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1. ساختار مفصل : ساختار هر مفصل می تواند نشانگر میزان دامنه حركتی آن مفصل باشد. برای مثال مفصل ران یا شانه كه از نوع مفاصل كروی اند نسبت به
مفصل مچ دست كه از نوع مفصل لقمه ای اند دارای دامنه حركتی بیشتری می باشند.
2. توده عضلانی، افزایش توده عضلانی با میزان دامنه حركتی رابطه معکوس دارد ولی باید خاطرنشان كرد كه اگر تمرینات با وزنه به صورت اصولی و صحیح انجام
پذیرد ) با دامنه حركتی مفصل و بر روی هر دو گروه عضلات موافق و مخالف حركت( دامنه حركتی مفصل كاهش چندانی نخواهد داشت . با وجود اینکه می
توان توده عضلانی را با تغییر برنامه تمرینی كاهش داد تا دامنه حركتی دستخوش تغییر نشود، ولی باید گفت كه این عمل برای ورزشکاران قدرتی پیشنهاد نمی
شود.
3. سن و جنس: باید توجه داشت كه انعطاف بدنی در خانم ها نسبت به آقایان بیشتر است به علاوه انعطاف پذیری با افزایش سن و عدم فعالیت كاهش می یابد.
همینطور كه انع� | [
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اجرای حركات سریع یک عضو از بدن اختصاص دارد
اهمیت چابکی در فعالیتهای ورزشی
نقش چاپکی در اجرای مهارت های ورزشی غیرقابل انکار است. چابکی یکی از عوامل آمادگی حركتی است كه حتی در جهت جلوگیری از شتاب، دستپاچگی و آسیب بدنی
در فعالیت های تفریحی و در شرایط كاری بالقوه خطرناک، مفید می باشد. چایکی در فعالیت هایی كه نیاز به تغییر مسیر دادن سریع و ناگهانی بدن یا قسمتی از آن نظیر
بسکتبال، تنیس، بدمینتون، والیبال فوتبال، اسکی و ... دارد نقش ارزنده ای دارد
چابکی چگونه افزایش می یابد؟
چابکی عمومی و ویژه در هر ورزش به خصوص به وسیله تمرین و تجربه كه به اجزاء تشکیل دهنده همان مهارت اختصاص دارد، می توان افزایش داد. این اجزاء عبارت
اند از: هماهنگی، قدرت، توان، . زمان عکس العمل سریع و انعطاف پذیری
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فصل دوم
آمادگی جسمانی و سلامت عمومی
بخش اول . اجزای آمادگی جسمانی مرتبط با تندرستی هدف كلی شناخت مفاهیم و اجزای آمادگی جسمانی مرتبط با تندرستی
هدف های رفتاری
1. آمادگی جسمانی را تعریف كنید .
2. اجزای آمادگی جسمانی مرتبط با تندرستی را بدانید
3. انعطاف پذیری را تعریف كرده و با انواع آن آشنا شوید
4. عوامل اثرگذار روی انعطاف بدنی و راههای افزایش آن را بدانید
5. با انواع تمرینات انعطاف پذیری )انفعالی و فعال( آشنا شوید و بتوانید این تمرینات را اجرا كنید.
6. قدرت عضلانی را تعریف كنید
7. انواع قدرت عضلانی را تعریف كنید
8. با اصول مقدماتی طرح تمرین با وزنه آشنا شوید
9. استقامت عضلانی را تعریف كرده و نقش آن را در آمادگی جسمانی بدانید
10. نقش تركیب بدنی را در آمادگی جسمانی بدانید
آمادگی جسمانی یکی از نیازهای اساسی زندگی بشر است. منظور از آمادگی جسمانی توانایی انجام امور روزانه بدون احساس خستگی می باشد. آمادگی حالت مطلوبی است
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فصل سوم
منابع انرژی . تغذیه در ورزش های مختلف
بخش اول . تعریف انرژی و انواع آن
هدف كلی
شناخت منابع و روش های تولید انرژی در بدن
هدفهای رفتاری
1. كاربردهای انرژی و نیرو را در رابطه با انجام فعالیت های بدنی بدانید .
2. روشهای تولید انرژی در بدن را بشناسید
3. نقش هر یک از روش های تولید انرژی را ورزش های مختلف بدانید
انرژی به عنوان توانایی انجام كار تعریف شده است . واحد انرژی كیلوكالری است كه قادر است درجه حرارت یک كیلوگرم آب را در یک درجه سانتی گراد افزایش دهد
انواع انرژی عبارت اند از: انرژی های مکانیکی، گرمایی، الکتریکی، هسته ای، شیمیایی و نورانی، انرژی شیمیایی و مکانیکی بیشتر در ورزش و تربیت بدنی مدنظر است كه
در این مبحث توضیح داده می شود.
در حین انجام هر یک از كارهای بدنی، نیازمندی های انرژیک ) نیرویی( ماهیچه ها لحظه به لحظه تغییر می كند از این رو، شناخت دقی | [
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مقابل وقایع اضطراری و هدایت مؤثر زندگی؛ نیاز دائمی دارد . بنابراین تربیت بدنی فرد تمرین كرده را در روند تکاملی كمک خواهد كرد، به طوری كه او به عنوان یک موجود
سالم و شاد قابلیت بهتری برای انجام وظایف روزمره زندگی كسب خواهد كرد
هدف های روانی تربیت بدنی
ورزش به عنوان یکی از روش های درمان فشار روانی در سه دهه گذشته به شکل قابل ملاحظه ای مورد توجه قرار گرفته است. دستاوردهای پژوهشی نشان می دهند كه
ورزش در كاهش اضطراب بالقوه مؤثر است . همچنین اجرای فعالیت های حركتی باعث راحتی عضلات می شود. علاوه بر نرمش و فعالیت های عمومی جسمانی، فعالیت
كه تحت عنوان تمرینات ا رهایی از فشار و خوانده شده است . نقش مثبتی در كاهش انقباض های مداوم و غیر طبیعی عضلانی ناشی از ترس، هیجانات و مسائل عصبی-
روانی دارد. در نتیجه اجرای این تمرینات تنش اضافی عضلات از بین می رود، رگها در حالت | [
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اء مقدار معین عضله و سایر بافت ها اندازه مشخصی استخوان وجود دارد . بنابراین وزن
مطلوب وزنی است كه در آن وزن چربی در حداقل باشد . از طریق انجام فعالیت های بدنی به ویژه وزنه برداری و تمرین با وزنه، وزن مطلوب با افزایش توده عضلانی تغییر
می كند. در این شرایط حتی اگر وزن فرد از حد معمول بالاتر باشد اما فرد چاق به نظر نمی رسد. زیرا اضافه وزن نشانه تجمع توده چربی است، وزن بدون چربی را وزن
خالص و وزن با چربی را وزن كل می نامند بنابراین آنچه در كاهش وزن باید مورد توجه باشد كاهش توده چربی اضافی بدن است و افزایش وزن چنانچه مربوط به وزن
خالص باشد نه تنها جای نگرانی نیست بلکه یک مزیت است.
تعدادی از محققین و عدم تحركه را مهم تر از دریافت انرژی دانسته و تنبلی و بی توجهی به فعالیت های جسمانی را ویژگی اولیه افراد چاق می دانند. به ازای هر ۹/۳ كالری
انرژی اضافی كه وارد بدن می ش | [
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آنچه تاكنون از نظر گذشت در رابطه با كنترل وزن و راههای جلوگیری از افزایش وزن بود. بی تردید برخی افراد بر حسب موفقیت های شغلی یا تمایلات شخصی نیاز به
وزن بیشتری دارند. البته در اینجا منظور از اضافه وزن، حجم وزن عضلانی است. شما قبلا آموخته اید كه هر قدر حجم عضلات بدن بیشتر باشد نیروی بدنی نیز افزایش می
یابد. این موضوع در بین اكثر ورزشکاران، خصوصا كسانی كه در برنامه های بدنسازی و كار با وزنه فعالیت می كنند مورد توجه است . در این مورد به ورزشکارانی كه تمایل
دارند حجم عضلات خود را افزایش دهند توصیه می شود كه همزمان با تمرینات ویژه، بیشتر از نیاز روزانه مواد پروتئینی مصرف كنند . البته این مقدار نباید بیش از دو گرم
به ازای هر كیلوگرم وزن بدن در شبانه روز باشد، مصرف بیش از این مقدار نه تنها برای بدن مفید نیست بلکه در صورتی كه به طور مداوم باشد، اختلالاتی در عملکرد سیست | [
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اندازه حركت كنترل شده، سبب افزایش میزان انعطاف پذیری می شود، بدون اینکه
كاهش قدرت عضلات شود ولی سرعت و اندازه حركت كنترل نشده می تواند عضلات را دچار كشیدگی بیش از اندازه كند.
هنگامی كه كشی پاره می شود، می توان به راحتی كش دیگری تهیه كرد، ولی زمانی كه عضله آسیب ببیند تا زمان بهبودی جایگزینی برای آن با مشکلات زیادی همراه است .
بنابراین، به منظور جلوگیری از آسیب دیدن، به آرامی نرمش كرده و حركات خود را كنترل كنید
۳- تکرار هر تمرین قبل از شروع تمرین بعدی
هنگامی كه یک تمرین با نرمش را انجام می دهید، مانند این است كه انگشتان پا را بدون اطلاع از درجه حرارت آب، درون آب بگذارید، ابتدا آب را با احتیاط آزمایش می
كنید. مرحله اول كه نرمش می كنید، در حقیقت توانایی خود را برای انجام تمرین بدون تحمل درد تجربه می كنید و هنگامی كه محدوده حركتی عضلات را مورد سنجش
قرار دادید، قادر خ | [
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رد نیاز بدن از چربی ها تأمین می شود . لذا برای یک جیره غذایی معمولی 5 تا ۰۹ گرم چربی مورد نیاز است . چربی ها
علاوه بر انرژی زایی در ساختمان سلولها نیز شركت دارند .
چربی زیر پوستی یک ماده پرانرژی فشرده و بدون آب محسوب میشود . این چربی در تأمین انرژی به ویژه در ورزش های طولانی مدت و استقامتی به كار گرفته می شود.
به علاوه چربی زیر پوستی متعادل كننده حرارت بدن است و باعث افزایش مقاومت فرد در هوای سرد می شود و از رفع سریع حرارت در بدن جلوگیری می كند این نکته
در اجرای ورزش هایی مانند كوهنوردی در ارتفاعات پر برف، اسکی، شنا در آبهای سرد مفید و مؤثر است
رابطه چربی ها با فعالیت های ورزشی
چربی ها یکی از منابع مهم در تولید انرژی در هنگام استراحت و فعالیت های ورزشی سبک است. در ورزش های طولانی مدت و استقامتی مواد غذایی اصلی كربوهیدرات
و چربی است. منبع تأمین انرژی در شروع تمرینات گلیکوژن و مواد كربوهیدرات است كه با طولانی شدن زما | [
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�ه طور كامل تجزیه شده و انرژی تولید می كنند. در دستگاه هوازی، مواد غذایی
عمدتا در میتوكندری سلول به همراه اكسیژن می سوزد و انرژی زیادتری نسبت به دستگاههای تولید انرژی اسیدلاكتیک وATP-CP تولید می كند. اما سرعت تولید ATP در
این دستگاه به مراتب كندتر از دستگاه بی هوازی است .
تعیین دستگاه غالب انرژی
سهم هر دستگاه تولید انرژی در اكثر فعالیتهای ورزشی در یک سطح برابر نیستند. برای مثال در یک فعالیت دور آرام و طولانی مدت حدود ۰۹ درصد انرژی از طریق دستگاه
هوازی )اكسیژن ( و ۰۱ درصد بقیه از طریق دستگاه ATP-CP و اسیدلاكتیک تأمین می شود و در مقابل در اجرای مسابقه دو ۰۰۱ متر سرعت حدود 5 درصد انرژی از طریق
دستگاه ATP-CP و اسیدلاكتیک و فقط 5 درصد انرژی از طریق دستگاه هوازی تأمین می شود. اگرچه این درصدها از دقت لازم برخوردار نیستند و اكثرا به صورت تخمینی
بیان شده اند اما دانستن این نکات برای مرب� | [
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طالب زیر را به دقت بخوانید و توصیه های آن را رعایت كنید و
سپس۳۱ تمرین كه برای نرمش دادن سه قسمت اصلی كه عضلات آن بیشتر مورد استفاده قرار می گیرند، طراحی و پیشنهاد شده را انجام دهید . به طور مثال قسمت شانه تا | [
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%حداكثر ضربان قلب باشد. این روش تمرینی نیز باید حداقل سه
جلسه در هفته و حداقل دو ماه انجام شود تا سازگاری های لازم به دست آید.
ج( انجام منظم ورزش ها: بازی ها و فعالیت هایی كه شدت اجرای آنها از متوسط به بالا و زمان انجام آنها بیش از ۰۱ تا ۰۲ دقیقه باشد و در هفته حداقل سه جلسه تکرار
شوند نیز می توانند علاوه بر سایر مزایای تمرین تا حدودی منجر به افزایش ظرفیت هوازی و استقامت عمومی شوند.
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ی توان وزن بدن را تنظیم كرد و به وزن
مطلوب دست بافت، تمرینات به ویژه تمرینات استقامتی، طولانی مدت باعث كاهش وزن چربی می شوند . تمرینات با وزنه و تمرینات سرعتی – قدرتی منجر به افزایش وزن
خالص می شوند . شاخص وزن مطلوب، چاقی و لاغری با توجه به درصد چربی بدن در جدول زیر ارائه شده است.
| [
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رمز و سفید )الف( و سفید )ب( به ترتیب درگیر عمل
می شوند و زمانی كه نیروی كم مورد نیاز باشد تنها سلول های عضلانی نوع قرمز در گیر عمل خواهد شد .
تارهای نوع سفید )الف( به لحاظ دارا بودن ظرفیت بالای استقامت و قدرت از دو نوع دیگر بهتر است آگاهی از اطلاعات فوق جهت انجام بهتر حركات خاص در ورزش
ها حائز اهمیت است.
تارهای عضلانی نوع قرمز استقامتی اند و از نقطه نظر نیرو ظرفیت كمتری دارند. تارهای نوع سفید (ب ) دارای توان قدرتی بالاتری هستند و بیشتر در دوره های تمرینی
كوتاه مدت به كار گرفته می شوند. به عنوان مثال در انتخاب تمرین برای قوی كردن عضلات جلوی سینه وزنه ای را باید انتخاب كنیم كه قادر باشیم آن را شش مرتبه بالا و
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جدول زیر شامل خلاصه ای از انواع برنامه هایی است كه برای مراحل مختلف تمرین توصیه می گردد :
گرم كردن
گرم كردن به مجموعه ای از فعالیت های مقدماتی اطلاق می شود كه می تواند به صورت فعال مثل دوی نرم، حركات كششی و نرمشی انجام شود . این فعالیت باید باعث
آماده شدن بدن برای اجرای تمرینات سنگین شود. بیشتر مطالعات مفید بودن فعالیت های سبک قبل از تمرینات سنگین ثابت كرده اند . مربیان و ورزشکاران گرم كردن را
وسیله ای برای آمادگی فیزیولوژی و روانی برای فعالیتهای ورزشی و مسابقات می دانند. به طور كلی هدفها و اثرات گرم كردن عبارت اند از :
افزایش درجه حرارت بدن
افزایش كارایی عضلات، تاندونها و لیگامنتها
افزایش متابولیسم ( سوخت و ساز ) مواد غذایی
افزایش حجم ضربه ای و ضربان قلب و در نهایت افزایش برون ده قلبی
افزایش خون در عضلات درگیر و ازدیاد هموگلوبین گلبول های قرمز كه باعث حمل اكسیژن بیشتر به سلول های عضلانی می شوند .
افزایش سرعت انقباض عضلات به دلیل كاهش چسبندگی آنها و كا | [
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�ورده های لبنی با تركیبات مکمل پروتئینی افزوده شود، اگر چه، مصرف مقادیر زیاد پروتئین ضروری
نیست.
۶- در هفته سه بار یا كمتر گوشت قرمز مصرف شود، برای مصرف بیشتر، گوشت سفید انتخاب شود. | [
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�ورتی ( فاسیا) در نزدیکی زاویه فک زیرین
2. سرخرگ گیجگاهی، سرخرگ سباتی، سرخرگ بازویی، سرخرگ رانی و . سرخرگ پشت پایی
مراحل تمرین
معمولا كل دوره تمرین ورزش كاران را به سه مرحله تقسیم می كنند این مراحل عبارت اند از تمرینات خارج از فصل مسابقه و تمرینات پیش از فصل مسابقهو تمرینات
فصل مسابقه كه به شرح هر یک از انها می پردازیم.
تمرینات خارج از فصل مسابقه
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شود و به دلیل اینکه مراحل تولید انرژی در بدن
صورت می گیرد، توانایی جذب و حمل اكسیژن به عضلات فعال در تعیین نحوه عملکرد بدن عامل مهمی به حساب می آید . هر قدر بدن بتواند اكسیژن بیشتری جذب كند،
به همان اندازه نیز كار بیشتری را می تواند انجام دهد و بدن با خستگی كمتری نیز روبرو می شود،
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ت اولیه بعد از اجرای فعالیت اصلی را بدانید
لازمه گسترش قابلیت های جسمانی تمرین دادن عضلات تحت برنامه فزاینده است كه در نتیجه آن ضمن حجیم شدن عضله پر قدرت، استقامت، سرعت و سایر قابلیت های
آن افزوده می شود . رعایت اصول تمرین منوط به شناخت نوع منبع انرژی غالب كه در اجرای حركت مورد استفاده قرار می گیرد و رعایت اصل اضافه بار است. در مبحث
أصول تمرین ویژگی تمرین، شدت تمرین و اضافه بار شرح داده می شود
ویژگی تمرین
كلیه برنامه های تمرین می باید نسبت به توسعه دستگاه یا دستگاه های انرژی غالب درگیر ویژگی خاصی داشته باشند. همچنین این موضوع قابل ذكر است كه ویژگی تمرین
به طور یکسان در برنامه های بدنسازی عمومی به كار میرود . هر چند، در چنین موردی ممکن است الزاما علاقه ای به بهبود عملکرد ورزشی نداشته بلکه هدف تنها آمادگی
جسمانی باشد. در اغلب رشته های ورزشی هنگام تنظیم برنامه تمرین، | [
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ر شرح داده می شود، بازسازی می شود. این دستگاهها عبارت اند
از:
1. دستگاه كراتین فسفات یا فسفاژن آدنوزین تری فسفات – كرائین فسفات ( كه به دستگاه ATP-CP معروف است.
2. دستگاه گلیکولیز بی هوازی كه به دستگاه اسیدلاكتیک معروف است
3. دستگاه اكسیژن هوازی
دستگاه كراتین فسفات CP
كراتین فسفات مانند ATP در تارهای عضلانی ذخیره می شود و در صورت تجزیه مقدار زیادی انرژی از آن آزاد می شود. مقدار ذخایر CP حدود سه برابر ذخایر ATP
است. انرژی حاصل از تجزیه CP مصرف بازسازی ATP شده و در واقع ATP در ۱۶ هنگام فعالیت های جسمانی به همان سرعتی كه تجزیه می شود، به كمک انرژی CP
بازسازی می شود.
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سعه كیفیت های بهبوددهنده اجرای فعالیت های جسمانی )ورزش ( تأكید می شود . در حالی كه در آمادگی تندرستی بر زندگی بهتر توجه می شود،
آمادگی حركتی با اجرای مؤثر و بهتر مهارت ها در ارتباط است
به علاوه آمادگی حركتی، مختص ورزش و فعالیت های حركتی است. تركیب تشکیل و درجات متفاوتی از اجزای آمادگی حركتی، بر ویژگی فعالیت حركتی مورد نیاز مبتنی
است؛ مثلا علی رغم اینکه یک بازیکن تنیس و یک فوتبالیست برای اجرای بهینه فعالیت به درجه ای از توان، چابکی، سرعت نیاز دارند، ولی میزان نیاز این بازیکنان به هر
یک از عوامل با هم متفاوت است . آمادگی جسمانی چه در زمینه تندرستی و چه در زمینه مهارت حركتی، باید با ویژگی های شخصی مانند سن، نیازهای اهداف و كار و
وظیفه او متناسب باشد . تمام افراد دارای حد معینی از اجزای آمادگی تندرستی و آمادگی اجرای حركتی هستند و محدوده رشد و تکامل این اجزا با خصوصیات شخص | [
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پایین ببریم )برای جلوگیری از استرین بازو توصیه می شود كه بازوان مقدار كمی خم باشند( به شکل زیر توجه شود؛ در این دوره باید یک مرحله استراحت ۳ - ۲ دقیقه ای
منظور شود.
در مدت یک جلسه تمرین یک گروه عضلات می توانند به طور كامل تحت تمرین قرار گیرند )باز كننده های زانو(، تمرین برای تقویت عضلات سینه ای برای ست دوم با
۶ تکرار انجام می شود در تركیبی كه 5 ست است و ۶ تکرار خوانده می شود بدین معنی كه در كل ۰۳ بار بلند كردن با 5 مرحله ۳ - ۲ دقیقه ای بعد از هر سته
سنگینی كار را می توان مطابق با درجه خم كردن باز و تنظیم كرد. وقتی عضله بعد از یک دوره تمرین كانسنتریکی به صورت اكسنتریک تمرین كند، قوی تر خواهد شد. این
موضوع را به وسیله بلند كردن وزنه به طور آرام خیلی ساده می توان مورد بررسی قرار داد . در اینجا احساس می شود كه پایین آوردن وزنه بعد از بلند كردن آسان تر است
و اگر هدف � | [
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پس از سی سالگی نیز حدود ۶ تا
۷ بیشتر است، عوامل زیر در افت هماهنگی بدن مؤثر است .
ترس، عدم رشد هماهنگ بین اندام های تحتانی و بالاتنه .
كم تحركی در انسان موجب كاهش هماهنگی می شود
هماهنگی چگونه افزایش می یابد؟
برای افزایش هماهنگی می توان به طرف زیر عمل كرد.
برای بهبود و افزایش هماهنگی بهتر است در ابتدای هر جلسه تمرین، كه ورزش كار هنوز خسته نشده است، اجزای مختلف یک تکنیک با مهارت را تمرین دهید
با انجام دوهای استقامتی )هوازی ( كه باعث افزایش میزان اكسیژن مصرفی هنگام فعالیت های بدنی می شود می توان هماهنگی حركتی را افزایش داد
طبیق پذیری بعثی وفق دادن شخصی به عوامل و شرایط موجود جهت انجام فعالیت های ورزشی نیز باعث افزایش هماهنگی بدن می شود
توجه به دستورات بالا باعث می شود مغز پیام ها را با سرعت بیشتری تفسیر و تعبیر كند و دستورات ویژه ای به عضله دهد كه در این صورت حركت با دقت و كارایی
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• همیشه صبحانه ای كه از نظر كربوهیدرات های پیچیده )مركب( از سطح بالایی برخوردار هست، خورده شود، به طوری كه انرژی مورد نیاز جهت انجام منابع
انرژی و تغذیه در ورزش های مختلف 5 فعالیت های روزانه را تأمین كند، آرد جو دو سر، گندم ریزشده، منابع خوبی از كربوهیدرات های پیچیده هستند .
• مرباها، ژله ها، دسرها، كمپوت یا كنسروهایی كه فقط با آب میوه تهیه شده اند، مصرف شود.
• از مصرف منظم و دایم جوش شیرین با مایعات خیلی شیرین و یا خیلی شور اجتناب شود. آب معدنی با آب معمولی نوشیده شود، جهت درست كردن نوشابه
• قلیایی شیرین، آب معدنی به آب میوه افزوده شود
• به تاریخ تولید و مصرف مواد غذایی توجه كنید. كلمة اطبیعی، دوی غذاهای بسته بندی شده دال بر تهیه شدن آنها از مواد خوب نمی باشد، جزئیات باید با دقت
خوانده شود.
• دانستن نام های دیگر قندها: فروكتوز قند میوه( شیره گیاهی و ساكارز مفید است
• سبزیجات خام مثل هویج، جعفری، گوجه و خیار برای تهیه غذاهای سبک استفاده شود.
• هنگام | [
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نرمش ۱۱ : كشش تنه در حالت خم
در حالی كه در سر یک چوب را در دست گرفته و آن را در پشت سر روی شانه ها قرار داده اید، از ناحیه كمر به جلو خم شوید و سعی كنید با چرخش تنه، آرنج چپ
خود را به زانوی راست برسانید و سپس همین حركت را به سمت چپ انجام دهید
نرمش ۲۱ : كشش عضلات پشت ران
در حالی كه دو سر یک چوب را در دست گرفته و پاها كشیده می باشد، به آرامی به سمت جلو خم شده و سعی كنید چوب را به زمین برسانید.
نرمش ۳۱ : كشش نزدیک كننده های ران )داخل ران (
در حالی كه دو سر یک چوب را در دست دارید، با پاهای باز )بافاصله (، صاف بایستید. پای راست را به آرامی خم كنید به طوری كه روی پنجه راست قرار گیرید و از طرف
دیگر پای چپ را صاف و كشیده به طوری كه پنجه های پا رو به بالا باشد، نگه دارید و چوب را جلوی بدن روی زمین نگه دارید، سپس بلند شده بایستید و پاها را عوض
كرده و تمرین را تکرار كنید
قوانین تمرینات قدرتی
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این مورد ابزار مناسبی برای ارزیابی وضعیت آمادگی جسمانی است . اخیرا ثابت شده است كه تركیب بدن یکی از اجزای آمادگی
جسمانی در ارتباط با سلامتی است كه به كیفیت با ساخت كل توده بدن اطلاق می شود. كل توده بدن از توده بدون چربی)خالص ( و توده چربی تشکیل شده است توده
بدون چربی )خالص ( شامل استخوانها، عضلات، ارگانها و آب می شود . تركیب بدن مفهوم نسبی درصد ماهیچه، چربی و استخوان را توصیف می كند. بدن شما وقتی كه از
مقدار چربی بیشتری برخوردار باشد، در ردیف افراد چاق فرار می گیرد. شخص چاق به مشکلات بدنی مثل بیماری قلبی و قند مبتلا می شود. به علاوه چربی اضافی بازده
كار را كم كرده و باعث محدود شدن فعالیت جسمانی و اجرای حركات ورزشی و ,مهارت می شود. بنابراین، در ارزیابی تركیب بدن درصد نسبی توده بدون چربی و توده
چربی فرد تعیین می شود . آزمون سنجش ضخامت چربی زیر پوست شایع ترین | [
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اجتماعی شدن از طریق ورزش
روند اجتماعی شدن كودكان با فعالیت های اولیه ورزشی آنها آغاز می شود و موجبات رشد و تکامل حركتی در دوره كودكی و مشاركت ورزشی آنان در سال های بعد را
فراهم می كند. مردم و وضعیت های مختلف زندگی می توانند در انتخاب فعالیت های جسمی و ورزشی در طول عمر اثر گذار باشند؛ برای مثال همه سالان می توانند در
نوع فعالیت های ورزشی تفریحی و میزان تحرک یا عدم تحرک فرد اثر بگذارند. به طور یقین فرایند تربیت اجتماعی و افرادی كه می توانند بر این فرایند موثر باشند به عنوان
آثار اصلی و محیطی در رشد حركتی قابل توجه هستند
سه عامل اصلی فرایند تربیت اجتماعی به شرح زیر باعث می شود تا افراد بتوانند نقش اجتماعی خود را فرا گیرند
افراد و مؤسسات اجتماعی ( افراد مهم و مؤثر)
وضعیت های اجتماعی؛
خصلتهای شخصی
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حفظ سطح مناسبی از عناصر آمادگی جسمانی مرتبط با تندرستی مانند استقامت قلب و عروق، قدرت عضلانی و استقامت، تركیب بدنی و انعطاف پذیری، در كاهش خطر
امراض قلبی، فشار خون، دیابت، پوكی استخوان، چاقی، و ناراحتی های روانی افسردگی موثر است . كاهش میزان وقوع حمله قلبی و حفظ عملکرد مستقل در پیری از
مزایای تمرینات منظم است، به علاوه افراد دارای فعالیت جسمانی نسبت به افراد غیر فعال عمر بیشتری دارند .
انعطاف
انعطاف پذیری یکی از اجزای مهم آمادگی جسمانی مرتبط با تندرستی است. این قابلیت جسمانی عبارت است از توانایی حركت آزادانه مفصل در هر جهت و یا به طور
اختصاصی تر در تمام طول دامنه حركتی مفصل، بدون اینکه صدمه یا فشاری بر مفصل وارد آید . به عبارتی قابلیت كشش عضلات و بافت های همبند اطراف مفاصل را در
تمام دامنه حركتی مفصل انعطاف پذیری آن مفصل می نامند. انعطاف پذیری مفاصل مختلف ممکن است با یکدیگر متفاوت باشد. این | [
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در این فرمول A معادل ضخامت چربی فوق خاصره وB معادل چربی پشت بازو است
كاهش وزن
مناسب ترین روشی كه چاقی را كنترل می كند نسبت بین انرژی از دست داده شده و انرژی جذب شده و است. برخی منابع علمی تاكید دارند كه كمبود فعالیت بدنی مهم
ترین عامل افزایش وزن »دستیابی به و تعادل انرژی منفی است . گفته میشود كه افراد انجام فعالیت های جسمانی را به تغییر در عادات غذایی و كاهش انرژی مصرفی خود
ترجیح می دهند . در عین حال باید افراد چاق را تشویق به تغییر رژیم غذایی همراه با انجام فعالیت های ورزشی كرد . این افراد می توانند بیشتر از مواد كم كالری و پرحجم
استفاده كنند. این مواد معده را منع می كند تا حدودی حس گرسنگی را نیز برطرف می كند. در رژیم غذایی باید به ویتامین های مصرفی توجه خاص كرد تا با كمبود ویتامین
مواجه نشویم . به طور كلی نتیجه گیری می شود كه كم خوردن، همراه با تمر� | [
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لازم است . مفصل در واقع از اتصال دو یا چند استخوان جایی كه
حركت وجود دارد( تشکیل می شود. ساختمان استخوان مفصل یکی از مهم ترین عوامل تعیین كننده نوع حركت در مفصل است، به عنوان مثال، مفصل زانو و آرنج از مفاصل
لولایی بوده كه تنها حركت را در یک جهت ممکن می سازند و حركات آنها عبارت اند از: حركات خم و باز شدن، هنگامی كه حركت در اینگونه مفاصل به حداكثر دامنه
خود رسیده باشد، مفصل اجازه باز شدن بیشتر را نمی دهد و این عمل به خاطر ساختمان اینگونه مفاصل است.
در مقابل این مفاصل، مفاصلی چون شانه و ران از جمله مفاصل كروی هستند، از نقطه نظر حركت شناسی این مفاصل حول سه محور حركتی فعالیت می كند. این قابلیت
موجب حركت مفصل در جهات مختلف و نیز باعث افزایش دامنه حركتی در مفصل می شود. به هر حال، انعطاف پذیری فقط به ساختار استخوانی مفاصل محدود نمی شود
و اگر چنین بود، قادر نبودیم كه انعطاف � | [
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ته در حالی كه شروع به پذیرفتن برنامه تغذیه مؤثر در شیوه زندگی خویش می
كند،غذاهای جدید را هم بیفزایید
۲ - از چهار گروه مواد غذایی به طور متنوع استفاده شود:
• گوشت ها یا جزء گوشتی )خالص (: یک بار یا بیشتر مجموعة ۳ تا ۶ اونس در روز مصرف شود .
• فرآورده های لبنی )بدون چربی یا كم چربی(: روزانه ۲ تا ۴ فنجان
• میوه ها و سبزیجات: چهار یا بیشتر از سه اونس مصرف شود. یک سیر با سبزیجات تازه، میوه از گروه مركبات )یا آب میوه( به طور روزانه مصرف شود.
• غلات با حبوبات، چهار وعده یا بیشتر در روز مصرف شود. ) یک برش نان، یک وعده است
۳- غذاها و خوراک متناسب با جدول برنامه و رفع گرسنگی برنامه ریزی شود.
۴- كربوهیدرات های مركب )پیچیده ( از قبیل نشاسته به همه غذاها افزوده شود )نان، برنج، جو، حبوبات، سیب زمینی، سبزیجات(. باید به خاطر داشت، مصرف نشاسته
خوب است و باید از تمام غلات به طور مکرر و متنوع استفاده شود.
5- در همه یا اكثر غذاها، مواد غذایی پرپروتئین ) گوشت ها فر� | [
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جلوی یک مانع مانند دیوار صاف ایستاده، به طوری كه پاها كشیده و پاشنه ها روی زمین قرار گیرد، به آرامی از ناحیه ران به جلو خم شوید، برای حفظ تعادل با دستها دیوار
را بگیرید
نرمش ۸ كشش شانه
دو سر یک چوب را در دست گرفته و بازوها را صاف نگهدارید، سپس چوب را به بالای سر برده و تا حد ممکن و بدون خم كردن آرنج ها، دستها را به عقب ببرید
نرمش ۹ : كشش چرخشی
دو سر چوب را با دست گرفته و آن را در پشت سر، روی شانه ها قرار دهید و در حالی كه به سمت راست نگاه می كنید، تنه خود را به آرامی به سمت راست بچرخانید .
سپس حركت را به سمت چپ تکرار كنید.
نرمش ۰۱ : كشش تنه
دو سر یک چوب را در دست گرفته و در حالی كه آن را پشت سر روی شانه قرار داده اید، از پهلو به سمت راست و سپس به سمت چپ خم شوید
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منجر به پارگی عضله می شود . شکل ۲ - ۶ ب یک عضله را در حالت استراحت نشان می دهد .
بافت پیوندی بافتی سخت و محکم است و توان مقاومت در مقابل فشارهای سریع را دارد و در مقابل كششهای انفجاری و یا ناگهانی تحمل بیشتری نسبت به ثار عضلانی
دارد
مثال هایی برای تمرینات انعطاف پذیری
مثال های زیر شرح می دهد كه گروه عضلانی تا چه اندازه به طور مؤثر می تواند كشیده شود توسعه انعطاف در مفصل (. كسب انعطاف بدنی خوب و مناسب در مفصل
ران تقریبا برای تمامی ورزشکاران از اهمیت و اعتبار بالایی برخوردار است. عضلات
ناحیه كشاله ران ( نزدیک كننده ها) ااز جمله عضلاتی هستند كه خیلی زیاد مورد آسیب قرار می گیرند و ورزش كار را از شركت در فعالیت ها باز می دارند این گروه
عضلانی از استخوان عانه شروع و به نواحی داخلی استخوان ران خاتمه می یابد.
وقتی روی یک سطح صاف بنشینید در شرایطی كه كف هر دو پا به همدیگر چسبیده باشند و در این شرایط پاها را تا حد ممکن به بدن نزدیک كنید، با فشار دادن پاها به
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به
زانوها نزدیک شد یک حركت كامل محاسبه می شود
آزمون شنا روی زمین
برای اجرای این آزمون، ورزش كار روی دستها )كف( و نوک پنجه پا روی زمین به حالت كشیده قرار می گیرد. برای اجرای حركت با شخم كردن آرنج سر و سینه با كنترل
به زمین نزدیک و با باز شدن آرنج سر و سینه از زمین دور می شود. در اجرای حركات تمرینی افرادی كه عضلات ضعیفی دارند می توانند به جای اینکه نوک پنجه ها را
روی زمین قرار دهند، از زانوها نیز استفاده كنند. تعداد حركات كامل و صحیحی كه فرد انجام می دهد ملاک امتیاز فرد است.
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اندازه گیری غیر مستقیم انعطاف پذیری استفاده میشود . برای این كار وسایل ساده ای مانند خط كش به كار می آید و
دامنه حركتی به جای مقیاس درجه با سانتی متر تعیین می شود. آزمون رساندن دست به نوک پنجه پا در حالت نشسته آزمون مناسبی برای اندازه گیری انعطاف پذیری
عضلات ناحیه كمر و پشت ران است . در این آزمون از ورزشکار خواسته می شود كه با پاهای صاف روی زمین بنشیند، زانوی او باید صاف و پنجه پاها به سمت بالا كشیده
باشد. در صورتی كه آزمودنی بتواند انگشتان دست ها را از پاها بگذراند نمره مثبت و در غیر این صورت نمره منفی به وی تعلق می گیرد. هر یک از این نمرات برابر معیار
زیر امتیاز خاص خود را دارد .
اندازه گیری سرعت
سرعت به اشکال مختلفی و با وسایل ساده مانند كرونومتر با ابزارهای دقیق آزمایشگاهی اندازه گیری می شود . در اندازه گیری سرعت با توجه به هدفی كه از انجام این كار
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قات فراغت می باشد. همه افراد جامعه به نوعی در طول زندگی روزمره خود، دارای
اوقات فراغت ائد، لیکن آنچه مهم است، صرف داشتن وقت آزاد نیست، بلکه آنچه كه مهم است، نحوه استفاده از این اوقات است. گنجاندن برنامه های تفریحی سالم همچون
مشاركت در برنامه های ورزش صبحگاهی، پیاده روی، كوهنوردی دوچرخه سواری با فعالیتهای فرهنگی– هنری همچون سینما و تئاتر، مطالعه، نقاشی و فعالیت های مشابه
كه متناسب با معیارها و اصول اخلاقی حاكم بر جامعه باشد، می تواند در كیفیت تأثیر گذاری بر چگونگی استفاده از اوقات فراغت مؤثر باشد .
تعلیم و تربیت حركتی
تعلیم و تربیت حركتی را می توان به عنوان كشف انفرادی، توانایی فردی جهت ارتباط و واكنش نسبت به تصورات كلی محیط خارجی و عوامل مادی با انسانی موجود در
آن تعریف كرد، تعلیم و تربیت حركتی رویکرد نوینی در تربیت بدنی است كه اخیرا مورد توجه و حمایت بسیاری از مؤلفان، محققان و كارشناسان تربیت بدنی در � | [
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ت های حركتی در قلمرو تربیت بدنی و ورزش، استعداد بهبود زندگی را در تمام افراد به وجود می آورد
تندرستی
نیل به تندرستی نیازمند كوشش همگانی است تا سلامت و بهداشت مناسب برای عموم افراد جامعه فراهم آید . در این راستا تربیت بدنی و انجام حركات جسمانی نقش
حائز اهمیتی دارد، با معرفی دانش ورزش به جامعه بشری آگاهی از خواص سلامت بخش فعالیت های جسمانی رو به افزایش است. پیشگیری از بیماری های قلبی، فشار
خون، دیابت، پوكی استخوان، چاقی، مشکلات روحی و كاهش احتمال و وقوع بیماریهای قلبی از جمله مزیت های فعالیت های جسمانی مداوم است. یافته های علمی
مؤید نقش بارز و معنی دار فعالیتهای بدنی در حفظ تندرستی است
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استراحت بیشتری قرار می گیرند و جریان خون در رگها به سهولت انجام می
گیرد.
هان یکی از محققین برجسته علوم ورزشی توصیه می كند برای این كه تجربه ای در پیشبرد رشد روانی مؤثر باشد، باید از میان فردی باشد، شركت كنندگان استقلال درونی
خود را درک كنند و موفقیت هایی جهت تبادل نظر و مذاكره وجود داشته باشد
انسان باید لذت موفقیت را تجربه كند و این تجربه در بازی تحقق می یابد، با تجارب موفق از بازی ها شخص اعتماد به خود را افزایش می دهد و لذت موفقیت را و توانایی
را می چشد، تربیت بدنی و ورزش با معرفی فعالیت های گوناگون و تکامل الا انی لا انا لله وانا الی سال بخشیدن به مهارت های ضروری برای پیروزی، تجارب موفقیت آمیز
را فراهم می سازد
به طور كلی ورزش می تواند به چند طریق به عنوان راهبرد مقابله ای مقابله با فشارهای روانی( مورد استفاده قرار گیرد: تنظیم هیجانات ) آرام سازی عضلانی( راهبردی برای
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كشش های بالستیکی )انفجاری كه در شروع فعالیت های موزون توصیه شده است برای نرم و منعطف كردن هیچ ارزش مثبتی ندارد؛ خصوصا زمانی كه فرد تازه فعالیت را
شروع كرده باشد و با بدنش سرد باشد، تمرینات الاستیکی به منظور نرم كردن مفاصل تنها زمانی باید مورد استفاده قرار گیرند كه بدن آمادگی لازم را برای اجرای تمرینات
اصلی به دست آورد.
از طرف دیگر تمرینات كششی برای افزایش طول گروههای مختلف عضلانی و ازدیاد دامنه حركتی مفاصل به كار برده می شوند. ورزش های كششی و كششهای الاستیک
باعث توسعه سطح چایکی فرد می شود. – تصور كنید فردی می خواهد دامنه حركتی مفصل شانه اش را از طریق عقب بردن دستش (شکل ۲ - ۴ ) افزایش دهد .
الف ) اگر بازو خیلی سریع به طرف عقب بچرخد شاید بتواند به محل ( a ) در شکل ۲ - ۴ برسد . آنچه در این حركت اتفاق می افتد توسط عضلاتی كه در ناحیه خلفی
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�دن برای زنان در هر هفته حدود ۰۰۹ گرم و
برای مردان ۰ گرم باشد. این رقم برای زنان و مردان غیر ورزشکار به ترتیب ۰۰ و ۰۰۶ گرم در هفته است . معمولا، كشتی گیران، ژیمناست ها و سایر ورزشکاران سبک
وزن باید قبل از شروع فصل مسابقه به فکر كاهش وزن باشند، زیرا كم كردن وزن در آخرین دقایق موجب ضعف بدن و افت اجراهای ورزشی ورزش كار می شود.
ورزشکارانی كه وزن اضافی خود را با تلاش زیاد در كوتاه مدت كم می كنند عمر ورزشی و سلامت خود را به خطر می اندازند
توصیه های لازم در مورد نحوه غذا خوردن
كم بخورید و هیچ نوع تغییری را در عادات غذایی خود ایجاد نکنید برنامه غذایی باید براساس غذاهایی باشد كه به آسانی در دسترس قرار بگیرد
از خوردن غذاهای پر چربی بپرهیزید . متخصصان تغذیه می گویند هر چه تمایل دارید بخورید اما كم و متناسب با فعالیتی كه دارید غذا مصرف كنید. این روش درستی برای
متعادل نگهداشتن وزن بدن است
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بخش دوم
اجزای آمدگی جسمانی مرتبط با مهارت های ورزشی
( آمادگی حرکتی)
هدف كلی
شناخت مفاهیم و اجزاء آمادگی جسمانی مرتبط با مهارت های ورزشی و روش های توسعه آن
هدف های رفتاری
1. اجزای آمادگی جسمانی كه در اجرای موفقیت آمیز مهارت های ورزشی مؤثرند را بشناسید
2. هماهنگی عصبی عضلاتی را تعریف كنید
3. عوامل موثر در كاهش و با افزایش هماهنگی عصبی- عضلانی را بشناسید
4. چابکی را تعریف كنید و اهمیت آن را در فعالیت های ورزشی بدانید.
5. عوامل مؤثر در افزایش چابکی را بشناسید
6. تعادل را تعریف كنید و نقش اندام ها و عوامل مختلف را در تعادل بشناسید.
7. راه های افزایش تعادل بدن را بنویسید. از سرعت را تعریف كنید و اهمیت آن را در فعالیت های ورزشی بنویسید.
8. روش های افزایش سرعت را بنویسید
9. عواملی كه بر سرعت حركت بدن مؤثرند را بشناسید
10. مفهوم سلامتی، تندرستی و احساس خوب داشتن و ارتباط این مفاهیم را با آمادگی جسمانی بدانید
آمادگی حركتی به توانایی ش� | [
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�ن بدنی روش مناسبی برای كاهش وزن اضافه بدن است. آگاهی از وضعیت بدنی فرد را در
اجرای برنامه خود یاری می كند . افرادی كه در صدد دستیابی به وزن متعادل هستند ابتدا باید وزن مطلوب خود را بدانند . معمولا وزن مطلوب برای رشته های مختلف ورزشی
متفاوت است. به علاوه باید هدف از كاهش وزن مشخص باشد. بی تردید هدف كشتی گیر جوانی كه در صدد كاهش وزن خود است نسبت به فرد مسن غیر ورزشکاری كه
فقط به منظور متناسب تر شدن وضعیت بدنی خود برنامه های كنترل وزن را تعقیب می كند، متمایز است. میزان وزنی كه فرد مجاز است در یک دوره زمانی كاهش دهد نیز
به عوامل زیادی از جمله سابقه تمرین، سن، جنس بستگی دارد . به نظر كارشناسان اگر ورزشکاری بخواهد هر ۴ كیلوگرم از وزن اضافی بدنش را كم كند باید طی 5 - ۴
هفته این كار را انجام دهد، زیرا افزایش این مقدار وزن به سرعت نبوده است كه به سرعت كم شود. بهتر است كاهش وزن � | [
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ایجاد روابط مطلوب اجتماعی و مشاركت اجتماعی به صورت داوطلبانه در غیر ساعات كاری، به آنها اشتغال می ورزند
این تعریف مشتمل بر سه بخش، اشتغالات، داوطلبانه بودن و هدفدار بودن اوقات فراغت می باشد. امتیاز بزرگ این ابزار در داوطلبانه بودن، نوع و میزان استفاده از آن توسط
مردم می باشد، به گونه ای كه هیچ نوع تحمیل عقیده یا فشار برای اشتغال به نوعی خاص از تفریحات برای پر كردن اوقات فراغت افراد منجلی نمی گردد . افراد با تمایل
خود، بخشی از زندگی خود را جهت نمایش برخی از خواسته ها و دیدگاههای فرهنگی خود، به برنامه های مربوط به تفریحات سالم اختصاص می دهند. این برنامه ها برای
كودكان به صورت های متنوع بازی و برای بزرگسالان به صورت شركت در فعالیت های مختلف ورزشی و هنری انجام می یابد. بعد دیگر تعریف انجمن بین المللی جامعه
شناسی از اوقات فراغت هدفدار بودن برنامه های تفریحات سالم برای پر كردن مناسب او | [
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فصل اول
اصول، فلسفه و هدفهای تربیت بدنی
بخش اول . اصول و فلسفه تربیت بدنی :
مقدمه . هدف از انجام فعالیت های ورزشی در سطح دانشگاه رشد و توسعه جنبه های جسمانی، اخلاقی و روانی دانشجویان به موازات تحصیل علوم و فنون دیگر است.
دانشجویان از طریق درس تربیت بدنی در جریان فعالیت های ورزشی و بهداشتی قرار می گیرند و با یادگیری مهارت های حركتی پایه انتظار می رود پس از فراغت از
تحصیل نیز به سلامت جسمی و روانی خود توجه بیشتری داشته باشند و ورزش را بخشی از برنامه روزانه خود قرار دهند . در تمام جوامع انسانی امروز ورزش به عنوان یک
امر انسانی – تربیتی مورد توجه است و در جامعه ما نیز با توجه به بافت جوان جمعینی و تغییر نگرش های مثبت نسبت به ورزش، این مهم رو به توسعه و گسترش است.
جامعه شناسان عقیده دارند كه در شرایط زندگی ماشینی و افزایش ساعات فراغت ورزش را می توان به عنوان وسیله | [
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�ذیری را توسعه دهیم، چرا كه نمی توانیم ساختمان مفصل را تغییر دهیم، بافت های نرم، در مفاصل نقش عمده ای ایفا می كنند و
در حركت مفاصل تأثیر زیادی دارند . بافت های نرم شامل؛ عضلات، تاندونها و لیگامنت هاست. هدف از طرح مباحث ساختار مفصل معرفی نقش آن در انعطاف مفاصل
جهت به كار گیری در طرح تمرینات مناسب برای افزایش سطح انعطاف بدن می باشد .
عوامل اثر گذار بر روی انعطاف پذیری
به منظور بررسی تأثیر تمرین روی دامنه حركتی ابتدا باید عوامل اثرگذار روی انعطاف پذیری مورد توجه قرار گیرد، بعضی از این عوامل را نمی توان از طریق تمرین تغییر
داد مانند ساختار و مکانیزم مفصل و با سن و جنس از آن جمله اند. در نتیجه از طریق توجه به دیگر عوامل مؤثر بر روی انعطاف پذیری كه با تمرین بهبود می یابند می توان
میزان انعطاف پذیری را تغییر داد . این عوامل عبارت اند از :
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پرچربی بیشتر میوه و سبزیجات میل كنید. چربی به هر شکلی كه مصرف شود باعث انباشته شدن كالری در بدن می شود . بهتر است غذاهایی نظیر كره، بادام
زمینی، سالادهای چرب همراه با سس مایونز، انواع خورشت ها و غذاهای سرخ كردنی را كمتر مصرف كنید .
تمرین ورزشی بیشتری انجام دهید . تمرین بدنی كالری بیشتری می سوزاند و روشی مناسب برای مصرف انرژی ذخیره در بدن است. فعالیت هایی نظیر پیاده رفتن به محل
كار، استفاده از پله به جای آسانسور و انتخاب شغلی پرتحرک می تواند راههای مؤثری برای مصرف انرژی اضافی در بدن باشد
تشنگی خود را با آب برطرف كنید عرق ریختن هنگام تمرین ورزشی موجب دفع مایعات و املاح بدن می شود. برای برقراری و حفظ موازنه مایعات درونی بدن بهترین راه
نوشیدن آب است
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رعت عمومی بدن )مانند دو ۰۰۱ متر( و با سرعت حركت یکی از اعضای بدن و با سرعت عکس العمل بدن اندازه گیری می شود . سرعت اعضای بدن را به چند
طریق اندازه گیری می كنند. رایج ترین و دقیق ترین آنها استفاده از زمان سنج با روش دیگری به نام سینماتوگرافی است.
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�دن به شکل متعادل در برخی از ورزشکاران حرفه ای نیز می تواند باعث بروز ناهنجاری های اسکلتی خاصی شود.
كاهش قدرت عضلانی
مهم ترین پیامد كمبود حركت، بیماری، كاهش حجم عضله و كاهش قدرت عضلانی است . موارد فوق به یکدیگر مربوط اند و بین دو عامل سطح مقطع عضله و میزان
نیرویی كه یک عضله می تواند از خود بروز دهد ارتباط مستقیم وجود دارد. از طرفی مسئولیت حفظ تعادل اسکلتی بدن به عهده عضلات و خصوصا مهران نیرو و قدرت | [
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یی دستگاه های گردش خون
و تنفس برای تنظیم و بهبودی ناشی از اثرات فعالیت بدنی متوسط تا شدید تند راه رفتن، دویدن، شنا با دوچرخه سواری است كه به آن استقامت با آمادگی هوازی نیز می
گویند
اجرای چنین كاری به توانایی حمل اكسیژن جهت كار عضلات و توانایی این عضلات برای انقباض و استفاده از اكسیژن بستگی دارد . استقامت قلبی تنفسی رابطه بسیار
نزدیکی با توانایی بدن در رساندن اكسیژن كافی به بافت های فعال دارد تا امکان تأمین اكسیژن مورد نیاز میسر شود. انتقال و تحویل اكسیژن جزء عملکردهای مهم به حساب
می آیند كه با مشاركت دستگاه قلبی عروقی و تنفسی انجام می پذیرند. كلیه بخش های این دو دستگاه كه به انتقال اكسیژن مربوط می شوند، مجموعا به دستگاه انتقال اكسیژن
معروف است . هنگامی كه اكسیژن كافی به عضلات نمی رسد، از توانایی اجرای كار عضلات نیز به طور قطع كاسته می | [
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