegarty, 2007, p.133). Japanese performers incorporated source material such as ‘metallic sounds’, combined with electronic and analogue effects, pedals, samplers, and playback devices. Contrary to the conventional function providing sound effects in conventional music, in Noise, their use may be interpreted as a gestural action, and subsequently become identifiable characteristics of what may be called a ‘Japan- Noise’ Scene. This peaked in the 1990s and now includes residual, original sounds. Japanese Noise music is sometimes structured, yet at other times, flexible, with no musical structures at all, except perhaps for that achieved by controlling high-level amplitude. Contrary to music that offers calm, noise creates a basis for sound to Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 43 exist, and will be discussed in the (ii) philosophical meaning of noise (Hegarty, 2007, p.134). As a Noisician, my own and other performances have led me to understand that Noise is usually created in one of three ways: analogue; digital; or a combination of both. Analogue techniques normally exploit the properties of effects pedals such as distortion, overdrive, flanger, reverb, amongst others, in performing Noise. The digital approach uses digital electronic instruments such as synthesiser and software, but this approach is yet to be experienced by me. The final approach is the combination of using both analogue and digital techniques. This is usually done by using pedals, synthesisers and digital samplers. The effects pedal choices made in my performances incorporate distortion and feed-back as the principal means of manipulating the sounds for noise. I have always been mesmerised by noise and its expressive potential. From my own journals: My first experience of noise, musically, is from the feedback that I created when approaching a guitar amplifier with the pickup facing the speaker in the amplifier. The magnetic pickup and the magnet in the speaker had produced the feed-backing noise, which is a nuisance and should be avoided. When I grow in age and musically, the feedback noise of the guitar had been prevalence in the music that I listened to (10 July, 2015). From there, I realised that noise, which was initially unwanted by me at first, could be used in aesthetic ways in the creation of music. As Hegarty (2007) wrote: Noise is not the same as noises. Noises are sound until further qualified (e.g. as unpleasant noises, loud noises, and so on), but noise is already that qualification; it is already a judgement that noise is occurring (p.15). I continued delving deeper, and discovered a name, John Cage. Inspired by the discovery of Cage’s work and his philosophy on music: I had discovered Cage from 20th century Western music class. I had realised the avant-garde movement that had been associated with him is being carry out by people that think alike. I had read his interview in Duckworth (1999) on his inspiration on writing noise as a musical element (10 July, 2015). I was particularly interested in an interview where Cage explains his experience and inspiration when using noise. ... He (Galka Scheyer) had started me on a path of exploration of the world around me which has never been stopped - of hitting and scratching and scraping and rubbing everything, with anything I can get my hands on...(Cage, in Duckworth, 1999). Gradually, I become more and more interested in the Noise performances of Merzbow. His style of music and that of his countrymen have been dubbed ‘Japan- Noise’ (Hegarty, 2007). I observed: Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 44 ISSN 2232-1020 … in the past five years, I had realised that there is a movement of performers creating noise, as an art form, not necessarily in a ‘musical method’. These performers seem to depend on the use of non-musical ‘instruments’. Performers, such as Merzbow, a Japanese performer, a pseudonym for Masami Akita, depend heavily on the use of electronics – mixers, analogue synthesizers and guitar pedals. This combination of tools had created feedback and wall of noise and includes fine manipulations of Noise (15 July, 2015). My own interest continued to develop, and I came to realise that, in addition to international noise performance, noise performances also occurred in Malaysia. In my journal I note: During my studying years as an undergraduate, I had attended several small shows, or gigs. From a few of these gigs, I had watched a similar performance of controlled noise manipulation by the use of guitar, specifically the manipulation of pickup, and an array of pedals. This performer calls himself Jerk Kerouac, a word play from Jack Kerouac. During those years, I was fascinated by his method but not yet understanding the aesthetic underpinning of the performances. His performances demonstrated the reality that there were similar performers, especially when I saw a flyer and videos for a show in Findars, a performing arts centre in Kuala Lumpur where Jerk Kerouac had performed. From this, I realised that Noise is alive and being performed in Malaysia. There are a number of regional shows organised in Ipoh, Perak. The performers are usually touring experimental Noisicians, with the exception of Krosot, a duo with one of them whom lives near Ipoh, and Space Gambus Experiment, a collective with no permanent members who live around Ipoh (20 July, 2015). These revelations raised questions to which I felt I had to find answers. These questions became a motivation for writing this paper as: I thought to myself, is there really a scene for Noise performers in Malaysia? Are there more performers such as Jerk Kerouac, Space Gambus Experiment and Krosot? Are they accepted in the local music circuits? (20 July, 2015). THE NOISE SCENE IN MALAYSIA Interviews The author sent interview questions to three recognised Malaysian Noisicians known by their stage names as: Jerk Kerouac (Azzief) and Krosot (Mack) and Neuphoric Euphoria. Responses were received from only two of these noisicians: Jerk Kerouac (Azzief) and Krosot (Mack). Eight questions were divided into four categories: 1. Main Argument i) Do you believe there is a noise scene in Malaysia? Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 45 2. Performers Background i) How did you start as a performer of Noise? ii) What had influenced you into performing Noise? 3. Methods i) What are the methods and material that you had influenced you in any way? Why? 4. Philosophical i) Do you yourself with specific arts or political movements? ii) What do you think you noise represents? iii) What do you want to express through your music? Main Argument: Do you believe there is a Noise scene in Malaysia? The answer to this question would help to verify the existence of a Noise scene in Malaysia. The performers responded differently, yet there is a similarity between their answers. Jerk Kerouac (Azzief) said that he believed there is ‘scene’ but it is not focused on Noise itself. He explained that: There is, to some extent. Maybe not a noise scene per se, but there’s definitely an avant-garde and experimental music fringe, mostly centered around FINDARS and events such as the KL Experimental Film, Video & Music Festival. There admittedly isn’t a huge amount of performers, with most gigs featuring a regular cast of performers and even audience. Occasionally some shows draw relatively big crowds of maybe 30 to 40 people, although attendances, from my experience, are often below 20, with single-digit attendances not uncommon. It’s not big, not necessarily vibrant, but it is there. Whether this is a problem of promotion, appeal or just a surfeit of leisure and entertainment choices in the Klang Valley/Malaysia, I’m not sure (Azzief, pers. comm., 17 August, 2015). Mack of Krosot believes there is a Noise movement in the country. Although, defining it as a scene, should be left to the audience. In his own words: It gets back to how/what you define as ‘scene’. Personally, I do believe there’s a noise movement here in Malaysia. It was small but getting bigger proven by numbers of shows getting organised and seeing how touring band had put one or two local venue in their tour list (Mack, pers. comm., 22 August, 2015). These responses suggest there is a Noise movement in Malaysia as a part of a larger experimental music scene or a movement that may or not have its own scene. Both however agree on one thing: Noise is alive and is being performed in Malaysia. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 46 ISSN 2232-1020 Performers’ Background To understand the inspiration that drew these performers into Noise performance and their musical philosophy in performance, interviews were conducted, including questions regarding the background of the performers. Azzief said that he started doing Noise in 2000, but not the harsh noise for which he later became known. Reflecting on his early years, “I started out just randomly clicking and making some crazy noise-gabber-grind stuff in software for a year or so, which is I guess where it all started” (Azzief, pers. comm., 17 August, 2015). He also explained that he made Noise having being inspired by Japanese harsh Noise performers. He continued: I continued to make noise/noisy electronic music off and on from then until now, with a number of less-noisy diversions (including trying my hand at trance music). My first start at “proper” noise in the Japanese harsh noise style was probably in late 2008 or sometime in 2009; I can’t remember clearly now (Azzief, pers. comm., 17 August, 2015). Mack’s response to this question was that he began making Noise as early as 1996 or 1997, when he was first exposed to the genre via a compilation in the form of audio cassette. In explaining his earlier years, he had said: With help from a computer and software, I manipulated Noise. It was in the early days, later, with the joining force of my buddy, Maddy, we mostly use pedal and some homemade equipments (Mack, pers. comm, 22 August, 2015). Both performers are self-taught and the responses indicate that they both began their performance practice using ‘trial and error’ processes before achieving the Noise that they wanted. a) What influenced you to perform Noise? This question explores influences that inspired the performers. Azzief responded that as a Noise performer, he was inspired by different genres of music; by listening to other music, he became more receptive to Noise and other noisy music. However, his real motivation is the enjoyment in performance. He wrote: My exposure to digital hardcore, metal and punk definitely made me receptive to noise and noisy music. I can’t say whether there’s any other thing that influenced me to make noise other than the fact that I enjoy noise and wanted to get in on the noise action that everyone was doing. (Azzief, pers. comm., 17 August, 2015) Mack offers a simpler explanation about the inspiration that led him to become a Noise performer. His group, Krosot, in his own words, “People around us inspired the most” (Mack, pers. comm., 22 August, 2015). The inspiration and influence for both musicians were borderless. Azzief began making Noise because he was influenced by other acts Other, such as Mack and Krosot started because of their societal influences. This corresponds to my own performance experience, being Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 47 influenced by artists such as Merzbow and Jerk Kerouac. Nevertheless, other genres and artists such as Isis, Infest, and Minor Threat also influenced me. My performance practice is usually a reflection of everyday situations that inspires me to shape my Noise in a specific way. Methods used in performances In this category, the questions were shaped to delve into the way Noise performers created their art. a) What are the methods and materials that you used in your arts? b) Can you give examples of other performers who influenced you in any way? Why? Both performers explained that to some extent they self-built their own equipment. Both also sometime use both analogue and digital equipment in their Noise performances. Azzief said: I tend to stick to “analogue” methods of making noise. Contact microphones (piezo elements), often attached to self-made shaker boxes (Hammond project enclosures filled with objects such as ball bearings and a bullet casing) and general metal junk. Almost always run through a distortion pedal or two and some modulation effects, maybe delay or reverb, sometimes a ring modulator, sometimes an envelope filter. I also sometimes use synths, often a Flower Electronics Little Boy Blue. For more drone-based work I often combine the Little Boy Blue with an Arturia Microbrute monosynth. And almost everything I’ve recorded over the past two years or so is recorded on a Tascam four-track tape recorder for maximum tape scuzz (Azzief, pers.comm.,17 August, 2015). Mack responded that: … during the earlier formation, we mostly use computer and software, but now days, mainly pedal and some homemade equipment. We try to minimize the use of pedal, instead, try to build our own equipment. It was a painstaking but we do our best. (Mack, pers. comm., 22 August, 2015) From these answers, we may conclude that both performers use both analogue and digital media to create and recreate their desired Noise, and that both artists build their own equipment. The answer to the second question would help to explain their musical influences, and would help to discover whether they copied or borrowed ideas from other Noisicians. Mack says his music is not consciously influenced by other Noisicians. Azzief’s response confirmed my long held thought, that he is influenced by acts from the Japanese Noise scene. He also mentioned a number of performers from the American Noise scene. He said: (I am influenced by) The usual big Japanese names: Merzbow, Incapacitants, Masonna, K2, Monde Bruits… why? Because these guys are Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 48 ISSN 2232-1020 the “canon” of Noise, so to speak, and almost everyone starts there. I’m also pretty influenced by the dirtier, cassette-fidelity sounds of American harsh noise artists such as Macronympha, OVMN and so on, as well as the more recent Swedish noise/power electronics scene (Azzief, interview, 17 August, 2015). Azzief confirmed that the Japanese Noise scene, with a mixture of American Noise scene and other musical genre, influences him. While Krosot’s influences were not explicitly revealed, their style is suggestive of the Japanese Noise scene, with a distinctive droning Noise characterising their music. Philosophies Their answers would relate these performers to any philosophical ethos or understanding of the performers. There were three questions being asked in this category, each intended to delve into the performers’ philosophy. i) Do you associate yourself with specific arts or political movements? Azzief answered that he does not associate with any movements by choice and slowly disengaged with the arts or political movements. He explained that he does not have a specific message for his noise, and does not bother to include his arts within any particular movement. In his own words, he explained: ... since I don’t really have a message with my noise, why bother associating myself/my work with a movement anyway? If it ends up linked to something, so be it, but I don’t clamor to do it myself (Azzief, pers. comm., 17 August, 2015). Krosot do not consciously associate their art with any movement, arts or politics. In Mack’s words, “I just do what I want to do and I don’t associate myself with any art or political movement” (Mack, pers.com, 22 August, 2015). They chose to stay away from any arts or political movements for their own reasons due to disdain and desertion. As a performer, I view Noise as a form of protest, which uses unwanted sounds to create something, although the outcome is not pretty or achieving catharsis values. It is a protest against the ‘perfect’ music or mass obsession on technicality or difficulty of a piece. ii) What do you think your noise represents? The intention of this question, is to see discover if the musicians had answers regarding the semiotics of their noise. Both had interesting answers that are relevant and could be related, in the author’s opinion, to other music. Mack observed that their Noise is a representation of their opinions. When being asked what their opinion is, he explained that: Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 49 In our noise, we tend to express ourselves. It is our expression towards certain things. (Author: Is it self-expression?) It is more towards collective expression since Krosot is a duo that manipulates the instruments to create noise (Mack, pers.comm., 22 August, 2015). Azzief explained that he does not view his Noise semantically as a representation. He told the author that his art is a form of his love and interest. In his own words, “… nothing much, just the worship of loud sound, distortion pedals and the textural and granular qualities of static and amplified and distorted objects” (Azzief, interview, 17 August, 2015). Both answers correspond to other musicians’ responses. For example, an acquaintance of the author said that he played traditional music because of his love of that music, rather than the form of ritualistic practice people normally associated with traditional music. iii) What do you want to express through your music? This question aims to determine if the performers wish to convey messages through their Noise. Both artists seemed to dislike the idea of expressing or associating other meanings to their Noise. Mack said it is a form of self-expression; a personal view presented to listeners. Whether a listener relates to it or not, is a matter of opinion. It is similar for Azzief, who asserts that his noise portrays: Nothing much. Maybe anger and frustration, to some extent, as well as some sort of existential angst, but the thing about noise, to me, is that it’s a form of music that is exclusive, that doesn’t try and bring listeners in, that doesn’t welcome listeners. So I don’t try and express anything beyond what I said in the answer to the previous question: pure worship of loud sound and the granular texture of noise. No statement, no meaning. Just noise. (Azzief, pers. com., 17 August, 2015) Both of these performers associate their Noise with their views and expressions. As a performer, the author tries to shape the Noise according to his preference and emotion. SURVEY Part A The first question asks the age range of the respondents (Table 1). The responses show that listeners of Noise are drawn mostly from the group aged 30 and above, with a few from different age groups. This can be useful in keeping track of the audiences of the Malaysian Noise scene. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 50 ISSN 2232-1020 Table 1 Correspondents’ Response for Question 1 Age Number of Answers Percentage 18 – 20 0 0 21 – 23 0 0 24 – 26 4 20 26 – 29 3 15 30 and above 13 65 The next question asks the respondents’ locality in order to track whether there is a concentration of noise enthusiasts in certain locations (Table 2). It shows that most respondents came from, or live in the Central Zone. This is not surprising as most Noise shows are centred and focused in the Central Zone. Nevertheless, there is still a sizeable audience in other zones attending live performances; it can be said that interest in Noise is not based on territorial boundaries. Table 2 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 2 Locality Number of Answers Percentage Northern Zone (Kedah, Perlis) 1 5 West Zone (Pulau Pinang, Perak) 2 10 East Coast Zone (Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang) 3 15 Central Zone (Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Putrajaya) 13 65 Southern Zone (Negeri Sembilan, Melaka, Johor) 0 0 Eastern Zone ( Sabah, Sarawak) 1 5 The third question is about political views. The majority of the respondents hold anarchy as their political view. The number of respondents who hate politics is almost equal to those who adopt anarchist views. However, no respondents answered that they are pro-government (see Table 3). This indicates that the audience is not shaped by a common political view. Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 51 Table 3 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 3 Political Views Number of Answers Percentage Never think of it 1 5 Anarchist 9 45 Pro-Government 0 0 Pro-Opposition 2 10 Hate Politics 8 40 There is a common perception that Noise performance is associated with the use of both illicit and licit recreational drugs. The next questions explore if there is alink between Noise with such usage (Table 4 & 5); in order to evaluate whether alcohol and illicit drugs are common in the scene and accepted by the listeners as a culture in the scene. Though present, it cannot be defined as a dominant presence in Noise scenes – either within audience or performers. Table 4 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 4 Consumed Alcohol Number of Answers Percentage Yes 7 35 No 13 65 Table 5 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 5 Consumed Drugs Number of Answers Percentage Yes 5 25 No 15 75 The answers in Part A demonstrate that Noise listeners are people from various backgrounds, with largely non-establishment political views, but are not significant users of drugs – either licit and illicit. Part B In this section, respondents’ views were sought on the Noise scene, and culture. In this section, questions were answered using a Likert Scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Not Sure, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree. The first question asked whether the respondents agree that there is a ‘Noise scene’ in Malaysia. The response validates the claim made by the author regarding a Malaysian ‘Noise scene’ (see Table 6). The percentage of respondents who agreed was 80% (‘Strongly Agree’ and ‘Agree’) that there is a Noise scene in Malaysia. However, the survey only asks if they are agreeing with the statement and not about their personal views of what constitutes a Noise scene. Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 52 ISSN 2232-1020 Table 6 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 1 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 4 20 4 7 35 5 9 45 Question two is consistent with the author’s view that Malaysian noise performers produce recordings of their performances (see Table 7). From the survey, 50% answered ‘Strongly Agree’ with the statement; 40% ‘Agree’and 10 % were not sure. Considering a vast number of respondents answered ‘Strongly Agree’ and ‘Agree’ indicated that in the Malaysian Noise scene the performers produced recorded materials as CDs MP3s and videos. Table 7 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 2 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 2 10 4 8 40 5 10 50 Question three considers listeners’ attendance at live performances. It explores if local noise performers attract noise enthusiasts to their shows (see Table 8). Seventy per cent of the respondents ‘Strongly Agree’ that they had seen a Noise performance live; 25% of the respondents answered ‘Agree’ and 5% answered ‘Not Sure’. The responses allow one to conclude that Noise music is performed in Malaysia, and validating its existence. Table 8 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 3 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 1 5 4 5 25 5 14 70 Questions four and five explore local support for Malaysian noise performers through purchases of recordings and if there are different purchasing trends between the international (Table 9) and local performers (Table 10). The answers suggest that there is little difference between local and international recordings. The origin of recordings bought in Malaysia does not show a specific preference for local or international artists. The responses also indicate there are Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 53 about equal numbers of supporters who listen to Noise without purchasing recordings from Noise performers. Table 9 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 4 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 2 10 3 0 0 4 8 40 5 10 50 Table 10 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 5 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 2 10 3 1 5 4 8 40 5 9 45 Questions six and seven are framed to explore the presence, or otherwise of a culture of using recreational substances by consumers of Noise. The questions ask about both alcohol use (see Table 11) and the regular use of recreational drugs (see Table 12). Responses suggest the majority of the listeners involved in this survey do not associate Noise with alcohol consumption (65%) or illicit drug usage (60%). A little surprisingly to the author, only 15% of them responded that using both substances can help with the enjoyment of Noise. Table 11 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 6 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 13 65 2 2 10 3 2 10 4 3 15 5 0 0 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 54 ISSN 2232-1020 Table 12 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 7 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 12 60 2 2 10 3 3 15 4 3 15 5 0 0 The next three questions explore the respondents’ attitudes and awareness of philosophical and ethical underpinnings of the noise scene. Question 8 attempts to identify a common political persuasion amongst listeners (Table 13). The majority of respondents selected ‘Not Sure’ and ‘Agree’. While the responses are contradictory, it suggests that some do not consider Noise as a political statement while other listeners do see Noise as something political. Table 13 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 8 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 3 15 2 1 5 3 7 35 4 7 35 5 2 10 The ninth question considers the respondents’ perception of noise performers towards commercialisation or consumerism (Table 14). The responses indicate that 85% of the respondents chose to ‘Agree’ and ‘Strongly Agree’ that Noise is something that is ‘anti-commercialisation’. In combination with the responses of other questions in this sub-section (questions 7-9) supports the assessment that audiences and performers in the Noise Scene have substantially anti- establishment political attitudes Table 14 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 9 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 1 5 2 0 0 3 2 10 4 10 50 5 7 35 Question 10 asks whether noise performers in Malaysia use home-made equipment as a significant part of their music. It dictates the extent to which the performers are in charge of their productions (Table 15), rather than commercial interests. Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 55 Table 15 Correspondent’s Responses for Question 10 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 2 10 4 10 50 5 8 40 Respondents agreed that the artists have a ‘Do it yourself’ attitude to instrument making in Noise. The number of persons agreeing with the statement is a total of 18 people who collectively chose ‘Agree’ (10) and ‘Strongly Agree’ (8). By adding together these respondents, we find a total number of 90 % of the listeners agree with the attitude. Such a high percentage suggests that this ‘do it yourself’ approach to instruments and performance may be said to be characteristics of the Malaysian Noise music. Questions 11 to 15 would verify whether the respondents understand the performance techniques used to produce Noise music. These questions are also intended to determine the extent of self-built equipment (Table 16) and if “Noise can be performed with sound manipulation equipment such as [commercial] pedals and mixers” (Table 17 & Table 18), if artists are creating digital Noise music using computer software” (see Table 10) and whether “Noise can be performed with the combination of analogue and digital equipment (see Table 20). The answers may be interpreted to reflect the extent to which local performers use these techniques, and whether the audience respondents are aware of it. The range of responses suggests that Noise listeners in Malaysia are knowledgeable concerning Noise performance and creation. Table 16 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 11 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 1 5 3 5 25 4 5 25 5 9 45 Table 17 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 12 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 1 5 4 8 40 5 11 55 Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 56 ISSN 2232-1020 Table 18 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 13 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 8 40 5 12 60 Table 19 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 14 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 2 10 4 8 40 5 10 50 Table 20 Correspondents’ Responses for Question 15 Answer Number of Answers Percentage 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 1 5 4 8 40 5 11 55 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH It is evident there is a Noise movement with discrete, specialised performers in Malaysia. Though small, it stands within other local alternative and experimental music scenes. Krosot and Jerk Kerouac are both artists involved with the Malaysian Noise movement. This scene does not have strict rules of cultural identity or political messages, with supporters drawn range from all ages and preferences. Noise performers do not associate their Noise and musical scene as political, which was unexpected because 45% of the Noise enthusiasts that took the survey agreed that, fundamentally, Noise is a form of protest. The listeners also showed that even though a percentage of them drink alcohol and use illicit drugs, taking these substances is not necessary in order to enjoy Noise. For future research, a thorough investigation of how Noise is performed could be proposed. It would provide highly detailed information about how the Noise performance is musically shaped. A second suggestion is to determine if reception of masses on the Noise that is being performed by the local Noise performers. The Leigh Landy reception of contemporary music could be a valuable Muhammad Hafifi bin Mokhtar 57 instrument in this determination. Such research, would all audience reactions and understanding on Noise to be evaluated. REFERENCES Anderson, J. S., & Bratos-Anderson, M. (1993). Noise: Its measurement, analysis, rating, and control. Brookfield, VT: Avebury Technical. Berg, R. E., & Stork, D. G. (2005). The physics of sound (3rd Edition.). New Delhi, Pearson Education India. Christensen, R. C. (2009). The art of noise after futurism. Nordic Net-Work Of Avant-Garde Studies. Retrieved from http://www.avantgardenet.eu/HAC/studentpapers/christensen_art_of_noise.pdf, 2009. Duckworth, W. (1999). Talking music: Conversations with John Cage, Philip Glass, Laurie Anderson, and five generations of American experimental composers. Massachusetts, Da Capo Press. Dwyer, S. C., & Buckle, J. L. (2009). The space between: On being An insider-outsider. Qualitative Research. International Journal Of Qualitative Methods, 8 (1), 54-63. Hegarty, P. (2007). Noise music: A History. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic. Hegarty, P. (2012). A chronic condition: Noise and time. In Goddard, M., Halligan, B., & Hegarty, P. (Eds.). Reverberations: The philosophy, aesthetics and politics of noise. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. Jensen, J. S. (2011). Revisiting the insider-outsider debate: Dismantling a pseudo-problem in the study of religion. Method & theory in the study of religion, 23(1), 29-47. Kamien, R. (2011). Music: An appreciation (7th Brief Ed.).New York, NY: Mcgraw-Hill. Lockwood, D. (2012). Mongrel vibrations: H. P. Lovecraft’s Weird Ecology of Noise. In Goddard, M., Halligan, B., & Hegarty, P. (Eds.). Reverberations: The philosophy, aesthetics and politics of noise. New York, Bloomsbury Publishing USA. Malaspina, C. (2012). The Noise paradigm. In Goddard, M., Halligan, B., & Hegarty, P. (Eds.). Reverberations: The philosophy, aesthetics and politics of Noise. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. Massumi, B. (2012). Floating the social: An electronic art of noise. In Goddard, M., Halligan, B., & Hegarty, P. (Eds.). Reverberations: The philosophy, aesthetics and politics of noise. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. Merriam, A. P. (1964). The anthropology of music. Illinois Northwestern University Press. Schippers, H., & Flenady, L., (2010) Beauty Or brain. In Caduff, C., Siegenthaler, F., & Waclhli, T., (2012) Art and artistic research. Zurich, Verlag Scheidegger & Spiess AG. Tham, J., (2013). Noise as music: Is there a historical continuum? From historical roots to Industrial Music. In Goddard, M., Halligan, B., & Spelman, N. (Eds.). (2013). Resonances: Noise and contemporary music. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. BIOGRAPHY Muhamad Hafifi bin Mokhtar is currently furthering studies in a Master of Music degree with a specialisation in Music Technology at Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. He has always been interested in various philosophical views on music. Growing up listening to various alternative music, he opened his ears to music that is new and obscure, at least, to the Malaysian Music Journal Vol.4, Num. 2 (37-58) 58 ISSN 2232-1020 local society. He is currently researching the possibilities of using traditional music and musical instruments, particularly in Wayang Kulit, to produce Noise music with the help of analogue and digital methods. He is also a performer of Noise under the pseudonym of ankbktnoisescape and has released several recordings. He employs a more analogue approach in his music, influenced by Japanese and local performers, outside of his study interests. Email: [email protected]